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MYSORE

A GAZETTEER COMPILED
FOR GOVE RN ME NT

REVISED EDITION

B- LEWIS RICE, C I E., MR AS

Fellow of the University of Madras ■ Director of Archnological Researches
late Director of Public Instruction in Mysore and Coorg

VOL I
MYSORE IN GENERAL

(H)e6(tnin0(ctr

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY
2 WHITEHALL GARDENS S • W

MDCCCXCVII

PRINTED BY

WOODFALL AND KINDER, LONG ACRE

LONDON"

V.I

PREFACE

When the former edition of this work was published, I little
expected to be called on, twenty years later, to revise it. And Mysore
in the interval has undergone such great and radical changes, and so
much has been added to our knowledge of its past by recent discoveries,
that what appeared in the prospect a comparatively easy task has proved
to be in reality one of considerable difficulty, and involving for its com-
pletion a longer period than was anticipated, especially as I have been
at the same time engaged on other duties of an exacting nature.

A\'hile the general arrangement of the work in the original edition
has been adhered to, nearly every part has been either entirely
re-written or greatly altered and extended. But the present edition is
confined to the State of Mysore, and does not, as before, include Coorg.
In the first volume, the section on Geology was in the press before the
appointment of Mr. Bruce Foote to Mysore was known to me or he
had arrived here, otherwise I would gladly have handed over that special
subject to him for revision. His views are, however, quoted in the
Addenda at the end of the second volume. Most parts of the sections
on flora. Fauna and Ethnography have been entirely re-written in
accordance with the latest information. So also, in an especial manner,
the chapters on History and Literature : the former having been greatly
added to in both the most ancient and the most modern periods ; while
the latter is almost entirely new. The chapter on Administration has
been revi.sed throughout and brought up to date with as much fulness
as could be done in the space at disposal. The Appendix on Coins is
mostly new. In the second volume, there has been a close and general
revision of local details, the topical changes of recent years having been
both frequent and extensive. In the Glossary at the end have been
included new terms of the Revenue Survey.

Of the country which forms the general subject of the work, it
cannot be denied that public interest in it has much increased since
the former edition of this work appeared, its enlightened progress and
its prominent position as a chief Native State in India having excited
general attention. But, apart from this, there are not wanting in the

136G675 _.^|jj

vi PREFACE

country intrinsic elements of attraction which have given it importance
in the past. On first joining the service here I was considerably dis-
appointed to he told, on inquiring from persons supposed to be
acquainted with the subject, that Mysore had no history, was quite a
modern State, and virtually unknown before the wars with Haidar and
Tipu brought it into jjromincnce. As regards its language and literature,
also, I was led to suppose that the language was merely a rude dialect
of Tamil, and that literature it had none. Of the accuracy of these
views I had douljts at the time, and how completely opposed they were
to actual facts the present work will, it is hoped, serve to make clear.
For the researches in which I have been for long engaged have brought
to light a body of evidence which carries back the history, with scarcely
a break in the sequence, as far as to the 3rd century B.C., while the
language is found to have been highly cultivated at probably an earlier
date than any other South Indian vernacular, and to be replete with a
literature of great volume and interest.

If there be any truth in the observation that small countries with
diversified and distinctive physical characteristics have played the
greatest part in the world's history, and given rise to its most distin-
guished men, — Greece, Palestine, England and others being quoted as
instances, ^Mysore, it seems to me, may fairly claim a place in the
category. Not only does she abound in the picturesque features of
lofty mountains and primeval forests, of noble rivers and mighty
cataracts, but — to mention only a few of the products specially pertain-
ing to her — she yields by far the most gold of any country in India, and
her treasure in the past, carried off to the north by Musalman invaders,
may have found its way to Central Asia among the spoils of Tartar
hordes ; she is the peculiar home of the sandal and also of teak, a
special haunt of the elephant, rears a famous and superior breed of
horned cattle, supplies as the staple food of her people the nutrient grain
of ragi, was the cradle in India and is still the chief garden for coffee
cultivation. Thus in every department of the natural world she may
claim some pre-eminence. In the fine arts she has produced marvel-
lous examples of architecture and sculpture. In relation to humanitv,
again, she has been to the two greatest Hindu reformers a home for
the monastery of one, and an asylum to the other. Nearly every form
of faith, from Buddhism and J^inism to Islam, has here had its day,
and she is now known as having largely adopted and still strongly
holding a special cult of native origin not conforming to Brahmanism.
The Malndd region of Mysore has been the birthplace of royal races
dominant in the south — the Kadambas, the Hoysalas, and perhaps also
the Vijayanagar sovereigns. In modern times, the great general of the

PREFACE vii

age, the Iron Duke, learned in the Mahiad wilds of Mysore, no less
than in the plains of the Deckan, those lessons of warfare which enabled
him to end the ambitious career of the subjugator of Europe, who once
thought to make an ally of Mysore and to conquer the East. Waterloo
may in one sense have been won in the playing fields of Eton, but it
was Mysore that contributed to develop the genius of the commander
who carried the day, decried though he had been as the Sepoy
(jcneral.

One cannot but be struck, in going over the modern history of
Mysore, with the magnanimity of the British to this country, and
equally with the manner in which the country has responded to the
good influences exerted upon it. That it may continue to prosper
must be the wish of all.

As in the former edition, so in this, I hold myself solely responsible
for all information it contains, though I have endeavoured throughout
to indicate the authorities on which it is based. The work has been
left by (lOvernment entirely in my hands. The published Administra-
tion Reports are now not annual but quinquennial, and the last issued
is to 1 89 1. I have had, therefore, to resort to various sources for later
information. But the greatest drawback I have felt has been the want
of a good general library of reference.

No one can be more conscious than the author of the shortcomings
of a work embracing such a variety of subjects and extending over so
great a range of time. I have striven to accomplish to the best of my
ability the task entrusted to me, and can only bespeak for the present
edition as indulgent and favourable a reception as was accorded to the
original one.

Bangalore, Sept. iSgj.

b 2

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

On the termination, in May 1799, of the last EngHsh war with
Mysore, and the restoration of the Hindu Raj, which followed, it was
resolved by the East India Company to obtain a topographical survey
and general statistical account of the Territories that, for many years
preceding, had been the scene of political events which attracted a
large measure of attention not only in India and the East, but also in
England, France, and other European countries.

Dr. Francis Buchanan (who subsequently assumed the name of
Hamilton) was accordingly deputed, in February 1800,' by the (iovernor-
General, the Earl of Mornington, afterwards Marquis ^^'ellesley, to
travel through and report upon " the Dominions of the Raja of Mysore,
and the country acquired by the Company in the late war from the
Sultan, as well as that part of Malabar which the Company annexed to
their own Territories in the former war under Marquis Cornwallis." He
set out on this journey from Madras on the 23rd April 1800, and
completed it on the 6th July 1801, His report was written from day
to day, while travelling, in the form of a Journal, which, on completion,
was transmitted to England and placed in the library of the East India
House. On the recommendation of the learned Dr. (afterwards S.r
Charles) Wilkins, the Librarian, its publication was sanctioned at the
end of 1805, but the manuscript went to press apparently without the
knowledge of its author. " Soon afterwards," says Dr. Buchanan, in
his introduction, " my duty having unexpectedly brought me to
England, I was agreeably surprised to find that my Journal had
obtained a reception so favourable. It is true I wished to have
abridged the work before publication, and altered its arrangement ; but
as the printing had commenced before my arrival, and as my stay in
England was likely to be very short, I could not undertake such altera-
tions. I have therefore contented myself with revising the manuscript,

' Then already well known for his valuable botanical researches in Burma and
Chittagong.

X PREFACE 2 0 FIRST EDITION

and the supcrintcndcncy of the press has been entrusted to Mr. Stephen
Jones."

The work appeared in 1807, in three quarto volumes, under the title
of A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore^ Canara
and Mahibar. ICvery page teems with valuable information, but the
disjointed style, inseparable from the nature of a daily journal, makes
it difficult to consult, and it is much to be regretted that the accom-
plished author had not the opportunity of throwing the work into a
more suitable form for publication. It was reprinted, in two volumes
octavo, at Madras in 1870.

While Dr. Buchanan was engaged in these travels, Colonel Colin
Mackenzie — eventually Surveyor-General of India, and well known to
Orientalists for his antiquarian collections in Southern India' — was
commissioned by the Governor-General to make a Survey of Mysore.
He was allowed only three assistants, with a medical officer as surgeon
and naturalist. In spite of many obstacles, how^ever, the survey was
continued till 1807. The result was not alone a valuable contribution
to geographical knowledge, but considerable materials were acquired of
the statistics and history of the country. These were recorded in folio
volumes transmitted to the East India Company. Copies of eight
volumes, attested by Colonel Mackenzie's signature, are deposited
among the records of the Mysore Residency. The most novel and
important of the discoveries made by him was that of the existence of
the sect of Jains in India, which he was the first to bring to notice.

The first surgeon and naturalist attached to the Mysore Survey was
Dr. Benjamin Heyne, whose papers on a variety of subjects relating to
this and the neighbouring countries were published in London in 18 14
(also by the recommendation of Dr. Wilkins, Librarian at the East
India House) under the title of Tracts^ Historical and Statistical, on
India. Subsequently, the gifted Dr. John Leyden- was attached to

* Including, according to the catalogue by Prof. H. H. Wilson, 1,568 manuscripts
of literary works, 2,070 local tracts, 8,076 copies of inscriptions, 2,150 translations,
2,709 plans and drawings, 6,218 coins, and 146 images and antiquities.

' " He rose," as Sir John Malcolm, Resident of Mysore describes, " by the power
of native genius, from the humblest origin to a very distinguished rank in the literarj^
world. His studies included almost every branch of human science, and he was
alike ardent in the pursuit of all. The greatest power of his mind was perhaps
shown in his acquisition of modern and ancient languages. ..."

His end was most sad. On the conquest of Java in 181 1, he accompanied the
Governor-General, Lord Minto, to that island, and hearing at Batavia of a librar)-
containing a valuable collection of Oriental manuscripts, hastened to explore it. The
long low room, an old depository of effects belonging to the Dutch Government, had
been shut up for some time, and the confined air was strongly impregnated with the
poisonous quality which has made Batavia the grave of so many Europeans. With-

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xi

the Survey in the same capacity, but beyond a few anecdotes and
verses in his Poetical Remains, published in London in 1819, I
have failed to meet with anything of his specially about this Province,
though it is stated that " he drew up some useful papers, which he
communicated to the Government, relative to the mountainous strata
and their mineral indications ; as to the diseases, medicines and
remedies of the natives of Mysore, and the peculiarities of their habits
and constitution by which they might be exposed to disease ; as to the
different crops cultivated in Mysore and their rotation ; and to the
languages of Mysore, and their respective relations." Heyne's observa-
tions were confined to the north and east ; Leyden's papers, if traced,
would give us information regarding the south and west.

Colonel Mark Wilks, distinguished as the historian of Mysore, at
which Court he was for a time Resident, published his well-known work
under the title of Historical Sketches of the South of India, in three
volumes quarto ; the first of which appeared in London in 1810, and
the two last not till 181 7, owing to his appointment during the interval
as Governor of St. Helena, which office he held until the imprisonment
on that island of the emperor Napoleon Buonaparte. " It displays," as
an old reviewer justly observes, " a degree of research, acumen, vigour,
and elegance, that render it a work of standard importance in English
literature." A reprint, in two volumes octavo, was published in Madras
in 1869.

Some monographs drawn up by officers of the Mysore Commission
soon after the assumption of the Government by the British in 1831, with
kindred papers, were printed in 1864 as SeUctiojis from the Records.
In 1855 a Getieral Memorandum was prepared by Sir Mark Cubbon
for the Marquis Dalhousie, and since that time Administratiofi
Reports have been regularly issued every year.

out the precaution of having it aired, he rushed eagerly in to examine its treasures,
was .seized in consequence with a mortal fever, and died on the 2Sth August, after
three days' illness, in the 36th year of his age.

Southey wished " that Java had remained in the hands of the enemy, so Leyden
were alive," while Sir Waller Scott paid the following tribute to his memory in the
Lord of the Isles :—

His bright and lirief career is o'er,

And mute his tuneful strains ;
Quenched is his lamp of varied lore,
That loved the light of song to pour ;
A distant and a deadly shore

Has Leyden's cold remains.

The centenary of Leyden's birth was celebrated with public rejoicings in 1S75 ^^
his native village of Dcnholm, on the banks of the Teviot, in Scotland.

xii PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

Otlicr sources of infcjniuilicjn exist,' for a good deal has been written
in connection witii Mysore during a century back, much of it partisan ;
but the above were some of the chief public and authentic materials
accessible for a work which had become a desideratum, namely, a
Gazetteer of Mysore brought u[) to date, presenting in a handy form
and within a moderate compass all that was of interest in relation to the
natural features, resources and productions of the country • its history,
population, industry, administration, and any other subjects that had a
claim to be treated of in such a handbook.

The first step taken towards supplying the want was in June 1867,
when a circular was addressed by Mr. Saunders, C.B., the officiating
Chief Commissioner, to the Superintendents of Divisions, directing the
compilation, for each District, of a Gazetteer similar to one then lately
published of the Bhandara District in the Central Provinces. In
pursuance of these orders, during the next two years, nine manuscript
volumes were prepared. Only two, however, came to be printed; namely,
one for Mysore District, by Mr. H. Wellesley ; and one for Kolar, I
presume by Mr. Krishnaiengar, C.S.I. Of the remainder, those for
Bangalore and Kadur were not completed ; the one for Shimoga bears
the signature of Captain Gordon Cumming ; that for Hassan of Major
W. Hill ; that for Tumkiir of Major C. Pearse ; and that for Chitaldroog
of Mr. Krishna Rao. The subsequent Reports on the Census of
November 1871, by Major Lindsay, naturally superseded most of the
statistical information contained in them.

The design to appoint an editor who should bring out one work on a
uniform plan was next adopted, and eventually, in 1873, with the
sanction of the Government of India, it was proposed to me to under-
take the compilation of the Gazetteer of Mysore and Coorg. A
personal acquaintance more or less with every part of the two countries,
gained in the course of official duty ; a familiarity with the local verna-
culars ; and some measure of information regarding the literature and
ancient history of this part of India, derived from antiquarian studies ;
led me to anticipate the work with interest. But being, at almost the
same time, rai.sed to the head of the Educational Department, I found
that the labours of a new office which is no sinecure, left little leisure for
the extra duty imposed upon me. I was therefore forced to be content
for some time with making tours to such parts of the country as I had
not recently visited, and collecting information from various quarters.

' I would particularly mention Eastern Experiences, by Mr. L. Bowring, C.S.I.,
late Chief Commissioner, published in London in 1871.
- A paragraph relating to Coorg is here omitted.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xiii

However, when in 1874 Dr. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics,
who is charged with the editorship of the Imperial Gazetteer for the
whole of India, visited Bangalore, I was able to lay before him the
plans I had formed for the work, and at his request undertook to
prepare for Mysore a manual of each District separately, which I had
not at first intended, as it seemed to involve a certain degree of repetition.
I am now glad that I did so, as it obliged me to go more minutely into
several subjects. Dr. Hunter again paid a visit to Bangalore in January
1876, when a part of the work had been printed, and in his report to
Government was pleased to express the strongest approval of what had
been done, and his " sense of the high value of the materials that had
been supplied."

The Gazetteer has thus finally taken the shape of two volumes
devoted to Mysore (and a third to Coorg). Of the former, the first
treats of Mysore in general, the second of Mysore by Districts, eight in
number. A reference to the table of contents prefixed to each volume
will enable the reader to see at a glance the arrangement and distribution
of subjects. Volume II, it should be stated, was printed first. . . .
In general the present work has been brought down to 1875, but in the
portions printed after that, a few statistics of later date have been
admitted. I had thought to append a short biographical notice of some
of the remarkable men, both Native and European, who have been
connected with Mysore, but feared it would extend the work too much,
and perhaps be considered foreign to its design. The subject, however,
is one full of interest.

I will not deny that the Gazetteer has caused far more labour than I
had anticipated, principally owing to the demands of an extensive
Department, which prevented my ever giving undivided attention to
the compiling of it. But these are conditions under which much of
the best work in India has been accomplished, and I gratefully
acknowledge the indulgence which has been extended by Government
to any apparent, but unavoidable, delay in bringing the task to
completion.

\\'ith regard to all such information and statements contained in
these volumes as I am not personally responsible for, I have endeavoured
to make a point of mentioning throughout the body of the work the
authorities on which they are based ; and my sincere and hearty thanks
are tendered to all who have favoured me with any information or
assistance, as well as to the I'ress. I may add that the proofs have
been seen, on the part of Government, by Major 'I'redway Clarke,
Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner.

Bangalore, Xmas iS-jd.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

I'AGB

Physical Geography 1-67

Physical Features: — Situation, Area, Boundaries, l. Natural
Divisions — Malnad, Maidan, 2 ; River System <;, 4 ; Tanks, 7;
Talpargis, 7 ; Mountain Systems, 7.

Geology: — Metamorphic Rocks, 13; Imbedded Minerals, 15;
Plutonic Rocks, 17 ; Volcanic Rocks, 21 ; Aqueous Rocks,
23 ; Older Alluvium, 26 ; Modern Alluvia, 29 ; Traverse
Notes, 33 ; Auriferous Tracts, 46 ; Non-metallic Minerals,
61.

Meteorology : — Seasons, 63 ; Temperature, 64 ; Rainfall, 64 ;
Earthquakes, 65 ; Cyclones, 65.

Flora 68-173

Forest Trees :— Evergreen Belt, 68 ; Mixed Belt, 69 ; Dry Belt,
74 ; Sandal, 77 ; Timber Trees, 78 ; Eruit Trees, 81 ; Native
Vegetables, 83 ; Horticidtiire : — Plants in the Lai Bagh or
Botanical Gardens, 85 ; Grasses, 100.

Crops and Cultivation : — Farmer's calendar, loi ; Names of
CrojJS, 102 ; Areas under Cultivation, 104 ; Ragi, 107 ;
Avare, 112; Togari, 112; Jola, 112; Save, 114; Navane,
116; Baragu, 117; Haraka, 117; Alsandi, 118; ITurali,
119; Uddu, 120; Hesaru, 121 ; Wollellu, 122; Iluchchellu,
123; Haralu, 123; Sanabu, 125; Cotton, 125; Tobacco,
126; Sasive, 128; Kadale, 128; Wheat, 129; Rice, 131;
Sugar-cane, 144 ; Cardamoms, 151 ; Areca-nut, 152 ; Cocoa-
nut, 158; Betel vine, 160; Coffee, 162; Introduced plants of
econovtic value: — Casuarina, 169; Cinchona, 169; Vanilla,
171 ; Cocoa, 172; Rhea, 172; Other Exotics, 172.

Fauna .......... 174-207

Ferae Naturae: — Mammals, 174; Destruction of wild beasts,
177 ; Game Law, 177 ; Elephant keddahs, 179 ; Birds, 181 ;
Reptiles, 187; Fishes, 189; Insects, 190; insects useful to
man, 194.

Domestic Animals:— Horses, 198; Mules, 198; Asses, 199;
Horned Cattle, Amrit Mahal, 199; Buffaloes, 204; Sheep,
205 ; Goats, 207.

CONTENTS

ErHNor.k.M'iiv .....•••• 208-270

Aboriginal and Primitive Tril)cs, 2o8 ; I'opulation, 217 ; Hindus,
220; Caste, 221; Occui)alions, 224; Agricullural classes,
227 ; Professional classes, 233 ; Commercial classes, 245 ;
Artisans ancj villajje menials, 247 ; Vagrant minor artisans
and |)erf()rmers, 255. Mtisa/inans, 257 ; Christians, 259 ;
Uriian Population, 261 ; Character and dress of the people,
262.

Alphabetical list of castes ........ 266

History 271-453

Legendary Period : — Agastya, 272 ; Asuras and Rakshasas,
273; lluiluiyas, 274; Parasu Rama, 275; Rama, 276;
Kishkindha, 277 ; Pandavas, 279 ; Chandrahasa, 283 ; Jana-
mejaya, 285.

Historical Period : — Mauryas, 287 ; S'atavahanas, 292 ; Ka-
(lanihas, 295 ; Mahavalis, 300 ; Vaidumbas, 303 ; Pallavas, .
303 ; Nolambas, 307 ; Gangas, 308 ; Chaliikyas, 319 ; Rash-
trakutas, 324 ; Chalukyas, 327 ; Kalachuris, 331 ; Cholas,
m ; Hoysalas, 335 ; Vadavas, 342 ; \'ijayanagar, 344 ;
Palegars, 356 ; Hijapur, 357; Mughals, 361 ; Mysore Rajas,
361 ; Haidar Ali, 372 ; Tipu Sultan, 398 ; Restoration of
the Hindu Raj, 417 ; I'urnaiya Regent, 419 ; Krishna Raja
Wodeyar, 421 ; Rebellion in Nagar, 427 ; Deposition of the
Raja, 429 ; the Mysore Commission, 429 ; the Great Famine,
439 ; the Rendition, 441 ; the Representative Assemljly, 442;
Review of Policy of the Mysore Government, 445 ; Instrument
of Transfer, 450.

Religion 454-487

Serpent worship, 454 ; Tree worship, 455 ; M.-iri or Mara, 456 ;
Bhi'itas, 457 ; Animism, 457 ; Brahmanisnt, 458 ; Jainism,
460 ; Buddhism, 465 ; Hinduism, 468 : — Siva, 468 ; Sanka-
rachary?, 471 ; list of Sringeri gurus, 473 ; Ramanujacharya,
474 ; I larihara, 475 ; Lingayits, 476 ; Madhvacharya, 477 ;
Sritanis, 477. Islam, 479. Christianity, 480 ; Roman Cath-
olic Mission, 482 ; Protestant Missions, 484.

I,\\C.U\r,K AND LiTKRATURE 4SS-505

Kannada, 48S ; its Dialects, 4S9 ; I'eriods, 490 ; Written
Character, 491 ; Relationship, 492 ; Literature, 495 ; Early
Authors and their Works, 496 ; Modern Authors, 501 i,
Writing materials, 503 ; Muhammadan publications, 503 ;
European publications, 504.

CONTENTS

Art and Industry ....... 506-571

Fine Arts: — Stone Monuments, 506; Sculpture, 509; Anhilcc-
turf, — Buddhist, 510 ; Jain, 510 ; Dravidian, 512 ; Chalukyan,
513; Halebid, 514; Belur, 518; Sonianathpur, 519;
Malnad, 519; Saracenic, 520; Lingayit, 521. Engraving,
522 ; IVood-can'ing, 522 ; Inlaid work, 523. J/nsic, 523.

Industrial Arts : — Metallurgy ; Gold-mining, 524 ; (iold and
Silver, 528 ; Iron and Steel, 530 ; Brass and Copper, 535 ;
Manufactures, 535. Textile Faf)rics, 535 ; Cotton, 536 ;
Wool, 537 ; Carpets, 537 ; Silk, 538 ; Alills and Factories,
539; Dyes, 540; (loni, 541. Oil-J'ressi)ig, 541. Soap and
Candles, 544. Glass-mal^ini^, ^^i. Carpentry and Turning,
547. Sugar andjaggory, 547 ; Suf^ar Works, 550. Leather-
dressing, 552. Earth salt, 553. Coffee Works, 554 ; Brick
and Tile IVorks, 554 ; Paper-milh, 554.

Trades and Commerce, 555 ; Imports, 556 ; Exports, 558 ;

Joint-Stock Comjjanics, 560.

Wages and Prices : —Wages, 561 ; Prices, 562; as affected by
the seasons, 562.

Administration ........ 572-798

Under the early Hindu Rulers, 572 ; the Village Twelve, 574 ;

Revenue System, 576.

Under the Yijayanagar Sovereigns, 578 ; Civil and Military
departments, 579 ; Milage officers, 579 ; Land rent, 582 ;
Customs and taxes, 583 ; Establishments, 586 ; Justice, 587 ;
Heads of Departments, 587 ; Police, 588. Carnatic Bijapur,
588 ; Sira, 589.

Under the Rajas of Mysore, &c., 590 ; Departments formed
by Chikka Deva Kaja, 590 ; his revenue regulations, 591 ;
new taxes, 592. Bednur, 593 ; Sivappa Nayak's shist and
prahar patti, 594. Haidar AH, 595. Tipu Sultan, 595 ;
new system, 595 ; military regulations, 596 ; fleet, 596 ;
commercial regulations, 597 ; regulations of revenue, 599 ;
police, 599.

Under Purnaiya, 1799-1810. — Settlement of Palegars and the
Army, 600 ; land assessment, 602 ; civil departments, 604 ;
justice, 605 ; revenue, 607 ; Court of Adalal, 610.

Under Krishna Raja Wodeyar, 1811-1831. — Land Revenue,
611; revenue iirDCL'diuc, bi2; rusunis, 615 ; rates of
kandayam, 616 ; land tenures, 617 ; village rent, 620 ; Sayar,
622 ; in Nagar, 624 ; in Ashtagram, 625 ; in Bangalore, 627 ;
JVutch Bah, 627. Justice: — Civil, 629; Criminal, 631 ;
punishments, 633 ; jails, 637 ; police, 637.

xviii CONTENTS

Under the Mysore Commission.

Non-Regulation System, 1831-1855, 639 ; Land Revenue,
640 ; revenue officers and settlement, 643 ; Najjar, 647 ;
Manjarabad, 652 ; Snyar, 653 ; remissions in Nagar, 657 ; in
Ashtagram, 658 ; in Bangalore, 659 ; in Chitaldroog, 660.
Justice, 661 ; Courts, 662 ; procedure, 663 ; appeals, 664 ;
Panchayats, 666 ; fees and fines, 667 ; apas penchayats, 669 ;
Criminal Justice, 671.

Transition Period, 1856-1862, 674 ; new departments, 675 ;
revision of Mohatarfa, 676 ; the Commission re-organized,
677 ; Justice, 679 ; Police, 680; Jails, 681. Revenue, 681 ;
Finance, 6S2 ; Military, 682.

Regulation System, 1863-1881, 683. Civil Departments:—
Revenue and Finance, 683 ; State Revenue, 685 ; Land
tenures, 686 ; Inam tenures, 690 ; Revenue Survey and Settle-
ment, 692 ; Inam settlement, 696 ; Muzrayi settlement, 700 ;
Land Revenue, 701 ; Coffee halat, 702 ; Forests, 706 ; Abkari,
708; Sdyar, 711 ; Mohatarfa, 712; Salt, 713 ; Stamps, 714 ;
Anche or Post Office, 7H > Local Fiends, 714 ; Municipal
Funds, 715 ; State Expenditure, 718. — Law and Justice: —
Legislation, 721 ; Courts, 723 ; System of Judicature, 724 ;
Civil Justice, 726 ; Registration, 726 ; Criminal Justice, 727 ;
Prisons, 72S ; Police, 730. — Public Works, 7^2, ; Railway,
744. — Public Instruction, 745. — Medical, 753. Military
Departments, 75S ; British Subsidiary Force, 758 ; Mysore
Local Force, 759 ; Silahdars, 760 ; Barr, 762 ; Bangalore
Rifle Volunteers, 762.

Since tlie Rendition in 1881.

Form of Administration, 763 ; Council, 763 ; Representative
Assembly, 763. Administration of the I^and, 764 ; Topo-
graphical Survey, 764 ; Revenue Survey and Settlement,

764 ; Liam settlement, 764. Protection, 765 ; Legislation,

765 ; Police, 766 ; Criminal Justice, 768 ; Prisons, 769 ;
Civil Justice, 770; Registration, 771 ; Municipal Administra-
tion, 771 ; Military, 772. Production a)ul Distribution, TJt,;
Agriculture, 773 ; Weather and crops, 773 ; Forests, 773 ;
Mines and Quarries, 774 '■< Manufacture and Trade, 774 ;
Public Works, 775 ; Railways, 777 ; Post-office, 779.
Revenue and Finance, 779 ; Provincial Funds, 779 ; Revenue,
780 ; Expenditure, 785 ; Local Funds, 786 ; Agricultural
Banks, 787 ; Savings Banks, 787 ; State Life Insurance, 787.
Vital Statistics and IMedical Services, 788 ; Births and Deaths,
7S8 ; Medical Relief, 789. Instruction, 791. Archeologj-,
796. Miscellaneous, 797 ; Muzrayi, 797.

CONTENTS

XIX

Appendix ......•••

Coins, Weights and Measures : — Coins, 799 ; Lead coins, 799 ;
Cold coins, 801; Silver coins, 805; Copper coins, 807;
Accounts, 80S. Weights, 809. Measures : — Grain Measures,
810 ; Land Measures, 810 ; Measures of Time : — Eras, 811 ;
Years, 812.

Addenda et Corrigenda ........

PAGE
799-813

8IS

Index

819

LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Map of Mysore

Geological Sections ....

a. In ahout Lalilude 15° N.

b. ., ,, 13° N.
P'roni Jalar]:iat to Shikarpur .

Geological Map of Southern India
Physical and Industrial Map of Mysore
Sketch Map of Mysore in about 450

750 .
1050 .

1625 .
Map of Peninsular India to illustrate the His
Specimens of Mysore Coins .

Plate i. Lead and Ciold coins
„ ii. Gold, Silver, and Copper coins

Pocket in cover
P- 13

lory of My

36
62
168
300
314
335
357
368

799
802
807

MYSORE

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The State of Mysore^ occupies a position physically well defined, in
the South of India ; and has been termed a rocky triangle, a not inapt
description. It is a table-land, situated in the angle where the Eastern
and Western Ghat ranges converge into the group of the Nilgiri Hills.
West, south and east, therefore, it is enclosed by chains of mountains,
on whose shoulders the plateau which constitutes the country rests. On
the west the boundary approaches at one part to within lo miles of the
sea, but in general preserves a distance of from 30 to 50 miles from the
coast : on the east the nearest point is not less than 120 miles. The
southern extremity is 250 miles from Cape Comorin. The northern
frontier is an exceedingly irregular line, ranging from 100 miles south
of the river Krishna on the west to 1 50 on the east.

The country extends between the parallels of 11° 38' and 15° 2'
north latitude, and between the meridians of 74° 42' and 78° 36' east
longitude, embracing an area of 29,305 square miles, as determined by
the Surveyor-General of India from the recent survey on the one-inch
scale. (It is therefore nearly equal to Scotland, whose area is 29,785
square miles.) The greatest length north and south is about 230
miles, east and west about 290.

* The name is that of the capital, properly Maisiir, for Mahish/ir, — from iiiahisha,
fians. for buffalo, reduced in Kan. to iiiaisa, and lirit, Kan. for town or country, —
which commemorates the destruction of Mahishasura, a minotaur or buffalo-headed
monster, by Chamundi or Mahishasura-mardani, the form under which the consort
of Siva is worshipped as the tutelary goddess of the Mysore royal family.

Except in a passage in the Mahawanso, where it is called Mahisha-mandala, the
designation of the country throughout Hindu literature is Karnata or Karnataka (for
derivation see chapter on Language), which properly applied to the countrj' above the
( jhats. But the Muhammadans included in the name their conquests below the Ghats
as well, and the English, going a step further, erroneously restricted it to the low-
country. Hence Carnatic and Canara now designate, in European works of
geography, regions which never bore those names ; w hile Mysore, the proper
Karnataka or Carnatic, is not so called.

2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPJIY

It is surrounded Ijy llic Madras Presidency on all sides, except on
part of the west, where the Bombay Presidency northwards and Coorg
southwards form thq boundaries. The Madras Districts bordering on it
are Bellary and Anantapur on the north ; Kadapa, North Arcot and
Salem on the east ; Coimbatore, Nilgiris and Malabar on the south ;
South Canara on the west. The Bombay Districts of Dharwar on the
north and North Canara on the west complete the circle. Coorg
intervenes between the adjacent parts of South Canara and Malabar on
the south-west.

The general elevation rises from about 2,000 feet above the sea level
along the northern and southern frontiers to about 3,000 feet along the
central water-parting, which separates the basin of the Krishna from
that of the Kaveri and divides the country into two nearly equal parts.
But the surface is far from preserving the even character suggested by
the designation of table-land. For the face of the country is every-
where undulating, much broken up by lines of rocky hills or lofty
mountains, and scored in all parts by Jidlas or deep ravines. There is
probably not a square mile in the whole superficies absolutely flat or
level, the slope of the ground ranging from 10 to 20 feet per mile in the
more level portions, and as high as 60 and 80 feet elsewhere.

The country is longitudinally intersected by single or aggregated
chains of hills, running chiefly north and south, or in a direction nearly
parallel to the two coasts. They lie at uncertain and unequal distances
from each other, and accordingly form sometimes wide and sometimes
narrow valleys. Isolated peaks of massy rock, termed by Europeans
droogs} rearing their heads to 4,000 or 5,000 feet above the level of the
sea, stand forth like sentinels on every hand ; mostly crowned with the
remains of fortifications, whose position, with the advantage of an
unfailing supply of water at the summit, rendered them wellnigh
impregnable strongholds. Besides these, clusters or piles of naked
rocks, composed of immense rounded boulders, are frequent ; large
fragments being often delicately poised, like logging stones, upon some
projecting point ; appearing as if a touch would overturn them, and yet
sometimes supporting a shrine or mandapa.

Natural divisions. — Mysore naturally divides itself into two separate
regions, each of which has well-marked and distinctive features.

Of these the Malnad,^ or hill country, lies to the west, and is confined
to the tracts bordering or resting on the ^^'estern Ghats. It is a land of
magnificent hill and forest, presenting alternations of the most diversified

* Properly diir-ga, a Sanskrit word meaning difficult of access, and denoting
hill-fort.

* Kan. Male, hill ; iiddti, district, region.

NATURAL DIVISIOXS 3

and charming scenery. A fertile soil and perennial streams clothe the
valleys with verdant cultivation. The sheltered hillsides are beautiful
with waving woods, which give shade to numerous plantations of coffee.
Higher up are swelling downs and grassy slopes, dotted over with park-
like groups of trees. Above all, the gigantic mountains rear their
towering crests in every fantastic form of peak. Human dwellings are
few and far between A cottage here and there, picturescjuely situated
on the rising ground bordering the rice-ficlds, and hidden amid planta-
tions of areca palm and plantain, marks the homestead of a farmer and
his family. Towns there are none, and villages of even a dozen houses
rare. The incessant rain of the monsoon months confines the people
to their own farms. Hence each householder surrounds himself with all
he needs, and succeeds in making himself to a great extent independent
of the external world. The conditions of this isolated life are insupport-
able to immigrants from the plains.

But by far the greater portion of the Province, or all to the east and
north of a line from (say) Shikarpur to Periyapatna, continued along
the southern border to the Biligirirangan hills, belongs to the division
of Maidan, Bail shime, or open country. Although much of the in-
termediate region partakes of the characteristics of both, the transition
from the Malnad to the Maidan is in some places very marked. Dense
forests, which shut in the view on ever}' hand, give place to wide-
spreading plains : the solitary farm to clustering villages and populous
towns. Man meets with man, the roads are covered with traffic, and the
mind feels relief in the sympathy of numbers.

The means of water-supply and the prevailing cultivation give the
character to the various parts of the open country. The level plains of
alluvial black soil, as in the north, growing cotton or millet ; the districts
irrigated by channels drawn from rivers, as in the south and west, dis-
playing the bright hues of sugar-cane and rice-fields ; the lands under
tanks, filled with gardens of cocoa and arcca palms ; the higher-lying
undulating tracts of red soil, as in the east, yielding ragi and the
conmion associated crops ; the stony and wide-spreading pasture
grounds, as in the central parts, covered with coarse grass and relieved
by shady groves of trees. The aspect changes with the seasons, and
what in the dry and cold months, when the fields are lying fallow,
appears a dreary and monotonous prospect, speedily assumes under the
first operations of the plough the grateful hues of tillage ; which, under
the influence of seasonable rains, give place in succession to the bright
verdure of the tender blade, the universal green of the growing crops,
and the browner tints of the ripening grain. The scene meanwhile is
full of life, with husbandmen, their families and cattle engaged in the

B 2

4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

labours of the field. These arc prolonged in slacking and threshing
until the cold season again sets in and the country once more assumes a
parched and dusty aspect.

River systems. — l"hc drainage of the country, with a slight exception,
finds its way to the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great river
systems ; that of the Krishna on the north, the Kaveri on the south, the
two Pennars, and the Palar on the east. The only streams flowing to
the Arabian Sea are those of certain taluc^s in the north-west, which,
uniting in the Sharavati, hurl themselves down the Ghats in the mag-
nificent falls of Gersoppa; and some minor streams of Nagar and Man
jarabad, which flow into the Gargita and the Netravati.^

A line drawn east from BalLilrayan-durga to Nandidurga (Xundy-
droog) and thence south to Anekal, with one from Devaraydurga north
to Pavugada, will indicate approximately the watershed separating the
three main river-basins. From the north of this ridge flow the Tunga
and the Bhadra, rising in the Western Gliats and uniting in the Tunga-
bhadra, which, with its tributary the Hagari or Vedavati, joins the
Krishna beyond the limits of IMysore in Srisaila near Karnul. From
the south of the line, the Hemavati (with its affluent the Yagachi), the
Lokapavani, Shimsha, and Arkavati flow into the Kaveri, which, rising
in Coorg and taking a south-easterly course through the country, re-
ceives also on the right bank the Lakshmantirtha, the Gundal, the
Kabbani and the Honnu Hole before quitting the territory. From the
east of the line, m the immediate neighbourhood of Nandidurga, spring
three main streams, forming a system which Lassen has designated " die
Tripotamie des Dekhans," namely, the Uttara Pinakini or Northern
Pennar (with its tributaries the Chitravati and Papaghni), which dis-
charges into the sea at Nellore ; the Dakshina Pinakini or Southern
Pennar,- which ends its course at Cuddalore ; and between them the
Palar, whose mouth is at Sadras. A continuation of the east and west
line through Nandidurga to Sunnakal will mark the water-parting be-
tween the first and the other two ; which, again, are divided by a line
passing from Jangamkote to Bowringpet and the Betarayan hills.

More accurately described, the axial line or " great divide " which
forms as it were the backbone of the country, starts from the north of
Ballalrayandurga and runs east-by-north to near Aldur. Thence it
makes a bend, first, northwards up to the western extremity of the Baba

* The course of each river is described in detail in Vol. II.

- Its name below the Ghats appears to be Poni-ar or Ponn-dr, golden river, dr
being the Tamil for river. It would be very convenient were geographers to agree
upon restricting the name Penna to the northern stream and that of Ponna to the
southern. The former is also called Penner (written Pennair), Jrii being the Telugu
for river.

RIVER SYSTEMS 5

Budan range and then south-east, passing between Belur and Halebid,
down to Sige Gudda in the north of the Hassan taluk. From this
point it strikes across the map in an east north-east direction, rounding
the southern extremities of the HarnhalU and Hagalvadi hills, up to
near Kortagiri, where it encounters the great meridional chain of
mountains. Following the range south, past Devaraydurga to near
Dodbele, it resumes an east-north-easterly course to Nandidurga and
continues the same to the frontier near Sunnakal. Geographically it
lies between the parallels of 13° 10' and 13° 25'.

A line projected north from the west of Kortagiri up through Pavu-
gada to the frontier, and one south from Nandidurga by Bangalore to
Anekal, mark pretty nearly the limits of the respective river-basins in
the transverse direction. This water-parting falls between the meridians
of 77' 10' and 77" 30'.

The basin of the Sharavati, which runs to Honavar on the Canara
coast, occupies the west of the Shimoga District. It may be defined
by a line drawn from Kodachddri south-east to Kavaledurga, thence
north-east by Humcha to Masarur, and west-north-west by Anantapur
and Ikkeri to Talguppa. The streams between Kodachddri, Kavale-
durga and the Agumbi ghat westwards, run down to Kondapur ; and
those of western Manjarabad, to Mangalore.

The following statement contains an estimate of the total length,
within the Province, of the main rivers with their principal tributaries ;
and the total area of the catchment basin under each river-system
within the same limits : —

River System

Total Length of Rivers

Total Area of Basins

Miles.

uare Miles.

Krishna

611

11,031

Kriveri ...

646

9,486

N. I'ennar

167

2,280

S. I'ennar

1,541

Palar ...

1,036

Sharavati and west coast rivers

103

1,881

Owing to either rocky or shallow beds, none of the Mysore rivers is

navigable,^ but timber floats are carried down the Tunga, the Bhadra,

' From the following statement in Buchanan it appears that Ilaiilar attempted to
estal)lish navigation on the Tunga. " From Mangalore Haidar brought to Shimoga
many carpenters, and built a number of lighters of about eight tons burthen. They
are strong and flat-bottomed ; but, as the greater part of them have been allowed to
remain on the bank where they were built, I doubt not that they were found very
u.seless. The attempt is, however, no impeachment on the sagacity of Haidar, who

6 nrVSTCAT. GEOGRAPirY

and the Kahhani at ccrlaiii seasons. Most of the streams are fordable
during the dry months, or can be crossed by rude bridges formed of
logs or stones thrown across from boulder to boulder. During floods,
and when freshes come down, traffic over the streams is often suspended
until the water subsides. But throughout the rainy season they are
generally crossed at the appointed ferries by rafts, basket boats, canoes,
or ferry boats. Men also sometimes get over supporting themselves on
earthen pots.

The teppa or raft is formed of bamboos lashed together, and merely
affords an unsteady footing, the water washing freely through. The
harigblu or coracle is a circular basket of stout wicker-work, composed
of interlaced bamboo laths and covered with buffalo hides. It is 8 or
lo feet in diameter, with sides 3 or 4 feet high.^ A smaller one, which
holds only two people, is used for crossing some jungle streams. The
db7ii or canoe is a dug-out, or hollowed log pointed at the two ends.
The sd/igda, or regular ferry boat," is formed of two canoes secured
together, with a platform or deck fastened upon them, and has sides
turning on hinges which, let down, form a gangway for loading and un-
loading. All these craft are propelled by a long bamboo pole, and are
dependent for their course upon the currents. But paddles are some-
times used with the canoe.

Though useless for purposes of navigation, the main streams, espec-
ially the Kc4veri and its tributaries, support an extensive system of
irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams, called
anicuts,'' which retain the upper waters at a high level and permit only
the overflow to pass down stream. These works are of great antiquity,

having been educated in a place remote from every kind of navigation, could have no
idea of what boats could perform, nor of what obstacles would prevent their utility.
To attempt dragging anything up such a torrent as the Tunga would be vain ; but,
after having seen the boats, and known that some of them have been actually navigated
down the river, I have no doubt of its being practicable to carry down floats ; and on
these perhaps many bulky articles of commerce might be transported."

' Herodotus notices, as one of the most remarkable things he had seen at Babylon,
boats of a construction so exactly similar, that the description of one would precisely
answer for the other, with the single difference of substituting willow for bamboo.
These boats carried the produce of Armenia, and " the parts above Assyria," down
the Euphrates to Babylon ; and each boat along with its cargo carried a few asses for
the purpose of conveying the returns by a shorter overland route. Boats of the
description noticed by Herodotus, although apparently unknown in Greece at that
period, were in after ages commonly used in Italy on the Po ; and in Britain in the
time of Caesar. Boats of the same materials but of different shape are used at this
time in South Wales, and the north-west of Ireland ; in the former country they are
named corracle, in the latter corraigh. — Wilks, i, 257.

- The mention of aaryyapa occurs in the Periplus.

•' From Kan. ane kattc, both meaning dam, dyke, or embankment.

HYDROGRAPHY 7

the large Talkad anicut, the lowest down on the Kaveri, having been
constructed a thousand years ago ; while the most recent, with few
exceptions, are not less than three centuries old. " The dreams which
revealed to favoured mortals the plans of these ingenious works (says
A\'ilks) have each their appropriate legend, which is related with rever-
ence and received with implicit belief." The channels or kdlvcs thence
drawn, meander over the adjoining tracts of country on either bank,
following all the sinuosities of the ground, the total length running
l)eing upwards of 1,200 miles. ^

There are no natural lakes in Mysore, but the streams which gather
from the hillsides and fertilize the valleys are, at every favourable
point, embanked in such a manner as to form series or chains of
reservoirs, called tanks,-' the outflow from one at a higher level supplying
the next lower, and so on all down the course of the stream at a few
miles apart. These tanks, varying in size from small ponds to extensive
lakes, are dispersed throughout the country to the number of 38,080 ;
and to such an extent has tliis principle of storing water been followed
that it would now require some ingenuity to discover a site suitable for
a new one without interfering with the supply of those already in
existence. The largest of these tanks is the Sulekere, 40 miles in cir-
cumference. Other large ones are the Ayyankere, Madaga-kere, Masur-
Madaga-kere, Vyasa samudra, Ramasagara, Moti Talab, tlvic., of which
accounts will be found elsewhere (Vol. II).

The spring-heads called talpargis form an important feature of the
hydrography of the north-east. They extend throughout the border
regions situated east of a line drawn from Kortagiri to Hiriyur and
Molkalmuru. In the southern parts of this tract the springs may be
tapped in the sandy soils at short distances apart, and the water rises
close to the surface. Northward the supply is not so plentiful. In
Pavugada a soft porous rock has to be cut through before reaching the
water, and in the other taluc^s of the Chitaldroog District hard strata of
rock have sometimes to be perforated. \M-ien the water is obtained, it
is either conducted by narrow channels to the fields, or a kapilc well is
constructed, from which the water is raised by bullocks.

Mountain systems. — ^From the gigantic head and shoulders, as it were,
of the lofty Nilgiri group, which commands the southern frontier, are
stretched forth like two arms, in a north-west and north-east direction
res[)ectively, the AVestern and Eastern (liiat ranges, holding within

' The anicuts and channels are fully described innler the respective rivers in
\'..l. If.

- Kcre is the general name in Kannada, hut Icola, hiiittc, and other terms are
applied to certain descriptions.

8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

their mighty embrace the mountain-locked plateau of Mysore. The
hills of this table-land, though rarely in continuously connected chains,
arrange themselves into systems crossing the country longitudinally, in
directions more or less parallel with the Eastern and Western Ghats
according to their proximity to one or the other; and attaining their
greatest elevation between 13 and 13^ degrees of north latitude, along
the north of the watershed line dividing the Krishna and Kaveri river
systems.

The best defined of these ranges is a belt, from 10 to 20 miles wide,
running between the meridians of 77 and 775, from the Biligirirangan
hills as their western limit, through Kankanhalli northwards up to
Madgiri, and on to the frontier by way of Pavugada and Nidugal. It
separates the eastern from the northern and southern river-basins. On
the west, a somewhat corresponding range, not more than 10 miles in
width, runs north along the meridian of 75I from Ballalrayan-durga up
to beyond Shikarpur, having on its east the loop of the Baba Budans,
projecting as it were like some Titanic bastion guarding the approaches
to the Malnad or highland region formed by the congeries of hills and
mountains which intervene between the range and the Ghats on the
west.

Intermediate between the two internal ranges above described is
placed a hilly belt or chain, with considerable intervals between its com-
ponent parts, tending to the east on the south of the central watershed
and to the west on the north of it, so as to form a very obtuse angle in
traversing the centre of the country. Starting from the Wainad frontier
at Gopalswami betta, between Gundlupet and Heggadadevankote, it
passes by Seringapatam and Nagamangala to Chunchangiri, where,
exchanging its easterly for a westerly course, it reappears to the west of
Kibbanhalli in the Hagalvadi hills, and crossing in a continuous belt
through the middle of the Chitaldroog District, quits the country to the
north of Kankuppa.

In the northern section of the territory, where the distance between
the Ghat ranges, and by consequence between the intermediate belts,
continues to increase, the interval is occupied by minor ranges. Of
these the most important is the Nandidroog range, commencing near
the hill of that name and stretching northwards by Gudibanda to Fenu-
konda and the Anantapur country. In the west, a similar medial chain,
but of lower elevation, passes from the eastern base of the Baba Budans
south of Sakrepatna, up by Ajimpur, the Ubrani hills and Basvapatna,
between Honnali and Male Bennur, along the right bank of the Tun-
gabhadra, to the frontier, where it meets that river.

Viewing the mountains as a whole, the Eastern and Western Ghat

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS 9

ranges might be compared to the antlers of a stag, the branching tynes
being represented by the intermediate parallel chains starting from the
north of the central watershed and more or less connected by cross
ridges along their southern extremities. The chief peaks of the western
system are loftier than those of the eastern. Except on the verge of the
Western Ghats, all the mountains throughout the country, it is believed,
present their steepest escarpment more or less eastwards. In the west,
INIulainagiri, and in the east, Nandidroog, are the highest elevations, and
they are almost on the same parallel, or between 13° 23' and 13^ 24',
immediately north of the central watershed. The loftiest points just
south of that line are Ballalrayan-durga in the west, and Sivaganga in the
east, both situated between 13° 8' and 13° 10'.

The table on the following page will serve to show the arrangement
and altitude of the principal peaks in each system. The figures are
mostly taken from the charts of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of
India, supplemented from those of the Topographical Sur\-ey. Fur-
nished at the summit with springs which yield an unfailing supply
of water, most of these heights seem ■ formed by nature for secure
retreats. Hence there are few of the more prominent ones that have
not been surrounded or capped with fortifications, often carried in long
lines, with a vast expenditure of labour, along all the spurs and projec-
tions of the droog, forming strongholds with good reason deemed im-
pregnable before the time when British artillery was directed against
their walls. A particular account of the most interesting will be found
under each District.

It may be useful to quote here the following most recently published
opinion regarding the physical geography of this part of India : — " In
the peninsular area the mountains are all remnants of large table-
lands, out of which the valleys and low lands have been carved. The
valleys, with a few local exceptions, are broad and open, the gradients
of the rivers low, and the whole surface of the country presents the
gently undulating aspect characteristic of an ancient land surfoce."
"The Anamalai, Palni and Travancore hills, south of the Palghat gap,
and the Shevaroy and many other hill groups scattered over the Car-
natic, may be remnants of a table-land once united to the Mysore
plateau, but separated from it and from each other by ancient marine
denudation. Except the peculiar form of the hills, there is but little
in favour of this view, but on the other hand there is nothing to indicate
that the hill groups of the Carnatic and Travancore are areas of special
elevation.'"

' R. D. (Jldham, " Manual of the Geolog)' of India," 2nd edition (1893), IT- 2, 4-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
WESTERN SYSTEM

IS'

75°

76°

14 —

13 —

Chandragutti, 2

1
794

Hanuman betta, 2,507

Kalvarangan hill, 3,388

Hill at Sulekere, 2,695

Govardh

ingiri,

1,720

Karadi betta, 2,725

Kodachadri

, 4.411

Hanuman durga, 3,181
Ubrani hills, 2,891

Kavaledurga, 3,058

Koppa durga, 2,960
Lakke pan-ata, 4,662

Baba Budan Range
Hebbe betta, 4,385
Kalhatti giri, 6,155
Deviramman gudda,

Kaldurga, 3,183
5,906

Baba Budan

giri, 6,214

Kondada betta, 3,207

Woddin gudda, 5,006
Varaha parvata, 4,781

Merti gudda, 5,451
Kudure muklia, 6,215

Rudra giri, 5
Mulaina giri,

,692
6,317

Sakuna giri. 4,653
Garudan giri, 3,680

Ballalrayan durga, 4,940

Kate gudda, 4,540
Karadi gudda, 4,523
Siskal betta, 3,926
Jenkal betta, 4,558
Murkan gudda, 4,265
Devar betta, 4,206

Subrahmanya

or Pushpa giri, 5,626

Maharajan durga, 3,899
Bettadpura hill, 4,389

j—

1
1

76°

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS

I Chain

EASTERN SYSTEM

78-

Santigudda, 2,595

Jalinga Ramesvara hill, 3,469

S'uiike Bhairava hill, 3,022

hill, 2.721
betta, 3,28(

?., 3.329
ii. 3.803

2,274

3,226

Mis, 3.543

gin, 3,221

Xidugal, 3,772
Pavugada, 3,026

Midagesi durga, 3,376

Madgiri durga, 3,935 Gudibanda, 3,361

Channarayan durga, 3,744

Itikal durga, 3,569

— 14°

Dokkal konda, 3,807

Kortagiri, 2,906

Devaray durga, 3,940
Xijagal, 3,569

Hariharesvar betta, 4,122

Mudimadagu,

4.528
Sunnakal, 4,229

Kalavar durga, 4,749
Chanrayan betta, 4,762
Xandi durga, 4,851
Brahmagiri, 4,657
Dibgiri

Ambaji durga, 4,399
Rahman Ghar, 4,227

Sivaganga, 4,559
Bairan durga, 3,499

Hutri durga, 3,713
Savan durga, 4,024
Hulyur durga, 3,086

Ramgiri, 3,066
Sivangiri, 2,931
Mudvadi durga, 3,131
Banat mari betta, 3,422
Kabbal durga, 3,507

Halsur betta, 3,341 Kolar hills, 4,026

Kurudu male,
3.312

Tyakal hills, 3,704

Bann^rghatta, 3,271

Betrayan konda,

3,006
Yerra konda

3-359

— 13

lurga, 3,589
3.579

, 3,190
jcks, 2,882
, 2,697

i betta, 3,489

Koppa betta, 2,821

Biligtrirangan Hills

Biligirirangan betta, 4,195
Matpod hill, 4,969
Punajur hill, 5,091

mi hill, 4,770
iri Group
tta, 8,760

78°

GEOLOGYi

The great ranges of the Western and Eastern (ihats, together with the
intervening table-lands, may be regarded as part of one magnificent
elevation of Plutonic rocks by a succession of efforts, during a period
which may be termed Plutonic, breaking up the hypogene schists
and in some instances uplifting aqueous beds of a more recent origin.
The true general direction of this elevation is nearly N. 5° W, though
the apparent directions of the lateral chains on its flanks are to the east
and west of north respectively.

The surface of the table-lands between these chains has a general in-
clination easterly by south towards the Bay of Bengal, into which the
principal rivers empty themselves. This gentle inclination, often assisted
by cross lines of elevation, determines the great drainage lines of the
country. The singular appearance of the detached hills and clusters of
hills, which above the Ghats are seen abruptly starting up from the flat
plains with little or no tali, have been sometimes compared to a table
with teacups here and there reversed on its surface, a not inapt though
homely illustration.

The bare extensive surfaces of the granitic, trappean and hypogene
rocks in Southern India afford on a grand scale exposes, not to be sur-
passed in any other portion of the globe, of the protean aspects under
which these rocks present themselves. The very absence of those fossi-
liferous beds which so thickly encrust the surface of a great portion of
Europe and many other parts of the world, is in itself a subject of in-
teresting research ; and the geologist may in the peninsula of India
advantageously study a huge and disjointed mass of the nether-formed

^ Chiefly from articles by Captain Xewbold, P'.R.S., on the " Geolog}- of Southern
India." — (J. R. A. S. viii, ix, xii. )

[Note. — When compiHng the first edition, I applied to the Geological Survey of
India for information on the geology of Mysore, and was informed in reply that, as
the country had not been surveyed, nothing was known of its geolog}-. Being thus
thrown on my own resources, I discovered the articles from which this chapter was
taken. Their value has since been recognized by the Geological Survey, for Mr.
W. T. Blanford, in the Introduction to the first edition of the "Manual of the
Geology of India" (p. Ixxii), writes as follows : —

Newbold, 1 844- 1 850. —This account refers to the southern part of the Peninsula
alone ; but it is the work of one of the best, if not actually the best, of the earlier
Indian geologists ; and it has the peculiar advantage over all other summaries
published up to the present time, that the author possessed an extensive personal

acquaintance with the country described Most of the observations recorded

in the summary are admirable ; and altogether the paper is so valuable, that the
neglect with which it has been generally treated is not easy to understand.]

To face page 13

GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS IN THE LATITUDES OF^AN^AUJRE^ AND^OFJ^jE NORT>IERJj^RONTlER.

After Captain Newbold, F. R.S. fl "ts

I SECTION IN ABOUT LAT 15" N fH "t ^S I I ?

METAM ORPHIC ROCKS 13

rocks which constitute the framework of our planet, and which
here present themselves ahiiost divested of integument, weathering
under the alternations of a vertical sun and the deluging rains of the
tropics.

Metamorphic Rocks. — Hypogene schists, penetrated and broken
up by prodigious outbursts of plutonic and trappean rocks, occupy by
far the greater portion of the superficies of Southern India. They con-
stitute the general bulk of the Western Ghats from between the latitude
of 16" and 17° N. to Cape Comorin ; and from the northern base
of the Eastern (ihats to their deflection at latitude 13° 20' N. They
are partially capped and fringed in the ^\'estern (ihats by laterite,
and in the Eastern Ghats by sandstone, limestone and laterite. They
form the basis of the valley of Seringapatam and of the table-land of
Mysore.

The inequalities and undulations of the surface, though originating
in the dislocations and flexures of the metamorphic strata at the periods
of their uj)heaval, have been evidently modified by aqueous erosion
and by the faster weathering of the softer members of the series, — ■
such as mica and talcose schists, — the softer clay slates and shales ;
which, crumbling and washed away, have left their harder brethren
standing out in relief on the face of the country. Where we see
gneiss, hornblende schist and quartzite rising in parallel ridges sepa-
rated by valleys, we generally find the valleys occupied by the softer
members of the series, often deeply covered with debris from the
ridges.

Where gneiss rises above the general level of the surrounding plain,
its elevations may be distinguished from those of granite, which the hills
of thick-bedded varieties of gneiss sometimes assimilate, by their greater
continuity and uniformity of altitude ; their tendency to a smooth dome-
shaded outline ; and greater freedom from precipices and disrupted
masses. Near lines of plutonic disturbance, however, these distinguish-
ing marks are less perceptible.

Elevations of mica and talcose schists obtain, generally, a less alti-
tude than those of hornblende or gneiss ; and have a more round-
backed and smoother contour on the whole. Vet the outline in detail
is jagged, owing partly to these rocks weathering in larger, more angular
or less concentric fragments, often leaving abrupt steps and small preci-
pices. Hornblende and gneiss are seen rising, as m the \\'estern Ghats
and the Nilgiris, to the height of 8,000 feet above the sea's level. The
former is recognized by its bold sharp ridges, often precipitous, but
rarely presenting conical peaks.

Hills composed entirely of actinolite or chlorite schist are seldom

14 GEOLOGY

met with ; those of (luartzite have long crest-Hke outhnes, often running
smoothly for some distance, but almost invariably breaking up into large,
angular masses, sometimes cuboidal : the sides of the crests are usually
precipitous. Hills of clay slate are distinguished by a smooth, wavy
outline, separated by gently sloping valleys. Outliers or detached hills
of this rock are usually mammiform. But, as before remarked, all these
normal crystalline rocks, when near lines or foci of plutonic disturbance,
frequently undergo great changes in physiognomical aspect ; and in lieu
of the smoothly rounded hills of clay slate, and its gently sloping vales,
smiling with fertility, we behold it cleaved into sterile, rugged ravines
and rocky i)recipices.

Gneiss is usually found lowest in the series : next to it mica and
hornblende schist, actinolite, chlorite, talcose and argillaceous schist,
and crystalline limestone, in due succession : but to this rule there are
numerous exceptions. All these rocks, except crystalline limestone,
have been observed resting on granite without the usually intervening
gneiss. The strata are often violently contorted or bent in waving
flexures, particularly in the vicinity of plutonic rocks ; and much irreg-
ularity occurs in the amount and direction of dip throughout the
hypogene area. In the Western Ghats it is usually easterly, and at
angles varying from io° to 90°. At the summit of the Ghats near the
falls of Gersoppa, the gneiss dipped at an angle of 35° to the N.E.

But the hornblende schists do not always dip from the plutonic rocks
— in many instances the dip is towards them : a fact indicating that the
strata have been disturbed at some previous period, or that they may have
suffered inversion ; which is known to be the case in beds of more
recent origin. While the dip of the two great lines of elevation, viz.,
the East and West Ghats, is generally westerly and easterly, or at right
angles with the direction of the strata, that of the minor cross ranges is
usually southerly. Numerous irregularities and exceptions, however, to
this general rule occur, particularly near the northerly and southerly
great synclinal line of dip on the table-lands between the Eastern and
AVestern Ghats, and near localities where it is traversed by the cross
lines of elevation. The intrusion of trap dykes has also caused much
diversity in the dip. These irregularities will always prove obstacles in
tracing out with accuracy the synclinal dip line between the Eastern and
Western Ghats.

Gneiss and hornblende schist are by far the most prevalent rocks of
the series : to gneiss the other members may be termed subordinate.
Near its contact with the granite it commonly assumes the character of
what has been styled granitoidal gneiss, losing its stratified appearance,
and not to be distinguished in hand specimens from granite. Spherical

METAMORPJIIC ROCKS 15

and oval masses of granite, resembling boulders, are sometimes
observed impacted in the gneiss. Veins of reddish compact felspar,
felspar coloured green with actinolite, epidote or chlorite, with and with-
out quartz; also of milky quartz with nests of iron ore, mica and
hornblende are very common in gneiss : also dykes and veins of granite.
All these veins are of older date than the intrusion of the greenstone
dykes which invariably sever them. Particular varieties of gneiss prevail
in different districts. These rocks not only abound in nests and veins
of rich magnetic and oxidulated iron ore, but in thick interstratified
beds and mountain masses of these minerals.

iMica schist is found sparingly distributed over the whole of the
hypogene area in thin beds. It is found in the greatest abundance and
purity in the western parts of Mysore. A vein of granite in it is rare,
though abounding in those of quartz. Takose, chloritic^ and acti)wlitic
schists are still more sparingly distributed : the first is seen in the west
of jNIysore. Fine varieties of actinolitic schist occur in the Western
Ghats at the falls of Gersoppa ; and it is pretty generally distributed in
thin beds over Mysore. Hornblende schist ranks next to gneiss in
extent and thickness of beds, and is seen washed by the sea at the
bases of the Eastern and ^^'estern Ghats, forming some of the loftiest
peaks of the latter and supporting large level tracts of table-land.
This rock varies from the compact structure of basalt to the crystalline
texture of granite, and to that of porphyry, and may be seen from
lamin?e of a few lines in thickness, passing into beds forming mountain
masses. The principal constituent minerals are hornblende and felspar.
Quartz, garnet and mica are frequently mixed. Large beds of compact
felspar, generally of a pinkish hue, with a little quartz and a few scales
of mica, quartzite and milk quartz, having a similar direction to that of
gneiss, occur, forming low ranges of hills. Clay slate does not occupy
a large surface of the hypogene area. It occurs at Chiknayakanhalli,
Chitaldroog, and in parts of the Shimoga District.

Imbedded Minerals. — Chert is pretty generally distributed, also the
•common garnet ; the latter occurs in the greatest abundance in the
Eastern Ghats, but is also found in the Kempukal river at the Manjara-
bad Ghat; black garnet and tremolite occur in the granitoidal gneiss
of Wurralkonda (Kolar District). Epidote and actinolite are found
usually in quartz and felspar veins. Indianite occurs sparingly with
corundum, fibrolite and garnet in gneiss and hornblende schist in the
valley of the Kaveri. Corundum is found in Mysore in talc, mica, or
hornblende schist associated with iron ore, asbestus, and sometimes
indianite and fibrolite. It occurs imbedded in the rock in grains and
■crystals. Its principal localities are Gollarhalli near Chanraypatna,

1 6 GEOLOGY

Mandya near Seringapatam, Bcgur, Bannerghatta, Bagepalli and other
l)laces.^ Fibrolite occurs but rarely with indianite and corundum.
Kyanite occurs in gneiss with tremolite, pearl spar, bitter spar, almandine
and staurolite. Steatite occurs in the talcose schists in the west of
Mysore ; as also potstone, in beds of considerable size and veins, and
more or less dispersed over the whole hypogene area ; occasionally
associated with nephrite. Magnesite, an almost pure carbonate of
magnesia, occurs in the vicinity of Hunsur. Mica is found universally
diffused. In some parts of the Western Ghats and on the table-lands
to the east, this mineral and talc are found in plates large enough for
windows and lanterns, for which purpose they are used by the natives,
as also for ornamental devices and for painting on. Chlorite is rarely
found uncombined with felspar, silex, or hornblende. Nacrite or scaly
talc is here and there met with. Adularia is found in the gneiss at
some places. Albite or cleavlandite occurs occasionally throughout the
gneiss districts, as also tourmaline or schorl, both black and green.
Sulphate and sub-sulphate of alumina are occasionally found in thin
incrustations and efflorescences between the layers of the soft ferruginous
slates into which the hornblende and mica schists pass.

Iron pyrites or sulphuret of iron is distributed in small proportions
in the hypogene rocks ; but the oxides, both magnetic and heematitic,
exist in extraordinary abundance, forming masses and large interstrati-
fied beds in the mountain chains. In gneiss these ores frequently
replace hornblende and mica ; alternating with quartz in regular layers.
Magnetic iron ore with polarity is found in the massive state on the
Baba Budan hills. Micaceous and specular iron ores are less common.
A dark magnetic iron sand is usually found in the beds of streams
having their origin among hypogene rocks, associated with gold dust
and sometimes with menaccanite. Iron ore slightly titaniferous is
found over the whole hypogene area. The black oxide of manganese
associated with iron ore is found sparingly in the hills. Antimony
occurs in the Baba Budan hills, and at Chitaldroog.

' Attention having been drawn to corunduni as a valuable article of export, and on
account of its possible use for the manufecture of aluminium, Mr. Petrie Hay, of
Hunsur, has recently collected a quantity from villages to the south and west of that
town. Very excellent crystals of yellowish corundum, with a brown weathered
surface, were collected from the fields. Some tapering hexagonal prisms up to five
inches in length, and a cubical piece of about four inches side, with a block weighing
300 lbs., were sent by him to the Madras Museum. Dr. Warth, of the Geological
Survey, considers them of great importance as indicating the probability of a large and
continuous yield. The quality of the quarried pieces is very little inferior to that of
the crystals. The specific gravity of the large crystals was 4*02 and of the rock
corundum 3 "So.

IMBEDDED MINERALS 17

Ores of silver have been said to occur in Belli Betta near Attikuppa.^
Ainslie states that Captain Arthur discovered this metal in small
quantities in Mysore, both in its native state in thin plates adhering to
some specimens of gold crystallized in minute cubes, and mineralized
with sulphur, iron and earthy matter, forming a kind of brittle
sulphuretted silver ore.

Gold has long been found in the alluvial soil bordering on the
Betarayan hills in Kolar District. The geognostic position of gold in
this and other localities appears to be in the i)rimary schists, viz., gneiss,
mica slate, clay slate, and hornblende schist, particularly near the line
of their contact with granite or basaltic dykes, where we generally find
the tendency to siliceous and metallic development unusually great.
The gold is almost invariably discovered either in thin veins or dissem-
inated in grains in the veins and beds of quartz, associated with iron
ore and sometimes platinum, and alloyed with small proportions of
silver and copper, or in the tracts of alluvial soil, beds of clay and
sands, with the washings of primary rocks. Mining operations were
carried on here by the natives from a remote period and abandoned.
But since 1875 gold mining has been revived on a large scale by
European enterprise, and what was virtually a desert waste has thus
been converted into a populous and thriving industrial centre. The
details of these operations will be found farther on under Industrial
Arts.

Plutonic Rocks.— Cm^/Vt' prevails throughout the great hypogene
tracts, sometimes rising abruptly from the surface of immense level
plains in precipitous peaked and dome-shaped masses ; sometimes in
low steppes ; sometimes in great heaps of amorphous masses ; at others
with sharp outlines, obscured and softened down by a mantle of the
hypogene schists which have accompanied its elevation. This latter
occurs most frecjuently in continuous mountain chains, such as the Ghats ;
but to view this rock in all the boldness of its true physical contour, we
must approach the detached ranges, clusters, and insulated masses that
break the monotony of the table-lands. Here we find but little
regularity in the direction of elevation. In many clusters the granite
appears to have burst through the crystalline schists in lines irregularly
radiating from a centre, or in rings resembling the denticulated periphery
of a crater.

The most remarkable of the insulated clusters and masses of granite
on the table-land of Mysore are those of Sivaganga, Savandroog,

' But Mr. Bruce Foolc, of tlic Geological Survey, reported in 1SS7 as follows ;

" I searched the hill most carefully and could not find the slightest trace of any ore of
silver."

1 8 GEOLOGY

Hutridroog, Nandidroog, Chandragutti, and Chitaldroog. The rock
of Nandidroog is almost one solid monolithic mass of granite, rising
1, 800 feet above the plain and upwards of 4,800 feet above the sea ;
that of Sivaganga is nearly as high. These masses have usually one or
more of their sides precipitous, or at such an angle as to be inaccessible
except at few points. Most of them, like that of Savandroog, are so
steep as to admit of Httle vegetation, and present surfaces of many
thousand square feet of perfectly naked rock, in which the veins and
mineralogical structure are beautifully laid bare to the eye of the
geologist.

It is not to be understood that granite is to be met with only in this
abrupt amorphous form. On the contrary, it is sometimes found in
immense undulating layers like lava, rising little above the general
level of the country, separated by fissures and joints, and running for
a considerable distance in a given direction like a regular chain of hills.
The horizontal fissures often impart a pseudo-stratified appearance, and
when crossed by others nearly vertical, give the whole the semblance
of some huge wall of cyclopean masonry. The cuboidal masses com-
posing these walls weather by a process of concentric exfoliation into
spheroids. This process occurs often on a grand scale, and the ex-
foliated portions compose segments of circles of many yards radii.
This decay of lofty granitic masses produces some of the most
picturesque features of an Indian landscape; its strange columnar piles,
trees, and logging stones, which far excel those of Dartmoor in grandeur
and in the fantastic forms they assume. Some of these piles are held
together in the most extraordinary positions, and the blocks composing
them are found connected by a felspathic siliceous and ferruginous
paste, the result of the decay of the upper masses, washed down and
deposited around the joints by the action of the rain. There they
stand ; some tottering on their base, leaning over and threatening every
instant to topple down upon the unwary traveller ; others erect, amid a
ruin of debris at their feet, — silent monuments of the process of the
surrounding decay. Sometimes the summits of the higher elevations
are composed of immense monolith peaked masses of granite, which
split vertically ; the separated portions are often known to descend
from their lofty position with the rapidity and thunder of an avalanche.
As the rocks waste from the summit, at their base will be usually
observed a tendency to a re-arrangement of the component particles
of the rock going on in the debris there accumulated. At Chitaldroog
may be seen, at the base of a granite clifi' which tops one of the hills,
a porphyritic-looking mass thus formed of a reddish clayey paste,
imbedding reddish crystals of felspar.

PLUTONIC ROCKS. 19

Almost every variety of this rock is found, but the prevaiUng granite
is composed of felspar, quartz, mica and hornblende. Quartz, felspar
and hornblende, the syenite of some mineralogists, is also common, and
runs into the ordinary granite. That beautiful variety called protogine,
in which talc, or chlorite, or steatite replaces the mica, is not very
common in India, but is met with in a few localities in the west of
Mysore. In all these cases chlorite and talc are the replacing minerals,
the former predominating. Pegmotite, granite composed of quartz and
felspar, is frequently met with ; but the variety called graphic granite is
rare. Schist granite never occurs as a mountain mass, but is found in
veins or patches imbedded in ordinary granite. The same may be said
of actinolitic granite, or granite in which actinolite replaces mica. The
latter usually is most frequent in hornblendic granite, and the actinolite
passes by insensible gradations into hornblende. The felspar of actino-
litic granite is usually flesh or salmon-coloured. Porphyritic granite, or
granite having large crystals of felspar imbedded in ordinary or small-
grained granite, is common. The rock of Savandroog affords a good
example of the prevailing variety. It is composed of a granite base of
felspar, quartz, mica and hornblende, imbedding long pale rose-coloured
crystals of felspar. Fine granite porphyries are less frequently met with :
a beautiful specimen occurs in a large vein or dyke which traverses the
gneiss in the bed of the Kaveri at Seringapatam, nearly opposite the
sallyport close to which Tipu was killed. It is composed of a basis of
compact reddish and salmon-coloured felspar and a little quartz,
imbedding lighter-coloured crystals of the same, with needle-shaped
crystals of green tourmaline.

The great prevalent mineralogical feature in the granite of Southern
India is its highly ferriferous nature. The mica and hornblende
is frequently replaced by magnetic iron ore in grains, veins, and
beds ; and sometimes by fine octohedral crystals of the same, with
polarity.

Most of the minerals and ores described as occurring in gneiss are
also found in granite.

The ordinary granite is traversed by veins of granites both finer and
larger grained : the former pass into eurite, a rock in which all the com-
ponent minerals of granite are mingled together in one almost homo-
geneous paste. The minerals composing the larger grained veins are
often in a state of segregation and crystallization. The mica, instead of
being scattered in minute scales throughout the substance of the rock
is sometimes collected in large plates nearly a foot in length (used by
natives for painting on) ; the quartz in large amorphous nodules, or
hexahedral pyramidal prisms of equal length ; and the felspar by itself

c 2

2 0 GEOLOGY

in reddish layers and beds. The veins and beds of felspar are usually
reddish, and penetrated by fissures, which give a prismatic structure :
these fissures are often lined with compact felspar, coloured by actino-
lite, or chlorite, or with drusy crystals of the former mineral, which is
also found in nests. Milky quartz is segregated into large beds forming
chains of hills, usually containing nests and seams of iron ore, rock
crystal, and crystals of amethystine quartz. Both oval and lenticular
nests of hornblende and mica occur in granite.

Granite is seen in veins penetrating the hypogene schists. Good
examples occur near Seringapatam. In many situations granite appears
to have broken through the earth's crust in a solid form ; as is evident
from the sometimes unaltered and shattered condition of the strata
immediately in contact.

Eiirite is found throughout the granite and hypogene tracts, but
more frequently among the latter rocks, with which it often has all the
appearance of being interstratified ; in the granite it occurs in dykes.
The eurite of Seringapatam may be regarded as a type of the petrosilex
eurites. It sometimes passes into eurite porphyry, imbedding distinct
crystals of laminar felspar. Diallage, euphotide or gabbro, occurs at
Banavar, about eight miles westerly from Bangalore, associated with
gneiss and mica schist. It there presents itself in low elevations, con-
sisting of angular rough masses of the diallage rock, half-buried in a
detritus the result of its own disintegration. The masses have not the
slightest appearance of stratification ; but are divided by fissures, like
granite, into cuboidal blocks. The rock is composed chiefly of diallage
and felspar ; the colours of the former varying from light and dark grey
to greyish green and bright green. The felspar is white and greyish
white ; sometimes in distinct crystals, but generally confusedly
aggregated. The general colour of the rock is light grey and
greenish grey. The diallage at Banavar has more the appearance of
a dyke or vein in the hypogene strata than of an interstratified bed ;
but no natural section of the junction line of the two rocks presents
itself

Serpentine. — Near Turuvekere a dark crystalline rock occurs, com-
posed of a dark grey or black talcose paste, imbedding numerous small
black crystals of a mineral containing a large proportion of iron, being
strongly attracted by the magnet. It bears a beautiful polish ; the
surface exhibiting, on close inspection, in the dark shining paste, still
darker spots occasioned by the magnetic crystals. It was quarried by
the sovereigns of Mysore for architectural purposes, and forms the
material of the beautiful pillars which support the mausoleum of Haidar
at Seringapatam. This rock has been mistaken for basaltic greenstone,.

VOLCANIC ROCKS 21

but it may be a bed of massive ferriferous potstone — here common in
the talc schist — elevated, indurated, and altered by one of the basaltic
dykes that traverse the rocks in the vicinity. Geologically viewed it
has all the characters of a serpentine ; and mineralogically it resembles
the ferriferous serpentine or ophiolite of Brongniart, which consists
of a magnesian paste imbedding disseminated grains of oxidulated
iron.

Yolcanic Rocks. — Basaltic greenstone is universally distributed. It
prevails in hypogene areas, diminishes in those occupied by the diamond-
sandstone and limestone, and totally disappears in districts covered by
laterite and deposits of a more recent epoch. It is most developed in
the stretch of table-land between Bangalore and Bellary. It never
occurs in continuous overlying sheets like the newer trap, but pene-
trates in dykes the rocks just described, up to the age of the laterite.
These dykes often terminate on reaching the surface of the rock, or
before reaching it ; while others project from the surface in long black
ridges, which, originally like a wall, have since tumbled into both
globular and angular fragments by disintegration. Most of the blocks
usually remain piled up on the crests of the elevations, while others
have lodged on their sides or rolled down to their bases. Many of these
blocks have a peculiar metallic or phonolithic sound when struck ; the
well-known " ringing stones " west of Bellary afford a good example.
These black bare ridges of loose stones, standing out in relief against
the light-coloured granite or gneiss rocks, add another striking feature
to the landscape of the plutonic and hypogene tracts. They often
cross the country in a thick network, particularly between Nandidroog
and Bagepalli.

In many cases the protrusion of the basaltic greenstone above the
general surface of the imbedding rock appears to have been occasioned
by the weathering of the latter from its sides. The greenstone thus left
unsupported and exposed to atmospheric action soon breaks up by the
process of Assuring and concentric exfoliation. In a few instances it
appears to have been forced in a semi-solid state beyond the lips of the
rent in the rock without overlapping the rock, but none of these project-
ing dykes have remained in that solid continuous wall-like state in which
we see the prominent dykes of Somma or the Val del Bove. Their
height above the general level of the country rarely exceeds eighty feet.
The direction of the main dykes appears generally to coincide with that
of the elevation of the mountains ; but if we trace any dyke, the general
direction of which in a course of many miles may be north and south,
we shall find it to zig-zag and curve in various directions at different
parts of its course. Fragments of granite and gneiss, both angular and

2 2 GEOLOGY

of a lenticular form, arc sometimes entangled and imbedded in the
basalt ; and have been mistaken for veins or nests of these rocks. It is
evident that, in many instances, the granite and hypogene rocks were
solidified prior to the great eruptions of basalt that burst up from below
into their seams and fissures, and that the molten fluid imbedded all
loose fragments of rock, &:c., lying in them. It is probable that many
of the fissures themselves were caused, or enlarged, as seen in modern
volcanoes, by the expansion of the molten basalt and its gases from
below, while struggling for a vent.

The lithologic structure of this rock is as protean as that of granite.
In the centre of large dykes we usually find it crystalline and por-
phyritic ; and nearer the edges, less crystalline and more compact ; in
fact, every gradation of amj)hibolitic and augitic rocks, from basalt to
melaphyre, in the distance of a very few paces. Near the sides, in the
compact varieties, may be seen needle-shaped crystals of augite, glanc-
ing in confused arrangement here and there in the close texture of the
basalt ; while a little nearer to the centre the augite almost disappears,
and is replaced by fine large crystals of hornblende, and sometimes a
few scattered scales of mica. Near the line of contact with gneiss, the
basalt often loses its dark colour, and becomes of a faint green, like
some varieties of eurite or serpentine, imbedding iron pyrites. This
faint green eurite is also seen as a thin vitreous and vesicular enduit on
its surface, like the scoriaceous lava found on the surface of the dykes
of Etna. The cavities sometimes contain a yellowish-brown powder,
which becomes magnetic before the blow-pipe ; or small crystals of
epidote : in one specimen was found prehnite. The surface of the com-
pact basalt in the dykes is often scored by small fissures, which, as in
the Vesuvian dykes, divide the rock into horizontal prisms and run at
right angles to the cooling surfaces. All the darker varieties of basaltic
greenstone melt into a black or dark-green coloured glass or enamel ;
and affect the magnetic needle. They are composed of felspar, horn-
blende and augite, in varying proportions, and occasionally hyper-
sthene.

The minerals most common to these are, iron pyrites, garnets, epidote,
and actinolite. These minerals distinguish them from the newer trap,
which abounds in zeolites, calcedonies and olivine.

The greenstone occasionally assumes the prismatic columnar forms of
the newer basalts, or rather approaches to this structure ; thin layers of
carbonate of lime often intervene between the joints, and between the
concentric layers of the globular greenstone. In many instances the
basalt has a fissile structure, which, when intersected by joints, form
prisms well adapted for building purposes. In some cases, under the

AQUEOUS MOCKS 23

hammer it breaks into rhomboidal fragments, the joint planes of which
are marked superficially with dark brown or blue dendritic appearances
on a pale yellow or brown ground.

Rocks altered by Dykes. — Granite and gneiss in contact with a dyke
usually become compact, or tough, or friable ; the felspar crystals
lose their brightness and a portion of the water of crystallization,
become opaque and of porcelain hue; the mica is hardened and
loses its easily fissile lamellar character. In gneiss it may be seen
replaced by minute crystals of tourmaline,, epidote and garnet, as
near Chanraypatna. Limestone is converted into chert, or becomes
siliceous ; sandstone into quartz ; and clay slate into basanite and
jasper.

In districts most intersected by dykes a general tendency to crystal-
line and metallic development will be remarked, as well as an increase
in the deposition of saline and calcareous matter, apparent in extensive
layers of kunker, and efflorescences of the carbonate, muriate, and sul-
phate of soda. The fissures through which the springs charged with
these minerals rise, were originally caused, perhaps, by the same dis-
ruptive forces that opened vents through the earth's crust to the molten
basalt : and it is not improbable that these minerals and sulphates have
their origin in causes connected with these ancient subterranean
volcanic phenomena. Frequently no alteration is to be traced in the
rocks in contact with dykes ; a circumstance readily accounted for when
we reflect that the temperature of the injected rock is liable to great
variation. In certain localities, indeed, the basalt appears to have been
reciprocally acted upon by the rock it has traversed.

Aqueous Rocks. — Sandstone and Limestone. — Resting immediately
on the hypogene and plutonic rocks are found beds of limestone, sand-
stone, conglomerate, argillaceous, arenaceous, and siliceous schists.
Next to the hypogene schists, and the associated plutonic rocks, these
limestone and sandstone beds occupy perhaps the greater portion of
the area north of a line drawn through Sira to the west. They are
most frequently observed exposed in the vicinity of the great drainage
lines of the country and occur in irregularly-shaped patches, separated
usually by broad and apparently denuded zones of the subjacent
hypogene and plutonic rocks.

The tracts occupied by the limestone and sandstone beds present a
diversified aspect, sometimes flat and monotonous, and at others, near
lines of [)lutonic disturbance, bare, rugged and picturesque. The lime-
stone in some situations has evidently been denuded of the usually
superjacent sandstone, dislocated, and elevated several hundreds of
feet above the general level of the surrounding country in regular

24 GEOLOGY

ranges, and often in highly-inclined strata. Caps of sandstone, though
in such cases often wanting, are sometimes seen still covering the
limestone peaks. The outline of these limestone ranges usually
presents long, fiattish-topped ridges, whose sides and summits are not
unfrequently covered with detached angular blocks of the rocks, with a
grey, weathered, and scabrous exterior, resembling that of the mountain
limestones of Europe.

The sandstone, where undisturbed by plutonic intrusion, occurs in
low, flat, wall-like ranges, rising at an almost similar level, rarely exceed-
ing, 500 feet from the surface of the surrounding country, supporting
tabte-lands of some extent and evidently once continuous. It is often
intersected by deep fissures, extending from the summit of the rocks
down to the base. When disturbed by plutonic force, the sandstone
exhibits a striking contrast in its outline to the tame horizontal aspect
it assumes at a distance from the axes of disturbance. It rises in bold
relief against the sky in lofty rugged cross or hogbacked and crested
hills, with precipitous mural ridges, which, rarely running at the same
level for any distance, are interrupted by portions of the same ridge,
thrown up at various angles with the horizon in steep and often
inaccessible cliffs. When it crests the hypogene rocks, the lower
part of the elevation is often composed of the latter to the height of
about 200 to 400 feet, the slope of which has usually an inclination
of from 15° to 20", while that of the cap of sandstone presents a
steep or precipitous declivity varying from 45° to 90°, giving a decided
character to the aspect and configuration of the mountains and ranges
thus formed.

The hills of arenaceous schists are to be recognized from the more
massive sandstones by their undulating, round-backed summits, and
their buttressed and dimpled flanks ; while those of the softer slates
and shales affect the mammiform outline.

Both limestone and sandstone beds, there is little doubt, were
formerly of greater extent than now, and owe much of their present
discontinuity and scattered positions to the agency of plutonic
disturbance and subsequent denudation. The tracts of country
intervening between their areas are usually occupied by granitic and
hypogene rocks.

Laterite occupies a large portion of the superficies of Southern
India. It is found capping the loftiest summits of the Eastern and
Western Ghats and of some of the isolated peaks on the intervening
table-lands. Beds of small extent occur near Bangalore and Banavasi.
That at Bangalore extends northerly towards the vicinity of Nandi-
droog. Hills of laterite are usually distinguished by their long, low,

LATERITE 25

flat-topped character, assimilating those of the trap and horizontal
sandstone formations. The lands they support are, however, not so
much furrowed as those of the sandstone by water channels, a circum-
stance ascribable to the drainage passing rapidly off through the pores
of the rock. When capping detached rocks, the laterite usually imparts
to the whole mass a dome-shaped or mammiform outline, or that of a
truncated cone.

On the surface of table-lands it is spread out in sheets, varying from
a few inches to about 250 feet in thickness, terminating on one or two
sides in mural escarpments. Immense detached blocks, generally of a
cuboidal shape, are often seen occurring on the flanks of the Western
Ghats, and on the southern slopes of the Sondur hills, often separated
and dislodged. The valleys intervening between ranges of laterite
hills are generally winding, like those formed by the course of a
stream, and flat-bottomed, particularly in districts where it overlies the
newer trap.

The laterite varies mucli in structure and composition ; l)ut generally
speaking it presents a reddish-brown or brick-coloured tubular and
-cellular clay, more or less indurated ; passing on the one hand into a
hard compact jaspideous rock, and on the other into loosely aggregated
grits or sandstones, and into red sectile clays, red and yellow ochre,
and white porcelain earth, plum-blue, red, purplish and variegated
lithomarges. Sometimes it presents the character of a conglomerate,
containing fragments of quartz, the plutonic, hypogene and sandstone
rocks and nodules of iron ore derived from them, all imbedded in a
ferruginous clay. The cavities are both vesicular, tubular and sinuous ;
sometimes empty, but in the lower portions of the rock usually filled,
or partly filled, with the earths and clays above mentioned, or a
siliceous and argillaceous dust, often stained by oxide of iron. A
species of black bole, carbonized wood and carbonate of lime some-
times occur, but rarely, in these cavities. Minute drusy crystals of
quartz not uncommonly line the interior. The walls separating the
cavities are composed of an argillo-siliceous paste, often strongly
impregnated with iron and frequently imbedding gritty particles of
quartz. The oxide of iron prevails sometimes to such an extent as to
approximate a true ore of iron, and the nodules are often separated
and smelted by the natives in preference to using the magnetic iron
ore, which is more difficult to reduce, from its greater purity, ^^'hen
the whole mass is charged with iron and very vesicular (not unfre-
quently the case) it might easily be mistaken for iron slag. The
colour of the parietcs separating the tubes and cells, which in the less
ferruginous varieties is a light brick-red or purple, changes into a liver-

26 GEOLOG V

brown, having externally a vitrified or glazed aspect ; while the surface
of the interior cavities puts on iridescent hues. The walls of these
cells are sometimes distinctly laminated.

The air-exposed surfaces of laterite are usually hard and have a
glazed aspect, and the cavities are more empty than those in the lower
portion. A few inches or more below the surface the rock becomes
softer, and eventually as it descends so sectile as to be easily cut by
the native spades, but hardens after exposure to the atmosphere.
Hence it is u.sed largely as a building stone in the districts where it
prevails, and to repair roads. P>om its little liability to splinter and
weather (time appears to harden it), it is a good material in fortifica-
tions. The accumulation of the clays and lithomargic earths in the
lower portions of the rock, which absorb some of the moisture per-
colating from above, renders the mass soft and sectile. These earths
doubtless existed once in the upper cavities of the rock, from which
they have been gradually removed to. the lower strata by the downward
action of the water of the monsoon rains. They accumulate at various
depths from the surface and form impervious beds, on the depressions
of which the water collects, forming the reservoirs of the springs we
often see oozing from the bases and sides of lateritic hills and cliffs.
Some of the tubes and cavities are cu/s de sac, and do not part with
their contents ; but the generality have communication with those
below them, either directly or indirectly.

Associated Minerals. — Nodular, reniform and pisiform clay iron ore
occur pretty generally distributed. Large beds and nests of litho-
margic earths, and white porcelain earths, are not uncommon.

Older AlluYium. — The designation of alluvium is here used in its
extended sense to indicate certain beds of gravel and sand that are
occasionally found covered by the regur deposit, and which occur in
such situations as not to be accountable for by the agency of existing
transporting powers ; simply prefixing the term " older " to distinguish
it from the alluvium now .forming from the disintegration of rocks
washed down by the rains and springs, and transported by rivers and
local inundations.

In the valleys of the Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and other
large rivers are occasionally seen beds of alluvial gravel elevated beyond
the highest existing inundation lines. Some of these deposits may be
ascribable to shifts from time to time in the course of the river's bed ; a
few to the action of rain in bringing down alluvium from the mountain
sides ; but the majority appear to have been accumulated under con-
ditions not now in existence ; probably, during the slow upheaval of
the AVestern Ghats and plateau of the Dekhan, when the water

OLDER ALLUVIUM 27

occupied a much greater extent than at present. In many places the
rivers have cut their way through these deposits ; in others, channels
exist of rivers, where now no water flows, or but a diminutive stream-
let. Thus the Moyar valley, which runs along the table-land of Mysore
by the base of the Nilgiris, differs entirely from a common mountain
glen. Though a mile or more in breadth at some points, yet it is rather
a ravine or fosse cut in the plain and not hemmed in by mountains. It
opens out into the lower plain of the Carnatic at the Gajalhatti pass :
the sides are precipitous, and its bed very much like the deserted
channel of a river. The only stream now flowing in it is the Moyar,
which, even in the monsoon, does not fill one hundredth part of its
breadth and height : yet this singular excavation, extending some
thirty miles in length, is unquestionably a waterworn channel. It is
no fissure ; for its bed is quite solid and connected and composed of
strata of the hypogene rocks.

Hegnr or Black Cotton Clay. — This singular deposit, which in sheets
of considerable thickness covers at least one-third of Southern India, is
less common in Mysore. The plains occupied by the cotton soil are in
general marked by their horizontal sea-like surface and almost treeless
aspect. It covers the kunker and gravel beds just described, and is
generally seen as a surface soil ; but if we examine the edges of great
sheets they will generally be found to dip for some distance under the
recent alluvium, which conceals and replaces them as a surface soil.
It not only covers extensive plains, but the tubular summits of hills
overlooking those of the sandstone and limestone, newer trap and
laterite formations, far above the present drainage level of the country :
it covers all rocks from the granite to the laterite and kunker, and often
fills up depressions and chinks in their surface.

The purest regur is usually of a deep bluish-black colour, or greenish
or dark greyish black. The quantity of iron it contains is not sufficient
to account for the black colour of this soil, which may be partly attri-
buted to the extractive or vegetable matter it contains. The regur is
remarkably retentive of moisture ; a property to which is ascribable
much of its fertility. During the dry season, when the crops are off the
ground, the surface of regur, instead of presenting a sea of waving
verdure, exhibits the black drear aspect that the valley of the Nile
puts on under similar circumstances, and whicli powerfully reminds
one of the regur tracts of India. Contracting by the powerful heat
of the sun, it is divided, like the surface of dried starch, by countless
and deep fissures, into figures usually affecting the pentagon, hexagon
and rhomboid. While the surface for a few inches in depth is dried to
an impalpable powder raised in clouds by the wind and darkening the

28 GEOLOG y

air, the lower portions of the deposit, at the depth of eight or ten feet,
still retain their character of a hard black clay, approaching a rock,
usually moist' and cold ; when the surface dust has a temperature of
130°. In wet weather the surface is converted into a deep tenacious
mud.

The purest beds of regur contain few rolled pebljles of any kind ;
the nodules of kunker we see imbedded have probably been formed by
concretion from the infiltration of water charged with lime ; and it is
only near the surface that the regur becomes intermingled with the
recent alluvium of the surrounding country, or in its lower portions,
where it becomes intermingled with the debris of whatever rock it
happens to rest on, — trap and calcedonies in trappean districts ;
granite, sandstone, pisiform iron ore and limestone, in the plutonic
and diamond sandstone areas. It sometimes exhibits marks of
stratification.

That the regur of India is an aqueous deposit from waters that
covered its surface to a vast extent, there is little doubt : but it would
be difficult to point out at the present day the sources whence it
derived the vegetable matter to which in great measure it owes its
carbonaceous colour, and the rocks from the ruins of which its remain-
ing components were washed.

Kunker. — The calcareous deposit termed kunker^ is irregularly dis-
tributed in overlying patches. No tract is entirely free from it, with
the exception, it is said, of the summits of the Nilgiris. It occurs,
however, at the height of 4,000 feet above the sea among the ranges on
the elevated table-lands. It is most abundant in districts penetrated
and shattered by basaltic dykes, and where metallic development is
greatest. It is perhaps least seen in localities where laterite caps hypo-
gene or plutonic rocks. It occurs filling, or partially filling, fissures and
chinks in the subjacent rocks, in nodular masses and friable concretions
in the clays and gravels above the rocks, and in irregular overlying beds,
varying from a few inches to forty feet in thickness. It has been found
at the depth of 102 feet below the surface of the surrounding country,
prevails alike in granite, the hypogene schists, the diamond sandstone
and limestone, and in the laterite : hence the springs which deposit it
must bring up their supply of calcareous matter from sources deeper
beneath the earth's crust than the limestone.

The older kunker is usually of a light brownish, dirty cream, reddish
or cineritious grey tint ; sometimes compact and massive in structure,

* A Hindustani word .CJo but of Sanskrit extraction, signifying a nodule of lime-
stone or pebble of any other rock.

MODERN ALLUVIA 29

but more usually either of a nodular, tufaceous, pisiform, botryoidal, or
cauliflower-like form. Its interior is sometimes cancellar, or slightly
vesicular ; but compact or concentric in the pisiform and nodular
varieties. Its interior structure is rarely radiated. When compact it
resembles the older travertines of Rome and Auvergne. It aggregates
in horizontal overlying masses, usually intermingled with the soil
without much appearance of stratification. It is broken up and
used as a rough building stone in the bunds of tanks, walls of
inclosures, &C., by the natives, and is universally employed to burn into
lime.

In the banks of rivers it is often seen concreting in stalactiform
masses round the stems and roots of grasses, which, decaying, leave
casts ot carbonate of lime. This lime, held in solution and suspension
by existing streams, mingling with the fine particles of sand and ferru-
ginous matter in suspension, sets under water like pozzolana ; and unit-
ing the shells, gravel, sand, and pebbles in the bed and on the banks,
forms a hard and compact conglomerate.

Its origin may be referred to the action of springs, often thermal,
charged with carbonic acid, bringing up lime in solution and depositing
it as the temperature of the water gradually lowered in rising up to the
earth's surface or in parting with their carbonic acid.

Modern Alluvia. — Where regur does not prevail, the ordinary soils
are distinguished by a reddish tinge, owing to the great prevalence of
oxide of iron in the rocks of which they are, in great measure, the
detritus. Patches of white soil occur, and are usually the consequence
of the weathering of beds of quartz, or composed of kunker, which
abounds so generally, and enters into the composition of almost every
variety of soil. These white soils are characterized by sterility. In
tracts of country shaded by eternal forests, for instance the Ghats, and
sub-ghat belts, a dark vegetable mould prevails, — the result of the suc-
cessive decay and reproduction of vegetation for a series of ages, under
the stimulating alternations of excessive heat and moisture. In such
regions, where unsheltered by forest and in exposed situations, the
soil is either lateritic or stony according to the nature of the subjacent
rock.

At the bases of mountain ridges we usually find an accumulation of
large angular blocks, composed of the same rocks as the hills down
whose declivities they have rolled in weathering. At a greater distance
from the base in the plain, these are succeeded by pebbles, whose
reduced size, mineral composition, and worn angles proclaim them to
have travelled from the same source, diminishing in bulk the further we
recede from the mountains, until they pass, by the gradations of grit

30 GEOLOGY

and sand, into deposits of a rich clay or loam. Such are the gradations
generally to be traced in the modern rock alluvia, and which strikingly
distinguish them from the vegetable soil of the forest tracts and the
regur, which are often seen in the state of the greatest richness and
fineness of composition at the very bases of the hills and resting
immediately on the solid rock.

The alluvia brought down by the streams from the Western Ghats
flowing easterly to the Kay of Bengal, are usually composed of silt,
sand and gravel — detritus of the rocks over which they have passed :
they almost always contain a considerable portion of lime derived from
the springs which supply them, and from the limestone and kunker
beds over which most of them flow. The alluvia of the rivers of
the western coast are of a more carbonaceous and less calcareous
character, owing to the greater absence of lime in the formation, and
the dense forests and luxuriant vegetation which almost choke their
passage.

During the hot season, when the surface of the alluvial sand in the
beds of the rivers and rivulets is perfectly dry, a stream of clear water
is frequently found at various depths below them, stealing along or
lodging in the depressions of some impervious layer of clay or rock, to
which it has sunk through the superincumbent sand. So well is this
fact understood by natives, that in arid, sandy tracts, where not a drop
of water is to be seen, they will often be enabled to water whole troops
of horse and cattle by sinking wells a few feet deep through the sands
of apparently dried-up rivulets.

The benefit resulting from the admixture of lime into soils consisting
almost solely of vegetable, siliceous, or argillaceous matter, is too well
known to be dwelt on here ; and it is a remarkable and bountiful pro-
vision of nature in a country like Southern India, where limestone is so
rarely seen in the rocks from which a great part of its soil is derived,
that innumerable calcareous springs should be constantly rising through
the bowels of the earth to impregnate its surface Avith this fertilizing
ingredient.

The alluvia of Southern India are remarkable for their saline nature.
The salts by which they are impregnated are chiefly the carbonate and
muriate of soda, which prevail so much (particularly in mining districts)
as to cause almost perfect sterility. The carbonate appears on the sur-
face covering extensive patches, in frost-like efflorescences, or in moist
dark-coloured stains, arising from its deliquescence in damp weather or
by the morning dews. Where such saline soils are most prevalent there
will be usually a substratum of kunker, or nodules of this substance,
mixed with the soil ; and there can be little doubt that their origin may

MODERN ALLUVIA 31

be referred to the numerous springs rising through the fissures or laminae
of the subjacent rocks, some charged, as already noticed, with carbonate
of lime, and others with muriate of soda and sulphate of lime. The
carbonate of soda, like the natron of Egypt, is the result of a mutual
decomposition of the muriate of soda and carbonate of lime. It may
be as well to remark that muriate of lime is invariably found in the
saline soils of India, which are known to the natives by the term chaulu.
The soda soil is used by the dhobis, or washermen, to wash clothes with,
and hence is called washermen's earth ; it is also employed by the
natives in the manufacture of glass.

Both the carbonate and muriate of soda are found mingled in varying
proportions, in white efflorescences, in the beds and on the banks of
springs and rivulets.

Nitrous Soils. — Soils impregnated with nitre are found on and around
the sites of old towns, villages, &c. Here a vast quantity of animal
matter must gradually have been blended with the calcareous and vege-
table soil : from their decomposition the elements of new combinations,
by the agency of new affinities, are generated : — nitrogen from the
animal, and oxygen, &c., from the vegetable matter. The nitric acid
thus produced combines with the vegetable alkali, forming the nitrate of
potass, while its excess, if any, combines with the lime, forming a deli-
quescent salt, — the nitrate of lime. The affinity lime has to nitrogen
and o.xygen materially assists the formation of the acid by their com-
bination. The natives of India, in their rude manufactories of salt-
petre, act upon these principles without being aware of their rationale.
Having collected the earth from old ruins, or from places where animals
have been long in the habit of standing, they throw it into a heap
mingled with wood ashes, old mortar, chunam, and other village refuse ;
and allow it to remain exposed to the sun's rays and to the night dews
for one or two years, when it is lixiviated. The salt obtained is not very
pure, containing either the muriate and sulphate of soda or potash, or
nitrate and muriate of lime.

Nitrous soils are easily recognized by the dark moist-looking patches
which spread themselves irregularly on the surface of the ground, and
by capillary attraction ascend walls of considerable height. They are
more observable in the morning before the sun has had power to dissi-
pate the dews.

Auriferous Alluvia. — The alluvium brought down by the rivers
flowing easterly towards the Bay of Bengal is usually silt, sand, or
calcareous matter, — detritus, as before observed, of the rocks over which
they pass ; while that of the rivers flowing westerly is of a more carbon-
aceous character. Most of these alluvia are auriferous, particularly those

32 GEOLOGY

of the Malabar and Canara coasts, but grains of gold are also found in
considerable abundance in the alluvial soils of Mysore.

Betmangala lies on the eastern flank of the principal gold tract,
which, according to Lieutenant Warren, who examined this district in
1802, extends in a north-by-east direction from the vicinity of Budikote
to near Ramasamudra. The gold is distributed in the form of small
fragments and dust throughout the alluvium covering this tract.

At Markuppam, a village about 12 miles south-west from Betman-
gala, were some old gold mines, worked by Tipu without success. The
two excavations at this place demonstrated the great thickness, in some
parts, of these auriferous alluvia. They were 30 to 45 feet deep
respectively. There can be little doubt that the auriferous black and
white stones in these mines were fragments from the gneiss, granite and
hornblende schist which base this auriferous tract, and constitute the
singular ridge which runs through it in a north and south direction,
and which may be regarded as having furnished most of the material.^
of the reddish alluvium on its east and west flanks, and therefore as the
true matrix of the gold. The orange-coloured stones were caused by the
oxidation of the iron in the mica.

This auriferous range on the table-land of Mysore may be traced to
the Eastern Ghats, southerly, by the hill fort of Tavuneri, to the south
of Kaveripatnam matha in the Amboor valle}'. Two passes, however,
break its continuity near Tavuneri. To the north it appears to
terminate at Dasarhosahalli ; though the line of elevation, taking a
gentle easterly curve, may be traced by the outliers of the Betarayan
hills, Amani konda or Avani, Mulbagal, Kurudu male, Rajigundi to
Ramasamudra in the Cuddapah collectorate, a little west of Punganur.

Dimes. — Sand dunes are not confined to the coasts, but are seen on
the banks of the larger rivers in the interior, as at Talkad on the
Kave'ri. During the dry season, the beds of these rivers, deriving but
a scanty supply of water from perennial springs, usually present large
arid wastes of sand. These are acted upon by the prevailing westerly
winds, which blow strongest during the months of June, July, and
August, and raise the sand into drifts, which usually advance upon the
cultivation in an easterly direction. The advance of these moving
hills is usually very regular where no obstruction presents itself, such as
high bushes, trees, hedges, <S:c., which are often planted by the natives
purposely to arrest the progress of these invaders on their cultivated
lands. The sand is often held together and retarded by the embraces
of the long fibrous plants that grow up and are interwoven with its
layers. {See account of Talkad, Vol. II.)

TRAVERSE NOTES.
From the Bisale Ghat to Betmangala, by Captain Ncivbcld, F.R.S.

At the western foot of the pass, and along the base of the Subrahmanya
hill, hornblende rock containing garnets and dark-coloured mica occurs,
with veins of a very large-grained granite composed of white quartz, red and
white felspar, and silvery mica in very large plates : gneiss is seen on the
sleep face of the ghat, and hornblende rock, often coated with the red clay
and its own detritus. This formation continues to the summit of the ghat.
At Uchchangi the formation is generally gneiss. One of the hills of this
rock is crested by hornblende rock in large prismatic masses. Patches of
laterite occur covering these rocks in various localities, and a few bosses
of granite.

Near Kenchamman Hoskote I crossed the Hemavati, one of the principal
tributaries to the Kiiveri, in a canoe. It is about fifty paces broad, with
steep banks of clay, silt, and sand with mica. Near the village, mammillary
masses of gneiss project from the rod alluvial soil. This rock has here lost
much of its quartz, and is of that variety of thick-bedded gneis.s which in a
hand specimen might pass for granite ; the felspar is often of a reddish
tint. Laterite is found in this vicinity a little below the surface in a soft
sectile state. At Hassan gneiss and hornblende schist are still the preva-
lent rocks. Talc slate with layers of a fine greenish potstone interstratified
also occurs. The mica in the gneiss near Grama is sometimes replaced by
talc and passes into protogine.

After exploring the corundum pits of Gollarhalli, I passed through Chan-
rdypatna and Bellur to Hutridurga. Granite, protogine, gneiss, talcose and
hornblende schists, penetrated occasionally by trap dykes, constitute the
formation, overlaid here and there by patches of laterite or kunkcr on which
rests the surface soil. The latter is usually reddish and sandy. Some-
times these deposits are wanting, when the substratum consists of the
gravelly detritus of the subjacent rocks. At Belladaira a large bed of
ferruginous quartz occurs. The mass of granite on which stands the fortress
of Hutridurga is somewhat saddle-shaped, and runs nearly north and south ;
it terminates abruptly at either extremity. The northern extremity, crowned
by the citadel, is a sheer scarp of rock nearly 200 feet high ; its base is
rugged with large precipitated masses. The granite is similar to but less
porphyritic than that of Sdvandurga.

From Hutridurga I proceeded to Magadi, and thence ascended the
stupendous mass of Savandurga. The country for a considerable distance
is wild and woody, abounding with low hills and rocks, among which a
porphyritic granite prevails. A magnetic iron sand is found in the beds of
almost all the rivulets. I ascended the rock from the north-east side. The
major axis of the mass runs nearly east and west, and is crossed at right

D *

34 GEO LOG V

angles by a profound lissurc, wliicli cleaves the rock from summit to Ijase
into two distinct portions, both fortified, so as to be independent of the lower
fort It is entirely composed of a granite, which from small-grained maybe
seen passing into the large-grained and porphyritic varieties. Some of the
crystals of reddish felspar on the Karidurga were nearly two inches long,
imbedded in small-grained reddish granite.

The principal rock at Tdvarekere is gneiss, with fragments of iron-shot
quartz, green actinolitic quartz, felspar, fragments of hornblende schist,
gneiss, granite and basaltic greenstone scattered over the face of the
country, and occasionally patches of kunker. Near Bandvar I found
diallage rock, projecting in large, angular, scabrous blocks from the top and
sides of a low elevation. The great mass of the rock was chiefly white
felspar and quartz. The crystals of diallage were well defined, and passed
from dull olive-grey shades to the lively decided green of smaragdite. There
was more quartz in this diallage rock than is seen usually in the euphotides
of Europe ; and the external aspect of the blocks was almost trachytic in
its roughness. Not far hence, the gneiss with which the diallage is asso-
ciated, apparently as a large vein, loses its mica, which is replaced by minute
silver scales of graphite.

Gneiss is the prevalent rock about Bangalore, penetrated by dykes of
basaltic greenstone, and occasionally by granite, as is seen near the petta
and adjacent fields. The granite in these localities splits into the usual
cuboidal blocks or exfoliates into globular masses. It often contains horn-
blende in addition to mica. The gneiss strata, though waving and contorted,
have a general north and south direction, and often contain beds of whitish
quartz preserving a similar direction. The strata are nearly vertical.
Approaching Bangalore from the north-west, a bed of laterite is crossed,
forming a hill (Oyali dinne) on which stands a small pagoda. This bed
extends northerly in the direction of Nandidroog, where laterite also occurs.
In other situations, covering the gneiss and granite, a reddish loam is usually
found, varying from a few inches to twenty feet in depth, containing beds of
red clay, used in making tiles, bricks, tS:c. ; the result evidently of the
weathering of the granite, gneiss, and hornblende rocks. A similar formation
continues to Kolar. The gneiss is occasionally interstratified with beds of
hornblende schist. Granite, gneiss, and hornblende are the prevailing rocks
at Betmangala. About eight or nine miles east of this the Mysore frontier is
crossed into South Arcot. Kunker occurs on the banks of the rivulet near
the village, both on the surface and in a bed below the alluvial soil.
Efflorescences of muriate of soda are also seen in the vicinity.

From Sermo;apatam to Coorg, by the same.

From Seringapatam my route lay westward over a stony, kunkerous,
uneven, and rather sterile tract to the banks of the Lakshmantirtha. The
formation at Hunsur is a micaceous gneiss with veins of quartz, and beds of
the same mineral evidently interstratified with the layers of gneiss. These
beds, on weathering, leave the surface-soil covered with their angular and

TRAVERSE NOTES 35

rust-stained fragments. Glimmering hornblende rock, veined with milky
quartz, and a pale tlesh-coloured felspar alternate with the gneiss. The
outgoings of two or three dykes of basaltic greenstone are passed on the
roadside. The surface of the country from Seringapatam gradually rises as
it approaches the Ghats.

The country between Hunsur and the Ghats is a succession of rocky
risings and falls of the surface, covered for the most part with reddish alluvial
soil, over the face of which are scattered numberless angular fragments of
the surrounding rocks ; especially white and iron-stained quartz, and occa-
sionally kunker. Some of these alluvia have not travelled far, since we often
find the colour of the surface-soil a true index to the nature of the rock
beneath ; viz., dark red or coffee-coloured soil over hornblende rock and
trap ; light red to sandy soil over gneiss and granite ; light greenish-grey
over talc schist ; and white, or what is nearly white, over felspar and quartz
rocks. The quartz beds, being usually harder than their neighbours, are
written in white bas-relief characters over the face of the country. They
never weather — like the felspars, hornblendes and micaceous rocks — into
clay, but usually break up into fragments by imperceptible fissures, into
which water, impregnated with iron from the surrounding weathered rocks,
soon insinuates itself and stains the rock. At length the particles composing
the fragments themselves lose their cohesion and break up into an angular
gritty sand.

At Periyapatna basaltic greenstone is seen in the bed of a nullah crossing
the gneiss and hornblende rock, and veined with kunker. Large blocks of
fine red granite are seen in the ruined fort walls, brought evidently from no
great distance. The Ghat line west of Periyapatna presents a succession of
round-backed hills and smooth knobs, which continue to Virarajendrapet in
Coorg. Their surface is covered with dark vegetable mould, and shaded by
a fine forest, the roots of which strike into the red loam or clay on which
the vegetable mould rests. It produces excellent sandalwood.

At tJic Grrsoppa Falls, by the same.

The precipice over which the water falls affords a fine section cf gneiss
and its associated hypogenc schists, which dip easterly and northerly away
from the Falls at an angle of about 35°. The gneiss is composed of quartz
and felspar, with both mica and hornblende, and alternates with micaceous,
talcose, actinolitic, chloritic and hornblende schists, imbedding (especially
the latter) iron pyrites. These rocks are penetrated by veins of quartz and
felspar, and also of a fine-grained granite, composed of small grains of white
felspar, quartz and mica. The mass of hypogene rocks has evidently been
worn back several hundred feet by the erosion and abrasion of the cataract ;
the softer talcose and micaceous schists have suffered most. Rock basins
are frequent in the bed of the river, which is worn in the rock and rugged
with water-worn rocky masses.

36 GEOLOGY

From J alar pci to Shikarpur {in iSSi),' by R. Bruce Footc, F.C.S.

The results of comlsincd traverses show that the Mysore table-land is
traversed by great bands of granitoid and schistose gneiss, the southerly
extensions of some of the great bands recognized in the South Mahratta
country. When the whole of this region shall have been geologically
examined it is more than probable thnt all the bands known to the north of
the Tungabhadra will be traced far to the south. The traverse now to be
described shows that three great bands of schistose rock occur on the
Mysore plateau, and that two of these are actual continuations of two of the
great schistose bands in Dharwar District. For convenience of description
these bands will in the sequel be referred to as the " Dharwar-Shimoga "
and " Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli" bands. Both these bands have been
traced across the Tungabhadra, the latter in a chain of hills running down
southward to Chitaldroog and Chiknayakanhalli, while the former forms
another chain of hills passing Harihar and Shimoga and stretching further
south towards Hassan. These bands are of considerable width, the Dambal-
Chiknayakanhaili band, which is considerably the narrower of the two,
measuring i8 miles across where crossed by the line of section. In addition
to their geological interest, these two bands are of importance, as within
their limits occur several of the auriferous tracts which have of late attracted
so much attention. The Dharwar-Shimoga band is slightly auriferous at
its northern extremity, and streams rising on it near Bail Hongal and
Belavadi in the Sampgaon taluq of Belgaum District used formerly to be
washed for gold. The auriferous tract of Honnali lies within the same
schistose band a little to the north of Shimoga. The Dambal-Chiknaya-
kanhalli band contains the auriferous tract of the Kapputgode hills near
Dambal, to the north of the Tungabhadra ; while south of that river, on the
Mysore plateau, near the town of Chiknayakanhalli, are quartz reefs reported
to be auriferous, and which have attracted the notice of several speculators,
who have taken up land for mining purposes.

This schistose band is seen to stretch away far to the south-south-east in
a line of low hills, and is said to extend to Seringapatam, passing that place
and the town of Mysore to the eastward, and then trending round to the
south-west and continuing into south-eastern Wyndd, where it forms the
gold-field around Devala. This tallies with Mr. King's observations in the
Wyndd, a strong band of schistose gneiss having been shown by him to
occur at and around Devala, in which chloritic schists occupy an important
position. My informant as to this extension of the Dambal-Chiknayakan-
halli band was Mr. Lavelle, the pioneer gold-prospector of the present time,
who has traced the band from the Wyndd north to beyond Chitaldroog. I
have no doubt but that Mr. Lavelle's observations will be fully confirmed
when the whole of Mysore shall have been surveyed geologically. If the
parallelism of strike continues between the southward extension of the

Dharwar-Shimoga band and that of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli band,

' Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XV., Part 4.

To face page 36.

Kolar Goldfield Jalarpet

Junction

JS '^ 3-9

\ranitoid gneiss.

SHIKARPUR

Jotn-Bai-tliolonirw A Co .X din'

SKETCH SECTION FROM JALARPET TO KALVARANGAN BETTA NEAR SHIKARPUR

After R. Bruce Foote, F.G.S.

TRAVERSE NOTES 37

it is highly probable that tlie former will be found to constitute the auriferous
tract said to exist in the north Wyndd. The stratigraphical relations of
the several great bands, both granitoid and schistose, have yet to be worked
out, for in the northern part of the great gneissic area they were found too
obscure to be satisfactorily explained, and it remains to be seen whether
they represent two or more great systems. Their position and relation are
shown in the accompanying map and section.

If the line of section be followed from south-east to north-west it will be
seen to traverse a region of very typical granite-gneiss, extending from
Jalarpet Junction (Madras Railway), for a distance of some 30 miles. This
granite-gneiss tract forms the eastern edge of the great Mysore plateau,
which is here a wild, rugged, picturesque jungle region.

To the west the section crosses at its narrowest part the band of schistose
rocks in which lies, a little to the north of the railway, the now well-known
Kolar gold-field, at present a scene of energetic mining work on the lands
taken up by a number of large Mining Companies. This schistose band,
which will be most appropriately called the Kolar schistose band, forms an
important synclinal trough resting on the adjacent granite-gneiss rocks. It
is the only one of the great schistose bands whose relations to the associated
bands of granitoid rocks have (as yet) been distinctly traced. A fuller
account of this band with especial reference to its auriferous character will
be given further on. {Sec p. 43.)

On crossing this Kolar gold-field band, the section trends northerly as far
as the Bowringpet railway station, when it bends sharp round to the west
and continues in that direction as far as Bangalore. The very broad band
of granitoid gneiss, which extends between the Kolar gold-field schistose
band to the second great schistose band (the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli
band), forms in its eastern part an open undulating plain from which rise a
few important rocky hills, as the Tyakal, Balery and Vakkaleri hills north of
the railway. A number of small low table-topped hills are also to be seen
at small distances from the railway, as the Betarayan Betta, 3J- miles north-
east of Bowringpet railway station, the Patandur hill, 2 miles south-west by
south of the Whitefield railway station, and the low hillock crowned by a
mantapam about a mile north of the Maharajah's new palace at Bangalore.
These three hillocks are capped with beds of true sedimentary lateritc under-
laid by lithomargic clays. Of precisely the same aspect, both in form and
colour, are the Sivasamudra, Jinnagra and Chikka Tagali hills, which lie a few
miles north of the railway near the Whitefield and Malur stations. Identical
in form and appearance also is a much more extensive development of
table-topped plateaus, which are well seen from Betarayan hill, lying several
miles to the north and covering a considerable area. The lateritc at the
north-eastern end of the Patandur hill is distinctly conglomeratic and con-
tains a tolerable number of well- rolled quartz pebbles. The red colour of
the sides of these hills and plateaus, added to their sharp-cut tabular shape,
makes them conspicuous from considerable distances. No organic remains
were found in connection with these lateritc beds, and the number of sections
examined was not sufiicient to enable me to form any positive opinion as to

38 GEOLOGY

tlicir origin, and sUll less so as to their geological age, — but there can be no
doubt that they are the scattered outlying remains of a formerly far more
extensive formation.

To the north-west of Bangalore the undulation of the country increases
considerably, and the streams run in much deeper channels, affording more
numerous sections both of the surface soil and sub-rock. The surface of
the country is generally covered with a thick layer of red soil, which often
contains a large percentage of pisolitic iron (haematite) in segregational
form.

Thirty-two miles north-west of Bangalore the section cuts across the line
of hills' running north and south from the Kdvdri river, a little east of the
great Falls, up to Nidugal on the frontier of the Anantapur District. This
line of hills culminates close to the section in the fine peak of Sivaganga,
which attains the height of 4,559 feet above sea-level. Like many other
groups of granitoid-gneiss hills in the south, these hills are very rocky and
bare, and look as if they had never been covered with a real forest growth.

The section maintains its north-westerly course up to Tumkur, beyond
which town it turns suddenly westward and, after a course of 16 miles,
in which remarkably few outcrops of rock are seen, meets the second great
band of schistose rocks in the line of hills rising between Hagalvadi and
Chiknayakanhalli. This second great band of schists is the southerly
continuation of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli schist band as defined above.
The width of this extremely well-marked schistose band, which the section
crosses at right angles, is 18 miles. The character of the scenery is
markedly different ; smooth, grass-grown hills, generally well rounded, with
very few conspicuous exposures of rock, take the place of the bold rocky
bare hill masses seen east of Tumkur. The rocks consist of hornblendic,
chloritic and hjematitic schists cropping out at very high angles or in
vertical beds. Several large quartz reefs occur traversing these schists, and
one large one crosses the road some distance west of Doddiganhalli. Time
did not allow of my doing any prospecting here, but several prospectors
have stated that their researches were rewarded by the discovery of gold in
appreciable quantity both in the quartz and by washing the local soils. The
extension southward of this schist band may be traced by the eye for many
miles, owing to the very characteristic features of the low line of heights
which extends south in the direction of Seringapatam. That they extend
still further south and then trend south-westward into the south-eastern part
of the WynAd may be assumed as a fact on the strength of the information
kindly furnished by Air. Lavelle. The contact of the schists and granitoid
gneiss is unfortunately concealed by superficial deposits at the places where
the section cuts across their respective boundaries ; but the impression left
in my mind by the general appearance of the localities was that the schists
were overlying the granitoid beds, and the same relation appeared to me to
exist in the Dambal gold-field, as far as its v.^estern boundary is concerned.

' The expression line of hills is used in preference to the term chain, as there is
little continuity of high ground, the hills being mostly quite detached and separated
in some parts by considerable spaces.

TRAVERSE NOTES

The eastern boundary of the schist band was not traced near Dambal and
Gadag, but further north it is completely hidden by the tremendous spread
of cotton soil there prevailing. Passing on a little to the south of west from
the schistose band the section runs across a granitoid-gneiss region, and
after passing Tiptur crosses the watershed between the Kdveri and Krishna
hydrological basins, the section trending more and more north-westerly
along a rapid descent. It leaves the high, picturesque, granitoid hill masses
of Hirekal Gudda and Gardangiri to the right, and beyond Banavar skirts
the eastern boundary of the third or Dharwar-Shimoga schist band for
several miles, but does not actually leave the granitoid rocks till it has
passed Kadur by some six miles. The rocks of this granitoid band, which
may for convenience be called the Mulgund- Kadur band, offer no
speciality calling for remark. Like the hilly region running east of Tum-
kur, the hills may preferably be described as forming a line rather than a
chain, for they occur in numerous detached masses.

As just mentioned, the section gets on to the third schistose band six
miles to the north-west of Kadur, and here the schists are mostly chloritic
of pale colour with intercalated more highly siliceous bands, ranging from
chloritic gneiss to quartzite. To the south of the road the quartzites
increase much in development and rise into a high ridge with a great cliffy
scarp on the eastern face of Coancancul peak. Further west, to the south
of the high road, rises a considerable hill of very rugged nature, which,
when seen from a distance, presents great resemblance to a typical granitoid-
gneiss hill. On closer approach the rock is seen to have a very coarsely
mottled structure, which turns out to be due to the presence of enormous
numbers of well-rounded pebbles of a granite or compact granite gneiss.
The size of the included stones ranges in the part I examined from small
pebbles to small boulders, all enclosed in a greenish-grey foliated chloritic
matrix. The thickness of the conglomerate here exposed must be very
great, as proved by the size of the hill which goes by the name of the Kal
Droog. To the north, the beds are soon lost sight of under the local
alluvium of the Kushi river, and they are not seen to reappear conspicuously
in the hilly country on the north side of the valley. To the west of the great
conglomerate beds follow more schistose beds, and, as seen on the hill slopes
south of the road, a great series of quartzites. Near Tarikere, and to the
north-west of it, very few exposures of rock are met with as far as Benkipur,
but the few that do show through the thick woods which here cover every-
thing, prove the country to be formed of schistose members of the Gneissic
Series. About four miles north-west of Tarikere the road crosses a very small
outcrop of typical hiumatite schist, striking in a northerly direction. A good
deal of rock shows in the bed of the Bhadra river at and above Benkipur,
but the forms seen are not very characteristic, and at the time of my passing
everything was obscured by a thick layer of slimy mud left by a high fresh
in the river. This part of the section would be very unsatisfactory were it
not that the schistose character of the beds forming the line of hills extend-
ing northward parallel with the valley of the Bhadra shows quite clearly the
extension of the rocks seen south-east and east of Tarikere. Between Ben-

40 GEOLOGY

kipur and Shimoga very little rock of any sort is seen, but about half-way
across the Doab, between the Tunga and Bhadra rivers, a band of fine-
grained grey granite gneiss is crossed, while to the east and south of
Shimoga town are several conspicuous large masses of a chloritic variety of
granite gneiss. The exact relation of these granitoid outcrops to the great
schist series further east I had not the opportunity of determining, and am
not quite certain whether they represent the eastern border of another great
granitoid band, or whether they are part only of an unimportant local band
of granitoid rock. I am inclined to think the latter will be found the real
condition of things when the country comes to be fully surveyed. The short
space of time at my command prevented my making a detour to settle this
point. Here, too, the extent and thickness of the jungle growth greatly hide
the general surface of the country along the road, while the rainy or misty
character of the weather tended much to obscure the appearance of hills at
but very moderate distances. Though the exigencies of dak travelling com-
pelled me to make the detour to Shimoga instead of following the line of
schistose beds northward from Benkipur, I am perfectly satisfied as to the
fact of these schists continuing northward, and joining those which cross the
united rivers forming the Tungabhadra, a few miles below the junction of
the Tunga and Bhadra. The country here is much freer from jungle, and
many ridges of rock, consisting of quartzites and chlorite schists with rocks
of intermediate character, can be traced for miles. This part of the section
extends from the bank of the river for rather more than 20 miles, — from
the travellers' bungalow at Holalur north-westward to the Ta\ankal-betta
Trigonometrical Station, six miles east-by-south of Shikarpur. Along the
12 miles of road between Shimoga and Holalur but little is seen of the
older rocks, the road lying close to the left bank of the Tunga and Tunga-
bhadra, and passing almost entirely over the river alluvium which at and to
the north-east of the Holalur bungalow forms a coarse bed of rounded
shingles, rising a considerable height above the present high flood level of
the united rivers.

The most striking features, both orographically and geologically, of this part
of the Mysore country are the quartzite outcrops, which are numerous, but
of which only the principal ones require notice. Of these the best marked,
longest and highest culminates in the Kalva-Ranganbetta, a fine hill rising
some 1,200 feet above the plain, and 3,388 feet above sea-level, 16 miles
to the north of Shimoga. The out-crop of the great quartzite beds forming
this ridge has a distinct dip of some 6o°-65° (on the average) to the north-
east. The quartzites are underlaid by a schistose (chloritic) series, the south-
western extension of which was not ascertained. Overlying the quartzites,
which are generally flaggy in character (but which here and there become so
highly charged with scales of pale green chlorite as almost to lose their
quartzitic character, and pass into chloritic gneiss), are local beds of true
conglomerate, — the first I have met with or heard of in the gneissic rock of
the peninsula. The conglomerate has evidently imdergone considerable
metamorphosis, but its real character and truly clastic origin cannot be
doubted when carefully examined. Many of the included pebbles appear to

HONNALI GOLD-FIELD 41

have been fractured by the great pressure undergone, but their truly rounded
character is quite distinct and unmistakable. The beds seen by me and
traced for several hundred yards, are exposed a little way up the slope of
Kalva-Ranganbctta peak, and a little to the north-west of a small, but rather
conspicuous, pagoda, which stands in a little recess. The included pebbles
in the conglomerate consist chiefly of quartz, a few of gneiss, and some of
what appeared an older quartzite. A second intended visit and closer
examination of this very interesting bed was prevented, much to my sorrow,
by bad weather. The second in importance of the quartzite ridges has its
eastern extremity in the bed and left bank of the first west-to-east reach of
the Tungabhadra below the Kudali Sangam, or junction. West of the new
high road from Shimoga to Honnali the quartzite beds rise into the Phillur
Gudda (hill), and beyond that rise again into a considerable hill some 400
to 500 feet high, and may be followed easily for several miles to the north-west.
The quartzitic character is then in great measure or entirely lost by the rock
becoming highly chloritic, and the beds can no longer be safely distinguished
from the surrounding mass of chloritic schist. In the north-westerly part
of this Phillur Gudda ridge several pebbly beds were observed intercalated
between the more or less chloritic quartzite. Tiicy differed from the Kalva-
Ranganbetta beds in being less coarse and having a more chloritic matiix,
but had undergone about an equal amount of metamorphosis. A consider-
able number of quartzite ridges are intercalated between Phillur Gudda
ridge, and the southern end of the Kalva-Ranganbetta ridge, which
terminates in the Nelli Gudda Trigonometrical Station hill, seven miles west-
north-west of the Kudali Sangam. To these ridges may be ascribed the
existence of the group of hills they occur in, as but for their greater durability
and resisting power to weather action, they would certainly have been worn
down to the low level of the purely chloritic part of the schistose band, both
to the north-west and south-east. Unless there has been an inversion of
the strata on a rather large scale, or faults exist which were not obvious
during tlie rapid survey, the Kalva-Ranganbetta quartzites underlie all the
beds to the northward of it. Another series of overlying quartzites is shown
to the north-north-west of Kalva-Ranganbetta ; but the relation between it
and the upper beds just described could not be determined without a much
more close examination of the district, more especially as the space between
the two sets of outcrops is very largely and closely covered by spreads of
regur. The chloritic schists offer no specially interesting features, and
they are not, as a rule, well seen, e.xcept on the slopes of the hills, the
general face of the country being much obscured by red or l^lack soil, which,
both of them, occur in great thickness.

Iloniiali Gold-Jield. — One remaining point of great interest is the large
number of important quartz veins, or reefs, which traverse the belt of
chloritic rocks overlying the Kalva-Ranganbetta quartzites. They are the
source of the gold occurring in the thick red soil which covers the whole
face of the low-lying country, and which has been washed for gold, certainly
for several generations past, by several families of Jalgars residing at
Palavanhalli. The gold is so generally distributed through the red soil that

42 GEOLOGY

it is clear that many of the reefs must be auriferous, and the quantity found
is sufficient to justify strong hopes that a profitable mining industry may be
developed by working the richer reefs. Several of the series of reefs close
to Devi Kop, a little village 2>\ miles east-south-east of the Kalva-Rangan-
betta, had been carefully and deeply prospected at the time of my visit by
Mr. Henry Prideaux, M.E., and in one case certainly with very marked
success. The quartz in this case was found very rich in gold, which was
visible in grains and scales scattered pretty freely through the mass. The
quartz in many parts had a quasi-brecciated structure with films and plates
of blue-green chlorite occurring along cracks in the mass. Near the surface
the chlorite, with which were associated small inclusions of pyrites, had
often weathered into a rusty-brown mass. The reef which at the time of
my visit was regarded as the most promising, and to which the name of
Turnbull's reef had been given, is one of a series of three that can be traced
with some breaks for a distance of six miles nearly parallel with the great
quartzite ridge of the Kalva-Ranganbetta, the true strike of the reef being
from N. 40° W. to S. 40° E. Another important set of three reefs having
the same strike occurs about half a mile north of the first series, but they
are not visible for such a long distance, their north-western course being
covered by the thick spread of cotton soil. To the south-east they, or at
least one of them, can be traced across theNyamti nullah, which divides the
gold-field in two. Out-crops of vein-quartz in a line with a south-easterly
extension of this set of reefs are to be seen north and east of Palavanhalli.
Numerous other quartz reefs having the same strike occur in the south-
eastern half of the gold-field, £'.^., a set of four, rather more than a mile north-
east of Palavanhalli, and several others to the north of Dasarhalli and south
of Kuntra. A few reefs were also noticed whose strike was different from
those above referred to. They represent two other systems of fissures, the
one running N. 5° E. to S. S"" W. ; the other, W. 5° N. to E. 5° S. Several
of both these series are of very promising appearance, the " back of the
lode " bearing considerable resemblance to that of Turnbull's reef. The
greater number of the reefs in the Honnali gold-field are well-marked
examples of these fissure veins.

During my stay at Devi Kop, I watched the results of many washings
both of crushed quartz and of the red soil taken from many localities and
various levels. The great majority were highly satisfactory. The Jalgars,
or local gold-washers, seeni to be a fairly prosperous set of men, so their
earnings must be fairly remunerative. They confine their attention,
as far as I could ascertain, pretty generally to the high-lying red soil banks,
between Devi Kop and the Nyamti nullah. The head Jalgar, a very
intelligent old man and dexterous gold-washer, informed me that the best
day's work he had ever done was the finding of a small pocket in the gneiss
which contained about Rs. 80 of gold in small grains and scales. I
gathered from him that he had not found anything beyond the size of a
''pepite." The position of these auriferous banks near Devi Kop would
admit of hydraulic mining over a considerable area by a system of dams and
channels to bring water from the Nyamti nullah, but the question of the

KOLAR GOLD-FIELD 43

profitableness of such an undertaking could only be decided by an expert
after careful examination and more numerous trials by washing.

Kolar Gold-Jield. — The schistose band, which bears within its limits the
Kolar gold-field, forms an elongated synclinal fold which in parts rises
somewhat over the general level of the surrounding granitoid country. The
dip of the rocks forming the basement of the schistose band, and therefore
tlic boundaries of the synclinal fold, is easily traced on both sides ; not so,
however, is the dip of the uppermost members of the group, for all the beds
exposed in the centre of the band have been much altered by great pressure,
which has superinduced an irregular slaty cleavage to a great extent. This,
combined with extensive minute jointing, has so greatly altered the original
texture of the rocks that they have assumed to a very great extent a highly
trappoid appearance. The lines of bedding are completely obliterated, and
it was impossible to decide from the sections I saw whether the central axis
of the synclinal represents one great acute fold, or a series of minor ones in
small Vandykes. The great petrological similarity of the strata forming the
upper (central) part of the synclinal makes the decipherment of this
difficulty all the greater. The sections I saw in the several shafts being
sunk at tlie time of my visit threw no light on the subject ; it is possible,
however, that a closer study of these sections would go far to enable this
point to be decided.

The succession of formations seen from west to east, after leaving
General Beresford's bungalow at Ajipalli on the road from Bowringpet rail-
way station to the gold-field, is micaceous gneiss (resting on the granitoid
gneiss), chloritic gneiss, micaceous schist, ha^matitic quartzite, and
chloritic schist, on which rests a great thickness of hornblendic schists,
which, as just mentioned, are highly altered, and have their planes
of bedding almost entirely effaced by the pressure and crumpling they have
undergone. The eastern side of the fold shows near the village of Urigam
well-bedded schists — dipping west from 50° to 60" and resting finally on the
granitoid rocks. The western side of the gold-field is very clearly demar-
cated by a well-marked ridge of hitmatitic quartzite which culminates in
the Walagamada Trigonometrical Station hill, from the top of which the
majority of the mines can be seen. The bedding is often vertical and
highly contorted in places. The texture varies from highly jaspideous
quartzite to a schisty sandstone. The hard jaspideous variety generally
shows distinct laminic of brown haematite, alternating with purely siliceous
laminit, generally of white or whitish-drab colour. It is only here and there,
and over very trifling areas, that the ferruginous element ever assumes
the character of red haematite. The beauty of the " Vandykes " and
complicated crumpling and brecciations of this rock in the Walagamada
Konda is very remarkable. The thickness of the hicmatitic band is very
considerable, and it forms the most striking feature of the western side of
the gold-field. On the eastern side of the gold-field the haematite quartzite
is much less well developed and exposed, excepting in the south-eastern
part of the gold-field where it occurs in thick beds forming the main mass of
the Yerra Konda Trignomctrical Station hill. Here the dip is about 60°

44 GEOLOGY

westerly, and affords one of llie clearest proofs of the synclinal character of the
schist band. To the southward the hicmatitic beds appear to coalesce, the
synclinal being pinched together, but I had no opportunity of following up
the eastern boundary of the schistose band. The western boundary is a
very conspicuous feature, a bold rocky ridge running up into the lofty
Malapan Betta peak, the highest summit in this part of the country.
South of Malapan IJetta the hiematitic beds appear to lose their importance
and no longer form the most striking feature of the schistose band, and
micaceous and chloritic beds abound. Owing to the great extent of jungle
and the rugged character of the country, their general relations were not to
be made out completely in the short time at my disposal. The beds run
south into the Salem District, and probably occupy the valley lying east and
north-east of Krishnagiri and, not improbably, extend on towards and past
Darampuri. A subsidiary ridge of lower elevation, which branches off from
the western side of Malapan Betta westward and then trends south-west
and finally south-south-west, also consists of schistose beds of similar
character, amongst which a hi'ematitic quartzite is the most conspicuous.
The relation of these latter beds to the Kolar gold-field synclinal fold is
quite problematical, but it is very probable that several important faults
have caused great dislocation of the strata first along the boundaries of
the main synclinal fold. The stratigraphy of the several spurs radiating
from Malapan Konda is very complicated and interesting and well worthy
of careful consideration.

The auriferous quartz reefs which have attracted so much attention lie in
the broader part of the synclinal fold north of the railway. None of any
importance were seen by me in the tract south of Malapan Betta. The
intermediate tract I had no opportunity of examining closely, but I did not
hear of the existence there of any of interest or importance. The reefs
make very little show on the surface as a rule ; in many cases, indeed, the
whole back of the reef, or lodes, has been removed during the mining opera-
tions of the old native miners, whose workings were on a rather large scale
considering the means they had at command. Much also of the surface is
masked by scrub jungle, or by a thick coating of soil, often a local black
humus. The reefs are so very inconspicuous that I have not attempted to
show them on the map. Their run is north and south with a few degrees
variation either east or west. The hade of the reefs is westerly in most
cases, as far as they have been tested by the shafts sunk. The angle they
make with the horizon is a very high one, on the average not less than from
85° to 87°. Much has been said about the reefs in the Kolar not being true
fissure veins, but I was unable to find any good reason for promulgating this
view, and several iiiining engineers of high standing and great experience,
as Messrs. Bell Davies, Raynor St. Stephen, and other practical miners well
acquainted with the locality, have no hesitation about calling them '' fissure
veins " or " lodes." The quartz composing the reefs is a bluish or greyish-
black diaphanous or semi-diaphanous rock, and remarkably free from
sulphides (pyrites, galena, &c.) of any kind. The gold found is very pure
and of good colour. Several washings of crushed vein stuff were made in

TRAVERSE NOTES 45

my presence at the Utigam and Kolar mines with really satisfactory results,
the quantity of gold obtained being very appreciable. The samples operated
on were not picked ones.

The principal new mines now in progress formaline stretching from south
to north on the eastern side of an imaginary axis drawn along the centre of
the synclinal fold, and this line coincides with that followed by the '*' old
men," many of whose abandoned workings are being extended to greater
depth than they had the power of attaining to without steam-pumping
machinery.

Numerous large dykes of dioritic trap are met with traversing the gneissic
rocks of this region. One set of them runs north and south with a variation
of about 5° east or west. The other runs nearly east and west. The
presence of these dykes will offer formidable obstacles to the mining works
in some places, and it will probably be found that the intrusion of these great
igneous masses has added considerably to the metamorphism of the schistose
beds along the lines they traverse. As already mentioned, the schists are most
highly altered along the central axis of the synclinal fold, and the largest of
the north and south dykes shows a very little to the east of the synclinal axis.

The Kolar schistose band is the only one as to the exact stratigraphical
relation of which to the granitoid gneiss any positively conclusive evidence
had been obtained ; but there is reason to believe that at least three of the
schistose bands to the westward of it, viz., those of Sundur, near Bellary, of
Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli, and of Dharwar-Shimoga, are similarly super-
imposed on the granitoid rocks. Whether the superposition is a conform-
able or an unconformable one, is a point that has yet to be determined by
further investigation ; at the Kolar gold-field, however, the relation between
the schistose synclinal and the underlying granite gneiss appears to be one
of distinct conformity. The Hospet end of the Sundur schist band certainly
presents every appearance of being the acute extremity of a synclinal basin.
The south-eastern extension of this band is as yet unknown, but there is
good reason to expect a considerable extension of it to the south-eastward of
Bellary.

The remarkable length of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli and Dharwar-
.Shimoga bands precludes the idea that they can be each a simple synclinal
fold, rather may they be expected to prove a succession of synclinal and
anticlinal in dchelon, with their contact boundaries not unfrequently coin-
ciding with faults. The geographical position of these great bands confirms
and amplifies the evidences to the fact which 1 specially pointed out in my
Memoir' on the East Coast from latitude 15° N. northward to Masulipatam,
that the Peninsula of India had been greatly affected by tremendous lateral
forces acting mainly from east to west and thrusting up the gneissic rocks
into huge folds. These great foldings have undergone extensive denudation,
and the softer schistose beds especially have been entirely removed from
large tracts of country which they must have formerly covered, if any of the
bands now remaining really represent (as they in all probability do) portions
of once continuous formations.

' Memoirs, " Geological Survey of India," \'ul. X\T.

46 GEOLOGY

The schistose hands having only been mapped at different points, their
general width, as shown on the annexed sketch map, is only hypothetical,
and it is very possible that at intermediate points they may either spread out
•or narrow considerably. Their relation to the schistose gneissics of the
Carnatic Proper has yet to be made clear, and it is not at all unlikely that a
third subdivision will have to be recognized in the crystalline rocks of South
India — a subdivision which will include the rocks of a character intermediate
between the typically schistose rocks and the typically granitoid rocks of
Mysore and the South Mahratta country, namely, the massive gneissics of
the Carnatic, in which the ferruginous beds are magnetic, not ha^matitic.

From Report on Auriferous Tracts in Mysore [in 1887), f>y the same.

These tracts lie widely scattered, but may be conveniently grouped (for
the purpose of description) in three groups corresponding to the three
principal divisions of the great Auriferous rock series' which traverses
Mysore in great bands in a generally north-north-westerly direction, and
forms such important features in the geological structure of the table-land.
These three groups may be appropriately termed the Central, the West-
Central, and the IVestern groups ; the Eastern group being formed by the
Kolar gold-field {see above, p. 43). The central group belongs to the
Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli band of my former paper : and the western group
to the Dharwar-Shimoga band of the same. The west-central group
includes a number of small outlying strips of schistose rocks, some, if not
all, of which are of the same geological age as the great schist bands lying
to the east and west.

{Xanjangi'id to Jagali'ir.)

Central Group. — The rocks seen at Holgere, 7 miles south-west of Nan-
jangiid, are very gneissic in their general aspect, but they are very badly
seen on the top of the ridge where the old workings are situated, and it is
possible the hornblendic beds there occurring may belong to a very narrow
strip of the auriferous schists (Dharwars), an outlier of them in fact, and
probably faulted in along the strike of the underlying gneissic rocks. The

1 Rocks of the same geological age as the auriferous rocks of Mysore occur largely
in other parts of South India, both north, east, and south-west of Mysore, and to
classify such a widely-developed system, it was necessary to have a collective name
for them. The name of Dhaiivar rocks was therefore given by me to these rocks,
on the usual principles of geological nomenclature, namely, for their having been
first recognized as a separate system after the study of their representatives in the
Collect orate of Dharwar (Bombay Presidency), where they occur ver)- largely and
typically, and underlie the important town of Dharwar. The use of this name in this
report has, however, been deprecated on the plea that it might lead to confusion in
the minds of readers unfamiliar with South Indian geography. I have therefore
avoided using it wherever this was possible, but geologists who may peruse my report
will understand that the alternative terms which I have used, "Auriferous" or
" Schistose rock series," really mean formations of the Dharwar age.

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 47

quartz reefs licre seen are small and coincide in direction with the nortli-to-
soiith strike of the country rock, or deviate a httle (3°-5") to the east-of-
north. The quartz exposed in the principal old working is highly ferrugin-
ous, being full of scales and films of impure haematite (specular iron), but
contains no pyrites or other sulphides. North of the old working the reef
is cut off by r. broad band of a highly decomposed granite rock containing
much pink felspar. The country between Holgere and Mysore is composed
of micaceous gneiss with a few bands of hornblendic schist and potstone,
with no quartz reefs of any importance, and the small show of gold obtained
by Mr. Lavelle from washings in the Kadkole nullahs must have come from
veins too small in size to be worth mining. I could not trace any connec-
tion between the Holgere auriferous rocks and the great Chiknayakanhalli
band, the former must therefore be considered as a mere small outlier, if
they are really of Dharwar age. The line of high ground commencing on
the north bank of the Kdveri river near Shettihalli consists mainly of
quartzites and hornblendic schists belonging to the Dharwar series and
forming a narrow band (from 2 to 3 miles in width), which extends north-
ward, widening very gradually as it is followed up. A number of small
quartz veins occurs running in the direction of the strike of the beds, here
nearly due north and south. The quartz is very white and "hungry-look-
ing," and very few minerals are to be found in it. Those noted were blackish-
greenish mica and a white decomposing felspar, the former not infrequently
in distinct six-sided prisms. These included minerals show but very rarely
and at wide intervals, but here and there become numerous and convert the
vein into a true granite, a rock in which gold very rarely occurs in any
quantity. Fragments of good-looking blue quartz were noticed scattered
about ihe surface to the south-west of Siddapur village, but on tracing them
up to their true source they were found to be derived from typical granite
veins. As far as surface indications go, this tract appears a very unpromis-
ing one, and quite undeserving of consideration when so many really pro-
mising tracts remain as yet unprospected. The course of the extension of
the Chiknayakanhalli schist band south of the Kdvcri is yet undetermined,
but as seen from the top of the Karigatta Trigonometrical Station, it appears
to go southward, passing east of the granitoid mass of Chamundi hill ;
unfortunately want of time prevented my determining this point, which is one
of considerable interest geologically. Hoimabctta is a hill lying a mile and
a half south by west of Ndgamangala, and forming the central part of an
outlier of the auriferous series on the western side of the Chiknayakanhalli
band. The mass of the hill consists of hornblendic schist overlaid by
chloritic schists. A washing made in the small nullah draining the north-
east face of the hill just within the eastern boundary of the auriferous rocks
gave a good show of gold of medium size and excellent colour. I noted one
large bluish quartz reef on the high north spur of the hill which struck me
as worthy of being tested in depth. At present merely the back of the lode
is exposed, and but to a very small depth, so it is impossible to test the
real quality of the stone. This reef runs through the chloritic schists.
Giri^i:;uiida forms the northern extremity of the outlier, and shows chloritic

48 GEOLOGY

and lioinljlcndic schists, extensions of the Ilonnabetta beds. The rid^e of
the Giiigudda is traversed by a pale green dioritic (?) trap. The north end
of the outher dies away rapidly northward of Girigudda, and disappears
northward of the nullah. A careful washing in the small stream draining
the east side of Girigudda, at a spot about a quarter of a mile eastward of
the hill, gave a fair show of medium fine gold. The presence of trap rock
among the schists is a favourable indication for the presence of gold. The
whole outlier, which extends 7 miles from Girigudda southward to Maradipur,
with a width of a little more th m a mile across Honnabetta hill, is deserving
of very close examination, and the reefs of being prospected to some depth.
About 2 miles north of Girigudda and within the gneissic area lies Hnlmnn-
dibcfta, a low hill on the ridge of which occur several fine reefs which are
being tested in depth by the Mysore Concessions Gold Company. The
question— Are the quartz reefs occurring in the gneissic rock profitably
auriferous as well as those occurring in the Dharwar series ? (to which all the
important gold-yielding reefs at present known unquestionably belong) —
will doubtless ere long receive a definite answer from the results of these
deep prospectings, and I sincerely trust it will be a very favourable one, as,
if so, many other reefs of great size and beauty running through the gneissic
series may probably also prove to be gold-yielding. Much of the quartz
turned out at Hulmandibetta is good-looking, bluish in colour, contains
some pyrites, and encourages the hope that it will prove auriferous at
depths not reached by superficial weather action. Haliibetta, a large hill
some three miles north of Nagamangala, has been reported auriferous, but the
statement is highly improbable, the whole mass of the hill except the southern-
most extremity consisting of granitic gneiss. A band of schistose rock extends
from the southern spurs southward for a couple of miles till hidden by the
alluvium of the Ndgamangala stream. Large reefs of quartz were noted on
either side of Haltibetta ; they are very unpromising, the quartz being very
white and free from included minerals. In miners' parlance, they are very
hungry-looking. At Kalijiganhalli the old native workings occupy a con-
siderable area on which old dumps stood thickly, showing that a large
amount of washing had been done. A very good show of gold was obtained
by washing the dumps, but no reefs, large enough to be worth mining, could
be found. Further south, however, fine reefs are to be seen pretty
numerously, running north and south in the strike of the chloritic schists.'
A narrow strip of very typical auriferous schists crosses the road a mile and
a half west of the bridge over the Shimsha on the Hassan-Bangalore road,
and may be seen stretching away north and south to a considerable distance,
a strongly-marked bed of jaspery haematite quartzite forming a distinct ridge.
This strip of schists is faulted against the gneiss along its eastern boundary
about half a mile to the east. The noithern extension of the schists crosses
the Shimsha and is lost sight of in the broken ground east of the river, but the
southern extension can be traced to the high ground north of Ankanhalli.

1 The strike of the schistose beds here lends considerably eastward, and they
appear to extend towards Kunigal, instead of running nearly due south down to
Nagamangala, as I had formerly assumed on imperfect information.

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 49

South of Ankanhalli the highly characteristic ha;matite band reappears and
forms a marked feature, continuing for several miles till almost abreast of
the Narasimhaswami pagoda hill. The western boundary of this band of
Dharvvars is in all probability also a faulted one, several hundred feet in
thickness of chloritic and hornblendic schists lying between the haematite
bed and the gneiss near Nalkundi, while to the north, where the haematite
bed crosses the Bangalore road {\h miles west of the Yediyur bridge), it
shows close up to the gneiss. The schistose rocks appear to spread out over
a considerable area eastward of the Narasimhaswami hills, and ma)' very
likely reach as far as the line of granite-gneiss hills east of the Shimsha. A
line of considerable hills, showing all the characteristics of the auriferous
series, is seen to stretch southward for many miles some little distance west
of Kunigal. These rocks, if really belonging to the auriferous series, repre-
sent the beds deflected eastward or south-eastward near Kadaba, and as such
are worth examination. The old workings on Honnebagi hill, near Chik-
nayakanhalli, lie a few yards down the eastern slope and just within the
boundary of the auriferous schist area, the crest of the ridge being formed
by gneiss on which rests the basement bed of the schist series, which is here
a quartzite. The old workings, which consist only of small shallow pits sur-
rounded by dumps, extend southward for nearly a mile along the watershed,
and at the south end of the area they occupy have followed some east and
west reefs across the boundary into the gneissic area. The reefs are white
and " hungry-looking," and the old miners seem to have found no great
encouragement, for they have made no extensive excavations. The principal
reef on Honnebagi hill runs N. i5°-20° W., but trends southward ; at the
south end of the ridge it is about 5 feet thick. Overlying the basement
quartzite on Honnebagi hill comes a series of schists, horneblendic, chloritic
and micaceous, which occupy the space up to the foot of the hills, where they
are overlaid by argillites and a great thickness of ha:niatitic schists, locally
very rich in iron, and giving rise to the formation of sub-aerial breccias
which assume a lateritic appearance from the action of percolating rain-
water. Quartz reefs of rather more promising appearance than those on
Honnebagi hill occur here and there in the schists, and are probably the
source of the gold obtained from the streams draining this tract. A set of
washings made l<y me near the north-east end of Honnebagi hill in the main
nullah and its branches gave very fair shows of medium fine gold of ex-
cellent colour. Tests by crushing and washing quartz from two of the trial
pits recently sunk on Honnebagi hill gave no show, but this is not conclusive,
the quartz being from too small a depth and the quantity of quartz to be
treated by hand-crushing being necessarily insufficient for a reliable test.
The reefs at Kadckalgiidda, z\ miles N.N.E. of Chiknayakanhalli, like
those at Honnebagi, all lie within the schistose area though very near the
boundary, and like them run in the strike of the country rock, which is
here very nearly north-west-by-north. The quartz is white in colour, but a
good deal iron-shot along the lines of fracture. I could find no enclosed
minerals except a little chlorite and obtained no show from crushings, but a
careful washing made in the stream draining the north-west end of Kadc-

50 GEOLOGY

kal<^nulda gave a fair show of rather fine c(okl. On the slope of the liill above
the great reef just mentioned arc chlorite schists and an associated flow of
dioritic trap, both favourable to the presence of gold, and other reefs of
better quality may very likely be hidden under the talus which covers the
slope very generally. A washing of material collected in the nullah draining
the north-east side of Kadekalgudda gave no results. A washing of the
alluvial deposit on the banks of the nullah draining the eastern side of the
main ridge east of Chiknayakanhalli, close to the Dodrampur temple, gave
but a poor show of gold ; this, however, is not surprising, as the east flank of
the range shows but very few quartz reefs of any size ; the country is almost
entirely formed of grey crystalline limestones with very numerous siliceous
partings in the form of quartzite, which here and there attain to the magni-
tude of distinct beds. The limestones are much contorted, so their true
thickness will be hard to ascertain by measurement, but they are certainly
several hundred feet in thickness, and cover a large area stretching away to
the south-east. A small show of similar limestones shows on the western
side of the range just opposite the mouth of the gorge east of Ballenhalli
which cuts so deeply into the hills. The range here unquestionably forms
a synclinal fold, the axis of which corresponds with the crest of the range.
To the north the limestones are replaced by schists and argillites as above
mentioned, while to the south the tract at foot of the range is so thickly
covered with deep red soil derived from decomposition of the hsematitic
schists on the summit of the ridge that the low-lying schists are completely
obscured, for the red soil, which contains local conglomerate and breccia
beds, is not cut through by the streams now flowing westward from the hills.
A washing which I had made in the nullah south of Sondenhalli gave a
small show of gold.

A great gap intervenes between the Chiknayakanhalli gold-field and the
next metalliferous locality in the central group — Belligudda copper mine, close
to Chitaldroog. The intervening area is geologically a terra incognita, in
which a geological survey would assuredly find mineral tracts of impor-
tance. Bclligitdda is a fine hill lying some 5 miles south-east of Chitaldroog,
on the western flank of which are four large open pits and several small
shafts and short galleries sunk in clay schist in order to extract copper ore,
which occurred there in the form of malachite or green carbonate. From
the nature of the workings the ore appears to have occurred in pockets, not
in a regular lode, and the pockets to have been worked out bodily, nothing
remaining but thin films of a very poor earthy form of the carbonate
deposited in the joints and cracks of the schists. A fev.- fragments of
quartz with small particles of rich malachite were picked out of the attle
tipped down the very steep side of the hill, but no trace of any other ore or
metal could be discovered after verj' careful search. Koteinaradi 2iX\d Ciidda
RangavvanhalH are two auriferous localities at the south-east and north-
east extremities, respectively, of a tract of schistose rocks lying between 3
and 4 miles north of Chitaldroog. The country rock is varied, consisting
of dark chloritic schists overlaid by beds of quartzite, and these again by
various schists. Quartz reefs are rare, or else covered up by the extensive

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 51

talus, but the washings made were very successful and yielded gold in
relatively large quantity and excellent quality. Taking all things into con-
sideration, this tract is one of the most promising I have seen. The
quantity of gold obtained was so good that the country north-west and
north of the little Kotemaradi, and again to the north-east of Guddarangav-
vanhalli deserves to be most closely tested by costeaning and deep
prospecting. The nature of the country rock, chlorite-schist with associated
diorites, is all that can be desired, and there are no ostensible difficulties of
a nature likely to hinder the opening up of mines, should rich reefs be dis-
covered on further prospecting. About 14 miles north of Guddarangavvan-
halli lies the small hill known as Hotwamaradi, to the west and south-west
of which are several fine reefs and numerous small veins of quartz cropping
up through the soil which hides the country rock. The hill consists of a
drab or yellowish gritty schist, passing into argillite in parts. Immediately
east of the hill is an outcrop of gneiss, the eastern extension of which is
masked by a great spread of cotton soil. The dip of the schists is easterly,
but at a very high angle, and the two rock series are separated by a fault
boundary. A careful washing in the little gully which drains the south and
west sides of the hill gave a very fine show of coarse gold, which can only
have come from a very little distance and is doubtless derived from one or
more of the reefs above referred to. The gully which flows round the
eastern side of the hill cuts some 12 to 15 feet into the decomposing gneiss,
and has exposed several small reefs of very blue quartz. This spot had
evidently been a favourite place of resort of the Jalagars in olden times, for
two very large dumps are to be seen on the western bank of the gully.
A washing of material collected in the bottom and banks of tiie gully gave
a very fair show of fine gold ; this may, however, have come from reefs lying
within the schist area, as the gully rises within it on the north side of the
hill. With regard to this gold-yielding locality, I quite agree with Mr.
Lavelle that it is one of very great promise. Honnamaradi is the most
northerly auriferous locality at present known in the Chiknayakanhalli band,
which continues its north-north-westerly course for a few miles beyond
Jagalur, and then crosses the frontier into the Bcllary District. The
Chiknayakanhalli schist band sends off a north-westerly branch some 6 or
7 miles south-west of Chitaldroog. This branch also continues its course
into the Bellary country, and passes close east of the well-known
Uchchangi-droog, a very conspicuous granite-gneiss hill crowned by a large
fort. .Several groups of hills rise out of this band, one of them occurring to
the north of the high road leading from Chitaldroog to Davangere. At the
north end of this latter group lies the village of Halekal, after which this
end of the hills is called the Halekalgudda, and between it and the village
lies the auriferous locality known by the same name. The Halekalgudda
hills consist of thick and gritty, locally conglomeratic quartzites, with
siliceous, micaceous and chloritic schists. No reef or veins show on the
northern slope above the gold-washing place, but an area of several acres
shows very numerous old dumps, showing that the surface soil had been
largely turned over. The washing made here gave a good show of

E 2

52 GEOLOGY

moderately coarse }^old. Sonic fine larj^e good-looking reefs, running in the
strike of the rock, occur, crossing the footpath which leads from Halekal to
(lummanur, 3 miles south-west-by-south. West of these is a great flow of
dioritic trap intercalated between the upper and lower schists. Though not
so promising as Kotemaradi and Honnamaradi, Halekalgudda is yet
deserving of the closest investigation.

{Mysore to Biviavar.)

West-Cetitral Group. — As already stated, the auriferous localities
included in this group occur all in small detached strips or patches of
schistose rock scattered over the older gneissic series. They are really
remnants of the once apparently continuous spread of schistose (Dharwar)
rocks which covered great part of the southern half of the Peninsula. After
this great series of rocks had been deposited, the crust of the earth on
which they rested imderwent tremendous lateral pressure, and they were
crumpled into a series of great foldings running up and down the Peninsula
in parallel directions. After this they were exposed to tremendous erosive
forces and in parts entirely worn away, and the underlying old gneissic rocks
again laid bare. The small outliers are then nothing more than little
patches and strips of the younger schists which have escaped erosion either
from the superior durability of the rocks composing them, or from their
having been let down by fractures of the earth's crust, technically known
as faults, to a lower level than surrounding parts of the gneiss, and thus
escaped in some measure the full action of the eroding agencies, whatever
they may have been. The most southerly of these outliers in this group
is the little gold-field of So?tnahalH, 18 miles south-west of Mysore.
The shape of this auriferous tract is roughly a narrow oval, forming the
flattish top of a low rise running north and south. The workings extend for
about ih miles north and south. I estimated the length of the oval at
3 miles, but this may possibly be an under-estimate, as the country is
much obscured by low jungle, especially to the south and east. The country
rock consists of chloritic and other schists overlying very trappoid horn-
blendic rock. The old workings are numerous but none of very great size,
and all seem of great age, judging by the highly- weathered condition of the
rocks exposed in their sides. All of them are much overgrown by jungle,
and one has to cut one's way through a dense tangle to get right into them.
The shape of the working appears in every case to have been due to the
run of the reefs worked upon. These reefs very probably contained visible
gold, which induced the old miners to take out all the quartz they could
raise, leaving only here and there masses which they considered unpro-
ductive or, in a few cases, too large and massive to be dealt with
conveniently. In many cases, both here and elsewhere, the whole lode has
been removed as far as can be seen, and the nature of the lode can only be
guessed at from fragments of c^uartz left behind, and it is at present
impossible to form any opinion about the value of the property.
If the old pits were completely cleared out, the lode would in most
cases be rediscovered and could then be properly tested in depth.

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 53

Scrapings of the sides of all the principal workings south of Sonnahalli
were washed and gave at best but very small shows of gold.
Half a mile east of Sonnahalli village, a very large reef is exposed on the
top of the ridge ; it does not look very promising, but seems worth deeper
prospecting than it has yet undergone. I did not attempt a crushing, as 1
could not find any good-looking stone from a sufficient depth. This reef
has a run of N. 5° W. At the foot of the north-eastern slope of the Sonna-
halli betta or hill, a large reef has been exposed and to some extent worked
out by a series of pits of moderate size. The quartz is white and barren-
looking. The line of old workings at Kariinaddanhalli commences about
i;V miles east of Sonnahalli betta, and extends northward for about a mile.
They have been sunk in pale pink gneissic-looking felspathic schists, but
associated with them are some hornblendic and ferruginous strata which bear
a fair resemblance to characteristic members of the auriferous schist
series, and they may, provisionally at least, be regarded as belonging to it.
They form a narrow strip about 2 miles in length on the flat top of a ridge
east of Karimaddanhalli village. The rock forming the casing of the reefs
is generally chloritic near the contact, but not so at the distance of a yard or
two. In the most southerly working the reef is not seen in the pit at
present and seems to have been entirely removed, but tliis cannot be
decidetl unless the pit were entirely cleared of jungle and debris. P'ragments
of quartz remaining are white but much iron-stained, and contain a few
scattered small cubes of pyrites. The great working east of Karimaddan-
halli village has been excavated along the course of a large reef running
very nearly due east and west. In colour this reef is very white, but parts
are much iron-stained, and it contains many cavities both cubical and
irregular in shape, the latter containing a decomposed chloritic mineral and
limonite. A i&w cubes of pyrites were noticed and some specks of
arsenical pyrites. About \ mile to the northward of the great working
commences a line of smaller old works which extend right down to the
south end of the Gijayanvaddargudi tank, a good mile to the north. Many
reefs arc exposed running in various directions north, south, cast, west,
north-east, south-west, &c. &c., and all are white and hungry-looking, and
include hardly any accessory minerals, small chloritic and hicmatitic
inclusions excepted. Some of the reefs are large, from 6' to 8' or 10' thick.
The country rock here consists of hornblendic and chloritic schists, the
latter in very small quantity. Many washings were made and gold obtained
in nearly every case, but only in small quantity. Not a vestige of free gold
was seen in any of the reefs, either here or anywhere else. If it existed,
the old miners were very careful to remove every atom of the gold-bearing
cjuartz. About '\ of a mile north-east-by-east of Nadapaiilialli is a line of
old workings of limited extent, sunk in pale greenish-brown chloritic schist.
From the southern working, a fair-sized pit, the u hole of the reef has been
removed. In the more northerly workings, some shallow pits and a long
shallow trench, a good-sized quartz reef is exposed to the depth (at present)
of 3 or 4 feet at the utmost. The quartz is white, but shows a fair number
of cavities tilled with earthy linionite, probably derived from the dccompo-

54 GEOLOGY

silion of enclosures of cliloritir minerals. Pyrites is very rare, occurring
only in very minute cubes or species. Bright spangles and films of red
hicmatite arc common. Several washings were made from scrapings of the
pit sides, and in each case resulted in a small show of rich-coloured gold.
This concludes the survey of this group south of the Kdveri.

The well-known Bcllibcffa and its environs contain a considerable number
of large and well-defined reefs, to which a large amount of attention had
been paid by the old native miners. Bellibetta, or the silver hill, is the
highest of a group of moderate-sized hills rising on an outlier of the auriferous
series, rather more than 20 miles N.W. of Seringapatam, and 3^ S.W. of
Krishnar.-ijpct. The principal old workings are situated on the northern spur of
BeHibetta, and consist of several large pits and a variety of smaller ones, with
several small shafts and passages. Some are a good deal obstructed by jungle
growth and all to a great extent choked up with d(^bris, which makes it quite
impossible to be certain as to the depth they were carried to. Dumps are
numerous but not proportionate in extent to the size of the workings, so it is
probable that much of the auriferous quartz was carried away to be reduced
to powder elsewhere. The mass of Bellibetta consists of chloritic schist, the
beds of which dip westward at a high angle, the strike being slightly west-of-
north. They show considerable contortion. They are underlaid to the east by
a bed of very coarse steatitic schist, on which the village of Katargatta stands.
The run of the majority of the reefs is a little west-of-north, but one or two run
east and west. To the south-west of Katargatta village is a very large reef of
pale blue and white quartz v/hich extends north-westward up to the slope and
appears to join the set of reefs on top of the northern spur of Bellibetta in
which the great workings have been carried on, but a considerable space
between them is covered up by debris and talus at present and the con-
nection cannot be proved positively. No workings have been made along
the lower part of this great reef, but to the south and south-west of it I
noticed a large number of small workings and dumps. A not very important
series of old shallow works with dumps occurs on the ridge north of
Bejiibetta, and here washings gave a very poor show of gold. A large and well-
marked reef forms the crest of this ridge, but it is very white and hungry-
looking and contains no enclosures but a very little chlorite. The country
rock is a curiously felted fibrous hornblende schist, with a small admix-
ture of chlorite. A few hundred yards to the south-west, in the jungle on
the left bank of the stream flowing into the little Katargatta tank, a bare
sheet of very light-coloured rocks, apparentl}' a quartzite, is exposed, on which
are many score of small saucer-shaped holes, evidently made by pounding
the quartz to reduce it. None of the " mullers " or hammers used in the
process were found here. Half a mile north of Katargatta Aillage lie some
important quartz reefs and a large number of old workings. The reefs form
the edge of a ledge formed by the eastern ridge of the auriferous rocks,
Bellibetta being the western ridge rising out of the outlier. The reefs, which
are very large and well-marked, consist of pale blue and bluish-white quartz.
I saw no indications of any recent deep prospecting along these reefs, the
eastern of which is exposed for nearly a mile and the western for about j

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 55

mile. About ^ of a mile to the northward of these great reefs is a Hne of old
workings. They are mostly large trenches, so greatly filled up with soil and
grass that no signs of any reef can be made out. They present every
appearance of great age. The countrj^ rock is also almost entirely masked
by soil and vegetation ; when seen, it consisted of a talcose hornblende
schist. Very little quartz is seen lying about, and it looks as if the lodes had
been extracted bodily. I cannot confirm Mr. Lavelle's asserted discovery of
silver ore on Bellibetta, having been unable to find any sort or kind of
argentiferous mineral there ; still there can be no doubt that it is a gold-
field of very great promise and deserving of the closest examination by deep
prospecting on an ample scale. The great reef on Bellibetta, if proved
sufficiently auriferous, could easily be mined to considerable depth by
simple quarrying, and for this reason among others I think Dewan
Purniah's want of success in mining for silver here was due to the want of
ore rather than any other cause. Very near the northern e.xtremity of the
Bellibetta outlier is a small group of small shallow pits and dumps. They
lie on both sides of the Mysore-Hassan road, about 5 of a mile north-west
of Pura. Two small reefs were noted, but neither of them looked promising,
they being white and hungry. The country rock east of the road is a re-
markable hornblende schist, which shows a very pretty felting of the fibre
in stellate points with curved radiations. North of the Bellibetta outlier
comes a tract of micaceous granite-gneiss, with some hornblende schist
bands and occasional trap-dykes extending up to and beyond the famous
Jain temple of S'ravan Belgola, and some four miles further north-east,
where what appears to be a tiny outlier of the auriferous rocks
shows close to the little village of Kempinkote in Channarayapatna
taluq. The Kempinkote workings consist of one huge pit close
to the village, a small pit about 300 yards to the south-east, and
three or four small shallow excavations a mile to the north-east. The
great pit, which is by far the largest excavation of the kind I hav-e
seen in India, is dug out of hornblendic and steatitic schists, a good
deal contorted but having a general strike to the northward. Not a
trace of any reef is visible in situ, and but very few lumps of quartz remain
in the pit. This may very likely be explicable by the fact that it contained
free gold, and that every good-looking bit was carried off long ago to be
crushed elsewhere. I examined every bit of quartz I could see, but had not
the good fortune to find any free gold. A washing of the scrapings of the
side near a small exposure of the steatitic scliist gave a very rich show of
gold in proportion to the quantity of stuff washed. The gold was very fine-
grained and of excellent colour. A washing at the small pit to the south-
east gave a very poor result. The country rock here is also a steatitic schist
very similar to that of the big pit. A few small lenticular masses nf bluish-
white quartz occur on the east side of the second pit, but are too short to
be regarded as true reefs. The small excavations lying to the north-east of
Kempinkote have been made in chloritic schist abounding with small cubical
cavities full of reddish limonite. It is impossible to offer any positive
opinion as to the Kempinkote gold prospects, no reef being visible in the

S6 GEOLOGY

great pit. The latter should be cleared out to see whether the reef has been
entirely worked out or not. The length and width of the great pit is so
great that it is quite possible the old miners really descended to a great
depth before stopped by water or other difliculties they could not compass
with their limited mechanical appliances. The great size of the old work-
ing shows, however, that the old miners found the place worth their atten-
tion for a long period. Overlying the chloritic schist which forms the main
mass of the low rise south-east of Nuggihalli is a thin bed of ha^matitic
schist, the debris from which forms a wide-spread talus. This iron-strewn
knoll appears to be the southern termination of the Tagadur-betta outlier,
unless the auriferous rocks make a considerable sweep to the west, for the
rocks along the direct path from Kempinkote to Nuggihalli belong to the
gneiss. To the northward the hiematite band thickens considerably, and
may be traced for nearly a mile, and may very likely represent the great iron
beds which form the crest of Tagadurbelta itself. The rock shown in the
quarry about i| miles N.N.E. of Nuggihalli is of doubtful geological age,
and is separated from the Tagadurbetta band of the auriferous schists by
a band nearly 2 miles in width of granite gneiss. The workings described
by Mr. Lavelle as occurring one mile north of the village, were not seen by
me, nor are any indications of them given on his maps. Two pits I was
taken to at about | to f of a mile W. and N.W. by W. of Nuggihalli, appear to
me to have been quarries for rubble stone, not excavations made for any
mining purposes, for no signs appear either of reefs or dumps in either case.
They are situated just within the western boundary of the schist outlier,
and lie near the path leading from Nuggihalli to Virupdkshipur. A mile
and a quarter N.N.W., and just at the head of the valley running north-east
from the Tagadurbetta hill, begins a set of old workings which occur at
intervals through the scrub jungle for rather more than half a mile. The
workings are all very shallow and look as if they had been early abandoned.
The reefs seen run in the strike of the country rock, which bends about from
north and south to north-west and back to north again. None of the reefs
here are of any length or great thickness. The quartz they consist of is
white and hungry-looking, and the washings obtained were not encouraging
in quantity, though not so small as to make me condemn this gold-field as
imworthy of further attention, for the country rock, chloritic schists with
intercalated hsmatitic bands, is favourable to the occurrence of gold. The
crest of Tagadurbetta consists of two good-sized beds of massive ha^matitic
rock, which are one source of the great haematitic talus which covers the
eastern slope of the ridge. The southern extension of these beds is very
soon masked by surface deposits, but to the north they extend about a mile
as low but conspicuous mural outcrops. How much further they extend I
could not say, but it is not all improbable they may run considerably further,
or even join the iI/rt//^«/i«/// outlier, 8 miles to the N.N.W. These work-
ings lie a mile south of the high road leading from Hassan to Tiptur, and
about 10 miles south-west of the latter town No reef is seen in connection
with the large pit, nor is the country rock exposed just here, but close by it
consists of hornblendic schist underlying a green micaceous gneissoid schist,

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 57

and fragments of true quartzite \vcre observed lying about in some quantity,
confirming the Dharwar age of these beds. A moderate show of gold was
obtained by washing. A little to the northward of the pit is a large reef of
rather good-looking bluish-white mottled quartz. The reef shows for nearly
100 yards, and is from 12 to 15 feet thick on the surface. The quartz shows
no included minerals, but testing in depth might very probably show good
results. The schistose rocks seem to stop near Mallenhalli, and only gneissic
rocks were noted between the village and the ne.xt auriferous \oc■^X\\.y,Jalga-
ran/ialii, 35 miles N.W. by N. This consists of a small and rather shallow
pit with a number of date-palms growing in and around it. No reef is seen
traversing the pit, on the east side of which is an outcrop of the stellately
felted hornblende rock seen at the Pura workings at the north end of the
Bcllibetta outlier. A wash of scrapings from the side of the pit gave a fair
show of fine gold, sufficient to recommend that it be more fully prospected
and tested than has as yet been done. The Belgiimba auriferous rocks are,
I believe, the northerly extension of the beds seen at Jalgaranhalli, but time
did not allow of my examining the intermediate tract of country, and I
visited the Belgumba tract from the north. This group of old workings lies
7 miles south-east of Arsikere, and i.^ miles south of the 99th milestone on the
Bangalore-Shimoga road. The highest point of ground due south of the
99th mile is the northern extremity of the Belgumba outlier of the auriferous
rocks ; the southern end, as above explained, forming to all appearance the
Jalgaranhalli auriferous patch. The workings, with one exception, lie along
the westerly slope of a low ridge extending S.S.E. from the high pointi just
referred to. The strike of the schist beds is as nearly as possible S.S.E.,
and they occupy a band about \ a mile in width abreast of the workings ;
further south the band seems to widen out. A large but generally white and
hungry-looking reef runs along the ridge on its western slope just below the
summit, and another similar one crests a knoll a little to the south of the
most southerly pit. They run parallel with the strike of the chloritic and
liornblendic schists forming the country rock. The northern reef shows
bluish colour in parts. The considerable size of the old workings
is the only evidence in favour of their having been productive. They are
much obscured by rubbish, and in their present state it is impossible to say
whether or not the reefs they were worked on continue in depth. The
prospects of future success at this place are not very encouraging. The
country northward from the Trigonometrical Station hill up to and beyond
the Shimoga road is all gneissic. At Gollarhalli, about 6 miles to the
south-west of Belgumba, is a very large old working, in shape like a very
rude horse-shoe, opening northward. The depth of the working is nowhere
i;rcat, and at the southern part of the curve very shallow. The curve encloses
a few small detached workings of no interest or importance. Dumps occur
])rctty numerously all along the sides of the horse-shoe, but no reefs are
visible in any part of the workings except at the southern apex, where a
large but very ill-defined reef of bluish-white colour shows up for a few yards ;
but it is very easy to overlook it, as it is greatly obscured by rubbish. A
' Tills point is crowned l;y ii Trigononielrical Station, 2,982 feet above sea-level.

58 GEOLOGY

very barren-looking reef of massive white quartz occurs some little distance
north of the western branch of the horse-shoe. Neither of these reefs has
been tested to any depth. This outlier of the auriferous rocks, if such rocks
they are, is a very small one, and gneissic rocks occur all around at very
small distances. Very little is seen of the country rock except at the
eastern end of the works, where an immensely tough hornblendic rock with
a soapy steatitic weathered surface occurs. Small outcrops of hornblendic
schist peep up here and there in the workings. The washings that I had
made at the western extremity gave only a small show of gold, but from
scrapings in the deepest part of the eastern arm of the working I got a very
fair show. The locality appears to me to be deserving of closer prospecting
than it has yet undergone. Three and a half miles south-south-west of
Arsikere are the old Yellavari workings, which lie in the low ground half a
mile or so east of the village, and are excavated in hornblendic schist with
intercalated bands of chlorite schist, which I refer but doubtfully to the
auriferous system. The quartz seen is bluish-greyish-white in colour, very
saccharoid in texture, and much iron-stained in part from the decomposition
of included specks of haematite. Specks of powdery kaolin occur, but no
visible gold or any sulphides. The reef lies between bands of micaceous
and hornblendic bands of gneiss on the east and west respectively. A
washing from the casing of the reef gave a very small show of gold. I feel
justified in recommending further testings and a search for the reef, which
will probably be re-discovered if the working is cleared out to the bottom.
Whether there is any connection between the Yellavari and GoUarhalli
patches of auriferous rock I cannot say ; the country is too jungly, and the
rocks at both places seen in such very small outcrops that the eye can only
follow them for a few yards. I noted no sign of any extension of the
schists northward or north-westward past Arsikere. Karadihalli is the last
of the auriferous localities included in the west-central group. The work-
ings lie on the north and south-east slopes of a low ridge, the centre of
which is formed by a small granite gneiss hill, locally called the Chotnare
Maradi, around the base of which lie beds of steatite and hornblendic rock
of doubtful age, geologically speaking. As to reefs, only one small one
was noted near the southern set of pits, and this is a white and hungry-
looking one running for some 60 paces N. 5° W. Northward of the
Chotnare Maradi are two large reefs deserving of further examination. The
first, which lies due north of the hill, runs north and south, the second, which
shows much more conspicuously, lies a couple of hundred yards further
north-east and runs N. 20" W. The great wealth in gold which Mr. Lavelle
ascribes to this part of the country has, I think, yet to be proven. The
auriferous tracts already known are very small in extent, and, as far as surface
study of them goes, they do not appear to be of the highest class.

( Tar ike re to Ddvangere)

Western Group. — No old workings or unworked auriferous localities were
brought to my notice in the southern part of the western band, but since

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 59

the completion of my tour I have seen a statement' that a vast number of
old workings occur all over the hills to the north-west of Halebid. These
old workings should certainly be looked up, both on geological and
economic grounds. The western group is numerically far poorer in
auriferous localities than either of the others, and they are scattered widely
apart. The sands of several of the small streams running down from the
hills west of the village of Chiranhalli in Tarikere taluq are auriferous. A
washing in the stream flowing through the little tank known as the
Huggisiddankatte gave a good show of rather coarse gold. A very fair
show was next obtained at the junction of the same stream with another
coming in from the north, and a small show from the bed of the northern
stream, which is crossed by a good-sized quartz reef running N.N.E. This
was the only reef seen, but other reefs doubtless occur among the hills west
of the Huggisiddankatte. The country rock consists of steatitic and very
pale chloritic schists, full of cubical crystals of pyrites, some of which are
replaced by pseudomorphs in limonite, and others are quite fresh and bright.
Well-shaped octohedra of magnetic iron are also to be found in the schists.
The geological features are all favourable to the occurrence of gold, and the
locality is worthy of very careful prospecting. At Malcbcnniir, the sands
of the little stream which falls into the Komaranhalli tank next beyond the
ridge underlying the south end of the tank bund are auriferous, and from
a washing I made here I obtained a very good show of coarse-grained gold
of excellent colour. The little stream drains the western slope of the ridge
for about a quarter of a mile, and its whole catchment basin must be less
than 100 acres. The greater part of this consists of chloritic schists which
in their upper part contain many lamina? and small nests of crystalline
limestone. The chloritic schists are underlaid by trap, to all appearance a
contemporaneous flow. This trap extends westward far beyond the basin
of the small stream. To the east the chlorite schist is overlaid by a
h;umatitic quartzite bed of considerable thickness, beyond which I did not
follow up the series. No reefs are to be seen within the basin of the little
stream, but many small veins of blue quartz occur traversing the chlorite
schist and also the overlying hiematite bed. Some of the larger of these veins
on top of the ridge have an east-to-west run. The western slope ought to
be very closely tested by costeaning in order to ascertain the source of the
gold dust found in the stream. Trenches carried through the talus-covered
parts of the slope may also be tried in order to find, if possible, any larger
reefs. As already stated, a trap formation occupies the bottom of the valley
west of the auriferous stream. This trap is much obscured by soil and talus,
and the sequence of the rocks is not to be made out near the road. Where
the ground begins to rise westward, and rocks crop out, is a quartzite so much
altered by crushing and weathering that it has in parts assumed quite a
gneissoid appearance. Underlying this comes a thick band of dark schist,
chiefly argillitic, and this in its turn is underlaid by a great thickness ot pale
green and grey schists, chlorito-micaceous, in variable character. A few

' In an cxliauslivo work on the Occurrence anil Extraction of Ciolcl, by .\. Ci.
Lock.

6o GEOLOGY

beds of quartzite are intercalated here and there, and many very irregular
veins of white and pale bluish quartz are to be seen traversing the schists.
Gold occurs at Anckonda, a little over half a mile X.L. of Davajigere
travellers' bungalow, in form of dust obtained by washing the red gritty soil
lying against the rock, which here forms a ridge rising only 20 feet (if as
much) over the surrounding country. The rock is a brecciated quartz run,
not an ordinary reef. Runs such as these are common in many parts of the
gneiss in the Ceded Districts and elsewhere, but I have never met with one
within the auriferous (I)harwar) series, nor have I ever come across such a
brecciated quartz rock that had been regarded as auriferous by the old
miners and mined as such. A washing of the red soil exposed in the
shallow bed of a small stream falling into the Anekonda tank, a few hundred
yards further south, also yielded a small show of gold. The source of this
gold I believe to lie in the high ground to the south.

The elevated tract of the auriferous rocks of which the Bababudan moun-
tains form the centre is one well deserving great attention both from the
geologist and the mining prospector, it being an area of great disturbance,
the rocks being greatly contorted on a large scale, and on the north and
south sides at least of the area much cut up by great faults. Regions of
great disturbance are in many cases extra rich in minerals, and it is very
likely that such may be the case here. It is only of late years, owing to the
extension of coffee-planting, that this mountain region has become accessible.
Before that it was covered by vast impenetrable forests which hid every-
thing. These are now penetrable in many directions, and the modern pros-
pector has opportunities which did not exist before. The eastern part of
the mountain tract culminating in the Bababudan mountains consists of
huge flows of trap-rock (diorite) with intercalated beds of dark argillitic
schists capped by quartzites and haematites, which two latter form the
summit of the Bababudan mass. Mr. Lavelle mentions magnetic iron ore
and " chrome " (presumiably chromic iron) from the Bababudans, but un-
fortunately does not give any localities, so it was impossible to inquire
further into their occurrence. The chromic iron would be valuable if found
in good quantity and easily mined. The most southerly of the auriferous
localities in the western set is Sitladainaradi, a small hill 2 miles south-east
of Tarikere. The hill consists of chloritic schist in highly contorted beds.
The great white reef on top of the hill participates in the contortions, and is
bent into a very remarkable flat sigmoid curve. This and the other reefs
occurring on the north side of the hill are \ ery white and hungry-looking.
The only enclosures in the quartz I noted, after careful search, were small
spangles with rich green chlorite. There were no sulphides, nor any other
mineral, the chlorite excepted. The indications of the Suladamaradi rocks
are anything but favourable, and the old miners evidently thought so too,
for there are no signs of old workings. On the left bank of the Bhadra
river, 13 miles south- east of Shimoga, on washing in the rain gully draining
the south side of Ho7i7ichatti\\\\\{Tx\g. Station \ I obtained a very good
show of moderately coarse gold. The mass of the hill consists of chloritic
schist having a N.N.W. strike, and the beds may be seen extending for

AURIFEROUS TRACTS 6i

miles in that direction, after which they trend X.E. Several large reefs are
to be seen running N.N.W., or in the line of the strike of the country rock.
Their only apparent fault is their great whiteness. No workings are seen on
the south side of the hill, but on ascending the Honnehattimaradi on its
eastern side, I came upon several unknown old pits and one shaft, which
from their bearing had evidently been sunk to follow one of the reefs. The
workings had evidently been continued to some depth, and were therefore in
all probability fairly remunerative. Honnehatti appears to me to deserve
very marked attention from earnest prospectors. Palava7ihallt : — This well-
known auriferous tract, which with the adjacent Kudrikonda tract con-
stitutes the Honnali gold-field, was first visited by me in 1881 and its
geology very carefully worked out and reported on (see above, p. 41).
My opinion oi the Kudrikonda tract was published in the paper just referred
to. I believe my geological inferences to have been correct, and that the
temporary non-success of the mine has been due mainly to want of capital
wherewith to push on the works in depth. So long as sufificient quartz was
raised to keep the stamps at full work, the mine paid its expenses. Should
more capital be raised and working be resumed, I fully expect the yield of
gold will improve in depth, as has been the case in so many deep mines in
Australia. Without having the plans to refer to, and the mine itself being
full of water owing to the stoppage of the works, and therefore inaccessible,
I could not form any opinion as to the merits or demerits of the plan of
work which had prevailed, but I cannot help thinking that if a new engine
of sufficient power be provided to keep the mastery over the great volume
of water flowing through the mine, it will soon be possible to sink an ex-
ploratory shaft to find the lode, which has been thrown by a fault in the
country rock. It would be a great mistake to abandon further work without
having made an earnest search for the missing lode, as from the structure of
the country it is very unlikely that the throw of the fault can be a great
one.

Noji-Mctallic ^ fin era is.

The pure gold-prospecting work left me no leisure to devote to any non-
metallic minerals, excepting such as actually fell in my way.

Emery. — Near Nadapanhalli a ie\y small masses of dirty brown rock,
measuring less than 2 cubic yards in the aggregate, are seen by the side of
a field road. There are no signs of any working, so I suppose only loose
pieces were taken away to test its commercial value, which cannot be great.
The emery is very impure and of poor quality, and with good corundum
obtainable in quantity in various other parts of the country is not deserving
of any attention.

Asbestos. — Only one asbestos-yielding locality came under my notice, to
the west of BeUibetta. The matrix rock in which the asbestos really occurs
is not seen in the little pit from which the stone had been dug. The surface
of the country just here consists of reddish kankar underlying red soil.
The asbestos I saw had been included in the kankar, having apparently been
weathered out from its original matrix, whatc\er that may ha\e been. The

62 GEOLOGY

show of asbestos at the i)it was very small and of inferior qiiahty. The
lar},^est pieces showed a coarse fibre, 4 to 5 indies long, cream-coloured, and
of dull lustre. I only noticed one piece with fine silky fibre and silvery-
white colour. In the present condition of the pit, it is impossible to form
an opinion as to the capabilities of the place.

Kaolin. — Kaolin is mentioned by Air. Lavelle as occurring in several
places and of good quality and colour, but he does not state whether it is
available in large quantities. To be of real value commercially it must be
of the highest degree of purity and free from all iron-mould or stain. To
raise it on a large scale requires the presence on the spot of a large supply of
perfectly liinpidiuater, with which to work the rock by hydraulic sluicing, and
facilities for the construction of large settling pits, which must be protected
from the influence of ferruginous dust of any kind. In Europe, china clay
works are found to pay only where the industry can be carried out on a really
large scale. I have never yet seen in India a place combining the two most
essential requirements for a successful industry, namely, a large develop-
ment of kaolinized granite and a sufficient supply of limpid water. The
limpidity of the water is a sine qua non for success. There is no demand
for large quantities of kaolin in India, and speculators would do well to
make sure before starting such an industry in India that they could find a
profitable market for their produce in Europe or elsewhere.

Marble. — I noticed a good bed of grey crystalline limestone running north
and south across one of the gullies near the main gold pit at Holgere. The
limestone lies half way down the slope to the Holgere tank, and is of good
quality, and would be a useful stone for decorative and monumental
sculpture. Immense quantities of grey crystalline limestone, divided by
partings and small beds of quartzite, occur on the east side of the main
ridge lying between Chiknayakanhalli and Dod-Rampura. The limestones
are several hundred feet thick and deserve to be prospected, for they may
very likely contain beds of other colour than grey which would be valuable
in sculpture.

Granite. — .A. very beautiful variety of granite gneiss, eminently fitted for
cutting and polishing on a large scale, forms the mass of Chotnaremaradi in
the little Karadihalli gold-field, two miles east of Banavar. The rock is
remarkably free from joints, and monoliths of great size could easily be
quarried. It is by far the handsomest granite I have seen in Mysore.

Porphyry. — A great dyke of beautiful porphyry traverses the hills east of
the Karigatta temple overlooking Seringapatam. The porphyry, which is of
warm brown or chocolate colour, includes many crystals of lighter coloured
felspar and dark crystals of hornblende. The stone would take a very high
polish, and for decorative purposes of high class, such as vases, panels and
bases for busts and tazzas, etc., it is unequalled in South India, and deserving
of all attention. If well polished it fully equals many of the highly prized
antique porphyries. The dyke is of great thickness and runs for fully a
mile, so is practically inexhaustible. Blocks of very large size could be
raised, and, from the situation of the dyke on the sides of two steep hills, it
would be very easy to open up large quarries if needful.

Kii lapiir^

^Pant

iiJblpatam

Jtumoa

../^

^'^uidvaP-,

Mtrttth<r of' thf KH.shna

J \

iGaAtif

^h„,„i,,„„,,.,ii,

;>-"

\jc.A.,

NeJjore

Duila.

UChitUK

,' I \PHhcat

IRAS

'Uavartun

Cannan*}

i^ g>/

'^^S

Ssilem

.i^

Calic

"OotScoiiiuiiH.

jfCannbatDre

Tonarul
GEOLOGICAL MAP

After R. D. Oldham (ochmi'>^

Idndii

^ Tiuchiiiopolv

i ^TlCiidjialOT-i"

0 7hantpu-har

Tinnt OiJi/TUTV

REFtRENCt TO COLOURINO \\l L\ '^

Recent and Subrecent -^/'/'/"W\ ^

Deccan tra^

Cretaceous

I Upper Gondwana

' Upper (Vindhyan) )_ Older
j Lower (Kadapa) j'Palxozoic

I I Transition Systems

i Jj CrystaUine,(Gneis8, Granite &c.)

'~r<n\itii'oiTii

■/

Cape 'omorlii

-^Jiz-,

METEOROLOGY

The Hindus divide the year into six seasons. Of these the first,
vasaitta ritu or spring, commences with the opening of the Hindu year
in March. It is the season of love and pleasure, and is a favourite
theme of Indian bards. The weather is serene and clear, the farmer's
occupations are mostly over, and he has time to celebrate the yearly
festivals of his gods and the marriages of his kinsfolk. The mango is
then covered with blossom, and the landscape is gay with the beautiful
and sweet-scented flowers of the kakkc or Indian laburnum. The
southerly breezes that blow during the night are the voluptuous zephyrs
of this vernal season. The grishiiia ritu, literally sweating season, is
the second. It is the hottest part of the year, the sun being nearly
vertical. The dust of the arid fields is frequently carried up in small
whirlwinds, forming what are c^iWed pisdchis or devils. Nightly illumina-
tions of the ghats and hills are seen, the result either of spontaneous
combustion from the friction of bamboos against each other, or of a
spark blown into the long withered grass which covers the slopes. The
heat is intense and the air often still and stagnant. The sunset sky
glows with the most fervid tints. It is the time of cyclones. Thunder-
clouds suddenly gather, and — preceded by storms of dust, which sweep
impetuously over the surface of the ground, obscuring the view for
miles, — the rain, accompanied with vivid flashes of lightning, close
followed by startling claps of thunder, descends in large and distant
drops, often mixed with hail. These short-lived tempests prelude the
grateful bursting of the monsoon, and introduce the varsha rifii or rainy
season. The south-west monsoon blows steadily during this period
and should bring with it abundance of rain. The rivers are swollen and
sometimes impassable for days. Hie face of nature is clad in green and
the ploughed fields receive the precious seed. The s'arad ritu or
autumn next succeeds, during which the sun being again vertical in his
southern declination but shedding a moderate heat, the fruits of the
earth ripen. This season closes with the change of the monsoon, which
is marked by the loudest thunder aud heaviest rain of the year, the wind
settling steadily in the north-east. The largest tanks are often filled in
a few hours and a store of water obtained that will last over the succeed-
ing dry months. The hemauta ritu or winter next sets in, with chilly foggy
morp.ings and bright sunny days. The fields are reaped and the grain
stacked. The s'is'ira ritu or cold season concludes the circle of the
year. Piercing north-east winds dry up all trace of moisture, and clouds

64 METEOROLOGY

of dust arise from every movement over the thirsty ground. 'J'lie skin
is parched and feverish. I3ut the larger trees put forth new leaves or
cover themselves with a mass of gorgeous blossom.

The year in Mysore may, however, with sufficient accuracy be divided,
according to another Hindu system as old as the Vedas, into three
seasons — the rainy, the cold, and the hot. The first commences with
the bursting of the south-west monsoon, at the end of May or early in
June, and continues with some interval in August or September to the
middle of November, closing with the heavy rains of the north-east
monsoon. Tt is followed by the cold season, which is generally entirely
free from rain, and lasts till the end of February. The hot season then
sets in, towards the beginning of March, and increases in intensity to
the end of May, with occasional relief from thunder-storms.

The close of the rainy season in November is marked by dense fogs
which prevail all over the country during December and January.
They begin about three in the morning and last till seven, when they
are dispersed by the heat of the sun. But in some parts fogs or rather
mists follow the earlier rains. Thus about Chitaldroog from August to
October the hills are obscured till nearly ten in the forenoon.

The temperature is the most equable during the rainy months, the
range of the thermometer at Bangalore at that season being between 64°
and 84". In the cold season the mercury falls there as low as 51° in
the early morning, and sometimes rises to 80° during the day. The
minimum and maximum in the shade during the hottest months are
about 66° and 91°, or in extreme seasons 96". The observations
registered in the several Districts are given in Vol. II.

Situated midway between the eastern and western coasts, Mysore
shares in both monsoons, the south-west and the north-east. The rainfall
ranges from 200 inches or more^ a year in the Western Ghat regions, to
little more than 10 inches in the north centre. But these are extremes
that apply only to limited areas. The excessive rain of the ]\Ialnad
rapidly diminishes eastwards, and from 30 to 36 inches may be accepted
as the general average for the greater part of the country. The least
quantity of rain falls throughout the tracts lying north-east from the Baba
Budan range along both banks of the Vedavati or Hagari to the
Chitaldroog frontier of the Province. Compared with the rest of the
country this may be termed a rainless district, and the scanty fall is
attributed, no doubt correctly, to the influence of the towering mass of
the Baba Budan chain intercepting the moisture with which the south-
west monsoon wind is charged.

1 Mr. R. H. Elliot mentions that no less than 291 '53 inches fell between April and
the end of September (1893) at a cardamom plantation on the crests of the ghats.

RAINS

The annual rainfall may be conveniently distributed into four periods,
namely : —

The cold weather rains ... ... December to March.

The hot weather rains ... ... April and May.

The south-west monsoon ... ... June to September.

The north-east monsoon ... ... October and November.

The cold weather rains are insignificant, scanty in quantity, and not
much needed for the standing crops. But they are useful in keeping
up the pasture supply of the country. The /lot iveather rains (some-
times called mango showers) are of the accidental kind ; heavy short
storms from the east. They are very important to successful agriculture,
as a copious fall replenishes the tanks and enables the cultivators to
prepare the land for the following south-ivest moisoon rains. These are
perhaps the most essential for the country, which, on account of its
general dryness, requires the steady drizzling and persevering rains of
this season to make the soil productive. The north-east monsoon rains
are especially important for filling the tanks and providing a store of
water that may last over the rainless months.

The following averages for each District have been calculated for each
season, based on the registered fall in the various taluqs in inches and
cents for twenty-four years, from 1870 to 1893 :—

Cold

Hot

s.w.

N.E.

Annual
Average.

District.

Weather.

Monsoon.

Dec— Mar.

Apr. — May.

June— Sept.

Oct.— Nov.

Bangalore

1-32

4-80

15-64

7-88

29-64

Kolar

I -08

3-69

13-53

7-06

25-36

Tumkiir

0-85

4-38

13-66

6-69

25-58

Mysore

1-63

6-98

IO-2I

8-36

27-18

Hassan

1-32

6-42

19-37

8-15

35-26

Shimoga .

I -03

5-58

48-96

7-50

63-07

Kadur ....

I "29

6-29

43-96

9-39

60-93

Chitaklroog

i-io

372

10-40

6-69

21-91

Average for the Province

I '20

5-23

21-96

772

36-11

There seems to be a periodicity in the rain-fall, particularly well
marked at Tumkur, which is situated at an equal distance from either
coast and between the eastern and western mountain systems. A refer-
ence to the observations there recorded will show that for a considerable
period every sixth year was one of abundant rain. This rule is not
exhibited with equal precision in the register of other Districts. But
there seems to be a general impression that about one year in five is a

66 METEOROLOGY

good season for rain. And this accords to some extent with scientific
discoveries ; for a connection or correspondence has been traced between
the terrestrial rainfall and the solar spots which gives a period of five
and six, or of eleven, years during which the mutual variation is more
or less constant.^

A special department has now (1893) been formed for meteorology
in Mysore, with a well-equipped Observatory at Bangalore, where
reports will in future be received from 151 rain-gauge stations.
But meanwhile the following information from Mr. H. F. Blanford's
book-' is of interest, ^^'riting of the summer monsoon, he remarks that
" in Mysore, the Ceded Districts of Madras, the Deccan and Hyderabad,
more rain falls when the strength of the monsoon to northern India
relaxes, than when the interior plateau of the peninsula is swept by a
strong current from the west coast." The mean annual relative humidity
of the Mysore Province is set down as 66, that of Malabar and Coorg
being 79, and of the Carnatic 67. The mean monthly rainfall at the
following stations, based on the records of 50 years, is thus given, in
inches and cents. : —

Jan. FeH. Mar. Apr. May June
Bangalore... o'z ... o"i ... o"6 ... 1 '3 ... 5 "o ... 3 "2 .

Mysore o"i ... ot ... 07 ... 2 "2 ... 5 "6 ... i"9

Shimoga ... o'l ... o'l ... 0*3 ... I'S ... 3*3 ... 47 .

The maximum is 25'9 at Shimoga in July, i9"5 at Bangalore in
October, and 15 '3 at Mysore in July.

Another important item is the estimated mean rainfall, as follows, on
the several river basins. The figures, it must be remembered, include
the portions that are beyond the limits of Mysore. Pennaur (N.
Pennar), 26 inches; Palar, 36; Panar (S. Pennar), 38; Kave'ri, 44;
Krishna above junction, 59 ; Tungabhadra, 43.

" Earthquakes " — Dr. Heyne observes — " are never violent and by no
means frequent in this country, occurring only about once in five years."
My own experience does not enable me to confirm this latter statement,
but shocks have been occasionally felt in the neighbourhood of the hills
running from Kankanhalli to Madgiri. From an inscription at Nelaman-
gala, it appears that an earthquake occurred there in July, 1507. "I
felt one at Tumkur," writes Dr. Heyne, " on the 23rd of October, 1800.
It is remarkable that at the same time a violent hurricane raged along
the coast from Ongole to Masulipatam. The shock was felt at Bangalore

^ Generally speaking, there appears a tendency with maxima (of sun-spots) to
anticipate the middle time between the consecutive minima, the interval ii"iiy
being divided into two unequal sub-intervals of 477 >" and 6*34 >". — Chambers,
Astron., 17.

^ " Climates and Weather of India," pp. 211, 50, 353, 2S4.

July

Aug.

.Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

.4-0.,

,.5-9.,

..6-3..

.6-4.

..1-9.

..07

.2-3.

..3-2.

••3-9-

.6-4.

..1-6.

..0-5

.6-6.

..4-2.

..3-1..

.5-0.

.. 1-2 .

..0-4

CYCLONES 67

and in most other parts of Mysore ; and it was stronger in the south
than where I was. It seemed to come from the north, proceeding
southward along the inland range of hills, and to be guided farther by
those of which Sivaganga and Savandurga are the most conspicuous."
Colonel \\'elsh says, with reference to Bangalore : — " On the 29th of
December (1813), we experienced a pretty smart shock of an earth-
quake, which was very general in its effects all over the cantonment ; it
was accompanied by a rumbling noise, like a gun-carriage going over
a drawl)ridge, and appeared to come from the westward. Our roof
cracked as if a heavy stone had been thrown upon it, and every part of
the house shook for some seconds. .Some older and weaker buildings
were actually shaken down, and the walls of others separated or opened
out." An earthquake was felt at Tumkur in 1865, and several shocks
at Dangalore on the 31st of December, 1881.

Aerolites or meteoric stones sometimes fall. On the 21st of
September, 1865, one weighing 11^ lbs. fell near Maddur in the
Mysore District. It is deposited in the Museum.

Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal occasionally extend their influence far
inland. One of the 2nd of May, 1872, was very destructive in its effects ;
it blew a hurricane that overturned large trees even so far west as Coorg,
and was accompanied by a deluge of rain. Again on the 4th of May, 1874,
when a cyclone was raging on the Madras coast, a steady rain poured at
Bangalore, which continued without intermission for about forty-eight
hours. It had been preceded for several days by a still and hazy
appearance of the atmosphere. At the end of November, 1880, just at
the beginning of the ragi harvest, when but little was cut and the bulk
of this most important crop was all but ripe, a great part of the State
was visited by a storm of wind and rain of unusual severity, which did
very considerable damage to the crops, and was the cause, moreover, of
the breaching of a number of irrigation tanks. On the i6th of Novem-
ber, 1885, again, there was a continuous downpour lasting for more
than forty-eight hours, but this was not of a violent character.

"Next to its sunny skies and its notorious and somewhat oppressive
heat, perhaps no feature of the Indian climate," says Mr. Blanford,^ " is
more characteristic than the prevailing lightness of the wind." And to
this cause, rather than to want of mechanical skill on the part of the
cultivators, he attriljules the absence of wiiKlniills in India. The
average daily movement of the wind at Bangalore is put down at from
82 (Feb.) to 92 miles from Octol)er to March, 128 to 183 in May and
August to Septenilfer, 203 in June and 208 in July.

' I.oc. <it. p. 30.

F 2

FLORA

The situation of Mysore within the tropics, combined with an eleva-
tion which gives it a temperate chmate, and its almost complete environ-
ment by lofty mountain chains, are features which contribute to the
formation of a rich and varied flora.

The forests^ of the country, which yield a considerable item towards
its revenue, have been estimated to cover a total area of 2,975 J^Quare
miles, exclusive of scrub jungle which grows on much of the waste
land. They may be roughly divided into evergreen and deciduous
forests ; which again are distributed in three distinct forest belts, of
very unequal width, and running north and south. These are the
evergreen delf, the dry belt, and an intermediate one, combining some
of the features of both, which may be called the mixed belt.

The evergreen belt of forests is confined to the west, and comprises
the country in the Western Ghats and below them, extending from the
north of Sagar taluq to the south of Manjarabad. Its greatest width,
which is at its northern extremity, nowhere exceeds from 12 to 14 miles,
and at some points is not more than six. The tree vegetation is magni-
ficent. Many of the hills are covered to their summits with heavy
forest, while the valleys and ravines produce trees which can scarcely
be rivalled in India, — so luxuriant is their growth, so vast their height,
so great their size. In some parts the undergrowth is dense, elsewhere
the forest is open, and on all sides trees with clear stems to the first
branch of from 80 to 100 feet meet the eye.

The following are some of the more valuable trees growing in this
belt- : —

Artocarpus hirsuta ... Wild jack ... ... Heb-halasu, hesava^

Good shade for coffee. Yields the anjeli wood of commerce. Wood hard and
durable when well seasoned, yellowish-brown, close-grained. Much used on the
western coast for house and ship-building, furniture, and other purposes. Weight
about 35 lbs. per cubic foot.

1 Originally based chiefly upon the Forest Report for 1869-70, by Captain van
Someren, Conservator of Forests.

- The third edition of " Forest Trees of Mysore and Coorg,"' by the same, edited
by Mr. J. Cameron, may be referred to for fuller information ; or Watts' " Dictionary
of the Economic Products of India."

•' In common use the Kannada name is put into the genitive case, followed by the
word niara, tree. Hence heh-halasina /nam, kesavaiia niara : diipada mara would
be more intelligible to a native than the bare name.

TREES 69

Calophyllum tomenlosum I'oon spar ... ... Kuve, bobbi

Yields poon spars, which fetch a good price, and are used for masts. Wood reddish
and coarse-grained. Weight 48 lbs. per cubic foot.

Diospyros ebenum Ebony Kare, mallali

lieartwood black, very hard, durable, and takes a fine polish. Weight al»ut 80 lbs.
per cul)ic foot. In great demand for cabinet work, turnery, inlaying, and musical
instruments.

Erythroxylon monogj-num Red cedar ... ... Devadaru, adavi go-

ran ti
I leartwood dark brown and fragrant ; sometimes used as a substitute for sandal.
From it is distilled a tar or oil used in Ceylon to preserve timber. Leaves and bark
medicinal.

Garcinia morclla ... ... Gamboge-tree ... ... Kankutake

The yellow pigment which exudes from an incision in the trunk is the true gamboge
of commerce. W^ood hard and mottled. Weight aljout 56 lbs. per cubic foot.

Lagerstroemia flos-regina; Challa, maruva

Very handsome in blossom. Root, bark, leaves, and flowers used medicinally.
Wood light red, strong, and very duraljle under water. Weight alwut 42 lbs. per
cubic foot.

Soymida febrifuga ... Redwood ... ... Swami mara

Bark used for tanning and as an inferior dye ; is also a febrifuge. lieartwood very
hard and close-grained, reddish-black, very durable, not attacked by white ants.
Weight about 76 lbs. per cubic foot.

Valeria indica ... ... White dammar ... ... Di'ipa

Magnificent tree. Yields the gum-resin known as white dammar or Piney resin,
locally used as an incense and varnish. A fatty oil from the seeds is employed like
tallow for making candles. Heartwood grey, tough, moderately hard, porous.
Weight 41 Ujs. per cubic foot. Not much in demand.

The mixed belt of forest extends the whole length of the Province,
from the extreme north of Sorab taluq to Bandipur in the south of
Gundlupet talucj. It is very unequal in width, varying at different
points from 10 to 40 or 45 miles. It includes the greater number of
the timber-producing State forests, large tracts of District forests, and
much sandalwood. In it are the leans of Sorab and other portions of
Nagar, the areca nut and cardamom gardens of western Mysore, the
coffee plantations of Koppa and Manjarabad, and the rich rice-flats of
Sagar, Nagar, Tirthahalli, Chikmagalur and Heggadadevankote. The
division between this rich and productive belt and the far less u.seful strip
to the west of it cannot be very easily defined. The presence of a number
of fine tiajidi and blackwood trees, which grow abundantly and attain
great size on the eastern confines of the evergreen belt, form a sufificiently
clear line. The eastern limit may be taken to be a line which, com-
mencing near Anavatti in the north, would run south-east to half-way
between Shikarpur and Honnali ; thence due south to Sakrebail, where

70 FLORA

it turns due east till it reaches a [)oint north of Lakvalli ; thence south,
through Lakvalli and along the eastern crests of the Ilaba Budans to
Vastara ; on through Pdlya, and passing a few miles west of Arkalgud
and Peryapatna it turns south-cast to Antarsante, and so by way of
Kurnagal reaches Bandipur.

The tree vegetation varies considerably in the large extent of country
comprised in this belt. All along the western confines, where it
approaches the Ghats, trees proper to the evergreen forests occur fre-
quently. The wild jack, the dupa, the redwood and sometimes the
poon are met with in varying quantities. But in the south portion of
the belt, in the Mysore District, wild jack and poon are unknown. The
following is a list of the more important trees found throughout this
tract : —

Adina cordifolia ... ... ... ... ... ... Arasina tega

Wood yellow, moderately hard, even-grained. Seasons well, takes a good polish,
and is durable, but lial)le to warp and crack. Weight 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Turns
well, and specially used for small articles, such as combs, gunstocks, and ornamental
boxes.

Albizzia lebbek ... ... Siris ... ... ... Bagi

Heartwood dark brown ; takes a good polish, and fairly durable. Weight 50 lbs.
per cubic foot. Its use for domestic purposes considered unlucky in many parts, but
used for picture frames, oil-mills, etc. Leaves a good fodder for cattle. Flowers a
cooling apjilication for boils.

Albizzia odoratissima ... ... ... ... ... Bilvara

Heartwood rich brown, tough and strong ; seasons well, takes a good polish, and
is durable when kept dry. Weight 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for wheels, oil-mills,
and agricultural implements. Bark medicinal. One of the most valuable jungle
trees for the use of the villagers.

Anogeissus latifolia ... ... ... ... ... Dindiga

Good fuel and charcoal tree. Sapwood yellow ; heartwood small, purplish-brown,
tough, very hard. Weight about 65 lbs. per cubic foot. Splits in seasoning and
must be kept dry to last. Gum used by calico printers for dyeing purposes ; green
leaves employed for tanning.

Bombax malabaricum ... Silk-cotton ... ... Buruga

Wood soft, white, spongy, and, except under water, very perishable. Used to

some extent for planking, packing cases, toys, floats, etc. A medicinal gum exudes
from the trunk.

Chloroxylon swietenia ... Indian satin-wood ... Huragalu

Wood hard, yellow-mottled, and prettily veined, dark towards the centre ; has a
fine satiny lustre, and is well adapted for delicate cabinet work, carpentry, and
turnery. Weight 56 lbs. per cubic foot. Heartwood said to be black, hea\y, and
not easily burnt. The wood is also very durable under water. Used for beams,
posts, boats, etc., and in Europe for backs of brushes, stethoscopes, and fancy
articles.

Cordia myxa ... ... ... ... ... ... SoUe

There are three local varieties — kadu solle, kempu solle, and solle kendal — differing

TREES 71

in size, form, and colour of the fruit. The last is the Sebasten of commerce (a name
said to be derived from sag-pistan, Persian for dogs' nipples). It is very mucilaginous
and demulcent ; given for coughs and chest affections. Wood grey, soft, porous,
seasons well, and is fairly strong ; but soon attacked by insects. Used for agricultural
implements, sugar-cane mills, boats, and fuel. Rope made from the bark, which is
also medicinal.

Dalbergia lalifolia ... ... Blackwood ... ... Biii

Valuable furniture wood, resembling rosewood. Heartwood dark purple and
extremely hard, but somewhat brittle. Weight 55 lbs. per cubic foot. Used in
Mysore city for articles inlaid with ivory, also elsewhere for cart-wheels, gun-carriages,
etc. Shade tree for coffee.

Dalbergia paniculata ... ... ... ... ... Pachari

Wood greyish-white, soft, and }jerishable ; very subject to attacks of insects.
Weight aliout 42 lbs. per cubic foot when seasoned.

Dalbergia sissoo ... ... Sissoo ... ... ... Kiridi

Wood very durable, seasons well, and highly esteemed for all purjioses where
strength and elasticity are required. Suitable for boats, carriages, etc.

Dillenia pentagyna ... ... ... ... ... Koltega

Wood nicely marked, but heavy, coarse-grained, and dif'iicult to season. Weight
50 lbs. per cubic foot.

Gmelina arborea ... ... ... ... ... ... Kuli

Wood cream to pale yellow, close-grained, strong, and does not warp or crack in
sea.soning. Weight about 30 lbs. per cubic foot. Much esteemed for furniture, car-
riages, and ornamental work of all kinds.

Grewia tilirefolia ... ... ... ... ... ... Tadasalu

Wood light reddish-brown, compact, close-grained, durable, elastic, and easily
worked. Valuable where strength and elasticity are required. Used in cart and
carriage building, also for masts, oars, and shafts. Weight 35ll>s. per cubic foot.
Fruit eaten.

Holoptelea integrifolia ... Kntirc-leavcd ehn ... Tapasi

Wood yellow or light brown, no heartwood, soft, open-grained, but strong.
Weight 37 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for charcoal ; also for country carts, and some-
times for carving.

Lagerstroemia lanceolala ... ... ... ... ... Nandi

Wood red, smooth, even-grained, elastic, tough, and of great transverse strength.
Weight about 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Seasons well, and durable if preserved from
moisture. But felled trees soon decay if left exposed in the forest. Used in Coorg
for buildings ; also used for furniture, carts, and mills.

Mallotus philippinensis ... ... ... ... ... Kunkuma

The powder from the ripe fruit forms the Kamala dye, also known in the south of
India as Kapila. Wood only fit for fuel. Weight 48 ll)s. per cubic foot.

Michelia champaca ... Champac... ... ... Sampige

A favourite tree of Hindu poetry, well known for the fragrance of its blossoms,
which are worn in the hair, etc. Wood soft, seasons and polishes well. Very
durable. Weight about 40 lbs. jier cubic foot. Used for furniture, carriages, etc.

Phyllanthus emblica ... Emblic myrobalan ... Nelli

Wood mottled-reddish, hard and close-grained, warps and splits in seasoning.

72 FLORA

Weight alxjul 50 ll)s. per cubic foot. Remarkaljlc for its dural>ilily under water,
which it also clears of impurities. For this purpose chips of it are thrown into wells
or ponds. The hark is used for tanning. The fruit, resembling a gooseberry, is acid
and astringent. Much used as an article of food, raw, preserved, or pickled.

I'terocarpus marsupium ... Indian kino ... ... Honne

Wood close-grained, reddish-brown, tough, slrc^ng, durable, seasons well, and takes
a good polish. Weight 53 lbs. per cul^ic foot. Makes good furniture, and widely
used for carts, window frames, agricultural implements, etc. Bark yields crimson
gum, the true kino of commerce.

Schleichera Irijuga ... Ceylon oak Sagade, chendala

Wood very hard, strong, durable, and takes a fine polish. Weight about 70 lbs.
per cul)ic foot. Used for pestles, axles, teeth of harrows, screw rollers of mills. In
the Central Provinces lac is produced on this tree, known as kusiima lac, the most
highly prized of all. Bark and oil from the seeds medicinal ; the latter said to be the
original Macassar oil.

Stephegyne parvifolia ... ... ... ... ... Kadaga

Similar to Adina cordifolia, but not used much in the south of India.

Sterculia villosa Shi-anvige

Wood said to be firmly close-grained, suitable for Ijuilding and furniture. Bags
and ropes made of the fibrous l)ark.

Tectona grandis ... ... Teak' ... ... ... Tegu, tyaga

The chief value of this well-known wood arises from its strength, added to its
durability, due probably to the resinous matter in the pores, which resists the action
of water. Weight varies in different localities, but approximately 45 lbs. per cubic
foot when seasoned. Used in India for numerous purposes — construction, ship-
building, sleepers, and furniture ; in Europe for railway carriages, ships, and the
backing of armour plates in ironclads.

Terminalia chebula ... Black myrobalan ... Alale, arale

The fruit is most valuable as a tan. The gall-nuts make excellent ink and dyes.
Wood hard and fairly durable. Weight about 60 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for
furniture, carts, and agricultural implements.

Terminalia paniculata ... ... ... ... . . Huluve, hunal

Timber of middling quality, especially when seasoned in water. Heartwood dark,

hard, and fairly durable. Weight 47 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for the same purposes

as Matti. Also for fuel, planking, and country carts. In the ground is liable to
attacks of white ants.

Terminalia tomentosa ... ... ... ... ... Matti

Wood dark brown, with darker streaks, hard, but not very durable. Weight about
60 lbs. per cubic foot. Good fuel tree ; leaves useful as manure for areca-nut
gardens. Yields a gum said to be used as an incense and cosmetic. Bark used for
tanning.

Vitex altissima ... ... ... ... ... ... Naviladi

Valuable wood ; brownish-grey when seasoned. Weight 63 lbs. per cubic foot.
Used, when procuralile, for building and agricultural work.

• The finest teak in Mysore is found in the State forests of Lakvalli, Bisalvadi,
Kakankote, Begur, and Ainur Marigudi. The teak plantations in Mysore cover an
area of about 4,000 acres.

TREES 73

Xylia dolabriformis ... Iron wood ... ... Jambe

Wood dark red or brown, very strong, hard, tough, and durable ; not attacked by
white ants. Weight 65 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for building and agricultural
implements, also for the best charcoal.

The bamboo, scientifically reckoned a giant grass, abounds in the
large forests, and is one of the most valuable products. The common
species is Bambusa arundinacea, the spiny bamboo {bidaru). Dendra-
calamus strictus is the " male bamboo " {gandu bidaru), a solid bamboo
used for spear or lance staves, walking-sticks, &c. The largest bamboos,
known as atide bidaru, are said to be found in the forests of the Mysore
District. The periodical dying off of the bamboo after seeding is a
well-known phenomenon. The seed, called bamboo rice, generally
appears at a time of drought, when the crops have failed, and is eaten
by the poorer classes. The uses of the bamboo are innumerable, and
there is scarcely a domestic purpose to which it is not applied.

The following trees are also common in these forests : —

Acacia arabica Babul Kari Jali, goljli

Yields the Indian gum arable. Wood pale red, turning darker on exposure, close-
grained, tough, and very durable when seasoned in water. Weight about 54 lbs. per
cubic foot. Much used for naves, spokes and felloes of wheels ; also for rice-pounders,
oil and sugar mills, agricultural implements, etc. Tan, dye, fibre, food, and medicine
are obtained from the bark or pods.

Acacia leucophloea... ... ... ... ... ... Bill Jali, topal

Good fuel tree. Sapvvood large ; heartwood reddish-brown, tough, and easily
seasoned. Weight about 55 lbs. per cubic foot. Bark used in distilling arrack. The
young pods given to sheep supposed to improve the quality of the mutton. Gum,
dye, fibre, and medicine are also obtained from this tree.

^Egle marmelos ... ... Bael ... ... ... Bilpatre

Greatly esteemed for the medicinal properties of root, bark, leaves, and fruit. The
pulp of the latter a specific for dysentery and diarrhoea. Its shell or rind is made
into snuff-bo.xes. Wood strongly scented when fresh cut, yellowish-white, hard, and
durable. Weight about 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Seldom felled, as it is considered
sacred, and the leaves indispensable for the worship of Siva.

Butea frondosa ... ... ... ... ... ... Muttaga

\Miole tracts of country are gay with its gorgeous orange-crimson flowers at the
beginning of the hot weather. The leaves are used as plates, and the branches for
sacrificial purposes. A red gum called bastard kino obtained from the bark. From
the flowers is prepared the red juice squirted about in the Holi festival. The seeds
anthelmintic and a common remedy for horses. Wood of little value, but said to be
durable under water. Weight 35 lbs. per cubic foot.

Eugenia jambolana ... Black plum, Jamoon ... Nerale

There are two varieties, caryophyllifolia (nayi nerale) and obtusifolia (jaml)u
nerale). The latter, bearing larger fruit, is most abundant in the Malnad. Fruit,
which has a verj' astringent taste, leaves, seeds, and bark medicinal, and the latter
used for dyeing and tanning. Wood whitish, hard, tough, and durable in water.
Weight 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for buildings and agricultural implements.

74 FLORA

I'ciDniu I'lcplianluni ... Wood-apjilc ... ... Bcla, lj)ala

TIk' acid i)iil|) of llic fruit generally eaten, either raw or sometimes in the form of
a jelly like Mack currant. Wood yellowi.sh, close-grained, hard, and durable.
Weight 5oll)s. ])er cubic foot. Used like the foregoing. The bark yields a white
transparent gum resembling gum arable.

Kicus bengalensis Banyan Ala

Clood shade for cofTee. Wood of little value, Init durable under water, and there-
fore used for well frames. Weight aljout 37 lbs. per cubic foot. The wood of the
aerial roots used for tent-poles, cart-yokes, etc. From the milk sap birdlime is made ;
it is also applied to sores and bruises. The young leaves are used for plates.

I-'icus glomerala ... ... Country fig ... ... Atti

Uses similar to those of the above. Cattle eat the fruit greedily ; it is also eaten
by the poor in times of scarcity. The tree imparts moisture to the soil around its
roots.

Ficus religiosa Peepul Arab, ragi, asvattha

Wood of no value. Other uses similar to those of the above. A sacred tree,
planted at the entrance of every village along with the margosa, to which it is married
with the due ceremonies. Perambulations of the tree supposed to confer male issue
and other blessings.

Mangifera indica Mango Mavu

Well known for its delicious fruit throughout India. Wood used for minor works
of carpentry, but does not stand exposure, and is liable to attacks of insects. Weight
about 40 lbs. per cubic foot. Besides being eaten raw, the fruit is made into
chatnis, pickles, and preserves. Medicinal properties are attributed to almost ever>'
part of the tree. The leaves, strung on a thread, are hung up as a sign of welcome
at the lintel of doorways.

Phcenix farinifera Dwarf date Sanna ichalu

The leaves are used for thatch, and as fuel for potteries. The farinaceous pith of
the stem seems not to be eaten here as in some other parts of India.

Phoenix sylvestris Wild date. Toddy palmi Ichalu.

From the juice is produced the toddy or arrack of the country ; and a small propor-
tion is boiled down for making jaggery and date-sugar. Good mats are made from
the leaves.

Tamarindus indica... ... Tamarind ... ... Hunise

Most valued for its fruit, which is largely used in food and for making a cooling
drink. The seeds are also roasted and eaten ; and a size made from them is used by
Kuruljars as a dressing for kamblis or country-made blankets. Fruit, leaves, and seed
are also medicinal. Heartwood very hard and durable, but difficult to work. Weight
about 60 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for naves of wheels, rice-pounders, mallets, tent-
pegs, oil and sugar mills, handles to tools, and .so on.

The third or dry belt Hes to the east of the mixed forest belt, and
includes the far greater portion of the Province. The tree vegetation is
much inferior to that immediately to the west, the change being in some
parts gradual, in others very marked. The latter is especially per-

* The groves of this toddy palm, which is a Covernment monopoly, cover altogether
an area of something like 30,000 acres in the Maidan parts of the State. The finest
are in the Chitaldroog and Mysore Districts.

TREES 75

ceptible near the Baba Budan hills, which from their elevation arrest
much of the rain which would otherwise pass to the east and north-east.
The difference between the abundant vegetation of the Jagar valley to
the west, and the scanty vegetation to the east, of the Kalhatti hills in
the Baba Budans is remarkable.

Many of the trees found in the mixed belt are common to this third
tract, but as a rule they are of smaller growth. This is specially notice-
able in teak, which is only met with stunted, twisted and small ; in
some of the coDibrefacecc, and very marked in some of the leguininosce.

Besides the different kinds of Jiciis, the mango, tamarind and jamun,
the ippe {ixxssia lafifolid) and jack {artocarpus integrifolia) grow well.
The acacias of the preceding list, the wood-apple, bael-tree and pachari
also thrive. The wild date {pJuvnix sylvestris) grows in the western
part and tlie dwarf date {phcetitx farinifera) in the centre and west.
The custard-apple {anona squainosci) grows wild rather abundantly in
the waste lands of the Sira taluq. Among others the more valuable and
common trees are : — ■

Acacia catechu ... ... ... ... ... ... Kagli

Catechu {kdchii) is obtained by boiling down a decoction from chips of the heart-
wood. It is not much made in Mysore, and is principally used for mastication and
medicine. There are two kinds, dark and pale, of which the latter only is used for
chewing. Ileartwood dark red, hard, durable, seasons well, and takes a fine polish ;
not attacked by white ants. Weight about 70 ll^s. per cubic foot. Much used for
fuel and charcoal. Also for oil and sugar mills, l)ows, handles to arms, and for
agricultural implements.

Alangium lamarckii ... ... ... ... ... Ankule

Good for fuel and fences. Wood light yellow outside, dark brown in the centre,
hard, even-grained, tough, and durable. A beautiful wood when well seasoned.
Weight about 52 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for pestles, wooden bells, and other
minor purposes. Fruit acid ; nearly every part of the tree medicinal.

Anogeissus lalifolia ... Dindiga

See above (p. 70).

Averrhoa carambola ... ... ... ... ... Kamaraka

Fruit eaten raw, also stewed, curried, and pickled. Wood light red, hard, and
close-grained. Weight about 40 lbs. per cubic foot.

Buchanania latifolia ... ... ... ... ... Murkali

Well known for its edible seeds, in some places used as a substitute for almonds.
1 leartwood seasons well and sufficiently duralile for protected work. Weight 36 lbs.
per cubic foot. Bark can be used in tanning.

Dalhergia lanceolaria ... ... ... ... ... llasar ganni

Wood whitish, heavy, weighing 62 lbs. per cubic fool, l)Ul not durable. Root,
bark, and an oil from the seed, medicinal.

Diospyros tupru ... ... ... ... ... ... Tupra

Fruit eaten by cowherds. Leaves used for folding native cigarettes. The
Mahrattis obtain from the root a coloured paste for caste marks.

76 FLORA

Dulicliaiidronc falciita ... ... ... ... ..• Udi

A coarse dark I'lhro obtained from the inner bark. IIcarlw<jod hard enough for
implements and village buildings.

(jardenia gumniifera ... ... ... ... ... liikke

The medicinal gum-resin, known in trade as dikamali, exudes from the e.xtremities
of the ycnmg shoots and buds ; said to have an offensive smell. Wood white, very
hard, might serve for bo.K-wood.

llardwickia binata ... ... ... ... ... Karachi

One of the most durable timl)ers in India.' Ileartwood aliundant, close-grained,
dark red tinged with purple, soft and easy to work when fresh cut, Ijut afterwards
becomes extremely hard. Weight unseasoned 80 lbs. per cubic foot ; seasoned wood
much lighter. Used for bridges, houses, and agricultural implements. Gum, tan,
and fil^re are also obtained from it. The young shoots and leaves very extensively
used for fodder.

Ixora parviflora Torch-tree Gorivi, hennu gorivi

The branches are used as torches by travellers and postal runners. The flowers,
pounded in milk, used as a remedy for whooping-cough. Wood, though small, said
to be hard and even-grained. Weight about 60 lbs. per cul:>ic foot. Well suited for
turning.

Lagerstro^mia parviflora ... ... ... ... ... Chaunangi

Wood light grey, tinged with red, and darker towards the centre ; straight-fibred,
tough, elastic. Weight about 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for agricultural imple-
ments, and considered fairly durajjle. Fibre, tan, dye, and an edible gum obtained
from the bark. The tasser silkworm feeds on the tree.

Morinda umbellata ... ... ... ... ... Maddi

From the root is obtained the yellow dye known as Maddi bamia. Fruit said to
be curried and eaten.

Pongamia glabra ... ... Indian beech ... ... Honge

Wood tough and light, weighing about 40 lbs. per cubic foot, white when cut but
turning yellow on exposure, coarse-grained, fibrous, and not durable, but said to improve
when seasoned in water. Large trunks used for the solid wheels of waddar carts.
Oil from the seed is used for lamps and medicinally ; also other parts of the tree for
the cure of rheumatism and .skin diseases. Leafy branches used as green manure for
paddy fields. The flowers also used for manure to crops. Honge cake forms a
manure to coffee.

Semecarpus anacardium ... Marking nut ... ... Geru

Wood of little value, as it cracks in seasoning. Weight 42 lbs. per cubic foot.
The juice from the growing tree said to cause blisters when handled ; is therefore
ringed some time before felling. The fleshy cup on which the fruit rests is eaten.
The juice of the fruit proper is used as medicine, also for varnish, and mixed with
lime for marking linen. Oil from the seed is said to be made use of in taming wild
elephants, and birdlime prepared from the fruit when green.

Shorea talura ... ... Lac-tree-... ... ,., Jalari

The lac insect is propagated on it, and besides lac, a kind of dammar is obtained
from the tree. Wood yellowish, heavy, and dural^le, capable of taking a good polish,
and used for building. Weight 54 lbs. per cubic foot.

' Mostly confined to the Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts, and specially abundant
in Bukkapatna, near Sira, and in Molkalmuru taluq.

- Most abundant in the Anekal and Closepet taluqs, and in the Nandidroog hills.

SANDAL 77

Stereospernnim chelonoides ... ... ... ... Padri

Wood said to l^e tremendously hard and almost indestructil)le under water.
Sawyers object to saw it. U.sed for beams and posts.

Zizyphus jujul)a ... ... Indian jujul:)e, ber ... Velachi

The fruit is lietter known in northern India. Wood hard, even-grained, tough
and dural)le. Weight 58 11k. per cubic foot. Bark very astringent and exudes a
medicinal gum.

Zizyphus xylopyrus ... ... ... ... ... Challe

The fruit used as a dye for l^lackening leather. Wood hard and tough. Weight
about 6oll)s. per cuImc foot. Used for walking-sticks and torches.

Among shrub.s and u.scful bushes are : —

Calotropis gigantea ... Madar, giant swallow- ^'ekka

wort
The jilant is filled with a milky sap which hardens on exjiosure to light, forming a
kind of gutta percha, except that it is a conductor of electricity. Medicinal virtues
are attributed to every part of the plant. The inner bark yields a bast fibre, which
has been suggested as a material for making paper. The silk-cotton of the seed forms
the Madar floss of commerce.

Cassia auriculata ... ... Tanner's bark ... ... Tangadi

The bark is one of the best Indian tans,' and the root bark is used for tempering
iron with steel. Bark and seeds are also medicinal. Twigs used for native tooth-
brushes.

Cassia fistula ... ... Indian laburnum ... Kakke

Wood small but duralile, weighing 50 lbs. per cul)ic foot. Hard l)ut brittle and
apt to fracture. Used for paddy-grinders, posts, and agricultural implements. From
the bark are obtained fil:)re, tannin, and gum. The fresh pulp of the fruit forms a
purgative, and the dried leaves are laxative.

Jatropha curcas ... ... Physic nut ... ... Mara haralu

The young twigs are used as tooth-brushes, the milky juice being considered to
strengthen the teeth and gums. The milk sap is a good styptic, and dried in the sun
forms a reddish-brown substance like shell-lac. The external application of a
decoction of the leaves will excite the secretion of milk. Commonly planted for
fences, as cattle will not eat it.

The sandal-tree {sanfahtiii albiini), gandha, srigandha -a [jroduct
I)n'ncipally of My.sore and a State monopoly, yielding the largest
share of the forest revenue — is found all over the country, but grows
very unequally in different parts. It is never met with in the evergreen
belt or in heavy forests of the mixed belt, but is most abundant along
the eastern skirts of the last-named tract ; in the taluqs bordering on
the Kaveri ; and in those lying along the chain of hills which runs from
Kankanhalli up to Madgiri. In the Chitaldroog and Kolar Districts it
is very scarce.

' .\n analysis by Professor Hummel, of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, showed the
bark to contain 20*5 per cent, of tannic acid.

78 FLORA

'I'lic tree altains its grcalesL bulk and height in takiqs with a
moderately heavy rain-fall, but the ])erfunie of wood grown in such
localities is not so strong as of that grown in more arid spots, especially
where the soil is red and stony. It will thrive among rocks where the
soil is good, and trees in such places though small are generally fuller
of oil. The bark and sapwood have no smell, but the heartwood and
roots are highly scented and rich in oil. The girth of a mature tree
varies, according to circumstances, from i8 to 36 or, in exceptional
cases, 40 inches. It attains maturity in about twenty-five years. The
older the tree, the nearer the heartwood comes to the surface ; while
the bark becomes deeply wrinkled, is red underneath, and frequently
bursts, disclosing in old specimens the absence of all sapwood. In
colour and marking, four varieties of the wood are distinguished : —
/'///, white ; kei/ipii, red ; iidga, cobra ; and 7iavi/u, peacock. The two
latter command fancy prices : the names indicate the supposed resem-
blance of the marks, which are really " caused by the death of
adventitious buds."

The heartwood is hard and heavy, weighing about 61 lbs. per cubic
foot. The best parts are used for carving boxes, cabinets, desks, walk-
ing-sticks, and other useful and ornamental articles. The roots (which
are the richest in oil) and the chips go to the still ; while the Hindus
who can afford it show their wealth and respect for their departed
relatives by adding sticks of sandalwood to the funeral pile. The wood,
either in powder or rubbed up into a paste, is used by all Brahmans in
the pigments for making their caste marks. The oil forms the basis of
many scents, and is sometimes used for disguising with its scent articles
which, being really carved from common wood, are passed off as if
made from the true sandal. The far greater portion of the wood sold
yearly in Mysore is taken to Boml)ay, where it finds its way principally
to China, France, and Germany.

Efforts for the propagation of sandal did not meet with much success
some years ago, owing to the delicate nature of the young plant, and its
exposure to the ravages of hares and deer. More recently the lantana
shrub, which grows with the rankness of a weed, has been found to be
an effectual nurse for the seedlings.

The following timber trees are also found in ISIysore : —

Acacia farnesiana ... ... ... ... ... Kasturi jali, kasti'iri gobli

The yellow flower heads diffuse a pleasant odour, and are known as Cassia flowers
in European perfumery. The plant is said to be obnoxious to snakes arid vermin.
Wood white, hard, and tough, but too small for general utility. Weight 49 lbs. per
cubic foot. A gum like gum arabic is obtained from the stem. Bark and pods
medicinal.

TREES 79

Acacia ferruginea .. . ... ... ... ... ... Banni

Yields a good gum. Kark very astringent ; used in distilling arrack. Heartwood
.small in proportion, reddish-brown, very hard. Weight 70 lbs. per cubic foot. Little
used on account of its being considered sacred.

Acacia sundra ... ... ... ... ••• ... Kenipu khaira

Little more than a variety of A. catechu. The Itranches are a darker brown, and
the wood heavier and more durable. Weight when seasoned about 80 lbs. per cubic
foot. U.sed for posts in hou.se-building.

Aglaia roxburghiana ... ... ... ... ... Toitila

Fruit l)uff-coloured, eaten medicinally.

Albizzia amara ... ... ... ... ... ... Sujjalu

Oood locomotive fuel. Heartwood purplish-ljrown, very hard and durable, of
great transverse strength. Weight al)out 65 lbs. per culjic foot. Used for carts and
agricultural implements. Seasoned limbs used for ploughs.

Albizzia stipulata ... ... ... ... ... ... Hotte bagi

Good charcoal tree. Wood used for various purpo.ses, but not very durable.
Weight about 40 lbs. per cubic foot. The green leaves a fodder for cattle.

Alstonia scholaris ... ... ... ... ... ... Jantala

liark and leaves medicinal : the former known out of India as Dita bark, containing
the active principle Ditain, said to equal the best sulphate of quinine. Wood soft
and light, of little value. Weight 28 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for schoolboys'
writing-bf)ards, whence the name scholaris.

Boswellia serrata, var. glal)ra ... ... ... ... Sambrani

Wood inferior and only used for fuel or charcoal. The gum-resin is a Ijastard

olibanum, much used as medicine, and as incense in the temples. The branches
make good torches.

Careya arborea Gauju, kavalu

Sajiwood al)un{lant, white ; heartwood red, dark in old trees, even-grained, and
beautifully mottled. Weight aljout 50 lbs. per cubic foot. A durable and pretty
wood, but not much used in Mysore e.xcept for wooden %-essels and agricultural
implements. Formerly used for the drums of sepoy corps. Bark astringent and
yields a very strong fibre, employed as a slow match to ignite gunpowder, and for
fuses of native matchlocks. Fruit and flowers medicinal.

Cedrela toona ... ... Indian niahngany, ... Gar.dagarige

while cedar
Wood suitable fnr furniture and l)uil(iings. Said to be duraljle and not attacked by
white ants. Weight about 33 lbs. per cubic foot. Red and yellow dyes obtained
from the flowers. Bark medicinal.

Chickrassia tabularis ... Chittagong wood ... Dalmara

Wood Ijeautifully marked, durable, fragrant, easily worked, and takes a good
polish. Used especially for furniture and cabinetwork. Weight 46 lbs. per cubic
foot. Bark astringent. Red and yellow dyes obtained from the flowers.

Cochlcspernum gossypium Arisina buruga

The fine floss from the seeds, also called silk-cotton, is used for stuffing pillows in
hospitals in Europe, but locally considered to cause much heat. The gum from the
trunk is used for tragacanth in mirthern India. Wood of no value ; weight about
17 lbs. per cubic foot.

8o FLORA

Cordia iililiijua ... ... ... ... ... ... Chadle

Very simil.ir to C. niyxa (p. 70) in character. Flowers larger, and jilant more hairy.

Cordia rothii ... ... ... ... ... ... Narvalli

A coarse fibre from the hark used for ropes. Wood said to be grey, compact, and
hard.

Crata-va religiosa ... ... ... ... ... ... Nirvala

Wood soft and even-grained. Said to be used for drums, combs, and in turnery.
I<eaves and bark medicinal.

Diospyros embryojHeris ... ... ... ... ... ? Kusharta

Fruit rich in tannic acid, but when ripe this disappears and it is eaten. Bark and
an oil from the seed medicinal. Wood light brown and not of much value. Uses of
the tree not much known in this part of India.

Guazuma tomentosa ... Bastard cedar ... ... Rudrakshi

Leaves and fruit much relished by cattle. Bark medicinal. Timber of old trees
said to be durable, though light and apt to split. Weight 32 lbs. per cubic foot.

Ilardwickia pinnata ... ... ... ... ... Yenne mara

An oil or oleo-resin obtained from deep incision into the heart of the tree resembles
copaiva balsam in composition and properties, though not so transparent, and of a
dark red colour. Sapwood large, heartwood brown. Weight 47 lbs. per cubic foot.
Used for building in the parts where it grows.

Macaranga roxburghii ... ... ... ... ... Chenta kanni

A medicinal gum, reddish, and with the odour of turpentine, exudes from the young
shoots and fruit. Said to be used for taking impressions of coins, etc. , and for sizing
paper. Wood soft and useless.

Machilus macrantha Chittu tandri

The properties of this tree are unknown.

Melia azadirachta ... ... Neem, margosa ... ... Bevu

Every part medicinal. Heartwood used for making idols. The wood is not
attacked by insects, is hard, durable, and beautifully mottled. Weight about 50 lbs.
per cubic foot. Suitable for cabinet work and carpentry. Neem oil, obtained from
the seed, is used for killing insects. Leaves antiseptic, and in the native treatment
of small-pox are placed under and around the patient at certain stages of the disease.
The tree is considered sacred and planted with the peepul at the entrance of villages,
the two being married with due ceremonies, the latter representing the female and
the former the male.

Melia azedarach ... ... Persian lilac, bead-tree Turuka bevu, huchu

bevu
Leaves much relished by sheep and goats. Wood nicely mottled and takes a good
polish. Weight about 35 lbs. per cubic foot. Not used. The seeds generally
worn as rosaries. The products of the tree resemble those of the neem, but seem to
be more used in America than in- India.

Melia dubia ... ... Giant neem ... ... Heb be\-u

Wood soft and light, weighing about 25 lbs. per cubic foot. Used by planters for
buildings. Not easily attacked by white ants. The dried fruit, resembling a date, is
a remedy for colic.

Meliosma arnottiana ... ... ... ... ... Massivala

Wood used for poles and agricultural implements : also, apparently, for building
purposes.

FRUIT TREES 8i

Moringa pierygosperma ... Horse-radish ... ... Nugge

Also, from the form of the flower, known as the drumstick-tree. The fleshy root is
a perfect substitute for horse-radish. The Ben oil of commerce, valued as a lubricant
by watchmakers, is obtained from the seed, but is seldom made in India, owing to
the fruit being saleable as a vegetable, and the seed therefore not being allowed to
mature. Nearly every part considered medicinal.

Ochrocarpus longifolius ... ... ... ... ... Surgi

The dried flower-buds, known in commerce as tamra nagakc.sari, yield a dye for
silk. The flowers are used for decoration in temples and on the person. Wood used
for local building. Hard, red, close and even-grained. Weight 55 lbs. per cubic foot.

Odina wodier ... ... ... ... ... ... Udi, simti

Wood of little value and liable to attacks of insects. Weight about 55 lbs. per
cubic foot. Bark and gum medicinal. Cattle fond of the green leaves.

Poeciloneuron indicum ... ... ... ... ... Ballagi

Wood very hard and heavy. Not much used except for rice-pounders, agricultural
implements, and perhaps walking-sticks.

Polyalthia cerasoides ... ... ... ... ... Sanna hesare

Wood olive-grey, moderately hard, close-grained. Weight 52 lbs. per cubic foot.
Much used for carpentry in the Bomlmy country, but not here.

Prosopis spicigera ... ... ... ... ... ... ? Perumbe

Good fuel tree, especially for locomotives. Sapwood large and perishal)lc ; heart-
wood extremely hard but not durable. Weight 58 lbs. per cubic foot.

Sapindus trifoliatus ... Soap-nut... ... ... Kugati, antavala

The nut commonly used for washing clothes. Flannels may be washed with it
without shrinking. Root, bark, fruit, and oil from the seed medicinal. Wood hard,
yellow, cross-grained, and not very durable. Weight about 64 lbs. per cubic foot.
Occasionally used for carts, but more commonly as handles for axes and similar tools,
and for combs.

Saraca indica ... ... ... ... ... ... Asoka

A sacred tree, grown in gardens and near temples for its l)eautiful flowers, which
are a rich orange, changing to dull red. Used also medicinally. The tree is supposed
to be a protector of chastity. Sita, the wife of Rama, when carried off" by Ravana,
took refuge in a grove of asoka trees.

Sterculia guttata ... ... ... ... ... ... ?Jen-katalu

Bark ash-coloured and very fibrous, used on the Western Coast for making cordage
and rough articles of clothing.

Strychnos potatorum ... Clearing-nut tree ... Chillu

The ripened seeds are used for clearing muddy water. A paste of the .same
removes the pain from the sting of a centipede. Often felled for fuel.

Thespe.sia populnea ... Portia, tulip-tree ... Huvvarasi

Formerly much planted as an avenue tree, but does not attain perfection so for
inland. When raised from seed the timber is free from knots, straight, even-grained,
and tough : suitable for carriages and work requiring lightness and pliability. Bark,
fruit, and heartwood medicinal.

Wrightia tinctoria Beppale, Hale

Wood highly valued by native turners on account of its ivory-wliite colour. Used
for the celebrated Channapatna toys and for wooden idols. The leaves, which turn
black when dry, afford a kind of indigo, called in Mysore /«z/a indigo.

FLORA

Of fruit trees grown in native gardens, the following are the more
important. Most of them are too well known to need description : —

Anacardiiim occidentalc ...

... Cashew-nut

... Geru

Anona reticulata ...

Bullock's heart ..

Ram phal

,, squamosa ...

. . . Custard apple . .

Sita phal

Artocarpus integrifolia

... Jack

... Ilalasina mara

Averrhoa carambola

. . . Carambola

Kamarak

Carica papaya

Papay

I'erangi

Citrus aurantium ...

... Orange ...

... Kittale

,, decumana

... Pumelo

Sakote

,, medica

... Citron

... Madala

, , , , var. acida . . .

... Lime

... Nimbe

>> 5) jj limetta

Sweet lime

... Gaja nimbe

,, ,, ,, limonum

Lemon ...

... Herile

Cocos nucifera

... Cocoa-nut palm ..

... Tengina mara

Eriobotrya japonica

.. Loquat ...

... Lakote

Eugenia jambos

Rose apple

Pan nerale

Ficus carica

- Fig

Anjura

Mangifera indica ...

... Mango

Mavina mara

Musa sapientum ...

... Plantain ..

... Bale

Phyllanthus distichus

Star-gooseberry ..

... Kiri nelli

, , emblica

Emblic myrobalar

I ... Nelli

Psidium guyava

... Guava

... Shepe

Punica granatum ...

. . . Pomegranate

Dalimbe

Pyrus malus

... Apple

. . . Sevu

Vitis vinifera

... Vine

... Drakshi

The cashew fiut proper is eaten roasted, and used in native sweet-
meats. It yields an oil equal to oil of almonds. From the shell are
obtained a black caustic oil, known as cardol, a good preventive of
white ants, and anacardic acid, having rubefacient properties. A weak
spirit may also be distilled from its juice. Gum obtained from the
bark is obnoxious to insect pests. Juice from incisions in the bark
forms an indelible marking ink. Jack fruit is a favourite article of food
among the natives. It is enormous in size and weight, commonly about
20 inches long, and 6 or 8 inches in diameter, weighing 30 to 40 lbs.,
and grows from the trunk or main limbs with a short stout stalk. The
papay fruit, something like a small melon, is eaten by all classes, and
also pickled. Its juice yields papaine, said to be superior to animal
pepsin in its peptonising powers. Meat suspended under the tree
becomes tender. The seeds are universally believed to be an effectual
emmenagogue and abortive.

The best oratiges are imported, and are the produce of Satghur near
Vellore, or of the Sherveroy Hills, &c. The loose-jacket orange is
obtained from Coorg. Of cocoa-nuts a rare variety is produced at
Honnavalli in Tilmktir District, which, on account of the delicious
sweet flavour of its milk, is called Ganga-pani, or water of the Ganges.

FRUIT TREES 83

The dried kernel of cocoa-nuts, called kobari, is a great article of export
from the central parts of Mysore.'

Of mangoes there are many varieties, bearing the following names : —
gbl kdyi (the most common, roundish), bdddmi (almond-shaped),
rasapuri (reddish pulp), jirige (has the scent of cummin seed), pick
kdyi (small kind), kari kdyi (black fibres in the skin), giiii mnti or gini
mdvu (shape of a parrot's beak), gti'ige mdvu (generally has a bee in the
stone), sakkare or shi nidvu (sweet kind), chit ^iy/ (small kind), hu/i
mdvu (used only for pickle). The cultivated kinds, which are pro-
pagated by inarching or grafting by approach, have the following
names : — ami'ni, badami, Chittilr, dil-pasand, Malgova, nilam, Peter-
pasand, puttu, rasapuri, Salem, sandarsha. The formation of graft
mango plantations has greatly extended during recent years.

Plantains are very plentiful and a favourite article of diet. The
most esteemed are rasa bd/e and rdja rasa bd/e (with a yellow custard-
like pulp), putta bd/e or pufta sugandha bd/e (a small sweet plantain, the
Guindy plantain), madhuranga, gujja, china, and giiliir bd/e (all butter
plantains), yr//?^ A?76' (honey plantain), rdja bd/e (royal ^\d.xv\.dXx\), chandra
bale (red plantain), sakaldti bdle (red and cottony), pacJicha bdle (green
when ripe), hdvu bd/e (long and slender), yelakki bd/e, arisina bd/e, due
bd/e (a very large kind), kaiydjii bd/e (very large and coarse), h'ldi bd/e
(greyish, used only for cooking), liddti bd/e (the wild plantain).

Guavas, of which there are three or four varieties, white and red, are
very plentiful. The grafted kinds are superior. A delicious jelly, closely
resembling red currant, is made from the common kind by Europeans.

The grapes, though sweet, are small, owing probably to want of atten-
tion in thinning out the clusters. Both green and purple varieties are
grown. Those from the neighbourhood of Seringapatam are the most
highly esteemed. Of imported varieties, fourteen are named in Mr.
Cameron's catalogue as in local cultivation. Efforts are being made to
extend viticulture. Apples are cultivated principally in Bangalore for
the European market, and grow to great perfection. The different
varieties are distinguished by numbers indicating the order in which
they were introduced.

The following are names of vegetables of which the leaves are used
l)y natives in curries and stews. Some of these vegetables are cultivated,
while others grow wild. The leaves only are used in curries or boiled
with chillies to be eaten along with rice.

/Eschynomene grand iflora Agase soppu

Achyranthes lanata ... ... ... ... ... ... Bili suli ,,

,, muricata Akvi goraji

,, triandra Ponnaganli soppu

' Further particulars regarding cocoa-nuts will be found under "Cultivation."

c; 2

FLORA

Amaranlus campeslris

,, Candidas

„ gangclicus ...

,, inamnenus

,, mangostanus ...

,, oleraceus

,, viridis

Arum esculentum ...
Basella rubra and all)a and var.
Boerhaavia diffusa
Brassica alba
Canthium parviflorum
Cassia tora
Chenopodium viride
Cleome pentaphylla
Convolvulus esculentus ...
Corchorus olitorius
Coriandrum sativum
Hibiscus cannabinus

,, sabdariffa
Hyperanthera moringa ...
Leucas aspera
Marsilea quadrifolia
Mollugo striata
Portulaca oleracea

,, quadrifida

Trianthema decandra

,, monogyna

Trigonella foenum grKcum

Country greens

Indian spinach
Hogweed
White mustard

Goosefoot

Jew's mallow
Coriander
Deccan hemp
Rozelle . . .
Horse-radish

Indian purslane ...

FenuOTeek

Kirakasale soppu
Bill

Dantu ,,

Harive ,,

Chilki soppu
Soppu

Daggali soppu
Kesave ,,
Dodda basali
Bilavarga
Bill sasive soppu
Kare gida
Gundu tagasi
Sakotti soppu
Narobeda
Tutti soppu
Kotna goraji
Cottambari soppu
Fundi, pundrika
Kempu ,,
Nugge soppu
Tumlje ,,
Chitigina ,,
Parpataka soppu
Dodda gora
Hull bachcheli
Galija

Nuchchu govi
Mente soppu

The fniits and seeds of the following trees and plants are also used
in curries. Fruits introduced into curries are generally unripe ; when
ripe they are unfit for the purpose.

.^schynomene grandiflora

... Jack fruit

Artocarpus integrifolia
Bryonia umbellata
Capparis zeylanica
Cucurbita alba

,, lagenaria

Cucumis acutangulus

,, pentandra

,, species ...

,, utillatissimus
Dolichos lablab

„ ,, var.

,, minimus...

,, spicatus ...

, , suratu
Hibiscus esculentus
Hyperanthera moringa
Momordica charantia
,, dioiea

Pumpkin ...
Bottle siourd

Country cucumber

Cow gram

Morinea fruit

Agase kayi

Halsina ,,

Tonde ,,

Totli „

Dodda kumbala kayi

Dodda sore kayi

Hire kayi

Tuppa hire kayi

Huli saute ,,

Saute kayi

Man avare

Bili man avare

Ghatt avare

Dodda man avare

Budame kayi

Bende kayi

Nugge ,,

Hagal ,,

Gid hagalu

HORTICULTURE

Momordica operculala
Musa sapientum ...
Solanum melongena
,, trilobatuni
,, varietas ...
Trichosanthes cucumerina
,, nervifolia ...

J, palmata ..,

Trigonella tetrapetala

Plantain
Brinjal

Bale hannu
Badane kayi
Kakamunchi kayi
Molalu badane
Kiri podia kayi
Podia kayi
Avagude hannu
Gori kayi

A few names may be added of plants the roots of which are used in cur-
ries. Of these the country or sweet potato grows here to great perfection.
xVrum campanulatus Arum Churna gadde

,, colocasia
Convolvulus batatas
Daucus carota
Dioscorea sativa . . .
Raphanus sativus ...

Sweet potato
Carrot
Vam
Radish . . .

Kesave ,,
Genasu ,,
Gajina ,,
Heg-genasu gaclde
MuUangi ,,

The Catalogue, which here follows, of plants in the Lai Bagh or
Government Botanical Gardens at Bangalore, compiled by Mr. J.
Cameron, F.L.S., the Superintendent, will serve to show the capabilities
of the climate and the attention bestowed on horticulture : —

Dicotyledons.

Kantinculacea.
Clematis, 5' ... Virgin's bower

Naravelia, i

Thalictrum, i ... Meadow rue
Delphinium, 2 ... Larkspur
Nigella, 2 ... ... Fennel flower

Aquilegia, 2 ... Columbine

Several species of Clematis grow wild
in Mysore.

DillcniacecB.
Delima, i
Dillenia, 3
Candollea, i

Several Dillenia are elegant trees for
scenic planting.

Magnoliacea:.
Magnolia, 3

Michelia, 2 Champaka Sampige
The fragrant Champaka is a favourite

flower of Indian poetry.

AnonaceLe,
Uvaria, 2
Artabotrys, i
Polyalthia, 2
Anona, 5 Custard apple Sita phal

Miliusa, I
Saccopetalum, i

The custard apple and bullock's heart
(Rama phal) are abundant in many parts.

JSIenisperniacece.
Tinospora, i
Anamista, I
Cocculus, I

Berberidea.
Berberis, i
Nandina, i

Himalayan plants almost impossible
to cultivate here.

Nymphixaccic.
Nymphoea, 3 Waterlily... T.-ivare
Nelumbium, i Lotus ... Kamala
Victoria, i ... Amazon lily

Lotus and waterlilies are common
in tanks or sacred ponds all over the
country.

Papaveraceit.
Papaver, 5 ... Poppy ... Ga.sagase
Argemone, I

The cultivation of poppy for opium is
prohibited.

' These figures show the number of species under each genus.

FLORA

I'liinariaccti'.

Cerastium, 2 ... Chickwced

Fumaria, I l'"uiiiiU)ry

Slellaria, i

Polycarpoea, 2

Criicifercc.

Various strains of pinks do well at

Matlhiola, 2 ... Stock

Bangalore

Portiilacecc.

Cheiranthus, i Wallflower

Nasturtium, 3... Watercress

Portulaca, 4

Cardaniine, i ... Cuckoo flower

Calandrinia, I

Malcolmia, i ... Virginian stock

Coronopus, i

Tainariscinece.

Erysimum, 2

Tamarix, i

Brassica, 7 ... Turnip

Hypericinea.

Cabbage Mudde kosu

Hypericum mysorense St. John's wort

Mustard Sasiva

Common at Nandidroog

Capsella, i ... Shepherd's purse
Lepidium, i ... Garden cress

Gidtiferce.

Iberis, i ... Candytuft

Garcinia, 4

' J

Raphanus, i ... Radish Mullangi

Ochrocarpus, i

Calophyllum, 2 Pinnay Surahonne

The European vegetables of this order

oil tree

are fully established in the market

Poon tree Kuve, Bobbi

gardens.

Mesua, i... ... ... Nagasampige

Capparideie.
Cleome, 6

Poeciloneuron, i... ... Ballagi

Clusia, I

Gynandropsis, i

Cratoeva, i Caper-tree

Cadaba, i

From the Ballagi tree walking-sticks
are made.

Capparis, 6

Ternstram iacecz.

Kesedacea.

Camellia, 2 Tea shrub

Reseda, i Mignonette

DipterocarpecE.

Violaceic.

Shorea, 2 ... Lac tree . . . Jalari

Viola, 2 Violet, Pansy

Sal tree

lonidium, i

Ilopea, 2

Bixinea.

Vateria, i ... Indian Dhupada

Cochlospermum, i

Copal tree mara

Bixa, 2 ... Annatto ... Rangumale

Malvacccc.

Flacourtia, 3

Althrea, 2 ... Hollyhock Dodda

Gynocardia, i
Hydnocarpus, i

bindige
Lavatera, I

Pittosporecv.

Malva, 3 Sanna

Pittosporum, 4
Billardiera, i

bindige
Malvastrum, 2

Bursaria, i

Sida, 7

Hymenosporum, i

Abutilon, 6 Tutti

Malachra, i

Sollya, I

Fo/ygalece.
Polygala, 3

Urena, 2
Pavonia, 2
Decaschistia, 2

Cmyophylku.

Hibiscus, 23... Shoe-flower Dasala

Dianthus, 5 Pink

Rozelle ... Kempu

Saponaria, i ... Soapwort

pundrike

Silene, 4 Catchfly

Paritium, i

Lychnis, 2 ... ... Campion

Thespesia, 2

HOR TIC UL TURE

Gossypium, 5 Cotton ... Arale

Kydia, I

Adansonia, i I^aolmli

Bombax, i Kempu

buruga

Eriodendron, I Biji In'iruga

Lagunaria, i

Durio, I ... Durian

Under Abiitilon 12 garden varieties
are enumerated. Under Gossypium the
cottons known as Hinginghaut, Dacca,
Berar, Upland Georgian, and China are
varieties of herbaceiini ; those known as
Barbadoes, Bourbon, New Orleans, and
Sea-Island are from barhadense.

Sfercitliacecv.
Sterculia, 8
Cola, I
Heritiera, 2
Kleinhovia, i
Helicteres, 2... Indian ... Vedamuri

Screw-tree
Pterospermum, i
Eriolxna, i
I'entapetes, I
Melhania, 2
Domljeya, i
Mclochia, I
Waltheria, i
Abroma, i
Guazuma, i ... Bastard ... Rudrakshi

cedar
Theobroma, i Chocolate-tree

Tiliacece.

Bcrrya, i
Grewia, 9

Bi'itale,

Tadasalu
Triumfetta, 3

Corchorus, 4 Jute plant
Eloeocarpus, 2

The genus Grewia is well represented
in the reserved jungles of Mysore, where
some of the climbing species form dense
thickets for the preservation of wild
animals. The jute plant is found only
rarely in local cultivation.

Erythroxylon, 2 Bastard Dcvadaru

sandal
Cocaine is the active principle of the
leaf of E. coca.

Malpigh iacetc .
Malpighia, 3
Hiptage, 2
Aspidopterys, i
Banisteria, i
Stigmatophyllum, i

Zygophyllecc.

Tribulus, 2 Sanna neggilu

Guaiacum, I
Melianthus, i

The herb sauna neggilu is well known
for its medicinal properties. The intro-
duced tree, G. officinale, y\&\As the valuable
wood known as lignum vitiC.

Geraniacecc.
Pelargonium, 3 Garden geranium
O.xalis, 4 ... Wood sorrel
Biophytum, 2
Averrhoa, 2 ... ... ... Komarak,

Bilimbi
Impatiens, 7
Tropoeolum, 3
Hydrocera, i

Linum, 2
Rienwardtia, i

Linccc.
Flax plant

Kulaceie.

Ruta, I ... Common ...

IL-ivu-nan-

rue

jina gida

Zanthoxylum, 2

Toddalia, i ...

Kadu

menasu

Glycosmis, i

Murraya, 2 ... China box

Angaraka

Curry-leaf tree

Kari bevu

Clausena, 2

Triphasia, I

Limonia, 2

Atalantia, 2

Citrus, 6 ... Cilrun

Mddavala

Lemon

Herale

Lime

Nimbe

Orange

Kittale

Pummelo ...

Sakotti

Feronia, i ... Wood-apple

Belada

mara

/Egle, I ... Bael-tree ..

Bilvapatre

Calodendrum, i

The fcctid herb A', graveol

ens is said to

be obnoxious to snakes, and is often

cultivated near dwellings on

that account.

FLORA

Siinarubctc.
Ailantus, I
Balanites, I ... ... ... Ingalika

Quassia, i ... Quassia shrub

Ochna,' 2

Ochnacctc.
Biirseracecc,

Sambrani

Boswellia, 2 ...
Garuga, i
Balsaniodendron, 2
Protium, I
Bursera, i
Filicium, i

Meliacece.
Naregamia, i

Melia, 3 ... Neem-tree... Bevu
Cipadessa, i
Walsura, i

Soymida, I Svami

Chickrassia, i Chittagong wood
Cedrela, i ... White cedar Noge
Chleroxylon, i Satin wood Huragalu
Swietenia, 2 ... Mahogany

Olacinea.
Ximenia, i
Olax, I
Opilia, I

Ilicinea:.
Ilex, 2

Europe holly does not succeed at
Bangalore, but the Chinese species is not
a bad substitute.

Celastrinea.
Euonymus, 3
Celastrus, i ... ... ... Kangondi

Gymnosporia, 2 ... ... Tandrasi

Elreodendron, i Mukkarive

Rhaiiuiece.

Ventilago, i Popli

Zizyphus, 4 ... Bhere fruit Yelachi
Rhamnus, 2

Scutia, I Kurudi

Colubrina, i

The root bark of Popli affords a good
orange dye.

Ampelidea.
Vitis, 12 ... Grape vine Drakshigida
Leea, i
Ampelopsis, i Virginia creeper

Of the varieties of grape in local
cultivation 16 are named.

Sapindacea.
Cardiospcrmum, i
Allophylus, I
Sapindus ... Soap-nut- ... Ki'igati

tree
Nephelium, 3 Litchi
DodonKa, i
Melianthus, i
Paullinia, i

Anacardiacea,

Rhus mysorensis Native sumach
Pistacia, i

Mangifera, 2... Mango ... Mavu
Anacardium, i Cashew-nut Turuka

Gem mara
Buchanania, I
Odina, i

Semecarpus, i Marking-nut Geru mara
Spondias, 3 ... Hog-plum... Amate
Schinus, i ... Bastard pepper

Aloringea:.

Moringa, i ... Horse-radish- Nugge
tree

Legiimhtosa.
(Papilionacese)
Genista, i ... Spanish broom
Rothia, I
Heylandia, i
Crotalaria, 19 ... ... Sanabu

Trifolium, 2 ... Clover

Trigonella, i... Fenugreek Mentya

Medicago, 4 ... Lucerne

Cyamopsis, I

Lupinus, 5

Indigofera, 9 Indigo ... Niligida

Mundulea, i

Tephrosia, 6

Sesbania, 5 ... ... ... Jinangi

Hedysarum, i

Zornia, i

Stylosanthes, i

^FLschynomene, 2

Ormocarpum, i

Eleiotis, i

Pseudarthria, I

Uraria, i

Lowria, I

Alysicarpus, 2

Desmodium, 8 Sensitive plant

HORTICULTURE

Abrus, I

Cicer, i
Vicia, 2
Ervum, i
Arachis, i

Lathyrus, I ...
Pisum, 2
Glycine, 2 ...
Teramnus, i
Mucuna, 4 ..
Erythrina, 8 ..
Galactia, i
Butea, 2
Canavalia, 3
Phaseolus, 8 ..

Wild liquor- Guraganji

ice
Bengal gram Kadale
Bean
Lentil
Ground-nut

Nela
kadale

Sweet pea
Garden pea

Kad-avare

Vigna, I
Pachyrhizus, I
Clitoria, 4
Uolichos, 3 ..

Cowitch

Indian coral Varjipe

Pulas kino Multuga
Sword bean
Kidney bean Hurali
kayi
Green gram Hesaru
... Alasandi

Dholl

Togari

Rosewood...
Kino

Biridi
rionne

Indian beech Honge

Cow gram . . . Avare
Horse gram Hurali

Psophocarpus, i

Atylosia, 3

Cajanus, i

Cylista, I

Rhynchosia, 6

Flemingia, 2

Dalbergia, 8 . . .

rtcrocarpus, 2

I'ongamia, I ...

Derris, 2

Sophora, 2

Virgilia, I

Goodia, I

Templetonia, I

Swainsonia, i

Myrospermum, 2 Myroxylon

Viminaria, 1

Clianthus, 2

Robinia, I

Carlanospermum, I

Brownea, 2

(Ccesalpinise)

Cssalpinia, 10 Sappanwood

Mysore thorn Kurudu
gajjige

Pellophorum, i

Mezoneurum, i

Pterolobium, 2

Poinciana, 2... Gold-mohur tree

Parkinsonia, i Jerusalem thorn

Wagatea, i

Gleditschia,
Cassia, 17

I Honey locust
... Indian

laburnum
Tanner's

cassia

Ilardwickia, I

Saraca, i ... Asoka

Amherstia, i

Tamarindus, 2 Tamarind ...

Ilymencea, I... Locust-tree

Humboldtia, i

Bauhinia, 13... Camel's foot

Kakke

Tangadi

Karachi
Asoka

Hunise

Kanchi-
vala

Ikumatoxylon, I Logwood
Colvillea, I
Ccratonia, I
Louchocarpus, I

(Mimosex)
Neptunia, i

Adenanthera, i Redwood' ... ALanjatti
Prosopis, 2
Dichrostachys, i
Parkia, i
Desmanthus, i
Leucaena, i

Mimosa, 2
Acrocarpus,
Acacia, 18

Shingle-tree
Babool

Soap-nut

Ilaulige
Jali
Mugali
Kaggali
Sige gida

All)izzia, 5 Bage

Sujjalu

Pithecolobium, 3 Rain-tree

Korakapulli Sime

hunise

The shingle-tree is considered by many
planters to be one of the best trees for
coffee shade. The Australian wattles
have not succeeded well at Bangalore,
but the indigenous Jdlh are common
everywhere.

' The scarlet seeds, each supposed to equal 4 grains exactly, used by goldsmiths
and others as weights. Also worn as necklaces. The paste from the heartwood
applied by Brahmans to the forehead after bathing.

FLORA

Rosace<c.
Prunus, 4 ... Peach, I'lum
Sjiinua, i

Rubus, 3 ... Rasplierry
Fragaria, i ... Stra wherry
Poteriuni, i

Rosa, 17 ... Rose ... Gulabi

Eriobotrya, i Loquat ... Lakkoti
Pyrus, 2 ... Apple, Pear Sevu

Of roses 258 varieties are named as
cullivated in Bangalore.

Saxifragacecc.
Saxifraga, I
Vahlla, I
Hydrangea, I

Crasstilacece.
Tillaja, i
Bryophyllum, i
Kalanchoe, 4
Cotyledon, 4
Sedum, I
Echeveria, i

Droseracecc.
Drosera, i ... ... Indian Sundew

Haloragecc.
Myriophyllum, i

Combretacecr.
Terminalia, 9 Myrobalan Tare,

Arale kayi

Anogeissus, i Dindiga

Combretum, 5

Poivrea, i

Quisqualis, i Rangoon creeper

Myrtacece.
Melaleuca, 2
Tristania, 2
Callistemon, 2
Eucalyptus, 15 Gum tree
Myrtus, I ... Myrtle
Psidium, 4 ... Guava ... Chepe
Eugenia, 7 ... Rose-apple Pannerale

Jamoon . . . Nayi nerale
Barringtonia, I
Carey a, i
Couroupita, i

Me las to in acecc.
Osbeckia, 2

Melastoma, i Indian rhododendron
Sonerila, i

Ileterotrichuni, i
Memecylon, 3

Lythracecc.
Ammannia, 5

Lawsonia, i ... Henna ... Goranti
Lagerstrcemia, 4 ... ... Nandi

Punica, 3 ... Pomegranate Dalimbe
Lafoensia, i
Heimia, i
Cuphea, 2

Jussisea, 2
Ludwigia, i
Clark ia, 2
Godetta, 4
Oenothera, 2
Fuchsia, 3
Napa, I

Onagracecs.

Water chestnut

PassiJiorecF.
Passiflora, 12... Passion-flower
Tacsonia, 3
Modecca, i
Carica, i ... Papay ... Parangi

Cuctrrbitacea.
Trichosanthes, 3 Snake gourd Padavalu

Lagenaria, I ..
Luffa, 4
Benincassa, i
Momordica, 3
Cucumis, 3 ...

Citrullus, 2 ...

Bottle gourd Sore

Melon ... Kekkarike

Cucumber ... Savute

Colocynth

Water melon Karbuj

Cephalandra, i
Cucurbita, 3 ... Gourd
Bryonia, i
Mukia, I
Zehneria, i
Rhynucarpa, i
Zanonia, I

Kumbala

Begonia, 27
Opuntia, 5

Melocactus, 2
Cereus, 9
Echinocactus, I
Epiphyllum, 2
Pereskia, i

Cactt'u.
Prickly pear Papas

kattali
Cochineal plant

Night-flowering cactus

HOR TIC UL TURE

Ficoideic.
Trianlhema, 3
Orygia, i
Mollugo, 4
Tetragonia, i
Mesembryanthemum, i Ice plant

UmbelHfenv,
Ilydrocotyle, 2 Indian pennyworL
Apium, 2 ... Celery, parsley
Carum, 4 ... Caraway

Bishop'.s ... Omu
weed
Pimpinella, 2
Fceniculum, i
Polyzygus, i
Anthriscus, i Chervil
Pencedanum, I Dill

Coriandrum, i Coriander ... Kottumbari
Cuminum, I ... Cummin .seed Jirige
Daucus, I ... Carrol ... Gajina

gadde
Partinaca, i ... Parsnip
Arracacia, i
lleracleum, i

Araliacecr.
Aralia, S ... Rice-paper plant
Panax, 9
Ileptapleurum, i
Brassreia, 2
Iledera, l ... Ivy

Many varieties of Panax arc cultivated
in gardens for their foliage.

Corjiacece.

Alangium, I Ankole

Cornus, I
Benlhamia, i

Caprifoliacea.
Lonicera, 2 ... Woodbine
Rubiacea. .
Sarcocephalus, i
Anthocephalus, i

Adina, i Bachanige

Stephegyne, i ... ... Kadaga

Nauclea, i Yettaka

Wendlandia, 2
Hedyotis, i
Oldenlandia, 3
Mussx'nda, I

Webera, I Papati

Randia, 2 Mangare

Gardenia, 4
Knoxia, i

Canthium, 2 Kare

Vangueria, I

Ixora, 7 ... Torch-tree... Gorlvi

Pavetta, i

Coffea, 2 ... Coffee ... Kapi

Morinda, 2

Psychotria, i

Spermacoce, i

Rubia, 2 ... Madder

Pentas, i

Hamelia, i

Cinchona, 4

Rondeletia, i

Manettia, i

Catesboia, i

Hoffmania, i

Dipsacea.
Dipsacus, I ... Fuller's teazel
Scabiosa, 4

Cornpositce.

Centratherum, i
Vernonia, 5 ... Speedwell
Elephantopus, i
Adenostemma, i
Ageratum, 2
Solidago, I
Eupatorium, 2
Dichrocephala, i
Grangea, i
Brachycome, 2
Aster, 3
Callistephus, i
Erigeron, i
Conyza, i
Blumea, 6
Laggera, i

Pluchea, 2

Spha;ranthus, 3 ... Mudugattina
soppu
Bodukadale soppu
Often mixed with stored grain to pre-
serve the latter from the attacks of

insects.

Filago, I

Anaphelis, i

Gnaphalium, 2

Helichrysum, 2 Everlasting

Vicoa, I

Lagascea, I

FLORA

Xanlhium, I

Siegcsbcckia, i

Kclipla, I ... ... Gariigahi soppii

Hlainvillca, I
Wadelia, I

Spilanlhus, 3 Muguli

Guizolia, I ... Foolish oil... Iluchch-

planL ellu

Bidens, i ... Bur marigold
Achillea, i ... Milfoil
Chrysanthemum, 4 ... ... Sevantige

Cotula, I

Artemisia, 3 ... Wormwood

Gynura, I

Emilia, I

Nolonia, I

Seneico, 4 ...Kadugobli

Calendula, I... Marigold

Echinops, I

Tricholepis, 2

Centaurea, 4... Cornflower

Carthamus, i Safflower ... Kusumba

Dicoma, i Sanni

Cichorium, 2 Succory, Endive

Taraxacum, i Dandelion

Lactuca, 2 ... Lettuce

Sonchus, I ... Sow thistle

Farfugium, 3

Flauria, i

Zinnia, 4

Argyranthemum, i

Cosmos, I

Cacalia, i

Gaillardia, 3

Gazania, i ... Treasure flower

Helenium, i

Tagetes, 3 ... African and French

marigold
Calliopsis, 4
BelHs, 2 ... Daisy
Cineraria, i
Sanvitalia, i

Pyrethrum, 3 Peverfew
Cynara, I ... Globe artichoke
Dahlia, i

Helianthus, 4 Sunflower ... Surya

kanti
Jerusalem artichoke
Polymnia, i

Viltadenia, i Australian daisy
Verbesina, i

Campamilacea.
Pratia, i
Lobelia, II
Cephalostigma, 2
Wahlenbergia, I
Sphenoclea, i

Campanula, 5 ... Harebell

Trachelium, i ... Throatwort

Pin m bagin acea.
Plumbago, 3... Leadwort ... Chitra-

mula
PrimiilacecB.

Primula, i Primrose

Anagallis, I ... Pimpernel

Cyclamen, i ... Sow bread

Myrsinece.
Msesa, i
Embelia, i
Ardisia, 4
Jacquinia, 3

Sapotacece.
Chrj'sophyllum, i Star-apple
Sideroxylon, I ... Iron wood
Bassia, 2 ... INIahwa ... Ippe

Mimusops, 2 ... Pagadi

Achras, i ... Sapod ilia

Ebenacecc.
Diospyros, 6... Ebony ... Bale

OleacecB,
Jasminum, 15 Jasmine ... Mallige
Nycthanthes, i ... ... Parijata

Olea, 2 ... Olive

Ligustrum, i... Indian jorivet
Myxopyrum, i
Noronhia, I

Salvadoracece.
Azima, i ... ... ... Bili uppi

ApocynacecE.
Carissa, 4 ... ... ... Korinda

Ranwolfia, I

Cerbera, i

Kopsia, I

Vinca, 3 ... Periwinkle Kasi gana-

galu
Plumiera, 3 ... Pagoda-tree Devagana-

galu

Alstonia, 2 ... Jantala

Holarrhena, i

Taberncemontana, 3... ... Nandi

batlu

HORTICULTURE

Vallaris, I

Bugadi

Hydrophyllacece.

Wrightia, 2 ... Ivory wood

Beppale

Wigandia, I

Nerium, 3 ... Oleander ...

Ganagalu

Hydrolea, i

Beaumontia, 2

Nemophila, i

Thevetia, i ... Exile tree

Boraginea.

Allamanda, 4

Cordia, 4 .. Tapasi

Ichnocarpiis, I

Ehretia, 5

Roupellia, i

Coldenia, i

Dipladenia, I

Heliotropium, 3 Heliotrope

Echites, 2

Trichodesma, 3

Landolphia, 3

Anchusa, i ... Alkanet

Rhyncospermum , I

Myosotis, 2 ... Forget-me-not

Adenum, i

Symphytum, i Prickly comfrej'

Asclepiadacea.

Borago, i ... Borage

Hemidesmus, i Bastard sar-

Sugandhi

Cynoglossum, i

saparilla
Cryptolepis, 2

Coiivohnilacecr.

Cryplostegia, I

Erycilje, i

Secamone, i...

Siranige

Rivea, 2

Oxystelma, I

Argj'reia, 6 ... Elephant ... Samudra-

Calotropis, 3... Mudar

Vekkc

creeper palal)alli

Asclepias, I ... Swallowvvor

Lettsomia, 2

Da;mia, I

Juttuve

Ipoma;a, 23 ... Moonflower creeper

Cynanchum, 2.
Sarcostemma, i

Morning glory

Hamlni

Hewittia, i

kalli

Convolvulus, 5 Scammony

Gymnema, I

Exogonium, i Jalap

Pergularia, i

Jacquemontia, I

Stephanotis, I

Evolvulus, I

Tylophora, 4

Porana, i

Hoya, 5 ... Waxflowcr

Cuscuta, I

Solanacece.

Leptadenia, i

Brachystelma, i

Solanum, 14... Night.shade Kdchi

Ceropegia, 5

Brinjal, egg- Badane

Gomphocarpus, i

plant

Caralluma, 2

Potato ... Urala gadde

Boucerosia, 2

Cyphomandra, i

Loganiacea.

Lycopersicum, i Tomato

Physali.s, 2 ... Cape gooseberry

Mitrasacme, i

Capsicum, 5 ... Chilli ... Menasu

Buddleia, i

Withania, I

Fagr;va, i

Nicandra, I

Strychnos, 2... Nux vomica

Nanjina

Datura, 5 ... Thorn-apple Ummatti

GentianacecE.

koradu

Brugmansia, I Trumpet flower

Exacum, 2
Hoppea, 2

Hyo-scyamus, l Henbane
Petunia, 3
Habrothamnus, i

Erythrcea, i

Nicotiana ... Tobacco ... Hoge

Canscora, 2

Limnanthemiim, 2

soppu
Scroph idarineic.

Poknwuiacea:.

Vorbascum, I ... Mullein

Phlox, 3

Celsia, i.

Cobixia, 1

Linaria, 2 Toad-flax

FLORA

Antirrhinum, I ... Sna]i-<lraf^on

Minuihis, 3 Monkey flower

Lininopliyla, 2
Ilerpestis, i

Torenia, 2 Sispara creeper

Vandellia, 4
Ilysanthes, 2

Veronica, i Speedwell

Striga, I

Rhamphicarpa, i

Sopubia, 2

Maurandia, 3

Penslemon, 5

Angelonia, 2

Browallia, 2

Lophospermum, i

Collinsia, 2

Calceolaria, i ... Slipperwort

Paulownia, i

Russellia, 2

Brunfelsia, i

Franciscea, 2

Sanchezia, 2

Calceolaria is not successfully cultivated
at Bangalore.

Orobanchacecc.
.Eginetia, 2
Orobanche, 2

Lcntibiilariacea:.
Utricularia, 2

Gesiieracece.
-Eschynanthus, 2
Klugia, I
Gesnera, 6
Achimenes, 3
Gloxinia, 4
Streptocarpus, i

Bignoniacea:.
IMillingtonia, i Indian cork- Biratu

tree
Oroxylum, i

Bignonia, 3 ... Trumpet-flower
Tecoma, 7
Dolichandrone, I
Spathodea, i
Heterophragma, I
Stereospermum, 4 ... ... Padar

Amphilophium, i

Catalpa, i

Crescentia, i Calabash-tree

Kigelia, i

The spathodea, when in flower, is one
of the handsomest trees in our parks and
gardens.

redaliarete.
Pedalium, I

Sesamum, 2 ... Gingelli ... Olle yellu
Marly nia, 2

Acanthacea.
Thunbergia, li
Nelsonia, i
Ilygrophila, 2
Calophanes, I
Ruellia, 3
Phaylopsis, i
Dcedalacanthus, 2
Hemigraphis, I
Strobilanthes, 8
Blepharis, 2
Acanthus, i
Barleria, 9
Crossandra, I
Asystasia, 2
Eranthemum, 10
Andrographis, 2 ... ... Nelavembu

Gymnostachyum, i

Lepidagathis, 2 ... ... Gantu kalu

Justicia, 8
Adhatoda, i
Rhinacanthus, I
Ecbolium, I
Graptophyllum, 3
Rungia, 2
Dicliptera, 2
Peristrophe, 3
Cyrtanthera, 2
Aphalandra, i
Meyenia, 2
Fittonia, 2

Verbenacece.
Lantana, 2
Lippia, I ... ... ... Kere

hippali
Stachyturpheta, 2 Bastard Vervain
Priva, I ... ... ... Sirantu

Verbena, 4
Callicarpa, i

Tectona, 2 ... Teak-tree ... Tegada

mara
Premna, i ... ... ... Narave

Gmelina, 2 ... ... ... Kuli

Vitex, 4 ... Chaste-tree Nekkilu

HORTICULTURE

Clerodcndron, 13

Holmskioldia, I

Petrea, i

Duranta, 2

Aloysia, i ... Lemon-.scented verl^ena

Citharexylum, I

Lanlana is very entensively used for

hedges.

Labiata.

Ocymuni, 5 ... Sweet baril Tulasi
Orthosiphon, 2
Plectranthus, 2

Coleus, 4 ... Indian ... Dodda
Ijorage patri

Garden varieties of coleus are much
prized as foliage plants.
Anisochilus, 2
Lavendula, 2 Lavender
Pogostemon, 2 ... Pachche tene

Dysophylla, i
Perilla, i

Mentha, 2 ... Peppermint I'udina
Origanum, 2... Marjorum
Thymus, i ... Thyme
Ilyssopus, I ... Hyssop
Melissa, i ... Balm
Salvia, 8 ...Sage Karpura gida

Marrubium, i Horehound
Anisomeles, 2 ... Mangamari

Stachys, i ... Woundwort
Leonorus, i ... Motherwort

Leucas, 5 Tumbe

Leonotis, i
Gomphostemma, i
Rosmarinus, I Rosemary

PlantaginecB.
I'lantago, i Sirapotli

Nyctaginea:.
Boerhaavia, 4 ... Hogweed

Pisonia, i Lettuce-tree

:Miral)ilis, I ... Marvel of Peru,

?"our o'clock plant
Bougainvillea, 3

The last grow and flower profusely at
Bangalore.

Ainaranlaccic.

Dceringia, I

Celosia, 3 ... Cockscomb

Allmania, i

Digera, I

Amaranlus, 12 Danlu

Pupalia, 2 ... ... Antu purule

/Erua, 3

Achyranthus, 3 Uttarani

Alternanthera, 3

Extensively used as edgings for garden
paths.

Gomphrena, 2 Globe amaranth
Iresine, 4

CheiiopodiacCiC.
Chenopodium, 2 Goosefoot
Beta, I ... Beet
Spinacia, I ... Spinach ... Basale
Atriplex, 3 ... Orache
Basella, i BayiBasali

Phytolaccacea.
Rivina, i

Polygo)iace<e,
Polygonum, 7 ... ... Siranige soppu

Fagopyrum, i Buckwheat

Rheum, i ... Rhubarb

Emex, I

Rumex, 2 ... ... Sukke soppu

Coccoloba, I
Antigonon, i

Nepenthacece.
Nepenthes, i... Pitcher plant

Aristolochiacea.
Aristolochia, 5

Piperacea.
Piper, 6 ... Pepper ... Menasu

Betel leaf ... Vilyad-ele
Peperomia, 4

Myristicecc.
Myristica, 3 ... Nutmeg-tree Jaji kayi

Laitraccic.
Cinnamomum, 2 Cinnamon Lavanga

patte,
Dalchini

Machilus, i ChilUi

tandri
Alseodaphne, i
Litscea, i

Persea, i ... Alligator Pear
Hernandia, 2

Proteaceit.
Plelicia, i

Macadamia, i jVuslralian nut-tree
Grevillea, 2 ... Silver oak
Ilakea, 3

FLORA

El(vagnace(t.
EliJeafjnus, 2 Ilcjjalii

f.oranthaccic.

Loranthus, 4 Badanikc

Old mango-trees in Mysore are much
infested by these mistletoes.

SantalacecE.
Santalum, I ... Sandalwood Srigandha
The most valuable tree in Mysore.

EuphorbiaceiE.
Euphorbia, 10 Milk hedge Kalli
Buxus, I

Bridelia, I Gurige

Phyllanthus ... Gooseberry-... Nelli

tree
Glochidion, i
Fhieggia, i

Breynia, i Suli

Putranjiva, i

Antiderma, i

Jatropha, 7 ... Physic-nut

Manihot, i ... Ceara rubber

Tapioca
Aleurites, i ... Belgaum walnut
Croton, I ... Crotonoil... Japala

plant
Of so-called garden crotons, which
properly belong to the genus Codiceum ,
122 varieties are named as cultivated at
Bangalore.
Givotia, i
Codi^Eum, I
Chrozophora, i

Acalypha, 7 Kuppi

Trewia, 1.

Mallotus, I ... Kamaladye Kunkumada

mara
Ricinus, 2 ... Castor-oil ... Haralu

plant
Gelonium, I
Tragia, i
Dalechampia, i
Sapium, 2 ... Tallow-tree
Exccecaria, I
Baloghia, i

Poinsettia, 2... Sandbox-tree
Hura, I
Anda, i

Hevea, 2 ... Para rubber
Xylophylla, i

Pedilanthus, 2
Synadcnium, i

Celtis, I
Trema, I

Urlicecc.

Bendu
Gorklu

, Charcoal-
tree
Humulus, I ... Hop
Cannibis, i ... Hemp ... Bangi soppu
Cultivation prohibited in Mysore.

Streblus, i Mitli

Broussonetia, i Paper mulberry
Morus, 5 ... Mulberry Reshme gida,
Kamljali gida
Dorstenia, I

Ficus, 25 ... Banyan Alada mara,
Goni mara
Pipal Asvatha, arali

mara
Basuri mara
Country fig Atti mara
Goni mara {F. mysoreiisis) is the
largest species in the Mysore country.
Specimens are not unusual with trunk
30 feet circumference, and head 140 feet
diameter. The Java fig {F. Benjainiiia)
and Moreton Bay chestnut {F. macro-
phylla) are highly ornamental trees.
Artocarpus, 4 Jack-tree ... Halasina

mara
Urtica, I ... Nilgiri nettle
Fleurya, i
Girardinia, i
Pilea, I
Boehmeria, 3... Rhea Fibre or

Grass-cloth plant
Pouzolzia, I
Debregeasia, i

PlatanacecT.

Platanus, i ... Oriental plane

CasuaruiecE.
Casuarina, 7 . . . ... ... Kesarike

C. eqtiisetifolia is very extensively
cultivated as a fuel-tree.

CupiiHfera;,
Quercus, i ... Oak
Will hardly grow here

Salicaceic.
Salix, 2 ... Willow ... Niravanji

Ceratophylk(.e.
Ceratophyllum, i

HORTICULTURE

Gymnospermae.

Conifera.

' Wellingtonia, i ... Mammoth-tree

Cupressus, 7

Cypress

Cryptomeria, I

Juniperus, i

Juniper

Thuja, I Arbor vita-

I'odocarpus, 2

Retinospara, 3

Danimara, 2

New Zealand pine

I'inus, 2

Cheer pi

Cycadaceie.

Frenela, 2 ...

Tasmanian pine

Cycas, 5

Araucaria, 4

Pines

I Macrozamia, i

Abies, 2

Spruce

1 Encephalartus, i

Monocotyledons.

Hydrocharidecc.

Amomum, \

Hydrilla, i

Eletlaria, 2 ... Cardamom Velakki

Lagarosiphon, i

(Marantacere. )

Vallisneria, i

Maranta, 21

Blyxa, I

Canna, 10 ... Indian shot

Ottelia, I

Orchid

\c.

(Musacere.)

Dendrobium, 37

Musa, 5 ... Plantain ... Bale gid;

Bulbophyllum, 2

Of M. paradisiaca 15 varieties a

Eria, 3

named as in local cultivation.

Phajus, 3

Heliconia, 2

Ccelogyne, 7

Strelitzia, i

Pholidota, 2

Ravenala, i ... Travellers' tree

Calanthe, 2

Iridacem.

Arundina, i

Cyml^idium, 3

Gladiolus, 5 ... Corn flag

Eulophia, i

Iris, 3 Fleur-de-lis

Cyrtopera, i

Tigridia, I Tiger flower

Phalaenopsis, 2

Pardanthus, 1 ... Leopard flower

.brides, 5

Antholyza, i.

Vanda, 6

Amaryllidea.

Saccolaliium, 6

Crinum, 7

Vanilla, 2

Pancratium, I

Cultivated at Bangal

ore for it>

fruil.

Nerine, i ... (juernsey lily

I'ogonia, i

Amaryllis, 5... Mexican lily

Habenaria, i

Eucharis, 2 ... Amazon lily

Cypripediuni, 4

Lady's si

pper

Zephyranthes, 3 American crocus

Angrivcum, i

Curculigo, 2

Bletia, i

Cyrtanthus, i

Oncidiuni, i

Hsemanthus, 3 Blood flower

A number of orchidh

are still

undeter-

Doryanthes, i

mined.

Agave, 6 ... American aloe Kaltali

Scitai)n)icu-.

Fourcroya, 4

(Zingiberaceiv. )

Broiiieliaccie.

Alpinia, 5

.^chmea, 2

Zingi])er, 2 ... dinger

... Sonti

Anana.ssa, 2 ... I'inc apple Ananas

Costu.s, 2

Billbergia, i

Ksempferia, 2 Indian

crocus

Tillandsia, 2

Hedychium, 4 darland flower

Pilcairnia, 2

Curcuma, 4 ... Turmeric ... Arisina gida

Bromelia, 1

FLORA

Dioscorcacece.
Dioscorca, 8 Yam

SniilacciF.
Smilax, 3 ... Sarsaparilla

Philesiacea.
Lapageria, 2

Liliacecz.
Lilium, 5 ... Lily

Succeed indifferently at Bangalore.

Gloriosa, i Karadi kan-

nina gida
Agapanthus, 2 African blue lily
Ilemerocallis, i Day lily
Anthericum, 2 St. Bruno's lily
Tulipa, 2 ... Tulip
rdianthes, 2

Ornithogalum, I Star of Bethlehem
Sanseveira, 3 Bow-string Manju

hemp
Allium, 5 ... Onion ... Irulli
Garlic ... BellulH

Asparagus, 4 Majjige

Aspidistra, 3

Dracaena, 20... Dragon's blood

Very useful for decorative purposes.
Phormium, 2 New Zealand flax
Aloe, 3 ... Hedge aloe

Yucca, 5 ... Adam's needle
Eustrephus, i

Pontederiacecc.
Monochoria, 2

Commclynageic.
Cyanotis, 2
Commelyna, 4
Aneilemma, i
Nadescantia, 4

Palmacea:.
Areca, 7 ... Areca-nut ... Adike
Arenga, i ... Sugar palm
Borassus, i ... Palmyra palm Tale
Caryota, 4 ... Sago palm Bagani
Chamcerops, 3

Cocos, 2 ... Cocoa-nut... Tengina

mara
Several distinct varieties are cultivated.
Corypha, 2 ... Fan palm
Phoenix, 9 ... Date palm... Karjura

Toddy palm Ichalu
Sabal, 2 ... Palmetto

Seaforthia, I

Livistona, 2

Licuala, 2

Calamus, 6 ... Rattan-cane palm

Ekx;is, I

Oreodoxa, I

Kentia, i

Thrinax, 3

Rhapis, I ... Ground rattan

Hyophorbe, I

Dictyosperma, i

Dypsis, I

Wallichia, I

Alismacea.
Sagittaria, I

PandajjacecE.
Pandanus, 4 ... Screw pine Gedige

Typhacece.
Typha, 2 ... Elephant ... Jambu
grass huUu

Aroidea.
Acorus, 2 ... Sweet flag

Calla, I ... Arum lily

Aglaonema, 3
Alocasia, 18
Amorphophallus, 3
Anthurium, 13

Arisjema, 2 ... Snake lily

Arum, 2 ... Lords and ladies

Caladium, 46

Grow to great perfection in Bangalore.
Dieffenbachia, 12
Philodendron, 5
Pothos, 5
Syngonium, 3
Curmeria, I

PistiacecB.
Pistia, I ... Water soldier

Lemna, i ... Duckweed

Eriocaidonea.
Eriocaulon, 2

Cyperacetz.

Cyperus, 18 Jambu huUu

Timbristylis, 6 ... Sabbasige hullu

Isolepis, 3 ... ... Usumani hullu

Scirpus, I Club-rush Hommugali

hullu
Courtoisia, I
Tuirena, 2 ... ... Petlugori huJlu

Kyllingia, I ... Anantagonde hullu

HORTICUL TURE

Graminea.
Triticum, i ... Wheat ... Oodhi
Oryza, i ... Rice ... Nellu

There are specimens of io8 varieties
in the Bangalore Museum.

Zea, I

Maize
Indian corn

. Jola

Euchln?na

Teosinte

Paspalum, 2 ..

.Sanna tapri
hullu

I'anicum, 21 ..

Little millet

Haragu

Italian mille

t Navane
Same
Maraka

Pencillaria, I...

Spiked mille

L Sajje

Setaria, 4

. Korle
hullu

Saccharum, 2..

Sugar-cane

Kabbu

Andropogon,5.

Lemon grass Nese hullu

Lavanchi

hullu

Kasi hullu

Kuskus

Ganjalu ga-

grass

rika hullu

Sorghum

Oreat millet Bili jola

Cymljopo-

Dodda kasi

gon, I

hullu

Chrysopogon, 2

Coix, I
ApUida, I
Anatherium, i

Job's tears

Aristida, 4 ...

Broom

Ilanchi

grass

hullu

Cynodon, I ...

Ilariali, or..

. Oarike

doub grass hullu
The best Indian grass for making hay.

Fox-tail grass

Buffalo-head grass

Nose hullu

Chloris, I
Microchlon, i
Lappago, I
I.sachne, i
Sporobolus, 2...
Oplismenus, 4
Manisurus, i
Batratherum, i
Trachys, I
Dactyloc-

tenium, i
Leptochloa, 2
Perotis, i
Eragrostis, 11
Leersia, i
ChaniKraphis, i
Imperata, i
Gymnothrix, i
Spodiopogon, i
Ileteropogon, i
Elytrophorus, I
Anthisteria, i
Hemarthria, I
Arundinella, 2
Eleusine, 2 ...

The staple grain of Mysore,
Avena, i ... Oat grass

Briza, i
Dactylis, i
Lolium, I
Heleochloa, i ...

(Bambusacece. )
Dendrocalamus, I
Arundinaria, 2

Bambusa, 5 ... Bamboo ... Bidiru
Beesha, 2 ... Quill bamboo

Ragi

Quaking grass
Cock's-foot grass
Darnel rye grass

Jandu hullu

Filices.

Acroslichum, 8
Actinopteris, i
Adiantum, 32
Alsophila, I
Anemia, i
Angiopleris, i
Aspidium, 4
Asplenium, 20
Athyrium, i
Blechnum, 4
Ceropteris, i
Cheilanlhus, 3
Cyrtomiuni, 2

Maiden -hair fern
Tree fern

Wood fern
Spleenwort
I>ady fern
Hard fern

Cryptogams.

Davallia, 5
Doodia, i
Drynaria, i
Gleichenia, i
Goniopteris, i
Gymnogramma,

Hemionitis, i
Hemilalia, i
Hypolepis, I
Lastrea, 3
Lindsiva, i
Lomaria, i
Lygodium 2

Golden fern
Silver fern

Climbing fern
H 2

FLORA

Nciihrddium, 17

Nciiliiolcpis, 8

Niphohulus, I

Onychiuni, 2

Ophioglossuni, 1

Osmunda, 1 ... l^oyal fcni

Pelljea, 2

Pleopelti.s, i

I'olyliotrya, i

I'olypodiiim, 12
Pteris, 15
Sagenia, i
Scolopendrium, i

Lycopodiaccd.
lyycopodium, 2 ... Clulj-moss
Selaginella, 13

O'i grasses indigenous to Mysore, the following is a descriptive list of
those fit for stacking' :• —

Garike. — A kind of haridii, grows to about 3 feet, a i:;;ood nourishing,' gra.ss, grow.s
almcst anywhere, l)ut is l)est in light soil and with nifxlerate moisture (Cynodon
dactylon).

Gaiijalu Garike. ^A. kind of hariali, very valuable for all purposes, and .said to
increase the milk-giving powers of cows ; makes very good hay. Clrows in light soil
with moderate moisture (Andropogon Bladhii).

Haiichi. — A coar.se common grass, grows in any sort of place, it runs much to stalk,
and is not very nourishing because of the hardness of the stalk ; there are two kinds,
one coarser than the other (Aristida cterulescens).

Karda. — (Spear grass.) Good when young, but dries up into sticks in the hot
weather ; very common all over the country (Andropogon pertusus).

Darbhe. — A rushy kind of grass, grows in swamps and jheels, has a feathery flower,
and its seeds fly. It grows to about 4 feet in height. Cattle only eat it when young ;
it makes indifferent hay (Eragrostis cynosuroides).

Phara or Mdiii. — A very valuable grass, good for every kind of cattle, grows any-
where, but best on black cotton soil ; attains the height of about i foot, and throws up
a long flowering stalk.

Uppala. — A rushy kind of grass in jheels and swamps, height about 4 feet, nourish-
ing and liked by cattle. Makes indifferent hay.

Sunti. — Grows in jheels, paddy fields and swamps, very good grass, makes good
hay, reaches about 3 feet in height (Panicum repens).

Node. — A long rushy grass, grows only in damp jungles, acts as a purge on cattle,
good for hide-bound beasts.

Solali. — Found in jheels, and grows to about 3 feet, makes indifferent hay. When
young it is liked by, and good for, cattle, but its chief value is from the small gras.ses
which are always found growing round the bottom of its stem.

Marahiillii.—A. good grass, grows to about 3 feet, is of a nourishing nature, requires
a good deal of moisture.

The following are not good for stacking ; they grow mixed together,
gondyada or che/ildgatii, bhhna/ii, Indiirii-yck, ycnua/iiaffi, Inli-huIIu^
iim/nattakam, nariM/a, akki-hullii, hire.

There are also certain plants or herbs which are of great use to
cattle ; the best of these is called J>urta?iipiili, which has seeds like
burrs, with a thick-jointed sappy stem ; grows along the ground, is very
good for milch cattle.

^ From a memorandum by Colonel Boddam. The botanical name has been added
where it could be identified.

lOI

CROPS AND CULTIVATION^

Cultivated lands are usually classed as dry, hishki ; wet, tari ; and
garden, tbta or bdgdyat. In the first are raised crops which do not
require irrigation, pair-dramba : the wet crops are those dependent for
their growth entirely on irrigation, nir-dramba : the products of garden
cultivation are fruits or drugs requiring a moist situation with an
abundant supply of water. Gardens are of four kinds : tarkdri tbta,
vegetable gardens ; iengina or adike iota, cocoa-nut or areca-nut
plantations ; yek tbta, betel leaf plantations ; and hi/vina tbta, flower
gardens. The agricultural seasons are two, and the produce is called
Kdrtika fasal ox Vais dkJia fasal -^ccoxdiAXiglo the time of ripening.- In
the Mysore District the seasons are named kdru and haiiiii. In parts
of the Malndd the former has the name kbdii.

But the farmer's calendar is regulated by the rains that fall under
each of the jiakshatras or lunar asterisms, after which they are called.
The following are the names, with the generally corresponding
months : —

Lunar Mouth. Solar Month.

Chailra

April

Nakshatra
As'vini
Bharani
Krittika
Rohini

Mrigas'ira . . .
Ardra

I 'unarvasu . . .
I'ushya
As'lesha
Magha
Tuliba
U tiara
Hasta
China
Svati
Vis'akha
Amiradha ...
Jyeshtha
Mula'

ri'irvashadha
Utlarashadha
S'ravana

\'ais'akha

Jyeshtha

Ashadha

S'ravana
Bhadrapada
.Vs'vija
Kartika

Margas'ira
I'ushya

May
June

July

August . . .
September
October ...
November

December
January ...

Mcsha ...
N'rishabha
Milhuna ...
Karkataka

Simha
Kanya
Tula
\"ris'chika

Dhanus ...
Makara ..,

Aries

Taurus

Cjemini

Cancer

Leo

Virgo

Libra

Scorpio

Sagittarius
Capricornus

ind accurate accounts have l)een freely used in describing the

' Buchanan's full
modes of cultivation.

'^ Kartika falls in October — November ; Vais'dl;ha in April — May.

I02 FLORA

Nakshatra. Lunar Month. Sola)- Mont/i.

Dhanishtlia... ... Magha

S'atal)liisha... ... ... .. February... Kuinljlia ... Aquarius

l\'irval)ha(lra ... I'halj^una

Utlarabhddra ... ... .. March ... Mina ... Pisces

Rcvati

Bharani rain is considered to prognosticate good seasons throughout
the year. This is expressed in the Telugu proverb Bharani vaste
dharani pandudu — if Bharani come, the earth will bring forth. The
rains from Mrigas'ira to A.s'lesha are the sowing time, for food grains
in the earlier part, and horse-gram in the later. Svati and Vis'akha
rains mark the close of the rainy season. Anuradha to Mula is the
reaping time, when only dew falls. At this season the future rains are
supposed to be engendered in the womb of the clouds. Sugar-cane is
planted in Pilrvabhadra and Uttarabhadra.

The absolute dependence of all classes on \\\^ panchdtiga or almanac
is thus explained by Buchanan : — " Although, in common reckoning,
the day begins at sunrise, yet this is by no means the case in the
cha7idra]iidnain almanac. Some days last only a few hours, and others
continue for almost double the natural length ; so that no one, without
consulting the Panchangadava or almanac-keeper, knows when he is to
perform the ceremonies of religion. What increases the difficulty is,
that some days are doubled, and some days altogether omitted, in order
to bring some feasts, celebrated on certain days of the month, to happen
at a proper time of the moon, and also in order to cut off six super-
fluous days, which twelve months of thirty days would give more than
a year of twelve lunations. Every thirtieth month one intercalary moon
is added, in order to remove the difference between the lunar and solar
years. As the former is the only one in use, and is varying continually,
none of the farmers, without consulting the Panchangadava, knows the
season for performing the operations of agriculture. These Panchanga-
davas are poor ignorant Brahmans, who get almanacs from some one
skilled in astronomy. This person marks the days, which correspond
with the times in the solar year, that usually produce changes in the
weather, and states them to be under the influence of such and such
conjunctions of stars, male, female, and neuter ; and everyone knows
the tendency of these conjunctions to produce certain changes in the

weather."

The following is a list of the most generally cultivated productions of

the soil : —

Dry Crops.
Cereals.

Eleusine corocana, Gartn. ... Ragi Ragi-

Panicum frumentaceum, AW(5. ... Little millet Same, save.

CROPS

103

Panicum italicum, IJim. ...

,, miliaceum, Linn.

,, semiverticillatum
Pennisetum typhoideum, lizc/i.
Sorghum vulgare, I'ers. ...

Cajanus indicus, Spreng. . . .
Cicer arietinum, Z?««.
Dolichos biflorus, Linn. ...

,, lablab, Linn.
Lens esculenta, Mcench. ...
Phaseolus mungo, Linn. . . .

,, ,, var. radiatus, /,///«

Vigna catiang, Endl.

Guizotia abyssinica, Cass.
Ricinus communis, Linn.

Sesamuni indicum, D.C. ...

Brassica nigra, Koch.
Crotolarea juncea, Linn.
(iossypium herbaceum, Linn.
I libiscus cannabinus, Linn.
Nicotiana tabacum, Linn.

OiyzB. sa.tiya., Linn.
Saccharum officinarum, Li>in.

Allium cepa, Linn.

,, sativum, Linn.
Arachis hyjxjga'a, Linn. ...
Capsicum annuum, Li)in.
Carum copticum, Benth....
Carthamus tinctorius, Linn.
Coriandrum sativum, /.inn.
Cuminum cyminum, Linn.
Curcuma longa, Roxb.
Trigonclla focnum gra*cum, Linn.
Zingiber officinale, Rose. ...

Areca catechu, Linn.

Cocos nucifera, />?';/;/.

Coffea arabica, /,///;/.

Elettaria cardamomum, Maton. ..

Morus indica, Linn.

Musa sapientum, Linn. ...

Italian millet
Common millet ...

Spiked millet
Great millet

Pulses.
Pigeon pea, doll
Bengal gram, chick pea
Horse gram, kujli
Cow gram

Lentil

Green gram
Black gram

Oil seeds.
. Foolish oil plant
. Castor oil

Wild „

. Gingelli, sesame
Miscellaneous.

. Mustard

Indian hemp
. Cotton

. Dekhan hemp ...
. Tobacco ...

Wet Crops.

Rice
Sugar-cane

Garden Crops.

. Onion
. Garlic

Ciround-nut
. Chilly

Bishop's weed

Safflower...

Coriander
. Cummin seed

Turmeric

Fenugreek

Ginger ...

J\Iiscellaneo us.
Areca-nut
Cocoa-nut
Coffee
Cardamom
Mulberry

i'lantain ...

Navane.

Baragu.

Haraka.

Sajje.

Joja.

Togari, tovari.

Kadale.

Hurali.

Avare.

Channangi.

Hesaru.

I'ddu.

Alsandi, tadugani.

Huchchejlu, ramtil.

Ilaralu.

Kad-, dod-, or mara-

haralu.
Woljclju, achchel]u.

Sasive.
Sanabu.
Arale.
Pundi.
Hoge soppu.

Bhatta, nellu.
Kabbu.

Nirulli.
Bejluiji.
Kallekayi, nela kadale.
Mensina kayi.
Oma.
Kusumba.
Kottambari.
Jirige.
Arisina.
Mentya.
Sunti.

Ad ike.

Tengina kayi.

Bundu, kapi.

Velakki.

Uppu nerle, kambali

gida.
Bale.

I04

J' LOR A

I'ijK'r Ijctlc, Liiiii.

,, nigrum, Linn.
Triticuiii sativum, La/iik.

Ik'tcl vine
lilack pepper
Wheat ...

Viled-ele.

.Menasu.

(;6dhi.

The total area taken up for cultivation in 189 1-2 is stated at
5,685,160 acres, of which 4,601,729, or 8o'9 per cent, were for dry
cultivation ; 697,419, or i2'2 per cent., for wet cultivation; 234,955, or
4"i per cent., for garden cultivation; and 148,834, or 2*6 per cent, for
coffee. The approximate area actually under crops from 1870, so far
as figures are available from the Annual Reports, may be gathered
from the following statement, expressed in millions of acres : —

IS70

• 5-15

1876

•• 5-53

1882 .

• 4-51

1887

•• 5-24

I87I

.. 4-91

1877

.. 4-38

1883 .

• 4 '65

1888

.. 5-28

1872

.. 5-26

187S

•• 4'39

1884 .

• 4 '47

1889

•• 553

1873

.. 5-20

1879

•• 3-99

1885 .

. 4-88

1890

• • 5 '60

1874

■• 5 "22

1880

.. 4-28

1886 .

• 5"io

1891

.. 5-68

1875

• • 5 '02

1881

•• 4-35

In 1865 the acreage seems to have been 3 "14 millions, so that culti-
vation has increased 80 per cent, in twenty-seven years since. But part
of the increase may, no doubt, be attributed to more accurate measure-
ment, resulting from the progress of the Revenue Survey. In the first
series- the highest point was reached apparently in 1876, just before
the great famine ; but the crops of that year perished, and it was
thirteen years before cultivation spread to the same extent again.
Adopting intervals of five years, the percentage of approximate acres
returned as under various crops was as follows : —

Crops.

1871.

1876.

1881.

1886. i

1891.

r Ragi

Other Food Grains ...

j- 66 '04

84-

75-11

t
73-4

45 '9
1 28^6

Dry ... -

Oil Seeds

2'I

2-2

3-06

4'5 1

4*1

Cotton

•78

•09

—

•87

•71

Tobacco

•4

•21

—

•92

"■>

l Wheat

•25

•I

•4

•36

■06

r Rice

24-5

1273

^y3,

12-7

Wet... \

Sugar-cane

•45

•2

•72 j

•62

Mulberry

•28

■2

—

•2 i

•24

r Cocoa-nut and

} 2-3

Areca-nut

!•

3-1

2-8

Garden -

Vegetables

1-9

•s

—

•66

!•!

. Coffee

2-3

2-1

3-2

2-1 ,

2-6

CROPS 105

The most important fluctuation exhibited by these figures is an
apparent reHnquishment of rice cultivation in favour of the cultivation
of ragi and associated food grains, and of oil seeds. This movement,
which took place in the years 1871 to 1873, is not specially noticed in
the Reports. But it appears to have been coincident with a change of
policy whereby the control of irrigation channels and tanks was trans-
ferred from the Revenue officers to the Public Works Department,
with the view of their being systematically repaired, the necessity for
which had long been recognized, and brought up to a good standard of
safety. The former frequent waste of water was now checked, and
steps were taken to enforce the responsibilities of the cultivators in
regard to the maintenance of the restored irrigation tanks. Moreover,
as the new Revenue Survey approached the rice districts, it was now-
real i/.ed that all occupied lands were liable to pay the assessment,
whether cultivated or not. Hence perhaps a reduction in the area of
wet cultivation which the statistics disclose, the actual area under rice
having dropped from i"32 million acres before 187 1 to little over half
a million in the subsequent year. Another explanation may be found
in the following statement from the Report for 187 1-2 : — "The fall in
the value of produce has been attended by considerable relinquishments
of land, chiefly on the part of speculators, who appear to have taken
up land wherever it could be obtained during the period of high prices,
and who, doubtless, in many instances have found it no longer worth
retaining,"

The following figures, taken from the returns for 1 891-2, are instruc-
tive as showing the Districts in which the cultivation of particular pro-
ducts is most extensive. Mysore and Bangalore grow the most ragi,
followed by Tumkilr, Hassan, and Kolar, in this order. Chitaldroog
and Mysore have the largest area under other dry grains and oil seeds.
Chitaldroog is pre-eminently the cotton district, and also takes the prin-
cipal lead in the limited area under wheat. Mysore produces the most
tobacco. Shimoga is the chief rice district, the cultivation being to a
great extent dependent on the rains alone : Mysore follows, with its
splendid system of irrigation channels: Kadur and Hassan come next,
partaking of the character of both. Shimoga, Kolar, and Hassan are
the principal sugar-cane districts. Mulberry cultivation, for the nourish-
ment of silkworms, is confined entirely to Mysore and the eastern
districts. Tumkilr stands first in cocoa-nut and areca-nut gardens,
especially the former, followed by Hassan, Mysore and Shimoga,
which last excels in areca-nut. Kolar cultivates the largest extent of
vegetables, while Bangalore and Tumkiir come next, a good way after.
Kadur and Hassan are almost exclusively the coffee districts.

io6

FLORA

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u-1

= ?

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w 5

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X
H

u-l

ir>

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l-<

ir^

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3
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i-T

H-i

III

r<^

r-.

li-)

l-l

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u-1

1— 1

"-)

•*

u~,

•*

t-.

i-t

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t-"

u->

'J-

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rl-

t-i

1-1

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li^

t~»

'tf

•^

■^

u->

t-^

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;/:

K-i

»-i

I--,

■*

t-4

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•£8-5

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^

RAG I 107

Ragi — (the manva or mandwa of northern India) is by far the most
important of any crop raised on dry fields and suppHes all the lower
ranks with their common diet. It is reckoned the most wholesome
and invigorating food for labouring people.' Three kinds are distin-
guished of it, which, however, are only varieties ; the kari or black,
ketnpu or red, and hnllupare. All are equally productive, but the third
when nearly ripe is very apt to shake the seed. In some places all
three are sown intermixed in the same field, but in others more atten-
tion is paid to the quality of the grain. The black is considered in
some parts to be simply grain that has got wet when it is threshing.

The principal varieties in the eastern districts are' the gidda rdgi and
dodda rdgi. The former ripens in four months, and the latter in four
and a half; and the latter is esteemed both the best in quality, and the
most productive ; but when the rain sets in late, as it requires less time
to ripen, the gidda is preferable. In the Mysore District the gidda
ragi is called kdr rdgi, and somewhat different. There are three kinds
of kdr rdgi: the ba/aga, or straight-spiked rdgi, which is always sown
separately from the others ; the />i/i iiiodga/a, or white nigi with incurved
spikes ; and the kari viodgala, or incurved black ragi : the two latter
are sometimes kept separate, and sometimes sown intermixed. The
cultivation for all the three is quite the same and the value of the
different kinds is equal ; but the produce of the kari modgala is rather
the greatest.

"The whole world," says ^^'ilks, "does not, perhaps, exhibit a
cleaner system of husbandry than that of the cultivation of ragi in the
home fields of Mysore. On the first shower of rain after harvest the
home fields are again turned up with the plough,- and this operation,
as showers occur, is repeated six successive times during the dry season,
at once destroying the weeds and opening the ground to the influence

* The following is the composition of nigi grain according to Professor Church in
Food Grains of India : —

In 100 parts

Husked

Whole

In I lb.

Water

13-2 ..

. 12-5 .

2 oz 0 grains

Albumino:

ids

7-3 ••

• 5-9 •

• • 0 ,, 413 „

Starch

73-2 ..

. 74-6 .

■ II ,, 409 >.

Oil...

15 ..

. 0-8 .,

.. 0 ,, 56 ,,

Fibre

2-5 ..

. 36 .,

0 ,, 252 ,,

Ash

2-3 ..

. 2-6 ..

. 0 ,, 182 ,,

The nutrient ratio is liere i : 13, llie nutrient vahie S4. The percentage of phos-
phoric acid in the whole grain is about 0*4.

- This is the practice in the Mysore District, but in the eastern di.slricts the fields
are left untouched after harvest, with the stubbie standing, until the early rains of the
following spring.

To8 FLORA

of the sun, the dcc()m[)()silioii of water and air, and the formation of
new compounds. 'I'lic manure of the village, which is carefully and
skilfully prepared, is then spread out on the land, and incorporated
with it by a seventh ploughing, and a harrowing with an instrument
nearly resembling a large rake, drawn by oxen and guided by a boy :
when the field is completely pulverized, a drill plough, of admirable
and simple contrivance, performs the operation of sowing twelve rows
at once by means of twelve hollow bamboos at the lower end, piercing
a transverse beam at equal intervals and united at the top in a wooden
bowl, which receives the seed and feeds the twelve drills : a pole at
right angles with this beam (introduced between two oxen) is connected
with the yoke ; the bamboos project below about three inches beyond
the transverse beam, being jointed at their insertion for the purpose of
giving a true direction to the projecting parts, which being cut diagon-
ally at the end, serve, when the machine is put in motion, at once to
make the little furrow and introduce the seed : a flat board, placed
edgewise and annexed to the machine, closes the process ; levelling the
furrows and covering the seed. If the crop threatens to be too early or
too luxuriant, it is fed down with sheep. Two operations of a weeding
plough of very simple construction, at proper intervals of time, loosens
the earth about the roots and destroys the weeds ; and afterwards during
the growth of the crop, at least three hand weedings are applied. This
laborious process rewards the husbandman in good seasons with a crop
of eighty fold from the best land. The period between seed-time and
harvest is five months. There is another kind of ragi which requires
but three months. It is sown at a different season in worse ground,
and requires different treatment."

In some parts, as near Seringapatam, the ground having been
prepared in the same way, the ragi is sown broad-cast, and covered by
the plough. The field is then smoothed with the halivc, which is a
harrow or rather a large rake drawn by two bullocks. Then, if sheep
are to be had, a flock of them is repeatedly driven over the field, which
is supposed to enable it to retain the moisture ; and for this purpose
bullocks are used when sheep cannot be procured. Next day single
furrows are drawn throughout the field at the relative distance of six feet.
In these are dropped the seeds of either avare or tovari, which are
never cultivated by themselves ; nor is nigi ever cultivated without
being mixed with drills of these leguminous plants. The seed of the
avare or tovari is covered by the foot of the person who drops it into
the furrow. Fifteen days afterwards the kiuite or bullock-hoe is drawn
all over the field ; which destroys every young plant that it touches, and
brings the remainder into regular rows. On the thirty-fifth day the

RAG I 109

kiintc is drawn again, at right angles to its former direction. On the
forty-fifth day it is sometimes drawn again ; but when the two former
ones have sufficiently thinned the young corn, the third hoeing is not
necessary. At the end of the second month, the weeds should be
removed by the small iron instrument called iijari. According to the
quantity of rain, the ragi ripens in from three to four months. The
avare and tovari do not ripen till the seventh month. The reason of
sowing these plants along with the ragi seems to be that the rains
frequently fail, and then the ragi dies altogether, or at least the crop is
very scanty ; but in that case the leguminous plants resist the drought
and are ripened by the dews, which are strong in autumn. When the
ragi succeeds, the leguminous plants are oppressed by it and produce
only a small return ; but when the ragi fails, they spread wonderfully
and give a very considerable return.

In other places, as in Kolar, where the seed is sown by the drill-
I)lough, ki'/n'ge ; behind the kiirige is tied the implement called siidike,
into which is put the seed of the avare or tovari ; by this method, for
every twelve drills of ragi there is one drill of pulse. After the field
has been sown, it is harrowed with the bullock-rake called halive, and
then smoothed with a bunch of thorns, which is drawn by a bullock
and pressed down by a large stone. Here sheep are only used to
trample the ragi fields when there is a scarcity of rain. The bullock-
hoe called kunte is used on the fifteenth and eighteenth days after
sowing. On the twenty-sixth day the harrowing is repeated. On the
thirty-second the field is cleared from weeds with the implement called
oravari. In four months the ragi ripens and in five the pulses.

In the west, about Periyapatna, in very rich soils, nothing is put in
drills along with ragi ; but immediately after that grain has been cut, a
second crop of kadale is sown, which does not injure the ground.
Sometimes a second crop of same or of huchcheHu is taken ; but these
exhaust the soil much. ^Vhen rain does not come at the proper
season, the nigi fields are sown with ht/ra/i\ kadalc, huchchclju, or kari-
siiDie. The two leguminous plants do not injure the soil ; but the
huchcheUu and same render the succeeding crop of nigi very poor.

In Shimoga the ragi seed, mixed with dung, is placed very thin with
the hand in furrows drawn at the distance of about seven inches
throughout the field, a small quantity being dropped at about every
ten inches. In every seventh furrow are put the seeds o{ (ivurc, tovari^
and pinidi intermixed, or of uddu by itself.

Ragi is reaped by the sickle, and the straw is cut within four inches
of the ground. For three days the handfuls are left on the field : and
then, without being bound up in sheaves, are stacked, and the whole is

FLORA

well thatched. At any convenient time within three months it is
opened, dried two days in the sun, and then trodden out by oxen.
The seed, having been thoroughly dried in the sun, is preserved in
straw i?iude. The remainder is put into pits, or hagevii ; where, if care
has been taken to dig the pit in dry soil, it will keep in perfect
preservation for ten years.

Rdgi is always ground into flour, as wanted, by means of a hand-mill
called Msa-gcinu. In this operation it loses nothing by measure. The
flour is dressed in various ways. The most common are, a kind of
pudding called hittii, and two kinds of cakes called rotti and doshe,
both of which are fried in oil. For all kinds of cattle, the ragi straw is
reckoned superior to that of rice.'

' The following is an estimate by Dr. Forbes Watson of the food-value of ragi and
other Indian grains, taken from Mr. Elliot's l)ook {Experiences of a Planter).

"The position of ragi as food, when compared with some of the other Indian
cereals, appears from the following table : —

Bajree

Jowaree

Rice

Ragi

Name of the Grain

Wheat

{Penicillaria

(Sorghum

(pryza

(Eleusim

sjticata)

vulgarc)

sativa)

corocand)

Number of analyzed samples

Per cent.

Moisture

I2"00

I2-00

12-00

1200

12-00

Nitrogenous matter

Ciluten, alljumen, &c. ...

1 3 '42

10-27

9-38

740

6-53

Cellulose or woody fibre

2 69

1-49

2-23

•39

336

Carbonoiis viatter

Starch, gum, &c.

68-81

71-01

7268

78-97

74*44

Fat or oil

I-I5

3-27

2-04

•57

1-17

Oxide of iron

•019

•026

-018

•008

064

Potassa...

•214

•405

•207

■066

•534

Soda

•392

•132

•135

•082

•019

Lime

•068

064

-094

"026

•617

Magnesia

•241

•239

•260

•103

•163

Chlorine

•059

•058

•016

•048

Phosphoric acid

•817

-678

•856

•287

•595

Sulphuric acid ...

•154

-105

•108

-080

•no

Silica ...

•029

•375

•088

•092

•334

The order according to which these cereals are arranged is determined by the
amount of nitrogenous matter they contain. Wheat stands pre-eminent, followed by
bajree and jowaree [or sajje and jola], w-hilst rice and ragi occupy the lowest position.
It will be observed that, in order to avoid the perturbations in the natural order
which may arise from a varying amount of moisture in the grains, all the analyses
have been reduced to a common moisture of twelve per cent. , which is that to which
all grains more or less approach. The numbers inserted in the table are, therefore,
true comparative numbers.

The ragis grown at different places seem to show almost a greater latitude in com-
position than most of the other grains. Among the seven samples analyzed the
amount of nitrogenous matter varies between 5-49 and 9*24 per cent., so that, although

RAGI III

Tbta or ndt rdgi is not the same with that cultivated on dry grounds,
although in the sense adopted by botanists it is not specifically
different ; but the seed which is raised on dry fields will not thrive in
gardens ; nor will that which is raised in gardens thrive without
irrigation. Garden ragi is always transplanted, and hence it is called
ndti. The following is the process followed in the Kolar District.
For the seedling bed, dig the ground in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) and give
it a little dung. Divide it into squares, and let it have some more
manure. Then sow the seed very thick ; cover it with dung, and give
it water, which must be repeated once in three days. The ground
into which it is to be transplanted, is in Pushya ploughed five
times, and must be dunged and divided into squares with proper
channels. About the beginning of Magha, or end of January,
water the seedlings well, and pull them up by the roots : tie them in
bundles, and put them in water. Then reduce to mud the ground into
which they are to be transplanted, and place the young ragi in it, with
four inches distance between each plant. Next day water, and every
third day for a month this must be repeated. Then weed with a small

the average is inferior to the rice, there are samples which may be richer in nitrogen
than most of the rices. Still, this is only one aspect of the question. The amount
of nitrogen is too often looked upon as the only exponent of the nutritive value.
This is a very circumscribed view of the extremely complicated and many-sided
problem of nutrition. Each of the normal components of the human body can
become of paramount importance under certain conditions. The oxide of iron in the
ash of the grains amounts only to some tenths of a per cent. ; but still the regular
supply even of this small quantity is essential for the proper performance of the vital
functions, as it is indispensalole in the formation of the blood-corpuscles. A dearth
of iron would, therefore, be just as fatal as a want of the nitrogenous, or carbonous,
or other principal constituent of food. In judging, therefore, of the relative value of
an article of food, the amounts of nitrogen and carbon cannot be relied on as the sole
guide. The mineral constituents must be taken into account. At the time when I
published my first analyses of ragi, these extended only to the organic compounds of
the grain, and the position which I then assigned to it — guided only l)y the percentage
of nitrogen — has been borne out by the subsequent analyses. Since then, however, a
detailed examination of the ash has been made, which yielded some remarkable con-
clusions. The ragi seems to be uncommonly rich in certain important mineral con-
stituents. The amount of phosphoric acid in ragi is only lower by one-fourth than
that in wheat, and it is more than twice as high as in rice. It contains eight times as
much iron, and eight times as much potassa as rice, and, indeed, more of potassa
than any of the other grains. It is, likewise, exceptionally rich in lime. The ash,
composed, as it chiefly is, of the most important elements, amounts on the average
to 2j per cent, in ragi, as compared with 0760 per cent, contained in rice. It is
therefore possible, if not indeed probable, that the large amount and favour-
al)le composition of the ragi ash may more than counterbalance its inferiority in
nitrogen, so that although, according to the nutritive standard hitherto in use, it must
be put below rice, ragi may still be, on the whole, a food satisfying by itself more
completely the numerous exigencies of an article of human diet than rice."'

112 FLORA

hoc, and water once in four days. It ripens in three months from the
time when the seed was sown; and in a middling crop, produces twenty
fold. It is only sown on the ground at times when no other crop could
be procured, as the expense of cultivation nearly equals the value of the
crop. Another kind of nat ragi cultivated in Sira as a Vais'akha crop is
called tripati.

Avare — is never cultivated alone, but always with ragi, as
described above. When ripe, the legumes are nearly dry. The plant
having been cut and for one day exposed to the .sun, is beaten with a
stick to separate the seed. That which is designed for seed is
preserved in mudes ; while that for consumption is kept in pots, and
is used in curries. The straw is eaten by all kinds of cattle except
horses.'

Togari (or Tovari) — is also cultivated only with ragi, as described
above. It is cut when almost dry, then put up in heaps, and on the
day after it is opened to dry in the sun. The grain is beaten out with
a stick ; and that intended for sowing must be preserved in a straw
miide. It is used in curry. After the seed has been threshed, cattle
eat the husks of the legume. The straw is used for fuel. A larger
variety, called hiruka togari, is produced by garden cultivation. -

The best soil for the cultivation of these three articles is the black
soil, or ere bht'imi; which yields a crop of ragi every year, and even
without manure will give a considerable return ; but when it can be
procured, dung is always given. After a crop oi jbla, ragi does not
thrive ; but j61a succeeds after a crop of ragi. The next best soil for
ragi, and the one most commonly used, is the kebbe or red soil. In
this also it is sometimes cultivated without dung ; but it requires to be
manured at least once in two or three years. In maralu, or sandy, and
dare soils, it every year requires dung,

Jola — next to ragi is the most considerable dry crop. In the south
it is often sown for fodder; for, when the crop is not uncommonly good,

1 The following is Professor Church's analysis of avare beans : —

Water

Albuminoids

Starch

Oil

Fibre

Ash

The nutrient ratio deduced is I : ;

- According to the same authority i lb of the pea would contain i oz 361 grains of
water, 3 oz 208 grains of albuminoids, and 9 oz 1 1 grains of starch. The nutrient
ratio would be about 1:3: the nutrient value 80.

In 100 parts
Husked With husk

In I lb
oz grs

I2-I

.. I2-I

I 410

24-4 .

.. 22-4

3 255

57-8 .

•• 54-2

S 294

1-5 ■

1-4

0 9S

I "2 .

.. 6-5 ...

I 17

3-0 .

• • 3-4

0 23S

he nutrient value 80.

JO LA 113

the grain is no object. It is cut and given to the cattle at a time when
ragi straw is not- to be procured. Previously to being given to cattle,
however, it must be dried, as the green straw is found to be very
pernicious. There are two kinds of jbla ; the white (/>///) and red
{ke7npii). When they are intended to be cut for the grain, these are
sown separately ; as the red kind ripens in three months, while four are
required to ripen the white jola. A red ragi soil is preferred for it,
and crops of ragi and jola are generally taken alternately, the crop of
ragi having an extraordinary allowance of dung. The j6]a requires less
rain than the ragi, and admits of a second crop of hurali being taken
after it; and thus, in the course of two years, there are on the same
ground three crops.

The j61a is both made into flour for puddings and cakes, and is
boiled whole to eat with curry, like rice. It is a good grain; but at the
utmost does not keep above two years.

The j6/a that is cultivated on dry field in Madgiri is of three kinds :
agara, kempu, and hasani. They are all, probably, mere varieties.
The best soil for them is a black clay ; and the next, the same mixed
with sand. For ragi these soils are of a poor quality ; but on the same
dry field j6]a and ragi may be alternately cultivated without injuring
either. In Wais'akha, or the second month after the vernal equinox,
plough four times. After the next rain sow the seed. It is sown
either broad-cast or by dropping it in the furrow after the plough.
Smooth the field by drawing a plank over it. It requires neither
weeding nor manure. For fodder its straw is inferior to that of rdgi,
but superior to that of rice. Agara jd]a ripens in 4^ months, kcinpu
and hasaru in four months. Their produce is rather less in the order
they are mentioned.

Towards llarihar the jola crop is always accompanied by one or
more of the following articles : avare, togari, hasaru, 7)iadiki, hurali, and
alasandi. These being intended chiefly for family use, a portion of
each is wanted, and every man puts in his j6]a field a drill or two of
each kind. Jd]a thrives on black clay, but is also sown on the red
earth, and even sometimes on the stony soil. In Chaitra the field is
hoed with a heg-kuiifc, which requires from six to eight oxen to draw it ;
for this is the month following the vernal equinox, when the soil is very
dry and hard. In the following month the field is ploughed once, and
then manured. In the month preceding the summer solstice, the seed
is sown after a rain by means of the drill ; while the rows of the
accompanying grains are put in by means of the sudike, which is tied
to the drill. The field is then smoothed with the bohi kuitk, a hoe
drawn by oxen, of lighter make than the heg-kunte. On the twentieth

IT4 FLORA

day the field is weeded willi the cdc kuii/c, and (jii the twenty-eighth
day this is repeated. Tn five incjinlis the juja ripens, without further
troul)le.'

In the north of the Tumkiir District a few fields (jf watered land are
entirely allotted for the cultivation of /'/// Jo/a. The soil of these is a
rich black mould, but does not require much water. Only one crop a
year is taken. The produce is great, not only as an immense increase
on the seed sown, but as affording a great deal of food. The following
is the mode of cultivation : — Begin to plough in Vais'dkha and in the
course of seven months plough eight or nine times. Then manure
with dung, mud from the bottom of tanks, and leaves of the honge ;
and if there be no rain, water the field before .sowing. Previous to
being planted, the seed must have been soaked in water. A man then
draws furrows with a plough, and another places the seed in the
furrows at the distance of four or five inches. By the next furrow it
is covered. The field is then smoothed by drawing over it a plank, on
one end of which a man stands, and by this means that forms a low
ridge. Thus throughout the field, at the distance of six feet, which is
the length of the plank, parallel rows of ridges are produced. The
intermediate spaces are divided into oblong plots by forming with the
hand ridges which at every eight or twelve cubits distance cross the
others at right angles. At the same time the areas of the plots are
exactly levelled. The waterings, after the first month, must be given
once in twelve or fourteen days. In some villages the farmers weed
the Jo/a when it is six weeks old ; in others they do not take this
trouble. Some people around every field of Jo/a plant a row of
kitsumba seeds, and the prickly nature of that plant keeps aw\iy cattle.

Bi/i Jo/a is sometimes sown in place of the ^^ais'akha crop of rice.
This must be followed by a Karttika crop of ragi, as after it the
produce of rice would be very small. The jdla also thrives best after a
Karttika crop of ragi. Agara Jo/a is also sometimes seen in place of
the Vais'akha crop on rice ground. It ripens in four months.

Save. — There are three kinds of save cultivated in the east : /ian\

' The nutrient ratio oi Jo/a is given In- Professor Church as i : S\, and the nutrient
value as 86. It contains, he tells us, '86 per cent, of phosphoric acid and '21 per
cent, of potash. The following is his analysis of the grain : —

In TOO parts

In I lb

Water

... 12-5

2 OZ O

Albuminoids

... 9-3

I ,, 214

Starch

... 72-3

II ,, 248

Oil

2-0

0 ,, 140

Fibre

2*2

0 ,, 154

Ash

... 17

0 ,, 119

SAVE 115

/cari, and M/ or ^/7/. They are never intermixed, and the cultivation
of the first kind differs from that of the other two. For /lari save
plough three times in the same manner as for ragi. If there be any to
spare, give the field dung, sow broad-cast, and harrow with the bullock-
rake. In three months the grain ripens without farther trouble ; when
it is cut down, stacked on the field for six days, and then trodden out.
It keeps best in the store-house, and is never made into flour. Cattle
eat the straw without injury, but it is inferior to the straw of either ragi
or rice. For the other two kinds, plough three times in the course of
Ashadha (June — July) ; then, after the first good rain, sow broad-cast,
plough in the seed, and harrow. They do not necessarily require
dung ; but if any can be spared, they will grow the better for it. When
ripe, which happens also in three months, they are managed as the
other kind is. The seed .ind produce of all are nearly the same.

In Madgiri the best soil for same is considered to be the red or ash-
coloured, containing a good deal of sand, which is common on high
places, ^^'ithout much manure, this ground does not bear constant
cropping. After resting a year or more, it is first cultivated for Jiiirali
and next season for same. If manure can be procured, a crop of nigi
is taken, and then it has another fallow. Dung being a scarce article,
in place of the ragi a second crop of same is taken ; but it is a bad one.
If the fallow has been long, and high bushes have grown up, after
burning these, the crop of hurali will be great, and two or three good
crops of same will follow. AVhen good ragi soil has for a year or more
been waste, and is to be brought again into cultivation, the first crop
ought to be same ; for ragi thrives very ill on land that is not constantly
cultivated. In this case, the same gives a great quantity of straw, but
little grain. When the rains have failed, so that the ragi has not been
sown, or when, in consequence of drought, it has died, should the end
of the season be favourable, a crop of same is taken from the fields
that are usually cultivated with ragi. This crop also runs to straw, and
the following crop of ragi requires more dung than usual. In the
course of thirty days, any time between the middle of April and
middle of July, plough three or four times. Then after a good rain, or
one which makes the water run on the surface of the ground, harrow
with the rake drawn by oxen, and sow the same seed with the drill,
putting in with the sudikc rows of the pulses called hurali ox togari.
In four months, without farther trouble, it ripens.

The same in Sira is of three kinds : /'///, kari, and nialiga or iiiujika.
The cultivation for the three kinds is the same, but the seeds are always
kept separate. The soil that agrees with them is the mara/u, and dare,
or poor sandy and stony lands. This soil, if it were dunged, would

ii6 FLORA

every year produce a croi) of same ; Init, as that can seldom be spared,
the same is ahvays succeeded by a crop of hurali, which restores the
ground \ and alternate crops of these grains may be continued, without
any fallow, or without injury to the soil. Bili sdvie ripens in 3^ and
kari in four months ; the inalit^a requires only three months, and is
therefore preferred when the rains begin late; but it gives little straw,
and therefore in favourable seasons the others are more eligible. Same
straw is here reckoned better fodder than that of rice ; and, when
mixed with the husks of hurali or togari, is preferred even to that of
ragi. Except in case of necessity, jdja straw is never used.

Save in the south is never sown on the ere or black clay, and rarely
on the kebbe, or red soil ; the two worst qualities of land being
considered as sufficiently good for such a crop. In the spring the field
is ploughed five times. At the commencement of the heavy rains it is
sown broad-cast, and the seed is covered by a ploughing. Even in the
worst soil, there is no absolute necessity for dung ; but when any can
be spared, the crop will doubtless be benefited by manure. It ripens
without further care in three months, is cut close to the ground, and
gathered into stacks. Five or six days afterwards it is spread on a
threshing-floor, and the grain is trampled out by oxen. That intended
for sowing is dried in the sun, and tied up in straw viudes. The
remainder is preserved in kanajas. It is sometimes boiled whole, like
rice ; at others, ground into flour for cakes. All kinds of cattle eat the
straw, which is also esteemed the best for stuffing pack-saddles.'

Navane. — There are two varieties cultivated in the Mysore District ;
the one called gidda, or short ; and the other jbtu. or long ; and dodda,
or great. Unless a quantity of dung can be spared, it is never sown on
the two worst soils. On the two best soils it requires no manure, and
does not injure the succeeding crop of ragi. In the spring, plough six
times. When the heavy rains commence, sow, and plough in the seed.
It requires neither weeding nor hoeing, and ripens in three months.
Cut it close to the ground, and stack it for eight days ; then spread it
to the sun for a day, and on the next tread out the grain with oxen.
The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and preserved in
a fjiude. The remainder is kept in a kanaja. It is made into flour for
hittu or pudding, and is also frequently boiled whole, like rice. The
straw is used for fodder, but is not good. The jbtu navaiie is some-
times put in drills with ragi, in place of the avare or togari.

Toward Madgiri the navane is of three kinds, /'///, which is cultivated

' The following analysis of the grain (with husk) is given by Professor Church : —
In 100 parts there are contained, water I2'0 ; albuminoids, 8*4 ; starch, 72'5 ; oil, 3"0 ;
fibre, 2*2 ; ash fg. The nutrient ratio is i : 9"S, and the nutrient value 88.

NA VANE 1 1 7

on watered land ; kt'iiipii, wliich is cultivated in palm gardens ; and
/iio/ne, which is cultivated in dry field. It is sometimes sown along
with cotton, but it is also cultivated separately. It grows on both ragi
and jola ground, and does not injure the succeeding crop of either.
In the course of twenty or thirty days, any time in Jyeshtha, Ashadha,
or Sravana, the third, fourth, and fifth months after the vernal equinox,
plough four times. If dung can be obtained, it ought to be put on
after the first ploughing. With the next rain, harrow with the rake
drawn by oxen, sow broad-cast, and harrow again. The straw is
reckoned next in quality to that of ragi ; but the grain, in the opinion
of the natives, is inferior.

The navane cultivated on dry field in Sira is that called In/i, and is
raised either on the two poorer soils, or on a black mould that has been
prepared for it by a crop of the pulse called hesaru. It is considered
as exhausting to the ground ; but this is obviated by ploughing up the
field immediately after the navane has been cut, thus exposing the soil
to the air. In the two months following the vernal equinox, plough
four times. \\'ith the next good rain, harrow with the rake drawn by
oxen, and sow the seed with the drill ; putting navane in the kurige, and
the pulse called avare in the sudike. In three months it ripens without
farther trouble. For cattle, the straw is better than that of rice.

Baragu — is of two kinds ; white and black. A sandy soil of any
kind agrees with this corn, which is also valuable as requiring very
little rain. The straw is better fodder than that of rice. In the second
month after the vernal equinox, plough three times. After the next
rain, in the following month, either sow with the drill, and harrow with
the rake drawn by oxen, or sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed.
In three months it ripens without fi\rther trouble, and in a favourable
season produces sixteen seeds.

There is only one kind cultivated in Kolar. After the heavy rains
have ceased, plough twice, and without manure sow broad-cast, and
plough in the seed. Without any farther trouble it ripens in two
months and a half, is cut down close by the ground, stacked for one or
two days, and then trodden out. The grain is kept in store-houses,
and preserves well for two years. It is boiled entire, like rice. The
straw is only used for fuel. A good crop produces twelve seeds, a
middling one, eight. It requires a rich black clay.'

Haraka — as it is found to injure the succeeding crop of ragi, is
never in the south cultivated on the best soil, and rarely on that of the

' The following is given hy Professor Church as the chemical composition of the
grain : — In lOO parts there are, water, I2"0 ; albuminoids, I2"6 ; starch, 69"4; oil,3"6 ;
fibre, I 'O ; ash i "4. The nutrient ratio is i : 6, and the nutrient value 89.

m8 J' lor a

second quality. It is coinnionly followed by a crop of horse gram, and
is seldom allowed any manure. In the si)ring plough five times. The
dung, if any be given, must be put on before the last ploughing. When
the heavy rains commence, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed :
next day form drills of togari in the same manner as with ragi. When
the sprouts are a span high, hoe with the kunte, once longitudinally and
once across the field. Next weed with the iijare. It ripens in six
months ; and having been cut down near the root, is stacked for six days.
It is then trodden out by cattle. The seed reserved for sowing must be
well dried in the sun. The remainder is preserved in the katiaja, but
does not keep long. It is both boiled like rice, and made into flour
for dressing as hittu, or pudding. The straw is eaten by every kind of
cattle ; but, of all the fodders used here, this is reckoned the worst.

The following is the process of cultivation in the east. At the
commencement of the rains, plough three times in the course of a few
days. As soon as the heavy rains begin, sow the seed broad-cast, and
cover it by a third ploughing. It requires no manure, and here the
pulse called togari is never sown with haraka. At the end of a
month weed it with the implement called woravdri. It requires six
months to ripen, and is cut near the root, stacked on the field for five
or six days, and then dried in the sun, and trodden out. The grain is
commonly preserved in pits, and does not keep longer than one year.
It is never made into flour. The straw is bad forage, and is used
chiefly for manure. The produce in a good crop is twenty-fold ; in a
middling crop fifteen-fold.

Haraka at Madgiri is sown in low soft places, where, in the rainy
season, water is found near the surface. The soil is of different kinds.
In Vais'akha, Jyeshtha and Ashadha, or three months following the
middle of April, plough three times in the course of thirty days. After
the next rain that happens, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, sow
broad-cast, and then repeat the harrowing. It ripens in six months with-
out farther trouble. As fodder for cattle, the straw is reckoned equal
to that of ragi, or of hurali. The produce in a good crop is forty-fold.

Alsandi. — Of this grain there is but one kind, and it is cultivated
in the south only as a kdr crop, which is performed exactly in the
same manner with that of the kdr icddii. The green pods, and ripe
grain, are both made into curries, by frying them in oil with tamarinds,
turmeric, onions, capsicum, and salt. Horses eat the grain ; but the
straw is only useful as manure.'

' According to Professor Church loo parts of the husked bean contain — water,
I2'5 parts; albuminoids, 24"I ; starch, 56'S ; oil, i "3 ; fibre, fS; and ash, 3-5, of
\\hicli I "o consists of phosphoric acid.

HURALl 119

Hurali or horsc-gra»i is of two kinds, black and while or red ; both
are sown intermixed. The worst quahtics of soil are those commonly
used for this grain in the east ; and on the same fields, same, haraka
and huchchellu are cultivated, without one crop injuring the other, or
without a rotation being considered as of the smallest benefit. For
horse-gram plough twice, in the course of a few days, any time in
Kartika. Then after a shower sow broad-cast ; or, if none happen,
steep the seed for three hours in water. Plough in the seed. It has
no manure, and in three months ripens without farther trouble. Cut
it down early in the morning, stack it for one day, and then dry it five
days in the sun. Tread it out, and clean it with a fan. It preserves
best in a store-house, but does not keep longer than one year. The
forage is here reckoned inferior to ragi straw. The produce in a good
crop is fifteen-fold ; and in a middling one ten-fold.

In the south the two varieties, the red and the black, are always
sown intermixed. In the last half of Srdvana, plough three times.
Sow broad-cast with the first rain of Bhadrapada. It requires no
manure, and the seed is covered by a fourth ploughing. In three
months it ripens without farther trouble, and is then pulled up by the
roots, and stacked for eight days : after which it is spread in the sun to
dry, and next day is trodden out by oxen. The seed for sowing must
be well dried in the sun, and preserved in mudcs ; the remainder is
kept in pots, or in the kcmaja. It is used for human food, either
dressed as curry, or parched ; but the chief consumption of it is for
cattle, both horses and bullocks. The straw is an excellent fodder, and is
preferred even to that of ragi. It is generally sown on the two worst
soils, in fields that are never used for anythingelse; but it also follows as a
second crop after jola ; or, when from want of rain the crop of ragi has
failed, the field is ploughed up and sown with horse-gram. In this
case, the next crop of ragi will be very poor, unless it be allowed a
great quantity of manure. In i)laces where the red and black horse-
grams are kept separate, the black kind is sown from twehe to twenty
days later than the other.

The only kind cultivated towards the north-east is the white.
Except after kdr e/he, or upon new ground, it never succeeds. The
longer the ground has been waste, especially if it has been overgrown
with small bushes of the taiigadi, or banddri (cassia auriculata and
dodonea viscosa), so much the better for /ii/ra/i. It grows best upon ash-
coloured soil, and next to that i)refers a red soil, in which there is
much sand. In Srdvana, burn the bushes ; and either then, or in the
course of the next month, plough once. After the next good rain sow
the seed broad-cast, and plough the field across the former furrows.

I20 FLORA

'l"hc hiirali aL Sira is black and white mixed. It grows better on
Stony than on sandy soils ; and gives the greatest crops when cultivated
on land that has been waste, and over-run with bushes ; but it also
thrives tolerably on land that is alternately cultivated with it and same,
or sajje. In the month which precedes and that which follows the
autumnal equinox, sow the seed broad-cast, and then cover it with the
plough. In four months it ripens without farther trouble. Both straw
and husks are reckoned good for labouring cattle ; but they are .said
to be bad for milch cows.'

Uddu — is of two kinds ; chik lufdu, and dod uddu. The chik uddii
seems to be a variety, with black seeds. It is cultivated in Mysore
District as follows : — The ploughing commences ten days after the feast
Sivardiri, in February. Previous to the first ploughing, if there has
not recently been any rain, the field must have a little water, and then
it is three times ploughed. The seed is sown immediately before the
third ploughing, by which it is covered. This crop obtains neither
water, manure, nor weeding. The straw, when ripe, is pulled up by
the roots, stacked for three days, dried two days in the sun, and then
trodden out by bullocks. The flour, made into cakes, and fried in oil,
is here a common article of diet. It is also mixed with rice flour, and
made into w^hite cakes called dose, which are also fried in oil, and are
a favourite food. The straw is reckoned pernicious to cattle. It is
thrown on the dunghill, and serves to increase the quantity of manure.
The grain is always preserved in the miide, or straw bag.

Dod uddu is also called hatti uddu. It is cultivated and managed
exactly like the other kind ; but the first ploughing is on the eighth
day after the Swarna Gauri vrata, in August. The sowing season is
fifteen days afterwards. The straw is equally pernicious to cattle, but
the grain is reckoned better than that of the chik uddu.

About Madgiri it grows best on a black soil, which it does not
injure for the succeeding crop of j6]a. Plough twice in Ashadha or
Sravana, the fourth and fifth months after the vernal equinox. After
the next rain sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In three and a

' The following is the result of Professor Church's analysis of horse-gram : —

In loo parts In i lb

unhiisked oz grs

Water ii-o ... i t,t,t,

Albuminoids ... ... 22*5 ... 3 262

Starch ... ... ... 56"o ... 8 420

Oil 1-9 ... o 133

Fibre 5"4 ... o 37S

Ash 3-2 ... o 224

The nutrient ratio is i : 27, and the nutrient co-efficient S3. The ash contains

nearly one-third its weight of phosphoric acid.

UDDU 121

half months it ripens without farther trouble. The straw is only useful
as fodder for camels.

Dod uddti is cultivated in the west on good ragi soils, and is taken
as an alternate crop with that grain. After cutting the ragi the field is
ploughed once a month for a year. At the last ploughing some people
sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough ; others drop it
into the furrow after the plough. In this last case, the young plants
are always too thick ; and when they are a month old, part of them
must be destroyed by the hoe drawn by oxen. If sown broad-cast, the
weeds at the end of a month must be removed by the hand. The
broad-cast sowing gives least trouble. The drill iiddu produces a little
more. It ripens in three months.

The chiffi/, or lesser uddii, is cultivated at the same season with the
kdr ragi, and requires four months to ripen. Owing to a more
luxuriant growth, even when sown broad-cast, it requires the use of the
hoe drawn by oxen. It is not, however, so productive as the great
uddu. Cattle eat the straw of uddu when mixed with the husks, and
with those of hurali, kadale, avare, and togari, and \vith the spikes of
ragi, after these have been cleared of grain. This fodder is reckoned
superior to even the straw of rdgi.

Hesaru. — It is of one kind only, but is cultivated in the south both
as a hain and as a /'(/rcrop ; in both of which the manner of cultivation
is exactly the same as that of the uddus. The straw, being equally
unfit for cattle, is reserved for manure. The grain is dressed as curry.

In the east it is commonly raised on dry field. It requires a black
clay ; and, although it have no manure, it does not injure the following
crop of ragi. In the course of a few days in Vaisakha, plough twice,
sow broad-cast, plough the seed, and harrow. In three months it
ripens without farther trouble. It is then cut by the ground, stacked
for six days, dried in the sun for four, and trodden out by oxen as
usual. The grain, for use, is preserved in store-houses, and does not
keep good more than two months, even although it be occasionally
dried. The straw is totally useless, and will not even answer for
manure.

The hesaru cultivated at Sira is called kari, or l)lack, and requires
a black soil, to which it is said to add much strength. It is therefore
taken alternately with itavaijc, or with //uc/ii/ic//i/, both of which are
considered as exhausting crops. It is cultivated exactly in the same
manner as hurali is, and ripens in three months. Except for feeding
camels, its straw or husks are of no use.

In a few i)laces in Shimoga where there is a moist black soil, the
rice-ground produces a second crop of kadale, and of hesaru. For the

122 FLORA

hcsaru, the field after the rice harvest must he ploughed twice. In the
month following the shortest day, it must be watered from a reservoir,
and smoothed with the implement called koradu. As a mark for the
sower, furrows are then drawn through the whole field, at the distance
of four cubits ; and the seed having been sown broadcast is covered
by the plough. The field is then smoothed with the koradu, and in
four months the crop ripens.

Wollellu — is cultivated near Seringapatam, and in some places is
q:\\\c^ pJiulagana e/Ju. It is raised exactly like the kdr uddit, cut down
when ripe, and stacked for seven days. It is then exposed to the sun
for three days, but at night is collected again into a heap ; and,
between every two days drying in the sun, it is kept a day in the heap.
By this process the capsules burst of themselves, and the seed falls
down on the ground. The cultivators sell the greater part of the seed
to the oil-makers. This oil is here in common use with the natives,
both for the table and for unction. The seed is also made into flour,
which is mixed with jaggory, and formed into a variety of sweet cakes.
The straw is used for fuel and for manure.

In Kolar it is more commonly called achchellu, and is cultivated as
follows. In Vais'akha plough twice, without manure, sow broad-cast,
and plough in the seed. In three months it ripens without farther
trouble, is cut down by the ground, and is afterwards managed exactly
like the uddu. The seed is preserved in the same manner. The
produce in a good crop is twenty seeds, and in a middling one twelve.
The straw is used for fuel.

North of the Tumkiir District are cultivated two kinds of sesamum,
the karti or wollellu, and the gur-ellit. The last forms part of the
watered crops ; the kar-e]]u is cultivated on dry field. The soil best
fitted for it is da^-e, or stony land, which answers also for same
and hurali. The ground on which kar-e]lu has been cultivated will
answer for the last-mentioned grain, but not so well as that which has
been uncultivated. After it, even without dung, same thrives well.
The same ground will every year produce a good crop of this cllu. If
a crop of ellu is taken one year, and a crop of same the next, and so on
successively, the crops of eHu will be poor, but those of same will be
good. After the first rain that happens in Vais'akha, which begins
about the middle of April, plough three times. With the next rain sow
broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In between four and five months,
it ripens without farther trouble. The produce in a good crop is
eighty-fold.

In the west the kar-elju is sown on ragi fields that consist of a red
soil, and does not exhaust them. The field is ploughed as for ragi,

U'OLLELLU 123

but it is not allowed manure. The seed is mixed with sand, sown broad-
cast, and harrowed with the rake drawn by oxen. It r![)ens in four
months without farther trouble. The seed is equal to half of the rigi
that would be sown on the same field. The produce is about twenty
seeds. The straw is burned, and the ashes are used for manure.

Huchchellu — or the foolish-oil-plaut, is near Seringapatam most
common])- sown after j61a as a second crop. When that has been
reaped, plough four times in the course of eight days. Toward the end
of Sravana, or about the middle of August, after a good rain, sow
broad-cast, and plough in the seed. It requires neither manure nor
weeding, and ripens in three months. It is cut near the root and
stacked for eight days. Then, having been for two or three days
exposed to the sun, the seed is beaten out with a stick, and separated
from fragments of the plant by a fan. The seed is kept in pots. Part
of it is parched and made into sweetmeats with jaggory ; but the
greater part is sold to the oil-maker for expression. This oil is used in
cookery, but is reckoned inferior to that of ivone/Ju. The stems are a
favourite food of the camel ; but are disliked by the bullock, though
want often forces this animal to eat them, ^^'hen not used as a second
crop after j6]a, it is always sown on the two poorer soils.

The hiicJichenu near Bangalore is managed exactly in the same
manner as the wolleUu The 70 seers measure require a little more
water than the other ehu, and gives 65 seers of oil (or a little more
than 4^ gallons). This also is used for the table. The cake is never
used for curry, but is commonly given to milch cattle.

Huchchel/u is never sown at Kolar as a second crop. After the male,
or heavy rains are over, plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the
seed. It gets no manure, and in three months ripens without farther
trouble. It is then cut down near the root, stacked for six days, dried
in the sun for three, and trodden out. The seed is preserved in store-
houses ; the straw is used only as manure.

In IMadgiri liuchchelju is sown in places called Javi/gu, or sticking-
land, which are situated at the bottom of rocks ; from whence in the
rainy season the water filters, and renders the soil very moist. In such
places nothing else will thrive. When the rain has set in so late as to
prevent the cultivation of anything else, the huchchellu is sown also on
any land, especially on ragi fields. On such soiks, however, it does not
succeed. In Bhadrapada or Asvi'ja (from about the middle of August till
about that of October), plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the
seed, which rifjcns in four months.

Haralu.- — Two varieties of it are common ; the c/iikka, or little
haralu, cultivated in gardens ; and the dodda, or great haralu, that is

124 FLORA

cultivated in the ncld.s. To grow the latter : — In the •''pring, plough
five times before the 15th of \'ai.s'akha. ^^'ith the first good rain that
happens afterwards, draw furrows all over the field at a cubit's distance ;
and having put the seeds into these at a similar distance, cover them by
drawing furrows close to the former. ^Vhen the plants are eight inches
high, hoe the intervals by drawing the kunte first longitudinally, and
then transversely. When the plants are a cubit and a half high, give
the intervals a double ploughing. The plant requires no manure, and
in eight months begins to produce ripe fruit. A bunch is known to be
ripe by one or two of the capsules bursting ; and then all those which
are ripe are collected by breaking them off with the hand. They are
afterwards put into a heap or large basket ; and the bunches, as they
ripen, are collected once a week, till the commencement of the next
rainy season, when the plant dies. Once in three weeks or a month,
when the heap collected is sufficiently large, the capsules are for three
or four days spread out to the sun, and then beaten with a stick to
make them burst. The seed is then picked out from the husks, and
either made by the family into oil for domestic use, or sold to the oil-
makers. It is cultivated on the two best qualities of land, and on the
better kinds of inaralu. When the same piece of ground is reserved
always for the cultivation of this plant, the succeeding crops are better
than the first ; when cultivated alternately with ragi, it seems neither to
improve nor injure the soil for that grain.

In Kolar District both the great and small kinds are cultivated ; but,
although the mode of cultivation is the same for both, they are always
kept separate. In the beginning of the female or slight rains plough
twice. When the rains become heavy, plough again ; and then, at the
distance of three-quarters of a cubit from each other in all directions,
place the seeds in the furrows. When the plants are a span high, weed
with the plough, throwing the earth up in ridges at the roots of the
plants. At the end of the first and second months from the former
weeding, repeat this operation. In four months it begins to give ripe
fruit ; and once in four days the bunches that are ripe are collected in
a pit until a sufficient quantity is procured. It is then exposed to the
sun, and the husks are beaten off with a stick. In the May following,
the plant dries up, and is cut for fuel. It is only cultivated in the good
ragi soils, which it rather improves for that grain, although it gets no
dung. The small kind is reckoned the best, and most productive.

Haralu is cultivated in the north-east on a particular soil, which is
reserved for the purpose, and consists of ash-coloured clay mixed with
sand. There are here in common use three kinds of haralu ; the
pJiola or field ; and the docMt, and chittu, which are cultivated in

HARALU 125

gardens. A red kind is also to be seen in gardens, where it is raised
as an ornament. The chit haralu produces the best oil. Next to it is
the phola that is cultivated in the fields. In the course of a few days,
any time in the three months following the vernal equinox, plough
three times. With the next rain that happens, plough again, and at
the same time drop the seeds in one furrow at the distance of one
cubit and a half, and then cover them with the next furrow. A month
afterwards hoe with the kiotte, so as to kill the weeds, and to throw the
earth in ridges toward the roots of the plant. It ripens without farther
trouble. At the time the haralu is planted, seeds of the jiulses called
avare and togari are commonly scattered through the field. In four
months after this, the haralu begins to produce ripe fruit, and for three
months continues in full crop. For two months more it produces
small quantities.

Haralu, of the kind called phola, is cultivated at Sira. For this a
sandy soil is reckoned best ; and as it is thought to improve the soil,
the little ragi that is sown on dry field generally follows it. In the first
month after the vernal equinox, plough twice ; then, with the first rain
in the next month, at every cubit's distance throughout the field, draw
furrows intersecting each other at right angles. At every intersection
drop a seed, and cover them with another furrow. After two months
weed with the plough ; and with the kunte, or hoe drawn by oxen,
throw the earth in ridges toward the young plants. In six months it
begins to give ripe fruit, which for three months is gathered once a
week.

Sanabu. — For the cultivation of this plant as pursued in the
Bangalore District, the soil ought to be red or black, like the best kind
used for cutlivation of ragi. It is allowed no manure ; and the seed is
sown broad-cast on the ground, without any previous cultivation, at the
season when the rains become what the natives call male, that is to say,
when they become heavy. After being sown, the field is ploughed
twice, once lengthwise, and once across ; but receives no farther cultiva-
tion. At other times the sanabu is cultivated on rice-ground in the
dry season ; but it must then be watered from a canal or reservoir. It
requires four months to ripen, which is known by the seeds having
come to full maturity. After being cut down, it is spread out to the
sun, and dried. The seed is then beaten out by striking the pods
with a stick. After this, the stems are tied up in large bundles, about
two fathoms in circumference, and are preserved in stacks or under
sheds.

Cotton. — The soil on which it is sown at Sira is a black clay con-
taining nodules of limestone. In the two months following the vernal

126 FLORA

equinox, plougli three times. At any convenient time, in the two next
months, mix the seed witli dung, and drop it in the furrows after the
plough, forming Hnes about nine inches apart. A month afterwards
plough again between the lines ; and in order to destroy the super-
fluous plants and weeds, use the hoe drawn by oxen three times, cross-
ing these furrows at right angles. The second and third times that this
hoe is used, it must follow the same track as at first , otherwise too
many of the plants would be destroyed. Between each hoeing three
or four days should intervene. In six months the cotton begins to
produce ripe capsules, and continues in crop four more. The plants
are then cut close to the ground ; and after the next rainy season the
field is ploughed twice in contrary directions. A month afterwards it
is hoed once or twice with the same implement, and it produces a crop
twice as great as it did in the first year. In the third year a crop of
same or navaJje must be taken, and in the fourth year cotton is again
sown as at first.

The principal crop in the fine country towards Narsipur and Talkad
is cotton, which there is never raised in soil that contains calcareous
nodules. The black soil that is free from lime is divided into three
qualities. The first gives annually two crops, one of jola and one of
cotton ; the two inferior qualities produce cotton only.

Cotton is raised towards Harihar entirely on black soil, and is either
sown as a crop by itself, or drilled in the rows of a navane field. In
the former case, two crops of cotton cannot follow each other, but one
crop of j61a at least must intervene. In the second month after the
vernal equinox, the field is ploughed once, then manured, then hoed
with the heg kuiite ; and the grass is kept down by occasional hoeings
with the /wilt kinife, until the sowing season in the month preceding
the autumnal equinox. The seed is sown by a drill having only
two bills, behind each of which is fixed a sharp-pointed bamboo,
through which a man drops the seed ; so that each drill requires the
attendance of three men and two oxen. The seed, in order to allow
it to run through the bamboo, is first dipped in cow-dung and water,
and then mixed with some earth. Twenty days after sowing, and also
on the thirty-fifth and fiftieth days, the field is hoed with the edik kunte.
The crop season is during the month before and that after the vernal
influence.

Tobacco is sown in Banavar in the dry field cultivated for ragi and
other similar grains, of which a crop must intervene between every two
crops of tobacco. A\'hen the season proves very wet, it cannot be
cultivated, and it requires a good ragi soil. A few small stones do no
harm, but it will not grow on the hard soil called dare ; and, in fact.

TOBACCO 127

the soil of the first quahty is that usually employed, though sometimes
the tobacco is planted on the best fields of the second quality. In the
three months following the vernal equinox, the field ought, if possible,
to be ploughed ten times ; but some of these ploughings are often
neglected. After the fourth or fifth time, sheep and cattle must for some
nights be kept on the field for manure. During the last fifteen days of
the second month after midsummer, small holes are made throughout
the field. They are formed with the hand, and disposed in rows distant
from each other \\ cubit ; and in every hole a young tobacco plant is
set. This being the rainy season, the tobacco requires no watering,
unless during the first ten days from its having been transplanted there
should happen to be two successive fair days. In this case, on the
second fair day, water must be given with a pot. On the fifteenth day a
little dung is put into each hole, and the field is hoed with the kunte.
Every fourth or fifth day, until the tobacco is cut, this is repeated, so as
to keep the soil open and well pulverized. At the end of a month and
a half, the top shoots of the plants are pinched off, and every eight or
ten days this is repeated ; so that si.\ or seven leaves only are permitted
to remain on each stem. In the month preceding the shortest day, it
is fit for cutting.

The stems are cut about four or five inches from the ground, and
are then split lengthwise ; so that each portion has three or four leaves.
These half stems are strung upon a line, which is passed through their
root ends ; and then for twenty days they are spread out to the sun and
air. Every third day they are turned, and they must be covered with
mats should there happen to be rain ; but at this season that seldom
comes. The tobacco is then taken into the house, put into a heap, and
turned four or five times, with an interval of three days between each
time. It is then fit for sale, and by the merchants is made up into
bundles which include the stems.

In order to prepare the seedlings, a plot of ground must be dug in
the month which precedes the longest day. It must be then cleared
from stones, and separated by little banks into squares for watering, in
the same manner as in this country is done to kitchen gardens. The
tobacco seed is then mixed with dung, and sown in the squares, which
are smoothed with the hand, sprinkled with water, and then covered
with branches of the wild date. Every third day it must be watered.
On the eighth day the plants come up, and then the palm branches must
be removed. If the plants be wanted soon, they ought to have more dung,
and to be kept clear from weeds, ^^'ith this management, they are fit
for transplanting in from a month to six weeks. If they are not wanted
for two months, or ten weeks, the second dunging is omitted, and the

128 FLORA

growth of tlic plants is checked by giving them no water for eight days
after they come up.

Sasive is a mustard which is always sown, in the east, mixed with
ragi. It ripens sooner than that grain ; and, when dry, the branches
are broken with the hand, exposed two days to the sun, and then
beaten out with a stick. In this country, oil is never made from the
seed, as is usual in Bengal ; it is employed as a seasoning in curries and
pickles.

Kadale always requires a black mould ; and is cultivated, in the
west, partly as a second crop after ragi, and partly on fields that ha^•e
given no other crop in the year. In this case, the produce is much
greater, and the manner of cultivation is as follows: — In the two months
preceding the autumnal equinox, the ragi having been cut, the field
is ploughed once a month for fourteen or fifteen months. Then in the
course of four or five days plough twice. After the last ploughing, drop
the seed in the furrows at six inches distance from each other, and it
ripens withoi'.t farther trouble. The seed is sown as thick as that of
ragi.

It is a considerable crop in the south-east of the Mysore District, but
so exhausts the soil of even the richest fields that it is seldom taken
from the same ground oftener than once in seven years. It is generally
sown after jola in place of cotton, and must be followed by wheat,
wollellu or ragi. The two former may be followed by cotton, the ragi
cannot. In the third year, when ragi has been used, the field is sown
with navane or jola, succeeded as usual by cotton. Immediately after
the jola has been cut, which is about the autumnal equinox, the field is
ploughed once, then dunged, and then ploughed three times, all in the
course of a month. In the beginning of the second month after the
autumnal equinox, the kadale is sown in drills like the cotton ; but the
drills are only half a cubit distant. Between the drills, on the fifteenth
day, the hoe drawn by oxen is used. On the thirtieth the weeds are
removed by the kale kudagolu. If the soil be rather hard, about the
thirt3'-third day the hoe drawn by oxen must be again used. In four
months the kadale ripens. Kadale is sometimes sown after a fallow ; in
which case the ground is prepared in a similar manner as for cotton in
the two poorer soils.

Towards Harihar, a few rich spots are reserved solely for the cultiva-
tion of kadale, and these are cultivated in the following manner : — In
the month following the vernal equinox the field is ploughed once, then
manured, and in the following month is hoed with the keg kunfe.
Between that period and the month preceding the shortest day, the
grass is ploughed down twice, and the seed is sown with the sharp

WHEAT 129

bamboo following the plough, and covered with the hegkunte. It ripens
in three months.'

Wheat. — There are two kinds cultivated, Jave gbdhi {triticum
mofiococxiii/i) and hotte godhi {triticum spelta). For the former, in Kolar,
the ground is sometimes ploughed five times ; and sometimes dug with
the hoe called kol gudali to the depth of one cubit, which is reckoned
preferable. In Jye'shtha (May — June) the seed is sown broad-cast, and
covered with the hoe. Channels and squares are then formed, and the
ground is smoothed with the hand and dunged ; while such of the seed
as may happen to be above the ground is pushed down with the finger.
In forty-five days the field must be watered nine times. It is then
weeded with the instrument called woravari; after which one watering
in six days suffices. It ripens in three months, is cut, tied up in small
sheaves, and stacked for four days. It is then dried one day in the sun,
and thrashed out by beating the sheaves against a log of timber. To
separate the awns, the grain is then beaten with a stick. In the fields
of wheat, radishes are planted on the mounds which divide the
squares.

In the black clay in Madgiri, wheat of the kind called jave godhi
is the most common crop. It is but a poor grain, and five-twelfths
of it consist of husks. Any time in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) plough once;
next day, if there be no rain, water the field, and plough again across,
dropping the seed in the same manner as in sowing jola. The plots
must be formed in the same manner. It gets no manure nor weeding,
and requires only three waterings, on the fortieth, sixtieth and eightieth
days. It is much subject to disease, and not above one crop in four
is good. After reaping the wheat, the field, in order to expose the soil
to the rain, must be immediately ploughed.

In Sira, in place of the Vais'dkha crop, when there is a scarcity of
water, wheat, both jave and hotte, are sown on rice-lands. These grains
may be followed by a Kdrtika crop of ragi ; but by this process the
ground is as much exhausted as if it had been sown with navanc. If

' Professor Church gives the following analysis of the composition of chick pea, or

15engal gram : —

In 100 parts In i lb

Husked with husk husked

1 1 '2 ... I oz 367 grs
19-5 ... 3 „ 207 ,,
53"8 • •• 9 ,. 192 ,,
4-6 ... o ,, 294 ,,
7-8 ... o ,, 70 ,,
3'i .•■ o ,, 182 ,,
The ash of husked contains l*l, and of unhiisked O'S of phosphoric acid. The
nutrient ratio of the unhusked peas is i : 3*3 ; the nutrient value 84.

Water

... II-5

Albuminoids

... 217

Starch

... 59-0

Oil

... 4-2

Fibre

I 'O

Ash

... 2-6

I30 FLORA

the Kdrtika crop be altogether left out, the Vais'dkha crop of rice follow-
ing wheat will be as good as if the ground had been regularly cultivated
for rice alone ; and in India it is a commonly received opinion, that
where a supply of water admits of it, ground can never be in such good
heart as when regularly cultivated by a succession of rice crops. Wheat
requires a clay soil, and the manner of cultivating both kinds is the
same. In the two months preceding, and the one following the autumnal
equinox, plough five times. In the following month, after a rain, or
after having watered the field, plough again, and drop the seed into the
furrows. Then divide it into squares, as for j6la, and water it once a
month. The straw is only used for fire. If given to cattle for fodder,
it is supposed capable of producing the distemper.

A very small quantity of the wheat called jave godhl is raised near
Periyapatna on fields of a very rich soil, from which alternate crops of
kadale and of it are taken. The manure is given to the kadale ; but
wheat requires none. From the winter to the summer solstice plough
once a month. Then in the following month plough twice, sow broad-
cast, and cover the seed with the plough. It ripens in four months
without farther trouble.

The wheat raised near Narsipur in the Mysore District is of the kind
called hotte gbdhi, and there are two seasons for its cultivation, the hain
and kdr. It is sown on the best soil only, and always after a crop of
kadale. The kar season, when the rains set in early, is always pre-
ferred, not only as the wheat is then more productive, but as in the
same year it may be followed by a crop of cotton, which is not the case
with the hain wheat. In the two months following the vernal equinox,
the field for kar wheat is dunged, ploughed two or three times, and
then hoed with the hmte, which is drawn by oxen. The seed is then
sown, in drills one cubit distant, by dropping it in the furrow after a
plough. On the fifteenth, twenty-eighth and thirty-fifth days the hoe is
again used, and two or three days afterwards the weeds are removed by
the kale kudagolii. This wheat ripens in three months and a half, and is
immediately followed by a crop of cotton. The wheat is liable to be
spoiled by a disease called arsina mdri ; owing to which, in the course
of one day, it becomes yellow and dies.

When the rains are late in coming, the hain crop of wheat is taken
after kadale. Cotton cannot be taken in the same year. The manner
of cultivation is the same as for the kar crop, only the season is
difi"erent. The ploughings are performed in the month which pre-
cedes the autumnal equinox, or in the beginning of that which follows.
At the end of this month the seed is sown. The produce is about
one-half only of that of the kar crop.

RICE 131

Rice. — Of the varieties of this grain 108 specimens have been
collected in the Government Museum, each bearing its appropriate
vernacular name. There are three modes of sowing the seed, from
whence arise three kinds of cultivation. In the first mode the seed is
sown dry on the fields that are to rear it to maturity : this is called the
hara batta ox puuaji. In the second mode the seed is made to vegetate
before it is sown ; and the field when fitted to receive it is reduced to a
puddle : this is called mole batta. In the third kind of cultivation the
seed is sown very thick in a small plot of ground ; and when it has
shot up to about a foot high, the young rice is transplanted into the
fields where it is to ripen : this is called iidti.

The kinds of rice cultivated at Seringapatam are as follow -.—dodda
batta., hotte kembatti, arsina kembatti, sukadds, imirarjila, ydlakki raja,
konavali, bill sauna batta, putta batta, kari kallu. With the exception
of the first, which takes seven months, all the other kinds ripen in five
and a half months.

In the hain crop the following is the management of the dry-seed
cultivation. During the months Phalguna, Chaitra and Vais'akha, that
is from February till May, plough twice a month ; having, three days
previous to the first ploughing in Phdlguna, softened the soil by giving
the field water. After the fourth ploughing the field must be manured
with dung, procured either from the city or cow-house. After the fifth
ploughing the fields must be watered either by rain or from the canal ;
and three days afterwards the seed must be sown broad-cast and then
covered by the sixth ploughing. Any rain that happens to fall for the
first thirty days after sowing the seed must be allowed to run off by a
breach in the bank which surrounds the fields ; and should much rain
fall at this season, the crop is considerably injured. Should there have
been no rain for the first thirty days, the field must be kept constantly
inundated till the crop be ripe ; but if there have been occasional
showers the inundation should not commence till the forty-fifth day.
AWeding and loosening the soil about the roots of the young plants
with the hand, and placing them at proper distances, where sown too
close or too far apart, must be performed three times ; first on the
forty-fifth or fiftieth day ; secondly twenty days afterwards ; and thirdly
fifteen days after the second weeding. These periods refer to the crops
that require seven months to ripen. For rice which ripens in five and
a half months, the field must be inundated on the twentieth day ; and
the weedings are on the twentieth, thirtieth and fortieth days.

In the hain crop the following is the manner of conducting the
sprouted-seed cultivation. The ploughing season occupies the month
.of Ashadha (June — July). During the whole of this time the field is

K 2

132 FLORA

inundated and is ploughed four times ; while at each ploughing it is
turned over twice in two different directions, which cross each other at
right angles. This may be called double ploughing. About the ist
of Sravana the field is manured, immediately gets a fifth ploughing, and
the mud is smoothed by the labourers' feet. All the water except one
inch in depth must then be let off, and the prepared seed must be sown
broad-cast. As it sinks in the mud it requires no labour to cover it.
For the first twenty-four days the field must once every other day have
some water, and must afterwards, until ripe, be kept constantly inun-
dated. The weedings are on the twenty-fifth, thirty-fifth and fiftieth
days. In order to prepare the seed it must be put into a pot, and kept
for three days covered with water. It is then mixed with an equal
quantity of rotten cow-dung, and laid on a heap in some part of the
house, entirely sheltered from the wind. The heap is well covered
with straw and mats ; and at the end of three days the seed, having
shot out sprouts about an inch in length, is found fit for sowing. This
manner of cultivation is much more troublesome than that called dry-
seed : and the produce from the same extent of ground is in both nearly
equal ; but the sprouted-seed cultivation gives time for a preceding
crop of pulse on the same field, and saves a quarter of the seed.

Two distinctions are made in the manner of cultivating transplanted
rice ; the one called baravdgi or by dry plants : and the other called
nirdgi or by wet pla?ifs. For both kinds low land is required.

The manner of raising the dry-seedHngs for the hain crop is as
follows : — Labour the ground at the same season, and in the same
manner as for the dry -seed crop. On the ist of Jyeshtha, or in May,
give the manure, sow the seed very thick and cover it with the plough.
If no rain fall before the eighth day, then water the field, and again
on the twenty-second ; but if there are any showers these waterings
are unnecessary. From the forty-fifth till the sixtieth day the plants
continue fit to be removed. In order to be able to raise them for
transplanting, the field must be inundated for five days before they are
plucked. The ground on which the dry-seedlings are to be ripened is
ploughed four times in the course of eight weeks, commencing about
the 15th of Jyeshtha; but must all the while be inundated. The
manure is given before the fourth ploughing. After this, the mud
having been smoothed by the feet, the seedlings are transplanted into
it, and from three to five plants are stuck together into the mud at
about a span distance from the other little bunches. The water is then
let off for a day : afterwards the field, till the grain is ripe, is kept
constantly inundated. The weedings are performed on the twentieth^
thirty-fifth and forty-fifth days after transplanting.

RICE 133

The manner of raising the wet-seedHngs for the transplanted crop in
the hain season is as follows : — In the month Phalguna (Feb. — Mar.)
plough the ground three times, while it is dry. On the ist of
Jyeshtha inundate the field ; and in the course of fifteen days plough it
four times. After the fourth ploughing smooth the mud with the feet,
sow the seed very thick and sprinkle dung over it : then let off the
water. On the third, sixth and ninth days water again ; but the water
must be let off and not allowed to stagnate on the field. After the
twelfth day inundate until the seedlings be fit for transplantation,
which will be on the thirtieth day from sowing. The cultivation of the
field into which the seedlings are transplanted is exactly the same as
that for the dry-seedlings. The plot on which the seedlings are raised
produces no crop of pulse ; but various kinds of these grains are sown
on the fields that are to ripen the transplanted crop, and are cut down
immediately before the ploughing for the rice commences. The pro-
duce of the transplanted crop is nearly equal to that of the dry-seed
cultivation ; and on a good soil, properly cultivated, twenty times the
seed sown is an average crop.

The kar crops, according to the time of sowing, are divided into three
kinds. When the farm is properly stocked, the seed is sown at the
most favourable season, and the crop is then called the Kumba kdr ;
but if there be a want of hands or cattle, part of the seed is sown
earlier, and part later than the proper season ; and then it produces
from thirty to fifty per cent, less than the full crop. When sown too
early the crop is called Tu/a kdr ; when too late it is called Mesha kdr.
The produce of the hain and Kuviba kdr crops is nearly the same.^

No Tula kar dry seed is ever sown. The ploughing season for the
Kumba kar dry seed is in Bhddrapada (August), and the seed is sown
about the end of r^Iargasira (December). In the :SIesha kar dry-seed
the ploughing commences on the ist of Chaitra (March), and the seed
is sown at the feast of Chitra Paurnami in April. The Tula kdr
sprouted seed is sown on the ist Kartika (October), the ploughing
having commenced wath the feast Navaratri, in September. The
Kumba kdr sprouted seed is sown in Pushya, about the ist of January.
The ploughing season occupies a month. The ploughing for the
Mesha kdr sprouted seed commences about the 15th of Chaitra. The
seed is sown about the i6th of Vais'akha (May). The Kumba kar
transplanted rice is cultivated only as watered seedlings. The ground
for the seedlings begins to be ploughed in the end of Kartika or
middle of November, and the seed is sown on the 15th Pushya or
end of December. The fields on which this crop is ripened are begun
1 Kumba or Kumbha is the sign Aquarius ; Tula is Libra ; and M,!sha is Aries.

134 FLORA

to be ploughed in the middle (jf Margasira (ist December). The
transplanting lakes place about the 15th of Magha or end of
January. The Tula kar transplanted rice also is sown nirdi^i about the
30th of Asvi'ja or middle of October, and in a month afterwards is
transplanted. The Mesha kdr transplanted rice is also sown as watered
seedlings, about the 15th of Vais'akha (May), and about a month
afterwards is transplanted. The regular kar crop of the transplanted
cultivation docs not interfere with a preceding crop of pulse ; but this
is lost, when from want of stock sufficient to cultivate it at the proper
time the early or late seasons are adopted. The various modes of
cultivating the rice give a great advantage to the farmer ; as by
dividing the labour over great part of the year fewer hands and less
stock are required to cultivate the same extent of ground than if there
was only one seed-time, and one harvest.

The manner of reaping and preserving all the kinds of rice is nearly
the same. About a week before the corn is fit for reaping, the water is
let off, that the ground may dry. The corn is cut down about four
inches from the ground with a reaping-hook called kudagohi or kudagu.
Without being bound up in sheaves it is put into small stacks, about
twelve feet high ; in which the stalks are placed outwards and the ears
inwards. Here the corn remains a week, or if it rains, fourteen days.
It is then spread out on a threshing-floor made smooth with clay, cow-
dung and water, and is trodden out by driving bullocks over it. If
there has been rain, the corn, after having been threshed, must be dried
in the sun ; but in dry weather this trouble is unnecessary. It is then
put up in heaps called rds/ii, which contain about 60 kandagas, or 334
bushels. The heaps are marked with clay and carefully covered with
straw. A trench is then dug round it to keep off the water. For
twenty or thirty days (formerly, till the division of the crop between
the Government and the cultivator took place) the corn is allowed to
remain in the heap.

The grain is always preserved in the husk, or, as the English in
India say, in paddy. There are in use here various ways for keeping
paddy. Some preserve it in large earthen jars that are kept in the
house. Some keep it in pits called hagevu. In a hard stony soil they
dig a narrow shaft, fifteen or sixteen cubits deep. The sides of this
are then dug away so as to form a cave with a roof about two cubits
thick. The floor, sides and roof are lined with straw ; and the cave is
then filled with paddy. These pits contain from fifteen to thirty
kandagas. "\^'hen the paddy is wanted to be beaten out into rice, the
whole pit must at once be emptied. Other people again build kaiiajas,
or store-houses, which are strongly floored with plank to keep out the

RICE 135

bandicoots or rats. In these store-houses there is no opening for air ;
hut they have a row of doors one above another, for taking out the
grain as it is wanted. Another manner of preserving grain is in small
cylindrical stores, which the potters make of clay, and which are called
xvbde. The mouth is covered by an inverted pot ; and the paddy, as
wanted, is drawn out from a small hole at the bottom. Finally, others
preserve their paddy in a kind of bags made of straw, and called mi'ide.
Of these different means the kanaja and wbde are reckoned the best.
Paddy will keep two years without alteration, and four years without
being unfit for use. Longer than this does not answer, as the grain
becomes both unwholesome and unpalatable. No person here
attempts to preserve rice any length of time ; for it is known by
experience to be very perishable. All the kinds of paddy are found to
preserve equally well. That intended for seed must be beaten off from
the straw as soon as cut down, and dried for three days in the sun,
after which it is usually kept in straw bags.

There are two manners of making paddy into rice ; one by boiling it
previously to beating ; and the other by beating alone. The boiling is
also done in two ways. By the first is prepared the rice intended for
the use of rajas, and other luxurious persons. A pot is filled with
equal parts of water and paddy, which is allowed to soak all night, and
in the morning is boiled for half an hour. The paddy is then spread
out in the shade for fifteen days, and afterwards dried in the sun for
two hours. It is then beaten, to remove the husks. Each grain is
broken by this operation into four or five pieces, from whence it is
called aidii ni'igu akki, or five-piece rice. When dressed, this kind of
rice swells very much. It is always prepared in the families of the
rajas, and is never made for sale. The operation is very liable to fail ;
and in that case the rice is totally lost.

Rice prepared by boiling in the common manner is called kudupal
akki, and is destined for the use of the Sudras, or such low persons as
are able to procure it. Five parts of paddy are put into a pot with one
part of water, and boiled for about two hours, till it is observed that
one or two of the grains have burst. It is then spread out in the sun
for two hours ; and this drying is repeated on the next day ; after which
the paddy is immediately beaten. Ten parts of paddy, l)y this
operation, give five parts of rice, of which one part goes to the person
who prepares it, for his trouble. Ten seers of paddy are therefore
equal in value to only four seers of rice.

The rice used by the Brahmans, and called hasi akki, is never
boiled. On the day before it is to be eaten, the paddy must be
exposed two hours in the sun. If it were beaten immediately after

136 FLORA

being dried, the grain would l>reak, and there would be a considerable
loss. Even with this precaution many of the grains break ; and, when
these are separated from the entire rice to render it saleable, the hasi
akki sells dearer than the kiidupal akki, in the proportion of nine to
eight.

The beating is performed chiefly by women. They sometimes, for
this purpose, use the ydta, or a block of timber fastened to a wooden
lever, which is supported on its centre. The woman raises the block
by pressing with her foot on the far end of the lever, and by removing
her foot allows the block to fall down on the grain. The more
common way, however, of beating paddy, is by means of a wooden
pestle, which is generally about four feet in length, and three inches in
diameter, which is made of heavy timber, and shod with iron. The
grain is put into a hole formed in a rock or stone. The pestle is first
raised with the one hand, and then with the other ; which is very hard
labour for the women.

The kinds of rice cultivated at Mandya are dodda batta, piitta batta,
hote kembatti, konazvali, and viulu batta. The first four take each
five months to ripen, and the last, three. Every kind may be
cultivated, either as hain or kdr. The mulu batta is never sown
except when there is a deficiency of water. The only cultivation here
is the mole batta, or sprouted-seed ; the manner of preparing which is as
follows : Steep the seed in water all night ; next morning mix it with
cow-dung, and fresh plants of the tianbe soppu {phlomis escuknta), and
put it in a rfiiide. On the miide place a heavy stone, and on the two
following days sprinkle it with water. On the third day it is fit for
sowing.

For the hain crop, the ploughings, from about the ist of June till
the middle of July are nine in number. Dung and leaves are then put
on the field, and trampled into the mud. The water is now let off,
until no more than a depth of one inch remains ; afterwards, the seed
is sown and a slight sprinkling of dung laid over it. A watering once
in three days is then given ; and after the third time, the field is
inundated till the grain ripens. The weeds are removed on the
twentieth, fortieth and sixtieth days. The kar cultivation is exactly
the same, only the ploughings are in November and December. In
both kinds of cultivation, and in every species of rice, an equal quantity
of seed is sown on the same extent of ground, and the produce is
nearly equal.

Of the different kinds of rice cultivated at JMaddur arisina kembatti,
putta batta, ydlakki raja, sukadas, kouavali, and imwarjila, are equal
in produce. The first four ripen in 4I months, the next in five, and

RICE 137

the last in six. The produce on first quality of soil is 114 seeds, on
second quality 100 seeds, and on third, half that quantity. Hote
kembatti and dodda or bill bai/a, which ripen in five months, produce
100, 70 or 40 fold, according to quality of soil. All the kinds
of rice may be raised either as hain or kar crops, or the mole or nati
modes of cultivation. No punaji is ever attempted. The seedlings for
transplantation, in the nati cultivation, are always raised as niragi.
The produce of the same kind of rice in the same soil, whether
cultivated as hain or kar, or as moje or nati, is nearly the same.

The seasons for cultivating rice in the Kolar District are two ; and
the two crops, from the months in which they ripen, are named the
Kdrtika and Vais'dkha. In this neigbourhood no rice is transplanted.
When the seed is sown dry, the cultivation is called //^/i?^/ ; when it is
prepared by being sprouted, it is called mole.

The only kind of rice cultivated as puiedi, or dry seed, is the dodda
baira ; and it is only sown in this manner for the Kartika crop. In
the course of Vais'akha and Jyeshtha plough the ground without water
four times. About the end of the latter month (June), after a day's
rain, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough. Then
harrow the field with the implement called halive. The crop has no
manure, and the field is not inundated till the end of the second
month ; when it must be harrowed again, and the weeds removed by
the hand. A good crop of this is reckoned fifteen seeds, a middling
one ten seeds.

The mole for the Kartika crop is cultivated as follows : In Ashadha,
and the first half of Sravana, plough from seven to nine times, the field
being always inundated. Then manure it, either with leaves or dung ;
both are rarely given : but, could they be procured, this would greatly
increase the produce. Then let out all the water, except two inches in
depth, and sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day the field is
dried, and sprinkled with some dung. \X. the end of three days it is
covered with water for four hours. On the seventh, water the field for
a whole day. After the tenth day, it must be kept constantly
inundated to the depth of two inches. At the end of the month
harrow it once lengthwise ; on the third day harrow it across ;
and on the fifth day harrow again lengthwise. Four days afterwards
weed with the hand, and repeat this after an interval of two weeks.

All kinds of rice are cultivated in the same manner. The rice for
seed, after being trodden out, must be dried three or four days in the
sun ; and may be kept either in a straw inude, or in a store called
kaiiaja. When it is to be prepared, it must be dried one day in the
sun ; then soaked a night in water ; the next morning it must be mixed

138 FLORA

with ham/ii leaves and dung, and tied u{) in straw. This is dipped in
water, and placed under a large stone. In two days it must again be
dipped, and is then fit for sowing. The produce of the dodda baira,
which is the common coarse grain of the country, is the greatest. A
good crop of this is said to be fifteen seeds, and middling crop about
ten seeds. The other kinds, on the same extent of ground, produce
eight or ten seers less.

The mo/e cultivation for the Vais'dkha crop is as follows : Having
inundated the field, plough it five or six days during the course of the
twenty days preceding the feast Dipavali. In the course of the next
month plough four times. Then let out all the water, except two
inches in depth ; manure with leaves ; and, having trodden these well
into the mud, sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day dry the
field, and manure it with duug. Three days after, water for two hours.
Then every second day, for three times, water for four or five hours.
Afterwards keep the field inundated. At the end of the month
harrow, with the halive, three times in three directions, with a day's
rest between each harrowing. A week afterwards weed with the hand,
and in two weeks repeat this operation. This is the most productive
crop, and gives from one to two seeds more than that which is reaped
in Kartika.

The mode of cultivation, or the season of sowing, makes no
difference here in the quality of the grain, nor in the length of time
that it will keep good. The grain is always preserved in the husk ; and
until wanted for immediate consumption, is never beaten. In store-
houses, or kattajas, if well dried in the sun previous to its having been
put up, it preserves well for two years. Paddy is sometimes kept in
pits, or in the straw packages called iiu'ides ; but these are inferior to the
store-house.

At Madgiri, when there is plenty of water, the same ground in the
course of the year gives two crops, the Kartika and Vais'dkha. The
former, provided two crops are taken, is the most productive ; but, if
the Kartika be omitted, the Vaisakha gives a greater return than the
Kartika alone would have given ; not, however, equal to the produce of
both crops. The quality of the grain in both crops is the same. The
Vais'akha crop, although raised in the dry season, is the one most
regularly taken. For this crop all the kinds of rice may be sown ; for
the Kartika crop the bill sanna batta and kari chatuiaugi are never
sown ; as with rain they are apt to lodge. The soil used for tripad
sanna bafta, bill channangi, kari channangi, and put raj, is niaralu or
sandy. The others require a clay, which in the low grounds is always
black. The red soil is always confined to the rising grounds, and is

RICE 139

therefore never cultivated for rice, except when it can be watered by
machines; and if the water is more than 31I feet from the surface,
these are never used. Two men and four oxen can, by means of the
machine called kapi/e, supply an acre and a half of ground with water
sufficient to raise a crop of rice. One set works four or five hours in
the morning, and the other as much in the evening.

The only manner of cultivating rice that is in use here is the »io/e, or
sprouted-seed ; the manner of preparing which is as follows : — The ears
must be cut off, the grain beaten out immediately, and then dried in
the sun three or four days. It must be preserved in straw or in jars.
When wanted for sowing, it must be exposed to the sun for a day, and
soaked in water all the following night. It is then put upon a layer of
the leaves of the yekka {calotropis gigantea), or of hara/ie, mixed with
sheep's dung, and is surrounded by stones, so as to keep it together. It
is then covered with banddri (doJoiuva viscosa) leaves, and pressed down
with a stone. Next morning the upper leaves are removed, and a pot
of water is thrown on the seed, which must be turned with the hand,
and then covered again with the leaves and stone. Daily, for three or
four times, this operation must be repeated, and then the sprouts from
the seed will be almost an inch long.

For the Kdrtika crop plough seven times in the course of thirty
days, the ground all the while being inundated. In the next place
manure the ground with leaves, and tread them into the mud. Then
let off the water, and sow the seed broad-cast, covering it with a little
dung. On the fourth day cover the ground with water, and immediately
afterwards let it run off Repeat this daily till the eighth time, after
which the field must be kept constantly inundated to the depth of
one inch for ten days, and four inches for the remainder. The weed-
ings are at the end of the sixth, tenth, and twelfth weeks from sowing.
The season for ploughing continues all the months of Jyeshtha and
Ashadha.

For the Vais'dkha crop the same process is followed; but the plough-
ing season is from the 15th of Asvfja till the last of Margasira. By
this time the whole seed must be sown ; and the nearer it is done to it
the better.

The large-grained rices, dodda batta, which ripens in 4^ months,
and kari channangi and bili chatmangi, which ripen in four months,
produce in a good crop twenty-fold, and in an indifferent crop one-fifth
less. Kembattl or dodda kembatti, and gartida or sanna kembatti yield
twenty-three and thirteen-fold respectively in a good crop, or fifteen
and sevenfold in an inferior one. The first ripens in five months, the
second in four. Of the small-grained rices, bili sanna ba/ta, kari sanna

I40 FLORA

batta, put raj and tripati sauna i>a//a, the first ripens in five months,
the second in five and a half, the third in fijur, and the fourth in three
and a half. Their respective yield in a good crop is twenty-four,
thirty-two, fifteen and seventeen-fold.

In Periyapatna and the west the principal cultivation is the trans-
planted or ndti, and by far the greatest quantity of rice cultivated is the
hain crop or anaputti. The other kinds raised are kenibatti^ konavali,
satma batta, saniia kembatta, and kdrn ; all ripen in six months, except
the last, which ripens in five. The following is the manner of
cultivating the hain ndti or crop of transplanted rice growing in the
rainy season : — The ground on which the seedlings are to be raised
gets seven or eight ploughings between the middle of Vais'akha and
the loth of Jyeshtha, which are the second and third months after the
vernal equinox. In the intervals between the ploughings the field is
inundated ; but at each time that operation is performed, the water is
let off After the last ploughing, manure with the leaves of the chandra
niallige {/nirabilis) or ununatte {datura strainoniuni) ; but, if these
cannot be had, with the leaves of the chaudangi {solanuni). Then
tread the leaves into the mud, sow the seed very thick and cover it
with dung. The seed is in general prepared for sowing by causing it to
sprout : and the reason assigned for so doing is, that it is thereby
secured from the birds. If the seed has been prepared, or inole^ the
field has water during the third, sixth, and ninth days, the water being
allowed to remain on the field all day, and being again let off at night. On
the tenth day the field is filled with water an inch deep and is kept so
till the eighteenth, when that water is let off. Immediately afterwards
the field is filled to three inches deep, and is kept thus inundated
until the seedlings be fit for transplantation. If the seed be sown dry,
it receives water on the first, second, and third days. On the fourth it
has the manure which is given to the mole, when that is sown. It
receives water again on the seventh, which is let off on the ninth.
Water is again given on the thirteenth, seventeenth, and twenty-first ;
and the field is then inundated, until the seedlings are fit for trans-
plantation. They must be transplanted between the thirtieth and
forty-sixth days.

The ploughings for the fields into which the seedlings are to be
transplanted are performed during the time in which these are growing ;
and are done exactly in the same manner as for the field in which the
seed has been sown. Stiff ground requires eight ploughings ; in a light
soil six are sulficient. The manure is given before the last ploughing.
The seedlings are pulled in the evening, and kept in water all night.
Next morning the field has the last ploughing, and the mud is smoothed

RICE 141

by having a plank drawn over it. The seedlings are then planted, and
get no water until the eighth day. On the eighth, twelfth, sixteenth and
twentieth days the water is kept on the field, and is let off at night.
The yellow colour occasioned by the transplantation is then changed
into a deep green ; after which, until the crop ripens, the field is
constantly inundated. In a bad soil, the weeds are removed on the
thirtieth day, in a good soil, on the forty-fifth.

The farmers here make their sprouted-seed in the following manner :
The seed is soaked all night in water, and is then placed in a heap on
a piece of sackcloth, or on some leaves of the plaintain-tree. There
it is mixed with some buffalo's dung, and the leaves of the Inirike
{ocyiuuiu molk), and covered with pack-saddles. In the evening it is
sprinkled with warm water, and covered again. In the morning and
evening of the second day it is sprinkled with cold water, and next day
it is fit for sowing.

Every kind of rice that is sown in Nagar takes six months to grow ;
and they are of less variety than usual, namely, hi/i batta or heggai, and
jolaghcna, which may be cultivated both as dry-seed and as transplanted ;
and honasejta, or keinpu, which can be sown only as dry-seed.

The bara-batta cultivation is conducted as follows : — In the course of
the five months following the winter solstice, the field gets four single
ploughings. In the second month after the vernal equinox, it is
manured with leaf dung, and ploughed once. After the next rain, the
seed is mixed with dry cow-dung, sown broad-cast, and covered by the
implement called koradu. A month after sowing, when the young rice
is about four inches high, the field is turned over with a small plough,
to kill the grass and to destroy part of the young corn, which is always
sown too thick. After this, the field is again smoothed with the same
implement, and harrowed with a bunch of thorns. In the second
month after the summer solstice, all the banks are repaired, to retain
the water on the fields, which are then ploughed again and smoothed
with the implement called aligina koradu. A large rake, called //a/(!r/(7^,
is then drawn by the hand over the field, to remove the weeds. In the
month preceding the autumnal e(]uinox, the weeds are removed by the
hand. In the two months preceding the shortest day, the crop is ripe.
It is cut close by the ground, and for four days is allowed to lie loose
on the field. It is then stacked in heaps, with the cars inward, but
without having been bound up in sheaves. In the course of three
months, it is trampled out by oxen. The grain with the husk is
preserved in store-houses, or straw bags, and is only made into rice as
it may be wanted for immediate use.

The process for transplanted rice, called here ;/////, is as follows : —

142 FLORA

In ortlcr to raise the seedlings, in the course of fifteen or twenty days
during the niontli following the vernal equinox, a [jlot is inundated,
and ploughed four times. It is then manured with any kind of fresh
leaves, and with the dung made by cattle that have been littered with
dried leaves. These are ploughed down, and the mud is smoothed,
first with the noli, and afterwards by the mara, which is a square log
of timber yoked in the same manner. The field is then drained so
that three inches of water only remain. In any of the three months
between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, the seed is sown
broad-cast. As this is the dry season, the seedling plot must be very
low, so as to receive a supply of water from some rivulet. On the
fifth day after the seed has been sown, the whole water is allowed to
drain from the plot ; and for three days this is kept dry, after which it
is constantly inundated, till the seedlings are fit for transplantation.
The field into which they are to be removed is inundated during the
two months following the summer solstice, and in the course of three
days during that period ploughed four times. It is then manured, in
the same manner as the plot was ; and afterwards, in the course of two
or three days, it is ploughed again three times. The mud is then
smoothed with the noli, above mentioned ; and the water having been
let off to the depth of three inches, the seedlings are transplanted into
the field, which must be always kept under water ; and a month after
it has been planted, the weeds must be removed by the hand. The
harvest is in the month preceding the winter solstice.

All the fields are capable of both modes of cultivation. The trans-
planting is reckoned most troublesome and least productive, and
requires most seed. A kandaga of land is an extent that in the trans-
planting cultivation requires one kandaga of seed ; in dry-seed
cultivation, it requires only fifteen kolagas. The produce of all the
three kinds of rice is nearly the same, only the heggai gives rather most.
Of this grain a kandaga of land of the first quality, cultivated by
transplanting, produces eleven or twelve kandagas ; land of the second
quality produces eight kandagas ; and land of the third quality pro-
duces six kandagas. The same ground, cultivated with dry-seed,
would produce from half a kandaga to one kandaga more.

The kinds of rice cultivated at Shimoga are sampige ddla, hctta
kenddl, kenibatti and sanabafti, producing in a good crop ten, twelve
and nine-fold respectively, the last two being equal. All these require
six months to grow. They are all large-grained, except the sanabatti,
which sells five per cent higher than the others. The lowest ground is
used for the sanabafti, the highest for the kembatti.

The cultivation of all soils and all kinds of rice here is the same, and

RICE 143

the unprepared seed is sown by a drill. Immediately after harvest, the
ground is once ploughed. ^Vhcn the rains commence during the two
months following the vernal equinox, it is ploughed again twice,
smoothed with the implement called koradu, and then hoed twice with the
heg kunk, which is drawn by two oxen. This removes the grass ; after
which the clods are broken by drawing the koradu twice over the field,
which in some measure serves as a rolling-stone. The dung is then
spread ; and after the first good rain the seed is sown with the drill or
kurige, and covered with the koradu. At this season the rain comes in
showers, between which are considerable intervals. On the third day
after having been sown, the field is hoed with the hcg ki/nfe, which
here is called also kambutige. On the twentieth day, when the seedlings
are nine inches high, the koradu is used again ; then the edde kunte ;
then the koradu^ and finally the harrow, which is made of a bunch of
thorny bamboos. On the thirtieth day, more grass having sprung, the
edde kunte is again used, the rows of young corn passing between the
hoes ; and this must be repeated as often as the grass springs. In the
third month the water is confined, and then for the last time the edde
kunte must be used. The mud raised by this is smoothed by the
koradu \ but in this operation the same implement is called aravasi.
All these weedings are not sufificient, and the remaining grass must be
removed by the hand and weeding-iron. The rice is cut with the
straw, and for two days is allowed to lie loose on the field. It is then
put in ricks, without having been bound in sheaves, and remains there
until trodden, which may be done any time in the course of three
months. It is always preserved in the husk, and when wanted for con-
sumption is cleaned by a hand-mill of the usual form, but made
entirely of timber, which removes the outer husk ; but the inner one,
or bran, must be separated by beating in a mortar. Eight measures of
clean rice, as usual in India, are equal in value to twenty of that which
retains the husk.

South of the Chitaldroog District, all the rice ground is cultivated as
sprouted-seed. The seed is sown equally thick, yet in Budihal the
land often produces sixty-fold, and the ordinary crop is forty seeds ;
while towards Garudagiri, the usual produce is twenty seeds. In the
course of one year there are frequently from the same field two crops
of rice.

The kinds of rice cultivated at Belur are hasi/de, bola niat/ige, bill
sauna batta, kcrivanna and putta bafta, which ripen in eight months;
and chipiga, kesari, kumbara kesar'i^ kenipu sauna baita, and modara,
which ripen in seven months. On nirdvari land, or that which has
u supply of water from tanks, the rices most commonly cultivated are

144 FLORA

kiriva/uia and hasndc. All the three kinds of cultivation arc in use ;
but in ordinary seasons the dry seed is by far the most prevalent. In
extraordinary wet seasons a good deal is transplanted, and some is sown
sprouted.

The cultivation of the dry-seed is conducted as follows : — In the
month following the winter solstice, the ploughing commences, and in
the course of two months the operation is eight times repeated. The
little banks, inclosing the plots for confining the water, are then repaired,
and the field is manured. In the month preceding the vernal equinox,
after a shower of rain, the clods are smoothed with the ada, or gidde
mara, which is the same implement which at Nagar is called no/i.
Eight days afterwards, the field is again ploughed and again smoothed
with the ada. The seed is sown by the drill, according as the rainy
season commences, during the two months and a half which follow the
vernal equinox. It is then covered by the ada. On the twenty-third
day after having been sown, the field is hoed with the edde kuitte, and
this is repeated twice, with an interval of four days between each time.
The field is then inundated by confining the water, and the kimte is
drawn a fourth time in the mud. On the day following, the soil is
smoothed with the ada. Eight days afterwards, the field is drained
until the weeds can be removed by the hand. After a month or six
weeks, this must be repeated. The rice is cut with the straw, and
trodden out by oxen.

When the rains are heavy, a good deal of rice is raised by transplanta-
tion. For every kandaga land, two kandagas of seed must be sown ;
and the produce of this, on the best land, is only twenty-one or twenty-
two kandagas. Very little sprouted-seed is sown ; but it seems to be
the cultivation that would answer best. For a kandaga land fifteen
kolagas of seed are sufficient, and the produce is little less than in the
dry-seed. On the viakke land, or that which depends entirely on rain
for a supply of water, the seed is always sown without preparation, and
managed exactly in the same manner as on the niravari. The produce
on the best land is twenty-two kandagas, from thirty kolagas sown on a
kandaga field.

Sugar-cane. — A considerable quantity of sugar-cane is cultivated
near Seringapatam. It is of two kinds, rastdli and pattdpatti.^ Both
yield bella ox jaggory ; but the natives can extract sugar from the patta-
patti alone. The jaggory of the latter is also reckoned the best. The
rastali can be planted only in Chaitra ; the pattapatti may also be planted
in Sravana or IMagha. The crop of rastali is over in a year : that of

' Rastali is the original sugar-cane of the country ; pattapatti was introduced, it is
said, from Arcot, in the time of Haidar, by Mustafa Ali Khan, a paymaster-general.

SUGAR-CANE 145

pattapatti requires fourteen months, but may be followed by a second
crop, or, as is said in the West Indies, by a crop of ratoons, which
require twelve months only to ripen. The rastali will not survive for a
second crop.

When the ground is to be cultivated for sugar-cane, it is watered
three days, and then for the same length of time it is allowed to dry.
During the next eight days it must be ploughed five times, and the clods
must be beaten small with a kind of pick-axe, called kol gudali. The
field must then be manured, and ploughed a sixth time. The ground
now rests fifteen days ; after which, in the course of one or two days,
it must be ploughed twice, and then be allowed eight days more rest.
It is afterwards ploughed a ninth time. These operations occupy
forty-four days ; six more are employed in planting the cane, which is
done by the instrument called yak giidali. With this the field is divided
into beds of about six cubits wide. These beds are separated by small
trenches, which are about fourteen inches wide, and eight deep. In
every alternate trench are dug small wells about two feet deep. The
water from the canal flows through all the trenches, and, a quantity of
it lodging in these wells, is taken out with pots for watering the plants
by the hand. Across every bed, at the distance of a cubit, are dug five
holes, about six inches in diameter and three in depth. In each of
these are placed horizontally two cuttings of the cane, each containing
three joints. These are covered slightly with earth, over which is laid
some dung. When the cane is planted in Chaitra, the trenches must be
filled with water from the tank, and every hole must be watered by pots.
At the other seasons the trenches are full, it being the rainy weather ;
but, even then, for one month, the holes containing the canes must
daily be watered by the hand. The earth in the holes is then stirred up
with a stick, and a little dung is added. Next month the daily watering
must be continued, and at the end of it the whole field must be dug up
with the yak gudali; and round every cluster of young canes there
must be formed by the hand a small cavity, into which a little dung is
to be put. In the third month the canes must be watered every other
day. At the end of the third month, if the canes have grown with
luxuriance, the field must be dug over again with \\\q yak gudali; but,
if they are rather stunted, the watering must be continued all the fourth
month, before they get the third weeding. At this time, the earth at
the roots of the cane is heaped up into ridges, crossing the beds at right
angles to the trenches. Afterwards, no water is given immediately to
the plants ; but for three days the trenches must be kept full. It is
then let out for a week. If there be rain, there is no occasion for more
watering ; but, if it be dry weather, the trenches, for a month, must be

146 FLORA

filled with water one day in the week. Then the weeding with the
yak gudali must be repeated, and the earth must be smoothed with the
hand, and placed carefully round the canes. The young shoots from
each hole will be now ten or twelve in number ; those which are sickly
must be cut off; and the healthy, which are about a cubit long, must
be tied up with a leaf of the plant into bundles of two or three, in order
to prevent them from spreading too much. Should there be no rain,
the trenches must once in fifteen days be filled with water, till the canes,
having grown higher, again require to be tied together. In a month
after the first tying they ought to be two cubits high. When the plants
are eight months old they will have grown another cubit, and will
require another tying. The farmer now begins to repair his apparatus
for making jaggory : the die inane, or boiling-house ; the gdna, or mill ;
the kopparige, or boiler ; the achchit, or mould ; the kunu, or cooler ;
the gormane, or ladle ; and the chibalu, or skimmer. In the eleventh
month he begins to cut the rastali, and the crop must be finished within
the year. The pattapatti is ripe in twelve months, and two months may
be allowed for cutting it.

If it be intended to keep the field of pattapatti for a second year's
crop, the dry leaves which are cut off at crop season must be burned on
the spot, and the whole field must be dug with i\ieyale gudali. The
trenches must then be filled with water, and for six months the watering
must be continued once in eight or ten days, unless there be rain. The
weedings during this time ought to be three ; at each of which dung
ought to be given. At the end of six months, the canes having grown
one cubit high, the weakly plants must be removed, and the strongest
tied up, as in the first crop. The manner of conducting the two crops
after this is quite similar. The canes of the second crop must be all
cut within the year.

The kinds of sugar-cane cultivated in Kolar are four, which are
esteemed in the following order : first rastali, second pattapatti, third
7nara kahlm, fourth katte kablm. The two last are very small, seldom
exceeding the thickness of the little finger ; yet the katte kabbu is the
one most commonly cultivated. This is owing to its requiring little
water ; for by means of thejv?Va it may have a supply sufficient to bring
it to maturity. From the end of Phalguna to the end of Chaitra (Mar.
— April) plough eight or ten times. Manure the field with dung, and
plough it again. Then spread leaves on it, and cover them with the
plough. By the small channels that are to convey the water, the field
is then divided into beds eight cubits broad. Furrows are then drawn
across the beds at the distance of nine inches from each other. The
cuttings of cane, each containing four or five eyes, are then placed

SUGAR-CAXE 147

lengthwise in the furrows, the end of the one touching that of the
other. They are covered with a very httle earth, over which is laid
some dung. They are then watered, the water flowing through every
channel, and entering every furrow. For one month the watering is
repeated once in three days ; the earth round the canes must then be
loosened with the point of a sharp stick. For fifteen days more the
watering must be continued ; when the whole field should be hoed,
and levelled with the kbl gudali. Four days afterwards, between every
second row of sugar-cane a trench is dug, and into this the water flows
from the channels. Thus in the progress of its cultivation each bed
assumes two forms. When there is no rain, the field requires to be
watered once in fifteen days. When four or five months old, the canes
are tied up in bundles ; and when they are a cubit and a half high this
is repeated. In eleven months they are ripe, and a month and a half
are allowed for the crop season. The soil here used for sugar-cane is
the rich black soil called ere ; and after sugar it requires one or two
years' rest before it gives a good crop of rice. The sugar-cane is all
made into jaggory ; seventy-four seers measure, or nearly eighteen ale-
gallons of juice, are said to produce fifty kachcha seers weight (about
2 6| lb. avoirdupois) of the jaggory.

The sugar-cane field at Madgiri is divided into two equal portions,
which are cultivated alternately, one year with sugar-cane, and the other
with grain ; the cane, however, thrives better when the field, in place of
being cultivated for grain, is allowed an intermediate fallow ; but then
the loss is heavy, as after cane the grain thrives remarkably. The grains
cultivated are rice, ragi, and jola ; the first injures the cane least, and
the jola injures it most. The kinds of cane cultivated are the rastali
and mara kabbu. In Kartika and Margasira (Oct. — Dec.) plough seven
times, and manure with sheep's dung and leaves. Then with the hoe
c:i\\cd yaie gi/dali form channels at a cubit's distance. In these also, at
a cubit's distance, plant single shoots of the cane, each about a cubit in
length. If the soil be poor, they must be planted rather nearer They
are laid down in the channels, which are filled with water, and then
people tread the shoots into the mud, by walking through each channel.
X /xo/aga oi land requires 18,000 shoots, on which data it ought to
contain I'S acre. If the soil be of a moist nature, the cane has water
once in eight days ; but, if it dry cjuickly, it must, until ripe, be watered
once in six days, except when there is rain. At the end of the first
month the field must be hoed with the kali kudali. Near each cane, as
a manure, some leaves of the honge are then placed, and they are
covered with a little mud ; so that the channels are now between the
rows of cane, and the canes grow on the ridges. When these are 2^

L 2

148 FJ.ORA

cubits high, they arc tied u[) in hunches of three or four ; and as they
grow higher, this is three or four times repeated. Twelve months after
planting, the crop season begins ; and in six weeks it must be finished :
250 maunds of jaggory is here reckoned a good crop from a kolaga of
land, which is very nearly 15 cwt. an acre ; 150 maunds, which is about
9 cwt. from the acre, is reckoned a bad crop. Black clay gives the
greatest quantity of jaggory, but it is of a bad quality. A sandy soil
produces least jaggory, but that of a high value. One kapile can water
an acre and a half of sugar-cane land.

The ground for cultivating sugar-cane in Sira is also divided into
two equal parts, which are alternately cultivated ; one year with cane,
and the other with rice. It is watered either from the reservoirs, or by
the kapile. In the last case, a field of two koiagas, or three acres, one-
half of which is in sugar-cane, and the other in rice, requires the con-
stant labour of four men and eight oxen. Day-labourers must also be
hired to rebuild the boiling-house, to tie up the cane, and to weed.
When the field is watered from a reservoir, one man only is regularly
employed ; but to plough, to plant, to weed and to tie up the cane,
both men and cattle must be hired in addition. Three kinds of cane
are here cultivated. The most valued is the rastdii, which grows best
on a black soil in which there is much sand or gravel ; a good crop of
this, on a kolaga land, produces 100 maunds of jaggory ; which is
about 29} cwt. on an acre. The next in quality is the kari kabbit, or
black cane. It requires a pure black mould, called ere bhiimi; and, in
a good crop, produces, from a kolaga land, sixty maunds of jaggory, or
from an acre nearly 17^ cwt. The poorest cane is the mara kabbu, or
stick cane. It is cultivated on the same kind of soil with the rastali ;
but produces only half as much jaggory as the kari kabbu, and that of
a very bad quality, for it is quite black.

The cultivation of the rastali, however, is comparatively much more
troublesome. In the course of the eight months following the summer
solstice, the field must be ploughed eleven times ; and once a month,
during the whole of that time, 1,000 sheep must be folded for one night
on the field. It is then manured with mud from the bottoms of the
reservoirs, and ploughed again twice. The channels are then formed,
and in them the cuttings are laid down, two and two being always
placed parallel. A kolaga of land requires 50,000. The channels are
then filled with water, and the cuttings are trodden into the mud with
the feet. The second watering is on the fourth day, the third watering
on the twelfth ; afterwards the field, if the soil be good, must be
watered once a fortnight ; or once a week, if it part with its moisture
quickly. On the twentieth day the field is weeded with the small hoe

SUGAR-CANE 149

i:alled molu poiii, which imphes that the operation is done very super-
ficially. On the thirty-fifth day the whole field is dug with the large
hoe called yale gudali; and, the earth being thrown up toward the
canes in ridges, the channels for conveying the water run between the
rows. About the ninetieth day the canes are tied up with a leaf of the
plant in parcels of five or six, and once a month this is repeated.
When the cane is ten months old, the crop begins, and in thirty days it
must be finished.

Towards Periyapatna, the cane is watered from reservoirs ; the
natural moisture of the climate not being sufficient to raise it, and
machinery being never employed. The kinds cultivated, besides a little
pattapatti, are rastali and mara kabbu, both of which grow nearly to
the same length, which is in general about six feet. The rastali ripens
in twelve months, while eighteen are required to bring forward the
mara kabbu ; so that as a crop of rice must always intervene between
two crops of sugar-cane, the rotation of the former occupies two years,
while in that of the latter three are consumed.

For the mara kabbu plough twenty times either in Asvija and
Kartika, the two months immediately following the autumnal equinox ;
or in Kartika and Margasira, which is of course one month later. The
canes are planted in the second or third months after the winter solstice.
In order to plant the cane, longitudinal and transverse furrows are
drawn throughout the field, distant from each other one cubit and a
half; at every intersection a hole is made, nine inches wide, and of
the same depth ; in each hole are laid horizontally two cuttings of
cane, each containing three joints ; finally under them is put a little
dung, above them an inch of mould. Then water each hole with a
pot, from a channel running at the upper end of the field. On the
two following days this must be repeated. Until the end of the third
month, water every other day. From the third to the sixth month,
the field must, once in eight days, be ploughed between the rows of
holes ; and at the same time, should there be any want of the usual
rain, it must be watered. At the first ploughing a little dung must be
given, and at tlie end of six months the field must be copiously
manured. At this time channels are formed winding through among
the canes ; so that every row is between two channels. When the
rainy season is over, these channels must be filled with water, once
in eight days in hot weather, and once a month when it is cool.
At the beginning of the eighth month the whole field is hoed, and at
the end of two months more this is repeated. The cane here is never
tied up.

The sugar-cane cultivated in Nagar is the mara kabbu. The ground

ISO FLORA

fit for it is that which has a sii[)ply of water in the dry season. Any
soil will do, but a red earth is reckoned the best. In the month
preceding the vernal equinox plf)ugh four times ; and then throughout
the field, at the distance of one cubit and a half, form with the hoe
trenches one cubit wide, and one span deep. Then cover the field
with straw, dry grass, and leaves, and burn them to serve as a manure.
The soil in the bottom of the trenches is afterwards loosened with a
hoe ; and a man, with his hand, opens up the loose earth, puts in a
little dung, and upon this places horizontally, and parallel to the sides
of the trench, cuttings of the cane, each containing four or five joints.
These he covers with a little dung and earth. The cuttings are placed
in one row in each bed, the end of the one being close to that of
another. Once a day, for a month, the canes must be watered with a
})0t ; the young plants are then about a cubit high ; and, the earth
round them having been previously loosened with a sharp-pointed stick,
a little dung should be given to their roots. After this, the ridges are
thrown down, and the earth is collected toward the rows of young
cane, which by this means are placed on ridges, with a trench inter-
vening between every two rows. Until the rains commence, these
trenches must every other day be filled with water. In the month
preceding the autumnal equinox, in order to prevent them from being
eaten by the jackals and bandicoots, the canes are tied up in bundles
of from five to ten, and each of these is surrounded by a series of
straw^ rope. In ten months they are fit for cutting, and require no
farther trouble. The crop season lasts one month. On the second
year a crop of ratoons is taken, in the third year the roots are dug up,
and the field is again planted with cane ; so that it is never reinvigor-
ated by a succession of crops.

Sugar-cane is at Harihar the most considerable irrigated crop. In
the intervals between the crops of cane, a crop of rice is taken, should
there be a sufficient supply of water ; but that is seldom the case,
and the intermediate crop is commonly some of the dry grains. The
cane may be planted at any time ; but there are only three seasons
which are usually employed. One lasts during the month before
and month after the summer solstice. This is the most productive
and most usual season ; but the cane requires at this time longer to
grow, and more labour, than in the others. The other two seasons
are the second month after the autumnal equinox, and the second
month after the shortest day. Those crops arrive at maturity within
the year.

The kind of cane cultivated is the mara kabbu, and the following
is the process in the first season : — In the second month after the

SUGAR-CAXE 151

vernal equinox, the field must be watered, and eight days afterwards
it is ploughed once. After another rest of eight days, it must be
ploughed again with a deeper furrow, four oxen having been put into
the yoke. After another interval of eight days it is ploughed, first
lengthwise, and then across, with a team of six oxen. Then, at the
distance of three, or three and a half cubits, are drawn over the whole
field, furrows which cross each other at right angles. In order to make
these furrows wider, a stick is put across the iron of the plough. In
the planting season, two cuttings of the cane, each containing two
eyes, are laid down in every infersection of the furrows, and are
covered slightly with mud. The furrows are then filled with water,
and this is repeated three times, with an interval of eight days between
every two waterings. A little dung is then put into the furrows ; and
when there happens to be no rain, the waterings once in the eight
days are continued for three months. When the canes have been
planted forty days, the weeds must be removed with a knife, and the
intervals are hoed with the hoe drawn by oxen. This operation is
repeated on the fifty-fifth, seventieth, and eighty-fifth days, and the
earth is thrown up in ridges toward the canes. In the beginning of
the fourth month, the field gets a full watering. Fifteen days after-
wards, the intervals are ploughed lengthwise and across ; and to each
bunch of plants a basket or two of dung is given and ploughed in.
The weeds are then destroyed by a hoe drawn by oxen ; after which,
channels must be formed between the rows ; and until the cane ripens,
which varies from fourteen to seventeen months, these channels are
filled with water once in fifteen days. The crop season lasts from one
month to six weeks.

Cardamoms — are propagated entirely by cuttings of the root, and
s{)rcad in clumps exactly like the plantain-tree. In the month follow-
ing the autumnal equinox, a cluster of from three to five stems, with
the roots adhering, are separated from a bunch, and i)lanted in the
same row, one between every two areca-nut palms, in the s[)ot from
whence a plantain-tree has been removed. The ground around the
cardamom is manured with iiclli {emblica) leaves. In the third year,
about the autumnal equinox, it produces fruit. The capsules are
gathered as they ripen, and are dried four days on a mat, which during
the day is supported by four sticks, and exposed to the sun, but at
night is taken into the house. They are then fit for sale. Whenever
the whole fruit has been removed, the plants are raised, and, all the
superfluous stems and roots having been separated, they are set again •
but care is taken never to set a plant in the spot from whence it was
raised, a change in this respect being considered as necessary. Next

152 FLORA

year these plants give no fruit, but in the year following yield capsules
again, as at first. After transplantation, the old stems die and new-
ones spring from the roots. Each cluster produces from a quarter to
one seer weight of cardamoms, or from -^{'i^ to -^^ of a pound.

Areca-nut. — In the gardens near Channapatna the areca palm
requires a rich black soil, and is planted in such places only as produce
water on digging a well two cubits deep. There are here two varieties
of the areca, the one bearing large and the other small nuts. The
produce of both kinds is nearly equal in value and quantity.

The following is the manner of forming an areca-nut garden :• — A
plot of ground having been selected for a nursery, is dug to the depth
of one cubit. When the seed is ripe, which happens between the
middle of January and that of February, trenches must be formed in
the nursery, a span broad and a cubit deep. The trenches are half
filled up with sand, on the surface of Avhich is placed a row of the ripe
nuts. These are again covered with five inches of sand, and two inches
of rich black mould, and watered once in three days for four months,
at which time they are fit for being transplanted into the garden. The
garden having been fenced with a hedge of euphorbium tiriicalli, or
jatropha curcas, is dug to the depth of a cubit at the same time with
the nursery and planted with rows of plantain-trees at the distance of
three cubits. When the young palms are fit for being transplanted the
garden must be dug again to the former depth, and two young arecas
must be set in one hole between every two plantain-trees, ^^'hen there
is no rain they nmst have water every third day. ^^'hen the rainy
season commences, a trench must be dug between every third row of
trees ; that is to say, so as between every trench to form beds each of
which contains two rows of the areca. These trenches serve to carry
off superfluous water and to bring a supply from the reservoir when
wanted. The garden must be dug twice a year to keep it clear of
weeds. At the end of three years the original plantain-trees are
removed, and a row is set in the middle of each bed and kept up ever
afterwards in order to preserve a coolness at the roots of the areca.
When the areca-trees are about five feet high, which requires about five
years, they receive no more water than what is given to the plantain-
trees, which in dry weather must be watered twice a month. The tree
when five years old begins to produce fruit, and lives from thirty to
forty years.

Each tree pushes out three or four spadices which from the middle
of August until that of November become fit for cutting at different
intervals of twenty or thirty days, one after the other. When the nuts
have been cut, the skin is removed with an iron knife, and a quantity

ARECA-NUT. 153

is put into a pot with some water, in which it must be boiled tiU the
eyes be separated. The nut is then cut into three or four pieces and
for three or four days dried on mats exposed to the sun, when it becomes
fit for sale. The plantations are interspersed with cocoa-nut, lime, jack
and other trees, which add to the shade and to the freshness of the
soil. Under the trees are cultivated ginger, and various vegetables.

The situation that is reckoned most favourable for areca gardens in
Madgiri is a black soil which contains calcareous nodules. It differs
from that in which cotton is raised by having the limestone a cubit or
two deep ; whereas the cotton requires it to be at the surface. The
gardens at this place are watered from reservoirs, from canals, and from
wells by means of the kapile.

To make a new garden, — in Sravana, the fifth month after the vernal
equinox, plough four times. Then with the hoe axWed ya/e guda/i form
the garden into beds six cubits wide. Between every two beds is a
raised channel for bringing a supply of water ; and in the centre of
each bed is a deep channel to carry off what is superfluous. The beds
are divided into plots ten or twelve cubits long. Then plant the whole
with shoots of the betel vine, and for its support sow the seed of the
M/uvdna, agase and migge. Then surround the whole with a thick
hedge, and once a day for three months water with a pot. Whenever
weeds grow they must be removed ; and at each time the betel vines
must get some dung. Between every two rows of the vines, in the
fourth month, is put a row of young plantain-trees. Once in four
days afterwards, the water is given from the reservoir or well. In six
months the vines must be tied up to the young trees. At the same
time, for every wokkala land, 3,000 nuts of the areca must be planted near
the roots of the vines, ^^'hen they are three years old a thousand of them
will be fit for use, and 800 are required to plant a wokkala land, or
about an acre and a half. They are planted distant in every direction
from each other five cubits. Xx. the same time plant on the inside of
the hedge some rows of cocoa-nut palms and orange, lime, mango, or
jack trees. The 800 areca palms, at five cubits distance, would only
occupy about an acre ; but a considerable space is taken up by a walk,
and by the rows of fruit-trees between them and the hedge.

In nine years from the first formation of the garden the betel vines
and most of the trees that supported them are removed. A few of the
agase and allthe plantains are allowed to remain. In the twelfth year
the areca palms begin to produce fruit. The remaining agase trees,
and one-half of the plantains are then removed. After this the garden
requires water only once in eight days when there is no rain ; and the
whole is dug over,'and formed like rice-ground into proper squares

r54 /'/.OR A

and clinnncls for (lislril)UUn_L,f the water. One year it is manured with
duni;- ; in tlie second with the leaves of the /longe and /wi^/ii, and in the
third year with mud from the l)ottom of a reservoir. So long as the
garden lasts this succession of manures should, if possiljle, be con-
tinued ; and when the [)alms attain their full growth, which is in the
fourteenth year of the garden, the plantain-trees are entirely removed.
For thirty years from its arriving at maturity the palm continues
vigorous, and for fourteen years more gradually declines; during
which time a new garden ought to be formed, and then the old trees
should be cut, and the ground cultivated with grain, till the second
formed garden again begins to decay. In place of those that die, some
poor farmers plant new trees, and thus constantly keep up a garden on
the same spot ; but here this is looked upon as a bad practice.

The crop season lasts two months before, and one after, the autumnal
equinox. The nut, after being peeled, is cut into seven or eight pieces,
and put up in a heap. Then take one seer of the nut, one seer of cut
terra japonica, and a hundred leaves of the piper betel, beat them
together repeatedly with some water, and strain the juice thus obtained
into a pot. Take twenty seers of the bark of the /mri Jd/i :ind. boil it
during a whole night in a large pot with forty seers of water. With
this decoction mix the juice expressed from the former materials, and
boil again. While it is boiling, put in the areca-nut, after it has been
cut, until the pot be full. Immediately after, take it out with a ladle,
and put in more, till the whole is boiled. In order to be dried, it must
be three days exposed on mats to the sun, and is then fit for sale.
Forty maunds of dried nut is here reckoned the common produce of
a /io/aga land, which is about 6| cwt. an acre, or for each tree about
lilb.

Near Chiknayakanhalli the areca thrives best in the rich black mould
called ere, or /iris/ina b/iiani. The natives here look upon it as a matter
of indifference, whether or not, on digging a little depth, water may be
found in the soil. All that is required is to have a proper supply of
water either from the reservoir or by means of machinery.

In the second month after the winter solstice, the nut intended for
seed is cut ; and, having been put in a heap, is for eight or ten days
kept in the house. A seed-bed is then dug to the depth of a foot, and
three inches of the mould is removed from the surface, which is then
covered with a little dung. On this the nuts are placed with their eyes
uppermost, and close to each other. They are then covered with an
inch of mould, and for three months are watered every other day. The
seedlings are then three or four inches high, and must be transplanted
into a fresh bed that is prepared in the same manner : but in this they

ARECA-NUT 155

arc placed a cubit distant from each other. Here they grow for three
years, receiving water once every other day ; and once a month they
are cleaned from weeds and have a little dung.

One year after planting the seed, the ground that is intended for the
garden must be dug to the depth of a cubit, and the soil exposed for
two months. Young plantain-trees are then placed in it at sixteen
cubits distance from each other, and it is surrounded by a screen of
cocoa-nut palms, and of jack, lime, and orange-trees, which are defended
by a hedge of the milk-bush. At the same time seeds of the agase are
planted throughout the garden, at the distance of four cubits. When
there is no rain the garden must once in fifteen days be watered by
channels made for the purpose. In the second month after the summer
solstice of the third year, the young arecas are fit for transplantation.
Then throughout the garden, at the distance of sixteen cubits, and in
the middle between every two plantain-trees, are formed pits, a cubit
deep and a cubit wide. In each of these pits a young areca is put, and
it must be carefully raised from the seed-bed with much earth adhering
to its roots ; and, after it is placed, the pit must be filled with earth,
and then receive a pot of water. The young arecas are then between
two and three feet high, and have four or five branches. If there be
water in the reservoir, an irrigation once a month is sufficient ; but the
kapilc must be used once in ten days, as the waterings given by it are
but scanty. For three years afterwards the whole garden must be com-
pletely hoed twice annually. At the one hoeing, for every four arecas,
it must have a bullock-load of dung ; and at the other hoeing, every
tree must be allowed an ox-load of red soil. The mud of reservoirs is
here thought to be very bad for an areca-nut garden. Ever afterwards
the garden is hoed completely once a year only, and is then manured
with dung and red earth. At the intermediate period of six months, it
is hoed near the trees, and has a little dung. At the end of the first
three years the agase trees are cut. The plantains are always reserved ;
but, as the old stems are cut, which is always done in from twelve to
eighteen months, the young shoots are conducted to a distance from
where tlie parent was originally placed ; and when the garden is twenty
years old, in these spots are planted other young arecas, to supply the
places of the old ones when they decay. This second set are again
supplanted by a third, growing where the first set did, and thus a con-
stant succession is preserved. In a new garden the areca begins to
bear fruit in nine years ; but fourteen or fifteen years are required to
bring forward those which are [)lanted among old trees. They con-
tinue to bear for sixty or .seventy years ; but after having been twenty-
five or thirty years in perfection they begin to decay.

156 FLORA

There are annually two crops of areca-nut : one in the second month
after the summer solstice, the other in the two months which precede
the shortest day. The last crop is superior both in quantity and
quality. The nut, on being cut, is skinned in the course of two days,
and [)ut into a large pot with as much water as will cover it two inches.
It is then boiled for about three-quarters of an hour until a white scum
rises. The largest are then cut into eight pieces, and the smallest into
two, with the others in proportion to their size. During the four
following days they are .spread out in the sun to dry, and every night
they are gathered in a heap. When the fruit has been allowed to
approach too near to maturity, the nut loses its colour ; and a deceit is
attempted by adding a little reddle to the w-ater in which it is boiled.
This frequently deceives the consumer, but never the experienced
dealer ; and seems to be done purposely to enable him to defraud the
unwary.

A garden of i,ooo trees, allowing eight cubits square for each tree,
ought to contain rather more than 3 J acres ; but a young garden,
containing trees at sixteen cubits, will require 8| acres. The produce
is reckoned from forty to sixty maunds. The areca-tree is never cut
till its leaves have turned brown. Its stem has then acquired great
hardness, and in building is very useful.

The following process is adopted in Periyapatna to make a new
plantation of areca : — Take a piece of ground consisting of black mould
or a substratum of limestone, with water at no greater depth than
three cubits, and surround it with a hedge of the eiiphorbiiiin tirucalli,
and some rows of young cocoa-nut palms. Then, at the distance of
twelve cubits, dig rows of pits, two cubits deep and one and a half in
diameter. These pits are six cubits distant from the nearest in the
same row. In the second month after the vernal equinox, set in these
pits young plantain-trees, and give them water once ; after which,
unless the weather be uncommonly dry, they require no more. Two
months afterwards hoe the whole garden and form a channel in the
middle between every two rows of plantain-trees. The channels are
intended to carry off superfluous water, and are a cubit wide and two
feet deep. In the month immediately following the winter solstice,
hoe the whole garden a second time. In the following month, between
every two rows of plantain-trees make two rows of holes, at six cubits
distance and one cubit wide and deep. Fill each hole half up with
fine mould ; and in this place two ripe nuts of the areca, six inches
asunder. Once in two days for three months water each hole with a
pot. The shoots come up in Vais'akha, after which they get water
once only in five days. The holes must be kept clear of the mud that

ARECA-NUT 157

is brought in by the rain ; and for three years must, on this account,
be daily inspected. In the month following the autumnal equinox
give a little dung. Ever afterwards the whole garden must be hoed
three times a year.

After they are three years old the areca palms must be watered every
other day in hot weather; when it is cool, once in every four or five
days, and not at all in the rainy season. The waterings are performed
by pouring a pot-full of water to the root of each plant. In the begin-
ning of the seventh year the w^eakest plant is removed from each hole ;
and at each digging, for three years more, every tree must receive
manure. After this, for three years, the young palms have neither
dung nor water. In the fourteenth year they begin to bear, and in the
fifteenth come to perfection, and continue in vigour until their forty-
fifth year, when they are cut down. The crop season lasts over Asvija,
Kartika, and Margasira. A good tree gives 857, and an ordinary one
600, nuts. Sixty thousand nuts, when prepared for sale, make a load
of between seven and eight maunds. One thousand ordinary trees at
this rate should procure seventy-five maunds.

In Nagar the nursery is managed as follows : — ^In the month preceding
the vernal equinox the seed is ripe. After having been cut, it is kept
eight days in the house. In the meantime a bed of ground in a shady
place is dug, and in this the nuts are placed nine inches from each
other, and with their eyes uppermost. They must be covered with a
finger-breadth of earth. The bed is then covered with dry plantain
leaves, and once in eight days is sprinkled with water. In the month
preceding the summer solstice, the plantain leaves are removed, and
young shoots are found to have come from the nuts. In the second
month afterwards, leaves of the nclli are spread between the young
plants. In the month preceding the vernal equinox, they get a little
dung. In the dry season they are watered once in from four to eight
days, according to the nature of the soil.

In the month preceding the autumnal equinox of the second year, the
young plants are removed into another nursery, where they are planted
a cubit distant and manured with nelli leaves and dung. This nursery
must be kept clear of weeds, manured twice a year, and in the dry
season should receive water once in eight days. The seedlings remain
in it two years, when they are fit for transplantation. A\'hen the arecas
are three years old, they are removed into the garden, planted close to
the drains for letting off the water, and remain there two years, when
they are finally placed in the spots where they are to grow. Once in
twenty or thirty years only the watering channels are filled up with
fresh earth, and then are not allowed water. During that year the

158 FLORA

garden is kept moist by occasionally llUing the drains. 'Die water in
these is, however, reckoned very prejudicial, and is never thrown upon
the beds. Once in two years the garden is dug near the trees and
manured. The manure is dung, above which are placed the leafy
twigs of all kinds of trees. \\'hen an areca dies, a new one is j^lanted
in its stead ; so that in an old garden there are trees of all ages. When
the trees are sixteen years old they are employed to support pepper
vines. The extent of a garden of a thousand rated trees is about
185 acres. Its produce of areca-nut weighs 920^ lb., and of pepper
117 lb.

Cocoa-nut. — There are four varieties of the cocoa-nut : ist, red ;
2nd, red mixed with green ; 3rd, light green ; and 4th, dark green.
These varieties are permanent ; but, although the red is reckoned
somewhat better than the others, they are commonly sold promiscu-
ously. Their produce is nearly the same.

The soil does not answer in the Bangalore District unless water can
be had on digging into it to the depth of three or four cubits ; and in
such situations a light sandy soil is the best. The black clay called ere
is the next best soil. The worst is the red clay called kebbe ; but with
proper cultivation all the three soils answer tolerably well.

The manner of forming a new cocoa-nut garden is as follows : — The
nuts intended for seed must be allowed to ripen until they fall from
the tree ; and must then be dried in the open air for a month without
having the husk removed. A plot for a nursery is then dug to the
depth of two feet, and the soil is allowed to dry three days. On the
Ugddi feast (in March) remove one foot of earth from the nursery, and
cover the surface of the plot with eight inches of sand. On this place
the nuts close to each other, with the end containing the eye upper-
most. Cover them with three inches of sand and two of earth. If the
supply of water be from a well, the plot must once a day be watered ;
but, if a more copious supply can be had from a reservoir, one watering
in the three days is sufficient. In three months the seedlings are fit
for being transplanted. By this time the garden must have been
enclosed and hoed to the depth of two feet. Holes are then dug for
the reception of the seedlings, at twenty feet distance from each other
in all directions ; for when planted nearer they do not thrive. The
holes are two feet deep and a cubit wide. At the bottom is put sand
seven inches deep, and on this is placed the nut with the young tree
adhering to it. Sand is now put in until it rises two inches above the
nut, and then the hole is filled with earth and a little dung. Every
day for three years, except when it rains, the young trees must have
water.

COCOA-NUT 159

The cocoa-nut palm begins to produce when seven or eight years
old, and lives so long that its period of duration cannot readily be
ascertained. Young trees, however, produce more fruit, which comes
forward at all seasons of the year. A good tree gives annually a
hundred nuts. A few are cut green on account of the juice, which is
used as drink ; but by far the greater part are allowed to arrive at some
degree of maturity, although not to full ripeness ; for then the kernel
would become useless.

Cocoa-nut palms are planted in Chiknayakanhalli in rows round the
areca-nut gardens, and also separately in spots that would not answer
for the cultivation of this article. The situation for these gardens
must be rather low, but it is not necessary that it should be under a
reservoir ; any place will answer in which water can be had by digging
to the depth of two men's stature. The soil which is here reckoned
most favourable for the cocoa-nut is a red clay mixed with sand. It
must be free of lime and saline substances. Other soils, however, are
employed, but black mould is reckoned very bad. The cocoa-nuts
intended for seed are cut in the second month after the winter solstice.
X square pit is then dug, which is sufficiently large to hold them, and
is about a cubit in depth. In this, fifteen days after being cut, are
placed the seed-nuts, with the eyes uppermo-st, and contiguous to each
other ; and then earth is thrown in so as just to cover them, upon
which is spread a little dung. In this bed, every second day for six
months, the seed must be watered with a pot, and then the young
palms are fit for being trans[)lanted. Whenever, during the two
months following the vernal equinox, an occasional shower gives an
opportunity by softening the soil, the garden must be ploughed five
times. All the next month it is allowed to rest. In the month follow-
ing the summer solstice, the ground must again be ploughed twice ;
and next month, at the distance of forty-eight cubits in every direction,
there must be dug pits a cubit wide and as much deep. In the bottom
of each a little dung is put ; and the young plants, having been
previously well watered to loosen the soil, are taken up, and one is
placed in each pit. The shell slill adheres to the young palm, and
the pit must be filled with earth so far as to cover the nut. Over this
is put a little dung. For three months the young plants must be
watered every other day ; afterwards every fourth day, until they are
four years old, except when there is rain. Afterwards they require
no water.

Every year the garden is cultivated for rngi, uddu, he-saru, or what-
ever other grain the soil is fitted for, and is well dunged ; and at the
same time four ox-loads of red mud are laid on the garden for every

i6o FLORA

tree that it contains, while a little fresh earth is gathered up toward
the roots of the palms. The crop of grain is but poor, and injures
the palms ; it is always taken, however ; as, in order to keep down
the weeds, the ground must at any rate be ploughed ; as the
manure must be given ; and as no rent is paid for the grain. On this
kind of ground the cocoa-nut palm begins to bear in twelve or thirteen
years, and continues in perfection about sixty years. It dies altogether
after bearing for about a hundred years. They are always allowed to
die ; and when they begin to decay a young one is planted near the old
one to supply its place.

In this country, wine is never extracted from this palm, for that
operation destroys the fruit ; and these, when ripe, are considered as
the valuable part of the produce. A few green nuts are cut in the hot
season, on account of the refreshing juice which they then contain,
and to make coir rope : but this also is thought to injure the crop.
The coir made from the ripe nuts is very bad, and their husks are
commonly burned for fuel.

The crop begins in the second month after the summer solstice, and
continues four months. A bunch is known to be ripe when a nut falls
down, and it is then cut Each palm produces from three to six
bunches, which ripen successively. A middling palm produces from
sixty to seventy nuts. As the nuts are gathered, they are collected in
small huts, raised from the ground on posts. When a merchant offers,
the rind is removed, at his expense, by a man who fixes an iron rod in
the ground and forces its upper end, which is sharp, through the fibres ;
by which means the whole husk is speedily removed. He then, by a
single blow with a crooked knife, breaks the shell without hurting the
kernel, which is then fit for sale, and is called kobbari. A man can
daily clean 1,300 nuts. From twenty to thirty per cent of them are
found rotten.

Betel Vine.— The betel vine thrives best in low ground, where it can
have a supply of water from a reservoir. If that cannot be had, a place
is selected where water can be procured by digging to a small depth.
A black soil is required. A betel-leaf garden is thus managed in the
east : — In Chaitra or Vais'akha, trench over the whole ground one cubit
deep, and surround it with a mud wall ; immediately within which plant
a hedge of the eupJiorbium tirucalli, and of the ariindo tibialis. ^Vhen
there is not plenty of rain, this must for six months be regularly watered.
Then dig the garden, and form it into proper beds, leaving a space of
about twenty feet between them and the hedge. From the main
channel for conducting the water to the garden, draw others at right
angles, and distant twenty-two cubits. Between every two of these, to

BETEL VINE i6i

drain off the superfluous water, draw others about a cubit wide, and
deeper than the former. The garden is thus divided into rows ten
cubits in width, having on one side an elevated channel for supplying it
with water, and on the other side a deep canal, to carry off what is
superfluous. These rows are divided into beds, each also having on
one side a channel to supply it with water, and on the other a
canal to carry off what is superfluous ; and it is surrounded by a narrow
bank, about six inches high, which excludes the water that flows
through the channels : within these little banks the divisions of the
beds are carefully levelled.

In the centre of each division is then formed a row of small holes,
distant from each other one cubit ; and in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) in
every hole are put two cuttings of the betel-leaf vine, each two cubits
long. The middle of each cutting is pushed down, and slightly
covered with earth ; while the four ends project and form an equal
number of young plants, which for the first eighteen months are allowed
to climb upon dry sticks that are put in for the purpose. For the first
week after being planted, the shoots must be watered twice a day with
pots ; for another week once a day, and until the end of the second
month once in three days. A small drill is then made across each
division of the beds, and between every two holes in each ; and in
these drills are planted rows of the seeds of the agase, nugge and
varjepu. The young betel plants must then have some dung, and for
four months more must be watered with the pot once in three days.
Afterwards, so long as the garden lasts, all the channels must once in
four days be filled with water. This keeps the ground sufficiently
moist, and water applied immediately to the plants is injurious. The
garden ought to be kept clean from weeds by the hand, and once a year,
in December, must have dung.

When the plants are a year and a half old they are removed from
the sticks ; two cubits of each, next the root, is buried in the earth ;
and the remainder, conducted close to the root of one of the young
trees, is allowed to support itself on the stem. At the end of two
years two cubits more of each plant are buried in the ground ; and ever
afterwards this is once a year repeated. At the beginning of the fourth
year the cultivator begins to gather the leaves for sale, and for six or
seven years continues to obtain a constant supply. Afterwards the
plants die, and a new garden must be formed in some other place. In
order to give additional coolness to the garden, at its first formation a
plantain-tree is put at each corner of every bed, and by means of
suckers soon forms a cluster. So long as the garden lasts these
clusters are preserved. At all times the gardens are very cool and

i62 FLORA

pleasant ; but they are not neatly kept ; and in the space between the
hedge and the beds, a great variety of bushes and weeds are allowed to
grow.

In the west, the betel vine is grown with the areca palm in the follow-
ing manner : — When the areca plantation is fifteen years old, in the
month immediately following the vernal equinox, a hole is dug near
every tree, one cubit deep and one and a half in width. After having
exposed the earth to the air for a month, return it into holes and allow
it to remain for another month. Then take out a little of the earth,
smooth the surface of the pit, and bury in it the ends of five cuttings
of the betel-leaf vine, which are placed with their upper extremities
sloping toward the palm. Once every two days, for a month, water the
cuttings, and shade them with leaves. Then remove the leaves and
with the point of a sharp stick loosen the earth in the holes. In the
first year the waterings must be repeated every day, and the whole must
once a month be hoed ; while at the same time dung is given to every
plant. In the second year, the vines are tied up to the palms ; once
in two months the garden is hoed and manured ; and it is in the hot
season only that the plants are watered. At the end of the second
year the vines begin to produce saleable leaves. In the third year and
every other year afterwards, so much of the vines next the root as has
no leaves, must be buried. Once in six months the garden must be
hoed and manured ; and in the hot season the vines must be watered
every other day.

The owners of these plantations are annoyed by elephants, monkeys
and squirrels ; and, besides, both palms and vine are subject to diseases ;
one of which, the anibe, in the course of two or three years kills the
whole. Except when these causes of destruction occur, the vine con-
tinues always to flourish ; but the palm begins to decay at forty-five
years of age, and is then removed, care being taken not to injure the
vine. Near this is made a fresh hole, in which some persons place two nuts
for seed, and others plant a young seedling. In order to support the
vine during the fifteen years which are required to bring forward the
new palm, a large branch of the hdruvdna, or erythrlna, is stuck in the
ground, and watered for two or three days ; when it strikes root and
supplies the place of an areca.

Coffee.^ — The variety of coffee cultivated in Mysore appears to be
the true coffea araln'ca, which Rhind informs us was originally intro-
duced into Arabia from Abyssinia. It was introduced into this
Province some two centuries ago by a person named Baba Budan, who,

' Adapted from a memorandum by Mr. Graham Anderson, C.I.E., Bargua Estate,
Manjarabad.

COFFEE 163

on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca, brought a few seeds, which
he planted on the range of mountains still bearing his name."

In the selection of land for coffee cultivation, care must be taken to
obtain a tract well sheltered by nature from undue exposure either to
the south-west or the east wind, and situated, with a northern, north-
eastern, or north-western aspect, within the zone that is favoured with
as large as possible a share of the March and April showers and yet
not visited by too large a share of rain in the south-west monsoon.
There is in fact a line or coffee zone in every coffee-producing country,
and more especially in Mysore, even a mile beyond which the coffee-tree
will not exist. The plant rejoices in a damp, warm temperature, such as
is procurable in the west of Mysore at elevations from 2,500 to 3,500
feet above sea-level, although the tree will grow under certain circum-
stances at elevations both below and above these. A good rich loamy
soil, of any colour, with a good deposit of vegetable matter on the
surface, and not much sheet rock underlying it, is required.

There are five descriptions of land in Mysore in which coffee has
been planted^ : — the forest termed kdtis ; heavy ghat forest, termed
Ma/e ; village jungles, termed uduve ; kumri, or land the original timber
on which having been cut has been followed by a secondary growth of
trees of a smaller type ; and kanave, or lands covered with hard-wood
trees and bamboos. Some of the finest estates have been formed on
lands of the first and third classes, which have the decided advantage
over all other descriptions, of possessing a rich deposit of decayed
vegetable mould that has not been exposed to atmospheric influences,
and hence contains an almost inexhaustible store of organic and in-
organic constituents available as food for the coffee plant.

The kdns are generally situated in mountainous country, intersected
by streams of clear water, with rocky or sandy beds. The peculiarity
of the ravines through which these streamlets flow is, that the under-
growth is entirely different from that found under similar circumstances
in the ghat forests, consisting as it does of a gigantic species of

' Further particulars of the history of coffee cultivation will be found under Kadur
and Hassan Districts in Vol. II.

- This description applies to the Malnad, where alone extensive coffee plantations
have hitherto been formed. But forty years ago there were coffee gardens in Banga-
lore, and a few plants were grown in private gardens under wells by European
residents since then, yielding sufficient for domestic wants. The same practice seems
to have been common in Cochin so far back as 1743, according to Cantervisscher's
" Letters from Malabar." Of late years an experiment on a larger scale has been
made at Bangalore, l)y Mr. Minakshaiya, and coffee grown with great success on
irrigated land. The consequence has been a demand by European planters for land
suitable for the purpose near Bangalore and Mysore, and in other Maidan parts.

.M 2

1 64 FLORA

triangular coffcc-wced (called in Canarcsc hnnal or licb-gi'irkal), and
other succulent plants, whereas in the latter case basket reeds (termed
warti) and canes {Jietta) of every description are generally found in a
tangled mass. Uduve is strictly village jungle or forest, sometimes
almost entirely surrounded by rice-fields. The trees are frequently
large and of good descriptions, and the undergrowth is principally
small coffee-weed, bamboos and thorns. There are fewer ravines in
this kind of land and they are generally smaller and less precipitous,
but frequently old excavations, termed ivanigalu, are met with, which
evidently were dug out as approaches to villages formerly situated in the
very heart of the forest. Male tracts are situated close to the crest of the
ghats and generally contain gigantic timber, but can seldom boast of
good soil, except in protected situations, the generality of the land
having suffered from wash caused by the almost incessant rainfall in
the monsoon. The great height of the trees also proves prejudicial to
coffee, which is cut to pieces by the drip. The situation being bleak,
windy, and exposed to terrific rainfall, is seldom profitable for coffee
cultivation. Kumri lands frequently contain magnificent-Z^^/^/Xf soil,
but a certain amount of virtue has gone out of it by former exposure,
and although coffee has been planted and fine estates made on such
land, still the operation is always accompanied by a considerable
amount of risk, and always by heavy extra expenditure. In kanave
lands ravines containing fair average soil and trees are to be met with,
and these places are the only portions suitable for coffee. This
description of land has the disadvantage of showing a maximum area
of holding with a minimum of space available for cultivation.

Clearing for a plantation consists of removing with the axe and
cutting all undergrowth and obstructions, and such trees as are not
required. Large trees that have a thick foliage in the hot weather and
little or none in the monsoon, are left as shade at regular distances,
attention being paid to leave fewer trees on portions with a northern
aspect than on those facing the south, all quarters exposed to the wind
especially requiring protection. This accomplished, the ground is either
cleared by lopping and laying in line to await the process of rotting in
the monsoon, or fire is used to facilitate matters. Lines of pegs,
generally at 6 x 6 feet, are then laid down, and the land is holed, each
hole being generally one foot wide by two feet deep. This is done to
remove all obstacles to the roots of the young plants, and to make a
nice loose bed for their reception. Roads are traced to and from
convenient points in the property, and these are again intersected by
paths to facilitate the general working of the estate.

For 7iurseries, convenient situations, with facilities for irrigation or

COFFEE 165

with river or tank frontage, are selected and entirely cleared of trees,
the soil being dug to the depth of two feet or more, and every root and
stone removed. This is then laid out into beds, generally about four
feet wide, separated by paths, and the whole well drained and put in
order with the same care as a flower garden. Manure is applied and
the beds are then cut up into furrows, at six inches apart, into which
the seeds are placed, about one inch apart. The whole bed is then
covered up with dry leaves and watered by hand, care being taken to
maintain a uniform state of moisture, which must not be excessive.
The seed germinates in six weeks, and from the bean, which is raised
on a slender green stem of about eight inches in height, burst forth two
small oval leaves. These two-leafed seedlings are pricked out into
beds at either 4 x 4 or 6 x 6 inches, and require from ten to
fourteen months, with constant attention and watering, to form into
good plants, which should have three or four pairs of small primary
branches and be from one foot to one and a half in height.

Planting is performed in the months of June, July and August. The
plants being carefully removed from the beds and the roots trimmed,
they are planted either with a mamoti or planting staff by a regular
gang of experienced men. Great attention is paid to this operation to
see that the holes are properly filled in and that the roots are not bent
or injured, and lastly that the plants are firmly set in the ground and
not hung.

Under favourable circumstances, the plants are ready for topping in
the second year. A topping staff, duly marked to the proper height,
is placed alongside of the young tree, and the top or head and one
primary branch are removed. Trees are topped at heights varying
from two feet to four and a half feet, but the medium of three feet is
generally preferred. This operation has the effect of directing the sap
into the primary branches and making them throw out secondary
shoots, which come from each eye along the branch. An abundance of
vigour has the effect of forcing out a number of shoots under the junc-
tion of the upper primaries with the stem, and also from the stem at
various places. These are termed suckers, and are all removed by
gangs of women and boys. The first crop generally appears in the
third year, and consists merely of a few berries on the primary branches,
aggregating about one maund per acre. In the fourth year a return of
about one cwt. per acre may be expected, and it is not until the seventh
or eighth year that the planter is rewarded by a full crop, which, even
under the most fi^vourable circumstances, rarely exceeds five or six
cwts. per acre.

The crop commences to ripen in October and November. As soon

1 66 FLORA

as the cherries are of a fine red colour, they are picked into baskets,
and brought to the pulper to be either measured or weighed, and
deposited in a vat made for their reception. They are passed through
the pulper with a stream of water either the same day or early next
morning, and the pulp or outer skin being thus removed, the beans are
allowed to ferment for twenty or twenty-four hours, without water, to
facilitate the removal of the saccharine matter which surrounds them.
After the mass has been washed and well stamped out in three waters,
all light beans and skins being carefully separated, the beans are re-
moved to the draining mats, where^ they are constantly turned over and
allowed to remain for a day or more, or until all water has drained off.
They are then spread out thickly on the drying ground in order to dry
slowly. This is an operation requiring constant attention for six or
eight days, the whole having to be covered up every evening to protect
it from dews. The beans should not be dried too thinly spread, or too
suddenly exposed to the full rays of the sun, as they are apt to become
bleached and bent. A drying ground protected by large trees is the
best, as in that case portions in shade and sun are both available.
When the beans are sufficiently dried, they are bagged and despatched
to the coast or Bangalore for preparation and shipment.

The yield of an estate that has been well maintained in cultivation
may be put down at from three and a half to four cwts. per acre. As
much as six cwts. per acre have been produced off portions, but of
course only under the most favourable circumstances, and such is
an exception to the general rule. An accurately calculated estimate
shows that, in a series of years, the crop is more frequently below
three and a half cwts. than above. But the result varies in different
places.

The earliest official notice^ of coffee in Mysore is said to have been
in 1822. But though the plant has been known for so long, it is only
of recent years that coffee has come into use among natives, and chiefly
in the towns. When INIr. Elliot first settled in ]\Iysore, in 1856, he
was repeatedly asked by the farmers of the country whether Europeans
ate the berry, or of what use it could possibly be. The variety of
coffee originally cultivated here came to be known as Chick, probably
from Chickmagalur, the principal town at the foot of the Baba Budan
hills, the Mysore home of the plant. This variety had thriven well and
promised to do so for an indefinite period of time, but in 1866 and the
three succeeding years there were dry hot seasons, which caused a
wide-spread attack of the Borer insect. About the same time a general

' The information in the following paragraphs is taken chiefly from Gold, Sport and
Coffee-planting in Mysore, by Mr. R. li. Elliot, of Bartchinhulla Estate, Manjarabad.

COFFEE 167

decline in the constitution of the trees became manifest. So serious
was the result that coffee-planting seemed liktly to come to an end in
Mysore, except in the case of a few elevated tracts in the Baba Budan
hills. At this juncture, in 1870, Mr, Stanley Jupp, having obser\'ed
advantages in the coffee grown in Coorg, recommended his brother
planters to introduce seed from that province. The young plants raised
from the imported seed throve with extraordinary vigour, and it was
soon found that the new variety would grow and crop well, and even
on land on which all attempts to reproduce the Chick variety had
utterly failed. " Then this sinking industry rose almost as suddenly as
it had fallen ; old and abandoned estates, and every available acre of
forest and even scrub, were planted up ; and land which used to change
hands at from Rs. 5 to 10 an acre was eagerly bought in at twelve times
these rates." Another cause for anxiety, however, now arose, for when
the produce of the new variety came into the market, brokers objected
to pay Mysore prices for Coorg coffee. But, as the trees from Coorg
seed aged, the produce each year assimilated more and more in appear-
ance and quality to that of the old Mysore plant. Consequently the
Coorg variety, the stock of which is kept up by continual importations
of fresh seed, has been permanently adopted as a plant which crops
more regularly and heavily than the Chick, and the produce of which
has so improved under the influence of the soil and climate of Mysore,
that, with the exception of the long-established brand of " Cannon's
Mysore," and the produce of a few other estates that still grow Chick,
in the Baba Budan hills, there is little difference in value.

The high reputation of Mysore coffee, the best quality of which is
commonly quoted at los. to 15s. a cwt. above that of any other kind
that reaches the London market, is attributed partly to the soil and
climate, and pardy to the coffee being slowly ripened under shade.
The pioneers of the industry, following the practice in Ceylon, had
cleared away all the forest and planted their coffee in the open. That
this was a fatal mistake was not at first decisively apparent. But the
devastations of the Borer and leaf disease, the great enemies of coffee,
eventually put the question beyond all doubt. And so clearly is the
vital necessity of shade now recognized, that, in Mr. Elliot's opinion,
formed after ample experience, "if good shade of the best kind is
grown, it is absolutely impossible to destroy a plantation in Mysore,
even with the worst conceivable management or neglect." The easiest
of the methods that have been adopted for providing shade is to clear
down and burn the entire forest and then plant shade trees along with
the coffee. Another plan is to clear and burn the underwood and a
certain portion of the forest trees, leaving the remainder for shade.

1 68 FLORA

Experience shows ihat ihe retention of as much as possible of the
original forest is desirable, and that land which has not been burnt will
last far longer. To this may be attributed the continued existence of
the most ancient estates in Mysore.

Five trees are specially recommended as the most suitable to grow
Cor shade, namely, kap basari (ficus tjakela, Burm.)', gbni (ficus
mysorensis, Heyne), kari basari (ficus infectoria, Roxb.), /// basari (a
variety of the same), and mitli (? streblus asper, Lour.), of which there
are two kinds, heb initli and haralu initli, the second being " a bad
tree." The trees should be planted in lines running east and west, in
order to provide shade from the southerly sun, and so close in each
row that in five or six years the tops will touch. \\'hen they begin to
crowd, every other one should be removed, and this process can be
repeated if found necessary.

Of the diseases to which the coffee plant is subject in Mysore, leaf
disease is the growth of a fungoid named hemileia vastatrix, which dis-
tributes its spores in the form of yellow powder. The effect is to strip
the tree more or less of its foliage. The disease called borer is due to
a beetle {xylotrechus quadrupes\ red or yellow with black lines, and
about as large as a horsefly. It lays its eggs in some crevice in the
bark. The larvae, when hatched, bore into the stem and live on the
heartwood for from three to five months, when they eat their way out
as winged beetles. Coffee-trees attacked by borer wither away through-
out the part the insect has injured. The best remedy for and preventive
of both diseases is said to be properly shading the coffee with suitable
trees. Another disease of coffee is called rot, also the growth of
a fungoid, named pelliadaria kokroga, which covers the leaves and
berries with a black slime, causing them to rot away. The free circu-
lation of air seems to be required when this appears.

With the view of ascertaining whether coffee grown from seed im-
ported from other countries would be less susceptible to leaf disease,
Messrs. Matheson and Co. went to great expense in Coorg in intro-
ducing coffee seed from Brazil, Venezuela, Costa Rica, and Jamaica.
But it was found that in that respect they were neither better nor worse
than the Coorg variety. A further experiment has been made with
Blue Mountain seed, but the plants do not seem to be in any way
different.

Liberian coffee {coffea liberica), a taller and stronger plant, with a
larger leaf and berry, was introduced by Colonel Benson, Assistant

* Mr. Elliot gives this as Cub Busru (Ficus tuberculata), and no botanical name
for the last two. My names are taken from Mr. Cameron's catalogue on the assump-
tion that they represent the trees intended.

CINCHONA 169

Commissary-General, about the time when leaf disease was causing such
destruction. It was thought that this hardier plant, native of a hotter
climate and lower region, might be found proof against the disease.
But, notwithstanding various experiments, whether the flavour of the
berry is inferior, or from whatever cause, it has not supplanted the
old variety.' A hybrid, a cross between the two, is said to be more
promising.-

Km.o\-\<g plants of ecoiioviic value introduced into the country in recent
years, the following are deserving of mention : —

Casuarina.' — None has been more successful or more extensively
cultivated, principally as a fuel tree, than Casuarina equisetifolia, called
by the natives kcsarike. It is an Australian tree, the swamp oak of
Queensland, but better known as the Tinian pine or beefwood tree.
The numerous and extensive plantations formed of it, especially in the
Bangalore District, have visibly altered the landscape in some parts.
As fuel it develops more heat in a given quantity than any other kind
of local wood ; in fact, for locomotive and domestic purposes it is found
necessary to use inferior fuel with it, in order to moderate the intense
heat, which would otherwise prove destructive to engines and utensils.
In experiments on the Mysore State Railway it was reckoned that
casuarina logs ran a train over a distance thirteen per cent, in excess of
that attained by the next best kind of fuel available in the Mysore
forests.

Cinchona. — Two plantations were originally formed; one in 1866
at Kalhatti on the Baba Budan hills (Kadur District), with 5,000 plants,
and the other in 1867 on the Biligiri Rangan hills in Yelandur (Mysore
District), with 2,000 plants. The only kind permanently cultivated
was C. succirubra ; the more valuable but less hardy species of
C. calisaya and C. officinalis were also tried, but without success. The
number of trees in the first plantation had increased to 24,000, and a
numl)er had been distributed to favourable localities in the western
Districts, when in 1871 the bark of trees from both plantations was
submitted to analysis by Mr. Broughton, Quinologist to the Madras

' Mr. Cameron says: — "When first inlroducod, the Liherian species had the
reputation of l)eing tropical in its requirements, and that its cultivation would extend
to the plains of India. Experience has not proved this capacity, although, no doubt,
when under shade, the plant can endure a considerably higher degree of temperature
than the Arabian shrub. But under full exposure to the sun the former died outright,
while the established species grew vigorously and produced good crops of coflee."

* The following grafts have been established at the Lai Bagh for experiment : —
Liberian on Arabian stock, Arabian on Liberian stock, Maragogipe on Arabian
stock, Liberian on itself, Arabian on itself

170

FLORA

Government. The results obtained by him were reported as fol-
lows : —

Yield in percentages of dry bark.

Site of
Plantation.

Total
Alkaloids.

Quinine.

Chinchoni-

dine and

chinchonine.

Pure sulphate
of quinine
obtained

crystallized.

Other

sulphates of

quinine.

BabaBudans (['""'V-
\_ branch..

Biligiri Rangans

4-50
1-48

7-50

•86

•42

2-OI

3-64
I '06

5 '49

•67
•30

1-09

2-35
•60

4-84

The above analyses showed that, while as a source of alkaloids the
bark of the Baba Budan plantation was of satisfactory quality, it was
inferior in yield of total alkaloids to the bark from trees of the same
age on the Nilgiris, namely, branch bark 2*28 per cent., trunk bark
6'49 per cent. " But though the amount of alkaloids is thus less,"
Mr. Broughton observed, " than is usual with good India grown bark,
it fully equals the yield of ordinary red bark from South America."
The bark from the Biligiri Rangan plantation was pronounced of high
quality for C. succirubra and quite equal to that grown on the Nilgiris.

In consequence of this report the intention of extending the Baba
Budan plantation was abandoned, but private planters, occupying more
suitable sites, were encouraged to grow cinchona. Meanwhile the
febrifuges obtained from the plantations were distributed to the local
hospitals, and in 1875 ^^^ gardener in charge was sent to Ootacamund
for instruction in collecting bark by the coppicing and the barking and
mossing processes. Eventually, in 1877, the Biligiri Rangan plantation
was made over to the Jagirdar of Yelandur, in whose estate it was
situated, on his paying to Government half the produce of bark yielded
for five years ; and in 1881 the Baba Budan plantation was sold to Mr.
Sylk, a private planter, for Rs. 5,000.

The existing depression of the quinine trade holds out at present, it
is understood, little prospect of profit on the cultivation ; but the im-
portance and medicinal value of the products of cinchona are never
likely to diminish, and prices may again rise, though probably not to
former rates. Special arrangements are being made, in common with
other Indian Governments, for the manufacture and cheap distribution
of quinine to all classes (for the latter purpose using the agency of the
village post offices), a boon which should be highly appreciated in
the malarious and fever-stricken parts of the country.

VANILLA

171

Cinchona cultivation has since 1881 been entirely in private hands,
and the following are the statistics for 1893-4, the plants being mostly
scattered, in the midst of coffee or cardamom estates : —

Species.

District.

No. of
acres.

No. of plants.

Mature.

Immature.

C. succirubra (red bark) \

Mysore
Kadur

24
224

8,860
124,255

12,873
43.450

Total ...

248 133,115

56,323

C. officinalis, var. condaminea (Loxa
or crown bark ; pale bark) ... ]

Mysore
Hassan
Kadur

I
36
34

8,000

14,464

1,141
. 5.003

Total ...

71 22,539 6,144

Yanilla/ — In a climate like that of Bangalore there is no difficulty
whatever in cultivating the vanilla aroniatica, as it grows luxuriantly
without artificial assistance, provided that a suitable position is selected
for the plantation. The least expensive and perhaps the most
favourable site which can be selected for the purpose is an old mango
tope, because the mango-trees in that stage are not too dense in foliage,
and are better adapted to produce the checkered shade so essential to
the healthy development of the vanilla plants. Like all succulents,
this plant detests excessive moisture ; swampy situations should there-
fore be avoided. A light vegetable soil intermixed with sand is an
agreeable compost, and cocoa-nut fibre is perhaps the best manure that
can be applied. Ordinary-sized cuttings generally produce flowers
three years after they are rooted, but large cuttings consisting of four
or more nodes will produce flowers two years after they are rooted.
The vanilla should be planted round the base of the mango-trees,
small beds of the soil recommended having been previously prepared,
and as the plants grow they should be trained round the stem and along
the principal limbs of the trees for their future support.

In South America an indigenous insect fertilizes the vanilla flowers

' rVom notes by Mr. Cameron, Superintendent of the Lai Bagh.

172

FLORA

accidentally, and thus secures the fruit, but in this country no such
insect has yet made its appearance. We must therefore adopt our
own means to fecundate the flowers. The process is simple when
once acquired. The organs of reproduction (unlike the ordinary state
of things) are disposed in a peculiar form, as if to prevent natural
fecundation, and until this takes place by artifice, or chance as
explained, the beans which comprise the economic product of vanilla
will not be obtained.

Cocoa. — The chocolate-nut tree, theobroma cocoa, is indigenous to
South America and the W. Indies, where it has been cultivated for
various uses for many generations. The tree is an evergreen, which
grows from sixteen to twenty-five feet high. The leaves are entire,
smooth, and very glossy in appearance ; the flowers, which are diminu-
tive, are borne on the stem and principal limbs of the tree ; hence the
rare and curious appearance which the capsules present suspended from
the bare stem. The trees in the Government Gardens have produced
fruit freely. The peculiarities of the cultivation consist in the applica-
tion of dense shade, moderate moisture, and decomposed vegetable
soil, chiefly. Salt is also an indispensable ingredient in a compost for
chocolate trees.

Rhea. — The Rhea plant or China grass of commerce is the boehmeria
nivea. The fibre produced from the bark of this plant is very strong
and delicate, but the difficulty of preparing it by machinery continues
to obstruct its utility on an extensive scale. There are three species
of boehmeria in the Lai Bagh, and the climate of Mysore seems to
facilitate their growth. The young shoots which produce the fibre
grow more regular and free under half shade than when fully exposed
to the sun's rays. The species nivea is quite established here, but
never produces seed. It possesses the great advantage, however, that
it can be helped by man ; so that its naturalization in most parts of
India is almost certain.

The following are other plants whose experimental cultivation has been
more or less successful, some of them being permanently established: —

Acrocarpus fraxini- Shingle-tree

folius
Agave rigida
Artiplex nummularia
Artocarpus cannoni

Artocarpus incisa ...
Bambusa vulgaris . . .
Barringtonia speci-
osa

Sisal hemp
Salt bush
Copper-coloured

foliage
Seedless breadfruit
Golden bamboo
Ornamental tree

Brassica chinensis...
Broussonettia papy-

rifera
Bursaria spinosa ...
Ccesalpinia coriaria
Carissa edulis
Castonospermum

australe
Castilloa elastica ...

Shantung cabbage
Paper mulberry

tree
Ornamental tree
Divi-divi tree
(Edible berry)
ISIoreton - bay

chestnut
Central American

rubber

EXOTICS

173

Ceratonia siliqua . .
Clausena wampi ..
Cola acuminata' ..
Colvillea racemosa

Carob-bean tree
Wampi (fruit)
Kola nut
Ornamental tree

Couroupita guianensis Cannon-ball tree
Crescentia alata . . . Calabash tree
Cyphomandra be- Tree tomato

tacea
Dipsacus fullonum Fullers' teazel
Erythroxylon coca Yields cocoaine
Euchlaena luxurians Buffalo grass
Fagopyrum esculen- Buckwheat

turn
Grevillea robusta . . .
Gynocardia odorata

lugra

Hyoscyamus niger
Lagunaria patersonii
Landolphia kirkii...
Landolphia watsoni
Malachea capitata

Silver oak
Yields chauhr

oil
Henbane
Foliage tree
Yields caoutchouc
Yields caoutchouc
Yields fibre

Manihot glaziovii ... Ceara-rubber tree
Mentha viridis ... Spearmint
Millingtonia portensis Indian cork tree

Monstera deliciosa
Opuntia ficus indica
Panicum sarmento-

sum
Paritium elatum ...
Parmentiera cerifera
Phcenix dactylifera
Pithecolobium saman Rain tree

Climbing aroid
Malta prickly-pear
Mauritius grass

Cuba bast
Candle tree
Date-palm

Poinciana regia
Rubia tinctorum* . . .
Rubus idceus
Smilax sarsaparilla
Stillingia sebifera . . ,
Trapa bispinosa ...

Tristania conferta...
Vangueria edulus ...
Vitis martini

Gold-mohur tree
Madder plant
Raspberry
Yields sarsaparilla
Chinese tallow tree
Zinghara nut,

water chestnut
Timber tree
Fruit tree
Cochin-China vine

Experiments have also been made with several varieties of cotton and
potatoes. Varieties of cocoa-nut have been imported from Colombo
in Ceylon ; also trial has been made of various kinds of grape vines,
loquat and bhere fruit (zizyphus jujuba).

It may be useful here to give the following list of plants whose
cultivation has been attempted without any permanent success at
Bangalore : —

Acacia decurrens . . .

Black wattle

Durio zibethinus ...

Durian

Arracacia eseulenta

Arracacha

Eucalyptus globu-

Blue gum

Avena elatior

Common pat

lus--'

Camellia theifera ...

Tea plant

Garcinia mangos-

Mangosteen

Caryophyllus aro-

Clove tree

tana*

maticus

Glycine hispida ...

Soy bean

Cassia obovata

Tinnevelly .senna

Helianthus annuus

Russian sunflower

Castania vulgaris . . .

Spanish chestnut

Humulus lupulus ...

I lop vine

Catalpa speciosa ...

Californian timber

Myristica fragrans

Nutmeg tree

tree

Platanus orientalis

Oriental plane

Cephojlis ipecacu-

Ipecacuanha

Symphytum asperri-

Prickly comfrey

anha

mum

Cyperus esculentus

Ground almond.

Ullucus tuberosus

Tuber

rush-nut

1 Withavia (Puneeria)

Cheese-maker

Cyperus pangorei...

Sedge

1 coagulans

' Botanically not far removed from the indigenous kendalc mara (sterculia urens).

- The plant which yields Indian madder has been found wild in Kankanhalli and
other parts.

■■' Eucalyptus saligna, rostrata, marginata and citriodora are established in the
gardens and furnish seed.

* Grafting it on the gamboge tree (Garcinia morella) seems to have been successful
in Jamaica.

'74

FAUNA
FERyE NATURE

Nothing less than a separate treatise, and that a voluminous one,
could do justice to the marvellous wealth of the animal kingdom in a
province under the tropics marked by so many varied natural features
as Mysore. An attempt has been made to present a list of the main
representatives, with the Kannada names, where they could be ascer-
tained. A few notes on the localities frequented by particular animals
will be found in Vol. II.

Mammals — Mammalia.'

Primates.

CercopithecidLC — Monkeys — Koti.

Macacus silenus ... Singalika, karkodaga ... The lion-tailed monkey

Macacus sinicus ... Koti, manga, kodaga ... The common monkey of the

country
Semnopithecus entellus Musu, musuva, musuku*... The langur, or Hanuman

monkey
Semnopithecus priamus Koncla-musuku, konda- The Madras langur
mosava

Semnopithecus johni. . .
Leimiridic — Lemurs.
Loris gracilis ... Nala, adavi manushya

Carnivora.

Felidcc—Q.2X tribe— i9,fM«.

Felis tigris ... ... Huli, heb-huli ...

Felis pardus ...

Felis bengalensis
Felis chaus
Cyntelurus jubata

Kiraba, ibbandi, dod-ibba

Hulibekku,bottinabekku

Kadu bekku

Chirite, sivangi, chircha . . .

The Nilgiri langur

The slender loris

The tiger^

The leopard or panther,* com-
monly called cheeta
The leopard cat
The wild or jungle cat
The hunting leopard, the
proper cheeta

Blanford's work on \\\& Fauna

' The classification and names are taken from W. T
of Briiish India, and the vernacular names have been revised.

■■' It seems doubtful if this monkey is found in the South, and the names may
belong to S. priamus.

3 There are said to be two varieties, — the heb-hiili, or large royal tiger, found in
the large jungle ; and the Imli, which is much smaller and is more destructive to
human life, frequenting inhabited parts of the country. It has the black stripes
closer together over the hind quarters.

■* The black variety is occasionally met with.

MAMMALIA

175

Viven-idiE — Civets.
Viverricula malaccensis

Paradoxurus niger
Herpestes mungo
Herpestes smithi

Hyccnidce — Hyenas — Ki>
Hysena striata

Canidie — Dog tril)e — Nay
Canis pallipes...
Canis aureus ...
Cyon deccanensis
Vulpes l)engalensis ...

Mus/e/idu-— Weasels.
Mellivora indica
Lutra vulgaris

Ursidcv — Bears — Karadi.
Mclursus ursinus

Punagina bekku, javadi

bekku
Kira bekku, kaljbu bekku
Munguli, mungasi, kira .

aim.
Kirabu, katte kiraba

'i.

Tola

Nari, ballu, gulla nari ...
Sil nayi ...

Kempu nari, channangi
nari

Nir-nayi ...
Karadi . . .

Insectivora.

Soricid(C — Shrews — Sitiui Hi. '

Crocidura crerulea ... Sund ili, sond ili
Crocidura perroteti ... Mug-ili ...

Chiroptera.

Pteropodidie — -Frugivorous bats — Bdval.

Pteropis edwardsi ... Togal bavali, toval or

tole hakki
Cynopterus marginatus

Kh iiioloph idic — Insectivorous bats — Kan-kappate.

Rhinolophus luctus ... ...

Rhinolophus affinis ...

Hipposiderus speoris...

Ilipposiderus bicolor...
Nycterida:.

Megaderma lyra
/ \spertilionid(C.

Vesperugo mordax

Vesperugo circumdatus

Vesperugo aliranuis ...

Vesperugo kuhli

Nyctecegus dormeri ...

Nyctecegus kuhli
Eiiihallonuridic.

Taphozous melanopogon

Taphozous longimanus

Taphozous saccokisncus ...■'...

' Properly siiudil ili.

gabl)ildyi

The civet cat

The tree cat or toddy cat

The mungoose

The ruddy mungoose

The striped hya-na

The Indian wolf
The jackal
The Indian wild dog
The Indian fox

The Indian ratel
The common otter

The Indian bear

The musk rat or shrew
Pigmy rat or shrew

Tlie Indian fruit bat or flying

fox
The short-nosed fruit bat

The great horse-shoe bat
The allied horse-shoe bat
Schneider's leaf-nosed bat
The bicoloured leaf-nosed bat

The Indian vampire bat

The grizzled bat

The black bat

The Indian pipistrelle

The white-bordered liat

Dormer's bat

The common yellow bat

The black-bearded sheath-
tailed bat

The long-armed shealh-tailed
bat

The pouch - bearing sheath -
tailed bat

176

FAUNA

Rodentia.

Sciurtdiv — Squirrels — Uiliite.

Pteromys oral... ... Haruva bekku ...

Sciurus indiciis ... Kes-alilu, kcmp - alilu,

kend-alilu

Sciurus macrurus

Sciurus palmarum ... Alilu, anilu, udule

Sciurus tristriatus ... Kad-a]ilu...
Muridcz — Rats and mice — Hi.

Gerbillus indicus ... Bila ili ...

Mus rattus

. Ili

Mus decumanus

Kemp ili

Mus musculus...

. Chitt ili

Mus buduga ...

. Bail ili

Mus platythrix

. Kal ili

Mus mettada ...

. Toda

Nesocia bengalensis ..

. Bail ili

Nesocia bandicota

Heggana

Golunda cUiotti

. Golandi

Hystricidcc — Porcupines — JMiil-handi.

Hystrix leucura ... Mul-handi, edu, eyya

Leporidct — Hares — Mola.

Lepus nigrocollis ... Mola

Ungulata.

Elephantidii: — Elephants — A'ne.
Elephas maximus ... A'ne

BovidiE — Ox tribe — Yettzt, hasava.

Bos gaurus ... ... Kad kona, kate

Hemitragus hylocrius* Kad adu
Boselaphus tragocame- Kad kudure
lus

A ntelopida — An telopes — Ch igari.
Tetraceros quadricornis Konda-guri
Antilope cervicupra ... Chigari, hulle ...

Gazella bennelti

S'ank hulle

Cei-z'idic — Deer ix'ihe^/inke.
Cervulus muntjac ... Kad-kuri

Cervus unicolor
Cervus axis
Tragulus meminna
Siiidcc — Hogs — Handi.
Sus cristatus ...

Kadave, kada
Saraga, duppi
Kur-pandi

Kad handi

The ijrown flying squirrel
The large Indian squirrel

The grizzled Indian .squirrel
The common striped squirrel
The jungle striped squirrel

The Indian gerl)ille, or ante-
lope rat

The common Indian rat

The brown rat

The common house-mouse

The Indian field-mouse

The brown spiny mouse

The soft-furred field-rat

The Indian mole-rat

The bandicoot rat

The Indian bush - rat (the
coffee-rat)

The porcupine

The black-naped hare

The Indian elephant

The bison, or gaur

The Nilgiri wild goat (ibex)

The nilgai, or blue bull

The four-horned antelope
The Indian antelope, or black

buck
The Indian gazelle, or ravine

deer

The barking deer, or jungle

sheep
The sambar deer
The spotted deer
The Indian mouse-deer

The Indian wild boar

Edentata.

Alanidii; — Ant-eaters.

Manis pentadactyla ... Chip handi ... ... The Indian pangolin.

' There is some doubt whether ibex and nilgai are actually found in Mysore, but
they are met with on the borders.

GAME LAW 177

The most destructive to life are tigers, and panthers or cheetas.
The following figures for the years 1890 to 1892 show the extent of
loss, and what has been done to counteract the ravages of the larger
animals, so far as the matter has come under official notice.

In 1889-90, there were four persons killed by tigers, two by panthers,
and six by other animals ; while of cattle, 1,150 were killed by tigers,
2,246 by panthers, 7 by bears, 2,695 by wolves, 362 by hyaenas, and
225 by other animals.

In 1 890- 1, there were one person killed by an elephant, two by
tigers, one by a bear, and four by other animals ; of cattle, tigers killed
1,263, panthers 2,554, bears 49, wolves 1,823, hyrenas 109, and other
animals 289.

In 1 89 1-2, there were one person killed by an elephant, one by a
panther, three by hyajnas, and nine by other animals ; of cattle, 2,055
were killed by tigers, 3.621 by panthers, 2,439 by wolves, 242 by
hy?enas, and 375 by other animals.

The regular rewards offered for the destruction of wild beasts are
Rs. 40 for a tiger or panther, and up to Rs. 10 for a hyaena. Elephants
are too valuable to be destroyed, but a special reward is sometimes
offered for the destruction of a rogue elephant that has become
dangerous to life.

The amounts paid in rewards in the above years were as follows : —

Rs. 3,728 in 1889-90, namely, Rs. 1,416 for 40 tigers, Rs. 2,164 fo'"
124 panthers, Rs. 12 for 4 hyaenas, and Rs. 136 for 587 other animals.

Rs. 3,573 in 1890-1, namely, Rs. 1,453 for 39 tigers, Rs. 1,946 for
115 panthers, Rs. 18 for 4 hyoenas, and Rs. 156 for 700 other animals.

Rs. 4,194 in 1891-2, namely, Rs. 100 for i elephant, Rs. 1,528 for
48 tigers, Rs. 2,303 for 148 panthers, Rs. 15 for 3 hyaenas, and Rs. 24S
for 1,389 other animals, including wild pig, rabid dogs, etc.

A comparison of these statistics with those for 1874 and 1875, given
in the first edition, indicates a decrease on the whole in the deaths of
human beings from wild beasts, but an increase in those of cattle. The
former may be due either to an actual diminution in the number of
wild beasts or to better means being now available for the treatment of
wounded persons : the latter may be due to more complete returns.
The figures relating to animals for whose destruction rewards were
given, point to a decrease in the number of larger animals destroyed
and an increase in that of smaller and commoner ones.

The necessity for a Ciame Law has been pressed upon the (Govern-
ment by both planters and sportsmen, principally to prevent the
indiscriminate destruction of useful species. A draft Regulation has
accordingly been framed and is under consideration, but it is not

178 FAUNA

intended to create n. nionoijoly in animals in a state of nature fur the
benefit whether of Government or of sportsmen. In the term "Game"
it includes antelope, ibex, jungle-sheep, sambhar and all other descrip-
tions of deer, bison, hares, jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, pea-fowl, partridge,
quail, snipe, woodcock, bustard, florican, duck and teal, with such
other animals or birds as may be added. The pursuit or killing may
be prohibited of any other animals or birds whose destruction may be
considered unsportsmanlike. The killing, capture, and pursuit in large
numbers of any particular kinds of wild animals or birds for the sake
of their skins or plumage for commercial purposes will be restricted by
a system of licenses, or prohibited altogether either for a certain time
or within a certain area. Fishing in any stream or lake will in like
manner be controlled, together with the poisoning of the water, the
use of explosive or deleterious substances therein, and the capture of
fish by fixed engines and nets of a mesh below a certain size. A
season in the year may be fixed in any local area for the killing or
capture of game or fish ; or it may be prohibited altogether in any local
area for five years ; or absolutely as regards mature females or young of
either sex of any descriptions of game. An exception is made in the
case of an owner or occupier of land, who may kill, capture or pursue,
within the limits of his land, game doing damage to any growing
crop.

Elephants are too valuable to be destroyed, and a special license is
required to kill one, which is only permitted when an animal endangers
human life or proves destructive to the crops. At the same time the
Keddah department was (1873) formed for the capture of elephants.
Previous to this the animals were sometimes caught in pits. The pits were
about twenty feet deep, and covered with a light network of bamboos,
over which was spread a covering of leaves and earth. The earth dug
out was carried to some distance. These pits never succeeded during the
first year, but in the second year, when they had become overgrown
with grass, the elephants were often deceived by them. When an
elephant was caught, rubbish v^^as thrown into the pit, which he trod
down and gradually formed a path to the top. He was then seized by
the tame elephants, without whose aid it would be impossible to secure
a full-grown wild elephant, and at the same time ropes were thrown
over him by the Kurubas. An elephant who was less than eight
months old, when thus snared, could seldom be reared in captivity, and
a tusker of any size had never been entrapped. In a graphic descrip-
tion of the rude manner in which the pitfall system was managed, Mr.
G. P. Sanderson says : — " The atrocious cruelties to which elephants
were subjected by it are too horrible to think of."'

ELEPHANT KEDDAHS 179

The Keddah department, established by him, was highly successful
in its first operations, which resulted in the capture of fifty-five elephants
in June 1874. Only nine died, and a profit of. Rs. 22,000 was made
on the affair. The site of the keddahs was near the Biligirirangan hills
in Chamrajnagar taluq, and Mr. Sanderson's account of what was at
that time a novel adventure was given in the first edition.' Shortly
afterwards he was transferred to Dacca in Bengal for elephant-catching
in the Chittagong and (iaro hills, where he was equally successful. On
his return to Mysore, in June 1876, the great famine was setting in,
and instead of catching elephants he was engaged in forming grazing
blocks in the border forests for the starving cattle that flocked thither
for pasture. Meanwhile the keddahs in Mysore remained in abeyance,
and Mr. Sanderson, after a furlough, was again employed in Bengal.
But capture by pitfalls was resorted to in 1886, under proper direction,
in the Kakank6te and Begur forests, and the District Forest Officer got
fifty-two elephants there in this manner in the next five years, when the
system was absolutely stopped on the extension of keddahs to that
part. Of those caught thirty-five survived, and a profit of Rs. 1 5,000
was made on the whole. Still, during the periods that the keddahs had
been unused, elephants multiplied and became so daring as to ravage
crops even close to towns. Mr. Sanderson's services were therefore
again applied for, and in 1889 he was placed at the disposal of Mysore
for five and a half years. To facilitate operations, twelve trained
Kumki elephants were purchased from the Pheelkhana at Dacca, and
seventeen more were imported from Burma in 1890. These twenty-
nine cost over a lakh. With the exception of a few that died, they
have become acclimatized to Mysore, and are in a healthy and service-
able condition.

In a fortnight from Mr. Sanderson's arrival, in July 1889, he
captured a herd of fifty-one in the old keddahs constructed by him in
1877. Intimation was then received of the proposed visit of H.R.H.
l^rince Albert A'ictor, and it was desired to make a second catch, if
possible, for his entertainment in November. The interesting account
of how the capture of thirty-seven elephants was effected on that occa-
sion has been contributed by Mr. Sanderson to Mr. Rees' book.-
Keddahs were next formed near Kakankote in 1890, and an extensive
use of the telephone was introduced by Mr. Sanderson, for rapid com-
munication from his base camp with the watch-houses at the keddah
gates and various points in the jungles, the whole being connected with

1 A full description of this and other operations will be found in his book called
*' Thirteen \'ears among the Wild Heasts of India." •

- "The Duke of Clarence and Avondale in Southern India,"' chap. iv.

N 2

i8o FAUNA

the telegraph station :il llunsur, whence messages could Ije sent all
over India. Altogether, in two drives in 1889-90, and three drives in
1890-1, there were 159 elephants caught, and the greater number were
sold at Nanjangud, Palghat, and Tellicherry. Excluding the large
initial outlay for Kumki elephants and trained hands from the north,
with special charges connected with the Royal visit, the expenditure
was fairly covered by the receipts, while the stockades, with live and
dead stock, remained for future use at a moderate cost for up-keep. In
1 89 1 -2 there were two drives, resulting in the capture of seventy-five
elephants. Sales were effected at Paschimavahini and at Haidarabad in
addition to the places before mentioned. That the expenditure was
much in excess of the receipts was greatly owing to cost of additional
telephone materials and instruments. In May, 1892, Mr. Sanderson
died. Since then Mr. K. Shamiengar, for a short time his assistant,
has been in charge of the keddahs. In two drives in 1892-3^ and two
drives in 1893-4 he was successful in capturing 120 elephants, of which
twenty-one died. The disposal of the remainder still left a deficit on
the department of about Rs. 22,000. But the network of telephones
has been so skilfully laid, both in the Kdkankote and Chamrajnagar
forests, as practically to ensure the ultimate capture of every elephant
that passes within certain limits, and the expenses will be recouped.

Elephants have of late years become troublesome in the Shimoga
and Kadur Districts, destroying sugar-cane and paddy crops, and
injuring the areca-nut gardens. Attempts to stop them by shooting
some were made, but proved ineffectual. The Keddah department are
therefore endeavouring to capture some of the herds, which are small
and scattered, in temporary stockades.- The effect of the inroads of
elephants has been to drive the field-\vatchers to the trees, and this has
left an opening for wild pig to do more mischief to the crops than
before, when the watchers were on the spot to scare them away.

Crops are also liable to considerable damage at times from rats. In
the latter months of 1878 something like a plague of rats appeared,
especially in the Chitaldroog District, and committed great havoc in
the cotton and rice crops of individual villages. Certain kinds of field
rat regularly store up a good deal of grain in their burrows near the
embankments of fields, which ^\^oddars and various wandering tribes
dig up when the ground is out of cultivation and help themselves to
the grain.

' At the end of 1S92 the \'iceroy, the Marquess of Lansdowne, witnessed the
drive.

, - A cajiture of sixty elephants near Sakrebail has now (November, 1894) been
announced.

BIRDS i8i

No one who has travelled much over the Province, especially in the
wilder and more secluded tracts of country, but must have noted the
immense variety and beauty of the feathered tribes. The naturalist
and the sportsman alike will, it is hoped, find every familiar acquaint-
ance included in the following list' It may perhaps be noted that the
ostrich has laid eggs and hatched young in the Maharaja's menagerie
at Mysore, but they did not live long.

Aves — Hakki.

Passeres.

Co>-vidic — Crow s — Kciki, KAgi.
Corvusmacrorhyn- Jungle crow

chus
Corvus splendens Indian house-crow
Dendrocetta rufa Indian tree-pie
Parus atriceps ... Indian grey tit
Parus nuchali.s ... White-winged l)lack

lit
Machlolophushap- Southern yellow tit
lonotus

Crateropopidic.
Arg)-a caudata ... Common l^al^bler
Argya malcolmi... Large grey babbler

bab-

Arg)a subrufa ...
Crateropus cano-

Large rufous

liler
Jungle babbler

Crateropus griseus White-headed balj-

bler
Pomalorhinushors- Southern scimitar

fieldi bab])ler

Dunietia albigula- Small white-throated

ris babbler

Pyctorhis sinensis Yellow-eyed babbler
I'ellorneum ruficeps Spotted Ijabbler
Rhopocichla atri- Black-headed bab-

ceps bier

Myophoreus hors- Malabar

whistling

thrush
Indian blue chat
Rufous - bellied

.short-wing
Indian white-eye

fieldi
Larvivora l)runnea
Brachypteryx ru-

fiventris
Zosterops palpe-

brosa
/Kgithina tiphia... Common iora
Chloropsis jerdoni Jerdon's chloropsis

' Taken from the volumes on Birds by E. W. (lales, in the Fauna of British
India.

Irena puella ... Fairy blue-l)ird

Hypsipetes gan- South- Indian l)lack

eesa bulbul

Molpastes hremor- Madras red-vented

rhous bulbul

Otocompsa fusci- Southern red-whis-

caudata kered bulbul

Pycnonotusgularis Ruby - throated

bulbul

Pycnonotus luteo- White - browed

lus bulbul

Micropus phivoce- (key-headed bulbul

phalus

Sittidie — Nuthatches.
Sitta castaneiven- Chestnut - bellied

tris nuthatch

Sitta frontalis ... Violet-fronted l)lue
nuthatch

Dicruridtc — Drongos.
Dicrurusater ... Black drongo (king-
crow)
Uicruruslongicau- Indian ashy drongo

datus
Dicrurus ca;rules- Wliite - bellied

cens drongo

Chaptia lenea . . . Bronzed drongo
Chibia holtentotla Hair-crested drongo
Dissemurus para- Larger rocket-tailed

diseus drongo

Sylviidtc — Warblers.
Acrocephalus sten- Indian great reed-

loreus warbler

Acrocephalus du- Blylh's reed-warbler

metorum

i8.

FA UNA

Acroccphalus aj^ri-

cola
Cislicolii crytliio-

cephala
Cisticola cursilans

I'lanklinia gracilis

I'ranklinia hiicha-

nani
Schrenicola platy-

ura
Chajtornis locus-

telloides
Arundinax aifdon
Hypolais rania ...
Sylvia jerdoni

Sylvia affinis

Phy 1 lo.scopus affin is

Acanthopneu.ste

nitidus
Acanthopneuste

viridanus
Acanthopneuste

magnirostris
Prinia socialis
Prinia inornata ...
Prinia jerdoni

Paddy -ficlil rced-
warljler

Red-headed fanlail-
warhler

Rufous fanlail -war-
l)ler

Franklin's wren-
\varl)ler

Rufous - fronted
%vren-vvarl)ler

Broad-tailed grass-
warbler

Bristled grass -

warbler

Thick-billed warbler

Sykes's tree-warbler

I-'astern orphean
warbler

Indian lesser white-
throated warbler

TickelFs willow-
warljler

Green willow-war-
bler

Oreenish willow -
warbler

Large-billed v\illow-
warbler

Ashy wren-warbler

Indian wren-warbler

Southern wren-
warbler

Lajiiida — Shrikes — Kiikkati.
Lanius vittatus ... Bay-backed shrike
Lanius erythronotus Rufous-ljacked shrike
Lanius cristatus ... Brown shrike

Hemipus picatus

Te]5hrodornis syl-

vicola
Tephrodornis pon-

dicerianus
Pericrocotus flam-

nieus
Pericrocotus pere-

grinus
Pericrocotus ery-

thropygius

Black-backed

shrike
Malabar

shrike
C o ni m o n

shrike
Oranw minivet

pied
wood -
wood-

Small minivet

White-bellied mini-
vet

Campophagasykesi Black - headed

cuckoo-shrike
Graucalus niacii... Large cuckoo-shrike
Artamus fuscus ... Ashy swallow-shrike

Oriolidic — Orioles.
Driolus kundoo ... Indian oriole
Oriolus nielano- Indian black-headed
cephalus oriole

EiilahetidiC — Crackles or talking-mynas.
Eulabus religiosa Southern grackle

Stitrnidtc-
Pastor roseus

Sturnia blythii ...
Temenuchus pago-

darum
Acridotheres tristis
/Ethiopsar fuscus

Starlings and mynas.

Rose-coloured star-
ling
Blylh's myna
Black-headed myna

Common myna
Jungle myna

Micscicapidte — Flycatchers.
Siphia parva ... European

red-
fly-

Cyornis pallidipes

Cyornis rubecu-

loides
Cyornis tickelli ...

Stoparola mela-

nops
Alseonax latirostris
Alseonax ruficau-

dus
Ochromela nigri-

rufa
Culicicopa ceylon-

ensis
Terpsiphone para-

disi
Hypothymisazurea

Rhipidura
frontata

albi-

breasted
catcher

White-bellied blue
flycatcher

Blue - throated fly-
catcher

Tickell's blue fly-
catcher

Verditer flycatcher

Brown fljcatcher

Rufous-tailed fly-
catcher

Black - and - orange
flycatcher

Grey - headed fly-
catcher

Indian paradise fly-
catcher

Indian black-naped
flycatcher

White-browed fan-
tail flycatcher

Tiirdidi€—Ch2Lis, Robins, Thrushes, &c.
Pratincola caprata Common pied bush-
chat
Pratincola maura Indian bush-chat
Ruticillarufiventris Indian redstart
Thamnobiafulicata Black-backed In-
dian robin
Copsychus saularis Magpie robin
Merula nigripileus Black-cappedblack-

bird
Geocichla wardi... Pied ground-thrush

BIRDS

i8-

Geocichla cyanotus

IVtruphila cinclo-

rhyncha
I'etrophila cyanus

Ploceidic
I'loceus bay a
Ploceus manyar ...
Munia malacca ...
Uroloncha striata
Uroloncha mala-

barica
Uroloncha piinctu-

lata
S p o r a' g n i t h u s

amandava

White - throated
ground-thrush

BUie-headed rock-
thrush

Western bkie rock-
thrush

Weaver-birds.
Baya

Striated weaver-bird
Black-headed munia
White-backed munia
W^hite - throated

munia
Spotted munia

Indian red munia

Fringillidie — Finches.
Carpcdacus ery- Common rose-finch

thrinus
Gymnorhis flavi-

collis
Passer domesticus
Emberiza luteola. . .

HirundinidcE — S wal lows.

Chelidon urbica ... Martin

Ptyonoprogne ru- Crag-martin
pestris

Ptyonoprogne con-
color

Hirundo rustica ...

Hirundo smithii...

Hirundo fluvicola

Dusky crag-martin

Swallow

Wire-tailed swallow
Indian cliff-swallow

Hirundo nepalen- Hodgson's striated

sis swallow

Hirundo erythro- Sykes's striated

jjygia swallow

Motacillidic — Wagtails and Pipits.

Yellow - throated

sparrow
I louse-sparrow
Red-headed bunting

Motacilla maderas-

patensis
Motacilla melanope
Motacilla borealis
Limonidromus in-

dicus
Anthus maculatus
Anthus striolatus
Anthus rufulus ...

Alaitdidi
Alauda gulgula ...
Mirafra cantillans
Mirafra afifinis ...
Galerita deva
Ammomanes phoe-

nicura
Pyrrhulauda grisea

Large pied wagtail

Grey wagtail
Grey-headed wagtail
Forest wagtail

Indian tree-pipit
Blyth's pipit
Indian pipit

J — Larks.
Indian sky-lark
Singing bush-lark
Madras bush-lark
Sykes's crested lark
Rufous-tailed finch-
lark
Ashy - crowned
finch- lark

N'ectariniidi.z — Sun-birds.
Arachnechthra lo- Loten's sun-bird

tenia
Arachnechthra asi- Purple sun-bird

atica
Arachnechthra Small sun-bird

minima
Arachnechthra Purple-rumped sun-

zeylonica bird

Arachnothera Little spider-hunter

longirostris

Diatidic — Flower-peckers.
Dicaeum erythro- Tickell's flower-

rhynchus pecker

Piprisoma squali- Thick-billed flower-

dum pecker

PittidiC—V\\X7^.
Pitta brachyura ... Indian pitta

As Mr. Oates' work stops here, the remainder is taken from J. A. Murray's Indian
Birds or the Avifauna of British India. But, from the two works not being
arranged on the .same system, I have endeavoured to give the information from the
latter in the order in which it is presumed it will appear in the former when
completed.

Macrochires.
Cypselidic — Swifts.

Cypselus melba ... Alpine swift
Cypselus affinis ... Common Indian swift
Cypselusbatassiensis Palm swift
Hirundinapus in- Indian giant spine-
dicus tail

Hirundinapus syi-

vatica
CoHocalia unicolor

Dendrochelidon
coronatus

White - rumped
spine-tail

Indian edible-nest
swiftlet

Indian crested tree-
swift

1 84

FAUNA

Capriniiili^idiC—ViCTiX-'McViix'f..
Capriimilfjus mah- Sykcs's ni},'lu-jar

rattensis
Caprimiiljjus iiion- I'ranklin's ni{,'lil-jar

licolus

Caprimulgus atri- (jhaul nij^ht-jar

pennis
Caprimulgus indicus Jungle nighl-jar
Caprimulgus kela- Nilgiri nighl-jar

arti

Pici.

riiitlic — Woodpeckers — Mara-kutaka.

(jecinus striolatus

Blylh's striated

Vunx torquiila ...

Common wryneck

green wood-

Tiga jaranensis ...

Common large three-

pecker

toed woodpecker

Thriponax hodg-

Creat black wood-

Brachyjiternus au-

(iolden - backed

soni

pecker

rantias

woodpecker

Chrysocolaptes fes-

Black-backed wood-

Brachypternus chry-

Lesser golden-

tivus

pecker

sonolus

backed wood-

I'icus mahrattensis

\'ellow-fronted jjied

pecker

woodpecker

MicroiHernus gula-

South-Indian rufous

lyngificus hard-

Southern pigmy

ris

pecker

wickii

woodpecker

Cocc

yges.

0/a///f/i<"— Cuckoos — Kogila.

UpJipidte-

—Hoopoes.

Cuculus striatus . . .

Asiatic cuckoo

Upupa epops

Hoopoe

Cuculus sonneratii

Banded cuckoo

Meropidit-

—Bee-eaters.

Hierococcyxvarius

Common hawk

!Merops viridis ...

Common Indian

cuckoo

green bee-eater

Cacomantis nigra

Indian plaintive

Merops phillipinus

Blue-tailed bee-eater

cuckoo

Merops leschen-

Chestnut - headed

Coccystesjacobinus

Pied-crested cuckoo

aulti

bee-eater

Coccystes coro-

Red-winged crested

Nyctiornis ather-

Blue - necked bee-

mandus

cuckoo

toni

eater

Eudynamys honorata Indian koel
Rhopodytes viridi- Small green-billed

malkoha

Common crow phea-
sant

Lesser coucal

Southern sirkeer

rostris
Centrococcyx rufi-

pennis
Centrococcyx ben

galensis
Taccocua leschen

aulli

Capitonidce — Barbets.

MegaUvma cani- Common

ceps
Megaleema viridis
Xantholxmahrema

cephala
Xantholrema mala-

barica

green

barbet
Small green barbet
Crimson - breasted

barbet
Crimson - throated

barbet

Coraciadic — Rollers.
Coracias indica ... Indian roller

Akediiiidiv — Kingfishers.
Alcedobengalensis Little Indian king-
fisher
Ceryle rudis ... Pied kingfisher
Halcyon smyrnen- White - breasted

sis kingfisher

Ceyx tridactyla ... Three-toed kingfisher
Pelargopsis gurial Indian stork-billed
kingfisher
Biicerotidit — Hornbills.
Dichocerosbicornis Great pied hornbill
Anthracoceros Malabar pied horn-

coronatus bill

Ocyceros birostris Common grey hornbill

Psittaci.

Psittacida — Parrots — Gini. Palteornis rosa

Loriculus vernalis Indian loriquet
Palceornis torquatus Rose-ringed paroquet

Western rose-
headed paroquet

BIRDS

1 85

Striges.

Bttbojiidce — Eagle and Scops Owls.

Bubo bengalensis
liuho nipalensis ...
Scops pennatus ...
Scops malaliaricus
Carine brama
Ninox scutulata ...
("ilaucidium radia-

VulturidiC — \

Gyps indicus

Pseudogyjis ben-
galensis — rana
haddu

Ologyps calvus ...

FakoiiidiC —
Circus pygargus ...
Circus macrurus...
Circus a-ruginosus
Asturtrivirgatus...
Aslur badius
Accipiter nisus —

Ijannada dege
Accipiter virgatus

— ur-chitlu
Huteo ferox

^\.<juila heliaca ...
.Vquila vindhiana
Aquila clanga
NisiEtus fasciatus
NisiX'tus pennatus

Neopus malayensis
SpizKtusnipalensis

Rock horned owl
P'orest eagle owl
Indian scops owl
Malabar scops owl
Spotted owlet
Brown hawk owl
Jungle owlet

Glaucidium mala- Malabar (jwlel

baricum

Asioaccipitrinus... Stout-eared owl

Syrniumocellatum Mottled wood-owl

Syrnium indrance Southern wood-owl

StrigidcE — Owls — Giibe, giige.

Strix flammea ... Indian screech-owl

Strix Candida ... (irass-owl

Accipitres.

u 1 1 u res — Haddu .
Long-billed vulture
Common Inown
vulture

Black vulture

Falcons — '/<4't'.
Montagues harrier
I'ale harrier
Marsh harrier
Crested goshawk
Brown hawk
European sparrow-
hawk
Besra sparrow-hawk

Long - legged buz-
zard

Imperial eagle

Tawny eagle

Spotted eagle

Crestless hawk-eagle

Dwarf or Ijooted
eagle

Black eagle

Spotted hawk-eagle

Spizittus cirrhaius

— ^juttu bhairi
Circretus gallicus

Spilornis melanolis

Butastur teesa
Haliastur Indus —

garuda
Milvus govinda ...

Milvus melanotis
Pernisptilonorhyn-

chus
Baza lopholes
Microhierax ca.'ru-

lescens
Falco communis —

bhaira
Falco peregrinalor

— (lege
Falco juggur —

giclaga
Falco chiquera ...
Hierofalcosaker...
Polioaetui ichthy-

aetus

Crested hawk -eagle

Common serpent-
eagle

Southern harrier-
eagle

White-eyed buzzard

Maroon-])acked kite
(Brahmini kite)

Common Indian
kite

Large Indian kite

Honey buzzard

Black-crested kite
White-naped pigmy

falcon
Peregrine falcon

Shaheen falcon

Lugger falcon

Red-headed merlin
Cherrug falcon
Eastern white-tailed
eagle

Pelecanid(€ — Pelicans.

Steganopodes.

Plialacrocoraxpyg- Little cormorant

Pelecanusroseus... Eastern while peli-
can

moeus
Plotus melanogaster Indian snake-bird

Herodiones.

Ciion id<c — S I or]< s — Baka.

Lcptopilus javanicus Lesser adjutant
Xcnorhynchus asi- Black-necked stork

aticus
Ciconia leucoce- White-necked stork

phala

Ardcidic — Herons — Kokkare.
Ardea cinerea . . . Common heron
Ardea purpurea . . . Blue heron
Herodias allxi ... Large while heron
Ilerodias garzetta Little black-billed

while heron
Bubulcuscoromandus Cattle egret

i86

Ar(l(ji)I;i j^rayi

FA UNA

I'ond licron, i);i<!ily

bird
lUitoiidcs j;i\;inicii Little yrccn bittern
Ardutta tlavicoliis Bine jjiltern
Ardetta cinnamomea Chestnut Ijittern
Ardelta sinensis... Little yellow bittern
Botaurus stellaris Common European

bittern

Nyctoraxgriseus... Night heron

'J'anlalid(C.

Tantalus leucoce- I'elican il)i.-;

phalus

I'latalea leucorodia Spoonbill

Threskiornis me- White ibis

lanocephalus

Anatichr — Ducks —Bdtti.

Sarkidiornis mela- Comb duck

nonotus

Nettapuscoroman- Cotton leal

delianus

Dendrocygna ja- Lesser whistlini

vanica teal

Columbse

Anseres.

Casarca rutila
Spatula clypeata.
Dafila acuta

Brahmini duck

Shoveller

I'intail

Querquedulacrecca Common teal
Fuligula cristata... Tufted pochard

Podicipidiz — Grebes.
Podiceps minor ... Dab-chick

TreronidcE — Fruit Pigeons.
Crocopus chlori- Southern green

gaster
Osmotreron mala-

barica
Carpophaga ■x.x\q&.

pigeon
M a 1 a b a r

Colitmbidie — Pigeons and Doves —

PArivdla.

Columba interme- Indian blue rock-

green
pigeon

Imperial green
pigeon

Bronze - back im-
perial pigeon

Gallinae

Pierociidcc — Sand grouse.
Pterocles fasciatus Painted sand grouse

Turtur meena ...
Turtur senegalen-

pigeon
Rufous turtle-dove
Little brown dove

Carpophaga insig
nis

Turtur risorius ... Indian ring-dove

Phasianidic — Peafowl— iVaz^^/w.
Pave cristatus ... Common peacock

Megapodida.
(Jallus ferrugineus Common jungle-
fowl
Gallus sonnerati ..
Galloperdix spa-

diceus
Galloperdix lunu-
latus

Grey jungle-fowl
Red spur-fowl

Painted spur-fowl

Tetraonidcc.
Francolinus pictus Painted partridge

Common grey par-
tridge
Jungle bush quail
Rock bush quail

Red-billed bush
quail

Otitidte — Bustards and floricans.
Sypheotides auritus Lesser florikin

CiirsoridiT — Courier plovers.
Cursorius coro- Indian courier

mandelicus plover

Charadrius fulvus Eastern golden

plover

Ortygornis ponti-

ceriana
Perdicula asiatica
Perdicula argoon-

dah
Microperdix ery-

throrhyncha
Coturnix communis Large grey quail

Tinamida.
Turnix plumbipes Indo- Malayan bus-
tard quail

Geranomorphae.

Lobivanellus indicus Red-wattled lapwing
Sarciophorus bilo- Yellow-wattled lap-
bus wing
CEdicnemus crepi- Stone plover
tans

GniidiC — Cranes — Kahva.

CJrus cinerea ... Common crane
Anthropoidesvirgo Demoiselle crane

REPTILES 187

Limicolae.

Scolopactdir. I Himanlopus candidus Stilt

Scolopax rusticola... Woodcock

Gallinago nemoricola Wood snipe

Gallinago scolopacina Common snipe

Gallinago gallinula... Jack snipe

Rallida: — Rail s.

Machetes pugnax ... Ruff

Actitis ochropus ... Green sand-piper

Totanus glareola ... Wood sand-piper

Totanus calidris ... Redshank

Porphyrio poliocephalus Purple coot

P'ulica atra . ... Bald coot

Porzana bailloni ... Pigmy rail

Porzana maruetta ... Spotted crake

Gallinula chloropus ... Moorhen

Gallinula phoenicura ... White-breasted

Recurvirostra avocelta Avocet water-hen

Gavise.
Laruiic. 1 Rhynchops albi- Indian skimmer

Sterna melanogastra Black-bellied tern | collis

The remaining orders — Tubinares and Pygopodes — I have not succeeded in
identifying. Perhaps some of the entries under Coccyges should come here.

Rkptile.s.

" The few crocodiles that are found in the Mysore rivers very rarely
attack people (says Mr. Sanderson') ; and fishermen, who pay no heed
to them, have told me that if they come upon a crocodile whilst
following their employment, it will .skulk at the bottom and not move
though handled, apparently believing it escapes observation."

The loss of life from snake-bite may be gathered from the following
particulars: — In 1889-90 there were 97 human beings and 32 cattle
killed by snakes; in 1890-1 the numbers were 77 and 8 ; in 1891-2 they
were 109 and 31. The amounts paid in these three years as rewards
for the destruction of venomous snakes were Rs. 678 for 2,579, Rs. 690
for 2,589, and Rs. 664 for 2,873 respectively. So far as the figures go,
the loss of life, as compared with what was reported in the first edition
fifteen years ago, is certainly diminished, and this may possibly be the
result of the improved sanitary arrangements in towns and villages,
whereby much of the rubbish around dwelling-houses which formerly
gave cover to snakes is now regularly cleared away.

Reptilia.-

Emydosauria — Crocodiles.
Crocodilidce — Crocodiles — ]\Iosah .

Gavialus gangeticus ... ... ... ... Crocodilus paluslris

Chelonia — Tortoises and Turtles.
Iriotiyc/iidic — Tortoises — A'/iii.

Trionyx leithii
Testt(di)iid(C.

Testudo elegans ... Halame... ... Nicoria trijuga ... Muriki amc

' "Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India," p. 14.

- Compiled from the volume liy G. A. Boulenger in the Fauna of British India.

1 88

FAUNA

Squamata -Lizanls and Snakes,
Gechoiiidw — Geckos — Oli, 6ti-kAta.
{lymnodaclylus nchulosus ...
(lyiiuiodactyliisdeccancnsi.s...
(lonatodcs niysoriensis
(lonatodcs gracilis ...
llcniidactylus reticulalus ...

Eiiblepharidic.

Enhlcphari.s hardwickii

Agantidic.

Sitana ponticeriana ...
Calotes versicolor ... (J'ti

Varanidcc — Lizards — Halli.
Varanus liengalensis . . . U'.saravalli

Lacertidtc.

Cabrita leschenaultii...

ScincidiC — S kink s — Hdva ran i.
Mabina carinata
Mabina macularia

ChamaleontidtE — Chameleons — Gosiinibe.
Chama;Ieon calcaratus

I leniidaclylus frenatus
I leniidactylus gleadovii I lalli
I leniidactylus maculatus
Ilemidactylus triedrus
Hemidactylus costcei Halli

Calotes ellioti
Charasia dorsal is

Ophiops jerdonii

Lygosoma alljopunctatum
Lygosoma punctatum

(Ophidia)

Typhlopidii: — Worm-like snakes.
Typhlops braminus ...

Boidce — Pythons or boas.

Python molurus ... Dasara havu
Gongylophis conicus...

Uropeltidic — Earth snakes.
Rhinophis sanguineus
Silybura ellioti

Colubridit — Snakes — Hdvii.

Xylophis perroteti

Lycodon striatus
Lycodon aulicus
Hydropholjus nympha
Ablabes calamaria ...
Simotes arnensis
Oligodon venustus
Oligodon subgriseus...
Zamenis mucosus- ... Kere
Zamenis fasciolalus ...
Coluber helena
Dendrophis pictus
Tropidonotus stolatus

Viperidit — \"ipers.
Vipera russellii

Typhlops aculus

p]ryx johnii'

Silybura phipsonii
Pseudoplectrurus canaricus

Tropidonotus piscator . Nir havu
Tropidonotus plumbicolor Hasur havu
Helicops schistosus
Dipsas trigonata
Dryophis perroteti
Dryophis mycterizans

Hypsirhina enhydris ,
Callophis nigrescens
Bungarus fasciatus
Bungarus creruleus^
Xaia tripudians*
Naia bunrarus

Kolaku-mandala Echis carinata.

Hasur nulige
Nir havu

(jodi nagara
Xagara havu

Kallu ha\-u

' The so-called cwo-headed snake. - Rat snake or whip snake {dhainin in Hindi).
•' Known as the krait. * The cobra or cobra de capello.

FISHES 189

Batrachia.

Rait td(e — Frogs — Kappe.

Rana hexadactyla ... ... ... ... Rana limnocharis

Rana cyanophlyctis'... .. ... ... Rana brevicep.s

Rana tigrina ... ... ... ... ... Rana beddomii

Engystontatidic.

Microhyla ornata ... ... ... ... Callula variegata

Callula pulchra ... ... ... ... Cacopus systema

Bitfo)iid(C — Toads.

Bufo melanosticUis

Fishes.

" The rivers and artificial lakes in Mysore abound with excellent fish,
but I have never succeeded in getting much sport with the fly (writes
Mr. Sanderson).- They may be taken by spinning or ground fishing —
the latter chiefly at night. There is now in the Museum at Bangalore
the head and skin of a fish — a species of carp or vmhseer, and called
bili ox silver-fish in Canarese — caught by me in 187 1 in the Lakshman-
tirtha, which measured sixty inches in length and thirty-eight in girth.
The circumference inside the mouth when caught was twenty-four
inches. I was unfortunately unable to weigh this fish, but I
estimated it by rough tests at not less than 100 lbs. I have seen much
larger fish, without doubt upwards of 150 lbs., caught by natives, chiefly
by netting during the months when the rivers are low. At such times
two or three villages of professional fishermen will combine to net a
single large fish known to be a prisoner in a pool during the hot
weather. The pool may be a hundred yards long and broad, and the
water fifteen feet deep, with cavernous rocks capable of sheltering fish ;
but by joining their nets, and diving and working for two or three days,
they seldom fail to secure the prize."

The following list has been compiled from Dr. Day's book.'' A
number of native names of fish, not identified, will l)e found under
each District in Vol. II.

Pisces— il//««.

Teleostei.

Siliiridic — Cat-fishes. Callichrous binia- Ciodalc

Clarias magiir ... Maiave— Black cat- , culalus'

fish Pseudentropius Bale .. Ladyfi.sh

Saccobranchus fos- Chelii niinu — Vel- ] atherinoides

silis low catfish, scor- Macrones vittatus^ (leralu

pion fish Macrones keletius

Wallago auu . . \'alc, ole Rita hastata

' (?) The chunam or flying frog. "^ Op. cit. ' In the " Fauna of British India.'"

' Piiffta in Hindustani : called the " butter-fish" l)y Europeans in Bengal.

* Dr. Day has the following note: — "This fi.sh is termed 'the fiddler' in Mysore;

190

FA UNA

Lcpicloccphalichthys thermalis

Ncmachilus ^'ucnlheri

Nemachilus semiarniatus

Neniachihis dcnisonii

Nemacliilus hcavani

Discotiiialhiislamta l'an(li]«kke (korafi

kan]i, Hind.)
Labeo fimbrialiis
Labeo calbassu ... Kari minii
Lalieo Uontius
Cirrhina cirrhosa
Cirrhina relia
Matsya argentea
Barbus chagunio
Baibus .sarana ... Gid pakke
Barbu.s chrysopoma
Barbus micropogon
Barlnis carnaticu.s (lid pakke (Giddi

kaoli, Hind.)
l^arbus tor'
Barbus carmuca
Barl)us melanampyx
Barl)us parrah ... (Kacha korava,

Hind.)
Barbus dorsalis ... I\Iar pakke
Barbus kolus
Barbus melanostigma
Barbus puckelli
Barbus arulius ... aruli
Barbus ticto ... (Kaoli, Hind.)

Barbus vittatus

Chela argcnlea White carp

Chela boopis
Chela clu|)eoides

Percidcc — Perches.
Ambassis nama
Ambassis ranga

Nandid(C.
Badis buchanani
Badis dario
Nandus marmoratus
Pristolepis marginata
Pristolepis nialabarica

Gobiidcc.
Gobius giurus ... Abbroni

KhyncJiobdellidij:.
Mastacenibalus ar- Thorny-backed
matus

OphioccpJialida.

Ophi ocephalus Hurvina maral

marulius
Ophiocephalusleu- Bili korava

copunctatus
O ph i ocephalus Kuchina maral

striatus
O ph iocephalus Mar korava

guchua
O phio cephalus Balu, beli korava

punctatus

Insects.

Of the countless hosts and varieties of the insect world, no pre-
tension can be made to give anything like a detailed list. The leading
families alone are indicated. Of spiders, beetles, and the singular
mantis tribe, there is a great profusion ; as also of the gayest butter-
flies and richest moths. The bee (except in parts of the Malnad) is
never domesticated, but large quantities of honey are obtained by
jungle tribes from the woods and caves of various parts. White ants
swarm in every soil, and their ravages are relentless. On one or two
evenings following on the first heavy showers of the monsoon, which

I touched one which was on the wet ground, at which it appeared to become very
irate, erecting its dorsal fin and making a noise resembling the buzzing of a bee,
evidently a sign of anger. When I put some small carp into an aquarium containing
one of these fishes it rushed at a small example, seized it by the middle of its back,
and shook it like a dog killing a rat ; at this time the barbels of the Macrones were
stiffened out laterally like a cat's whiskers."
' The mahseer of sportsmen.

INSECTS

191

have softened the parched and dried-up ground, their winged nymphs
issue in gauzy clouds to enjoy a brief flight ; and then, losing their
wings, which strew the whole surface of the ground, crawl about in the
form of maggots, a prey to every bird of the air and every creeping
lizard. They are also gathered and cooked for food by the lower
orders. The tiny mango-flies or eye-flies, which swarm during the
hours of sunlight, especially in the mango season, are a well-known
source of annoyance. To them is attributed a kind of ophthalmia,
termed "sore eyes," to which children especially are subject; but
whether the flies originate the affection or merely convey the contagious
matter from eye to eye is doubtful. Among insect pests the coffee-
borer has already been mentioned (p. 168). At the beginning of 1878
a new danger appeared in vast flights of locusts, which threatened to
destroy the first early crops that succeeded the great famine. But,
fortunately, the damage they did was far less than the most sanguine
could have expected.^

Annelida — Suctoria.
HirucHnidLV .. jigani ... Leeches ... Al)ound at the Gersoppa Falls and in

all forests during the wet season.

Arachnida.

Araneida; "^
Lycosidie r...
Mygalidre J
ScorpionidiT.'

jada
chehi

Spiders
Scorpions

Acaridse

Mites

Sarcoptes

kajji hula

Itch acarus

scabiei

Very numerous and of great variety.

There are three species ; the large black
rock - scorpion (inaiKfragahbc), the
large red field scorpion, and the little
red house scorpion. The sting is
very rarely fatal, but often causes
great pain for a time.

This loathsome affection is very com-
mon, even among the upper classes
of natives.

Ixodidre

Ticks

* A flight of locusts which passed over Mandya on the evening of the i6th of
May, 1800, is thus described liy Buchanan : — " It extended in length probal)ly about
three miles ; its width was about a hundred yards, and its height fifty feet. The
insects passed from west to east in the direction of the wind, at the rate of six or
seven miles an hour. The whole ground, and every tree and bush, was covered with
them, but each individual hailed for a very short time on any one sjiot. In an hour
after the flock had passed few were to l)e discovered in the neighl)ourhood of the
town. The noise of this immense number of insects somewhat resembled the
sound of a cataract. At a distance they appeared like a long, narrow, red cloud
near the horizon, which was continually varying its shape. The locusts were as large
as a man's finger, and of a reddish colour." A flight the previous year had eaten up
all the young Jola : the present flight settled at a village to the eastward of Mandya,
and did the same.

192

FA UNA

lulichv.

lulus Indus
Sc<)lo|K'n(Iri(I,v

Myriapoda.

haiidi l«sava

jari ... Centiiiedes

I'olydesmida*

Anoplnta.

Pediculus ..

henu

Insecta.

Louse-

Very common.

There are several species, differ-
ing in size and colour ; the
largest is of a greyish colour
with crimson legs ; of the
smaller kinds, one is black
and another of a .sandy or
ashy colour.

Every one must be familiar with
the sight of native women re-
moving this unpleasant occu-
pant from one another's hair.
The same operation may be
constantly witnessed among
the common monkeys.

HcDiiptcra.

Scutellera

Phlcea

Cimex

. tigani

Bug

Neides

Cicada

P'ulgora ...

. minchu hula

Firefly

Ajihis

These are
beauty
trees.

of great variety and
on different kinds of

Coccus

Cochineal insect

C. lacca

. aruga

Lac insect

Kermes

Gall insect

Orthoptera.

Mantis religiosa ..

Praying

There are

numerous species, of

mantis

various

sizes and colours ;

Phasma
Phvlliuni

(■ryllus

jilk-

some appear to have the
power of changing colour
like a chameleon.

Animated straw

Leaf-like Several of these are of great

insects beauty and curiosity. One

is an exact counterpart of the
mango leaf.

Crickets ... \'ery numerous and various. The
stridulation of the tree cricket
and the mole cricket are at
times, in certain localities,
almost deafening.

Locusla . . . patang;
Acriiliuni ... niidite.

a, midile
toppu

Rlalta

jirle

C>rasshop]iers
Locusts ...

Cockroaches

These insects are here compara-
tively harmless.

lA^SECTS

193

Nettropicra.
Libellula ...
Ephemera
Myrmeleon
Termes

U'mi lnil;i

Ccddalu

Aphaniplera.

Pulex irritans

chikata

Diptera.

Culex

gungaru

Tipula

Culex

s.ilje

Musca

nona

Lepidoptera.
Rhopalocera

Heterocera
Bombyx
mori

chilte, kapate,' pa-
tragitte,- silade-
vi hula

nusi
reshmi hula

Dragon fly

Ant lion ...
White ants

Common flea

C.nal

\'ery common.

Universal : their nest or ant-
hill is called hiitta : the
winged nj-mphs, which
issue in swarms in the
rains, are called Uhalit
hiila.

... Daddy longlegs.

Mo.squito... ... A well-known pest.

Fly ... ... All varieties.

Mango fly or eye fly Very numerous at Banga-
lore in the mango season.
It is no bigger than a flea.

Butterflies

Moths

The caterpillar is
the silkworm.

A very great variety : —
Nymphalidre, 34 species :
Lycttnidce, 28 species; '
Paiiilionidx, 16 species.^

Hymoioptera.
Ichneumon
Formica ... iruve

\'espa ... kanajada hula

Apis ... jcnu hula

Xylocarpa jirangi

Bombus

.. Ants

Wasj) and hornet
Honey bee
.. Carpenter bee
Bumble bee

Abound in every part in
great variety.

Coleoplcra.

Scarabivus dumbo ... ... Beetles

Buprestis ... hasar dumbe ... dreen beetles

Carabus

Copris ... ... ... ... Dung beetle

Beetles abound in great pro-
fusion, and of much beauty
of form and colouring.

The wings are used for the
decoration of slippers, &c.

\'ery common on every
road.

1 The plain or sober-coloured ones. - Those with gay and \ariegated colours.

•' iM-om Marshall and de Niceville's work The Butterflies of India (no more pub-
lished). ■" From Donovan.

1 04 FA UNA

Oi insects useful to man the most impcjrtant arc the silk-pioducing
worms, the lac and cochineal insects, and bees.

Silkworm. — The fatality which attended the rearing of silkworms
for some years, and checked an industry that was a source of livelihood
to large numbers of Muhammadans, is noticed in Vol. II. ; together
with the efforts that were made at the time, though ineffectually, to
re-establish a healthy race of insects, more especially by Signor de
Vecchj, in connection with a Silk l-'ilature Company at Kengeri, Ban-
galore District. The industry has now revived and is again flourishing,
owing to the comparative immunity of the worms from disease. Silk
is produced in all the taUuis of the Bangalore District, as well as in
Chik Ballapur and Tirumakudal Narsipur taluqs.

Tasar Silkworm. — The domestication of the tasar silkworm was
advocated some years ago, as the cocoons have been found in the
jungles around Nandidroog and Devaraydroog. The following notes
on the subject are taken from Captain Coussmaker's reports at the
time :

There are four ways in which the tasar silk cocoons may be procured,
all of which I myself have successfully tried. Firstly :— During the hot
weather, when the leaf is off; then the cocoons are easily discernible
hanging like berries from the twigs ; men might then go into the jungles
and collect them. Secondly : — From June to October the caterpillars are
large and commit much ravage on the trees. Their presence then is easily
detected by the denuded appearance of the twigs, and by their droppings
under the tree (the large caterpillars do not wander at all, but eat steadiiv
along one twig, devouring leaf after leaf ) ; men might then go and collect
them all on to one tree, beneath which they themselves might build a hut
and live, scaring away birds, squirrels, &c. Both of these methods are
practised in the Bengal Presidency. Thirdly : — The moths can be paired
when they issue from the cocoons, and the caterpillars reared from the eggs.
Fourthly : — When the moths issue from the cocoons, the females can be
tied up to certain trees and the males liberated there, when, if any of these
latter be not in full vigour, wild males may come and pair with the females, '
which can then be removed.

In hatching out and rearing the caterpillars there is no difficulty : twigs |
of whatever tree is most convenient to use should be put into earthen pots j
full of earth and water, the mouths of which should, as recommended by [
Captain Hutton, be closed with cotton rammed in, to keep the twigs steady |
and to prevent the caterpillars crawling down into the water and drowning
themselves. For the first fifteen days, during which the caterpillars wander
about much, the pots should be kept each in a small wooden frame, the
opposite sides of which should be covered with mosquito net or fine bamboo
chicks, so that the light and air may penetrate freely and the worms not
escape. After that time the pots should be put upon shelves or tables with

SILKWORMS 195

tlie twigs interlacing so as to form a long hedge, and left uncovered. The
caterpillars should be kept there until they change their skins for the last
time, when they may be put on to twigs suspended over bamboos hung from
the ceiling ; and here they will spin their cocoons, which may be gathered
every day when the twigs are renewed. In all cases the twigs should be
changed every day — those that are old and stripped, thrown away ; those
that the caterpillars are on, should be put near the fresh twigs, and they will
crawl off of their own accord. It is advisable to water them two or three
times a day from a watering-pot with a very fine rose ; give them a gentle
shower as it were : this is refreshing both to caterpillars and twigs. 1 have
noticed that in changing their skins, it sometimes happens that the old skin
does not come off freely. I think that a moderate amount of moisture is
essential to their well-doing. In this way, with the least possible trouble
and expense, any amount of these caterpillars can be reared ; ordinary
precautions being taken to protect them from their numerous enemies, by
stopping rat-holes, sweeping away cobwebs, nailing wire netting or bamboo
chicks over the windows, which should be kept open by night and day.

I am glad to see that Mr. Massa reports so favourably upon the specimens
of tasar silk cloth. I myself am greatly indebted to Mr. R. S. De Souza,
the jailor at Dharwar, at whose suggestion the twilled variety was wove,
and .it was through his ready assistance and careful supervision that the
specimens were obtained.

Experiments have also been made with the Eri silkworm from Assam,
which feeds on the leaves of the castor-oil plant ; and with a variety of
goldlace cocoons found in the jimgles of Hassan.

Cochineal. — The introduction of the cochineal insect was proposed
as a partial remedy for the failure of the silk industry. Regarding it the
following extract is taken from a memorandum by Colonel Boddam : —

One hundred years ago the Hon'ble Court of Directors attempted to intro-
duce cochineal culture into India, and offered a reward of ^2,000 to any one
successfully importing it. In 1795 '^ naval officer secretly imported some
cochineal insects from Brazil, which were distributed over India, and
cultivation fostered by the Court of Directors. After expending two lakhs
of rupees it was discovered that the wrong insect had been got. There are
two sorts of cochineal insect— the sih'estrc or wild one, and the grana-Jiiia
or domesticated one ; the latter only producing the cochineal of commerce.
It unfortunately was the siivcsirc that had been imported, and was not worth
the trouble of cultivating. The ji^rana-Jina has never been successfully
imported. Besides getting the true insect, the proper cactus for its support
is necessary ; the common opitntia ficus indica, or prickly-pear, will not suit
the domesticated kind. It must be opuniia cochinellifcra or opmttia (uita.
Referring to Kew as to the correct cactus, authorities differed. After much
correspondence this point was settled, and I got the true cactus cochincllifi:ra,
compared the plants so named growingat the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta,

O 2

,,/, FAUNA

Madras and Han^jalorc, and found them identical, correspondin;,^ with the
dcscriptifin of cactus at Tcneriffc.

After reviewing all that has been done, the writer in Watt's Dictionary
says: — "The first and most natural step towards the introduction into
India of a commercial industry in cochineal should be the thorough
investigation of the races of cocoons already existing in the country and
the plants on which they feed."

Lac Insect. — The lac insect is found in several parts, as near the
Nandi hills. The tree on which it feeds is the Jdldri {shorea talura,
Roxb) All the trees, says Buchanan, are small, not exceeding eight
or ten feet in height ; and their growth is kept down by the insect and
its managers ; for this size answers best. The tree, left to itself, grows
to a large size and is good timber. For feeding the insect, it thrives
very well in a dry barren soil ; and is not planted, but allowed to spring
up spontaneously as nature directs. In Kdrtika, or from about the
middle of October to the middle of November, the lac is ripe. At that
time it surrounds almost every small branch of the tree, and destroys
almost every leaf. The branches intended for sale are then cut off,
spread out on mats, and dried in the shade. A tree or two that are
fullest of the insects are preserved to propagate the breed ; and of
those a small branch is tied to every tree in the month Chaitra, or
from about the middle of March to the middle of April ; at which time
the trees again shoot out young branches and leaves. The lac dried
on the sticks is sold to the merchants. This is what is called
stick-lac, which, after the dye has been extracted, is formed into seed
and shell-lac.

Bees. — The bees are described by Buchanan as of four kinds. That
from which most of the honey and wax is procured is called hej-jcnu-
hi/la. This is a large bee, which builds under projections of the rocks
or in caverns. A large nest gives eight seers of honey = 4"85 lb., and
three seers of wax= i"82 lb. A small hive gives about one-third of this
quantity. The honey is gathered twice a year, in A'shadhaand INIdgha,
or in the month following the summer solstice and the second after that
of winter. Some people of the Bedar caste make the collecting of
honey and wax a profession, and it is one attended with much danger.
Having discovered a hive, some of them kindle a fire under the rock,
and throw on it the leaves of the cassia fistula and of the puleseri,
which emit a smoke so acrid that nothing living can endure it. The
bees are forced to retire ; and some others of the Bedar, so soon as the
smoke subsides, lower down by a rope one of their companions, who
with a pole knocks off the nest and is immediately drawn up again ;

BEES 197

for if he made any delay the Ijees would return, and their stinging is so
violent that it endangers life. In order to fortify him against the sharp
points of rocks, and against injury from the rope which passes round
his chest, the adventurous Bcda is secured before and behind by
several folds of leather.

The bee that produces the next greatest quantity of honey is called
the kaddl or cJiittujcnu-hiila ; that is, stick or small honey. This bee
is very small, and builds around the branch of a tree a comb of an
oblong shape and sharpened at both ends. It is found at all seasons,
but is in the greatest perfection at the same time with the other. The
honey is of the finest quality ; but the whole comb seldom weighs
more than two seers, or i'2lb. This bee does not sting, and is readily
driven away by a twig switched round the comb.

The tnduve is a bee of which the honey is of an excellent quality,
but rarely procured ; for it generally builds deep in the crevices of
rocks, where it is totally inaccessible. Sometimes, however, it is found
in hollow trees, and one hive will give from twenty to twenty-five seers
of honey, or about twelve or fifteen pounds ; but the quantity of
wax is in proportion small. This is a large bee ; but it very seldom
stings those who plunder its hive.

The toriga is a very small bee, that seldom stings. It takes
possession of the deserted nests of the white ants, which in this coun-
try are very numerous in the wastes of red soil such as is usually
cultivated for ragi. Of this stiff earth the white ants raise hills re-
sembling the stump of a tree, which are from four to six feet high, very
hard, and able long to resist the heaviest rain. These, when deserted,
most commonly become the lurking-places of snakes ; but sometimes
give shelter to the toriga bee. Its nest is therefore easily accessible ;
but it is very small, and contains only about a seer of honey and half a
seer of wax.

198

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Horses. — The only native breed of horses is, as in most parts of
India, an ill-shaped, vicious iaijji ; as a rule not exceeding twelve
hands in height.^ In spite of the pains which Haidar and Tipu took
to improve the Mysore breed by importation, even their far-famed
cavalry were as a rule badly mounted. The former Silahdar horses,
sprung generally from Arab sires and Mahratta dams, were probably
fair specimens of the class of animal which supplied the Muhammadan
armies. These were extremely weedy and deficient in barrel, but
would stand a great deal of work. A few stallions have always been
maintained by Government ; but the Silahdars generally used to pur-
chase their horses from private breeders, and their demand was the
sole incentive to breeding. Of late years a hardy race of ponies has
come into use for drawing the small two-wheeled conveyance called a
Jiifka, which does duty for a native cab. The ponies are doubtless of
Mahratta breed, and capable of great endurance. To improve the
general breed of horses six superior stallions were obtained in 1889
from the Military Department and stationed at headquarters of Dis-
tricts. The following year four fresh stallions and a pony mare were
procured and the remaining Districts supplied. But so far the demand
for their services has been rather limited.

A horse-breeding establishment is kept up by Government at
Kunigal (removed there many years ago from Closepet) for supplying
the Silahdars with suitable mounts. In 1886 there were seven Arab
stallions and one Australian; in 1891 the Arab stallions had risen to
eight in number, and the Australian to three. During the intervening
five years 271 foals were bred at the Stud, and, including stock of
previous years, 246 were passed into the ranks. In addition to these,
seventy were cast and sold as unfit or undersized, sixty-two died, and
three were destroyed. The number remaining on hand in the Stud
Farm in 1891 was 154.

Mules. — It is said that Tipu Sultan introduced some fine asses from
Arabia for the purpose of breeding mules ; but the prejudices of his
subjects were so strong that nothing could be done. A private scheme

* Writing in 1803, Colonel Welsh says: — " Colar is so famous for a breed of
vicious horses that all over the peninsula, whenever a horse turns out ill, he is called
Colarie."

HORNED CATTLE 199

for a regular system of breeding these useful animals, so invaluable for
transport, has been lately put before the Mysore Government for assist-
ance, but nothing definite has so far been decided on.

Asses. — Every washerman keeps three or four females and a
male. The superfluous males are sold to various kinds of petty traders,
and people who transport salt and grain. The breed is very small, no
pains being taken to improve it ; nor indeed to keep it from growing
worse. Some are of the usual ash-colour, whilst others are almost black,
in which case the cross on their shoulder disappears. These are not
varieties as to species ; for black individuals have sometimes ash-
coloured colts, and, on the contrary, black colts are sometimes pro-
duced by ash-coloured dams. The asses get nothing to eat except
what in the intervals of labour they can pick up about the village.
When the crop is on the ground they are tied up at night ; but at
other seasons they are allowed to roam about, and in order to prevent
them from wandering too far their fore-feet are tied together. The
males are never castrated, and the best are always sold off by the
washermen, which are the principal causes of the degeneracy of the
breed. At three years of age the females begin to breed, and some
have every year a colt, while others breed once only in three years. An
ass's burthen is reckoned about 76 lbs ; with which they will daily
travel about seven miles.

Horned Cattle.- -The principal breeds of horned cattle in Mysore
are the Amrit Mahal, Madesvaran Betta, the Kankanhalli, and the
village cattle. Almost all other cattle seen in the country are im-
portations or crosses between the above-mentioned breeds.

The Amrit Mahdl^ literally Milk Department, is an establishment for
the breeding of a race of cattle peculiar to the country of Mysore and
famous for its utility for military purposes. The establishment was founded
at some time during the Hindu government, with special privileges as
regards grazing ; but its maintenance for the special purpose of supplying
draught cattle for artillery is due to Haidar Ali. He is reported to have in-
troduced a breed of cattle from the Trichinopoly country, by a cross
between which and the indigenous breed of Mysore was produced the
Hallikar breed, which is considered the best in the whole establishment,
(ireat doubt exists as to what the breed imported was, but general tradition
points to the small Brahmani bulls, which to this day are noted for their
endurance and fast trotting powers.

"It was this establishment," wrote Sir Mark Cubbon, " which enabled

' The particulars are taken from a pamphlet coiitainint; the hisUjry of liic Amril
Mahal, compiled from the Records of the Department by Captain M. A. Kowlandson,
and one on Ilunsur, by Dr. CJilchrist ; with corrections by Majtir Mclnroy, the officer
formerly in charge, to whom I was indebted for them.

200 FAUNA

Ilaidar Ali to march loo miles in two days and a half to the relief of
Chidambram, and after every defeat to draw off his guns in the face of his
enemies ; which enabled Tipii Sultan to cross the peninsula in one month
for the recovery of Bednur, and to march sixty-three miles in two days
before (General Mcdows ; which, in later times, enabled General Pritzler
to march 346 miles in 25 days in pursuit of the Peshwa : and which enabled
(icncral Campbell, after the failure of his Bengal equipments, to advance
upon Ava and bring the war to a favourable termination. It was also this
establishment which enabled the Duke of Wellington to execute those
movements of unexampled rapidity which are the admiration of every mili-
tary man, and in consideration of whose services he recommended it to pro-
tection in a letter addressed at the close of the war to the Commander-in-
Chief." Allusions in the Wellington Despatches show that the Great Duke
often, during the Peninsular War in Spain, regretted that he had not the
assistance of the Amrit IMahdl cattle.

After the capture of Seringapatam, the Breeding establishment was
intrusted to the native government, and the Public Cattle department to an
agent ; but the inducements which had led Haidar and Tipu to keep up
its efficiency were wanting, and by the end of 1813 the cattle had degener-
ated to such a degree that the management was taken over by the British,
and 10,914 head of breeding cattle, the exact number made over to the
Raja's government in 1800, received back. A Commissariat officer (Captain
Harvey) was placed in charge, with a suitable establishment, and up to the
31st July, 1816, the number of cattle had increased to 14,399, exclusive of 900
calves transferred as fit for service. By 1823 the original number had nearly
doubled itself, besides supplying for the public service young bullocks equal
to one-fourth part of the increased establishment. In i860, from motives of
economy, Sir Charles Trevelyan ordered the establishment to be broken up,
and the herds to be sold ; but the results were to the detriment of the public
service. The Amrit Mahal was therefore, with the cordial approval and
assistance of the then Maharaja, re-established in December 1867, with
5,935 head of cattle. In 1871 there were 9,800 head of all sizes, exclusive
of 1,000 young male cattle in the Training Depot. It was arranged that a
certain number of bulls should be handed over to the Mysore Government
annually, to be stationed at various points in the country for the purpose of
improving the breed of cattle used by the ryots.

The Cc.ttle were divided into 30 herds, containing from 200 to 700 head of
cattle each ; for the grazing of which, 208 kdvals or pasture grounds were
allotted in various parts of the country.' They are divided into hot weather,
wet weather and cold weather kdvals, according to the seasons of the year
during which they are of most use. The hot weather kdvals are generally
the beds of tanks in which grass springs up during the hot months, and near
which there are trees for the purpose of affording shade to the cattle during

' Though a herd consists of both males and females of various ages, they are not
allowed to graze in immediate company, each being divided into seven lots, called
pals, to prevent their injuring one another. The average number of attendants or
graziers is one to every fifty head of cattle.

AMRIT MAHAL 201

the heat of the clay. These are very vakiable kavals, and are reserved as
far as possible for the sole use of the Government cattle. The cold and wet
weather kdvals are those which during those seasons have plenty of grass
and water, but which during the hot weather dry up and are of little use to
the department ; in both the latter descriptions of kdvals the ryots' cattle
are permitted to graze certain fi.xed portions, and after the Government
cattle have left for their annual visit to the jungles, the shervci^drs are
permitted to sell some part of the grazing, and from the funds thus obtained
the kdvalgdrs or guards are paid and other expenses met. This privilege
ceases at the end of July each year.

The Amrit Mahal cattle comprise three varieties, called the Hallikar,^
Hagalvadi and Chitaldroog, from the districts which originally produced
them, and may be readily distinguished from every other breed in India
by the peculiar shape and beauty of their heads and the symmetry of
their form. They seldom attain an extraordinary height, but in pro-
portion to their size are remarkably deep and wide in the chest, long
and broad in the back, round in the barrel, well ribbed up and strong
in the shoulder and limb." They are active, fiery, and walk faster than
troops ; in a word, they seem to constitute a distinct species, and
possess the same superiority over other bullocks, in every valuable
quality, that thoroughbreds do over other horses. The cows of this
breed are white, but the males have generally an admixture of blue over
the fore and hind quarters. There is a fourth variety of coloured
cattle, which are considered inferior to the white in energy and per-
severance, though they rather surpass them in size. As the former
breed is the most perfect that is known, it would only tend to its
deterioration to cross it with any other, and the bulls are accordingly
bred in the best herds, and individuals, selected from the best specimens,
distributed to improve the breeds in the other herds.

A cow of this breed is supposed to give about one pucka seer of
milk a day, and the calf could not be deprived of any part of it without

* An absurd legend is current among the herdsmen of the department regarding
the origin of the Hallikdr. They state that Haidar Ali, after one of his trips to the
south, l)rought Ijack to the Mysore country a number of cows of the small Brahmani
caste. These cows were turned loose into a kaval (in the Tumki'ir District) in which
there were great numbers of antelope, and a cross between the l)ig black bucks and
the small Brahmani cows gave the present Hallikar breed. In support of the story
they point to the small spot below the eye, common to antelope and to Hallikar cattle.

* The general characters of a good bullock are a round liarrel, stout strong legs,
and l)road forehead. The average height is 48 inches, and 50 inches was about the
highest standard. But the average height has very much increased since the re-
cstablishment of the department in 1 866. Some of the bullocks now run up to
53i inches. Of course weight is also a material consideration. The average is
idxHit 12 maunds or 43 stone, l)ut no means have been adopted to determine this
exactly.

20 2 FAUMA

I)ciii^ inalcrially injured in its growth. The calves remain wilii their
mothers during the day, but are separated from them at night, and are
kept in a fold under charge of the herdsmen until they are three months
old, when they begin to graze and get strength. In the cold season,
when the herbage is abundant, they are generally weaned at the age of
five months ; but such as are brought forth later in the year cannot be
sei)arated from their mothers till after the hot weather. After
separation, care is taken to conduct them to the richest pastures in
the neighbourhood, and they are never supplied with any other food.

Heifers begin to breed between three and a half and four years old,
and bring forth six or seven times. Twenty cows are allowed to one
bull. The bulls begin to propagate at five years of age and retain their
vigour till ten, when they are discarded from the herds. The average
annual amount of births is fifty per cent on the number of cows, and
the proportion of male and female calves is nearly equal.

The whole of the cattle, bulls, cows and calves subsist entirely on
what the pastures afford, and on the stalks of the castor, bailer, kulti,
and other nourishing plants, which are left on the ground for their use
after the harvest in the months of January, February and March. This
brings them into excellent condition at the most favourable season for
the cows taking the bull. In the dry weather, when a want of forage
and water prevails in the open country, the herds are conducted to the
south-western jungles, where the natural moisture of the soil, the early
showers, and the shelter afforded by the trees are favourable to vegeta-
tion. They arrive there in May and return to their pastures in
September, when the grass is in great abundance all over Mysore.

The calves are castrated in November, the cold weather being found
peculiarly favourable to the success of the operation, and invariably
between the age of five and twelve months, as their growth is supposed
to be promoted by early castration ; and it is attended with this impor-
tant advantage, that it prevents the cows being impregnated by inferior
bulls and consequently prevents the breed from degenerating. They
are separated from the herds after four years of age and transferred to
the Public Cattle Department when turned of five, perfectly trained and
fit for work. They arrive at their full strength at seven and are past
their vigour at twelve ; they work till fourteen or fifteen, after which
they decline rapidly and generally die at eighteen years of age. The
cattle of these herds are kept in their wild state, without shelter of any
description ; they are very fiery and cannot be approached by
strangers without the protection of the herdsmen. It requires several
months to break them in, and the employment is extremely difficult
and daneerous.

AMRIT MAHAL 203

At the age of three years the catching of bullocks takes place, previous
to which they are nearly as wild as the inhabitants of the jungle. The
bullocks are first driven into a large oval enclosure, which they are made
to enter with much difficulty. This conmiunicates with a square yard,
surrounding an inner enclosure about twenty feet square, which is
surrounded with a strong fence made of wooden posts placed close together
and about twelve feet high. When they are collected in this, the opening
is closed. The trainers then ascend on the top of the fence, and throw a
noose round each of the bullock's horns. This done, the end of the rope is
passed between posts near the ground, and the animal is drawn close up
and secured by people on the outside. The passage is then opened and old
trained bullocks admitted. One of the latter is bound by the neck to one
of the wild animals, which being done, the rope is loosened, when he
immediately endeavours to escape. His trained comrade, however, to
whom he is coupled, restrains him, though but partially ; accordingly the
two leave the enclosure at tolerable speed. The rope by which the
untrained bullock was originally noosed is allowed to remain attached to
his horns, and when they approach one of the strong posts placed in the
immediate vicinity of the enclosure the rope is quickly turned round it, by
whicli the animals are again brought up. The untrained bullock is then
well secured by the neck, with as little latitude of motion as possible.
There he is kept alone for about two days, until he becomes considerably
tamed and worn out with unceasing efforts to escape. The next operation
consists in attaching to the animal a couple of blocks of wood so heavy as
to be moved with some difficulty, and giving him as much liberty as this
admits of. He is then admitted to the company of old trained cattle, and
from the twofold effects of example and partial restraint he gradually
becomes submissive. The bullocks arc now grazed in the vicinity of Hunsur
for a further period of three years, being tied up regularly each evening in
lines. Tiiey are then transferred to the Public Cattle Department to undergo
final breaking for the public service.

Since the Rendition the following changes have taken place: — On the
i-st January, 1882, the Mysore Government purchased the Amrit Mahal
cattle from the Madras Government, there being at that time 30 herds,
with ] 2,502 head, of which 4,618 were cows and 177 breeding bulls. It
was stipulated that the Department should supply the Madras Govern-
ment for ten years with three-year-old bullocks at Rs. 50 per head, to a
number not exceeding 400 annually. In 1886 this limit was reduced
to 200 of four years old at the same price. The herds were therefore
broken up in 1887 and their number reduced to sixteen. In 1889
steps were taken to form special herds of big and fine cattle. There
are thus 23 herds now (1894) under six darogas. The steers are not
caught near Hunsur, but in different kavals, and are accustomed to
being tied up before being handed over to Madras. Others are sold at
reduced rates or distributed to raiyats at suitable places. Kach of the

204 /'.UW.I

darogas has also a shcc[) farm, wlicrc the country ewes are crossed by
cross-bred Kashmir rams.

At the Hissar ('attle Farm in the Punjab, artillery cattle are bred
from the Mysore cross to serve as " leaders." At the Bhadgaon Farm
of the Bombay (lovernnient cattle-breeding has l^een established for
over eleven years, the herd having taken its origin from the Mysore
Amrit Mahal. The main object has been to breed Mysore bulls for
crossing and improving the cattle of the country around. "As I
passed through the district, I saw evidence," writes Dr. Voelcker, " of
the impress which the Mysore cattle reared at the Farm had made
upon some of the other cattle, and how superior to the ordinary cattle
were those which had the Mysore ' touch ' in them." ^

Mddcsvaran Betta — This breed comes from the jungles and hills
near Biligirirangan Betta, on the south-eastern frontier of Mysore.
They are larger than the Amrit Mahal cattle, but are loosely made and
not well ribbed up. They have heavy loose-hanging dewlaps, sloping
broad foreheads, and large muzzles. They are very heavy slow
animals, but crossed with a Hallikar bull they form excellent cattle
for draught and ploughing. Of this cross-breed are the cattle mostly
used by the large cart owners who carry on trade from towns in the
Mysore territory to the Western Coast, Bellary and other places.

KdnkdnJialli. — This breed comes from Kankanhalli, in the south-
east of Mysore ; they are very like the Madesvaran Betta breed, but are
generally smaller, though larger than the Amrit Mahal breed. They
have thick horns, broad sloping foreheads, and white, very thick skins.
In all other respects the remarks regarding the Madesvaran Betta breed
are applicable to the Kankanhalli.

The village cattle vary very much in size, colour and characteristics ;
in some parts very fair cattle may be seen, but as a general rule the
village cattle are a stunted inferior race. The cows generally give
from half to one seer of milk per diem, though occasionally some may
be met which give three seers, but it will be generally found that
these have been fed on nutritious food, such as oil-cake, cotton-seed
and such like. The bullocks are small, but for their size do a sur-
prising amount of work.

Buffalo.' — Of the buffalo there are three varieties, the Hullu, the
Gaiijri or Gujarat, and the Chokatu, which comes from the country
bordering on the river Krishna.

The Hullu is by far the most common, and is the native breed of the
country. The female has a calf every year, and gives milk for seven

^ Report on the Improz'eineut of Indian Agriculture, 204.

- Much of the information in the following paragraphs is from Buchanan.

SHEEP

205

months. Besides what the calf draws from her, she gives twice a day
about a quart of milk. She generally bears from ten to twelve calves,
and is very unruly when the keeper attempts to milk her without the
calf being present. They will convey a greater weight, either in a cart
or on their back, than a common ox ; but walk very slowly, do not
endure heat, and cannot easily travel more than seven miles a day.

The two stranger breeds are greatly superior in size to the Hullu ;
but in this country they very soon degenerate. The females breed
once in two or three years only, and produce in all about si.x calves.
For two years after each parturition they continue to give a large
(quantity of milk ; but in the third year their milk begins to dimini.sh ;
and it entirely ceases about two months before the time of calving. In
this country, besides what the calf is allowed, they give daily from six
to eight quarts of milk and require no more food than the common
breed, neither do they refuse their milk should the calf be removed or
die. The males are entirely reserved for breeding or for carrying
loads ; one of them will carry as much as six oxen, and will walk
faster.

Sheep. — These are of three varieties, the Kiiruba)- or ordinary breed,
so called from the caste which rears it; the Gol/ar, which is less
common and which owes its name to the same cause ; and the Ye/aga,
which is the rarest of the three. \Miite, brown and l)lack colours are
found in all three breeds. The Kurubar is a small sheep, with horns
curling backwards. Both its flesh and wool are superior to those of the
other two varieties. The dollar is distinguished from the Kurubar bv
its large size, coarser wool, longer neck and different formation as to
the head and jaws. The Yejaga, which is rare, is longer in the leg. and
stands higher than the other breeds, but is less bulky and more
resembles a goat in structure of the body and limbs. The sheep of this
variety are never shorn of their wool, being too coarse for manufacture,
and they shed their coats once a year. This is the breed which
is used for draught and carriage of children. The Gollar sheep are
left out at night at all seasons and in all weathers, and do not appear
to suffer from the exposure, while the Kurubars and Yelagas are
invariably housed at night. The different breeds are never mixed,
chiefly owing to antagonism between the Kurubar and Gollar castes;
but even in the absence of enmity between the shepherds it is doubtful
whether the two varieties could ever be brought to mix, and it is pretty
well established that the Yejaga will not amalgamate with the other
two. They are solely dependent on jjasturage, being never fed on grain.

Sheep, with the exception of the Yelagas, are shorn twice a year, and
fifty fleeces amount to about a maund weight. The wool is all coarse,

2o6 FA UNA

and is made into rougli kanitjlis. The shepherds usually hand over
loo fleeces to the weaver, who gives them in return a kambli. There
was formerly a (iovernment manufactory at Hunsilr, which turned out
good blankets made from the wool of the white sheep in the Govern-
ment farm. This has been abolished.

" The woolly breed of sheep, which exists throughout Mysore, is
fairly esteemed," says Dr. Shortt, "both for its mutton-forming and
wool-producing qualities. The rams have large heavy horns, wrinkled
and encircled outwards, and their points inwards and forwards. The
head is large and heavy-looking, with a prominent Roman nose. The
ears are of moderate size and pointed, and the tail short, never exceed-
ing 3 to 4 inches. The ewes are mostly hornless. They are occasion-
ally met with small light horns, seldom exceeding 3 to 4 inches in
length. The prevailing colour is from a light to a very dark grey or
black. The ram stands 25 inches, and the ewe 23 inches in height.
The ordinary live weight is from 40 to 60 lbs., but gram-fed wethers
attain from 60 to 80 lbs. They have fairly compact carcases, with
good width, prominence and depth of chest ; the body is well wooled
and rectangularly formed ; in picked specimens the counter is full and
the shoulder is fairly filled w^hen in condition. The fleece never
exceeds 3 to 4 lbs., and the staple averages 3 to 4 inches in length.
An ordinary sheep fetches from 2 to 3 rupees in the market, fat wethers
7 to 10 rupees each.

" This breed furnishes the chief fighting rams of Southern India, for
which purpose good picked male rams are sought after by native Rajas,
Zamindars and others. They are much petted and pampered, till they
grow quite savage ; they will butt and also strike with their fore-feet ;
and I have also seen in one or two instances a propensity to bite. They
are pitted against each other, and large sums of money staked on
the result. In fighting, they run a tilt by first moving backwards some
short distance to add force to the impulse of their weight ; and fre-
quently in the fight they have their heads or horns broken. These
rams, from special selection and good feed, often attain 30 inches in
height and over 80 lbs. in weight. Size does not necessarily ensure
success in the battle, as I have seen the largest ram of the kind I
remember ever having met with, run away after a few tilts from one
that was very much smaller. All the breeds of sheep in Southern
India are pugnacious and reared to fight, the preference alwaj-s being
given to the black woolly breeds of ?^Iysore or to those of Coimbatore.
This breed extends from Mysore to Bellary, where after a time the
Avool frequently changes into long lank hair."

For many years Sir Mark Cubbon had an experimental sheep farm at

GOATS 207

Heraganhalli, Nagamangala taluq, under the charge of a European
Commissariat subordinate officer. Merino rams were imported yearly
from AustraHa and the cross-breeds distributed all over the country.
The breed of sheep throughout the Province was thus immensely
improved both as to size, quality of mutton, and wool. The wool was
sent in bales by the Mysore (Government to England for sale, as well
as for the purpose of being manufactured into blankets and serge.
The farm was given up in 1863, as it did not pay expenses. This was
owing apparently to sheep-breeding alone receiving attention : if other
branches of farming had been combined, the results would probably
have been more favourable.

In 1888 a flock of fifteen rams and ewes was imported from Australia
with the view of improving the fleece of the country breed. A flock
of white sheep and their lambs by an acclimatized merino ram had also
been collected for breeding purposes. The lambs thus bred are larger
and the fleece of the sheep much better than those of the ordinary
sheep of the country. Some have been sent to Haidarabad and others
sold or distributed to raiyats for breeding.

Goats. — There are two kinds of goats, the long-legged or nteke, and
the short-legged or kaiichi incke, but the two can propagate together.
In every flock of sheep there is commonly a proportion of 10 or
20 nicke to 100 sheep. This does not interfere with the pasture
of the sheep, for the goats live entirely on the leaves of bushes and
trees. One male is kept for twenty females. Of those not wanted for
breeding, the shepherd sacrifices some for his own use v/hile they are
young ; the remainder he castrates and sells to the butcher. The
female breeds at two years of age. They breed once a year, about
four times, after which they are generally killed by the shepherds for
their own use. For three months the kid is allowed the whole milk ;
afterwards the mother is milked once a day for two months ; and eight
goats will give a quart of milk. The excrement of both sheep and
eoats is much used for manure.

208

ETHNOGRAPHY

The aboriginal inhabitants of Mysore cannot probably be now traced
with any degree of certainty, though remains of prehistoric races
abound in stone monuments of different kinds, elsewhere described.
On various scientific grounds India appears to have been originally
part of a continent (to which the name Lemuria is sometimes given)
stretching west to Africa and east to Cochin China and Australia, of
which Madagascar on the one side, and the islands included in
Melanesia in the Indian Archipelago on the other, are some of the
principal existing remains.^ Of the primeval human races whose home
it may have been, there survived (according to a theory of Professor
Huxley's, developed by Professor Haeckel of Jena) two, namely, a
woolly-haired and a smooth-haired. From the former sprang the
Hottentots and negroes in Africa westwards and the Papuans of New
Guinea eastwards ; from the latter, represented perhaps by the natives
of Australia, were derived the straight-haired and the curly-haired
races. The first were the progenitors of the Malays of the islands in
the Pacific Ocean, and of the Mongols of Eastern and Northern Asia,
who penetrated on one side to Europe (their survivors being found in
the Finns, Lapps, Magyars and Turks), on the other side to America,
producing the Red Indians : the second peopled India and spread to
South-western Asia, North Africa and the South of Europe. The
original inhabitants of South India and Ceylon, distinguished as
Dravidians {homo Dravida), may ])erhaps represent the least changed
examples of the second branch. This hypothesis discredits the views
at one time adopted, that the Dravidians migrated into India from the
north-west, of which there is little evidence, the indications being held
to be equally in favour of the opposite course.

Several of the Puranas' claim an Aryan descent for the southern
races by making their progenitors or eponyms, Pandya, Karnata, Chola

^ " Throughout the later part of the palceozoic and the whole of the mesozoic
era, there was a continuons stretch of dry land over what is now the Indian Ocean."
" At the close of the cretaceous or commencement of the eocene period, the great
Indo-African continent was finally broken up, and all but the remnants in India and
South Africa sunk finally beneath the sea." — R. D. Oldham, Gi-oIotQ' of India,
pp. 211, 494.

* The Vriyu, Matsya, Agni and Brahma Puranas. — Muir, .S". T., II., 422.

PRIMITIVE TRIBES 209

and Kerala, to be descendants of Dushyanta, the adopted son of
Turvasu, who was the younger brother of Yadu, and a prince of the
lunar line. Their father Yayati, the son of Xahusha, gave the govern-
ment of the south to Yadu, and that of the south-east to Turvasu, who
is also said to have been the progenitor of the Yavanas.' Another
account" substitutes Kola for Karnata. The former is a name which
occurs extensively throughout India as the designation of a wide-spread
aboriginal race. If the two therefore are interchangeable, it would
seem as if the people of Karnata were considered identical with the
Kols of the Central Provinces.'' The name appears in Kolar, after
which the eastern District of Mysore is called, as well as in Kolala in
the Tiimkur District.^

Though the Dravidians were certainly not Aryans, these statements
may embody prehistorical myths. For analysis of such myths may be
made to show that Turvasu was the name of a star-worshiping people,
whose god (Akkadian 7'asii) was the meridian pole {tur), which stood
, for the Linga or I'hallus, being evolved from the fire-drill and socket,
its revolution amid the circumpolar stars of the Great Bear being
considered the cause of the rains. They may be identified with the
Zend Turanians {an signifying god in that language), and with the
maritime traders called Tour-sha and Tur-sene or Tyrrhenians
mentioned in Egyptian and (ireek records. Their first great trading
port was Dvdraka in the peninsula of Kathiawar ; other exporting
harbours being Surpdraka (Surat) at the mouth of the Tapti, and
Baragyza (Broach) at the mouth of the Narmada. They made settle-
ments at the holy island of Dilmun (now Bahrein) in the Persian Gulf,
and at Eridu, near the mouth of the Euphrates.

In course of time migration set the other way, and we meet with a
race, also non-Aryan, who reverenced the moon {sin) and brought in

' Turvasu was also sentenced to rule over savages and barbarians — Mlechehhas, or
]ieople not Hindus . . Manu, too, places the Dravidas amongst Mlechehhas ; and
these and similar passages indicate a period prior to the introduction of Hinduism into
the south of India. — Wilson, Jlshiiti Ptirana, iv, 117. '•' Harivamsa, Muir, ^/. <//.

•' The tribes driven out of the valley of the Ganges by the Aryans were almost
certainly Kols to the south, and semi-Tibetans to the north. — Caldwell, Grain. Drav.
I.aui^., Int., 63.

^ The generally received theory is that the Kolarian triljes are relics of barbarians
who entered India from the north-east at some very remote pre-historic period : they
were subsequently, perhaps thousands of years ago, pushed aside by Turanian innni-
grants frt)m Western Asia, who penetrated India from the north-west and filled the
western and southern districts ; at a later period the Aryans came into India, also
from the north-west, settled in the Punjab, and eventually s]iread, first east and
lastly south, into all parts of the Indian continent.

2 1 o ETHNOGRAPHY

tlic year of thirteen lunar months. These were the Hus, Shus or Sus,
the yellow race from the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates (and later
of Shushan) who settled in the delta of the Indus — the Su-varna from
whom Sindh was called Sindhu-Suvarna, part of Bengal Karna-Suvarna,
and Oujarat and Kathiawar received the name of Saurashtra. They
correspond also with the Sabar?e of Ptolemy, the Suari of Pliny, and the
Sauviras of Baudhayana. They were the great Sumerian and Vais'ya
traders of Western Asia and India (if not China), the progenitors of
the modern Saukars. Their capital was Patala (Haidarabad in Sindh),
then a seaport, though now 150 miles from the sea. They gave to the
river its name Sindhu or Hindhu, which has come to designate the
whole of India and its inhabitants. They are referred to as Yonas by
Asoka and as Yavanas in the Mahabharata.^

Dushyanta (previously mentioned) or Dushmanta, as he is also
called, who was of the line of Puru but adopted by Turvasu, became
the father, by Sakuntala, the heroine of Kalidasa's exquisite drama, of
Bharata, after whom India was called Bharata-varsha, or land of the
Bharatas. These are represented by the Bars or Bhars, whose name is
perhaps really derived from the Bar or banyan-tree {ficus indica), which
they held sacred. They are an aboriginal race, classed among the
Dravidians, and once ruled over a large area from the Central
Provinces to Oudh and Behar. They are mentioned by Ptolemy as
Barrhai, and may be the Sanskrit barbara or barbarians." Besides Yadu
and Turvasu, Yayati had three sons, Druhyu, Anu and Puru. And the
collective people of the five races who claimed to be descended from
them were the Uravidian Bharatas under Vis'vamitra, who resisted the
Aryan advance under Vasishtha, and whose defeat is celebrated in the
seventh mandala of the Rig-veda.'*

As regards Mysore, which is included in the Dravidian region, it
seems not unlikely that the Tudas or Todas of the Nilgiris may be
representatives of primeval tribes there settled. Not only is their

' See J. F. Hewitt's " The Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times," from which these
particulars have been extracted, out of a bewildering maze of detail. " It was in
this region (the Western Punjab) probably that they (the Aryans) found the first
enemy of foreign race to themselves, for they mention hostile serpent-worshippers of
a yellow complexion, and from other sources we learn that very early in history there
had been movements amongst the light-tinted race of West-Central Asia, that went
by the generic name of Skythian."— J. A. Baines, General Report on the Census of
India, 1891, p. 122.

* See "The Original Inhabitants of Bharata-varsha," by Dr. G. Oppert.

^ The story is told in Rig-veda, vii., iS, 2,1 (1-6) and 83, and in iii., 33.— Hewitt,
p. 112.

TUDAS 2 1 1

language Old Canarese (modified apparently by the exigencies of their
present location'), but it is suggestive that they hold sacred the buffalo,
from which animal Mahishur (Mysore) derives its name. It might even
be supposed that the legend of the conquest of Mahishasura by
Chamundi is based on an historical fact, — a victory gained over the
minotaur ruler of the Mahisha mandala, or buffalo kingdom, by
adherents of one of the Saktis of Siva, in consequence of which the
Tudas and other tribes were driven to take refuge in the mountains,
but that its frequent occurrence as a subject of sculpture in other parts
seems to indicate that the triumph was an event of wider and more
national importance.

The Tudas have excited much interest as a race and as regards their
origin. It was at one time held by some that they were Skythians, but
it is now generally admitted that they arc later arrivals than the race by
whom the ancient monuments were constructed on which a Skythian
descent was based.

In the next chapter, however, it will be seen that the ancient history
of the country leads us back, as one of the earliest known events, to the
conquest by the Haihayas, presumably a Skytiiian people, of Mahish-
mati or Mahesvara-pura (in the Central Provinces;, and its subsequent
recovery by the emperor Sagara, sprung from the ejected native race,
who thenceforward imposed on the vanquished the stigma of shaving
their heads in peculiar modes as a mark of subjection. Now not only
do the Tudas (in common with other supposed aborigines) wear their
hair unshorn, but it is worthy of note that they are acknowledged as
lords of the soil by the Kotas, Badagas- and other tribes on the hills,
also immigrants from Karnata,"'' though of a later date, who pay them
^i^iidu, kutii or tribute ; and that in virtue of this position the Tudas
systematically abstain from all labour, unless milking their buffaloes can
be described as such.

Another early if not aboriginal race are probably to be found in the

* The Tildas chiefly converse in the ojien air, calling to each other from one hreezy
hill top to another. Their speech sounds liUe Old Canarese spoken in the teeth of a
gale of wind. . . . The language seems to have been originally Old Canarese
and not a distinct dialect. The Tudas were probably immigrants from the Canarese
country, and have dwelt on the Nilagiris for al)out Soo (Pat least i,8oo) years. —
— Dr. I'ojie, Out lines of 7'iida Gram.

* The liadagas, northerners, are so called from badai^a, the Kannada for north.

^ Kota may be considered as a very old and very rude dialect of the Canarese,
which was carried thither (the Nilgiri hills) by a persecuted low-caste tribe al some
very remote period. . . . The dialect spoken by the Burghers or H;idagas (the
northern people) is an ancient but organized dialect of Canarese. — Dr. Caldwell,
■Grain. Drav. Lang., Intro., 37.

P 2

2 1 2 ETHNOGRAPHY

Hale I'aika or I'aiki, of the- Nagar Malnad, and there are some curious
coincidences between them and the Tudas. Their name is said to be
derived from hale and /<?>//(vj, meaning Old Foot, as they furnished the
foot-soldiers and body-guards of former rulers, to whom they were
noted for their fidelity.^ Considering the locality which they chiefly
inhabit, we may conjecture that they formed some portion of the so-
called monkey army which assisted Rama in his expedition against
Ceylon. A nearly corresponding tribe on the coast north of Honavar
is called Kumara Paika, the Junior Foot. There is a military tribe in
Vizagapatam, called Paik.s, who are said to be plainly aboriginal."'
Also Paiks in Orissa, who call themselves sons of the squirrel, are classed
among the first Turanian immigrants.'* The principal occupation
now of the Hale Paiki is the extraction of toddy from the bhagni palm
{caryoia rtrens), the cultivation of rice land, and of kans or woods
containing pepper vines ; but they are described as still fond of fire-
arms, brave, and great sportsmen. In Vastara and in Tuluva (S.
Canara) they are called Bilvar or bowmen.'' In INIanjarabad they are
called Devara makkalu, God's children, which seems to support an
aboriginal claim, and are mande and grama patels.

Now it is not a little singular that Paiki is the name of the highest
clan of the Todas, from which alone the pdldl or priests are taken, and
that the latter style themselves Der mokh, i.e. Devara makkalu, or
God's children. The viand of the Nilgiris corresponds with the viaude
of Manjarabad. The Todas, on account of their dark complexion,
were supposed by Dr. Caldwell to have come from " the eastern or
sun-burnt side of the range of Ghats." On the other hand "the simi-
larity of some of their customs to those of the Malayalams and the
position of their mands, which are mostly in the western uplands of the
plateau, whilst some are even in the Wainad, seem to lend colour to
the view that their country lay to the west of the Nilagiris." Whatever

' The derivation hale pdyika is questionaljle. I have seen hale payaka, which would
mean "old drinkers," also given as the origin of the word. The occupation of toddy-
drawing may have suggested the latter. And if the peculiarity which Colonel
Marshall has remarked in the Todas, that they always keep step in walking — said to
he very unusual even among trained sepoys when off duty — be common to the hale
paika, it may have suggested the other.

^ Macleane, p. 66. ^ Hewitt, p. 192.

* In connection with the view of Ethiopian affinities in these races, it is curious to
note that Herodotus in his account of the presents sent by Cambyses to the Ethiopians
(HI, 20-22) particularly mentions z. f ask of date wine, and that their king, though
ilistrustful of the other things, was delighted beyond measure with the beverage when
he was informed how it was obtained. Also that he sent the Persian king a singular
f>ow in return. The bow figures in some remarkable rites among the Todas.

KURUBAS 213

may have been the land of their origin, it seems more Hkely that " a
race of drovers of semi-amphibious buffaloes gradually pushed forward
its herds through the rich moist fiats of Wainad to the grassy downs of
the Nilagiris, than through the dry plains of Coimbatore and Salem. "^

Colonel Marshall, in his interesting work on the Todas, says : — " In
the process of writing of them I have grown to the very strong
conviction that the people are a surviving sample of some portion of the
Turanian race when in its very primitive stage. Without much exercise
of the imagination I can picture them the contemporaries and
neighbours, even perhaps the ancestors, of races of south-western Asia
which have made a figure in early history. There is much of the
' blameless Ethiopian ' about them : soniething of the Jew and
Chaldean in their appearance." In a note he adds : — " On the eve of
sending this work to the press I would beg again to urge my belief in
the connection between the Dravidian Toda and the Ethiop."-'

Still keeping to the hills, we may probably set down the Kurubas of
the south-western forests, and the Soligas of the Biligirirangan hills on
the south-east, as aboriginal tribes. The Kurubas, or Kurumbas, as
they are there called, extend to the Nilgiri hills, where the Kadagas,
who attribute to them great powers of sorcery, always at the time of
ploughing employ a Kuruba to turn the first furrow, which may be
emblematic of an ancient ownership in the soil, and a sort of acknow-
ledgment that the Kuruba permits it to be cultivated. It is significant
too that the Kurubas do not pay giidu or tribute to the Todas as the
other tribes do. '

The Kadu or wild Kurubas of Mysore are divided into Betta or
Hill Kurubas,-* a small and active race capable of enduring great
fatigue, who are expert woodmen : and the Jenu or Honey Kurubas,
said to be a darker and inferior race, who employ themselves in collect-
ing honey and bees'-wax. Their villages or clusters of huts are called
hddi. Among their peculiar customs, a separate hut or chdvadi is set
apart in which the unmarried females of the hddi sleep at night, and
another at the other extremity of the hadi for the unmarried males ;
both being under the supervision of the headman of the tribe. They
are their own barbers, bits of broken glass doing duty for razors.
Strangers are not allowed to enter a hadi with shoes on. In cases of
death, adults only are cremated; children are buried. The Betta

• Grigg's " Manual of ihc Nilagiri District," ch. ix.
^ " A Phrenologist among the Todas," p. 4.

^ Breeks, "The Trimitive Triljes and Monmnents of the Nilagiris."

* There are also sul)divisions called Ane (elephant), Bevina (from bi'vii, the neem-
tree), and Koiji (firebrand) Kurubas.

2 1 4 ETJIXOGRAPII Y

Kurubas worship forest deities called Nonili and Mastaiunia, and are
said to be revengeful, but if treated kindly will do willing service. The
J«?nu Kurubas never own or cultivate land for themselves, nor keep
livestock of their own. Both classes are expert in tracking wild
animals, as well as skilful in eluding pursuit by wild animals acci-
dentally encountered. Their children when over two years old move
about freely in the jungle.^

The Iruliga of the forest tracts in the eastern Districts, seem to be
another tribe closely resembling the Jenu Kurubas, and engaged in the
same pursuits. Their name is said to be derived from irul, night,
indicating the blackness of their hue. Buchanan mentions that they
called themselves Chensu, the name of well-known wild tribes in the
Madras country. The Soligas are a very secluded race. They speak
Old Canarese, and are remarkable for their keenness of sight, and skill
in tracking wild animals. The tribes of Hasulas and Maleyas, who
somewhat resemble them, are met with along the Ghats on the western
frontier. But these appear to be immigrants from South Canara, and
speak Tulu. They collect cardamoms and other wild products for their
employers, whose agrestic slaves they have virtually become. They live
in small isolated huts, which, in the case of the Hasulas, are provided
not only with the usual principal entrance by which to crawl in, but
also with a half-concealed hole in the rear, through which the shy
inmates steal out into the jungle at the merest suspicion of danger or
on the approach of a stranger. Their religion seems to be devil-
worship. ^^'hen a person dies, his spirit is supposed to have been
stolen by some one else's devil, who is pointed out by the astrologer
after divination by throwing cowries or rice. The heir or relation of the
deceased then redeems the spirit by offering a pig, fowl or other gift, and
it is caused to take up its abode in a pot, which is periodically supplied
with water and nourishment. -

The Korachas, Koramas, or Koravas, a numerous wandering tribe,
who carry salt and grain from one market to another by means of large
droves of cattle and asses, and also employ themselves in making
bamboo mats and baskets, appear to have an affinity with aboriginal or
early naturalized tribes. The mode in which the men wear their hair,
gathered up into a large knot or bunch on one side of the top of the
head, exactly resembles what we see in the sculptured figures on various
stone monuments. The women, again, may be known by numerous
strings of small red and white glass beads and shells worn round the
neck and falling over the bosom. In the depths of the forest they are

' Report on the Mysore Census of 1S91, pp. 226^ - lb. p. 230.

HOLAYAS 215

even said to dispense with more substantial covering. This also accords
with the ancient practice illustrated in numerous bas-reliefs. For
women, as there represented, are commonly arrayed in nothing more
than rows of ornamental chains and jewellery, pendent from the throat
and loins — an attire, if such it may be called, worthy of the Age of
Innocence ; and becoming enough, it may be, on the golden-olive and
nut-brown tints, that scarce reveal a blush, of Nature's vesture for the
fair of these climes.

The Koravas in Chutia Nagpur are described as Kolarians,^ and such
those in Mysore may be by origin. They are here credited with strong
thieving propensities. One section is called Dabbe (split bamboo), and
consists no doubt specially of mat-makers. It would appear as if some
reminiscence of a custom like coirrade lingered among the Koravas, for
it is said that when a woman is confined, her husband takes medicine
for her.- They live in small camps of movable wicker huts, which are
sometimes stationary for a time near large towns, but are often removed
from place to place daily.

Descending to the interior, we find an out-caste race, the Holayas,
whose name may be derived from hola, a field,'' occupying a quarter
of their own, called the Hola-geri, outside every village boundary hedge.
They are the Chandilla of Sanskrit writers ; and are the representatives
of the Bala-gai or right-hand faction, of which an account will be found
further on. "As a body they are the servants of the ryots, and are
mainly engaged in tending the plough and watching the herds. But
one of this despised order is generally the priest to the village goddess,
and as such, on that annual day when all hasten to pay their offerings
at her shrine, takes precedence of the twice-born Brahman."^

The ioti or kulavddi (he who directs the ryots), always a Holaya,
is a recognized and indispensable member of every village corporation.
In his official position he is the village policeman, the beadle of the
village community, the headman's henchman ; but in the rights and

' Hewitt, p. 47. " The old traditions make no distinction between the dark races,
if indeed there were any. Philology indicates a fairly well-marked distinction between
the languages of the tribes of the central belt, and groups one section, mainly that to
the southward, under the head of Dravidian, and the other under a title which has
remained, for want of a better, in its primitive and not very correct form of Kolarian.
Physiolog)-, however, has been busy amongst these tribes, and discovers no trace of
distinction between the two groups." — Baines, p. 123.

'■' Mys. Cen. Rep., p. 226.

3 But the Brahmans call them Iloleyas, which they derive from hole, impure.

^ This and following particulars are taken from a paper by Captain Mackenzie on
tlie " Kulavadi of the Hassan District." — Ind. Aiil., II., 65.

2 1 6 ETHNOGRAPHY

privil Clot's wliirli yil cling to him wc get glim[).sc.s of his former estate,
mul fnid proofs that the Holayar were the first to establish villages. All
the castes unhesitatingly admit that the kulavacli is {de jure) the owner
of the village. If there is a dispute as to the village boundaries, the
kuLivddi is the only one competent to take the oath as to how the
boundary ought to run, and to this day a village boundary dispute is
often decided by this one fact — if the kulavadis agree, the other inhabi-
tants of the village can say no more. Formerly, when a village was first
established, a large stone, called karu kailu, was set up within it. To
such stones the patel once a year makes an offering, but the kulavadi,
after the ceremony is over, is entitled to carry off the rice, &c., offered,
and in cases where there is no patel, the kujavadi performs the
ceremony.

But what seems to prove strongly that the Holaya was the first to
take possession of the soil is, that the kulavadi receives, and is entitled
to receive, from the friends of any person who dies in the village a
certain burial fee, or, as it is forcibly put, " they buy from him the ground
for the dead." This fee is still called in Canarese 7ie/a hdga} In
Manjarabad, the ancient Balam, the kujavadi does not receive this fee
from those ryots who are related to the headman. Here the kulavadi
occupies a higher position ; he has in fact been adopted into the patel's
family, for on a death occurring in such family the kulavadi goes into
mourning by shaving his head. He always receives from the friends
the cloths the deceased wore, and a brass basin.

The kulavadi, however, has to pay an annual tax, consisting of
one fowl, one hana (4 annas 8 pie), and a handful of rice, to the agent
of the Sudugadu Sidda or lord of the burning grounds, who resides
somewhere in the Baba Budan hills and is of the Gangadikara ^^'ok-
kaliga caste.

Traditions, whose authenticity there seems no reason to doubt, are
preserved, as elsewhere related, of an early Jain immigration, perhaps
in the 4th century B.C., from Ujjayini and the north ; also of the
introduction in the 3rd or 4th century a.d. of Brahmans, the pro-
genitors of the Haiga or Havika Brahmans of the Nagar country, from
Ahichchhatra in Panchala or Rohilkhand, by one of the Kadamba
kings ; - of the attempt of the king of the Chandalas above the Ghats to

' From iiehi, the ground, and h(iga, a small coin (worth one anna two pie).

' The Haiga Brahmans seem to be of pure race and of no bastard or doubtful
caste. They are described as very fair, with large eyes and aquiline noses, a descrip-
tion which would imply for them a derivation from an uncorrupted and little inter-
mixed northern source. — Campbell, Ethtwl. India^ 74.

POPULATION 217

form a matrimonial alliance with a Kadamba princess, his consequent
death by treachery and the loss of his kingdom, into which the
Brahmans under the new rulers gained admission. In the south we have
evidence that in the 3rd and 4th centuries the (ianga kings were
extending their sway over Mysore, and this seems to have been accom-
panied by a gradual setting aside of the predominant Jain influence by
that of Brahmans. The Chola invasions of the nth century introduced
a large Tamil influence. In the east and north, wc may suppose that
under the Mauryas and the Pallavas, up to the 6th century. Buddhistic
influences would be chiefly at work, and settlers from the Telugu
countries attracted into Mysore. The progress of events as related in
the next chapter will suggest the circumstances under which the
population was probably recruited by Kongas, Reddis, Woddas and
other tribes.

As far back as the loth century we lind two great territorial divisions,
namely, Gangavadi, occupying the southern and central parts of the
country, and Nonambavadi the northern. The correspondence of
names shows that in the Gangadikara and Nonaba Wokkaligas, who
form, especially the first, so large a proportion of the agricultural class,
we have the descendants of the subjects of those provinces. The advent
of Muhammadan and Mahratta immigrants can without much difficulty
be assigned to the right time, and that of Europeans is well known.
The vicissitudes through which the country has passed will prepare us
to find a great admixture of castes and people. Accordingly, no fewer
than 112 different names of castes and 382 recognized subdivisions
occur in the last Census Report for 1891. The number of sub-
divisions actually returned, however, is stated to have been no less
than 864.

POPULATION

The first census was taken in 1 840-1 and the next in 1 85 1-2, since
which period annual returns were made up until 1871, when a census
more minute and exact was carried out. The latter indeed may
probably be considered the only real census obtained by actual enumer-
ation of the people ; the older khdneshunidri estimates having been
generally formed, it is believed, by multiplying the ascertained number
of families by a figure assumed to be the average number of memliers
composing each. Nevertheless the figures, so far as any are available,
are not without interest.

2l8

ETHNOGRAPHY

Year.

Hindus.

Muhammadanx.

Others.

Total.

I So I

1,969,493

1S04

2,094,359

77,395

2,171,754'

1832

3,500,000'^

1841

3,050,713

1851

3,426,458

1852

3,460,696

1854

3,501,283

1855

3,535,441

1S56

3,476,966

152,611

3,629,577

1S57

3,447,944

161,160

...

3,609,104^

1S58

3,557,110

181,817

3,738,927

1859

3.621, 723«

200,500*

3,822,223

i860

3,821,000

1863

3,872,209

1864

3,895,687

1865

4,013,601

1866

3,915,721 1 Famine

1867

3-724.I78

172,255

14,302

3,910,735/ years.

1868

3,909,121

1869

3>793,973

182,654

29,713

4,006,340

1870

3>839>679

189,272

27,815

4,108,607

The results of the regular census of 187 1 showed that the population
must have been under-estimated in the previous valuations.^ But so
far as these afford any data for calculation, the rate of increase in the
decade 1841-1851 was i2'3 per cent; in the 9 years 1851-1860
the rate was ii*5 percent; and in the decade 1860-1870 it was 7*5
per cent.

' Excluding Balam and the recently interchanged districts, the number was 202,261.
A considerable migration took place from the districts allotted to the Xizam into
Dodballapur and that neighbourhood, but nearly the whole of these persons gradually
returned after the cession of those provinces to the Company. Many families which
had emigrated to Baramahal in 1792, when it was ceded to the Company, now returned
to Mysore. About 200,000 persons also emigrated temporarily from the Mahratta
country into Mysore, to escape from the famine which prevailed there.

^ This is printed in the report as 4,500,000, a total which seems so manifestly
wrong that I have taken the liberty of altering the first figure.

'^ The decrease is explained as due to the omission of the island of Seringapatam.

* Approximate.

* Writing in 1804, Col. Wilks has the following remarks on the estimate of
population at that period : — " I am induced to suspect some error in one of the
computations, notwithstanding the frequency in Mysore of that most fatal source of
depopulation, the presence of a Mahratta army. The usurpation of Haidar All may
be considered as complete in 1760 ; at that time many of the districts were permanently
occupied by Mahratta troops. Gopal Rao Hari invaded Mysore in the same year.
It was again invaded by Bani \'isaji Pandit in 176 1 ; by Madhu Rao in 1765, 1767
and 1770 ; by Tryambak Rao in 1771 ; by Raghunatha Rao in 1774 ; by Hari Pant
Purkia in 1776 and 1786; and lately I have investigated on the spot and examined

CENSUS TOTALS

219

7'he following table shows the total male and female population, and
the total in each District, as found by the census of 187 1, compared
with the numbers of the previous estimate : —

District.'

Bangalore
Kolar ...
Tumkur
Mysore
Hassan
Shimoga
Kadur ...
Chitaklroog

Total

Estimated Population of

1869-1870.

Actual Number as per General
Census of 1871.

Increase
'percent.

Male.*;.

356,241
274,859
251,029
400,537
320,373
234,167

137,593
203,069

Females.

303.162
251,601
245.034
362,922
272,428
196,053
124,229
175,310

Total.

659.403!
526,460
496,063

763,459
592,801
430,220
261,822
378,379

Males.

Females. Total.

414,543
309,685

315.440
467,562

328,324
258,446

170,337
271,587

413,811
309,269

316,799
475,625
340,093
240,530
163,588
259,773

828,354
618,954
632,239
943,187
668,417
498,976
333,925
531,360

2,177,8681,930,7394,108,60712,535,9242,519,4885,055,412

25-6
17-6
27-5
307
12-8
i6-o
27-6
40-4

23-0

Since the general census of November 1871 a general census has
been taken on two occasions, one on the night of the 17th February
rSSi, and the other on the night of the 26th February 1891, syn-
chronous with the general census of all India on those dates. The
results of the three may be exhibited as follows : —

Year.

Males. Females.

;

Total.

Difference
per cent.

No. per
square mile.

' 1871
1881
1891

2,535,924 2,519,488
2,085,842 2,100,346

2,483,451 2,460,153

5,055,412
4,186,188
4,943,604

- I7'i9
+ 18-09

172-5
142-8
168-6

the traces of the merciless ravages committed in 1 791 and 1792 by I'arasuram Bhao.
In consequence of these incessant calamities, many districts formerly well-peopled do
nt)t exhibit the vestige of a human being ; and Chitaldroog District in particular may
be considered as deprived of the great mass of its inhabitants.

The word valsH is applied to the inhabitants of a district who, deserting their homes
on the approach of a hostile predatory force such as that of the Mahrattas, migrate
en masse to another part of the country or to inaccessible woods and hills until the
departure of the enemy. And no testimony could be more emphatic to a state of
habitual misery than the existence, in all the languages of the south, of this single
term to describe what cannot be expressed in any European language but by a long
circumlocution."

' The limits of the several Districts have i)een subject to alterations since, and do
not therefore exactly coincide with the existing limits, though the names are the
.same.

220 ETIINOGRAPJIY

The decrease which took place in the decennial period 187 1 to 1881
was due to the great famime of 1877 and 1878. (The present popula-
tion is somewhat greater than that of Ireland — 4,704,750 in 1891.)

The distribution of the population by districts is as follows : —

District.

Approximate
Area.

Males.

Females.

Total.

No. per
square
mile.

Percentage
to total.

Bangalore ...

3,081

399.486

403.508

802,994

260

16-24

Kolar

3.433

297.655

293.375

591,030

175

11-96

Ti'imkur

4,367

291.133

289,653

580,786

133

11-75

jMy.sore

5,078

580,737

601,077

1,181,814

232

23-90

Has.san

2,603

255.044

259,908

514.952

197

10-42

Shimoga

4,048

275.884

252,097

527.981

130

10-68

Kadur

2,685

173,922

156,141

330,063

123

6-67

Chitaldroog...

4,010

209,590

204,394

413.984

103

8-38

The classification of the people according to the main heads of
religious belief gives the following results : —

Class.

Males.

Females.

Total.

1 Percentage.

Hindus

Jains

Muhammadans
Christians ...
Others (Parsi, Sikh, Brahmo)

2,324,499
7,116

131.473
20,306

2,314,605

6,162

121,500

17,829

4,639,104

13,278

252,973

38,135

114

93 '84
-27

5-II
•77

Total

2,483,451

2,460,153

4,943,604

Compared with the similar table for 187 1 it appears that Hindus have
diminished by 1-25 per cent., while Muhammadans have increased by
•98, and Christians by '27, which together exactly make up the
difference. It should however be taken into account that the total
population in the same period fell by 2-5 per cent.

Hindus. — Under the term Hindu have been included all natives of
this part of India who do not properly come under one of the other
headings. The Hindus are nominally divided into four castes, which
are entirely separate from each other, and between whom no connection
by marriage or otherwise is permitted. The distinction is complete in
every sense, hereditary and personal, and it is impossible for any
member of these castes to be other than what his birth made him,
unless indeed he should transgress some law binding on his particular
caste beyond the possibility of pardon or expiation. In such a case the

CASTE 221

punishment is expulsion from the community or loss of caste, when the
unfortunate individual becomes contemptible in the eyes of all, and his
place henceforth is amongst the lowest Pariahs, the dregs of Hindu
society. Even the most despised caste would decline to admit him on
terms of social equality, even though he had been originally one of the
heaven-born Brahmans. The first or highest caste is the Brahman or
priestly class ; the second the Kshatriya or military class ; the third is
the Vaisya class, composed of husbandmen and merchants ; and the
fourth is that of the Siidras, and comprehends artisans, labourers and
agriculturists.^ Besides these there are many castes unrecognized by
the four grand divisions, whose manners and customs are governed by
laws of their own, and who are as exclusive in their way as any of the
four above mentioned.

Caste," originally called vartja, colour, but now more usually Jdti,
I)irth, was doul)tless at first a distinction of race based on difference of
complexion, and intended to prevent degeneration from intermixture
of the fair-skinned Aryan conquerors with the dark-skinned earlier
settlers, or the black aboriginal tribes. The tradition of the common
origin of the four pure castes or tribes from the head, arms, thighs, and
feet of Brahma, points to them collectively as forming eventually one
nation, each class distinguished from the others by reason of its
occupation, which was probably hereditary. But numerous other
mixed castes were always found among the great body of the popula-
tion. The statements in Manu suffice to show that endless ramifica-
tions had taken place in his time through intermarriages of different
castes, and he assigns separate names to an enormous number of new
castes that sprang from these connections. " Indeed, it is evident that
some of the lowest castes, perhaps many, were in part derived from the
highest," says Mr. Sherring, who also writes :— " Had the creation of
new castes continued to be made in succeeding ages with the same
ease and rapidity as they were in these earlier times, it is plain that the
caste system would have destroyed itself, in two ways, — first, by the
multiplication of new castes throughout the land, and, secondly, by the
intermarriages of all the castes. The increased strictures imposed upon
the castes, especially upon the primary ones, and the prohibition of
irregular marriages — that is, of marriages of members of one caste with

' Strong opposition was manifested on the part of certain classes in the census of
1891 to be graded among Sudras, accompanied with strenuous efforts to be included
among Brahmans.

- From casta, Portuguese for race or breed. According to a passage in the Maha
Hharata, the colour of Brahmans is white, of Kshatriyas red, of \'aisyas yellow, of
Sudras black.

3 2 2 E THNO GRAPH Y

mcnihcTs of another, — gave in later years strength and vitality to a
system which otherwise must soon have become extinguished. At
what epoch this fundamental change in its constitution was made is not
known." '

In Mysore the various castes are probably as numerous as in any
other part of India of equal extent. The natives of the Province, by a
fanciful arrangement, recognize loi as the limit to the total number,
but in the enumerators' forms of the recent census it was found that 864
castes had been returned, more than double the number given in 1871.
Some of these, though returned in different localities under different
names, doubtless belonged originally to the same stock. A few families
or individuals probably separated from the main body, and having
removed to another part of the country, either adopted a new name or
were given one by their neighbours. There is every reason to believe
that in some similar manner the number of castes is even now con-
stantly increasing. Disputes arise, and the caste divides into two
factions, each headed by some influential man or family ; they refuse
to associate with each other or to intermarry, and unless in a short
time some common interest compels the parties to re-unite, a separate
caste or sub-division is permanently formed, which adopts some
peculiarity of its own to distinguish it from the original.

The agricultural, artisan and trading communities are termed patjas
or professions, which are eighteen in number. These paiias are divided
into two factions, called Bala-gai and Yeda-gai, or right and left hands.
A large number of castes belong to one or other of these divisions.
All Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and most of the Siidras are considered
neutral. Although the right- and left-hand factions are said to include
only eighteen trades, there are many castes which adhere to one side
or the other, but their numbers do not seem to be taken into
account.

The following are the castes composing the two factions : —

A'4

^ht-hand Faction.

Left-hand Faction.

Banajiga ...

Wokkaliga

Ganiga

Traders.
... Cultivators.
... Oilmen who yoke
only one bullock

Panchala, com
Badagi ...
Kanchugara

prising : —
... Carpenters.
... Copper or
smiths.

brass

to the mill.

Kammara

Iron smiths.

Rangare . .
Lada

. . . Dyers.

... Mahratta traders.

Kal-kutiga
Akasale...

Stone-masons
... (Goldsmiths.

, and

Gujarati ...

... Gujarat merchants.

» Hindu Tribes and Castes, Intro, xvii. Gotamiputra Satakarni, who reigned in
the second century, is said, in an inscription at Nasik, to have prevented the mi.xing
of the four castes {varna). — Arch. Siirv. W. Ind., iv., 109.

PANAS

223

Kaniati

Lalxjurers.

Bheri

A class of Xagarta

Jaina

... Jain traders.

traders.

Kuril ha

Shepherds.

Devanga

Weavers.

Kumliara ...

Potters.

Hegganiga

Oilmen who yoke

Agasa

... Washermen.

two bullocks to

Besta

I'ishermen or

Pa-

the mill.

lanquiii l)earers.

(jolla or Dhanapala

Cowherds who

Padmasdle

... A class of weavers.

transport money.

Nayinda ...

Barbers.

Beda

Hunters.

Up]iara

Salt-makers.

Yakula

Cultivators.

Chitragara

Painters.

Pa]li or Tigala

Market gardeners.

Golla

. . . Cowherds.

Madiga, the lowest

eft -hand caste.

Holeya, the

lowest right-hand caste.

The Banajigas and Linga Banajigas are the foremen of the right-
hand faction. They say that all the eighteen pauas or professions
enumerated above belong to them, and that the nine pa/jas of the left-
hand are separate. The Panchalas and Nagartas, who are at the head
of the left-hand faction, contend that the eighteen paiias are equally
divided between the two factions, and that the nine above enumerated
belong to them. In the main it is evidently a struggle for precedence
between the artisans and the traders, or between followers of the old-
established handicrafts and innovators who brought in the exchange of
commodities with other parts, supported by producers and ministers to
luxury. It has been found impossible to obtain a uniform, authentic,
and complete list of the castes composing each faction, but the state-
ment above is only doubtful in the case of one or two of the inter-
mediate castes, and perhaps Komatis should take the place of Jains,
and Toreya that of Yakula. The works referred to as authorities are
Sahyddri Khanda and Ellcsa-vijaya, both said to be of the time of the
rise of Vijayanagur in the fourteenth century, but the information has
not been found in the former, and the latter work is not forthcoming.

The origin of the distinction between the two divisions is founded
on fable,' and is said to have taken place at Conjeveram, where the
goddess Kali placed certain castes on her right hand and others on
her left. The two parties have ever since disputed as to the relative
honour accorded to each side. The division appears to be of compara-
tively modern origin, as no mention of it has been found in any ancient
work.- It is, moreover, confined entirely to the south of India. Each

' There is also a right- and left-hand division of Sakti worshijipers, the rites of the
former being principally magical, of the latter bloody and licentious. But there
.seems to be no connection between the cases.

- There is indeed a doubtful passage in the Mahawaitso which may be sujijioscd to
refer to it, and if so, the institution would seem to be of great antiipiity. When the
Pandya princess was sent from Madura to Ceylon, in response to an embassy from

224 ETJfNOGRAPHY

parly insists on ils exclusive rights to certain privileges on all public
festivals and ceremonies, and it not unfrequently happens that one side
usurps the supposed and jealously guarded rights of the other. On
such occasions a faction fight is almost sure to ensue. Cases are
recorded where the carrying of an umbrella, or wearing particular
coloured flowers in the turban, has given rise to severe outbreaks
accompanied by bloodshed. The opposition between the two divisions
is still kept up, but apparently not with the same bitterness as in former
times. In fact some of the castes seem in the late census to have been
averse to own themselves as belonging to either hand, preferring to
admit adhesion only to the eighteen pana or the nine pana, while over
100,000 made no return at all in the matter. The figures actually
obtained were, 1,693,461 as belonging to the eighteen pana (the right-
hand), and 503,439 as belonging to the nine pana (the left-hand).

The right-hand claim the exclusive privilege of having twelve pillars
in the panda I or shed under which their marriage ceremonies are
performed (allowing to the left only eleven) ; of riding on horse-
back in processions, and of carrying a flag painted with the figure of
Hanuman.i

The two factions are also styled Desa and Pete (in some places
Nadu). The reason given is that Linga Banajigas, who are at the head
of the right-hand division, not being original natives of the place, were
called Desavalas or outsiders, and the others Pete or Naduvalas.

In the recent census of 1891 the old caste gradation has been set
aside in favour of classifications according to occupation, and, as
regards Hindus, according to the numerical importance of the castes.
The results of the former are given under the following prescribed
heads : —

Class of Occupation
A Agricultural
B Professional
C Commercial
D Artisan and Village menial
E Vagrant minor Artisans and Performers, &c.

Races and nationalities

Others, not stated ...

The following is a different return of occupations based on sources of
livelihood. Of the total number set down as thus supporting them-
selves the actual workers or bread-winners form only 34 '2 7 per cent,
the remainder being dependants, chiefly women and children : —

king \'ijaya soliciting her hand in marriage, she is said (according to one version) to
have been accompanied by a thousand members of the eighteen castes and five dif-
ferent classes of workmen. ' For caste insignia, see Ind. Ant. iv, 345.

Numbers

Percentage

1,665,442

33 "69

290,704

5-88

470,570

9-52

i>877.94i

37-99

344.055

6-96

291,168

5-89

3.724

0-07

OCCUPATIONS

225

Class of Occupation

Males

Females

Total

PercentaKC

Government

122,327 .

.. 113,838 .

236,165

... 477

Pasture and Agricul-

ture

1,685,445 ■

.. 1,630,55s .

.. 3,316,003

... 67-07

Personal service

55.182 .

54,157 •

•• 109,339

... 2 '2 1

I'reparation of ma-

terial sulxstances .

221,819 •

212,610 .

■■ 434,429

... 878

Commerce, Transport

and Storage

90,094 .

87,284 .

•• 177,378

- 3-58

Professions ...

40,187 .

39,825 .

80,012

.. i-6i

Indefinite and Inde-

pendent

268,397 .

321,881 .

• 590,278

.. 1 1 -92

Analysis of the preceding table into the various prescribed orders
supplies the following further information. The actual number of
separate occupations is 634. To the percentage of each on the
population of the State has been added, for comparison, the percentage
of similar occupations in British India : — ■

Total

Percen

age in

Total

Percentage in

Mysore

India

Mysore

India

Government —

Metals and

Administra-

Precio u s

tion

213.751 •

• 4-32 -.

1-95

Stones . . .

73,602..

• 1-49 ••

133

Defence

22,233..

• 0-45 ..

0-23

Glass and

Service of

Earthen -

other States

181 .

• " -

o-i8

ware
Wood and

27,421 .

• 0-55..

0-S2

I'asture and

Cane

33.I77--

. 0-67...

1-50

Agriculture —

Gums, Drugs

Live Stock

23,106 .

. 0-47..

1-27

and Dyes

2,843..

0-06...

0-14

Agriculture 3,292,897 .

.66-61..

5979

Leather

24,459 ••

• 0-49...

I-I4

Personal Ser-

Commerce,

vice —

Transport and

Domestic &

Storage —

Sanitary ...

109,339 ■■

. 2-21 ...

3'9i

Commerce
Transport

160,967 ..

3-26...

1-63

l'rc]>aration of

and Storage

16,411 ..

• 0-33...

I 38

Materials —

Professions —

Food and

Learned and

Drink ..

62,819..

. 1-27...

5-07

Artistic ...

76,980..

1-56...

1-97

Light and

Sport and

Fuel

23,188..

. 0-47...

1-23

Amuse-

Buildings ...

30,508 ..

. 0-62 ..

0-50

ments

3.032..

006...

005

Vehiclesand

Indefinite and

Vessels ...

862..

0-02 ...

0-05

Independent —

Supplemen -

U nskilled

tary articles

10,057..

. 0-20...

0-40

Labour . . .

493.67S..

9-99...

8-87

Textile Fa-

Undefined

2,826..

o-o6 ...

0-54

brics and

Independent

Dress

145.493 ••

2-94...

4-39

of work ...

93,774

. I -90 . . .
Q

1-66

226

E THNOGRAPHY

A supplementary table shows the nuinl)ers of those who combine with
their hereditary occupations a certain amount of land cultivation : —

Per cent

novernnient

8,333

... 247

Pasture .ind Agri-

ciillure

317

I "O

Personal service ...

3,583

... IO-6

Preparation of ma-

terials

13,100

... 38-9

No Per cent

Commerce .. ... 2,138 ... 6"i

I'rofessions 1,706 ... 4'8

Indefinite and Inde-
pendent 4,657 ... I3'9

Total ... 33,834

The classification of the main Hindu castes according to numerical
strength yields the following results, the percentage to the total popu-
lation being also shown in the case of those above 100,000. The
capital letters indicate the class of occupation as contained in the first
table above : —

Wokkaliga A ..
Holeya ... D
Lingayita ABC
Kuril ba ... D
Madiga D

Over 100,000.

1,341,849 .

- 520,493 •

483,159 •

• 349,037 •

• 239,575 .

.. 27-14

.. 10-51

.. 9-77

.. 7-06

.. 4-84

Beda

Brahmana
Golla
Banajiga ..
Wodda . .

217,128 .

183,541
128,995 •

114,735
107,203 .

4-39
371
2 60
2-32
2-16

Besta ...
Akkasale
Uppara

50,000 to 100,000.

D ... 99,897 I Xeyigara
D ... 98,181 I Agasa
D ... 89,123 I Tigala .

85,671
56,710

20,000 to 50,000.

Marata...
Kumbara
I'diga ..
I.ambani
Nayinda

44,446
40,809
39,937
39,137
37,296

Ganiga

Komati

Koracha

Xagarta

Kshatriya

35,8oS
29,054

24,494
22,964

21,795

Satani ...

10,000 to 20,000.
19,987 I Darji ..

10,664

Rachevar

Jogi
Badagi . . .

Meda
Domba
Lada
Goniga

A B D E

... E

5,000 to 10,000.

9,554 Xatuva

9,410

8,646

Kammara
.Mudali

1,000 to 5,000.

4,261 Bhat Raju .

2,500 I Da.sari ...

2,046 I Iruliga

1,426 ' Budabudike.

B ...

7,476

D ...

6,250

C ...

5,437

B .

■ 1,388

B .

■ 1,178

B .

• 1,156

E .

. 1,092

KSHATRIYA

227

Below

1,000.

Garudiga

.. 876

Giijarati

Mochi...

.. 746

Sudugadusidda ...

Sannyasi

.. 684

Baniya

I'ille ...

■• 559

Gondaliga

Gosayi

•• 424

Marvadi

Kanchugara ... D

•• 396

Pandaram

Jalagara

.. 258

Uriya

Bairagi

222

Karma

Monda

.. 189

Kayast

Xayar . . .

.. 117

Saniyar

Kanakkan

108

Multani

Sillekyata

• 93

Jat

The totals

of these gro

Lips may

be thus stated, showing

the

number

of castes under each and tl

le percenta

ge to the total Hindi

I popul

ation: —

Total

Per

cent

10 castes

of over 100, oc

3,685,715

79-50

6 „

50,000 to I

DO.OOO

516,568

10 ,,

20,000 to 5

0,000

335.740

7-24

2 ,,

10,000 to 2

0,000

30,651

6 „

5,000 to 10

,000

46,773

8 „

1,000 to 5.(

XX) ...

15,047

l)elo\v 1, 00c

)

4,9^2

The classes contained in the first table of occupation are subdivided
into certain groups, and the different castes may be described in the
order in which they fall under these heads.

In the Agricultural class (A) the first group is called " military and
dominant," and comprises Kshatriya, Mahratta and Rachevar.

Kshatriya. — The total number is 21,824, composed principally of
12,287 Kshatriyas, 7,895 Rajputs, and 1,629 Rajapinde. Under the
first occur the following subdivisions, — Bais, Bintakiir, Bondili, Dhatri,
Govar, Kamsi, Kotari, Rajakula, Raju (Kanda, Kannada and Mopiir).
The Rajput tribes are, — Cham, Chandrabansi, Chhattri, Chavan,
Hindustani, Rajput Gauda, Rohila, Singh, Salar, Surajbansi, Thakih-
(Chandra, Dekal, Gaya, Gaharvariya and Nava), Talukhandiya and
Tamboli. Under Rajapinde are included Arasu, Bada Arasu, and
Komarapatta. There are also 1 2 Kodaga or Coorgs. The distribution
in the Districts is as follows : —

Caste.

3,740

I
I, .347

tn
1.205

•0 '
a

Kshatriya

2,455

783

898

1,450

410

Kajpiit ...

1,857

947

990

1,611

364

1,668

166

Rajapinde

1,317

—

98 1

Total

4,342

1,798

1,980

6,668

1,711

2,897

1. 714 1

502

Q 2

128

ETHNOGRAPHY

'I'hc K.shalriyas and Rajputs arc prinf,ii)ally in the army and police.
The Rnjapinde includes the Arasu, t(; which belongs the Royal family
of Mysore, and other castes connected with the ruling house.

Marata, or Mahratta. — There are 44,446 of these, of whom over
10,600 are in each of the Bangalore and My.sore Districts, 4,640 in
Kolar, and about 3,000 in each of the other Districts. The sub-
divisions are said to be,— Khaniya, Baruva, Kine, Kshatrabhanu,
Lankekdra, Manga, Ravuta, Bhilsa and Kumari ; Kine and Bhusa
being more numerous than the others. Their principal occupation is
military service, especially as cavalry and rough riders. But the
majority have for some time past taken to cultivation and menial ser-
vice. The Mahrattas are commonly called Are by the Mysore people.

Rachevar. — Those belonging to the Agricultural class number 3,696,
including the subdivision of Telugu Rachevar, and 66 Ranagara. More
than a third are in Mysore District, 870 in Bangalore, half that number
in Hassan, Kolar, and Tumkur, with 10 in Shimoga. There are no
Rachevar in Chitaldroog, but it has 15 Ranagara. Both claim a royal
connection.

The second agricultural group is the most important one of Cul-
tivators, and contains 128,168 Lingayita, 1,342,882 Wokkaliga, and
56,710 Tigala, distributed as shown below, with 117 Nayar,^ nearly all
in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, and 559 Pille,^ mostly in
Mysore, Kolar, and Bangalore Districts.

Caste.

Shimoga.
Kadur.

Chitaldroog.

Lingayita
Wokkaliga
Tigala

13,194

225,511

29,192

1,421

163,160

10,156

8,971

179,206

14,718

52,264

325,557
1,222

19,260

171,323
714

13,958 9,943 9,157

135,069 73,496, 69,560

197 491 20

Total

267,897

174,737202,895

379,043

191,297

149,224 83,930 78,737

The principal divisions of the Lingdyifa in this class are Gaudamane
58,487, Malava 795, and Panchachara Cauda 68,886 ; which include
the subdivisions Gauliga, Gurusthala, Nonaba and Sada.

Wokkaliga. — In addition to 163,502 returned simply by this name,
the following are the most important tribes: — Gangadikara 593,205,
Morasu 131,950 (besides Beral-koduva 8,066), Sada 106,407, Reddi
(Kodati, Peddakanti, Pakanati, Nerati, Kamme, Honne, and Hema),
84,653, Kunchatiga 84,504, Nonaba 63,803, Halepaika 15,570, Halu
14,778, Hallikara 13,492, Telugu 12,316, Vellala (Bellala and Tuluva)

' Including Achpille, Agamudi and Panan. "^ Including Kajjar and Vellala.

WOKKALIGA

229

9,842, Uppina Kojaga 9,842, Dasa 9,433, ]Musaku 8,754, Falya 4,116,
Roddugara 3,744, Lalagonda 1,959, Svalpa 899, Nadu 588, Aramudi
242, Kotegara 218, Yellamakapu 171, Konkaniga 159, Kanesalu 137,
Totagara 117, Velnati 26. The following subdivisions are not separately
returned : — A'di, Agni. Agramudi, Aladakapu, Angalika, Bachanige,
Badagar, Belagude, Belakuvadi, Bhogar, Chittala, Dasavantige,
(iadakanti, Gausanige or Gosangi, Ghaniya, Hosadevara, Kamawokkal,
Kannada, Karale, Kariga, Karu, Karukal, Kolama, Koluva, Konda-
kattc, Konga, Koratakapu, Kottadevarakapu, Kumbi, Kudika-wokkal,
Kulibedaga, Kunte, Malavaru, Mudali, Musaku, Muttu, Padayachin-
ayakan, Palayar, Palyakar, Palyagar-gauda, Pamar, Panasakapu,
Panned, Pelagunda, Pettigesalina, Puda, Punamale, Rayaroddugara,
Reddi (Anche, Arava, Bellala, Kammadi, Kapu, Kondi, Neita, Raju,
Tenugu, and Vadaga), Sime, Sirdevara, Sitabhaira, Sole, S'oshya,
Togata, Tuluva, ^'alasakapu, Valu, Vanta, ^'asudeva, Velama,
\'irabhadrakapu, \'ellala (Jahala, Lingakatti and Pandya), Yeda-
yellama, Yalanati, Yalavolu, Yelumaneyavaru.

The following statement, showing the location of the principal great
classes in the several Districts, is instructive : —

«>

Wokkaliga.

to
c

1
u.

2
IS

(langadikara

105,284

519

64,478

271,935

126,443

9,081

13,386

2,089

Morasii ...

46,505

84,263

997

138

—

Sada ...

3.367

4,556

8,891

3,078

4,194

39,669

14,664

27,988

Reddi

24,466

40,267

1,640

8,503

352

1,014

355

8,056

Kunchatiga

11,840

663

44,231

3,488

3,828

8,082

1,614

10,758

Nonaha ...

159

—

30.654

2,010

7,444

8,552

11,119

3,865

Halepaika

—

12,576

2,994

Halu

—

6,818

238

7,719

—

IlaHikara

2,414

260

5,148

2,409

1 ,399

935

802

125

The Gangadikdra are the most numerous of the Wokkaligas, being
over 44 per cent, of the whole number, and purely Kannada. They are
found principally in the centre and south of the country, and represent
the subjects of the ancient province of Gangavadi, a Ninety-si.\ Thou-
sand country, which formed an important part of the Ganga empire. The
name Gangadikara is a contraction of Gangavadikara. At the present
day the Gangadikaras are followers some of Siva and some of \'ishnu.
Of the former some wear the iinga and others not. These sects
neither eat together nor intermarry. The guru of the Yishnu wor-
shippers is the head of the Sri-Vaishnava Brahmans, who lives at
Melukote. In addition to being cultivators, the Gangadikaras act as
farm labourers and as porters.

3 30 E THNOGRA PI/ V

The Morasu are Wokkaligas cliieflyof Kolar and Bangalore Districts.
They api)car to have been originally immigrants from a district called
Morasa-nad, to the east of this country, whose chiefs formed settlements
in the neighbourhood of Nandidroog. The section called Beral-koduva
(or finger-giving) had a strange custom, which, on account of its
cruelty, was put a stop to by Government. Every woman of the sect,
previous to piercing the ears of her eldest daughter preparatory to her
being lictrothed in marriage, had to suffer amputation of the ring and
little fingers of the right hand. This was performed, for a regulated
fee, by the blacksmith of the village, who chopped off the last joint of
each finger with a chisel. If the girl to be betrothed were motherless,
the mother of the boy to whom she was to be betrothed was bound to
submit to the mutilation unless she had already made the sacrifice.
The story invented to account for this barbarous custom is given in the
first edition. Since its prohibition the women content themselves with
putting on a gold or silver finger-stall or thimble, which is pulled off
instead of the end of the finger itself. The principal sanctuary of the
Morasu Wokkaligas is at Siti-betta in the Kolar taluq, where there is a
temple of Virabhadra.

Of the other large tribes of Wokkaligas, the Sada abound mostly in
the north and west. They include Jains and Lingayits, Vaishnavas,
and Saivas. Not improbably they all belonged to the first originally.
In the old days many of them acted in the Kandachar or native
militia. They are not only cultivators but sometimes trade in
grain. The Reddi are chiefly in the east and north, and have numerous
subdivisions. To some extent they seem to be of Telugu origin, and
have been supposed to represent the subjects of the ancient Rattavadi,
or kingdom of the Rattas.

The Nonaba, in like manner, are relics of the ancient province of
Nojambavadi or Nonambavadi, a Thirty-two Thousand country, situated
principally in the Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts. It is in these
parts and the west that they are now located. At the present day they
are by faith Lingayits, the residence of their chief guru being at
Gandikere, near Chiknayakanhalli. The acknowledged head of the
Nonabas, though no more than an ordinary cultivator, is the present
descendant of an original Honnappa Gauda, and named after him : he
lives at Hosahalli, near Gubbi.

The Halepaika, inhabiting the north-west, are of interest, and have
already been described above (p. 212). The Halu Wokkaligas are most
numerous in Kadur and Hassan Districts. As their name implies,
they combine the keeping of cows or buffaloes and sale of milk (M/u)
with other agricultural pursuits. The Hallikara are also largely engaged

TIG ALA

:3i

with cattle, and the breed of their name is the best in the Amrit Malial.
The Lalagonda, principally confined to Bangalore District, are not only
farmers, but hirers-out of bullocks, gardeners, builders of mud walls and
traders in straw, etc. The Vellalas are the most numerous class of
Wokkaligas in the Civil and Military Station of I^angalore.

There do not appear to be any peculiarities deserving of notice in
regard to the numerous other classes of Wokkaligas, who are only
distinguishable by name. And as in each successive census a good
many designations returned in the previous one do not recur, it is
evident that some classes are known by more than one name, and
probably use different ones on different occasions.

Tigala. — These arc skilful kitchen and market gardeners, mostly of
Tamil origin, though they have long lost the use of that language. In
addition to those called simply by the tribe-name, the following
principal divisions are noted : — Ulli, Vanne, Pajli, Reddi, Arava, and
Tota, as well as the subdivisions Agra Vannia, Agni, Brahmarishi,
Dharmarajukapu, Enneri, (lauda. Hale Tigaja, Halli, Kandapajli,
Kannada, Pandya, Raja, Samba, Vannikula, and Yanadi. Nearly a
half are in the Bangalore District, most of the remainder being in
Tumkur and Kolar.

The next agricultural group is Forest and other Hill tribes, number-
ing altogether 67,040. The following are the classes included under
this head, with their distribution :—

Caste.

Banga

■5

'.c

Lambani

. 1 3,3.5

751

2,977

1,084

2,846

14,127

8,794

5.243

Koracha )
Korama i

. I 5.246

3.414

2,470

4,169

1.437

4.398

2,059

1. 301

Kail Kuruba

1 219

147

1.450

400

—

Irujiga ...

1,042

The Lambani, or I>ambadi, also called Sukali and Brinjari, have the
following subdivisions : — Banjari, Bhiitya, Dhiimavatpada, Khetavat,
Ramavatpada, and Sabavat. They are a gipsy tribe that wander about
in gangs, accompanied by large herds of bullocks, especially in the
hilly and forest tracts where there are few good roads, engaged in the
transport of grain and other produce. They first prominently came to
notice towards the end of the last century, during the Mahralta and
Mysore wars, when immense numbers of them were employed by the
armies of both sides as foragers and transporters of supplies required

2 3 2 ETHNOGRAPH Y

for the tr()oi)s. ' Of late years many of them have been employed as
labourers on coffee-estates, and some have even partially abandoned
their vagrant life, and settled, at least for a time, in villages of their
own. These, called Thandas, are composed of clusters of their usual
rude wicker huts, pitched on waste ground in wild places. The women
bring in bundles of firewood from the jungles for sale in the towns.

The Lambdnis speak a mixed dialect, called Kutni, largely composed
of Hindi and Mahratti corruptions. In a police report regarding these
people, the late Dr. Shortt stated, " that their social system is unique,
and that they are guided exclusively by their own laws and customs ;
that each community is governed by a priest, who exacts and receives
implicit obedience, and who exercises, under the cloak of rehgion and
supernatural agency, the undisputed power of life and death over them.
They maintain the closest secrecy regarding their customs, and would
sooner forfeit life than divulge them. Infanticide, human sacrifice,
witchcraft and sorcery prevail among the different communities, who
can recognize one another by masonic signs."

The women are distinguished by a curious and picturesque dress,
completely different from that worn by any other class. It consists of
a sort of tartan petticoat, with a stomacher over the bosom, and a
mantle, often elaborately embroidered, which covers the head and
upper part of the body. The hair is worn in ringlets or plaits, hanging
down each side of the face, decorated with small shells, and terminating
in tassels. The arms and ankles are profusely covered with trinkets
made of bone, brass, and other rude materials. The men wear tight
cotton breeches, reaching a little below the knee, with a waist-band
ending in red silk tassels, and on the head a small red or white
turban.

It appears'- that the Lambanis here have twenty-six clans, and claim
a descent from one Chada, who left five sons, Mula, M6ta, Nathad,
Jogda, and Bhimda. Chavan, one of the three sons of Miila, had six
sons, each of whom originated a clan. At some remote period a
Brahman from Ajmir married a girl of Chavan's family, and gave rise
to the Vadtya clan, who still wear the sacred thread. A IMahratta from
Jotpur, in northern India, also allied himself with Rathol, Chavan's
brother, and founded the Khamdat clan. There are no descendants
of ]\I6ta here, but those of Nathad are called INIirasikat, Paradi or
Vagri, and live by catching wild birds. The Jogdas are Jogis. The

^ A correspondent from the British camp at that time terms them " the worthy and
inoffensive Brinjaris." — Cal. Gaz. II, 318. But they are often credited with inborn
thieving and marauding propensities.

- According to the last Cen.sus Report (1891).

KORACHA 233

lihimdas are itinerant blacksmiths, known as Bail Kammar. There is
even a class of Lambani outcastes, called Dhalya, who are drummers
and live separately. They principally trade in bullocks. The
Lambanis acknowledge the Gosayis as their gurus, and reverence
Krishna ; also Basava, as representing the cattle that Krishna tended.
But their principal object of worship is Banashankari, the goddess of
forests.

The Koracha and Korama have already been referred to above
(p. 214). Although virtually the same people, the follow-ing sub-
divisions are separately noted. For Korachas : Aggada, Dabbe,
(longadi, Kannada, Telugu, Uppu, Uru. For Koramas : — Bettale,
Gantu, Gazula, Kannada, Setti, Satubeda, Uppu, ^^'ldda, Yddava,
Yantumule. For Koravas : — Maval, Palchankoti, Uppu. They
wander about with large droves of cattle and asses, conveying salt and
grain from one market to another. They carry with them the frame-
work of a rude description of hut, and while one part of the tribe
proceeds with the baggage animals, the others settle for a time in some
convenient spot, where they erect their huts and employ themselves in
making mats and baskets, begging and stealing, until their proximity
becomes a nuisance to the villagers and they are compelled to move
on. They are described as thieves and robbers from childhood, and
are frequently associated with Brinjaris and other vagrants in burglaries,
dacoities, and acts of violence, often escaping detection owing to their
complete arrangements for obtaining information. They speak Telugu
and Tamil, and are said to have a peculiar gipsy language of their
own, with a system of signals which enables them to converse with the
initiated unobserved. They have no idols to which they pay particular
homage, and only invoke Tirupati \'enkatramana when in distress,
vowing small offerings of money to the temple should they escape.

The men tie up their hair in a large bunch or chignon on one side
of the top of the head, in precisely the same manner as we find the
men's hair arranged on most of the old sculptured stones of the
country. The women wear an immense number of strings of small
white and red beads and shells round the neck and falling over the
bosom.

I'he Kadu Kuruba and Jenu Kuruba have already come under
notice (above, p. 213), also the Iruliga, who are much like the latter;
and certain other forest and hill tribes have likewise been referred to.

We now pass to the Professional class (B), which, under the groups
of Priests, Devotees, and Temple-servants, includes 277,086 persons,
distributed as follows, 183,451 being Brahmana, 62,918 Lingayita,
19,987 Satani, 8,132 Jaina, and 2,508 various devotees.

234

ETHNOGRAPHY

Sect.

Tumkur.

Shimoga.

2
Is

Hrahmana

29,882

23,930

17,099

43,013

17,151

29,379

17,072

6,015

Lingayila

6,577

3,347

8,544

11,990

8,965

9,620

7,094

7,885

Sdtaiii

3,742

1,937

3,801

4,480

3,660

682

989

696

Jaina

359

876

1,526

1,928

1,246

422

1,264

416

Dasari, &c.

381

629

413

302

167

232

220

«63

Pancha Drdvida.

Karnataka or Kannada

■ 94,329

- 133

A'ndhra or Telugu

• 33,672

... 2,067

Dravida or Tamil

■ 32,853

Maharashtra or Mahratta

. 20,087

Gurjara or Gujarati

Brahmana. — The Brahmans throughout India, with a few excep-
tions, belong, according to original location or language, either to the
Pancha Gauda (the five tribes north of the Krishna), or to the Pancha
Dravida (the five tribes south of that river). The following are the
subdivisions, together with the numbers in Mysore pertaining to each
.so far as can be gathered from the census returns of 1891 : —

Pancha Gaitda.
Kanyakubja (N.W.P. ) ...

Sarasvata (Punjab)

Gauda (Delhi and Bengal)

Maithila (Behar)

Utkala (Ori.ssa)

These seldom intermarry, and though the tribes living here have
long been intermixed, they generally retain in their families the
language of the country from whence they originally came.

The Brahmans are farther subdivided into a number of gotras, the
original progenitors of which were seven principal rishis or sages,
namely, Bhrigu, Angiras, Atri, Vis'vamitra, Kasyapa, Vas'ishtha, and
Agastya. In the unlimited ramifications of g6tras which have branched
out from the parent stems, the line of descent is exhibited in the
pravara or pedigree, and a man and woman of the same gotra and
pravara never marry together. The connection of the gotra is entirely
in the male line, a woman on marriage being affiliated to the husband's
g6tra. The following are the strongest gotras in Mysore, or those con-
taining over 1,000 in each: —

Bharadvaja ..

• 25,950

Kaus'ika ...

• 9,893

Vadhula

2,788

Kasyapa

• 24,151

Kaundinya

• 9,074

S'andilya ...

2,495

Vis'vamitra ..

■ 11,771

Harita ... .

. 8,471

Maudgalva

2,252

Vas'ishtha .

■ 11,592

Gautama ...

• 5,897

Maunabhargava

1,920

S'rivatsa

. 10,480

Jamadagni...

• 3,294

Gargyayana

1,162

A'lreya

• 10,307

A'ngirasa ... .

■• 2,929

S'athamarshana

1,050

BRAHMANS

235

Altogether sixty-nine g6tras are represented here, the remamder, in
alphabetical order, being : — Achyuta, Agastya, Ambarisha, As'valayana,
Badarayana, Barhaspatya, Ch6pagayana, Devaraja, Dhananjaya, Galava,
Gauda Sarasvata, Ghritasams'a, Havikarma, Kalakaus'ika, Kamakayana,
Kanva, Kapi, Katyayana, Kosala, Kundali, Kutsa, L6hita, Maitreya,
Mandavya, Maunjyayana, Mitravasu, Mohana, Nistudhana, Paras'ara,
Parthiva, Paulastya, Paurakutsa, Piitamanasa, Rajendra, Rathi'tara,
Salankayana, Salavatsa, Sankalika, Sankarshana, Sankhyayana,
Sankriti, Santasa, S'aunaka, Svatantrakapi, Upamanyu, Vadhryas'va,
Vaikhanasa, Vais'ampayana, Vamana, Vishnuvardhana, Vyasa.

Kshatriyas, and others who are not Brahmans, may properly assume
the gotra of \k\€\x purohita, or family priest and domestic chaplain, who
is of course a Brahman. But certain classes who are ambitious of
being reckoned as Brahmans, have invented gotras for themselves of
apocryphal origin.

In addition to the gotra, there is the s'dkka, or particular branch or
school of the Veda which each Brahman professes to follow in the per-
formance of his sacrifices and rites. Classified on this basis 91,638 are
Rig-vedis, 77,972 Yajur-vedis, and 12,776 Sama-vedis. Therearenone
apparently who acknowledge adhesion to the Atharva veda. Some
classes that are not Brahmans boldly proclaim themselves followers of
a fifth veda. '

All the Brahmans here, moreover, belong to one of three main
sects : — Smarta, Madhva, and S'rivaishnava. The following is their
distribution, the totals being 129,550, 32,070, and 20,764 respectively : —

Sect.

Bangalore.

Kolar.

3
H

«5

t
X

11,842

n
0
E
15

Kadur.

2
2

Smarta

18,939

14,802

12,430

29,911

23,267

15,060

3,299

Madhva

7,309

5.834

3,210

6,336

1,057

4,983

1,104

2,237

S'rivaishnava ...

3>354

2,689

1,367

6,751

4,161

1,124

862

456

All three sects are composed of either Vaidikas or I^aukikas, the
former, those who have devoted themselves entirely to religion, and
live on charity ; the latter, those who attend to worldly affairs. The

' Somewhat on the same principle that the Press in England calls itself the l-'ourth
Estate, supplementary to the three recognized governing estates of king, nobles and
commons.

236 ETHNOGRAPHY

distinction is merely an individual one, as different members of the
same family may be either Vaidikas or Laukikas according to inclina-
tion.

The Smarta derive their name from s/iiriii\ the code of revealed or
traditional law. They worship the triad of Brahma, S'iva, and Vishnu
under the mystic syllable 6>w, and while admitting them to be equal,
exalt S'iva as their chief deity. They hold the pantheistic Vedanta
doctrine of Advaita or non-dualism, believing God and matter to be
identical, and everything but an atom of the divinity, they themselves
being parts of the Supreme Being. The founder of the Smarta sect
was S'ankara or S'ankaracharya, the Hindu reformer of the eighth
century, and their guru is the S'ringeri Swami, designated the Jagad
Guru. The probably very ancient sect of the Bhagavata, or the
Bhagavata sampradaya, numbering 12,788, are reckoned as Smartas,
but they incline more to Vishnu worship, and follow the Tengale in
the time of observing the Ekadas'i fasts. The guru of the Bhagavatas
is at Talkad. The distinctive marks of a Smarta Brahman are three
parallel horizontal lines of pounded sandalwood, or of the ashes of cow-
dung, on the forehead, with a round red spot in the centre, but the
Bhagavatas wear perpendicular Vaishnava marks.

The Madhva are so called from Madhva or Madhvacharya, the
founder of the sect, who arose in South Kanara in the thirteenth
century. They worship both Vishnu and S'iva, but more particularly
the former. They profess the doctrine of Dvaita or dualism, consider-
ing the Creator and the created to be distinct, and their final absorption
to be in the future. It appears that they may be divided into the
Vyasakiita and the Dasakuta. The former adhere strictly to the
religious teachings of the founder, which are entirely in Sanskrit. The
latter base their faith on hymns and writings in the vernacular, which
they can understand, of persons of their sect distinguished as Dasas or
servants of God, and they go about with musical instruments singing
these in honour of the Divine Being. A Madhva Brahman is known
by a black perpendicular line from the junction of the eyebrows to the
top of the forehead, with a dot in the centre. A Smarta may become
a Madhva, and vice versa, but the former happens oftener than the
latter. In such cases intermarriages between persons of the same
circle are not prohibited, though they embrace different doctrines, but
the wife always adopts the tenets of her husband.

The S'rivaishnava, also called Aiyangar, are worshippers of ^'ishnu,
as identified with his consort Lakshmi or S'ri, whence their name.
The founder of their sect was Ramanuja or Ramanujacharya, who lived
in the Chola and Mysore countries at the beginning of the twelfth

BRAHMANS 237

century, and after him they are also called Ramanujas in some parts of
India. Their creed is the Vis'ishtadvaita, which differs from the Dvaita
in attributing both form and qualities to the Deity. In Mysore their
guru is the Parakalaswami of Melukote. They are the most exclusive
of all the Brahmans in points of food and intermarriage, the
orthodox among them requiring curtains to screen their food from the
gaze of others, even their own relations and fellow-sectarians. They
form two principal divisions, the Tengale, or southern, numbering 7,161,
and the ^'a(jagale, or northern, numbering 12,914. The distinction
between the two arises from dispute as to certain doctrinal points, said
to be eighteen in number,' which were formulated some four centuries
back, in Sanskrit and Tamil verses, by Manaval Mahamuni on the side
of the Tengale, and by Vedanta Desikar on the side of the Vadagale,
and the dispute has placed a gulf between the parties ever since.
There are some differences also in social observances. The Tengale,
for instance, do not subject widows to the tonsure, which is usual
among other Brahman sects. They also give more prominence
to the vernacular versions of their Sanskrit sacred writings. The
S'rivaishnava are known by the ndimi or trident on the forehead,
the centre line being yellow or red, and the two outer ones white.
The Tengale distinguish themselves from the Vadagale by continuing
the central line of the trident in white for some distance down the
nose.

The three main sects above described contain nearly eighty recorded
subdivisions, distinguished by names which are mainly territorial or
numerical in origin. The derivation of many of the names appears to
l)e unknown even to those who bear them.

Those included under Smarta and Madhva, in alphabetical order,
are :— Adi S'aiva, Aruvattu-wokkalu, A'ruvelu, A'ruvelu Niy6gi, Ashta-
sahasra, Badaganad, Bhagavata-sampradaya, Bodhayana, Brihach-
charana, Chitpavan, Des'astha, Devalaka or Sivaradhya, Dnivida, Hale
Karnataka or Hala Kannadiga, Havika or Haiga, Hoysaniga, Kambalur,
Kamme (Babbiir, Kannada, Ulcha and Vijayapura), Kandavara,
Kardfle, Karnataka, Kasalnad, Katyayana, Kavarga, Ki'lnad, Konkan-
astha, K6ta (or Kaikota and Ippatnalkaravaru), Koti's'vara, Kus'asthala
(or Senve), Madhva (Waishnava and Pennattur), Mulikinad or Muri-
kinad, Nambilri, Nandavaidika, Niyogi, Panchagrama, Praknad,
Prathamas'akhe (Kanva, Madhydnjana or Yajnavalkya), Sahavasi,
Sanketi, Sarvarya, S'lrnad, S'is'uvarga, S'ivalli (or Kurus'ivalli), S'ukla
YajusVakhe, Telaghanya, Totada Tigala, Tulava, Uttraji (or Uttradi),
Vadama, Vadhyama, ^'anglpuram, Veginad, Velna<.'.

1 The majority are detailed in the Census Report for 1S91.

238 ETHNOGRAPHY

'I'lic strongest of these divisions numerically are, — those returned
simply as Smarta, 23,374; Badaganad, 23,019; Dcs'astha, 17,127;
Kamme (Babhur, Kannada and Ulcha), 14,265; Mulikinad, 11,188;
Hoysaniga, 8,328 ; Dravida, 7,856 ; Hale Karnataka, 7,526 ; Vaishnava
(Madhva), 7,280.

The Badaganad had their origin in the northern [batiaga) districts
{nd(f), and s])eak Kannada : they are both Smartas and Madhvas.
The Des'astha are immigrants from the Mahratta country, and mostly
retain the use of Mahratti : they are Smartas and Madhvas, the latter
preponderating ; but the difference of faith is no bar among them to
intermarriage and free social intercourse. The Babbur Kamme are
all Smartas ; the Kannada Kamme and Ulcha Kamme are both
Smartas and Madhvas : nearly all speak Kannada, a few Telugu also.
The Kamme country seems to have been to the east of the Kolar
District. The Mulikinad or Murikinad are Smartas from the Kadapa
district, speaking Telugu. The present chief priest of S'ringeri is
of this sect. The Hoysaniga, also called Vaishaniga, are chiefly
Smartas and speak Kannada. Their name may be derived from the
old Hoysala or Hoysana kingdom. The Dravida, Vadama (1,454),
and Brihachcharama or Pericharana (1,293), niay be taken together:
they are immigrants from the Tamil country, and are Smartas, speak-
ing Tamil, and a few Telugu. The Hale Karnataka or Hala
Kannadiga are mostly confined to the Mysore District, where they
are generally village accountants. There are two branches — Mugur
and S6sile. They are nearly all Smcirtas, and their language is
Kannada. Though their claim to be Brahmans was apparently not
denied, they were for some reason, till recently, under a sort of ban,
and often called by a nickname ; but about twenty-five years ago
they were publicly recognized by both the S'ringeri and Parakala
mathas. Other Brahmans, however, have no intercourse with them,
social or religious.

Of the other sects, the A'ruvelu, or the Six Thousand (4,486), are
both Smartas and Madhvas, and speak both Kannada and Telugu.
The A'ruvelu Niy6gi are a branch of them, who are laukikas, or
devoted to secular callings. The Aruvattu-wokkalu or Sixty families
(4,997) originally formed a portion either of the A'ruvelu or the
Kamme, but were selected as his disciples by Vyasaraya Swami, of the
Madhva faith, two or three centuries ago. The small sect of Kambalur
or T6tada Tigala (113), mostly in Shimoga District, are also connected
with the A'ruvelu. Moreover, the Uttaraji or Uttaradi (425), appear
to have branched off from the A'ruvelu some three or four centuries
ago, when they became the disciples of S'ripada Raya of Venkatagiri.

BR AH MANS 239

The addition of these several offshoots would bring the number of
the A'ruvelu up to 9,921.

The Chitpavan (2,345) are Mahrattas and Smartas. The Havika
or Haiga (3,246) are immigrants from Haiga, the ancient name of
North Kanara, and they are almost entirely confined to the west of the
Shimoga District. They are Smartas, and are now principally engaged
in the cultivation of areca-nut gardens. According to tradition they
are of northern origin, and were introduced by one of the Kadamba
kings, in the third or fourth century, from Ahichchhatra. This would
bring them from Rohilkand, but Ahichchhatra may be only a learned
synonym for Haiga (see note above, p. 216). The name Havika is
said to be a corruption of Havyaka, or conductor of sacrifices, and
perhaps it was for such purposes that they were imported at a time
when there were no Brahmans in those parts. The small communities
of Kandavara (213), Kavarga (7), K6ta and K6tis'vara (25), Kus'as-
thala, S'is'uvarga, properly S'ishyavarga (139), with the S'ivalli (2,397),
are all Tula Brahmans, immigrants from South Kanara, the ancient
Tuluva, and mostly located in the western Districts. They engage in
agriculture and trade, and speak Tulu and Kannada. The Karade or
Karhade (253) are Mahrattas from Karhad. Some of them are
employed in the Revenue Survey. The Konkanastha (296) are also
Mahrattas from the Konkan, and are Smartas. The above two sects do
not intermarry, but mix freely in other respects. The Nandavaidika
(1,257) are from the Teluga country: both Smartas and Madhvas :
language Telugu and Kannada. The Prathamas'akhe (5,027) and
SuklayajusVakhe or ]Madyandina are both Smartas and Madhvas : they
speak Telugu and Kannada. The Sahavasi are immigrants, like the
Chitpavan, from the Mahratta country.

The Sanketi (2,522) are Smartas from Madura, and speak a corrupt
mixture of Tamil and Kannada. There are two branches, the Kaus'ika
and the Bettadpur, so named from the places in which they first settled,
which are in the Hassan and Mysore Districts. They eat together, but
do not intermarry as a rule. The Kaus'ika, however, who were the first
comers, are said occasionally to get wives from the Bettadpur, but in
such cases the girl's connection with the latter altogether ceases. The
Sanketi reverence a prophetess named Nacharamma or Nangiramma,
who seems to have been instrumental in causing their migration from
their original seats. The story about her is given in the first edition.
The Sirandd (3,490) have two divisions, the Hale Siranad, who are
Smartas, and the Hosa Siranad, who are chiefly Madhvas. Both speak
Kannada and derive their name probably from Sira in the Tumkur
District. The Vengipuram (193) arc all Smartas, speaking Telugu.

240 ETHNOGRAPHY

The VclnafJ (3, i<S[) arc also Telugu Smartas, and resemble the
Murikinacj. They are mostly in the south and east. The Vegindd are
Smartas, and speak Kannada. There is only one member returned of
this sect, a man in Kolar District.

The subdivisions of the S'n'vaishnavas, in alphabetical order, are : —
Bhattaracharya, Embar, Hebbar (Melnatar), Hemmigeyar, Kadambiyar,
Kandade, Kilnatar, Mandyattar, Maraddrar, Metukunteyar, Morasanad,
Munch (Sn or Ch61i, NalUinchakravarti, Prativadi-bhayankarattdr,
.Somes andal or Attan-kutattar, Tirumaleyar. No less than 16,817 have
returned themselves simply as S'n'vaishnavas.

The IJhattaracharya are Tengales, and generally Vaidikas : they
speak Telugu and Tamil. The Embar are Tengales from S'rirangam,
and speak Tamil. The Hebbar (1,724) are descendants of immigrants
from the Tamil country, who settled in five different villages, and were
hence also known as the Panchagrama (358). These places were
Grama (Hassan District), Kadaba (Tumkur District), Molur (Bangalore
District), Hangala (Mysore District), and Belur (Hassan District).
Hebbar was the old Brahman designation of the headman of a village,
as Heggade was of the Jains, and these names still linger in the west.
It is said to be a corruption of heb-hdrava, or the head Brahman. The
settlers in Grama, it appears, had acquired this title, which owing to their
connection was extended to all the Panchagrama. They all eat
together and intermarry : are both Tengale and Vadagale, and speak
Tamil. The Hemmigeyar are all Vaidikas and Vadagale, settled at
Hemmige near Talkad, which is said to have been granted by the
king of the day to one of their ancestors as a reward for distinguishing
himself in a literary discussion. Their language is Tamil. The
Mandyattar (566) are immigrants from a village called Mandyam
near Tirupati. They are located in Meluk6te and Mandya, the
latter being named after their native place. They are all Tengale and
speak Tamil. The Maradiirar are similar settlers at the neighbouring
village of Maddiir, which is a corruption of Maradiir. The Metukun-
teyar are Vadagale and disciples of the Parakalaswami. They speak
Telugu and Tamil. The Munchdli and Choli, so called because they
retain the lock of hair in front of the head, are Tengale, and their
language is Tamil. The Nallanchakravarti are Vadagale from Con-
jeveram, and are all Vaidikas, speaking Tamil. The Prativadi-
bhayankarattdr, meaning the terrifiers of opponent disputants, are
Tengale and ^'aidikas from S'riangam : language Tamil. There are
only two men of this sect put down, both in Kolar District. The
Somes'anddl are Vadagale, and chiefly Vaidikas, from the same part :
language Tamil. The Tirumaleyar (262) are descendants of Koti-

SATANI 241

kanyadana Tatacharya, whose name implies that he had given away a
milHon virgins in marriage, a son of the guru to Raman ujacharya.
They are all Vadagales and Vaidikas, and seem to have come from
Conjeveram. They speak Tamil.

The Temple servants or Brahmans who act ^% pujdris are all "\'aidikas,
but are considered to have degraded themselves by undertaking such
service, and the other Brahmans will have no connection with them.
The S'ivadvija or Sivanambi (605) and TambaHa (2) are of the
Smarta sect, and ofificiate in S'iva temples. The Vaikhanasa (407)
and Pancharatrcil (142) belong to the S'rivaishnavas, and officiate in
Vishnu temples. The Tammadis who officiate in certain Siva temples
are Lingayits.

Lingayita. — The priestly orders among these are the A'radhya
(11,618), Gurusthala (12,129), Jangama (38,215) and ^'^^^ S'aiva (956).
The A'radhya are a sect of Lingayit Brahmans. They assume the
janivdra or sacred thread, but call it sivaddra. The Gurusthala are a
class of Jangama who take the place of gurus in performing certain
domestic ceremonies for which the gurus do not attend. The Jangama
are priests chiefly of the I^anchama Banajiga and Devanga. They are
divided into Charanli and Virakta, the former being under a vow of
celibacy. The Jangama derive their name especially from the portable
ox jinigama linga worn on the person (which indeed is characteristic of
all Lingayits) as distinguished from the sthdvira or fixed linga of the
temples, and also perhaps from their being itinerant. In addition to
the linga they wear a necklace of beads called riidrdksha, and smear
their whole bodies with the ashes of cow-dung. A Jangam will not
permit himself to be touched by any person who does not wear the
linga. They wander about and subsist on charity, and their children
generally adopt the same profession.

Satani. — These are regarded as priests by the Holeya and other
inferior castes, while they themselves have the chiefs of the S'rivaishnava
Brahmans and Sannyasis as their gurus. Their subdivisions are
Khadri Vaishnava, Ndtacharasilrti, Prathama Vaishnava, Sameraya or
Samagi, Sankara, Sattadhava, Suri, Telugu Satani, Venkatapurada and
Vaishnava. Some are employed in agriculture, but as a rule they are
engaged in the service of Vishnu temples, and are flower-gatherers, torch-
bearers and strolling minstrels. Buchanan supposed them to be the
remains of an extensive priesthood who formerly held the same relation
to the Holeya that the Brahmans now do to the Si'idras. But as a sect
they appear to be of more modern origin. They call themselves
\'aishnavas and correspond with the Baisnabs in Bengal. They are
followers of Chaitanya, from whose name, or that of Satdnana, one of his

242 E THNOGRAJ'H V

disciples, their designation may be derived. Properly speaking, they
are not a caste, but a religious sect of votaries of Vishnu, more
especially in the form of Krishna, who have ceased to regard caste
distinctions. In the north of India admission to the sect is obtained
by payment to a Gosayi and partaking of food with other members of
the sect.

Jaina. — The priests of this religion have been returned as
Tirthankara (2,564) and Pitambara (5). The Jaina yatis or clergy
here belong to the sect of Digambara, properly, clad with space, that
is nude, but they cover themselves with a yellow robe, and hence
the name Pitambara. An account of the Jaina will be found under
Religion.

The Devotees and religious mendicants are, — among Hindus, Dasari
(1,178), Sannyasi (684), Gosayi (424), and Bairagi (222): among
Lingayits, Ay3'a, Ganadhisvara, Shatsthala and Vader (956) : among
Jains, Digambara (5,477), Svetambara (85), and Bavaji (i).

Dasari are mendicants belonging to different castes of Siidras.
They become Dasas, or servants, dedicated to the god at Tirupati, by
virtue of a particular vow, made either by themselves or relatives at
some anxious or dangerous moment, and live by begging in his name.
Dasaris are strictly Vishnuvites, as the vow is taken only by castes who
are worshippers of that deity. Dasaris are always invited by Sudras
on ceremonial days and feasted. The subdivisions are Dharma, Giidama,
S'anku, and Tirunama Dasaris.

A Sannyasi is properly a man who has forsaken all. He has
renounced the world, and leads a life of celibacy and abstemiousness,
devoting himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to study
of the holy books. He is considered to have attained to a state of
exalted piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste
and ceremony. It is the fourth ds'rama or final stage of life for the
three higher orders. The number of Brahman Sannyasis is very small,
and chiefly confined to those who are gurus or bishops of the different
sects. These are as a rule men of learning and the heads of
monasteries, where they have a number of disciples under instruction
who are trained for religious discussion. They are supported entirely
by endowments and the contributions of their disciples. Periodical
tours are undertaken for the purpose of receiving the offerings of
their followers. They travel in great state, with elephants, horses, and
a retinue of disciples. On the approach of a guru to any place all
the inhabitants of pure birth go out to meet him : the lower classes are
not admitted to his presence. On being conducted to the principal
temple, he bestows upadcsa or chakrdniikam on such as have not

GOSA YI 243

received these ceremonies (which may be considered analogous to
confirmation by prelates in the English Church), and distributes holy
water. He inquires into their matters of contention or transgressions
against the rules of caste, and having disposed of these, hears his
disciples and other learned men dispute on theological subjects. This
is the grand field for acquiring reputation among the Brahmans.' The
gurus are bound to spend all they get in what is reckoned as charitable
distribution, that is in the support of men and buildings dedicated to
the service of the gods. But the majority of the Sannyasis (of whom
no less than 412 are in the Kolar District, and 175 in Tumkur) are a
class of Siidra devotees who live by begging and pretend to powers of
divination. They wear the clerical dress of red ochre and allow the
hair to grow unshorn. They are married and often have settled
abodes, but itinerate, and their descendants keep up the sect and follow
the same calling.

The Gosayi are followers of Chaitanya, the Vishnuvite reformer
of the sixteenth century, whose original disciples, six in number, were
so called. They never marry, but the order is recruited from all the
four principal castes, especially the two highest, and those who join are
cut off" for ever from their own tribes. Such as lead a strictly ascetic
life are called Avadhuta, while those who engage in commerce and
trade are called Dandi. Most of those in Mysore belong to the latter
subdivision, and are wealthy merchants from northern and western
India, settled in Mysore, Bangalore and other chief towns, dealing
largely in jewels and valuable embroidered cloths. The profits of their
traffic go to their Mahant or teacher. The property of either Avadhuta
or Dandi devolves on his chela or adopted disciple.

The Bairagi are followers of Ramanand, the \'ishnuvite reformer,
who early forsook the cares of the world and gave himself up to
Vairagya, or the renunciation of all worldly desires, becoming the first
Vairagi or Bairagi. Yxom. his four disciples arose four sects, each of
which is composed of Nihangs, those who are purely ascetics and lead
secluded lives, and Samayogis, who marry and live with their families ;
but both orders can eat together. Many profess to be physicians and
herbalists, while others pretend to be alchemists. All are beggars, and
as pilgrims resort to holy places, especially to Tirupati. Their usual
route in the south is from Rames'vara to Totadri, which is in that
neighbourhood, S'rirangam, Ciopalswamibetta, Meluk6te and Tirupati.
They are also called Sadhu and are all worshippers of Vishnu and

' These disputations are said to 1)e very similar to those which were common
among the doctors of the Romish Church seven or eight hundred years ago. —
Biichanaii.

244 ETHNOGRAPHY

adherents of S'n'vaishnava IJrahmans. They are mostly taken from
the Sudra castes, but many of them wear the triple cord and
profess themselves to be (iauda 13rahmans from the north. Half
the number at the census time were in Bangalore District and a
considerable number in Kadur. There were none in Hassan and
Shimoga, and only three in Chitaldroog.

The Yader, a corruption of Odeyar or Vadeyar, meaning lord or
master, are Lingayits like the Jangama. They are held in great veneration
in their sect and are feasted by laymen on all important occasions,
especially at S'ivaratri, when their attendance is said to be in such great
demand that they have to hurry from house to house, just tasting a
morsel in each. Mostly in Kadur, Mysore and Shimoga Districts ;
none in Kolar and Hassan.

The Digambara and Svetambara are the tvv-o great sects of the
Jains. The derivation of the former name has already been given
above. The Svetambara are those who are clad in white. This
section is found more in the north of India, and is represented by but
a small number in Mysore. The Digambara are said to live absolutely
separated from society and from all worldly ties. Most numerous in
Mysore, Tumkur and Kadur Districts.

Quitting the religious groups we come to that of the professional
Writers, of whom there are io8 Kanakkan and 6 Kayastha, all in the
Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. The former may be allied to
the Karnams and Kanakka-pillai (commonly called Conocopoly) of the
Madras country, who are village and other accountants. The Kanakkan
include the subdivisions of Karnikar, Sirkanakkan, and Sirkarnikar.
The Kayastha are from northern India and have a subdivision called
Madur.

Next are Musicians and Ballad-reciters, the well-known Bhats or
Bhatraju, numbering 1,388, and found chiefly in the eastern and
southern Districts. They speak Telugu and are supposed to have
come from the Northern Sarkars. They were originally attendants on
Hindu princes as professional bards, singing their praises and reciting
ballads on the wondrous deeds of their ancestors.^ Now, from want of

' The name is a curious approximation to that of the western bard, and their
offices are nearly similar. No Hindu Raja is without his bhats. Haidar, although
not a Hindu, delighted to be constantly preceded by them, and they are an appendage
to the state of many other Musalman chiefs. They have a wonderful facility in
speaking improvisatore, on any subject proposed to them, a declamation in measures,
which may be considered as a sort of medium between blank verse and modulated
prose ; but their proper profession is that of chaunting the exploits of former days in
the front of the troops while marshalling for battle, and inciting them to emulate the
glory of their ancestors. — Jl'ilks, in 1810.

COMMERCIAL CLASS

245

their ordinary employment, they have descended into the mendicant
class. They are principally worshippers of Vishnu.

The Dancers and Singers follow, composed of Natuva (1,804) and
Kaikola (5,672). The subdivisions are Binkali Kaikola, Bogavaru,
Devadasi, (layaka, Lokabalike, Nayaksani. The women dance and
sing ; the men are musicians and accompany them on various instru-
ments. Nearly all the Kaikola are in ^lysore District : those that
speak Kannada are of Lingayit connection and called Basavi. The
Natuva are most numerous in Kolar and Mysore Districts : those who
speak Telugu are of the Telugu Banajiga caste. The females are
generally prostitutes and attached as dancing girls to Hindu temples.
The class is recruited either from those born in it or those adopted
from any of the Hindu castes. Sometimes the parents of a girl have
dedicated her to a temple even before her birth ; in other cases good-
looking girls are purchased from parents who are too poor to maintain
them.

The last professional group is the Chitari, who are classed as
Rachevar, and composed of Chitragara, also called Bannagara (912),
mostly in Mysore, Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts, and Jinagara
(3,728), nearly all in Shimoga District. They are painters, decorators
and gilders, and make trunks, palanquins, lacquer toys and wooden
images for temples, cars, etc.

The Commercial class (C) consists entirely of Merchants and Traders.
The following are the principal divisions according to strength, with
their distribution. There are also 161 Baniya, 2 Miiltani, and i Jat,
all in the Civil and Military Station of Ijangalore ; S3 Marvadi, and 71
Cujarati.

Caste.

Shimo

3
21,052

3
0

Lingayita

19,700

6,139

21,289

91,257

39,006

49,333

44,297

Banajiga ...

2«,437

36,296

12,408

17,811

3w35

6,709

5,115

4,224

Komati ...

4,766

8,890

5>304

3,210

1,766

1,175

1,338

2,605

Nagarla ...

5,289

3.004

315

439

7,966

5,223

651

Miulali

1,625

714

380

1,305

167

229

225

492

Jainaand S'ravaka

lOS

305

230

2,974

200

Ladar

134

1,185

338

216

Of the 292,073 l.ingdyita, forming 62 per cent, of the trading com-
munity, 222,389 are returned by that name alone and i)reponderate in
Mysore District. Other divisions are Linga Banajiga (37,322), most
numerous in Chitaldroog and Hassan Districts ; Sajjana (30,424),

246 E THNO G RA /'// V

more than half in Shimoga District; Sthaladava (1,243), "C-arly all in
Bangalore District ; l\anchamasale (182), nearly the whole in the Civil
and Military Station of Bangalore; Hirehasube (loi), almost all in
Mysore District; and K6risetti (52), all in Tumkur District. Further
subdivisions are Badagalava, Bannadava, Basale, Bavane, Gada Lin-
gayita, Gaddigeyava, J6ti Banajiga, Kannadiga, Kanthapavade, Kaikola,
M(^lpdvadc, Nfrume'linava, Petemane, T6gasetti, and Turukane
Banajiga. In the rural parts they are perhaps engaged more in agri-
culture than in trade.

The Banajiga number 114,735, ^'""^ form 24 per cent, of the
traders. The strongest section is that of Telugu Banajiga (59,495), the
greater number in Kolar and Bangalore Districts, as are also those put
down simply as Banajiga (17,779). The Setti (14,875) are most
numerous in Tumkur District and the Civil and Military Station of
Bangalore. The Dasa (7,925) are chiefly in Mysore District. The
Bale (5,378), makers and vendors of glass bangles, are chiefly in the
Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. The Yele (3,601), or betel-leaf
sellers, are most numerous in Mysore and Tumkur Districts. De'vadiga
(2,31 5), bangle-sellers, nearly all in Shimoga District, and the rest in
Kadur District; Nayadu (1,141), most numerous in Bangalore and
Chitaldroog Districts ; Huvvadiga (905) or flower-sellers, nearly all in
Kadur District ; Arale (340) or cotton-sellers, mostly in Mysore and
Bangalore Districts; Sukhamanji (313), nearly all in Bangalore
District, and the rest in Kolar District ; and Muttarasu (7), all in the
Civil and INIilitary Station of Bangalore, make up the remaining chief
sections. The minor subdivisions are A'di, Aggada, A'kuleti, Bherisetti,
Banta, Bidara, De'sayi, Dharmaraju, Gajulabalji, Gandhudibalji,
Gerballi, Gaudu, Ganga, Kalayi, Kamme, Kannada, Kapali, Kavare,
Kempti, Kempu, Kolla, Kotta, Lingabalji, Marasi, Mudusarebalji,
Miirusire, Mutta, Muttaraju, Pagadala, Pasaluvate, S'ivachara, Soliya-
setti, Virasaggada, and Yellamma. The principal occupations of
Banajigas are agriculture, labour and trade of all kinds.

The Kbmati (29,054) and Nagarta (22,964) are principally found in
towns and large trade centres. Both claim to be ^'aisyas, and the
former are specially considered to be such. The Komati subdivisions
are Kannada, Myada, Setti, Trikarma, Tuppada, and Yavamanta. The
majority are worshippers of S'iva and a few of ^'ishnu, but the chief
object of reverence is the goddess Kanyaka Parames'vari. All eat
together and intermarry. They deal in cloth and, except spirits, in all
kinds of merchandise, especially money and jewels, but never cultivate
the ground nor become mechanics. The Nagarta, besides 4, 297 only
so named, chiefly in Bangalore and Kolar Districts, are subdivided into

ARTISANS 247

Ay6dhyanagara (39), all in Bangalore District; Bheri (229), nearly all
in Kolar District; Namadhari (15,428), mostly in Shimoga and Kadur
Districts; and Vais'ya (2,971), most numerous in Bangalore and Kolar
1 )istricts. There are also minor sections called S'ivachar and Vaishnava.
Of the Nagarta some are worshippers of Vishnu and others of S'iva :
of the latter a part wear the linga and others not. The three sects do
not intermarry or eat together. They are dealers in bullion, cloth,
cotton, drugs and grain, but do not cultivate the ground or follow any
handicraft trade, though some act as porters.

The Mudali (5,437) or Mudaliyar, with the subdivision Agamudi,
are of Tamil origin, from Arcot, Vellore and other places, the
offsjiring of traders, servants and contractors who followed the
progress of British arms. The majority are in the cities of Bangalore
and Mysore. They are a thriving and money-making class, and
many of them are employed under (iovernment : they also engage
in trade of all kinds, and as contractors for buildings and other public
works.

Of the Jaina (1,981) and S'rdvaka (1,962) the great majority of the
former and the whole of the latter are in Shimoga District, and probably
represent a very ancient trading community of those parts. The Ladar
(2,046) are traders from the Mahratta country, and are principally
settled in the Mysore District.

The Baniya are wealthy money-lenders from other parts. Their
divisions are Agarvala, Bakkal, Jaman, Multani, and Oswal. The
Mdrvddi (Dodaya and Kumbi), Gujardti and Multdni zxe. traders from
the countries after whose names they are called. The Marvadi deal in
pearls and cloths. The (iujarati are small money-lenders, and also
trade in jewels, cloths and other articles.

The class Artisan and \'illage Menial (D) includes the following : —

Smiths, Carpenters and Masons ...

Pdnchala

"3,731

Barbers

Niiyinda ...

37,296

Tailors

Darji

10,664

Weavers and Uyers

Neyi^ara, Coniga

88,413

Washermen...

Agasa

85,671

Cowherds, iSrc.

Ciolla

128,995

Shepherds

Kuruba

346,768

(Jilpressers ...

Caniga

35, 80S

I'otters

Kumbara ..

40,809

Salters

Uppara

89,123

Cold-lace makers

Sarige

Fishermen

Besta

99,897

Toddy drawers

I'<liy^^

39,937

Village Watchmen, &c. ...

Ib.leya

520,493

Leather workers

Madiga, Mochi ...

240,321

248

ETHNOGRAPHY

The sul)juincd tahlc shows their distribution over the several
Districts : —

Caste.

r!
0

>'sore.

0
2

IS
12,107

Ic
U

Panchala

14,105

9,688

9,685

37,448

1.3,588

8,745

8,365

Nayinda

7,971

8,559

3,807

8,401

2,979

2,828

923

1,828

Darji

3,668

574

908

1,457

511

2,090

734

722

Neyigara

24,492

8,696

8,109

10,224

12,808

6,674

10,236

7,174

Agasa ...

11,447

10,327

10,323

19,435

10,456

13,103

4,186

6,394

Colla

20,430

20,022

38.237

5,445

5,212

3,995

4,149

15,892

Kurul)a ...

41,407

35,304

38,186

115,805

40,730

23,683

26,255

25,398

Ganiga ...

5,909

5,790

3,305

15,634

2,259

547

1,092

1,272

Kunil)ara

4,306

3,962

3,183

16,136

Z^m

3,281

4,oiS

2,610

Uppara ...

1,516

3,127

11,568

34,717

8,566

10,956

10,000

8,673

Sarige ...

—

Besta

8,357

3,910

4,201

59,550

7,628

7,290

4,102

4,859

I\liga

2,569

1,708

5,348

8,450

2,757

10,944

3,882

4,279

Holeya

81,369

57,665

23,616

173,003

87,055

38,000

51,291

8,491

Madiga ...

46,329

39,661

48,324

24,179

11,190

23,043

10,453

37,142

The Panchala, as their name implies, embrace five guilds of artisan.s,
namely, .Agasale, or goldsmiths ; Kanchugara, brass and copper smiths ;
Kammdra, blacksmiths ; Badagi, carpenters ; and Kalkutaka, stone-
masons. They profess to be descended from the five sons of Vis'va-
karma, the architect of the gods, who severally adopted these pro-
fessions. The various trades are not confined to particular families,
but may be followed according to the individual inclination. The
Panchala wear the triple cord and consider themselves equal to the
Brahmans, who, however, deny their pretensions. The goldsmiths are
the recognized heads of the clan and have a caste jurisdiction over the
rest.

The Agasale, or Akkasale proper (63,578), and goldsmith Panchala
(31,958) have also subdivisions called Bailu Akkasale or Rotvad (337),
Pattar or Pattari (747), Oja or Vajar (737), and Jalagara (258), as w^ell
as A'chari, Arava Panchala, Manu, Maya, Panchagrama, Sajjana, Sonar,
Sonajiband, Vaivaghni, Vis'va, Vis'vabrahma, and ^'is'vaghni. Some
are followers of S'iva and others of Vishnu, but the difference in
religion is no bar to intermarriage or social intercourse. The most
influential members are among the S'aivas and wear the linga, but they
do not associate with any other linga-wearers. The Jalagara are the
people who wash the sand of streams for gold. The majority are
returned from Mysore IMstrict.

The Kanchugara (369) or brass and copper smiths are divided
between the Bangalore and Mysore Districts. The section called

ARTISANS 249

Gejjegdra (27) are all in Mysore, These make the small round bells
used for tying about the heads or necks of bullocks. Dancing girls
also bind them to the ankles when dancing, and postal runners have a
bunch at the end of the rod on which they carry the mail bags, the
jingle giving notice of their approach.

The Kammara (6,250) or blacksmiths, include Eailu Kammara,
Ka]lar and Karman. The Kammara is a member of the village cor-
poration, and in addition to working in iron often acts as a carpenter as
well. In the repair of carts and agricultural implements his services
are constantly in demand.

The Badagi (8,643) or carpenters, and Gaundar (3), the latter
confined to the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, have sections
called Panchachara, Gudigara, S'ilpi and Vis'vakarma. The Badagi is
also a member of the village corporation, but the profession of
carpentry is now taken up by other castes, such as Kunchitiga and
Wokkaliga, not to mention Musalmans. The Gudigara are specially
the producers of the beautiful sandal-wood carving for which the
Mysore country is famous. They are settled in Shimoga District,
chiefly at Sorab. S'ilpi are properly sculptors, and might be classed
among masons.

The Ndyinda or barbers, also called Hajam, include a number of
sections, namely, Balaji, Bajantri, Bengali, Karnata, Kelasi, Konda,
Kondamangala, Mangala, Nata, Natamangala, Reddi, S'ilavanta,
Teluga and Uppina. The Nayinda is a member of the village
corporation. They speak both Kaiinada and Telugu, and are generally
employed as musicians as well as barbers : in the former capacity they
are in great requisition at feasts and marriages. They include wor-
shippers of both Vishnu and S'iva, the S'ilavanta being Lingayits.

'Y\iQ Darji ox tailors, besides 4,817 so returned, include Shimpi or
Chippiga (12), Namdev (3,566) and Rangare (2,269). '^^c latter are
also dyers and calico-printers. The Darji are immigrants from the
Mahratta country and specially worship Vitth6ba or Krishna.

The Neyigdra (86,986) are weavers proper, the G6niga (1,426) being
specially sack weavers and makers of gunny bags {goni). The main
divisions of the former are Devanga (49,006), Togata or Dandasetti
(i3>3oo). '"^dle or Saliga (10,255), Bihmagga (9,946), Seniga (105),
Patvegar (3,174), Khatri (946), and Saurashtraka (254). In these are
included minor sections called Jada, Kuruvina, Padmamurikinati,
Padmasale, Pattasale, Patnulukar, Sakunasale, and Singundi.

The Kannada Devanga are weavers who wear the linga, but they
have no intercourse with the Linga Banajiga. They worship S'iva and
I\irvati, and their son Ganes'a, who is a special patron of their looms.

2 50 ETJIXOGRAPIIY

There arc also 'rdugu Dcvanga, who are of two sects, one of whom
worship Vishnu and the other S'iva, l)ut the latter do not wear the
linga. This difference of religion is no bar to intermarriage, and the
wife adopts the religion of her husband. The Togata, most numerous
in the eastern Districts, are of Telugu origin and worshippers of S'iva
in the form of his consort Chaudes'vari. They manufacture the
coarse kinds of cloth that are worn only by the poorer classes. The
Sdle or Saliga are also Telugu by origin, and comprise the Padmasale
or Pattasale, who are worshippers of Vishnu, and the S'akunasale, who
arc worshippers of S'iva and wear the linga. The two sects do not
intermarry. The Bilimagga, most numerous in Mysore District, call
themselves Kuruvina Banajiga, and regard the former designation as
a nickname. They are an indigenous caste and speak Kannada :
worshippers of S'iva. The Seniga, confined to Kolar and Bangalore
Districts, are a wealthy caste of weavers, immigrants from the lower
Carnatic, and speak Kannada. They specially manufacture cloths for
female wear, of superior kind and high value. They are Lingayits by
religion, but are not friendly with the other Lingayits.

The Patvegar, of whom the majority are in Bangalore District, are
silk weavers and speak a language allied to Mahratti. They worship
all the Hindu deities, but especially the S'akti or female energy, to
which a goat is sacrificed on the night of the Dasara festival, a
Musalman officiating as slaughterer, for which he receives certain fees.
After the sacrifice the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh.
The caste have the reputation of not being over cleanly in their habits.
The Khatri, all but two being in the Bangalore District, are also silk
weavers, and in manners, customs and language are akin to the
Patvegars, but do not intermarry with them, though the two castes eat
together. They claim to be Kshatriyas. The Saurashtraka, commonly
known as Patnuli or J^'inikhanvala, are, all but 7, in the Bangalore Dis-
trict. They manufacture superior kinds of cotton and woollen carpets,
and also shawls of cotton and silk mixture. They are worshippers of
Vishnu.

The Gbniga (1,205), ^^ already described above, are sack weavers.
More than a half are in the Bangalore District. Other divisions are
Janapa (32) and Sadhuvams'astha (189), the latter all in Tumkur
District. Some are agriculturists, and some grain porters.

The Agasa or Asaga are washermen. They are divided into
Kannada Agasa and Telugu Agasa, who neither eat together nor
intermarry. But there are numerous subdivisions, named Belli,
Dhobi, Halemakkalu, Iraganti Madivali, Kapusakalavadu, Madivali,
Morasu, Murikinati, Padata, Sakalavadu, Tamil and Vannan. The

ARTISANS 251

Agasa IS a member of the village corporation and his office is
hereditary. Besides washing he bears the torch in public processions
and at marriages. The class seldom follow any other profes-
sion than that of washing. Both men and women wash. Their
proper beasts of burthen are asses, and these are sometimes employed
in carrying grain from one place to another. Their principal object
of worship is Ubbe, the steam which causes the garments to swell out
in the pot of boiling water in which dirty clothes are steeped.
Animals are sacrificed to the god with the view of preventing the
clothes being burnt in the Ubbe pot. Under the name of Bhume
Deva there are temples dedicated to this god in some large towns,
the services being conducted by pujaris of the Agasa caste. They
also worship \"ishnu and other gods. Their gurus are Satanis.

The Golla are cowherds and dairymen. The Kadu or forest Golla
(21,820) are distinct from the U'ru or town (lolla (15,618) and other
(lolla (82,357) who belong to villages, and the two neither eat together
nor intermarry. The subivisions of the caste are very numerous and
are returned as follows : — Alia, Arava, Bokkasada, Bigamudre,
Chapprada, Ch61iya, Doddi, Edaiyar, Gauli or Kachche (lauli, Gaulbans,
Gayakavadi, G6pala, Gudejangaliga, Halu, Jambala, Kankar, Kannada,
Karadi, Karma, Karne, Kavadiga, Kempu, Kilari, Kolalu, Konar,
Kuduchappara, Kuri, Mande, Nalla, Namadakula, Nayi, Pata, Pata-
yadavalu, Puja, Punagu, Piiri, Raja, Salja, Sambdra, Sonnan, Svari,
Tellapusala, Telugu, Yadayar, Yakula, and Yadavakula. They worship
Krishna, who is said to have been born in the caste. Formerly they,
or a section of them, were largely employed in transporting money,
both public and private, from one part of the country to another, and
are said to have been famed for their integrity in such matters. From
this circumstance they are also called Dhanapdla or treasury guards.
The Kadu Golla are mostly in Tumkur District, and a good many in
Chitaldroog District. They live in thatched huts outside villages and
are inclined to be nomadic. vSome of their customs resemble those
of the Kddu Kuruba.

The Kuruba are shepherds and weavers of blankets or camblets
{kainbli). The Kddu Kuruba have already been noticed under forest
and hill tribes. The remaining great body of the civilized are divided
into two tribes, the Hande Kuruba and Kuruba proper, who have no
intercourse with one another. The latter worship Bire Devaru and
are Sivites. Their priests are Brahmans and Jogis. The caste also
worship a box, which they believe contains the wearing apparel of
Krishna, under the name of Junjappa. The subdivisions of the caste
are Bane, Banige, Banni, BelH, Bi'rappana A\'okkalu, Bydlada,

252 ETffNOGRAJ'JIY

(laiujakula, Ilalc, I lalh', 1 hilu, Hcggade, Hosa, Jadi, Jattedcvara,
Kanibali, Kanakaiyanajati, Kannacja, Kenchala, Kotta, Kuri, Maji,
Majjana, Majjige, Pata, S'ale, Sdvanti, Suggala, and Toppala. 'I'he Halu
Kuruba (191,087), Hande Kuruba (7,944), and Kambali Kuruba (7,792),
are mostly weavers of kamblis. Tarts of Chitaldroog and the town of
KoLar are noted for the manufacture of a superior kind of a fine
texture Hke homespun. The women spin wool.

The Ganiga are oilpressers and oilmongers. They are known by
different names, according to the special customs of their trade, sucli
as Hegganiga, those who yoke two oxen to the stone oil-mill ;
Kiruganiga (principally in Mysore District), those who make oil in
wooden mills ; Wontiyettu Ganiga, those who use only one bullock in
the mill. They are also known collectively as Jdtipana or Jotinagara,
the light-giving tribe. The other subdivisions are Kannada, Telugu and
Setti. There is a small section called Sajjana, who wear the linga and
have no intercourse with the others. But the caste generally includes
worshippers both of Vishnu and Siva.

The Kumbdra are potters and tile-makers, and members of the
village corporation. Of the two main divisions of Kannada and
Telugu, the former claim to be superior. The subdivisions are
Gaudakula, Gundikula, Kos'ava, Kulala, Navige, S'alivahana, Tamil
and Vadama.

The Uppdra or saltmakers are so called chiefly in the eastern
Districts ; in the southern they are called Uppaliga and in the western
Melusakkare. There are two classes, the Kannada and the Telugu.
The former are principally engaged in making earth-salt, and the latter
as bricklayers and builders. The well to-do or Sreshtha also undertake
public works on contract and the erection of ordinary Hindu houses.
They are both Vishnuites and S'lvites.

The small body of Sarige or gold-lace makers are Rachevar by caste.
They are all in the Bangalore and Kolar Districts.

The Besta are fishermen, boatmen and palanquin-bearers. This is
their designation principally in the east ; in the south they are called
Toreya, Ambiga and Parivara ; in the west Kabyara and Ciange-
makkalu. Those who speak Telugu call themselves Bhoyi. There
are some other smaller sections of inferior rank, named Belli,
Bhoja, Chammadi, Kabbaliga, Palaki, Palyapat, Rayaravuta and
Sunnakallu. The latter are lime-burners, Many of the females are
cotton-spinners and some of the men are weavers of cloth. There are
also some in the employment of Government as peons and in other
capacities. jNIost of the caste are worshippers of Siva.

The Ti/iga are toddy-drawers, their hereditary occupation being to

OUTCASTES 253

extract the juice of palm-trees and to distil si^irits from it. In the
Malnad they are known as Halepaika (15,000), and were formerly
employed as soldiers under the local rulers. Many of them are now in
household service. Most of them also hold land, and are agriculturist.s.
The other subdivisions are Bilva, Devar, Sigroyidalu, Telugu Sanar,
Tenginahdle. They worship all the Hindu deities, as well as S'aktis,
and especially the pots containing toddy.

The Holeya and Mddiga form the great body of outcastes. The
former have already been described above (p. 215). These, in addi-
tion to their duties as village watchmen, scouts and scavengers, are
employed as field-hands, and in all kinds of manual labour. They also
make various kinds of coarse cotton or woollen cloths in hand-looms,
while the Aleman furnish recruits for the Barr sepoy regiments. There
are two tribes, Kannada and Telugu Holeya, who eat together but do
not intermarry. Their subdivisions are very numerous, but the follow-
ing are said to be the principal ones :— Kannada, Gangadikara,
Maggada, Morasu, Telugu, Tigula and Tamil Holeya or Pareya. The
minor sections are Agani, Aleman, Balagai, Bellikula, Bhiimi, Chakra,
Chalavadi, Chambula, Chavana, Chillaravar, Dasari, Collate, Jhadmali,
Jintra, Joti, Kalu, Karnataka, Kapu, Konga, Kurupatte, L6k6ttara-
pareya, Madya, Mala, Masalu, ]\Iattige, Nagaru, Nallar, Pale, Pa]li,
Panne, Pasali, Rampada, Roppada, vSambu, Sangu, Sara, S'idlukula,
S6mes'a, Tanga, Tangaja, Tirukula, Tude, T6ti, Uggranada, Vadaga,
Valange, Yanne, ^'arka, Velagi, Vellala, Va]luvar, Veluva, Vanniyar,
Vi'rabhagna and A'lrasambu.

They are regarded as unclean by the four principal castes, and
particularly by the Brahmans. In the rural parts, especially, when a
Holeya has to deliver anything to a Brahman, he places it on the
ground and retires to a distance, and when meeting one in a street or
road he endeavours to get away as far as possible. Brahmans and
Holeyas mutually avoid passing through the quarters they respectively
occupy in the villages, and a wilful transgression in this respect, if it
did not create a riot, would make purification necessary, and that not
only on the part of the higher caste but even on the part of the lower.
With all this, there is no restriction in the Mysore State on the acquisi-
tion of land or property by Holeyas, and under the various blending
influences of the times — educational, missionary, and others — members
of this class are rising in importance and acquiring wealth. So nmch
so ♦^hat in the cities and large towns their social disabilities are, to a
great e.xtent, being overcome, and in public matters especially their
complete ostracism can hardly be maintained.

In the Maidan parts of the country, the Holeya, as the kulavddi, had

254 ETHNOGRAPHY

a recognized position in the village, and has always been regarded as
an ultimate referee in cases of boundary disputes. In the Malnad he
was merely a slave, of which there were two classes, — the huiUll, or
slave born in the house, the hereditary serf of the family; and the
mau'.id/, or slave of the soil, who was bought and sold with the land.
These are, of course, now emancipated, and are benefiting by the free
labour and higher wages connected with coffee plantations, often to the
detriment of the areca-nut gardens, which were formerly kept up by
their forced labour.

The Madiga are similar to the Holeya, but are looked down upon
by the latter as inferior. They are toti, or village scavengers, and
nirga?iti, or watermen, in charge of the sluices of tanks and channels,
regulating the .supply of water for irrigation. They are principally dis-
tinguished from the Holeya in being workers in leather. The carcases
of dead cattle are removed by them, and the hides dressed to provide
the thongs by which bullocks are strapped to the yoke, the leather
buckets used for raising water in kapile wells, and other articles
required by the villagers. They are also cobblers, tanners and shoe-
makers, and the increasing demand for hides is putting money into
their purses.

Their subdivisions are Arava, Chakkili, Chammar, (iampa, Gampa-
sale, Goppasale, Hedigebiivva, Kanchala, Kannada, Marabiivva,
Morasn, Matangi, Tirukula, Singadi, Tanigebuvva, Telugu, U'ru and
A^ainadu. They are worshippers of Vishnu, S'iva and S'aktis, and have
five different gurus or maths in the Mysore country, namely, at Kadave,
Kodihalli, Kongarli, Nelamangala and Konkallu. They also call
themselves Jambava and Matanga. There is, moreover, a general
division of the caste into Des'abhaga, who do not intermarry with the
others. Though subordinate to the maths above mentioned, they
acknowledge S'rivaishnava Brahmans as their gurus. The Des'abhaga
are composed of six classes, namely, Biljoru, ISIalloru, Amaravatiyavaru,
Munigaju, Yanamaloru and Morabuvvadavaru.

Certain privileges enjoyed by the Holeya and Madiga in regard to
temple worship will be found described in connection with Melukote
and Belur.

The Mbchi (746) are not to be classed with the Madiga, except in
the matter of working in leather. They are immigrants, who, it is said,
came into Mysore with Khasim Khan, the general of Aurangzeb, and
settled originally in Sira and Kolar. They claim to be Kshatriyas and
Rajputs, pretensions which are not generally admitted. They are shoe-
makers and saddlers by trade, and all S'aivas by faith. They have sub-
divisions called Gujarat, Kannada, Kempala and Marata.

Wodda

. 107,203

Mecia

4,261

Beda

217,128

Jogi, &c

10,884

Domha, Jetti ...

3-703

(laradiga

S76

WODDAS 255

The next class (E) is styled ^'agrant Minor Artisans and Performers,
and is composed of the following groups : —

Earth-workers and Stone-dressers

Mat and Basket-makers

Hunters and Fowlers

Miscellaneous, and Disreputal)le Livers

Tumblers and Acrobats

jugglers, Snake-charmers, i\;c

The large and useful class of JVoddas is composed of Kallu ^^'odda and
Mannu Wodda, between whom there is no social intercourse, nor any
intermarriage. Both worship all the Hindu deities and S'aktis, but a
goddess named Yellama seems to be a special object of reverence.
The Kallu Wodda are stonemasons, quarrying, transporting, and build-
ing with stone, and very dexterous in moving large masses of it by
simple mechanical means. They consider themselves superior to the
Mannu Wodda. The latter are chiefly tank-diggers, well-sinkers, and
generally skilful navvies for all kinds of earthwork, the men digging
and the women removing the earth. Though a hard-working class,
they have the reputation of assisting professional thieves in committing
dacoities and robberies, j)rincipally, however, by giving information as
to where and how plunder may be easily obtained. The young and
robust of the Mannu Wodda of both sexes travel about in caravans in
search of employment, taking with them their infants and huts, which
consist of a few sticks and mats. Wherever they obtain any large
earthwork, they form an encampment in the neighbourhood. The
older members settle in the outskirts of towns, where many of both
sexes now find employment in various capacities in connection with
sanitary conservancy. The Wodda, as their name indicates, were
originally immigrants from Orissa and the Telugu country, and they
generally speak Telugu. They eat meat and drink spirits, and are
given to polygamy. The men and women of the caste eat together.
The subdivisions are Bailu, Bhdja, B6yi, Haje, Jarupa, Jangalpatte-
burusu, Telugu, Tigala, Uppu and U'ru. They are most numerous
in the eastern and northern Districts.

The Mida or (lauriga are mat and basket-makers, and workers in
bamboo and cane. One-fourth arc in Shimoga District, and a good
number in Mysore and Kadur Districts.

The Bcda or Nayaka consist of two divisions, Telugu and Kannada,
who neither eat together nor intermarry. One-third of the number are
in ("hitaldroog District, and the greater proportion of the rest in Kolar
and 'I'umkur Districts. They were formerly hunters and soldiers by
profession. Most of the Mysore Pallegars belong to this caste, and

256 ETHNOGRAJ'IfY

the famous infantry of Haidar and Tipu was largely composed of
B(^das. Now their principal occupation is agriculture, labour and
Government service as revenue peons and village police. They claim
descent from ^'almiki, the author of the Ramayana, and are chiefly
Vaishnavas, hut worship all the Hindu deities. In some parts they
erect a circular hut for a temple, with a stake in the middle, which is
the god. In common with the Golla, Kuruba, Mddiga and other
classes, they often dedicate the eldest daughter in a family in which no
son is born, as a Basavi or prostitute ; and a girl falling ill is similarly
vowed to be left unmarried, which means the same thing. The main
divisions are Halu (3,929), Nayaka (15,453), Pajlegar (48), Barika,
Kannaiyanajati, Kirataka, and Machi or Myasa (9,175). The minor
subdivisions are Arava, Balajdgi, Gujjari, Hajli, Kanaka, Modayavaru,
Muchchalamire, Mugla, Nagi, Telugu and Yanamala. The Machi or
Mydsa, also called Chunchu, call for special notice. Many of them live
in hills and in temporary huts outside inhabited places. The remarkable
point about them is that they practise the rite of circumcision, which is
performed on the boys of ten or twelve years of age. They also eschew
all strong drink, and that so scrupulously that they will not use materials
from the date-palm in their buildings, nor even touch them. On the
other hand they eat beef, but of birds only partridge and quail. Possibly
these peculiarities may have arisen from forced conversion to Islam in
the days of Tipu. With the Musalman rite they also combine Hindu
usages at the initiation of boys, and in the segregation of women in child-
birth follow the customs of other quasi jungle tribes. The dead are cre-
mated, and their ashes scattered on tangadi bushes {cassia auricidata).

In the Miscellaneous group Xh^t Jbgi (9,692) are the most numerous.
They are mendicant devotees recruited from all castes. Their divisions
are Gantij6gi, Gorava, Helava, Jangaliga, Monda, Pakanati, Pichcha-
kunte, Sillekyata and Uddinakorava. They mostly pretend to be
fortune-tellers, while the Jangaliga and Pakanati deal in drugs, and
wander about calling out the particular diseases they profess to cure by
means of their wares.

The Biididmdike (1,092) are gypsy beggars and fortune-tellers from
the Mahratta country, one section being called Busare. They pretend
to consult birds and reptiles, and through them to predict future events.
They use a small double-headed drum, which is sounded by whisking it
about so as to be struck by the knotted ends of a string attached to
each side. The others of this group of beggars are Sudugadusidda
(46), Ciondaliga (29), Pandaram and Valluvar (15), Karma (7), and
S'aniyar (3). The first are all in Shimoga District, and the last three
in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore.

MUSALMANS 257

The Tumblers and Acrobats include Domba (2,500) and Jatti (1,203).
The former are buffoons, tumblers, and <ynake-charmers. They are
supposed to be descendants of an aboriginal tribe from the north of India
(Doms probably). The Jatti or Jetti, also called Mushiiga in the
western Districts, are professional athletes and wrestlers, or Malla.
They are Rachevar by caste. Nearly a half are in the Mysore District.
A number are maintained in connection with the palace, and are
trained from infancy in daily exercises for the express purpose of
exhibition. x\.n interesting account of this order, as it existed at the
beginning of the century, extracted from Wilks, was given in the first
edition.

The group of Garudiga and M6(jihidiyuva consists of jugglers, snake-
charmers, and conjurers.

The last class (F) is styled Races and Nationalities, numbering
291,168, and includes the Musalmans and Europeans, with Eurasians
and Native Christians. The following are the figures : —

Asiatic Races of reputed foreign cjrigin —

Musalmans ... ... ... ... .. ... 244,601

I'arsis, Jews, Chinese, (S:c ... ... ... ... 79

Mixed Asiatic Races —

Labbe 3, 717

Pinjari ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,180

Pindari ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 2,048

Mapile and others ... ... ... ... ... 427

Non-Asiatic Races^

English, Scotch and Irish ... ... ... ... 5)943

Other Europeans ... ... ... ... ... 288

Eurasians ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3, 931

Native Christians ... ... ... ... ... ... 27,954

The Musalmans belong to one of two religious sect.s — the Sunni and
Shiah — the great majority being Sunnis. They are so called from
accepting the Sunnat or traditional law, based on the sayings and
practice of Muhammad, as of authority supplementary to the Kuran.
They also revere equally the four successors of the prophet, alleging that
he made no arrangements for hereditary succession and left the matter
to the faithful. The Shiahs, on the other hand, attach supreme impor-
tance to the lineal descent of the Imam or head of the faithful. They
therefore reject the claims of the three Khalifs that succeeded
Muhammad and recognize Ali, the fourth Khalif, husband of Fatima,
the prophet's only surviving child, as the true Imam, followed by their
two sons Hasan and Hu.sain. To the usual formula of belief they add
"Ali is the Khalif of God."

The following is the distribution of the Musalmans in tlu' several

= 58

ETHNOGRAJ'II Y

Districts. There arc also 892 Sharif, 244 Memaii, and 861 returned
only as Musahnans, besides 28 Arabs, 2 Kandaharis, and 2 lialuchis.

Class.

a
to

•5

■n

s
H

Shekh ...

38,923

8,831

14,247

28,634

9,324

18,834

10,912

12,842

.Sai\i(l ...

11,407

6,541

3,009

7,327

1,705

4,470

1,943

2,271

Mu-^hal ...

1,999

1,264

1,032

1,413

481

2,615

376

237

I'athan ...

11,057

4,937

4,462

7,586

1,828

3,753

2,117

1,839

Haiiifi ...

127

433

139

343

Daire

2,419

— •

—

Lal)be ...

1,098

199

1,973

119

161

Ma]iile ...

—

Pinjari ...

124

447

617

—

955

Pindari ...

■

180

808

1,027

15,565

Total ...

67,268

22,225

24,395

48,491

13,641

30,197

18,155

The four classes first above given are those of reputed pure descent.
But although good families doubtless remain in various parts, the bulk
are of mixed descent, due to intermarriage and conversions, voluntary
or enforced. Shekh denotes properly a lineal descendant from
Muhammad through his successors Abu Bakr and Umar ; and Saiyid,
a descendant through his son-in-law Ali and Husain. But these titles
have probably been often assumed by converts promiscuously without
reference to their signification. Pathans are of Afghan origin, descen-
dants of Kutb-ud-Din, the founder of the Pathan dynast}', and his
followers ; while Mughals are descended from Tartar chiefs who
followed Tamerlane into India. The Sharif, nearly all in Tumkur
District, claim to be descended from nobility.

The Hanifi are a sect of Sunnis who follow the teachings and tradi-
tions of Abu Hanifa, one of the four great doctors of Islam. In
practice one of their principal distinctions is in multiplying ceremonial
ablutions. The Daire or Mahdavi are a sect peculiar to Mysore,
principally settled at Channapatna in the Bangalore District, and at
Bannur and Kirigaval in the Mysore District. Their belief is that the
Mahdi has already appeared in the person of one Saiyid Ahmed, who
arose in Gujarat about 400 years ago claiming to be such. He obtained
a number of followers and settled in Jivanpur in the Nizam's Domin-
ions. Eventually, being worsted in a great religious controversy, they
were driven out of the Haidarabad country and found an abode at
Channapatna. They have a separate mosque of their own, in which
their priest, it is said, concludes prayers with the words " the Imam

EUROPEANS 259

Mahdi has come and gone," the people responding in assent, and
denouncing all who disbelieve it as infidels. They do not intermarry
with the rest of the Musalmans. The Daire carry on an active
trade in silk with the western coast, and are generally a well-to-do
class.

The Arabs, Kandaharis and Baluchis are mostly in Bangalore, and
come here as horse-dealers and traders in cloth.

The Labbe and Mapile^ are by origin descendants of intermarriage
between foreign traders (Arabs and Persians), driven to India by
persecution in the eighth century, and women of the country, hut the
latter designation was taken by the children of those forcibly converted
to Islam in Malabar in the persecutions of Tipu Sultan's time. The
Labbe belong to the Coromandel coast, their principal seat being at
Negapatam, while the Mapile belong to the Malabar coast. The
former speak Tamil and the latter Malayalam. The Labbe are an
enterprising class of traders, settled in nearly all the large towns. They
are vendors of hardware, collectors of hides, and large traders in coffee
produce, but take up any kind of lucrative business. They are also
established in considerable strength as agriculturists at Gargesvari in
the Mysore District.

The Meman, all in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, are
immigrants from Cutch, come here for trade. By origin they appear to
have been Rajputs. The Pinjari, as their name indicates, are cleaners
of cotton. They do not intermarry with other Musalmans, who as a rule
have no intercourse with them. The Pindari were to a great extent
Afghans, Mahrattas and Jats in origin, disbanded from the service of
the Mughal empire, but became known as a tribe of freebooters who
ravaged India on a grand scale, with large armies, and gave rise to many
wars. They were finally suppressed in Central India in 181 7 in the
time of the Marquess of Hastings. They are now settled down in the
pursuit of peaceful occupations in agriculture and Government service
of various kinds.

'I'he Parsis (35) arc from liombay, and engaged in trade, except a
few who are in Government service. One-half are in Mysore, and most
of the remainder are in Bangalore. Of the Jews (25), the majority are
in Hassan District, relatives of an official there. The Armenians (8),
Chinese (7), Burmese (4), and Singalese (3), are all in Bangalore.

Of Europeans (6,231), the following is the distribution of the
nationalities that are strongest in numbers : —

' Labile is supposed to be derived from the Arabic labbaik, " here I am," being
the response of slaves to the call of their masters. Mdpile is apjiarently from
Mapilla, Malayalam for " son-in-law."

S 2

26o

ETHNOGRAPHY

Bangalore.

•5

I
3

Nation.

C. and M.
Station.

District.

"o 5

2
u

English

Scotch

Irish

French

German

Italian

3.933

303

583

44
2

287
I
I
2

216

I
85

215
3

I
6
2

128

Of those from the United Kingdom, a considerable proportion
in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore belong to the British
Army. Such as are not included in the military are engaged in civil
employ of various kinds under Government, or Railway Companies,
and in business or trade, while a number are missionaries, pensioners,
and so forth. The Europeans in Kolar District are mostly connected
with the gold mines, all the Italians there being miners. Those in
Mysore who are not Government servants or employed under the
Palace, are as in Bangalore. The Europeans in Kadur and Hassan
Districts are principally coffee-planters. Besides the foregoing there
are eleven Spaniards, eight Swiss, four Austrians, two Belgians, two
Danes, and twenty-four others. Nearly all are in Bangalore, except six
of the Swiss, who are in Kadur District.

The Eurasians number 3,931, of whom 2,649 ^^^ i'^ the Civil and
Military Station of Bangalore, and 401 in the Bangalore District.
In the other Districts there are 276 in Kolar, 17 in Tumkur, 208
in Mysore, 97 in Hassan, 16 in Shimoga, 229 in Kadur, and 38 in
Chitaldroog. The remarks under Europeans in great measure apply
to these also, but they are as a rule in more subordinate positions.
Anglo- Indian and Eurasian colonies have been formed at Whitefield
and Sausmond, about fifteen miles to the east of Bangalore, the
residents of which are occupied in agriculture and dairy-farming.

The Native Christians are mostly Hindu by origin. Of the total
number of 27,954, as many as 10,252 are in the Civil and Military
Station, and 5,404 more in the District of Bangalore. Of the remain-
ing Districts there are 2,418 in Kolar, 699 in Tumkur, 2,509 in Mysore,
3,067 in Hassan, 1,603 '^^ Shimoga, 1,773 in Kadur, and 229 in Chital-
droog. A large number are no doubt domestic servants to Europeans
and Eurasians, but they are found in all grades of life, and a certain
proportion are settled in agricultural villages of their own, established
by various missionary agencies. This is especially the case in the
eastern and southern Districts. The Christian settlement of Sathalli in
the Hassan District dates from the time of the Abbe Dubois, the
Ijeginning of the century.

URBAN POPULATION

261

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262

ETHNOGRAPHY

'J'herc arc thus twenty-four tcjwns with a po[)ulatioii exceeding 5,000,
namely,

Hanf^aloic

.. 180,366

Davangcre ...

.. 8,061

Nanjangud ...

6,421

Mysore ...

.. 74,048

Chikmagalur

.. 7,«i6

I larihar

6,385

Seriiigajwtani

• • 12,55'

Anckal

■• 7,419

Closepet

6,236

Kolar

.. 12,148

I)od Ballapur

• • 7,141

Hole Narsipiir

5,75«

Shimoga ...

■ ■ 11,340

Tarikere

.. 7,056

Malavalli . . .

5,639

Tiimkur ...

.. 11,086

Devanhalli ...

.. 6,693

Hunsur

5,141

Chik Ballapur

10,623

Hassan

.. 6,654

Mulbagal

5,026

Channapatna

9,160

Sidlaghalta...

.. 6,572

Shikarpu-r ...

5,011

to which, in order to make up the totals given, must be added the
large village of Agara in Mysore District, with 5,218 inhabitants ; and
the village of Wokkaleri in Kolar District, where the occurrence of a
large festival at the time of the census 'raised the population to 7,273.

Besides these, there are seventy-four other smaller municipal towns,
namely,

II with population of over 4,000
15 ,, ,, ,, 3,000

26 with population of over 2,000
22 ,, ,, ,, 1,200

The town population may thus be reckoned as 626,558, forming
127 per cent, of the total.

To estimate the growth of towns during the present century the
following statistics are available : —

Town

1852

1858

1871

1881

1891

Bangalore

134,628

175,630

142,513

155,857

180,366

Mysore

54,729

55,761

57,815

60,292

74,048

Seringapatam

12,744

14,928

10,594

11,734

12,551

Kolar

—

9,924

11,172

12,148

Shimoga

—

14,186

11,034

12,040

11,340

Tumkur

—

9,339

II , 1 70

9,909

11,088

Chik Ballapur

—

9,882

9,183

10,623

Except in Bangalore and Mysore these figures do not disclose any
firmly established tendency to a decided increase in the urban popula-
tion in the case of the principal towns.

Other particulars regarding the occupations, »S:c. of the people, are
given under each District in Vol. II.

CHARACTER. DRESS, &c.

The people of Mysore are a hardy and well-formed race, fairer as a
rule than those of the low country, and with regular features. " I have
never," says Buchanan, " seen finer forms than even the labouring

DWELLINGS 263

women of that country frequently possess. Their necks and arms are
in particular remarkably well-shaped."

In public character and disposition they may be described as the
most conservative of the South Indian races. In practice, perhaps they
exhibit a greater aptitude for the labours of the field and the tending of
cattle than for other occupations. With the bucolic turn of mind there
was no doubt much stolidity to be found among the agrestic hinds, and
till lately predial slaves, but accompanied with blind devotion and
simple fidelity to their masters. The better specimens of headmen, on
the other hand, are dignified and self-reliant, commanding and gaining
respect, proud of hospitality, sagacious observers, shrewd in conversa-
tion and with a vein of homely good sense and humour. The
industrial classes and field- labourers are very hard-working, especially
the women.

The dwellings of the people are generally built of mud, one-storeyed
and low, with few, if any, openings outwards e.xcept the door, but
possessed of courtyards within, surrounded with verandahs, and open
to the sky. In the better houses these are well-paved and drained,
while the wooden pillars are elaborately carved or painted. The huts
of the outcaste and poorer classes are thatched, but the houses of the
higher orders are covered with either terraced or tiled roofs, the latter,
uiore especially in the west, where the rainfall is heavy.

The villages are pretty generally surrounded with a thick hedge of
thorn, a protection in former days against the attacks of the Mahratta
cavalry. For the same reason the entrance is often a flat-arched stone
gateway, so constructed as to present an obstacle to a horseman. In
the districts lying north-east from the Baba Budans, villages commonly
have the remains of a round tower in the middle, a somewhat
picturesque feature, erected in former days as a place of retreat for the
women and children in case of attack. Most important villages and
towns have a considerable fort of mud or stone, also the erection of
former troublous times, when every gauda aimed at being a palegar, and
every palegar at becoming independent. The fort is the quarter
generally affected by the Brahmans, and contains the principal temple.
The pete or market, which invariably adjoins the fort at a greater or
less distance beyond the walls, is the residence of the other orders.

There is seldom any system in the arrangement of streets, which are
often very roughly paved, and nearly always abounding in filth. The
only motive for the formation of wide and regular streets in some of the
towns is to provide for the temple-car being drawn round at the annual
festival. All other lines of way are irregular beyond description. But
improvements, both in laying out the streets and in their sanitation, are

264 ETIINOGRAPJIY

now to be seen in many places which have been brought under
municipal regulations.

White or coloured cotton stuffs of stout texture supply the principal
dress of the people, with a woollen kamhii as an outer covering for the
night or a protection against cold and damp. Brahmans are bare-
headed, the head l)eing shaved all except the tuft at the crown {juttte),
and most of the Hindus observe the same practice. The moustache is
the only hair permanently worn on the face. The dhotra, a thin sheet,
covers the lower limbs, one end being gathered into folds in front and
the other passed between the legs and tucked in at the waist behind.
A similar garment is thrown over the shoulders. To protect the head,
a bright magenta worsted cap is often donned, such as a brewer's dray-
man wears, but not in the same jaunty manner, for it is pulled well
down over the ears and back of the neck. This and a scarlet, green,
or blue blanket are favourite articles of attire for the early morning or
on a journey. In attending offices Brahmans wear a turban {rwndl)
and a long coat {aiigi), either woollen or cotton. This also is more or
less the costume of the merchant class. A fashion has sprung up
among college students of wearing a sort of smoking-cap instead of a
turban. The ryots are generally content with a turban and a kambli,
with most frequently a short pair of drawers {challand). When not at
work they often wear a blouse or short smock-frock.

The dress of the women is generally very becoming and modest. A
tight-fitting short bodice {kiipsd) is universally worn, leaving the arms,
neck, throat, and middle bare, the two ends being tied in a knot in
front. It is generally of a gay colour, or variegated with borders and
gussets of contrasting colours, which set off the figure to advantage.
In the colder parts, to the west, a somewhat loose jacket, covering all
the upper part of the body and the arms, is worn instead. The shire
or sari, a long sheet, the ordinary colours worn being indigo or a dull
red with yellow borders, is wrapped round the lower part of the body,
coming down to the ankle. One end is gathered into a large bunch of
folds in front, while the other, passed across the bosom and over the
head, hangs freely over the right shoulder. In the west it is tied there
in a knot. The Brahmani women pass the lower end of the cloth
between the legs and tuck it in at the waist behind, which leaves the
limbs more free. Their heads too are not covered, the hair being
gathered into one large plait, which hangs straight down the back, very
effectively decorated at the crown and at different points with richly-
chased circular golden cauls and bosses.

The Vaisya women are similarly dressed, but often with less good
taste. As the fair golden-olive complexion natural to most Brahmani

DRESS 265

girls is much admired, those of the sex who are not so fair smear them-
selves with saffron to produce a yellow tint, and not only on their cheeks
but over their arms and legs. This practice, which seems very common
with the trading class, is by no means attractive. Neither is the habit
of blackening the teeth, adopted by married women. Many fair women
are elaborately tattooed on the arms from the wrist to the elbow. The
Sudra women generally gather the hair into a chignon or bunch behind,
stuffed out with a fleece of wool, and run a large pin through, with an
ornamental silver head to it, which is rather becoming. In the Malnad
the women often do up the back hair in a very picturesque manner,
with a plaited arrangement of the cream white ketaki blossom {patidanus
odoraiissimus), or even with orchid blossoms or pink cluster roses.

Ornaments are commonly worn in the ears and nose, and on the
arms, with rings on the fingers and toes, and as many and costly
necklets and chains round the neck as means will allow. Chains
frequently connect the upper rim of the ear with the ornamental pin in
the back hair, and have a pretty effect. The richer Brahmani and other
girls wear silver anklets, often of a very ponderous make, which are by
no means elegant. A silver zone clasped in front is a common article
of attire among all but the poorer women, and gives a pleasing finish to
the graceful costume.

It would be useless to attempt to go through a description of the
varieties of Hindu dress in different parts. The only marked differ-
ences are in the Malnad, as described under Manjarabad, and the dress
of the Lambani women.

The Muhammadan dress for men differs chiefly in cut and colour,
and in the wearing of long loose drawers. But for undress a piece of
dark plaided stuff is worn like the dhotra. Muhammadans shave the
head completely, but retain all the hair of the face. A skull-cap is worn,
over which the turban is tied in full dress. The women wear a coloured
petticoat and bodice, with a large white sheet enveloping the head and
the whole person, and pulled also over the face.

The higher Hindus wear leather slippers, curled up at the toe and
turned down at the heel, but the labouring classes wear heavy sandals,
with wooden or leather soles and leather straps. The Muhammadans
also wear the slipper, but smaller, and frequently a very substantial big
shoe, covering the whole foot. Women are never shod, except occa-
sionally on a journey, or in very stony places, when they sometimes
wear sandals.

Members of the various Hindu orders are known by the sectarian
marks painted on their foreheads. Married women commonly wear a
wafer-spot or patch of vermilion, or sometimes of sandal-powder, on the

266

EllfNOGRAJ'J/V

forehead. Tiiu Lingayits arc known by the pecuh'ar-shaped silver box,
the shrine of a small black stone emblematic of the linga, which is
worn suspended by a string from the neck and hanging on the chest.
'J'he working-classes of that order often tie the linga in a piece of hand-
kerchief round the arm above the elbow. The commoner religious
mendicants dress in a variety of grotesque and harlequin costumes.
But garments dyed with red ochre or saffron are the commonest indica-
tion of a sacred calling.

Alphabetical List of Castes mentioned in this chapter.

A'chari 248

Ach]iiljc 228

A'di (iianajiga) 246

,, S'aiva 237

,, (Wokkaliga) 229

Agamudi 247

Agani 253

Agarvdla 247

Agasa 223,

226, 247, 250

Agasale 248

Aggada (Banajiga)

246

,, Koracha233

Agni (Tigala) 231

,, Wokkaliga 229

Agramudi 229

Agra Vanniar 231

Aiyangar 236

Akkasale

222, 226, 248
A'kuleti 246

A'ladakapu 229

Aleman 253

AUa 251

Aniaravatiyavaru

254

Ambiga 252

Anche Reddi 229

A'ndhra 234

A'ne Kurulia 213

Angalika 229

A'radhya 241

Arale 246

Aramudi 229

Arasu 227

Arava Beda 256

,, Goila 251

,, Madiga 254

,, I'anchala 248

,, Reddi 229

,, Tigala 231

Aravattokkalu

237-8

A ruvelu 237-8

,, Niyogi 237-8

Asaga 250

Ashtasahasra 237

Attan-kutatar 240 1
Avadhuta 243 {

Ayodhyanagara 247
Ayya 242

Babbur Kamme

^ 237, 238
Bachanige 229

Bada Arasu 227

Badagalava 246

Badaganad 237

Badagar 229

Badagi 222, 226, 248
Bailu Akkasale 248 \

, , Kammara

233> 249 I

,, Wodda 255 I
Bairagi 227, 242-3
Bais 237 j

Bajantri 249

Bakkal 247

Balagai 215, 253
Balaji 249

Balajogi 256

Bale 246

Banajiga222-3, 245-6
Bane 251

Banige 251 I

Baniya 227, 245, 247
Banjari 231 [

Bannadava 246 '

Bannagara 245

Banni 251

Banta 246

Barika 256

Baruva 228

Basale 246

Basavi 245

Bavaji 242

Bavane 246

Beda 223, 226, 255
Belagude 229

Belakuvadi 229

Bellala 228

Beiiaia Reddi 229
Belli (Agasa) 250

,, (Besla) 252

,, (Kuruba) 251

Bellikula

253

Chalavadi

253

Bengali

249

Cham

227

Beralukoduva

Chambula

253

228,

230

Chammadi

252

Besta

Chanimdr

254

223, 226, 247,

252

Chandra Bans

227

Bettadpura

239

Chandra Thakiir 227

Betta Kuruba

213

Chapprada

251

Bettale

233

Charanti

241

Bevina Kuruba

213

Chattri

227

Bhagavata 2

36-7

Chavan

227

Bhaniya

228

Chavana

253

Bhat Raju 226,

244

Chillaravar

253

Bhattarachdrya

240

Chippiga

249

Bheri 223,

247

Chitapavan

237

Bheris'etti

246

Chitari

245

Bhogar

229

Chitragara 223

245

Bhoja (Besta)

252

Chittala

229

,, (Wodda)

255

Choli

240

Bhoyi

252

Choliya

251

Bhumda

233

Chunchu

256

Bhumi

253

Bhusa

228

Dabbe

233

Bhutya

231

Daire

258

Bidara

246

Dandasetti

249

Bigamudre

251

Dandi

243

Bilimagga 249-50

Darji 226, 247

249

Biiloru

254

Dasakuta

236

Bilva 212,

253

Dasa Banajiga

246

Binlakur

227

,, (Wokkaliga)229

Birappana Wokkalu

Dasari 226, 234

242

251

,, (Holeya)

253

Bodhdyana

237

Dasavantige

229

Bogavaru

245

Dekal Thakiir

227

Bokkasada

251

Desast'ha 2

37-S

Bondili

227

Des'ayi

246

Boyi"

255

Devaddsi

245

Brahman 226,

233

De\adiga

246

Brahmarishi

231

Devalaka

237

Brihachcharana

Devanga 223,

249

'237-8

Devar

253

Brinjari

231

Devara makkalu 212

Budabudike226

,256

Dhalya

233

Busare

256

Dhanapala

223

Bydlada

251

Dharma Dasari

242

Dharmaraju

246

Chakkili

254

Dharmarajukap

Chakra

253

231

LIST OF CASTES

267

Dhatii

227

Clovar 227

I)h(')l)i

250

(judama Dasari 242

1 )humavatpa(!a

231

thidtjangaliga 251

Digambara 242

244

Gudikara 249

Dodava

247

Chijjari 256

Dodd'i

251

Ciundikula 252

Domba 226,

255

(".urust'hala 228,241

Dravida 234, 2

37-«

C'lujarat ^Iochi 254
Gujarali 222, 227,

Edaiyar

251

245, 247

Enibar

240

(iiirjara Brahman

luiiieri

231

234

Oadakanti 229

Clada Lingayit 246
Gaddigeyava 246
Gaharvariya Thakur

221

Gajulabalji 246

Gampa 254

Gampasale 254

Ganadhis'vara 242
Gandhudil^alji 246
Ganga 246

Gangadikara 217,
228-9, 253
Gangemakkalu 252
Ganiga 222, 226,
247, 252
Gaiitijogi 256

Ganiu 233

Garadiga 227, 255,

257
Gaiidamane 228
GaiuUi Brahman 234
, , Tigala 23 1
Gaudakula 252

Gaudu 246

Gaulljans 251

Gauli 251

Gaiiiiga 228

Gaundar 249

Gaurija 255 1

Ciausanige 229

Gayaka 245

Gayakavadi 251
Gaya Thakur 227
Gazula 233

Gejjegara 249

Gerhaiji 246

Ghaniya 229

Golla 223, 226, 247,

251
Gollatc 253

Gondaliga 227, 256
Gongadi 233

Goniga 226, 247,
249-50
Gopdla 25 1

Goppasale 254

Gorava 256

Gosangi 229 i

Gosdyi 227, 242-3

Haiga 216, 237, 239
Hajam 249

Haje Kannatliga

' 237-8

,, Karnatka 237-8

,, Kuril ba 252

Ilajemakkaju 250

Haiepaika 212,

228-30,253

Hajepaiki 212

Hale Tigala 231

Haie Wodda 255

Haili Beda 256

,, Kuruba 251

,, Tigala 231

Hallikara 229-30

Haiu Beda 256

Jadi

252

Jahala \'eljala

229

Jaina 223,

233.

242,

245

247

Jalagara

227

248

Jaman

247

Jambava

251

254

Jamkhanvala

250

Janapa

250

Jangtiliga

256

Jangalpatt

iburusu

255

Jangama

241

Jarupa

255

Jat

227

245

Jattedevara

252

Jatii

257

Jenu Kuru

213,
233

Jetti

255

257

Jhadmali

253

Jinagara

245

Jintra

253

Jogda

232

J6gi226, 232, 255-6
Joti 253

Jotibanajiga 246
Julinagara 252

Jotipana 252

„ Goila

251

Kabbaliga

252

,, Kuruba

2!;2

Kachche Gauli

251

,, Wokkaliga

228-9

Kadambiyar
Kridu Golla

240
251

Hande 2

51-2

, , Kuruba

213.

Hanifi

258

231, 233

251

Hasular

214

Kaikoja 2

45-6

Havika 216,23;

>239

Kaikota

237

Hebbar
Iledigebuva
Heggade
Hegganiga 223
Helava

240

254
252
252
256

Kalayi
Kalkutaka
Kajjar

Kaiiu Wodda
Kalu

246
248
249
255
253

Hema Reddi

228

Kamati

223

Hemniigeyar

240

Kama-wokkalu

229

Hindustani

227

Kanibali

252

Hirihasube

246

Kambaliir 2

37-8

Holeya 215,

223,

Kammadi Kedc

1229

226, 246-7

253

Kammara 222,

226,

Honne Reddi

228

48-9

Hosadevara

229

Kammc 2

v-^

Hosa Kuruba
Hoysaniga 2

252
37-8

,, Banajga246
,, Reddi 228

lluvvadiga

246

Kamsi
Kanaka 227

227
256

I'diga 226, 247, 252
llijiatnalkaravaru

Kanakaiyanajat
Kanakkan

1252
244

237
I'raganti MadivaH

Kanchala
Kanchugara

254
222,

250

227,

248

Iruliga 214,

226,

Kandadc

240

231.

Jada

233
249

Kandappajji
Kanda Raju

231
237

Kandavara 237, 239

Kanes'alu 229

Kankar 251

Kannada Agasa 250

,, Banajiga 246

,, Becla 255

, , Devanga 249

,, Ganiga 252

,, Gojja 251

,, Holeya 253

,, Kamnie 237-8

, , K6mati 246

,, Koracha 233

,, Korama 233

,, Kumbara 252

,, Kuruba 252

,, Madiga 254

,, Mochi 251

,, Raju 227

,, Tigala 231

,, Uppara 252

,, Wokkaliga 229

Kannadiga 246

Kannaiyana Jali 256

Kant'ha Pavade 246

Kanva 237

Kanyakubja 224

Kapali 246

Kapu 253

Kapu Reddi 229

Kapus'akalavadu

'250
Karade 237, 239
Karadi 251

Karaje 229

Karhade 239

Kariga 229

Karma 227, 251, 256
Karman 249

Karnata 249

Karnataka (Brah-
man) 234, 237
,, Holeya 253
Karne 251

Karnikar 244

Karu 229

Karukal 229

Kasalnad 237

Katyayana 237

Kavadiga 251

Kavare 246

Kavarga 237, 239
Kausika 239

Kayasla 227, 244
Kelasi 249

Kempala 254

Kempt i 246

Kempu Banajiga 246
,, Golla 251
Kenchala 252

Kliadri \'aishnava

241
Khanulal 232

268

ETIJNOGRAJ'JIY

Khatii 249

Kuruiiattc

253

Khctaval 23 1

Kurus'ivalli

237

Kihiri 251

Ivuruvina

249

Kiliiad 237

Kus'ast haja

237

Kilnatar 240

Kine 22S

Labl;e 257,

259

Kira (laniga 252

Lc-ida 222, 226

245

Kiralaka 256

Lalagonda 229

231

Kodaga 227

Lambadi

231

Kodati Reddi 228

Lambani 226,

231

Kolalii 251

Lankekara

228

Kolania 229

Lingabalji

246

Knlla 246

Linga Banajiga 223,

KdlH Kuruha 213

245

Ki)luva 229

Lingakatti Veljala

Komarapatta 227

229

Komati 223, 226,

Lingayit 226,

228,

245-6

233, 241-2

245

Konar 251

Lokabalike

245

Konda 249

Lokottaraparey

^253

Konclakatte 229

Kondamangala 249

Machi

256

Kondi Reddi 229

Madhva

235

Konga(IIoleya) 253

,, Pennattui

237

Konga Wokkaliga

,, Vaishnav:

1237

229

Madhyanjana

239

Konkanast'ha

Madiga 223,

226,

237, 239

247, 2

53-4

Konkaniga 229

Madivali

250

Koracha 214, 226,

Madya

252

231, 233

Madyandina

239

Korama 214, 231,

^laggada

253

233

Maharashtra

234

Korava 214

Mahdvi

258

Koratakapu 229

Mahratta

228

Kos'ava 252

Mdji

252

Kota 237, 239

Majjana

252

Kotari 227

Majjige

252

Kotegara 229

Mala

253

Kotisvara 237, 239

Malava

228

Kotta Banajiga 246

Malavaru

229

,, Kuruha 252

Maleya

214

Kottadevarakapu

Malla

253

229

Malloru

254

KshatrabMnu 228

Mande

251

Kshatriya 226, 229

Mandyattar

240

Kudike Wokkalu

Manga

228

229

Mangala

249

Kuduchappara 251

Mannu Wodda

255

Kulala 252

Manu

248

Kulibedaga 229

Mapile 257

, 259

Kumari 228

Marabuvva

254

Kumbara 223, 226,

Maradurar

240

, 247, 252

Marasi

246

Kumbi Marvacli 247

]Marata 226

, 228

,, Wokkaliga 229

,, Mochi

254

Kunchatiga 228-9

Marvadi 227,

245,

Kundali 249

247

Kunte 229

Masalu

253

Kuri Golla 251

Matanga

254

,, Kurul)a 252

Matangi

254

Kuruba,2i3, 223-6,

Mattige

253

247, 251

Maval

233

Maya 248

Meda 226, 255

Melpavade 246

Melusakkare 252
Menian 258-9

Metukunteyar 240
Mirasikat 232

Mochi 227, 247, 254
Modayavaru 255
Modihidiyuva 257
Monda 227, 256
Mopi'ir Raju 227
Morabuvvadavaru

254

Morasunad 240

Morasu( Holeya) 253

,, (Madiga) 254

,, Wokkaliga

228, 230
Muchchalamire 256
Mudali 226,245,247
Mudali Wokkaliga

229
Mudusarebalji 246
Mughal 258

Mugla 256

Mulikinadu 237-8
Multani 227, 245,

247
Muncholi 240

Munigalu 254

Murik'inati 250

Murusire 246

Musaku 229

Mushtiga 257

Mutta 246

Muttaraju 246

Muttu 229

Myada 246

Myasa 256

Nagarta 223, 226,
245
Nagaru 246

Nagi 256

Nallanchakravarti

240
Nalla 257

Nallar 253

Namadakula 251
Namadhari 247

Xamburi 237

Namdev 249

1 Nandavaidika 237,

239

Nata 249

Natacharasurti 241

Natamangala 249

Xatuva 226, 245

I Nava Thakur 227

' Navige 252

i Nayadu 246

, Nayaka 255-6

Nayakasani 245
Nayar 227-8

Nayi 251

Nayinda 223, 226,
247, 249
Neita Reddi 229
Nerati ,, 228

Neyigara 226, 247,

249
Nihang^ 243

Nirumelinava 246
Niyogi 237

Nonaba 217, 228-30

Oja
Oswal

248
247

Padala 250

Paclayachinayakan

229
Padmamurikinati

'249
Padma.sale223, 249-

50
Pagadala 246

Pakanati 256

Pakanati Reddi 228
Palaki 252

Palayar 229

Palchankoti 233
Pale 253

Palli 223, 231, 253
Pallegar 256

Palya 229

Paly agar Gauda 239
Palyakar 229

Palyapat 252

Pamar 229

Panan 228

Panasakapu 229
Panchachara Gauda
228, 249
Pancha Gauda 234
Panchagrama 237,
240, 248
Panchaia 222-3,
247-8
Panchamasale 246
Pancharatral 241
Pandaram 227, 256
Pandya Tigala 231
,, Veljala 229
Panne 253

Panneri 229

Paradi 232

Pareya 253

Parivara 252

Parsi 259

Pasali 253

Pasaluvate 246

Pata (Golla) 251
,, Kuruba 252
,, Vadavalu 251

LIST OF CASTES

269

I'alhan

258

1 'attar

248

I'attari

248

I'attasale

249-50

I'atmili

250

I'atm'ili'ikar

249

I'atvegar

249-50

l'e(lakaiitiRed(li228

Peiaguncia

229

Petemane

246

Pettigesalina 229

Pichchakunte 256

Pille

227-8

Pindare

257, 259

I'injari

257, 259

Pitaml^ara

242

Praknad

2X7

Prathamas'akhe

237. 239

Prathama 'S

aish-

iiava

241

Prativadi -

bhayan -

karattar

240

1 'uda

229

Puja

251

1 'iinagu

251

Puiiamale

229

Pari

251

Sajjana (Lingayit)

245
,, (Ganiga) 252
,, (Panchaja) 248
Sakalavadu 250

Sakunasaie 249-50 |
Salar 227

S'ale 249, 251-2
S'aliga 249 50

S'alivahana 252

Salja 251

Samaji 241

Samayogi 243

Samba 231

Saml)ara 251

Samliu
Sanieraya
Saniyar
Sangu
Sankara
Sanketi

Rachevar 226, 228,

245
Raja (Ciolla) 251

,, (Tigala) 231
Rajakula 227

Rajapinde 227

Rajput 227

, , (iauda 227
Raju 227

Raju Reddi 229

Ramavatpada 231
Rampada 253

Ranagara 228

Rangare 222, 249
Ravuta 228

Rayaravuta 252

Rayaroddugara 229
Reddi (Nayinda) 249
,, (Tigala) 231

,, Wokkaliga 22S-9
Roddiigara 229

R(')hila 227

Koppada 253

Rotvad 24S

Sabavat 231

Sada 228

,, Wokkaliga 228-

30
Sadhu 244

Sadhu-vamsastha

250
Sahavasi 237, 239

253
241
256

253

241

237, 239

227,

S'anku Dasari 242
Sannyasi 227, 242
Sara 253

Sarasvata 234

Sarige 247, 252

Satani 226, 233, 241
Sattadhava 241

Satuljeda 233

Saiirashtraka 249-50
Savanti 252

Sayyid 258

Seniga 249-50

Senve 237

S'etti (Kanajiga) 246
,, (Ganiga) 252
,, (Komati) 246
(Korama) 233

Sharif

Shatsthala

Shckh

Sidlukula

Sigroidalu

Silavanta

258
242
258
253
253
245

Sillekyala 227, 256
S'ilpi 249

S'iiiie 229

Singh 227

Singadi 254

Singundi 249

Sirdevara 229

Sirkanakkan 244
Sirkarnikar 244

S^'rnad 237, 239
S'is'uvarga 237, 239
Sishyavarga 239
Sitabhaira 229

Sivachar 247

Sivachara 246

Sivadvija 239, 241
Sivalji 237

Sivanambi 241

Sivdradhya 237

Smarta 235, 237
Sole 229

Soliga 213-4

Soliyas'etti 246

Somesa 253

Someshandal 240-1
Sonajiband 248

Sonar 248

Sonnan 251

Soshya 229

S'ravaka 245, 247
Sresht'ha 252

Srivaishnava 235,
240
Sthaladava 246

SudugacluSidda2i6,
227, 256
Suggala 252

Siikali 231

Sukhamanji 246
S'ukla Vajus s'akhe

237. 239
Sunnakallu 252

Suri 241 I

Suraj Bunsi 227
Svalpa 229

Svari 251

S'vetambara 242,
244

Talukhandiya 227
Tambuli 227

Tamil Agasa 250,

253

,, Holeya 253

,, Kiimbara 252

Tammadi 241

Tanga 253

Tangala 253

Tanigelnivva 254

Telaghanya 237

Tellapi'isala 251

Telugu Agasa 250

,, Banajiga 246

,, Beda 255-6

,, Ganiga 254

,, Goila 251

,, Holeya 253

,, Koracha 233

,, Kumljara 251

,, Madiga 254

,, Nayinda 249

,, Rachevar 228

,, Reddi 229

,, Sanar 253

,, Satani 241

,, Wodda 255

Tengale 237, 240

Tenginahaje 253

j Tenugu Wokkaliga

I 228

Thakur 227

; Tigala (Holeya) 253

Tigala 223,226,228,

231

,, (Wodda) 255
Tirthankara 242
Tirukula 253-4

Tirumaleyar 240-1
Tirunama Dasari

242
Togasetti 246

Togata 229, 249-50
Toppala 252

Toreya 223, 252
Tola 231

Totada Tigaja 238
Totagara 229

Toti 253

Trikarma 246

Tude 253

Tuluva Vellala 228
,, Wokkaliga

229
Tuppada 246

Turukane Banajiga

246

Uddina Korava 256

Uggranada 253

Ulchakamme 237-8

Ulli 231

Uppaliga 252

Uppara 223, 246-7

Uppina 249

Uppinakolaga 239

Uppu Koracha 233

,, Korama 233

,, Korava 233

,, Wodda 255

Uriya 227

Uru Golla 251

,, Koracha 233

,, Madiga 254

,, Wodda 255

Utkala 234

Uttaradi 239

Uttaraji 239

Vadaga 253

,, Reddi 229

\'adagale 237, 240

Vadama (Brahman)

238
,, Kumbara 252
Vader 242, 244

Vadhyama 237

Widtya 232

\'aikhanasa 241

\'ainadii 254

Vaishaniga 238

Vaishnava ( Nagarta )

247
Vaishnava Satani

241

270

ETHNOGRAPHY

Vaisya

247

Vasiulcva

229

Vaivaglini

248

V'cginad

237

\'ajar

248

Veiagi ■

253

Valange

253

Velama

229

Valasakapu

229

Vellaladfolc-ya

)253

\i\yx

229

■,■ Wokkal

iga

Valluvar

256

228 9,

231

■;, (Holeya

)253

Velnad 237,

240

Van nan

250

Velnriti

229

Vanne (Moleya

)253

Vengipuram

240

Vanne (Tigala)

231

Venkatapurada

241

^'anniklIla

231

Vijayai:)ura Kamme

Vaniyar

253

237

\'angi'puram

237

Viralihadrakapi

229

\'anta

229

\'iral)hagna

253

\'arka

253

Virasaggada

246

Viras'aiva 241

Virasamlni 253

Vis'va 248

Visval)rahnia 248

\'isvaglini 248

Visvakarma 249 [

Vyasakuta 236

Wodda 226, 255

,, (Korama) 233

Wokkaliga 222,

226, 228-9, 249

Wontiyettu (janiga

252

^'adava Korama 233

\';idavakula 251

^'adayar 251

\'akula 223, 251
N'alanati 229

N'alavolu 229

Ydnadi 231

Vanamaloru 254,

256
^'antumule 233

'N'avanianta 246

^'eda ^'ellama 229
"S'ellamma 246

^'ellammakapu 229
Velumaneyavaru

229

HISTORY

LEGENDARY PERIOD

A land covered with one mighty and all-embracing forest, — the great
Dandakaranya ; nestling here and there on the bank of a sacred stream,
the dsraiiia or hermitage of some ris/ii or holy sage, with his mind
intent upon penance or absorbed in austerities of overwhelming
potency ; hidden in forest clearings or perched on isolated rocky
eminences, the retreats and strongholds of lawless predatory chiefs or
still more formidable asuras and rdkshasas, whence they issued for raid
and foray or bent on deeds of violence :— such is the picture of the
south of India presented to our view in the earliest records of the Hindu
race. In the continual conflict between devas or gods and Brahmans
on the one side, and asuras or giants and rdkshasas or demons on the
other, is doubtless depicted a period when the Aryans in their south-
ward progress were brought into collision with aboriginal races or the
descendants of primeval immigrants.

The course of events seems to have been somewhat on this wise.
A few solitary vedic rishis made their way as hermits to the south, in
search of suitable retreats in the depths of the forest, where the acc^uisi-
tion of merit, by an uninterrupted round of austerities and rites, might
gratify the spiritual pretensions which were contested among the haunts
of xwKn as at variance w'ith the established system of society. But here
too they found not unpeopled solitudes ; and as intruders of a different
race, provoked the hostility of previous settlers, which took the form
of interference with the sacrifices and molestation of the rites — the
proclaimed sources of supernatural power, — whose efficacy depended
on exact and complete performance. The superior attainments, how-
ever, of the Aryan Brahmans enabled them in various ways to defeat
the opposition of the tribes with whom they were thus brought into
contact, and to introduce the elements of civilization among the ruder
races of the south.

Imi)cllcd by internal strife or by ideas of adventure and conquest,
warriors of the Kshatriya class gradually followed these Brahman
pioneers across the ^'indhyas, and came into collision with the rulers of
indigenous tribes. The Brahmans, having already gained a footing

272

HISTORY

among tlicsc, would be led to assert sacerdotal claims with increased
and uncompromising vehemence, whence violent struggles ensued, not
alone between hostile races, but between rival sects and factions, marked
by all the asperity and implacable rancour of such contests. The power
of the Kshatriyas is represented as having been virtually extinguished,
and only resuscitated with the aid of the Brahmans and the admission
of their ascendency. But the rival system of Buddhism, which was of
Kshatriya origin, became in course of time predominant ; and so con-
tinued for some centuries, until the gradual revival of Brahmanical
influence ended in the banishment of the former from the land of its
birth to the congenial soils where it still holds sway over the greater
proportion of the human race.

But the records which have come down to us of these revolutions
and mutations require to be used with discrimination. For the Brah-
mans, being last in the ascendant, have, apparently, by interpolations
in old works, by the argument of more recent compositions and by the
systematic destruction of Buddhist and Jain literature and remains of
the intermediate period, persistently striven, not only to ascribe almost
every public calamity to the neglect of their injunctions, but have even
assigned a Brahmanical origin to the royal lines. Notwithstanding,
therefore, evident anachronisms, and the prolongation of the lives of
sages for several centuries, implied in their appearance at widely distant
periods, the ancient literature, with steady uniformity, represents Brah-
mans and their blessings as the most potent source of honour and
power, their imprecation as ensuring the most inevitable doom ; while,
until the brilliant discoveries of Prinsep, the history of the Buddhist
period was almost a blank. Modern research has done, and is still
doing, an immense deal to dispel the obscurity which rests upon the
early history, and to throw light on the real progress of events and
development of principles which have resulted in the formation of the
India of to-day.

Agastya. — Of the rishis who in the earliest times penetrated to the
south, Agastya is one of the most conspicuous. The tradition that he
caused the Vindhya mountains to bow down and yield him a passage,
no less than the universal popular belief, seem to point him out as the
forerunner of the last Aryan migration into the peninsula.^ The
ascendency he gained over the enemies of the Brahmans had, accord-
ing to the Ramayana, rendered the southern regions safe and accessible
at the time when Rama crossed the Vindhya range. The scene of the

• To him the Tamil race attribute their first knowledge of letters. After civilizing
the Dravidians or Tamil people, he retired to a hill in the Western Ghats still named
after him, and was subsequently identified with the star Canopus.

HAIHAYAS

273

following grotesque and monstrous story of the exercise of his power
is laid at Stambhodadhi (Kammasandra), on the banks of the Arkavati,
near Nelamangala. There Agastya is related to have had an asrama,
and thither came the rakshasa brothers Vitapi and Ilvala, who, having
obtained the boon that they should be invulnerable to gods and giants
and might assume any form at will, had applied themselves to the work
of destroying the rishis. Their modus operandi was as follows : — Ilvala,
the elder, assuming the form of a Brahman, would enter the asrama
and invite the rishi to some ceremony requiring the sacrifice of a sheep.
At this Vatapi, taking the form of the sheep, was sacrificed and eaten.
The repast over, Ilvala would exclaim " Vatapi, come forth," when the
latter, resuming his natural form, would burst out from the rishi, rend-
ing him asunder, and the two brothers eat him up. This plan they
tried on Agastya, but he was forewarned. When, therefore, after the
sacrificial meal, Ilvala as usual summoned Vatapi to come forth, Agastya
replied that he was digested and gone to the world of Yama. Ilvala,
rushing to fall upon him, was reduced to ashes by a glance.^

Of other rishis, tradition has it that Gautama performed penance on
the island of Seringapatam in the Kaveri, Kanva- on the stream at
Malur near Channapatna, Vibhandaka on the Tunga at Sringeri,
Markanda on the Bhadra at Kandeya, Dattatreya on the Baba Budans,
besides many others in different places.

Asuras arid Rdkshasas. — " The (asuras and) rakshasas who are repre-
sented as disturbing the sacrifices and devouring the priests, signify,"
says Lassen, " merely the savage tribes which placed themselves in
hostile opposition to the Brahmanical institutions. The only other
actors who appear, in addition to these, are the monkeys, which ally
themselves to Rama and render him assistance. This can only mean
that when the Aryan Kshatriyas first made hostile incursions to the
south, they were aided by another portion of the indigenous tribes."

Of the asuras, traditions are preserved that Guhasura had his capital
at Harihara on the Tungabhadra, Hidimbasura was established at
Chitaldroog, Bakasura near Rahman Ghar, Mahishasura, from whom
Mysore derives its name, at Chamundi, and so on. The asuras, it is
said, being defeated by the devas, Ijuilt three castles in the three worlds,
one of iron on the earth, one of silver in the air, and one of gold in the
sky. These the devas smote, and conquered the three worlds ; the

' For the original story see Muir, Sans. Texts, ii. 415. Weber considers it
indicates the existence of cannibals in the Dekhan. Of Ilvala, perhaps we have a
trace in the village of Ilavala, known to Europeans as \'chval, near Mysore. \'atapi-
pura is the same as Haclami, near Dharwar.

- Kanva is to the Telugu race nearly what Agastya is to the Tamil.

2 74 HISTORY

muster (jf tlic forces for the assault on the tri])lc city, cjr Tripura,' having
taken place, according to tradition, at the hill of Kurudu male, properly
Ktldu male, near Mulbagal.

The rdkshasas appear to have been a powerful race dominant in the
south, whose capital was at Lanka in the island of Ceylon. The king-
dom of the vdnara or monkey race was in the north and west of the
Mysore, their chief city being Kishkindha near the village of Hampe
on the Tungabhadra. The ancient Jain Ramayana, composed in Hala
Kannada, gives a genealogy of the kings of either race down to the
time of Rama's expedition, which will be made use of farther on, so far
as it relates to Mysore. In it we are also introduced to the vidyddharas,
whose empire was apparently more to the north, and w^hose principal
seat was at Rathanupura-Chakravalapura.-

Haihayas.— In order, however, to obtain something like a connected
narrative of events more or less historical of these remote times, we
may begin with an account of the Haihayas. \\'ilson imagines them to
be a foreign tribe, and inclines, with Tod, to the opinion that they may
have been of Scythian origin and perhaps connected with a race of
similar name who first gave monarchs to China.'' They overran the
Dekhan, driving out from Mahishmati, on the upper Narmada (Ner-
budda), a king named Bahu, seventeenth in descent from Purukutsa of
the solar line, the restorer of the dominion of the Nagas. He fied with
his wives to the forest, where one of them gave birth to Sagara, who
became a great conqueror and paramount ruler in India."* He nearly
exterminated the Haihayas and associated races — the Sakas, Yavanas,
Kambojas, Paradas, and Pahlavas — but, at the intercession of his
priest Vasishtha, forbore from further slaughter, and contented him-
self with imposing on them certain modes of shaving the head and
wearing the hair, to mark their degradation to the condition of out-
castes.'^

^ Reference to a city named Tripura will he fciund in connection with the Kadamba
kings, farther on. The legend perhaps means that the indigenous tribes in the west
retired above the Ghats before Aryan invaders, and were finally subdued by their
assailants penetrating to the table-land from the east, and taking the lofty hill forts.

- The Silaharas of Karahata (Karhad), near Kolapur, are called Vidyadharas. —
Dr. Buhler, Vik. Dez>. Char. Int. 40.

•■' Wilson, Vish. Fur. Bk. IV, ch. xi, last note. Tod, An. Faj. I, 36. Haihaya
was also the name of a great-grandson of Vadu, the progenitor of the Vadavas.

* Sagara is the king most commonly named at the end of inscriptions as an example
of liberality in granting endowments of land.

* For the bearing of these regulations on certain practices at the present day, see
Dr. Caldwell's article on the kiidunii (Kan. jiitfii), reprinted from the Madras Mail
mind. Ant. IV, 166.

Eventually the Haihayas established their cajntal at Ratanpur (in the Central

PARASU RAMA 275

Parasu Bama. — At a later period, Arjuna, the son of Kritavirya,
and hence called Kartaviryarjuna (which distinguishes him from Arjuna,
one of the Pandu princes), was ruling over the Haihayas. On him the
muni 1 )attatreya had conferred a thousand arms and other powers, with
which he oppressed both men and gods. He is even said to have seized
and tied up Ravana. About the same time a sage named Jamadagni,
nephew of Visvamitra, the uncompromising opponent of Vasishtha,
having obtained in marriage Renuka, daughter of king Prasenajit, they
had five sons, the last of whom was Rama, called Parasu Rdma, or
Rama with the axe, to distinguish him from the hero of the Ramayana.
He is represented as the sixth avatar of Vishnu : his axe, however, was
given him by Siva.

Jamadagni was entrusted by Indra with the care of Surabhi, the
celestial cow of plenty ; and on one occasion being visited by
Kartavir\'a, who was on a hunting expedition, regaled the Raja and his
followers in so magnificent a manner as to excite his astonishment,
until he learned the secret of the inestimable animal possessed by his
host. Impelled by avarice, he demanded the cow •} and on refusal
attempted, but in vain, to seize it by force, casting down the tall
trees surrounding the hermitage.- On being informed of what had
happened, Parasu Rama was filled with indignation ; and attacking
Kartaviryarjuna, cut off his thousand arms and slew him. His sons
in return killed Jamadagni, in the absence of Parasu Rama. Where-
upon Renuka became a Sati, by burning herself on her husband's
funeral pyre. With her dying breath she imprecated curses on the
head of her husband's murderer, and Parasu Rama vowed, after
performing his father's funeral obsequie.s, to destroy the whole
Kshatriya race.

Having twenty-one times cleared the Earth of Kshatriyas, he gave
her at the conclusion of an asvamedha, a rite whose performance was a
sign of the consunnnation of victory, as a sacrificial fee to Kasyapa, the
ofificiating priest ; who, in order that the remaining Kshatriyas might be
spared, innnediately signalled him off with the sacrificial ladle, saying,
" Go, great muni, to the shore of the southern ocean. Thou must not

I'rovinces), and continued in ]wwer until deposed l)y the Mahrattas in 1741 a. I).
Inscriptions have been found proving the dominion of the Haihayas over the upper
Xarniada \'alley as far hack as the second century A. 1). — C P. Gaz. Int. 1.

^ There is little douht that the so-called cow was a fertile tract of country, such as
Sorab (literally Sural)hi), where the scene of this transaction is laid, is well known
to be.

- The story is dift'crently related in the Mahabharata, but \sitli too unnatural and
improliable circumstances, and too manifest a design to inculcate certain Urahmanical
notions. The sequel is the same.

T 2

2 76 J II STORY

dwell in ni\- territory." ^ Parasu Rama then applies to Sagara,*^ the
ocean, for sonic land, and compels it to retire,'' creating the seven
Konkanas,^ or the maritime regions of the western coast, whither he
withdraws to the Mahendra mountain. The Earth, who finds it very
inconvenient to do without the Kshatriyas as rulers and kings, appeals to
Kasyapa, who discovers some scions of royal houses that have escaped
the general mas.sacre of their race, and instals them.

This prodigious legend, in which the mythical type of Brahmanism
is clearly enough revealed as arrayed in opposition to the military caste,
is by tradition connected with many parts of Mysore. Sorab taluq is
the Surabhi which was Jamadagni's possession. The temple of Renuka,
existing to this day at Chandragutti, is said to mark the spot where she
burnt herself on the funeral pyre of her husband, and that of Kolaha-
lamma at Kolar is said to have been erected in her honour from
Kartaviryarjuna having there been slain. The colloquy with Sagara is
said to have been near Tirthahalli. At Hiremugalur (Kadur District)
is a singular memorial in the temple of Parasu, the axe of the hero, and
its ancient name of Bhargavapuri connects the town with him as being
a descendant of Bhrigu.

Rama.— Our history has next to do with Rama, — called, by way of
distinction, Ramachandra, — the hero of the Ramayana and the seventh
avatar of ^'ishnu. On his way home after winning Sita by breaking
the bow of Siva, he is, strangely enough, said to have been encountered
by Parasu Rama, who required him to break a bow of Vishnu which
he produced. This Rama did, and at the same time destroyed Parasu
Rama's celestial abode. The story of Rama, — a Kshatriya, but
obedient to the Brahmans ; of the solar line, the son of Dasaratha, king
of Ayodhya (Oudh) — and of the abduction, during their wanderings in
the Dandaka forest, of his wife the fair Sita, by Ravana, the rakshasa
king of Lanka in Ceylon, is too well known to need repetition here.
To this day not an incident therein has abated in interest to the
millions of India, and few parts of the land but claim to be the scene
of one or other of its adventures. Without stopping to dwell on the

^ The audacity of the conception is sublime. The explanation given is that Parasu
Rama being guilty of homicide could not be allowed to reside in Brahman territory.

- Sagara, the ocean, was so named from Sagara (previously mentioned) through
Bhagiratha. The tradition will be found in the Vishnu Purana, &c. The taluq
adjoining Sorab is also called Sagar.

3 According to some accounts he stood on the jiromontory of Dilli, and shot his
arrows to the south, over the site of Kerala. It seems likely that we have proof of the
local legend being at least as old as the Christian era, as the Mons Pyrrhus of Ptolemy
is, probably, the mountain of Parasu or Parasu Rama. — Wilson, fish. Pur. Bk. iv, ch. 7.

* These were Karata, Virata, Mahdrata, Konkana, Haiga, Tulava and Kerala.

J? A MA 277

romantic episode, wliich will be found in the history of the Kadur I )is-
trict. of Rishya Sringa, to whon) indirectly the birth of the hero is
ascribed, it is evident that Rama's route from Panchavati or Nasik, at
the source of the Godavari, to Ramesvara, on the south-eastern coast
opposite Ceylon, would naturally lead him across the table-land of
Mysore.^

All accounts agree in stating that the first news Rama received that
Ravana had carried off his wife to Ceylon, was conveyed to him while
at the court of Sugriva, the king of Kishkindha ; and that with the
forces here obtained he accomplished his expedition and the recovery
of Sita. He first met with Sugriva, then dispossessed of his kingdom,
at the sources of the Pampa or Tungabhadra, and assisted him in
recovering his throne. The former region therefore would be in the
Western Ghats, in Kadur District ; and the situation of Kishkindha is
generally acknowledged to be on the Tungabhadra, north of the
Mysore," near the village of Hampe, where in modern times arose the
cities of Anegundi and Vijayanagar. The Brahmanical version of the
Ramayana, as contained in ^'almiki's famous poem, describes the races
of this region as vanaras and kapis, or monkeys. But the Jain
Ramayana, previously referred to, calls Kishkindha the vdnara dhvaja
kingdom, or kingdom of the monkey flag. This simple device on the
national standard, therefore, may have led to the forces being called the
monkey army,'' and thence easily sprung all the other embellishments
of the story as popularly received.'' We shall follow the Jain version
in giving the previous history of the kings of Kishkindha. '

Kishkindha. — By the conquests of Sagara, here made a descendant
of Puru,'' a [)rince named Toyada Vahana (the same as Megha \'ahana, or
Jimiita \'ahanaj, who had thought to marry a princess whom Sagara

^ The papers concerning Mysore (in the Mackenzie collection) seem to agree in
stating that Rama went by way of the Mysore country to Lanka. — Taylor, Cat. Rais.
Or. MSS. Ill, 693.

- Wilson, Utt. Ram. Char. Act I, Sc. 2 ; Monier Williams, Ind. Ep. Po. 76 ;
Talboys Wheeler, Hist. Ind. II, 318.

•' This is nothing but what we often do in speaking of the military array of the
British lion, the Russian bear, <S:c.

•* Kapi-dhvaja (monkey flag) was one of the names of Arjuna, the most popular of
the Pandu brothers. The monkey ensign was also one of the insignia of the Kadamba
kings of Banavasi and Hanagal, and is still a cherished emblem of the Balagai or
right-hand castes {see above, p. 224).

* An attempt has been made in N'almiki's Ramayana to supply some of these
jiarticulars in the Uttara Kanda or supplementary chapter, but the accounts are
meagre and much altered.

® The progenitor of one branch of the lunar line, and, from the similarity of
names, sometimes conjectured to i)e the I'orvis who was defeated by Alexaniler
the Great.

2 78 HISTORY

appropriates, is driven to take refuge with Jihinia rakshasa of Lanka;
and the latter, being without heirs, leaves to him that kingdom, as well
as Patala Lanka. After many generations, Dhavala Kirtti arises in that
line, whose wife's brother, Srikantha Kumara, being desirous of
establishing a principality for himself, sets out for the vdnara dvipa, or
monkey island, where the accounts he receives of the Kishkindha hill
induce him to select it as the site of his capital. He accordingly founds
there the city of Kishkindha, and is the progenitor of the line of kings
of the monkey flag.

The successors of Srikantha Kumara, in regular descent, were
Vajrakantha, Indrayudha, Amara Prabhu (who marries a princess of
Lanka), and Kapi Ketu. After several more kings, whose names are
not mentioned, the line is continued by Mahodadhi, and his son
Pratibindu. The latter has two sons, Kishkindha and Andhraka. A
svayainvara being proclaimed for Mandara Mali, princess of Aditya-
nagara on the Vijayartha parvata, these two princes attend, as well as
Vijaya Simha, son of Asanivega the Vidyadhara chakravarti, and
Sukesha, the young king of Lanka. The lady's choice falling on
Kishkindha, Vijaya Simha is indignant and attacks him, but is killed
by Andhraka. Asanivega, to revenge his son's death, marches against
Kishkindha and Sukesha, and takes both their kingdoms. They retire
to Patala Lanka. After a time, Kishkmdha founds a city on Madhu
parvata, and has there two sons, Rikshaja and Siiryaja. Sukesha, in
Patala Lanka, has three sons — Mali, Sumali, and Malyavant, — who, on
attaining to manhood, recover possession of Lanka. Meanwhile, in the
Vidyadhara kingdom, Asanivega has been succeeded by Sahasrara, and
he by Lidra.^ The Lanka princes, with the aid of Rikshaja and
Suryaja, attack the latter, but are defeated and again lose their king-
doms, all retiring to Patala Lanka as before. In the course of time,
to Ratnasrava, son of Sumali, is born Ravana, the predestined champion
of the rakshasa race. He regains Lanka and Kishkindha, and restores
the latter to Rikshaja and Suryaja. Vali and Sugriva, the sons of the
last, succeed to the throne. Ravana now demands their sister in
marriage ; but Vali, being opposed to it, abdicates, and thus leaves
Sugriva alone in the government.

On one occasion, Sugriva, owing to some dispute with his wife
Sutare, stays away from his capital ; and during his absence, a double

' The Silahiiias of Karahata (Karhad), near Kolapur, claim to be not only
Vidyadharas (as above stated, p. 273), but also to be connected with the royal race
of Ceylon. A Chalukya inscription of a.d. 1008 says, "The Silara family of the
Simhala kings are descended from Jimuta-vahana, son of Jimuta-ketu, the lord of the
Vidyadharas." (See_/. Bo. Br. K. A. S. No. Y, p. 221.)

KISHKINDHA 2 7 9

of himself, who most closely resembles him. usurps his place and
imposes upon all the ministers. The real Sugriva, being in a fix,
resorts to his friend Hanuman, son of Pavanjaya, king of Hanuvara
or Hanuruha dvipa. Then, hearing about Rama, he visits him at
Patala Lanka, and undertakes to discover Sita's place of confinement
in return for Rama's assistance in regaining his throne. Kishkindha is
accordingly attacked, the false or Maya Sugriva is killed, and Sugriva
restored. News having been received from a neighbouring chief that
he saw Ravana bearing Sita to Lanka,' a council is now held, at which
it is resolved to send to Hanuvara dvipa for Hanuman, as being of
rakshasa descent. The latter arrives, and undertakes to go to Lanka
as a spy and discover the truth of the report. He sets out by way of
Mahendra parvata^ and 1 )adhi-mukha parvata and brings back tokens
from Sita. Forces are at once mustered for the expedition to Lanka
for her recovery. The march of the army to the southern sea leads
them to Velandha-pura, ruled over by Samudra ; to Suvelachala, ruled
over by Suvela ; and lastly to Hamsa dvipa, whose king was Dvipa-
radana.

The identity of the places mentioned in the foregoing account it is
perhaps difficult to establish. But it seems not unlikely that Patala
Lanka, evidently, from the name, a city below the Ghats, and belong-
ing to the rakshasa kingdom of Ceylon, was some place in Canara ; for
the dominions of Ravana are said to have extended to Trichinopoly
on the east, and to Gokarna on the west of the peninsula. Honuvara
or Honuruha dvipa again is no doubt one of the islands in the large
lake of Honavar or Honore" in the Gersoppa district, near the mouth
of the Sharavati, which forms the Gersoppa Falls. The principal
island in the outer bay was fortified by Sivappa Nayak of Ikkeri, and
is now called Basava Rdja durga. The north-west of Mysore seems
thus pretty clearly connected with an important part of Rama's expedi-
tion. Local traditions, less credible in character, will be found noticed
under the several places where they are current.

Pandavas. — We will therefore proceed to the history of the Pandus,

' An inscription on the Jatinga-Ranies'vara hill in Molakalnuiru lahu), dated
S'aka 883, stales that the linga there was set up when Ravana had seized Sita and
when Jat.iyu fought and fell there in her behalf.

^ Mahendra is a name applied to some parts of the Eastern Ghats, and also to a
mountain near Cape Comorin.

•* The lake is of great extent and contains many islands, some of which are culti-
vated. It reaches almost to the Ghats, and in the dry season is quite salt ; but it
receives many more streams, which during the rainy monsoon become torrents and
render the whole fresh. By the natives it is connnonly calleil a river, l)Ut lake is a
more proper term. — Buchanan, _/?«/-. II, 279.

28o JlISrOR V

and briefly nolice some of the more important events related in the
Maha Bharata which tradition connects with Mysore. Arjuna, the
third and most attractive of the five brothers, who by his skill in archery
won Draupadi, the princess of Panchala, at her svayatm'ara, after a
time v/ent into exile for twelve years, in order to fulfil a vow. During
his wanderings at this period, it is related that he came to the Mahendra
mountains, and had an interview with Parasu Rama, who gave him
many powerful weapons. Journeying thence he came to Manipura,
where the king's daughter, Chitrangada, fell in love with him, and he
married her and lived there three years, and had by her a son, Babhru-
vahana. The locality of this incident is assigned to the neighbourhood
of Chamrajnagar in the Mysore District, where the site of Manipura,
to which we shall have again to refer, is still pointed out.^

When Yudhishthira resolved to perform the royal sacrifice called the
Rajasiiya, by which he proclaimed himself paramount sovereign, it
was first necessary to subdue the kings who would not acknowledge
him. Accordingly four expeditions were despatched, one towards each
of the cardinal points. The one to the south was commanded by
Sahadeva. After various conquests he crosses the Tungabhadra and
encamps on the Kishkindha hill, w^here Sushena and Vrishasena, the
chiefs of the monkey race, make friendship with him. Thence he
goes to the Kaveri, and passing over to Mahishmati (Mahishur,
My.sore), attacks Nila its king, whom he conquers and plunders of
great wealth.^ After this he goes to the Sahyadri or Western Ghats,

1 Manipur in Eastern Bengal, it appears, also lays claim to the story, but evidently
on scanty grounds. — Wheeler, Hist. Ind. I, 149, 425, notes.

^ The Maha Bharata in this place (Sabha Parva) makes some singular statements
regarding the women of Mahishmati. The king Nila Raja, it is said, had a most
lovely daughter, of whom the god Agni (Fire) became enamoured. He contrived to
pay her many secret visits in the disguise of a Brahman. One day he was discovered
and seized by the guards, who brought him before the king. When about to be
condemned to punishment, he blazed forth and revealed himself as the god Agni.
The Council hastened !o appease him, and he granted the boon that the women of
Mahishmati should thenceforth be free from the bonds of marriage in order that no
adultery might exist in the land, and that he would befriend the king in time of
danger. This description of "free love" would apply to the Nairs and Xamburi
Brahmans of Malabar, but seems misplaced in reference to Mysore. It may, how-
ever, indicate that a chief of Malabar origin had at that time established himself in
power in the south-west ; and possibly refer to some stratagem attempted against him
by Jamad-agni, which ended in an alliance. Sahadeva was forced to conciliate Agni
before he could take Mahishmati.

It may here be stated that, according to traditions of :he Haihayas in the Central
Provinces, Nila Dhvaja, a descendant of Sudhyumna, got the throne of Mahishmati
(Mandla) ; Hamsa Dhvaja, another son, became monarch of Chandrapur (supposed
to be Chanda) ; and a third received the kingdom of Ratanpur. The two former
kingdoms, after the lapse of some generations, were overthrown by the Gonds, and

PANDA V AS 281

subdues many hill chiefs, and, descending to the coast, overruns
Konkana, Gaula and Kerala.

The fate of the great gambling match which followed the Rajasuya,
and the exile of the Pandavas for thirteen years, during the last of
which they were to live incognito, need not be related here, as they are
generally well known. But an inscription at Belagami in Shikarpur
taluq expressly says that the Pandavas came there after the performance
of the Rajasuya. In the course of their farther wanderings, the brothers
are related to have lived in the Kamyaka forest, and this is claimed to
be the wild tract surrounding Kavale-durga in the Shimoga District.
The erection of the massive fortifications on that hill is ascribed to the
Pandus, as well as the Bhimankatte thrown across the Tunga above
Tirthahalli. The thirteenth year of exile was spent at the court of the
king of \'irata, in various disguises, — Bhima as a cook, Arjuna as a
eunuch, Draupadi as a waiting-maid, &c. The varied incidents of this
year are fully given in the published abstracts of the poem. It is only
necessary here to state that Virata-nagara is more than once mentioned
in the Chdlukya inscriptions, and is by tradition identified with Hanagal,
a few miles north of the Sorab frontier.^

^^'e pass on to the great asvamedha, or horse sacrifice, undertaken
by Yudhishthira, which forms the subject of one of the most admired
Kannada poems, the Jaimini Bharata. Among the conditions of this
regal ceremony, it was required that the horse appointed for sacrifice
should be loosed and allowed to wander free for the period of one year.
Wheresoever it went it was followed by an army, and if the king into
whose territories it chanced to wander seized and refused to let it go,
war was at once declared and his submission enforced. In accordance
with these rules, Arjuna was appointed to command the escort which
guarded the horse. Among the places to which it strayed, three are by
tradition connected with Mysore.

the Raianpur kingdom alone survived till the advent of the Mahraltas. — C. P.
Gaz. 159.

Sudhanva, a son of Ilamsa Dhvaja, is also said in the traditions of Mysore to have
l)een the founder of Champaka-nagara, now represented l)y the village of Sampige,
near Kadaha, in Gubbi taluq.

The only actual record hitherto found of a Nila Raja in the south is in the
Samudra Gupta inscription at Allahabad, in which he is assigned to an unknown
country called Avamukta (signifying freed or liberated, a curious coincidence with the
story above given), and is mentioned between \'ishnug6pa bi Kanchi and Harti-
varman of Vengi. His period, according to this, would lie the fourtii century. (See
Fleet's Early Gupta Kings, p. 13.)

' Sir Walter Elliot says, " The remains of enormous fortifications, enclosing a
great extent, are still visible. I have got a plan distinctly showing the circuit of
seven walls and ditches on the side not covered by the river. '—Mad. J. iS, 216.
Also see Int. Ant. V, 177.

282 HISTORY

'I'lu- first of these is Manipur, near Chamrajnagar, previously men-
tioned.' Babliruvahana, the son here born to Arjuna, had now grown
up and succeeded to the throne. His kingdom was also in a state of
the highest prosperity. It was pre-eminently " a land of beauty, valour,
virtue, truth : " its wealth was fabulous,'- and its happiness that of
paradise : it was filled with people, and not a single measure of land
was unoccui)ied or waste. A\'hen the horse came near this enchanting
spot the Raja was informed of it ; and, on his return from the chase in
the evening, he commanded it to be brought before him. The scene is
thus described : —

" Now the whole ground where the Raja held his council was covered with
gold ; and at the entrance to the council chamber were a hundred pillars of
gold, each forty or fifty cubits high ; and the top of each pillar was made of
fine gold and inlaid with jewels ; and on the summits of the pillars and on
the walls were many thousand artificial birds, made so exact that all who
saw them thought them to be alive ; and there were precious stones that
shone like lamps, so that there was no need of any other light in the
assembly ; and there also were placed the figures of fishes inlaid with rubies
and cornelians, which appeared to be alive and in motion. All round the
council hall were sticks of sandal, wound round with fine cloth which had
been steeped in sweet-scented oils ; and these were burnt to give light to the
place instead of lamps, so that the whole company were perfumed with the
odour. And before each one of the principal persons in the assembly was
placed a vessel, ornamented with jewels, containing various perfumes ; and
on every side and corner of the hall were beautiful damsels, who sprinkled
rose-water and other odoriferous liquors. And when the horse was brought

* There appear to be several reasons for accepting this as the locality in preference
to Manipur in Eastern Bengal. In the version given by Wheeler, Vol. I, it is stated
(396) that the horse when loosed went towards the south, and that its return was in a
northerly direction (414) ; these directions would not lead it to and from E. Bengal,
but to and from S. Mysore they would. It is also said (406) that sticks of sandal-
wood were burnt in the council hall of Manipur, and also (408) that elephants were
very excellent in that country. Now Mysore is the well-known home of the sandal-
tree, and the region I have assigned as the site of Manipur is peculiarly the resort of
elephants : within ten miles of that very site were made the remarkably successful
captures of elephants described on p. 179. The sequence of places visited by the
horse after Manipur is also, as shown in the text, consistent with the identification
here proposed. From the notes (149, 425) it appears that the application of the stor}-
to Manipur in Bengal is of very recent date.

- Of Solomon in all his glory it is stated that " he made silver and gold at Jerusalem
as plenteous as stones." So here " many thousands of chariots, elephants and horses
were employed in bringing the revenue, in gold and silver, to a thousand treasuries ;
and the officers sat day and night to receive it ; but so great was the treasure that the
people who brought it had to wait ten or twelve years before their turn came to
account for tlie money, obtain their acquittal and return home ! " One Raja confessed
that he sent a thousand carl-loads of gold and silver every year merely for leave to
remain quietly in his own kingdom.

PANDA VAS 283

into the assembly, all present were astonished at its beauty and excellence ;
and they saw round its neck a necklace of excellent jewels, and a golden
plate hanging upon its forehead. Then Raja Babhruvahana bade his
minister read the writing on the plate ; and the minister rose up and read
aloud, that Raja Yudhishthira had let loose the horse and appointed Arjuna
to be its guardian."

It was resolved that Babhruvahana, being Arjuna's son, should go
forth to meet huii in a splendid procession and restore the horse ; but
Arjuna, under some evil influence, refused to acknowledge the Raja as
his son : he even kicked him, and taunted him with inventing a story
because he was afraid to fight. Babhruvahana was then forced to
change his demeanour, which he did with great dignity. A desperate
battle ensued, in which Arjuna w-as killed, and all his chieftains were
either slain or taken prisoners. Congratulations were showered upon
the victor, but his mother, Chitrangada, swooned and declared her
intention of burning herself on Arjuna's funeral pile. In this dilemma,
Ulupi, a daughter of Vasuki, the Xaga or serpent raja, whom Arjuna
had formerly married, and who had afterwards entered the service of
Chitrangada, resolved to get from her father a jewel which was in the
possession of the serpents, and which would restore Arjuna to life.
She accordingly sent a kinsman to her father with the request. His
council, however, being afraid of losing the jewel, refused to give it up.
On learning this, 15abhruvahana made war upon the serpents and com-
pelled them to give it up. Arjuna was by its means restored to life and
reconciled to his son.

The horse then entered the territory of Ratnapura, a city of which
name, it will be seen, was situated near Lakvalli in Kadur District.
The animal was here seized, but rescued by Arjuna. It next wandered
into Kuntala, the country of Chandrahasa, whose capital we shall find
was at Kubattur in Shimoga District. Here also the king was com-
pelled to release it.

The story of Chandrahdsa is a pleasing and favourite romance. He was
the son of a king of Kerala, and was born with six toes. While an infant,
his father was killed in battle, and his mother perished on her husband's
funeral pile. His nurse then fled with him to Kuntala, and when she died,
he was left destitute and forced to subsist by begging. While doing so one
day at the house of the minister, who is appropriately named Dushta buddhi,
or evil counsel, some astrologers noted that the boy had signs of greatness
upon him, indicating that he would one day become ruler of the country.
The minister, hearing of it, took secret measures to have him murdered in a
forest ; but the assassins relented, and contented themselves with cutting
off his sixth toe, which they produced as the evidence of having carried out

284 mSTORY

their instructions. Meanwhile, Kuhnda, an officer of the court, hunting
in that direction, heard the boy's cry ; and, pleased with his appearance,
having no son of his own, took him home to Chandan.-ivati and adopted
him.

He grew up to be very useful and, by defeating some rebellious chieftains,
obtained great praise and wealth for his adopted father, which e.xcited the
jealousy of the minister. The latter, resolved to see for himself, paid a visit
to Kulinda, when, to his astonishment, he learnt that all this prosperity was
due to an adopted son, Chandrahdsa, who had been picked up in the forest
years ago bleeding from the loss of a si.xth toe. The truth at once broke
upon him that it was the boy he had thought to murder. Resolved more
than ever to get rid of him, he dissimulates and proposes to send him on an
errand to court, which was gladly enough undertaken. A letter was accord-
ingly sent by him to Madana, the minister's son, who was holding office
during his father's absence, directing that poison {inshd) should be at
once given to the bearer as he valued his own advancement. For the
minister had secretly resolved, as there was no male heir to the throne, to
marry Madana to the king's daughter and thus secure the kingdom to his
own family. Chandrahdsa, bearing the letter, arrived near the city, where
he saw a charming garden. Being weary, he tied his horse to a tree and lay
down to rest, when he fell asleep.

Now it so happened that this garden belonged to the minister, and that
morning his daughter Vishaya (to whom, before leaving, he had jestingly
promised to send a husband), had come there with the daughter of the Raja
and all their maids and companions to take their pleasure ; and they all
sported about in the garden and did not fail to jest each other about being
married. Presently Vishaya wandered away from the others and came to
the tank, where she saw the handsome young Chandrahasa lying asleep on
the bank, and at once fell in love with him. She now noticed a letter half
falling from his bosom, and, to her great surprise, saw it was in the hand-
writing of her father, and addressed to her brother. Remembering what
had been said about sending her a husband, she gently drew out the letter
and, opening it, read it. One slight alteration she saw would accomplish
her wishes ; she accordingly changed the word z//V//(ZT'(Z, poison, into vishaya,
her own name, resealed it with a copy of her father's seal which she had
with her, and replaced it in the young man's bosom.

When Madana received the letter he w^as greatly surprised, but as the
message was urgent, at once proceeded with arrangements for marrying his
beautiful sister to the handsome stranger. The ceremony had just been
concluded with all manner of pomp and rejoicing, when the minister
returned. Seeing what had happened, he was struck dumb with amaze-
ment. The production of the letter further convinced him that through
fate the mistake must have been his own. Suffice it to say that he makes
another attempt to get rid of Chandrahasa, but it so chances that his own
son Madana is killed instead .: and Chandrahasa, taking the fancy of the
king, is adopted as heir to the throne and married to the princess. Whereon
the minister, driven to desperation, kills himself.

/A NAME/ A YA 285

Janamejaya. — Before quitting the legendary period, there is yet one
tradition demanding notice. During the first twelve years' exile of
Arjuna, before visiting Manipur, he had married Subhadra, the sister of
Krishna. By her he had a son named Abhimanyu. When, at the
conclusion of the thirteenth year of the second period of exile, the
Pandavas threw ofi" their incognito at the court of Virata, the raia
offered his daughter Uttara to Arjuna. But the latter declining her for
himself, on the ground that he had acted as her music and dancing-
master, and she had trusted him as a father, accepted her for his son
Abhimanyu, from which union sprung Parikshit,^ whose son was
Janamejaya. This is the monarch to whom the Maha Bharata is
recited. There is a professed grant by him at Bhimankatte matha,'-
now Tirthahalli, dated in the year 89 of the Yudhishthira era, which
would be 3012 B.C., but, if for no other reason, it is quite discredited
by the signature being in comparatively modern Kannada characters.
The grant itself is in Sanskrit, and in Nagari characters. Janamejaya is
represented in it as ruling in Kishkindha, and making a gift, in the
presence of the god Harihara, of the place on the Tungabhadra in
which his great-grandfather Yudhishthira had rested.

Parikshit, according to a curse, died from the bite of a serpent f in
revenge for which it was that Janamejaya performed his celebrated
sat-pa ydga or serpent sacrifice. This ceremony, according to tradition,
took place at Hiremugalur in the Kadur District, and three agraharas
in the Shimoga District, — Gauj, Kuppagadde and Begur — possess
inscriptions on copper plates, also written in Sanskrit, and in Nagari
characters, professing to be grants made by Janamejaya to the officiating
Brahmans on the occasion of the sar/>a ydi::;a. The genuineness of the
first of these, which is the one best known,'' has been a subject of much
controversy : but all three are almost identical in the historical portion.
They describe the donor as the son of the emperor Parikshit ; of the
Soma va/ns'a and Pdndava kiila ; having a golden lioar on his flag, and
ruling in Hastinapura. The grants are made during an expedition to
the south, in the presence of the god Harihara, at the confluence of the
Tungabhadra and Haridra. The inscriptions are no doubt of some
antiquity, but to accept them as dating from the commonly-received

' He was a i)osthiini<ni.s son and still-lxirn, l)Ut Krishna pronounced some words
over the body which instilled life into it.

^ See Mys. Ins. 251.

•' The Bhagavata I'urana was recited to him between the iiite and his death ! The
supposed meaning of the legend is, that Parikshit met his death at the hands of a
Naga tribe, and that his son exterminated the Nagas in revenge.

* See Colebrooke, As. /^'t-s. IX, 446.

2 86 HI STORY

period for the ccniinicnccinent of the Kah yuga,' wlicii Janamejaya is
said to have reigned, would be aljsurd.

A well-known native astronomer'- worked out the calculations for me,
and maintained that they accord with no other year hut 36 of the Kali
yuga, or k.c. 3066. He also stated that there is an interval of twelve
days between the first date and the other two ; and that the former
marks the beginning, and the latter the conclusion, of the sacrifice.
On the other hand, the eclipse mentioned in the (lauj agrahara inscrip-
tion, is stated,' on the authority of Sir (i. Airy, to have happened in
A.D. 1 52 1, but this seems based on a mistake. I have elsewhere"*
published what professes to be a Chalukya inscription, dated Saka 366
(a.d. 444), which is in the same characters, and corresponds closely in
many of the particulars, and in the peculiar terms of these grants. I
have also made a minute comparison between them all, and given
reasons for assigning them to about a.d. 1194. More recent discoveries
lead to a suspicion that these and some other unaccountable inscrip-
tions were in some way connected with Henjeru, a Xolamba city, now
called Hemavati, situated on the Sira border, and perhaps with
Harihara on the Tungabhadra.

Regarding the chronology of the events which have been mentioned
in the foregoing account of the legendary period, it can only be stated
generally, that the destruction of the Kshatriyas by Parasu Rama is
said to have taken place between the Treta and Dvapara ages ; and
that an era of Parasu Rama used in Malabar dates from 11 76 B.C.
Rama's expedition against Lanka, assigned to the close of the Treta
age, is supposed to have taken place about the thirteenth century b.c.^
and the w-ar of the Maha Bharata about fourteen centuries b.c." The
earliest version of the two epics must have been composed before
500 B.C.'

' It is reckoned to have begun on the iSih of FelMuar)-, 3102 B.C., at midnight on
the meridian of Ujjayini.

2 The late Siddhanti Subrahmanya S'astri. ■' /. Bo. Br. K. A. S. X, 81.

* Ind. Ant. VIII, 89 ; Mys. Ins. Ixx. » Ciriffith, Ram. Int. xv.

^ Wilson, Vish. Pur. pref. ci. A Chalukya inscription of the sixth century makes
the era of the war of the Maha Bharata 3146 u.c. — Ijid. Ant. V, 68 ; J. Bo. Br.
R. A. S. IX.

• The Kali Vuga or fourth age of the world was supposed to commence at the
birth of Krishna. Hence the events of the Maha Bharata must have taken place
(luring the third or Dvapara age, and those of the Ramayana at the end of the second
or Treta age. — Monier Williams, Ind. Wis. 333, 315 ff.

MA UR YAS 287

HISTORICAL PERIOD

Mauryas. — The authentic history of India begins with the invasion
of the Greelcs under Alexander the (ireat in 327 v..c., and when the
Sandrakottos^ of the Greek writers was identified with Chandra Gupta,
a secure basis was established on which to found the chronology of
events in India itself. From the little wc know of Chandra Gupta, he
first appears as an adventurer in the camp of Alexander, from which,
owing to some quarrel, he had to flee. Collecting bands of followers,
he contrived to overthrow the dynasty of the Nandas' in Magadha, or
Behar, and made himself supreme sovereign throughout northern
India, with his capital at Pataliputra (Palimbothra in the Greek version),
the modern Patna, on the Ganges. On the other hand, after the death
of Alexander in 323, Baktria and (the Greek provinces in) India had
fallen to the share of Seleukos Nikator, the founder of the Syrian
monarchy. But it was not till he had recovered Babylon in 312 that
the latter was at leisure to turn his attention to India. He then found
himself unable to cope with Chanda Gupta, and therefore entered into
alliance with him, ceding the Greek settlements in the Punjab and the
Kabul valley in return for a present of 500 elephants, and giving him
his daughter in marriage. He also appointed to the court at l\ataliputra
an ambassador named Megasthenes, from whose accounts the Greeks
obtained much of their information about India. The reign of Chandra
Gupta lasted for twenty-four years, from about 316 to 292 B.C., and the
line of kings originating with him are known as the Mauryas.

The earliest event in the annals of Mysore that may be regarded as
historical is connected with Chandra Gupta. According to the accounts
of the Jains, Bhadrabahu, the last of the s'rutakei'alis, or hearers of
the first masters, foretold the occurrence in Ujjayini of a dreadful
famine which would last for twelve years. On its approach the main
body of the Jains there forsook the northern regions and migrated to
the south under his guidance. When they had journeyed as far as
S'ravana JJelgola, Bhadrabahu, feeling that his end was drawing nigh,
sent on the rest of the pilgrims, under the leadership of Vi.s'akha, to
the Chola and Pandya countries, and remained behind at the smaller
hill (called Katavapra in Sanskrit and Kalbappira or Kalbappu in

1 AlheiiKus writes the name Sandrakoptus.— Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus^ II, 132.

- In the play called Mtidra-nikshasa he is represented as having effected this with
the aid of Chanakya (the Indian Machiavelli), who is also called Vishnu Cupta and
Kautilya.

288 HISTORY

Kannacja), to die, nllcnded by only a single di.scii)lc. That disciple, it
is alleged, was ncj other than the Maurya emperor Chandra Gupta.

In accordance with the obligations of the Jaina faith he had abdi-
cated towards the close of life, and renounced the world in order to
prei)are for death by acts of penance performed under the direction of
a spiritual guide. For this purpose he had attached himself to iJhad-
rabahu, the most distinguished professor of the faith at that time living,
and had accompanied him to the south. He continued to minister to
the wants of this his guru to the last, and was the only witness of his
death. According to tradition, Chandra Gupta survived for twelve
years, which he spent in ascetic rites at the same place and died there,
after welcoming the emigrants on their return journey from the south
when the great famine was over which had driven them from their homes.

In testimony of these events not only is Bhadrabahu's cave, in
which he expired, pointed out on the hill at S'ravana Be]gola, but the
hill itself is called Chandra-giri after Chandra Gupta : while on its
summit, surrounded with temples, is the Chandra Gupta basti, the
oldest there, having its fagade minutely sculptured with ninety scenes
from the lives of Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta, though these may
be more modern. Additional evidence is contained in the ancient rock
inscriptions on the hill. The oldest of them relates the migration of
the Jains and the other events above mentioned, while a second asso-
ciates Bhadrabahu with Chandra Gupta as the two great munis who
gave the hill its distinction.^ Similar testimony is borne by two inscrip-
tions of about 900 A.D. found near Seringapatam.- Furthermore, stone
inscriptions at S'ravana Belgola dated in the twelfth and fifteenth
centuries confirm the same traditions.^ That Chandra Gupta was a
Jain by creed may be inferred from the statements of Megasthenes,
who, writing of the Sarmanes (or S'ravanas) distinguishing them both
from the Brachmanes (or Brahmans) and from the followers of Boutta
(or the Buddhists), says : — " They communicate with the kings, who
consult them by messengers regarding the causes of things, and who
through them worship and supplicate the deity. "•■ That Bhadrabahu
was contemporary with Chandra Gupta is not denied.

According to the Greek accounts Chandra Gupta was succeeded by
Amitrachades (probably Amitraghata, one of the king's titles), and
Deimachos was the ambassador appointed to his court. But the
Vishnu Purana gives the following list of the Maurya kings: —

' See my Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola, Nos. 1,17, loS, 54, 40.

- See my Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. I, Sr. 147, 14S.

;t ggg McCrindle's Indika of Megastheues, Ind. Ant. W, 244 : also Thomas, The
Early Faith of Asoka, 23 ; Colebrooke, Essays, II, 203 ; Lassen, Indische Alter-
thumsknndc, II, 700, 710.

MA UR YAS 289

Chandra Gupta. Sangata.

Bindusara. S'alis'iika.

As'oka-vardhana. Somas'arman.

Suyas'as. S'as'adharman.

Das'aratha. Brihadratha.

Bindusara reigned for twenty-eight years, say 292 to 264 B.C., but in
Mysore the next record we have carries us to the reign of As'oka, the
grandson of Chandra Gupta. The discovery by me (in 1892) of three
of his inscriptions in the Molkalmuru taluq, dating perhaps from
258 i;.c., has put it beyond doubt that the Mysore country, or at any
rate the northern part of it, was included in his dominions. All that
was previously known of his connection with Mysore was contained in
the statement in the Mahawanso that after the third convocation (^244
B.C.) he despatched missionaries to foreign parts to establish the religion
of Buddha ; among whom " he deputed the thera Majjhantika to
Kasmira-Gandhara, and the thera Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala
(Mysore). He deputed the thera Rakkhita to Vanavasi" (Banavasi
on the Sorab frontier), &:c. These places would seem therefore to
have been just beyond the limits of his territories. An inscription of
the twelfth century^ describes Ivuntala as the province governed by the
Mauryas. This, roughly speaking, would be the country between the
rivers Bhima and Vedavati, bounded on the west by the Ghats, includ-
ing Shimoga, Chitaldroog, Bellary, Dharwar, I'ijapur, and adjacent
parts to the north in Bombay and the Nizam's Dominions.

The remarkable Edicts of As'oka, engraved on rocks and pillars, are,
as is well known, the earliest specimens of writing that have been found
in India. \\\\h the exception of those at Mansahra and Shahbazgarhi
in the Yusufzai country, in the extreme north-west of the Punjab,
which are in the Baktrian-Pali characters,- written from right to left; all
the others are in the Indo-Pali characters,'' written from left to right.
lUit a singular circumstance about the Edicts found in Mysore is that
although, as was to be expected, they are in the Indo-Pali characters,
the scribe who wrote them has introduced the Baktrian-Pali at the end
in dcscril)ing his profession. '' This character a])pears in no other
inscriptions throughout India, except those in Yusufzai hrst mentioned.
The inference is that the scribe may have been an official transferred
from the extreme north to the extreme south of the empire, which
implies a freer inter-communication than has been generally supposed
to exist at tliat period.

As'oka was governor of Ujjain, under his father, l)cfore he came to the

' At Bandanikkc, Shikarpur lalucp - Also called Arian-l'ali and Kharoshli.

•' rroperly the Brahmi lipi. * As discovered by Dr Biihler.

290 IIISrOR Y

throne. He reigned for forty-one years, about 264 to 223 u.c, or
thirty-seven if counted from his coronation-anointing. During those
previous four years he was engaged in struggles with his brothers.
That he was at first a Jain has been deduced^ from his Edicts, and also
from the statement by Akbar's minister, Abul Fazl, in the Ain-i-Akhari,
that As'oka introduced Jainism into Kashmir, which is confirmed by the
Rdja-tarangini or Brahmanical history of Kashmir, recording that
As'oka " brought in the Jina s'asana." Others, however, consider
that he followed the Brahman creed. At any rate, he eventually
embraced Buddhism, and made it the State religion, doing for that
faith what the emperor Constantine at a later period did for Christianity.
In the 13th Rock Edict he informs us that his conversion was due to
the remorse he felt on account of the slaughter and devastation which
attended his conquest of Kalinga, in the ninth year after his coronation.
Henceforward he resolved to maintain peace and devote himself to
religion. He thus gradually came to appoint officials {inahdmdtras and
others) to watch over morality, and by teaching and persuasion alone
to extend the knowledge of dhamma or moral duties. The slaughter of
animals was to a great extent stopped ; he had wells dug and avenues
of trees planted along the roads ; made arrangements for dispensing
medical aid in all parts of the empire ; and taught that the attainment
of future happiness was open to all classes, and dependent, not on the
ministration of priests, but on personal right conduct and humanity.

The Edicts in Mysore- are issued in the name of Devanam Piye
(the beloved of the gods), a royal title of the Maurya kings, and are
addressed by the Prince (ayaputa) and mahamatras in Tachchannugiri
and S'ivannugiri'' to the mahamatras in Isila, places which have not
been identified. The contents run as follows : —

The Beloved of the gods (thus) commands : — For more than two years and
a half, when I was an upd^aka (or lay-disciple), I did not take much trouble.
For one year'' (I took) immense trouble ; the year that I went to the sangha
(or assembly of clerics) I put forth great exertion. And in this time the
men who were (considered) true in Jambudvipa (were shown to be) false,
together with the gods.'^ This, indeed, is the result of exertion. But this
can not be attained only by the great. For in any case, even to the lowly

' By Ed. Thomas, y«/;/ww, or the Early Faith of Asoka. His grandson Samprati
was certainly a Jain.

- Translations have been published by Dr. Blihler in Epigraphia ludka. III, 140 ;
and by M. Senart, in French, in (he Journal Asiatique for 1892.

^ The reading of these names is not quite clear : Dr. Biihler proposes Suvannagiri
for both. * Or, according to another version, " for one period of six years."

* This difficult passage also reads in other versions as "The men who were really
equal to gods in Jambudvipa (were proved to be) falsely (so regarded)."

yiAURYAS 291

by effort hi.?h hccaven {svarga) is possible, and may be attained. To this
end has this exhortation been dehvered :— Both humble and great should so
exert themselves : and the neighbouring countries should know this ; and
this exertion should be of long continuance. Then will this matter increase ;
it will increase greatly ; it will increase to at least as much again. And
this exhortation has been delivered by the vyutha 256.'

Thus says the Beloved of the gods : — Obedience should be rendered to
mother and father. So also regard for living creatures should be made
firm. Truth should be spoken. These and the like virtues of the dhainma
should be practised. So also the disciple should honour his teacher. And
due respect should be paid to kindred. This is the ancient natural way.
This also tends to long life, and this should thus be done. Written by Pada
the scribe.

The above will suffice to .show the earnestness and high moral tone
of these singular and interesting inscriptions, so unlike any others met
with in the country. The sentence about the men who were regarded
as gods in Jambudvipa or India is considered to refer to the Brahmans,
and to their being now deprived of the almost divine prestige they had
arrogated. At the same time, the duty of reverence to them and the
bestowal of alms both upon Brahmanas and S'ramanas is more than
once inculcated. Toleration was denied only to their false claims.

Asoka's son Mahindo and his daughter Sanghamitta entered the holy
order and introduced Buddhism into Ceylon, It may be noted here
tliat Asoka never calls himself by that name in his inscriptions, but
always Piyadasi or Devanam Piye. Of his grandson Dasaratha (in
Prakrit called Dashalatha) some inscriptions have been found at the
Nagarjuni hill caves.~

According to the Puranas the Maurya dynasty continued in power for
137 years, and Brihadratha, the last king, was murdered by his general
Pushyamitra, who founded the S'unga dynasty. Agnimitra is mentioned
as the son of Pushyamitra in the play called Malavikagnimitra, and as
reigning at Vidisa, identified with Bhilsa in Central India. An inscrip-
tion of the time of the S'ungas was found by General Cunningham in
the Stupa at Bharhut in Central India.'' They are said to have ruled
for 112 years, but for the latter part of that period were superseded by
the Kanva family, who were supreme for 45 years. These may have
been at first subordinates, as they are called in one place S'unga-
bhrityas. Sus'arman, the last Kanva king, was overthrown by Simuka,
described as a servant of the race of A'ndhras,^ and he was the

' The signification of this term and of the numerals is much dis]Duted.
- Ind. Ant., XX, 364. 3 /^.^ xiV, 13S.

^ The A'ndhras are described by I'tolemy as a powerful nation, under the name of
Andane. They are also mentioned in Pliny.

U 2

2Q2 ///STORY

founder of the line of kings thence called in the Puranas the
A'ndhrabhrityas.'

Satavahanas. -Put from iiiscrii)tion.s it seems more correct to call
thcni the S';iiavahana dynasty, a name corrupted in Prakrit to S'aliva-
hana. 'I'heir chief capita! appears to have been at Dhanakataka, in the
east (Dharanikolta on the Krishna, in (iuntur taluq), but their chief
city in the west was Paithan on the Oodavari. Inscriptions found at
Nasik and Nanaghat'-' provide us with the following names (in their
Prakrit form) and succession. The peculiarity that the name of his
mother always appears with that of the king may be also remarked in
the Sunga inscription, and is a Rajput custom due to polygamy. Thus
we have Gotamiputra Satakani, Wisithiputra l^ulumayi, and so forth.''

Siiiuika. A. 1).

Kanha (Krishna) reigned at least

S'atakani, son of Gotami ... ... ... 24 years — I37?

IHilumayi, son of Vasithi ... ... ... 24 ,,

Sirisena, son of Madhari ... ... ... 8 ,,

Chaturapana S'atakani, son of \'asithi ... 13 ,, — 182?

Siriyana S'atakani,'' .son of Gotami ... ... 27 ,,

Kharavela's inscription in Kalinga tells us of a Satakani in the
2nd century e.g., but these kings are assigned to the 2nd century .\.d.
on the dates of the contemporary Kshatrapas or Satraps of Surashtra
in Kathiawar, and other coincidences. Thus, the first Satakani was
victorious over Nahapana, and destroyed the dynasty of the Khaharatas
or Khakharatas. Rudradaman, grandson of Chashtana, was the con-
queror of a Satakani, perhaps Chaturapana.'^ Again, Ptolemy, who
wrote his Geography soon after 150 .\.d., describes Ozene (Ujjayini) as
the royal seat of Tiastenes, Baithan (Paithan) as that of Siri Polemaios,
and Hippokoura, in the south of Ariake (Maharashtra), as that of
Baleokouros.'' In these names it is not difficult to recognize Chashtana,
Siri Pulumayi, and \'ilivayakura, who are known to us from inscrip-
tions and coins. Chashtana was the founder of the dynasty of
Kshatrapa Senas,' which succeeded that of the Kshaharatas, ending with
Nahapana. Siri Pulumayi was the S'atavahana king, the son of Vasithi,
given in the list above. 'N'ilivayakura was the viceroy of the Satava-
hanas, governing the southern provinces.^

' Bhandarkar, Early Hist, of the Dc'khan. - Arch. Sun: W. Ind., iv, v.

■^ See Dr. Buhler's explanation in Cunningham's Stiipa of Bharhuf, p. 129. These
do not give us the actual names of the mothers, but the latter, as in the case of Rajas
too, are called after the gotra of their family priest.

■• In Sanskrit, S'ri Vajna Satakarni. * Senart, lud. Ant., XXI, 206.

« McCrindle, Ptolemy s Geog., id., XIII, 359, 366.

' The following are the early names : — Chashtana, Jayadaman, Rudradaman,
Rudrasimha, Rudrasena. 8 Bhandarkar, o/. cit.

SATAVAHAXAS 293

To revert to the kingdoms which arose out of Alexanders empire.
We know that Egypt under the Ptolemies and Syria under the
Seleukidie were eventually conquered by Rome. But the Greek
kingdom of Baktria was overthrown by a people from the north, called
the Tochari (whence its name of Tocharistan), who next advanced
westward against the kingdom of Parthia, founded in 250 B.C. by
Arsakes, who had revolted agamst the Seleukida;. Arlabanus, king of
Parthia, fell fighting against the Tochari, but his son Mithridates II.
(124 i!.c.) drove them back towards Kabul and India. Meanwhile,
Saka or Turushka tribes from Central Asia had poured into Baktria,
and by about 24 i!.c. had firmly established themselves in the north-
west of India.

From coins and other sources we obtain various names of kings,
such as Heraiis, Ciondophares and others, but the best known are the
Saka kings Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasudeva, or, as they are called
on their coins, Kanerki, Ooerki, and Bazodeo. They belonged to
the Kushana family, and Kashmir was the chief seat of their power.
But Kanishka's empire extended from Yarkand and Khokand in
the north to Agra and Sindh in the south. The last great Buddhist
council was held in his reign. The best authorities are of opinion
with Dr. Oldenberg that the Saka era, reckoned from 78 a.d., dates
from his coronation. But the word Saka after some centuries came
to be misunderstood as itself meaning " era," and therefore, to dis-
tinguish it, was at length, more than a thousand years after its origin,
called the S'alivahana S'aka, a reminiscence of the fact that it had been
adopted by the Satavahanas. This is the era still in common use
throughout the south of India, as well as in Bengal. ^

W'q may now return to the S'atavahanas. Their rule in the northern
parts of Mysore is proved both by inscrii)tions and coins. There was a
find of Buddhist leaden coins a few years ago- at the site of an ancient
city whose name, according to tradition, was Chandravali, situated
immediately to the west of Chitaldroog, and among these was one
bearing the name of Pulomayi. Again, an inscription of Satakanni,
son of Hariti, was found some time ago'' at Banavasi on the Sorab
frontier. And recently I have found one also of Satakanni, son of
Hariti, at Malavalli in Shikarpur taluq. Both the Satakarnis above
mentioned are described as "joy of the \'inhuka(jdavutu family,"' but the

• The era of \'ikram;ulilya, recUoneil from 56 B.C., seems to he ecjuallya misnomer.
No instance of its use with such a name has Ijeen found for 500 years after thai dale.
Hut Dr. Fleet identifies it with the Malava era.^/;w. of the Early Gupta Kings.

"■' By Mr. Mervyn Smith, a mining engineer, prospecting for gold.

^ By Dr. Burgess : for Dr. Biihler's translation see Iiid. Ant., XI\', 331.

294

irrsTOR Y

Banavasi inscription is in characters which appear to be of a somewhat
earlier type than those of Malavalli, and corresponding with the alphabet
of Siriyana Satakarni's inscription at Nasik. On this ground, and also
on account of the dates, though they are both in the same Pali or
Prakrit language, it is possible that they may belong to the time of
different kings of the same name. Their relationship to the S'atava-
hanas before mentioned does not appear, but they probably represent
a branch of the dynasty.' At Malavalli, Satakarni is called king of
Vaijayanti, or Banavasi, and the inscription at the latter place implies
the same.

The Banavasi inscription is dated in the twelfth year, the first day
of the seventh winter fortnight, and records a gift by the king's daughter,
the Mahabhoji Sivakhada-Nagasiri. The Malavalli inscription begins
with ascriptions of victory to the holy Mattapatti deva, evidently the
god of Malavalli. At the present time this is a most ordinary linga,
called Kalles'vara, in a most insignificant village temple, nor are there
any indications about the place of former grandeur except the inscrip-
tion. It is dated in the first year, and the first day of the second
summer fortnight. In it the king Satakarni issues an order to the
Mahavalabham S'ungakam. If the reading of this last name be corrects
it looks like an interesting link with the S'ungas, previously mentioned.
The grant consists of certain villages for the Mattapatti god. There is
a second inscription on the same stone pillar, in similar characters and
language. It is dated in the fourth year, on the second day of the first
autumn fortnight, and records a fresh grant for the same god by a
Kadamba king, name defaced, and was engraved by Vis'vakamma.
A fine Kadamba inscription at Talgunda also names Satakarni as one
of the great kings who had visited the temple there.

The Satakarnis were undoubtedly succeeded by the Kadambas in the
north-west of Mysore. From this time, the third century, we enter
upon a period more amply elucidated by authentic records.

While the north-west was, as stated, in the possession of the
Kadambas, part of the north was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas,
or Rattas. The east was held by the Mahavalis and the Pallavas, and
the centre and south came to be occupied by the Gangas, who partially
subdued the Mahavalis. In the fifth century the Chalukyas from the
north reduced the Rattas and the Kadambas to the condition of
feudatories and prevailed against the Pallavas, who were also attacked
by the Gangas. Early in the ninth century the Rattas regained power

' Similar])-, in the Jaggayyapeta stupa was found an inscription of another branch,
of the time of Turisadatta, son of Madhari, in which he is said to be of the Ikhaku
Ikshvalivi) family. — Arch. Stiti: S. Iiid., No. 3, p. 56.

SA TA VAHANAS 2 9 5

over the Chalukyas, and for a short time took possession of the Ganga
kingdom, but restored it and formed an aUiance with the Gangas, with
whom also were allied the Nolambas, a branch of the Pallavas,
established in the north-east of Mysore. In the tenth century the
Rattas with the Gangas gained great success over the Cholas, but the
close of that century saw the Chalukyas once more in the ascendant,
bringing the rule of the Rattas to a final end, while the Nolambas
were uprooted by the Gangas. The eleventh century began with a
powerful invasion of the Cholas from the south, in which the Gangas
and the Pallavas were overthrown ; but from the ruins of the Ganga
empire arose the Hoysalas, who drove out the Cholas from Mysore and
established a firm dominion. In the twelfth century the Chalukya
power was subverted by the Kalachuryas, in whom the Haihayas
reappear ; and they, in their turn, were shortly dispossessed on the north
by the Yadavas and in the south by the Hoysalas, who also before long
subdued the Cholas. But both Yadavas and Hoysalas were overthrown
in the middle of the fourteenth century by the Musalmans. The
Vijayanagar empire, however, then arose, which held sway over the
whole of South India till the latter half of the sixteenth century, when
It was subverted by a confederacy of Musalman powers. Of these,
Bijapur secured a great part of Mysore, but was overcome in the
seventeenth century by the Mughals, who took possession of the north
and east of the country. Meanwhile the Mysore Rajas gained power
in the south, during the contests which raged between the Mahrattas
and the Mughals, and between rival claimants on the death of
Aurangzeb. Haidar Ah extended the Mysore dominion over the
Mughal provinces in the east and north, and over Bednur in the west,
usurping supreme power in 1761. On the capture of Seringapatam by
the British and the downfall of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the country
included within the present limits was granted to the representative of the
Hindu Rajas. In 1S32 it was placed under British Commissioners, but
restored to native rule in 1881. Such is an outline of the changes of
seventeen centuries, the details of which we may now proceed to fill in.

Kadambas. — The dommions of the Kadambas embraced all the
west of Mysore, together with Haiga (N. Kanara) and Tulava (S.
Kanara). Their original capital was Banavasi (Jayantii)ura or
Vaijayantipura), situated on the river Varada on the western frontier of
the Sorab taluq. It is mentioned by Ptolemy. Also in the Mahawanso,
which names it as one of the places to which a i/iero was sent in the
time of Asoka.

The origin of the Kadambas is thus related. Some years after
Parasu Rama had recovered Haiga and Tulava from the sea, Siva and

296 jiJsroR V

Parvati came to the Sahyddri mountains, the Western Ghats, in order
to look at this new country ; and in consequence of their pastimes a
boy was born under a kadamba tree, whence the name of the dynasty.
According to another version, he was born from the drops of sweat
which flowed from Siva's forehead to the root of the kadamba tree in
consequence of his exertion in conrjuering the asura Tripura. A more
realistic account, given in an inscription, is that a kadamba tree grew
in front of the family residence, and that by cultivation of it they
acquired its name and qualities.' In any case they appear to have
been an indigenous race.

The people of the country, being at the time without a monarch, had
recourse to the State elephant, which, being turned loose carrying a
wreath, presented it to the youth whose birth was so miraculous, and he
was consequently proclaimed king. He is variously styled Jayanta,
Trilochana Kadamba, and Trinetra Kadamba. The royal line thus
founded, in about the second century, continued independent till the
sixth century, and during this period they claim to have performed
many as'vamedhas or horse sacrifices, indications of supreme authority.
Their family deity was Madhukes'vara of Banavasi.

After Trinetra the kings in regular succession ascribed to this line
were Madhukesvara, Mallinatha and Chandravarma. The last had two
sons, named Chandravarma or Chandavarma and Purandara, the elder
of whom was the father of Mayiiravarma. Of these early kings it is
not improbable that the first Chandravarma may be the Chandrahasa
whose romantic story has already been given above (p. 282). The
second Chandravarma, again, may be the prince of that name who was
the progenitor of the Kodaga or Coorg race. Of him it is related that he
rescued from a forest fire a serpent named Manjista, which, entering his
mouth, took up its abode in his stomach. He was forced to wander
about, with his wife Pushpavati, in search of a cure, which was eventually
effected at Valabhi by a woman- whom he was obliged in return to
marry, and desert his wife, then with child. The truth probably is that
his kingdom was usurped by some Naga chief, such as we know were

' The tree itself is said to have been produced by a drop of nectar which fell upon
the earth from the churning slick, the Mandara mountain, at the churning of the
ocean. The tall and handsome trees bearing this name are species of naiiclea, of the
natural order ciuchoniacem, and grow in many parts of India. A spirit is said to be
distilled from the flowers. {See Wilson's Vishtm Piirana, Bk. v, ch. xxv.) In
Watt's Dictionary the tree is described as an aiithocephalus, belonging to tlie
riihiacea:, and the flowers are said to be sacred to Siva. According to the Phaniia-
cographia Iiidica it is the arbor generation is of the Mahratta Kunbis, and a branch
of it is brought into the house at the time of their marriage ceremonies.
* She was the attendant at the chatrani in which he lodged, and advised him to

KADAMBAS 297

special enemies of the Kadambas.^ According to the Kaveri Purana,
Chandravarma was a son of Siddhartha, king of Matsya (Virata's
capital, Hangal in Dharwar, one of the Kadamba chief cities). He
left his country, it is said, and went on a pilgrimage to all the holy
bathing-places, until Parvati appeared and offered him a boon, in con-
sequence of which he received a kingdom at the source of the Kaveri,
and a Sudra wife, from whom he, as a Kshatriya, should beget a valiant
race called Ugras. P'or the eleven sons he had l)y her the hundred
daughters of the king of Vidarbha (Berar) by Sudra mothers were
obtained as wives. Each of these bore more than a hundred sons,
who, to provide accommodation for their growing numbers, levelled the
hill slopes and settled over a district five yojanas in extent at the sources
of the Kaveri river in Coorg.

Mayiiravarma seems to have restored the authority of the Kadambas,
and is sometimes represented as the founder of the line. He was
the son of whom Chandravarma's wife was delivered at Valabhi after
she had been deserted. The following is the legend of the manner in
which he acquired the throne : — One night some robbers got into the
house of a Brahman at Valabhi, and at the same time a peacock in the
yard screamed. They then overheard the Brahman laughing and
telling his wife the story of the peacock. He said that a Brahman of
Banavasi once performed various penances with the view of becoming
a king, but a voice from heaven informed him that he was destined to
be born again as a peacock, and whoever should eat the head of the
peacock would be king. On this he went to Benares to die, and was
re-born as the peacock now in the yard. Hearing this the robbers
made off with the peacock, but immediately fell disputing as to who
.should have the head. To decide the matter they resolved to ask the
woman staying in the chatram to cook the bird for them, and see to
whom she gave the head. But while she was getting the meal ready,
her little son suddenly snatched U]) the head and ate it. Being thus
clearly indicated as heir to the throne, the robbers conveyed him and
his mother to Banavasi, and had just arrived at the outskirts of the
town when they met the State elephant carrying a wreath, which it at

worshi]) llic gocldcss Kdlika and the efl'igy of a scrpcnl carved on a slone at the l)ack
of her temple. On liis doing so another serpent apj^eared out of an ant-hill, and
tried to persuade Manjista to come forth, ])ut without success. The woman, over-
hearing the dispute between the two, speedily possessed herself of certain plants they
had threatened to use against each other, — vishaiitardi and .wr/rt///*///, growing at
liie foot of an ant-hill, and ahiiidra hart, a creeper spreading over the as7ui////a tree.
Manjista was expelleil and died by virtue of the juice of the former, and the other
serpent was got rid of by that of the latter.
' Sec Ind. AitL, XIV, 13.

298 n/sroR Y

once ])rcsciitcd to the boy. Mis origin being revealed, he was forth-
with recognized as king of Banavasi, under the name of Mayuravarma,
from mayi/ra, i)eacock. He there obtained "the sword of sharpness,
the shoes of swiftness, and the garment of invisibility." He is said to
have rescued Sasiprabhe, the wife of Raja Vallabha, prince of Kalyana,
from a Yaksha named Kandarpa Bhilshana, living in Gomanta-guhe,
who had carried her off. He received in consequence a large accession of
territory, together with the Kalyana princess S'as'ankamudre in marriage.

He is also stated to have introduced Brahman colonists from
Ahichchatra (in Rohilkand), and distributed the country below the
Ghats into sixty-four portions, which he bestowed upon them. In the
reign of his son Kshetravarma, Chandrangada or Trinetra, these Ikah-
mans attempted to leave the province, but they were brought back ;
and in order to prevent a repetition of the attempt were compelled to
leave unshorn a lock of hair on the forehead as a distinguishing mark.
From these are descended the Haiga or Havika Erahmans of the north-
west of Mysore. They would appear on this occasion to have been
settled by Mukanna, that is, Trinetra, above the Ghats, at Sthana-
gundiir (Talgunda in Shikarpur talu([). During his reign, a kinsman
named Chandrasena ruled the south of Tulava, and the Brahmans were
spread into those parts. Lokaditya or Lokadipya, the son of Chandra-
sena, married Kanakavati, the sister of Trinetra, and had by her a
daughter, whom Hubasiga, the king of the mountain Chandalas, sought
as a wife for his son. In pretended compliance, he was invited to
Tripura and there treacherously murdered. The authority of the
Kadambas was extended in consequence above those Ghats, and the
Brahmans followed this accession of territory. Lokadipya is said to
have reigned fifty years.

These traditions no doubt include much that is entitled to credit.
But a fine stone inscription at Talgunda gives a different version, which
seems to refer to the same period, or to a time when the Pallavas were
supreme from west to east. In it we are informed that a Brahman
named Mayilras'arma of the Kadamba family, who are described as very
devout Brahmans, went with his guru Viras'arma to the Pallava capital
(Kanchi) to study, ^^'hile there a sharp quarrel arose between him and
the Pallavas, and he became so enraged that he resolved, although a
Brahman, to become a Kshatriya in order to revenge himself. Arming
himself and overcoming the Pallava guards at the frontier, he escaped
to the inaccessible forests at Sriparvata (in Karnul district, near
the junction of the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers), and there attained
such power that he levied tribute from the great Bana and other sur-
rounding kings. The Pallavas thereupon led an army against him, but

KADAMBAS 299

he swooped down upon them Hke a hawk nnd completely defeated them.
They therefore resolved to make peace with him, and invested him with
a territory extending from the Amara ocean to the borders of the
Premara country.^ His son was Kangavarma, whose son was
Bhagiratha, sole ruler of the Kadamba territories. His son was
Raghuparthiva, whose brother was Kakustha or Kakusthavarma. The
latter was a powerful ruler, and his daughters were given in marriage to
the Gupta and other kings. His son was S'antivarma.

The two last names occur in other inscriptions, but the rest are new.
Several more early Kadamba inscriptions are available, but unfortunately
they are dated only in the year of the reign, or by the ancient system
of the seasons, and the succession of the kings cannot on this account
be definitely determined. One series gives us Krishnavarma ; his son
Yishnuvarma, by the daughter of Kaikeya ; his son Simhavarma ; and
his son Krishnavarma.- Another gives us Krishnavarma and his son
Devavarma.'' We have also Mandhatrivarma, whose grant was com-
posed by Damodara-datta,"' and there is a separate rock inscription by
Damodara.^ We havealso the series Kakustha or Kakusthavarma, his son
S'antivarma ; his son Mriges'avarma ; his three sons Ravivarma, Bhanu-
varma, and Sivaratha ; and the son of the first of these, Harivarma."

All these records, relating to at least sixteen generations, undoubtedly
belong to some time between the third and sixth centuries. One stone
inscri])tion in Prakrit, immediately following a grant by Satakarni, and
another in Sanskrit, are engraved in small Cave characters. The re-
mainder, all in Sanskrit, are engraved in bold characters called box-
headed, which in certain specimens present a very elegant appearance.
Many of the grants are to Jains, but a few are to Brahmans, one to an
Atharvani Brahman.

The historical facts deduced from them are that the Kadambas claim
to be lords of ^'aijayanti or Banavasi, though certain grants are issued
from Triparvata, from Palasika (Halsi in Belgaum district), and from
Uchchas'ringi. Like the Satakarni who preceded them at Banavasi,
they are stated to be of the Manavya gotra and sons of Hariti. Their
crest was a lion, and they bore the monkey flag. They seem to have
had enemies in a Naga race, represented later probably by the Sindas
of Erambarige (Yelburga in the Nizam's Dominions),' and Krishna-

' rerhaps the I'ranidra kingili)in of Malwa in Central India is meant. Anianirnava,
the other limit, is difllcult to determine, unless it means the Western Ocean.

- Grant at Halehid, Heliir taluq. =* Ind. Ant., VII, t,^.

■• Grant at Kudagere, Shikarpur taluq. * Iiid. Ant., XXI, 93. ^ il>., \l, 22ff.

' These deduce their genealogy from Sinda, king of the Sindhu country, who was
horn in Ahichchhatra, and married a Kadamha princess. Fleet, A'aii. Pyn., 97.
.Vd'6' also .£■/. Ind., Ill, 231.

300 JUSTOR Y

vaniKi, fiUhcr of Dcvavarnia, claims to be in possession of a heritage
not to l)e attained by the Nrigas. Hut their great rivals were the
Pallavas. We have seen evidence of this in the Talgunda inscription
above, and from an independent stone inscription of Krishnavarma it
appears that in one severe battle with the Pallavas his army was so
completely destroyed that he gave up his life to save his honour. The
sister of a Kadamba king, Krishnavarma, was (according to (langa
grants) married to the Ganga king Madhava II. Mriges'avarma claims
to have uprooted the lofty Ganga family and to be a fire of destruction
to the Pallavas. Ravivarma, again, slew Vishnuvarma, probably a
Palla\a, and uprooted Chandadanda, lord of Kanchi, and thence a
I'allava, thereby establishing himself at Palasika.

The Kadambas lost their independence on being conquered by the
Chalukyas under Kirtivarnia, whose reign began in 566. But they
continued to act as viceroys and governors under the Chalukya and
other dynasties, and the name does not disappear from history till the
rise of Vijayanagar in 1336. Among the later inscriptions, one at
Kargudari (Hangal taluq)\ dating in 1 108, gives the following traditional
list of the kings, each being the son of his predecessor. After seventy-
seven ancestors, of whom we know no more, there came Mayuravarma,
Krishna (add varma to each), Naga, Vishnu, Mriga, Satya, Vijaya,
Jaya, Naga, S'anti, Kirtti, A'ditya, Chattaya, Jaya. The last had
five sons, Taila and S'antivarma being the most important. The
latter's son was Taila, whose son was Tailama, whose sons were Kirtti
and Kama. But though this includes some of the genuine names, and
allowing for kings often having more than one name, the list as a
whole is of doubtful credit, except in the last stages. There is no
question, however, that the Kadambas became more prominent at the
end of the eleventh century, when their alliance seems to have been
sought by the Chalukya Vikrama in his plans against his brother, and
on his success they were advanced in honour. A separate branch had
its capital at Gopaka or (ioa, but all the Kadambas were absorbed
into the conquests of the founders of the Vijayanagar empire.

Mahavalis. — The Mahavali kings were of great antiquity, and,
according to their inscriptions, ruled over a seven and a half lakh
country, containing 12,000 villages, situated in the west of the Andhra
or Telugu country. They were in possession of the east of Mysore,
where several of their inscriptions are found, especially in Mulbagal
taluq, and their kingdom was evidently to the east and north of the
Palar river. They claim to be descended from Bali or Maha Bali, and
his son Bana, whence they are also styled the Bdna kings. According

' /;/(/. Ant., X, 249.

Z
<

1-c

MA£[|VVJALIS

MA HA VA LIS 301

to Hindu mythology Bali was an Asura emperor, who through his
devotion and penance defeated Indra, humbled the gods and extended
his authority over the three worlds. In order to restrain him, Vishnu,
who was appealed to by the gods for protection, assumed his fifth
incarnation, the form of the Brahman dwarf, the vdmana avatdra, and
appearing before Bali, asked for only three paces of ground as a boon,
which was granted. As the water conveying the gift fell into his hand,
the dwarfs form expanded till it filled the world ; and Vishnu, now
manifesting himself, deprived Bali in two strides of heaven and earth,
but on account of the virtues the latter possessed, left Pdtdla or the
infernal regions still in his dominion.

The ancient ruined city of Mahdbalipura or Mdmallapura, generally
known as the Seven Pagodas, situated on the east coast, thirty miles
south of Madras, was perhaps their original capital. According to
legend' it was founded by Bali. His son was Bdndsura, who is repre-
sented as a giant with a thousand hands ; Aniruddha, the son (or grand-
son) of Krishna, came to Bdna's court in disguise and seduced his
daughter ; which produced a war, in the course of which Aniruddha
was taken prisoner and brought to Mahdbalipur : upon which Krishna
came in person from his capital Dvdraka and laid siege to the place.
Siva guarded the gates and fought for Bdndsura, who worshipped him
with his thousand hands, but Krishna found means to overthrow .Siva,
and having taken the city, cut off Banasura's hands, e.xcept two, with
which he obliged him to do homage. He continued in subjection to
Krishna till his death, after which a long period ensued in which no
mention is anywhere made of this place. It seems to have been
subsequently destroyed by an inundation of the sea. The inscriptions
now found there appear to be all Pallava, of about the seventh century,
or Chola, of later date than that.-

The oldest Mahdvali inscrii)tion bearing a date is one professing to
be of 339 A.i)., found by mc at Mudiyanur (Mulbagal taluq).' But
from the one which contains the fullest genealogy of the line, jiublished
by the Rev. T. Foulkes,'* there were several generations before that.
As aids towards fixing the period of the kings we have the statements
that the early Kadamba outlaw of S'riparvata levied tribute from
the great Bdna; that the first Ganga king, assigned to the second
century, conquered the Bdna country ; that the Chalukya king
Vikramdditya I., ruling in the seventh century, subdued Rdjamalla
of the Mahdmalla family ; that the Chola king, \'ira Ndrdyana,

' See Captain Carr's Sez'cit Paij^odas, 13 ; Asiatic Kescarcfies, I, 156.

■' Hultzsch, So. Imi. Ins., I, ift'. ^ /,„f_ _./„/._^ x\", 172.

* lb., XIII, 6 ; Ep. Itid., Ill, 74.

30 2 IIISTOR Y

ui)rooted llic Banas about tlic end of the ninth century ; but that they
were replaced soon after by the Oangas in the person of Hastimalla.'
The genealogy as derived from inscriptions is as follows : —

Bali, Mahdbali ; his son
Bana, in whose hnc was Iwrn
Banadhiraja.

After he and many other Bana kings had passed away, there were : —

Xandivarma, Jayanandivarma,

Vijayaditya I.

Malladeva Nandivarma, Jagadekamalla, Vadhuvalla1:)ha.

Bana Vidyadhara.

Prabhumeru.

Vikramaditya I.

Vija)'aditya II.

Vikramaditya II, Vijayabahu.

Each of these eight kings was the son of his predecessor. The
Mudiyanur inscription is of the twenty-third year of No. 3.
Stone inscriptions exist in Mysore of Nos. 4 and 5. There are
also inscriptions of a Bejeyitta Banarasa, one dating in 899. He
may be identified with Vijayaditya II. Vikramaditya II. is said
to have been the friend of Krishna Raja, no doubt the Rashtra-
kuta king, ruling in about 940 to 956. Then an inscription dating in
971 presents to us Sambayya, who, though invested with all the
Mahavali titles, was ruling as a governor subordinate to the Pallavas.
The line must therefore have lost its independence in the latter half of
the tenth century. Extracts are given by Mr. Foulkes- from literature
indicating a recognition of the power of the Bana kings in the thirteenth
and fifteenth centuries. Moreover, at the end of this latter period, in-
scriptions at Srivilliputtur in Tinnivelly district show that two kings named
Sundara Tol and Muttarasa Tirumala, calling themselves ■Mahavali
Banadhiraja even obtained possession of the Pandya throne. Except
these and the Salem inscriptions, which are in Grantha and Tamil
characters, all the other inscriptions of this line are in the ancient
Kannada characters and in the Sanskrit and Kannada languages.
Some of their later inscriptions indicate Paduvipuri as their capital,
which may possibly be identified with Padavidu in North Arcot
district, south of Vellore, where there are extensive ruins, the ancient
city having been destroyed apparently by a volcanic eruption. Their
crest was the recumbent bull Nandi, and they had a black flag.

' See Iiid. Aiit., XIII, 6, 187. '•' Loc. cit.

PALLA FAS :yOs

Yaidumbas. — Inscriptions of these kings are met with in Chintaniani
taliuj. The Kah'nga Ganga king \'ajrahastu \'. married a Vaidumba
princess ; and the Chela king Parantaka subdued a Vaidumba king.

Pallavas. — The Pallavas were a powerful dynasty who succeeded to
the dominions of the Andhrabhritya or S'atavahana family throughout
the region in which the Telugu language prevails. They seem at first
to have had a chief city at Vatapi (Badami in Bijapur district), from
which they were expelled by the Chalukyas in the fifth century, and
also at Vengi, between the Krishna and the Godavari, which was taken
from them by the Chalukyas in the seventh century, liut from an early
part of their history their capital was Kanchi (Conjeveram, near
Madras^. Their grants are also issued from Palakkada and Dasana-
pura, the latter name being perhaps a translation of the former. This
place has not been identified, but may be the Palakka of the Samudra
Gupta inscription at Allahabad. Trichinopoly seems to be the southern-
most point in which Pallava inscriptions have been found. Stone inscrip-
tions in the Kolar, Chitaldroog, Tumkur and Bangalore Districts bear
evidence that the Pallavas in the ninth and tenth centuries exercised
dominion throughout the north and east of Mysore. Here they frequently
had the cognomen No!amba,and their territory came to be known as
Nolambavadi or Nonambavadi, a Thirty-two Thousand province, the
subjects of which are represented by the Nonabas of the present day.

The origin of the Pallavas is uncertain, though they profess in some
grants to be of the Bharadvaja gotra. They are mentioned in the Puranas
along with the Haihayas, S'akas, Yavanas, &c., as Pahlavas, which would
imply a Persian source. But Professor ^Veber says^ : — " As the name of
a people this word Pahlav became early foreign to the Persians, learned
reminiscences excepted : in the Pahlav texts themselves, for instance, it
does not occur. The period when it passed over to the Indians, there-
fore, would have to be fixed for about the second to the fourth century
A.I)., and we should have to understand by it, not directly the Persians,
who are called Parasikas rather, but specially Arsacidan Parthians.-'
Pallava may possibly be derived from Parthava (Parthian).

According to tradition, from Salivahana, that is S'atavdhana, who
ruled at Pratishthana (now Paithan, on the Godavari), were descended
Madhavavarma, Kulaketana, Nilakantha, and Mukunti Pallava. The
last appears as the founder of the Pallava line, and is said to have been

> JltsL Iiid. Lit., 1 88.

- The I'arthians revolted from the Seleucidiv al)out li.c. 150. uinler a cliief named
Arsakes (Askh), who founded an independent monarchy. The I'arthians sub-
sequently overran the provinces east of the Euphrates, and about H.c. 130 overthrew
the kinjjdom of Baclria, so that their empire extended from the Euphrates to the
Indus, and from the Indian Ocean to the Paropamisus, or even to the 0.\us. The

304

JIISTOR Y

a son of Mahadcva (Siva) by a girl of the mountain tribe called
Chcnsuars (( 'hensabara).' He is also stated to have introduced
Brahmans into his country in the third century.

Trilochana, Trinetra, or Trinayana Pallava, was ruling in the fourth
century when jayasimha, surnamed Vijayaditya, of the Cahlukya
family, invaded his territories. But the latter lost his life in the attempt,
and his (jueen, then pregnant, fled and took refuge with a Brahman
named \'ishnu Somayaji, in whose house she gave birth to a son named
Rajasimha. On attaining to man's estate the latter renewed the contest
with the Pallavas, in which he was finally successful, and eventually
married a princess of that race.'^

Resorting to inscriptions, one at Nasik says that Satakarni, son of
(iotami, destroyed the Pahlavas, with the Sakas and Yavanasf and one at
Junagadh that a Pallava named Suvis'akha, son of Kulaipa, was minister
to the Kshatrapa Rudradaman.^ But in the east we obtain the names
of several series of Pallava kings, whose period seems sufficiently
certain, although their exact dates are for the most part not known,
nor in several cases their relationship and order : —

Chandavarma, ? Chandadanda 300

Nandivarma

Skandavarma to

Buddhavarma

S'ivaskandavarma 400

Skandavarma 4°°

Viravarma

Skantlavarma to

Simhavarma

Vishnugopavarma S°°

Simhavishnu

Ugradanda, Lokaditya

Rajasimha, ? Jayasimha, Simha-
vishnu, Narasimhavishnu,
Atyantakama, ? Atiranachanda c.550

IMahendravarma I.

Narasimhavarnia, Narasimhapota-

varma I. c. 620

Mahendravarma II.

I'arames'varavarma I, Is'varapota-

raja c. 670

Narasimhavarma, Narasimhapota-

varma II. c. 675

Parames'varavarma II.

Nandivarma

Pallavamalla Nandivarma, Nandi-

potavarma c. 733

(Skandavarma)

(Simhavarma) Hemasitala 788

(Skandavarma) Dantiga 804

Nandivarma c. 810

Nolambadhiraja, Mangala

Simhapota

Chdru Ponnera, Pallavadhiraja

Polalchora Nolamba, Nolambadhi-
raja 88 1

Mahendra, Bira Mahendra

Ayyapa, Nanniga 919

Anniga, Bira Nolamba, Annayya

Dilipayya, Iriva Nolamba,

Nolapayya 943-974

Nanni Nolamba 975~977

memorable wars between the Parthians and the Romans eventually weakened the
former, and gave the Persians the opportunity of throwing off the Parthian yoke.
Led by Artaxerxes (Ardashir), they put an end to the Parthian kingdom of the
Arsacidne, after it had lasted 476 years, and established the Persian dynasty of
the Sassanidte, a.d. 226.

' Wilson, McK. Coll., I, cxx, cxxiv. - Sir Walter Elliot, Mad. /., I\", 78.

» Arch. Surv. W. Ltd., IV', 108. * Ind. Ant., VII., 257.

PALLA FAS 305

The grants of the first fivc,^ made to Ikahmans, are in Prakrit, and
issued from Vengi, except the last, which is from Kanchi. Chanda-
varma might be the Chandadanda who was defeated by the Kadamba
king Ravivarma. Nandivarma was his son. They claim to be of the
Salankayana family. The next two were father and son, and are expressly
called Pallavas, but in what relation they stood to the foregoing is not
known. Sivaskandavarma, again, refers to his bappa^ or father, without
naming him : it is uncertain therefore who he was. The next series of
six' appear in grants in Sanskrit, also to Brahmans, issued from Palakkad
and Dasanapura. Simhavarma and A^'ishnugopa were probably brothers,
otherwise the succession was from father to son. In the Samudra (jupta
inscription on the Asoka pillar at Allahabad, assigned to the fourth
century,'' we have mention among the southern kings of Vishnugopa of
Kanchi, Hastivarma of Vengi and Ugrasena of Palakka, as well as a
Chandravarma in the north. It seems very probable that these may
have been some of the above.

With Ugradanda we come to a period of somewhat greater certainty,
and the list of kings"* admits of arrangement based on their points of
contact with the Chalukya and other contemporary kings whose dates
are known.'' Several of the names are alternately Saiva and Vaishnava,
while the designation Pota seems to be Buddhist. The remarkable
buildings and sculptures at Mamallapura, or Seven Pagodas, also relate
to these three faiths. Numerous Pallava inscriptions furnish us with
details of the history of this period. Those at Mamallapura, Saluvan-
kuppa, and Kanchi are in Sanskrit, and inscribed in four different
alphabets, one of which is of an extremely florid character.''

Ugradanda claims to have destroyed the town and army of Rana-
rasika, that is, the Chalukya king Ranaraga. Rajasimha married
Rangapataka, and built the Rajasimhes'vara temple at Kanchi, now
known as the Kailasanatha. The Ganga king Durvinfta, reigning at
about this time, is said to have taken Kaduvetti (Karveti nagara, North
Arcot) from the king of Kanchi called Jayasimha, and placed the son
of his own daughter upon the throne. A series of wars, attended with
varying fortune, took place in succeeding reigns between the Pallavas
and the Chalukyas, who describe the former as being by nature hostile,
as if there were some radical cause of animosity between the two.
Narasimhavarma I. is said to have repeatedly defeated Vallabharaja,
that is, the (Chalukya king Pulikesi II., and destroyed Vatapi, while on

' Ind. Ant., \, 176 ; I.\, 100 : Ep. Ind., I, 5. - IinL Jii/., \, 50, 154.

3 Fleet's Ins. of the Early Gupta Kings, No. I. ' Iml. Ant., \'l\\, 273.

^ See llultzsch, So. Ind. Ins., I, 11, 145 : I have made a few alterations in the
ariantjement, which seem lo me ie<|uiieil. " Op.cit., I. ; Scz\ rag.,\\. 14, 15, 18.

3o6 HISTOR V

the other hand I'uHkesi claims to have made the leader of the Pallavas
hide his prowess behind the ramparts of Kanchi. It is pleasant to turn
aside from tliese scenes of violence to the account of the Chinese pilgrim
Hiuen Tsiang, who visited Kanchipura (Kin-chi-pu-lo) in 640. He
says it was about thirty li, or five miles, round. The soil was fertile and
regularly cultivated. The climate was hot ; the character of the people
courageous. They were deeply attached to the principles of honesty
and truth, and highly esteemed learning. There were 10,000 Buddhist
priests, some eighty Brahman temples, and many Nirgranthas (or Jains).^
Paramesvaravarma I. is said to have put to flight Pulikesi"s son
Vikramaditya I., who, on the other hand, says that he conquered
Is'varapotaraja and took Kanchi. The Chalukyas admit that the
Pallavas had been until this unconquered, for the important ^'okkaleri
inscription' says that the king of Kanchi, " who had never bowed to
any man," was forced to kiss the feet of the conqueror with his crown.
Vinayaditya, the next Chalukya, is also said to have captured the army
of the Pallava king, here called Trairajya. Narasimhapotavarma II.
was killed in a battle at Velanda with the Clanga king Bhuvikrama,
being trampled under the elephants. Two grandsons of his were
apparently brought up by the Gangas. But the greatest disaster of all
was that which befell Nandipotavarma. The Chalukya king Vikrama-
ditya II., soon after his coronation in 733, by a rapid movement
penetrated to the Tundaka province (Tonda-mandala),' and in a
pitched battle completely routed the Pallavas, capturing as trophies
their war-trumpet, their big drum called " roar of the sea," their great
Siva banner, many elephants, and heaps of splendid rubies. The victor
marched to Kanchi, which was at his mercy, and, refraining from
destroying it, made donations of gold to the Raiasimhes'vara and other
temples, a statement which is confirmed by an inscription at the former.
His queen Loka-mahadevi afterwards caused a temple to be erected at
Pattadkal (Bijapur district) to celebrate the victory."* This eventful
defeat seems to have broken the power of the Pallavas, and the king,
unable to face another Chalukya force, under the crown prince Kirti-
varma, fled for refuge to a hill fort. The Ganga king S'ripurusha now
retook Kaduvetti, which the Pallavas had recovered, and seized the
Pallava umbrella, assuming at the same time the title of Permanadi,
which he took from the lord of Kanchi.

The location of the next four names"' is somewhat doubtful, but the
Rashtrakata kings about this time gained the ascendancy over the
Chalukyas, and overcame the Gangas and Pallavas. ^Ve accordingly

' Beal's Si-yu-ki, II, 292. * Iiid. Ant., MIX. 23. s So. hid. Ins., I, 146.
* Ind. Ant., VI, 85. * ib. VIII, 167 ; Ep. Tnd., Ill, 142.

NOLAMBAS 307

find Nirupama claiming to have conquered the Pallavas in about 760.
In 804, again, we find Govinda levying tribute from the ruler of
Kanchi, called Dantiga. Also a Pallavadhirdja acting as governor
under the same, over the Nolambalige 1,000, the Nirgunda 300, &c.
A Pallava king Nandivarma was moreover associated with Govinda in
replacing on his throne the Ganga king Sivamara, in about 810. It was
during this period, too, or in 788 according to Wilson, that the great
religious discussion between the Buddhists and the Jains took i)lace at
Kanchi before the king Hemasitala, who was a Puddhist. The Jains
were victorious, and the Puddhists, in lieu of being ground in oil-mills
according to the conditions of the contest, were banished to Kandy in
Ceylon, the king embracing the Jaina faith.

AVith Nolambadhiraja, whose relation to the preceding is not known,
begin the series of Pallava kings who more directly ruled in Mysore,
and they are indiscriminately called Pallavadhiraja and Nolambadhiraja.
Their chief city above the Ghats seems to have been Penjeru or
Henjeru, now Hemavati, on the Sira border. There was also a
Nolamba-pattana, of which only the name remains, to the east of
Chitaldroog, near Aymangala, properly xVyyapamangala. There is
indeed a grant by Vira Nonamba, made from Henjeru,^ but as it pro-
fesses to date from 444, and he is described as a Chalukya, in these
respects it must be a forgery. The real genealogy of the Nolamba
kings is given on a fine stone at Hemavati, confirmed by many other
inscriptions in various parts.

They claim descent from the Is'vara-vams'a (Siva), through
Trinayana, and Pallava the master of Kc4nchi. In his line was born
Nolambadhiraja, named Mangala, praised by the Karnatas, victor in
war over the Kirata king, and worshipper of Chandika. His son was
Simhapota, whose son was Charu Ponnera, the Pallavadhiraja whose
daughter was married to the Ganga king Rachamalla. Polal Chora
Nolamba was her elder brother, the Nolambadhiraja who married
Jayabbe, the younger sister of the (ianga king Nitimarga. Their son
was Bira Mahendra, who was contemporary with the Ganga king
Ereyappa. Mahendra's queen was 1 )ivabbarasi or Divdmbika, of the
Kadamba family, 'llieir son was Ayyapa Deva or Nanniga-nripa, who
had two wives, Nagiyabbe and Hcleyabbe. Two sons were born to
him, perhaps one by each of these mothers, — Anniga or Bira Nolamba,
and Dilipayya or Iriva Nolamba, who reigned in turn. The latter
ruled till 974, and had a son Nanni Nolamba, whose inscriptions date
from 975 to 977. But the Ganga king Mdrasimha (963-974) is
specially styled Nolambakulantaka, or death to the Nolamba race, and

' Ind. Ant., VIII, 94 ; Mys. Ins., 296.

X 2

3o8 lUSl'OR Y

it seems probal)lc that they now lost their independence and were
finally absorbed in the great wave of Chola conquest which overspread
the east of the peninsula at the close of the tenth century.

Notices of Pallavas and Nolambas in a subordinate capacity as
governors under the Cholas and Chalukyas continue to be met with
long after : and the Chalukya king Somes'vara or A'havamalla (1040-
1069) must have had a Pallava wife, as his younger son Jayasimha
professes to be of both Chalukya and Pallava descent, and, among
other titles, calls himself Vira Nolamba Pallava.

Gangas. — The Gangas were a line of kings who ruled over the
greater part of the Mysore country, and of the Kaveri river basin
(excepting the delta of Tanjore), from early in the Christian era till about
1004. They may be described as the principal Jaina dynasty of the
South. The name Ganga is not an ordinary one, and how it came to
be their designation, Avhence their kingdom was called Gangavadi and
its subjects Gangadikaras, is not accounted for. It is impossible to
avoid noticing that the only other occurrence of such a name
in history is in the Greek accounts of Chandra Gupta, who is
described as ruling over the Prasii and the Gangaridce.^ Ptolemy
locates the Gangaridai in all the country about the mouths of the
Ganges, with their capital at Gange (not identified). They are also
mentioned by Virgil, Valerius Flaccus and Curtius. Pliny, on the
other hand, calls them Gangaridre Calingte.- That there was an im-
portant line of Ganga kings in Kalinga in the seventh and eighth
centuries we know from inscriptions, and there was another of the
same name in that region at a later period. The connection of the
Kalinga (jangas with the Mysore Gangas, who were earlier, is admitted,
but there is nothing to show that the name originated with the
Gangaridae Calingai. The Hindu traditions, as might be expected,
also refer the appellation to the sacred river Ganga or Ganges, but in
stories (see below) which are apparently only invented from the name.

Of the origin of the Gangas the following account is extracted from
inscriptions (of the eleventh century) at Purale, Humcha and Kallur
Gudda. In the Ikshvaku-vams'a arose Dhananjaya, who slew the king
of Kanyakubja. His wife was Gandhari-devi, by whom he had a son
Haris'chandra, born in Ayodhya-pura. His wife was Rohini-devi, and
their son was Bharata, whose wife, Mjaya-mahadevi, having bathed in

' The Bandanikke record of the rule of Nanda, Gupta and Maurja kings over
Kuntala has already been referred to (p. 289). Another inscription of the same
period, at Kupatur, close by, says that Xagakhandaka (of which Bandanikke was the
chief city) was protected by the wise Chandra Gupta, an abode of the good usages of
eminent Kshatriyas. - See Pfole/iiys Geog. by McCrindle, /;/(/. Ant., XIII, 365.

GAuVGAS 309

the Ganga at the time of conception, the son she bore was called
Gangadatta (the gift of Ganga), and his posterity were the Gangas.^ From
him was descended Vishnu Gupta, who ruled in Ahichchhatrapura,- to
whom Indra, pleased with his performance of the Aindra-dhvaja-piija,
presented his or an elephant. Vishnu Gupta, by his wife Prithuvimati,
had two sons, Bhagadatta and S'ridatta. On Bhagadatta was bestowed
the government of Kalinga, whence he became known as Kalinga Ganga :
while to S'ridatta was given the ancestral kingdom, together with the
elephant, which thenceforward became the crest of the (iangas. Subse-
quently a king named Priyabandhuvarma was born in that line, to whom
Indra appeared and presented him with five royal tokens or ornaments,
at the same time uttering a warning that if any king of the line should
prove an apostate they would vanish. Giving to Vijayapura'' the name
of Ahichchhatra, Indra departed.

The Ganga line continuing to prosper, there was born in it Kampa,
whose son was Padmanabha. Being in great distress on account of
his childless condition, he supplicated the sasana devati of Padma-
prabha and obtained two sons, whom he named Rama and Lakshmana.
Mahipala, the ruler of Ujjeni, now made a demand for the delivery to
him of the five royal tokens presented by Indra. Padmandbha in-
dignantly replied that they could not be given up, and would be of no
use to another : also that if the demand were persisted in, it would be
met by force. At the same time he held a consultation with his
ministers, and as the result, resolved to quit the country. Taking his
two sons, whose names he changed to Dadiga and Madhava, and
accompanied by his daughter, his younger sister, and forty-eight chosen
followers of Brahman descent, he set out for the south. On arriving
at Perur, Dadiga and Madhava there met with the great muni Simha-
nandi, of the Kanur'*-gana, and explained to him their circumstances.
He took up their cause, gave them instruction, and obtained for them
a boon from the goddess Padmavati, confirmed by the gift of a sword
and the promise of a kingdom. Madhava, with a shout, at once laid
hold of the sword and struck with all his might at a stone pillar, when
the pillar fell in two.' The muni recognized this as a good omen,

' The account given in tlie Kalinga Ganga inscrij)lions is thai Turvasu, the son of
A'ayati, being without sons, practised self-restraint and propitiated the river Ganga,
llie hestower of boons, by which means he oljtained a son, the unconciueral)le
Cjangeya, whose descendants were victorious in the world as the Ganga line. — /it(/.
Jut., XIII, 275. - Either in Rohilkand or in Malwa. — il>. 361.

•' Vijayapura apj)ears as the place from which a Chalukya grant of the 5th century
was issued, and was probably in Gujarat {see Iiui. Jut , \'II, 241). * Or Kranur.

'^ What this pillar [s'ilii stambha) was it is difiicull to understand, but in one place
it is described as the chief obstacle in the way of his securing the throne.

3IO

irisroRY

made a crown from the petals of the karnikdra blossom, and placed it
on the heads of the brothers, giving them his peacock fan as a banner,
and in due course, providing them with an army, invested them with
all kingly powers. He also impressed upon them the following
counsel : — If you fail in what you promise, if you dissent from the
Jina sasana, if you take the wives of others, if you are addicted to
spirits or flesh, if you associate with the base, if you give not to the
needy, if you flee in battle ; — your race will go to ruin.

Thus, with Nandagiri as their fort, Kuvalala as their city, the Ninety- six
Thousand country as their kingdom, Victory as their companion in the
battle-field, Jinendra as their god, the Jina mata as their faith, — Dadiga
and Madhava ruled over the earth. The north, touching Madarkale ;
the east, Tonda-nad : the west, the ocean in the direction of Chera ;
the south, Kongu ; — within these limits of the Gangavadi Ninety-six
Thousand did the Gangas undertake the subjection of all enemies.

Most of this is no doubt legendary, but some truth may perhaps
underlie the narrative, and with the arrival of Dadiga and Madhava at
Perur we seem to be on solid ground. For Perur must be the place in
Kadapa district still distinguished as Ganga-Perur; Simhanandi is
known from literature,^ and is expressly stated in various inscriptions to
have helped to found the Ganga kingdom ; moreover, the succession
of kings as given from this point is in general accordance with numerous
records found in all parts of Mysore. Several inscriptions, however,
carry the foundation of the line back to Kanva, and the Gangas are
described as of the Kanvayana gotra. A dynasty of Kanvas, we have
already seen (p. 291), preceded the Satavahanas. Of the places men-
tioned in connection with the Ganga possessions, Nandagiri can only
be Nandi-durga, Kuvalala is Kolar : but though the Gangas are called
lords of Kuvalala-pura, we know that from an early period their capital
was at Talavana-pura (Talakad on the Kaveri). The place given as
the northern limit of Gangavadi I have been unable to identify,- but
the other limits are well-known places. Tonda-nad, a Forty-eight
Thousand province, is Tonda-mandala, the Madras country to the east
of Mysore ; the ocean for the western boundary seems to be a stretch
of the imagination, as Gangavadi, so far as we know, did not extend
below the ^\'estern Ghats ; Chera corresponds with Cochin and
Travancore ; Kongu, with Salem and Coimbatore.

The following is a table of the Ganga kings of ]\Iysore ; the dates
before the seventh century, though taken from inscriptions, are not
certain : —

• Named by Indrabhiiti in his Saiiiayahhushaiia {see Ind. Ant., XII, 2o).

^ One or two names something like it are found in the north of the Kolar District.

GANGAS

Kongunivarma (Madhava)
Kiriya Madhava
llarivarma
Vishnu-gopa
Tadangala Madhava
Avinita, Kongani
Durvinita, Kongani
Mushkara, ]\Iokkara
S'rivikraraa

Bhi'ivikrama, S'rivallabha
S'ivamara (I), Nava Kama,

Prithuvi Kongani
Prithuvipati, Prithuyas'as

247, 266

350
425-478

47S-513

679

679-713
726

S'ripurusha, Muttarasa, 726-777

Permanadi, Prithuvi Kongani

S'ivamara (11), Saigotta c. 780-S14

Vijayaditya c. 814-S69

Rachamalla (I), Satyavakya 869-893
Nitimarga (I), ? Marula,

Nanniya Ganga 893-915

Ereyappa, Mahendrantaka 921

Bi'ituga, (janga Gangeya 930-963
Marasimha, Nolambakulantaka 963-974

Rachamalla (II}. 974-984

Rakkasa Ganga, Govindara 9S4

Ganga Rcija 996-1004

Konguni-varma was the first king, and this is a special title of all the
Ganga kings to the end.^ To him is invariably ascribed the feat of
cutting through the stone pillar with a single stroke of his sword : he is
therefore the Madhava of the narrative before given, and in one place
is described as but a boy at that time. The succession of kings, on the
other hand, was through Dadiga, of whom it is said that with the
Kaurava army he stopped the army of the Matsya king. Supposing the
founders of the Ganga dynasty to have come from Central India, and
matured their plans at Perur, in Kadapa district, for the acquisition of
Kolar and the midland and southern parts of Mysore, they would soon
encounter the opposition of the Mahavali or Bana kings, whose western
boundary was probably the Palar, which is close to Kolar on the east.
A\'e accordingly find Konguni-varma described as consecrated to con-
quer the Bana mandala, and as a wild-fire in consuming the stubble of
the forest called Bana. From the east the Ganga princes marched to the
west, and are represented as engaged in leading an expedition to the
Konkan or western coast, when they came to Man(_\ali, near Shimoga,
where, by the advice of Simhanandi, they established a chaityalaya.
Probably there was a considerable Jain element in the population of
Mysore at the time, over whom Simhanandi exerted his influence to
gain their acceptance of the Ganga rule.

Dadiga's son, Kiriya Madhava, or the younger Madhava, succeeded
to the throne.'- He is described as inclined to learning and skilled in
polity. He wrote a commentary on the dattaka suira or law of adop-
tion. His son was Harivarma, who made use of elephants in war, and
established the capital at Talakdd. Previous to this, according to an
old chronicle, the capital was at Skandapura, which Lassen locates at

' Kunguni is also writlcn Kongani, Konguji, and Knngini. For the dale assigned
to him sec my Ep. Cam., Mysore I, Nj. IIO.

- Dadiga's brother woukl therefi)re l)e properly distinguished as lliri)a Mcidhava.

312 ni STORY

Gajalluitti, near Satyamangalam, on the old ghat road from Mysore to
Trichinopoly. But no reference to such a place is contained in the
inscriptions. Two grants of the time of Harivarma have been found,
both open to doubt. One^ records a gift at Orekod, in the Maisur-nad
Seventy, to a Brahman for overcoming in discussion a Bauddha who
had affixed a challenge to the gate of the palace at Talakad, boasting of
his learning, and maintaining the doctrine that annihilation was the
highest happiness. The other'" is a grant in some neighbouring part
for an act of bravery in the battle of Henjeru. Harivarma's son
Vishnugopa is described as devoted to the worship of gurus, cows and
Brahmans. His change of faith caused the five royal tokens given by
Indra to vanish, as foretold in the original warning. He must have
lived to a great age, as he is said to have retained his mental energy
unimpaired to the end of life. His son was Tadangala Madhava, whose
arms were grown stout and hard with athletic exercises. He married a
sister of the Kadamba king Krishnavarma, and is described as the
reviver of donations for long-ceased festivals of the gods and Brahman
endowments. A grant of his in an extraordinary jumble of alphabets'*
also records a gift for bravery at Henjeru. This, and the similar grant
above, point to encounters with the Pallavas.

Tadangala Madhava's son, by the Kadamba princess, was Avini'ta,
who was crowned while an infant in his mother's lap. He married the
daughter of Skandavarma, Raja of Punnad, who chose him, though
betrothed by her father to another from her birth on the advice of his
guru. Of him it is related that on coming to the Kaveri he heard a
voice say s'ata-j'ivi (a prediction that he would live for a hundred years),
on which, to the consternation of his attendants, he plunged into the
river and crossed over in safety, though it was in full flood, thus
acquiring the name of Churchuvayda Ganga. Both he and his son are
said to have been like Manu in maintaining the castes and religious
orders of the south. Two grants of his reign have been found, one of
the twenty-ninth year,"* making a grant to a Brahman, and one"' record-
ing a gift to Jainas in the Punnad Ten Thousand, by the minister
of Akalavarsha (a Rashtrakata king). The Punnad Ten Thousand
formed the southern portion of Mysore, and seems to correspond with
the Padi-nad or Ten nad country of later inscriptions.'^ Also with the

> lud. Ant., VIII, 212. 2 j^p_ Cam., Mysore I, Nj. 122.

■'' Ind. Ant., VII, 172. " ib. V, 136. * ib. I, 363 ; Coorg Ins. No. i.

^ A grant of the Punnacl Rajas, the date of which cannot be determined, has been
found, from which their capital seems to have been Kitthipura. It gives the following
succession of kings : — Rashtravarma ; his son Nagadatta ; his son Bhujaga, who
married the daughter of Singavarma ; their son Skandavarma ; his son the Punnata
Raja Ravidatta.— /;/t/. Ant., XII, 13 ; XVIII, 366.

GAXGAS 313

Pounnuta of Ptolemy, where beryl was found.^ Avinita's son was
Durvinita. He had for his preceptor the author of the S'abda%-atara,
that is, the celebrated Jaina grammarian Piijyapada. He thus acquired
a literary taste which led him to write a commentary on part of the
Kiratarjuniya, a well-known poem by Bharavi. He is probably, as
the name is a very uncommon one, the 1 Jurvinita named by Nripatunga
among the early Kannada authors. He seems to have extended the
Ganga dominion to the south and ^st, for he is said to have waged
sanguinary wars for the possession of Andari, A'lattur (perhaps the one
in Coimbatore district), Porulare, Pennagara (in Salem district), and
other places, and is described as ruler over the whole of Pannad and
Punnad, as if he had annexed them. He is also said to have wrested
Kaduvetti (Karveti-nagara, North Arcot district) from Jayasimha, the
king of Kanchi, and made the son of his own daughter the governor.
Two grants of his reign have been found, one of the third year^ and
the other of the thirty-fifth,'* both recording gifts to Brahmans.

His son was Mushkara or Mokkara, who married the daughter of the
Sindhu Raja. His son was S'rivikrama, who had two sons, Bhiivik-
rama and S'ivamara. Bhiivikrama, in a great battle at Vilanda, de-
feated the Pallava king Narasimhapotavarma II., trodden to death in
the charge of elephants, and subdued the whole of the Pallava
dominions, acquiring the title of S'rivallabha. According to the old
chronicle he and his brother made their residence at Mukunda,
apparently the present Mankunda, near Channapatna. The younger
brother, S'ivamara or Nava Kama, had under his guardianship the two
grandsons of the Pallava king, no doubt the one above mentioned.
Their father, therefore, may have been taken prisoner and died in
captivity. In a grant made in his thirty-fourth year,"* this king signs
himself s'ishta-priyak, beloved of the good.

rsiost of the (ianga grants omit mention of his son and pass on to
his grandson. From the only grant that gives an account of him,' the
reason appears to be that the son was engaged in distant expeditions in
which he was unfortunate and lost his life, or there may have been a
split in the family. He is called Prithuvipati and Prithuyas'as, but
these can hardly be his names. He gave protection to certain chiefs,
one of whom was a refugee from Amoghavarsha. He cut a piece of
bone out of his body from a wound received in the battle of Vaim-
balguli and sent it to the waters of the Ganges. He defeated the

' Col. Yule's Map of Ancient India (Dr. 'smi\.\\?,.4f/as 0/ .liicuiit Gcvj;.). I'adiyur
in Coimbatore district produced beryl (see Ind. Ant., V, 237).
- Itid. Ant., VII, 174. 3 ib. V, 138.

* Ep. Cam., Mysore I, Mil. 113. * Salem Manual, II, 369.

314 Iff STORY

IMiidya kinj^^ \'aragun;v in a battle at S'ri Purarnbiyam, (jr 'I'iru I'uram-
biyam (near Kumbhakonam), but lost his life in saving a friend. He
a{)pearsto have had a son Marasimha, of whom we hear no more.

S'ripurusha, whose name was Muttarasa, was the grandson (or
perhaps great grandson) of Sivamara, and had a long and prosperous
reign. His kingdom was called the S'ri-rajya. Numerous grants of his
time have been found, both on stone slabs and on copper plates, rang-
ing from the first to the fiftieth year of his reign.i He seems at some
time to have made Miinyapura (Manne in Nelamangalataluq) the royal
residence. He is stated to have again conquered Kaduvetti, which had
been recovered by the Pallavas, at the same time capturing the Pallava
umbrella and assuming the title of Permanadi, which he took away
from the king of Kanchi. This title is used of all subsequent Ganga
kings, sometimes alone, without any distinguishing name. He also rein-
stated the Bana kingdom by placing Hastimalla on the throne. He is
said, moreover, to have written a work on elephants called Gajas'astra.
His sons Sivamara and Duggamara appear as governors under him, also
one named Lokaditya, apparently the youngest.

He was succeeded by his son S'ivamara, surnamed Saigotta, and the
latter had a son, Marasimha, who made a grant in 797 as yuva-raja,
but is not again heard of. S'ivamara is said to have been the author of
Gajashtaka, a treatise on elephants, in which he improved upon his
father's system. Serious reverses befell the Ganga kingdom in this
reign. The Rashtrakutas had gained a great accession of po\ver, and
Nirupama or Dharavarsha is said to have defeated and imprisoned the
impetuous Ganga, who had never been conquered before. The next
king, Govinda or Prabhiitavarsha, on coming to the throne in about
784, released Ganga from his long and painful captivity, but had to
confine him again on account of his hostility.- As he is represented as
having defeated the combined royal army, commanded by Rashtrakuta,
Chalukya and Haihaya chiefs, at Murugundur (perhaps Mudugundur in
Mandya taluq), this attack may have led to his being again seized.
During the interregnum the Rashtrakutas appointed their own viceroys
to govern the Ganga territories. In 802 Dharavarsha's son Kambha or
Ranavaloka was the viceroy, and there are three inscriptions of his time.''
In 813 we find Chaki Raja in that office."* Eventually S'ivamara either
made his peace with Govinda or, as seems more likely, the latter was in
need of allies, for that monarch, assisted by the Pallava king Nandi-
varma, replaced him on the throne, the two binding the diadem on his
brow with their own hands. A long war now took place between the

> Mys. Ins. and Ep. Cam. - I mi. Ant., ^"I, 69 ; XI, 161.

* Ins. at Sr. Be/., No. 24 : the others unpublished. ■* Ind. Ant., XII, 18.

z
z

;- o
o
o
o

0) -Q

li^"'4 i^

.*■*

GANG AS 315

Eastern Chalukyas and the allied Gangas and Rattas, in which 108
battles were fought in twelve years. S'ivamara's successor on the
throne was apparently his brother Vijayaditya.

With the accession of Rdchamalla Satyavakya the Gangas seem to
have taken a fresh start in power, and these names form titles of all the
subsequent kings. He is said to have recovered from the Rashtrakiitas
the whole of the territory which they had seized and held too long.
His yuva-raja in 870 was Butarasa, and he had a son Rana Vikramayya,
who may be the same. But the son that was his successor is called
Nitimarga, who had a prosperous reign, and there are numerous in-
scriptions of his time. His sister was married to Nolambadhiraja,
who was ruling under him. His son Ereyappa was apparently asso-
ciated with him in the government towards the close of his life. An
interesting sculptured bas-relief of his death-bed scene has been dis-
covered."^ Ereyappa is called Mahendrantaka, or death to Mahendra,
the Nolamba king.

Wixh Butuga considerable changes occurred in the Ganga dominions.
Ereyappa's eldest son Rachamalla was the proper heir to the throne.
But Butuga, another son, perhaps by a different mother, resolved to
possess himself of the crown, and defeated and slew Rachamalla. The
Rashtrakuta king Baddega or Amoghavarsha gave him his daughter in
marriage, and he appears to have secured the kingdom for his brother-in-
law Krishna or Kannara, though on Baddega's death it had been seized
by Lalliya. Kannara was soon after engaged in a war with the ("hola
king Rajaditya, when Butuga by some treachery killed the latter at a
place called Takkola, following it up by laying siege to the Chola
capital Tanjapuri (Tanjore) and burning Nalkote. For this important
service Kannara made over to him the Banavase Twelve Thousand
(Shimoga and North Kanara districts), in addition to his wife's
dowry, the Belvola Three Hundred, the Purigere Three Hundred,
the Kisukad Seventy, and the Baginad Seventy (all in Dharwar
and neighbouring districts).'- Butuga also subdued the Seven Malavas,
and putting up boundary stones, gave the country the name of
(ianga Malava. His elder sister Pambabbe, widow of Dorapayya,
died in 971, after leading an ascetic life for thirty years. His son
Marula Deva is said to have married a daughter of Kannara. But his
successor on the throne was his son Marasimha, called Nolambakulan-
taka, from his having slain all the Nolambas. By direction of Kannara
he made an expedition against Gurjjara or Gujarat, and is said to have
been a terror to the Chalukya prince Rajaditya. From several in-

' Ep. Cant., Mysore I, TX. 91. * Ibid. Ill, Iml. 41 : Ep. liui.. Ill, 175.

3i6 HISTORY

scriptions towards the end of this reign it appears that the ( langas had
then become feudatories of the Rashtrakutas.

But the latter were now finally overcome by the Chalukyas, and
Marasimha's son Rachamalla, who succeeded, was independent. This
king's minister and general was Chamunda Raya, who caused the
colossal image of Gomata to be erected at S'ravana Belgola. The
king's younger brother Rakkasa was a governor in Coorg, and finally
succeeded to the throne. With Ganga Raja we come to the end of the
independent Ganga rule. The Cholas, advancing in overwhelming
force, invaded the Ganga territories, under the command of Rajendra
Chola, son of the reigning king Rajaraja, and in about 1004
captured Talakad and overran all the south and east of Mysore. The
(iangas, driven from their kingdom, took refuge with the Chalukyas
and with the Hoysalas, who were destined to succeed to their dominion
in Mysore, attaining to positions of the highest honour under both.

But the principal revival of their power as independent rulers was in
Orissa, or rather in Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts, in alliance with
the Cholas. ^^'e have already had occasion to mention the Kalinga
Gangas. Several of their earlier inscriptions have been found,^ mostly
issued from Kalinga-nagara (Ganjam district), and dated in the years of
the Ganga family {Gdfigeya-vafus'a-sa?>ivatsnra), an era not yet deter-
mined. The kings profess to be worshippers of the god Gokarna-svami
on the Mahendra mountain (in Ganjam district), and rulers over the
whole of Kalinga. Arranging the grants conjecturally, guided by the
years and relationships given, we obtain the following list : —

Anantavarma

Devendravarma 254

Rajendravarma

Anantavarma 304

Vajrahasta

On the other hand a very full and circumstantial genealogy of
Kalinga Gangas is given in a later grant'- of 11 18, in which quite
different names appear (except Vajrahasta), but of course it is possible
they may be the same kings under other titles. The line is here traced
from the god Vishnu through Yayati and Turvasu, who is said to have
obtained from the Ganga the son Gangeya who was the progenitor of
the Ganga kings {see above, p. 309). A list of sixteen kings follows,
whose names seem purely mythical, down to Kolahala, who is said to

' Lid. Ant., XIII, XIV, XVIII ; Ej>. Ltd., Ill, 17, 220. The grant of Devendra, son
of Rajendra, is in my possession, not yet published. The year 128 has been supposed
to be about 658 a.d. ; 254 about 774 (/. A., XIII, 274). - Lid. Ant., XVIII, 165.

Anantavarma

Devendravarma

Satyavarma

Indravarma

91.

1 28,

146

Rajendravarma

Devendravarma

GANG AS 317

have built the cily of Kolahala (Kolar) in the great Gangavacji country.
After his son Virochana and eighty more kings, not named and pro-
bably imaginary, had held Kolahala, there arose in that line \"irasimha,
who had five sons, Kamarnava, Danarnava, Ciunarnava, Marasimha, and
Vajrahasta. The first of these, giving the kingdom to his maternal
uncle, set out with his brothers to conquer the earth, and coming to the
Mahendra mountain, worshipped Gokarnasvami, and obtained the crest
of a bull and the symbols of sovereignty. He and his brothers subdued
Baladitya, who had grown sick of war, and took possession of the
(three) Kalingas. Giving Ambavadi to the third brother, S6da or Seda
to the fourth, and Kantaka to the fifth, Kamarnava, with his capital at
Jantavura, ruled over the Kalingas, nominating his brother Danarnava
as his successor. After these two, fifteen kings ruled, ending with
Vajrahasta V, who married Vinaya-mahadevi of the Vaidumba family.
His son was Rajaraja, who is said to have defeated the Dramilas,
wedded Rajasundari, daughter of the Chola king Rajendra Chola, and
saved the aged Vijayaditya from falling into the power of the Cholas, by
upholding his authority in the west. Rajaraja's son Anantavarma or
Chola-Ganga was anointed king of Trikalinga in 1078, and re-instated
the fallen lord of Utkala (Orissa) in the east, and the sinking lord of
Vengi in the west. Grants of his have been found dating in 1081,
1 1 18, and 1 135.'

The total of the years assigned to the reigns of these kings comes to
about 350, which, deducted from 1078, the date of Chola-Ganga's
accession, brings us to 728, and this is near about the period estimated
for the later of the early kings previously mentioned. It is also the
period in the annals of the Mysore Gangas where we find a break in
the list, filled up by an alleged Prithuvipati, a word merely meaning
king, who had a son Marasimha, of whom nothing more is heard.
Putting these coincidences together, we are tempted to suppose that
Kamarnava, with his brother Marasimha and the others, who gave up
their kingdom in Mysore to a relative and went forth from Kolar to
found another in Kalinga, where a branch of the family had already
been ruling for centuries, may possibly have been sons of the missing
king who died in battle.

Two inscriptions in Chiknayakanhalli taUui i"^'*""-''" to Chola-Ganga as
the Odu-rayindra, or great king of Orissa, and state that he was born in
the Hejjaji Twelve of the Kadanur Seventy (both in ])od Ballapur
talu(i). The Ganga kings of Orissa or Kalinga, also called Gajapatis or
elephant lords, beginning with Chola-Ganga, held the sovereignty of
that country down to 1534, soon after which it fell a prey to the Muham-
madans. Of these kings Ananga Bhima Deva (i 175-1202) was a great

' Loc. cii.

3i8 ///STORY

ruler, and made a survey of his whole kingdom, measuring it with reeds.
He also built the present temple of Jaganndth. Another king of
interest was Purushottama Deva (1479-1504). He sought in marriage
the daughter of the king of Kanchi, famed for her beauty. But on the
ground of his performing the ofifice of sweeper to Jagannath his suit
was rejected. He therefore attacked Kanchi, and was at first repulsed.
At length he captured it, and took the princess prisoner, whom he
vowed in revenge should be married to a sweeper. The minister
charged with the execution of this order kept the girl in concealment
until the festival of Jagannath, at which the king was accustomed to
sweep the ground before the god ; and while he was engaged in that
act placed her beside him, and they were married. The reign of
Pratapa Rudra (1504-153 2) is remarkable for the reformation of the
Vaishnava religion by the preaching of Chaitanya, w^hose views the
king finally adopted; and Buddhism, to which he had previously
inclined, was banished the country. Pratapa Rudra is said to have
extended his conquests southwards as far as Cape Comorin, and his
name occurs in many local traditions in the east of Mysore. We also
find that his son Virabhadra was invested with the government of Male
Bennur (Davangere taluq) by Krishna Raya of Vijayanagar.

Certain other references to kings of the same connection may here
be pointed out. The existence of constant intercourse between
Kalinga and Ceylon from the earliest times is well known, and we find
a Chola-Ganga from Kalinga ruling in Ceylon in 1196.^ There
was also a line of Chola-Gangas in the east of Mysore in the thirteenth
century. But it is not a little singular that we find a Karnataka dynasty
set up in distant Nepal, apparently in 1097, which may have been of
Ganga origin. The founder, Nanya Deva (perhaps Nanniya Deva),
came from the south. He was succeeded by Ganga Deva and four
others, the last of whom removed the capital to Katmandu, where the
line came to an end.~

Not yet, however, have we done with the Gangas, for at about the
time that their Orissa sovereignty came to an end, or the first part of the
sixteenth century, a Ganga Raja returned to the scene of their former
dominion, and established a principality at S'ivasamudram, the island
at the Falls of the Kaveri, not far from Talakad. Ganga Raja, after a
prosperous reign, was succeeded by his son Nandi Raja, who, to atone
for some ceremonial offence, leaped into the cataract at Gagana Chukki
on horseback with his wife. His son, Ganga Raja II, enlarged the
city greatly, and lived with much splendour. His two daughters were
married, one to the chief of Kilimale, near Satyagala, the other to the
chief of Nagarakere, near Maddur. These marriages were very

' Rhys Davids, Nitinisiiiata Orienialia. * Sec Ins. front N'epal, Ijy Dr. G. Biihler.

CHALUKYAS 319

unhappy, for the pride of the ladies gave their husbands constant dis-
gust, and they were continually upbraided for not living in equal
splendour with their father-in-law. They therefore united to attack
Sivasamudra and humble (ianga Raja. The siege had lasted twelve
years without their having been able to penetrate to the island, when they
found means to corrupt the Dalavayi, or minister, of Ganga Raja. This
traitor removed the guards from the only ford, and thus permitted the
enemy to surprise the place, while he endeavoured to engage his
master's attention at a game of chess. The shouts of the soldiery at
length reaching their ears, the prince started up from the game. The
Dalavayi, who wished him to fall alive into the hands of his sons-in-law,
endeavoured to persuade him that the noise arose merely from children
at play, but the Raja, having drawn his sword, first killed all his women
and children, and then, rushing into the midst of his enemies, fought
until he procured an honourable death. The sons-in-law, on seeing
this, were struck with horror, and immediately threw themselves into
the cataract at (xagana Chukki ; and their example was followed by their
wives, whose arrogance had been the cause of such disasters.

Jagadeva Rayal of Channapatna, and S'riranga Raja of Talakad, the
two most powerful of the neighbouring Palegars, then came and
removed all the people and wealth of the place.

Chalukyas. — This powerful line of kings was in the ascendant
throughout the north-west of Mysore, and the Bombay and Haidarabad
districts beyond, from the fifth to the eighth century, and from the
latter part of the tenth to that of the twelfth. Their first appearance
south of the Nerbudda was in the fourth century, previous to which
they are said to have had fifty-nine predecessors on the throne of
Ayodhya, but of these nothing is known. On their entering the
Dekhan they overcame the Rashtrakutas, but the Pallavas effectually
opposed them and the invader was slain, as previously related. His
successor, however, defeated the Pallavas and then formed an alliance
with them, confirmed by his marriage with a Pallava princess. In the
sixth century, Pulikes'i, whose chief city was apparently Indukanta
(supposed to be Ajanta or some neighbouring place), wrested Vatapi
(the modern Badami in Bijapur district) from the Pallavas and made it
his capital. His son Ki'rtivarma subdued the Mauryas (descendants of
the ancient Mauryas of Pataliputra), ruling in the Konkan, and the
Kadambas of Banavasi. Another son, Mangales'a, conquered the
Kalachuryas. The A'lupas or A'luvas, who ruled in Tulava or South
Kanara, were also at some time overcome,^ and the next king, Pulikes'i
H, came into contact with the Gangas, possibly in the time of Mush-

^ There are inscriptions of theirs at Kig in the Western IJhats in Koppa taluq,
and at Mansjalore.

320 mSTOR Y

kara, as there appears to Iiave been a Jain temple erected in his name
at Puligere (Lakshmes'vara in ] )har\var district). In about 617 the
Chalukyas separated into two branches, of which the Eastern Chalukyas
made Vengi (near El lore in the Oodavari district), taken from the
Pallavas,and subsequently Rajamahendri, their capital, while the Western
Chalukyas, with whom Mysore is chiefly concerned, continued to rule
from Vatapi and eventually from Kalyana (in the Nizam's Dominions,
about 100 miles west by north of Haidarabad).

The Chalukyas were of the Soma-vams'a or lunar line, and the
Manavya-gotra. They claim to be sons of Hariii, nourished by the
seven mothers. The boar was the principal emblem on their signet,
obtained from Bhagavan Narayana (Vishnu), but their insignia included
a peacock fan, an ankus'a or elephant goad, a golden sceptre, and
other symbols. The ^Vestern Chalukyas are styled the Satyds raya
kula, from the name of the first king of this branch. The titles on
their inscriptions, which are very numerous in Mysore, especially in
the north-west, are nearly invariably as follows — Saftiastabhuvands'raya,
Sri-prithvi-vallabha, Mahdrdjddhirdja, Parames'vara, Parama-bhattd-
raka, Satyds ray a-kula-tilakci, Chdlukydbharana.

Although the above details are very circumstantial, the account of
the origin of the Chalukyas is evidendy puranic,i and the real source
from which they sprang is far from clear. The name Chalukya bears a
suggestive resemblance to the Greek name Seleukeia, and if the Pallavas
were really of Parthian connection, as their name would imply, we
have a plausible explanation of the inveterate hatred which inscriptions
admit to have existed between the two, and their prolonged struggles
may have been but a sequel of the contests between Seleucidffi and
Arsacidte on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates.

The succession of the Early and Western Chalukya kings, during the
period of their first ascendancy, is as follows- : —

Chandraditya, 655

Mkramaditya I, Ranarasika 655-680
Vinayaditya, Rajas' raya 6S0-696

fayasimha, ? A'ijayaditya

Rajasimha, Ranaraga, ? Mshnuvaidhana

Pulikes'i I, Satyas'raya, Ranavikrama 550

Kirtivarma I, Ranaparakrama 566-597

Mangales'a, Ranavikranta 597-60S

Pulikes'i II, Satyas'raya 609-642

\'dityavarma

Mjayaditya, Samastabhuvanas'raya

696-733
^'ikramaditya II 733-746

Kirtivarma II, Xripasimha 746-757

Jayasimha is said to have defeated and destroyed Indra, the son of
Ivrishna, the Rashtrakilta or Ratta king. He himself, however, was

> They are stated to have nuraculously sprung from the moisture or water in the
lollowed pahn {chuliika, chitlaka) of Hariti's hand. According to another account
Vom the libation to the gods poured from his goblet {chitlka, chuluka, chaluka), by
■ lariti. These stories seem evidently invented from the name.

- Cf.Ep. Iiid., Ill, 2.

CHALUKYAS 321

slain in an encounter with Trilochana Pallava. His queen, then
pregnant, fled and took refuge with a Brahman called Vishnu Somayaji,
in whose house she gave birth to Rajasimha. On growing up to man's
estate he renewed the contest with the Pallavas, in which he was
successful, and married a princess of that race. Pulikes'i was the
most powerful of the early kings and performed the horse sacrifice.
His eldest son, Kirtivarma I, subdued the Nalas, of whom we know
MO more, the Mauryas ajid the Kadambas. Mangales'a, his younger
brother conquered the island called Revati-dvipa, and the Matangas :
also the Kalachurya king Buddha, son of Sankaragana, the spoils
taken from whom he gave to the temple of Makutes'vara, near
Badami. He attempted to establish his own son in the succession,
but Satyas'raya or I'ulikes'i H, the elder son of Kirtivarma, obtained
the throne.

Pulikes'i's younger brother ^"ishnuvardhana, surnamed Kubja, on the
capture of Ax'ngi from the Pallavas, there founded the sei)arate line of
Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in i)ower in the V'engi and Raja-
mahendri country till the eleventh century, when they were absorbed
into the Chola family.^

Satyas'raya or Pulikes'i H. the first of the Western Chalukya line,
was a great concjueror and subdued all the neighbouring nations. His
most notable victory was over Harshavardhana or S'iladitya, king of
Kanyakubja or Kanoj, the most powerful monarch in northern India.
By this conquest he obtained the title of Parames'vara or supreme lord,

' For convenience of further reference the list of Eastern Chalukyas is here inserted,
as given by Dr. Fleet {In({. An/., XX, 283), who has gone very fully into details in
the preceding articles : —

Kuhja \'ishnuvardhana I

615-633
Jayasimha -663

Indra Bhattaraka (seven

days) 663

Vishnuvardhana II -672
Mangi \'uvaraja -696
Jayasinilia II -7^9

Kokkili (six months) 709
N'ishnuvardhana III -746
\'ijaya(Utya Hhallaraka

-764
Vishnuvardhana I\' -799
\'ijayaditya II, Nar-

endramrigaraja -843
Kali \'ishnuvardhana \'
-S44

Gunaka \'ijayaditya III
-888
Chalukya Bhima I -918
Kollahhiganda \'i-

jayaditya I\' (six

months) m. Me-

1am ha
Anima I, \'ishnu-

vardhanaX'I, I\.;ija

Mahendra
Beta Vijayaditya \'

(fifteen days)
Tadapa (one month) 925
Vikramaditya II

(eleven months) - 926

Bhima II (eight months)

-927

918

925
925

Yuddhamalla -934

Chalukya Bhima III,
^'ishnuvardhalla \ II,
(junda Mahendra,
m. Lokamahiidevi -945
Amma II, \'ijaya-
ditya \'I, Raja
?klahendra -97°

Danarnava -973

(Interregnum of thirty

years. )

Saktivarma 1003-1015

\'imaladilya, m. Kun-

dava-mahadevi of

theChola family -1022

322 J /I STORY

ever after borne by tlic Chalukyas. The C'liinese pilgrim Iliuen
Tsiang has given interesting aeeounts of l)Olh Harshavardhana and
Pulikes'i, and of their times. Of l-*ulikcs'i's kingdom he says : —
"The disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall
of stature, and of a stern vindictive character. To their bene-
factors they are grateful, to their enemies relentless. If they are
insulted they will risk their life to avenge themselves. If they are
asked to help one in distress they will forget themselves in their
haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge they
first give their enemy warning ; then, each being armed, they attack
each other with spears. When one turns to flee the other pursues
him, but they do not kill a man who is down (or submits). If a
general loses a battle they do not inflict punishment but present him
with woman's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself.
The country provides for a band of champions to the number of several
hundreds. Each time they are about to engage in conflict they
intoxicate themselves with wine, and then one man with lance in hand
will meet ten thousand and challenge them in fight. If one of these
champions meets a man and kills him, the laws of the country do not
punish him. Every time they go forth they beat drums before them.
Moreover they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, and taking
them out to fight, they themselves first drink their wine, and then, rushing
forward in mass, they trample everything down, so that no enemy can
stand before them. The king, in consequence of his possessing these
men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the
Kshattriya caste and his name is Pulakes'i (Pu-lo-ki-she). His plans
and undertakings are widespread, and his beneficent actions are felt
over a great distance. His subjects obey him with perfect submission.
At the present time S'iladitya Maharaja has conquered the nations
from east to west and carried his arms to remote districts, but the
people of this country alone have not submitted to him. He has
gathered troops from the five Indies, and summoned the best leaders
from all countries, and himself gone at the head of his army to punish
and subdue this people, but he has not yet conquered their troops. So
much for their habits. The men are fond of learning'." ....

The city he calls Konkanapura, which he visited, may probably be
Kopana (now Kopal) in the extreme south-west of the Nizam's
dominions, or Kokanur close to it. Of its people he says : — "They
love learning, and esteem virtue and talent." Arab annals, moreover,
as pointed out by Dr. Fergusson," state that Pulikes'i exchanged
presents and letters with Khosru II of Persia, and the Persian

' Beal's Si-yit-ki, II, 256. 2 j j^ j_ s., XI, 155.

CHALUKYAS 323

embassy is supposed to be represented in one of the paintings in the
Ajanta caves. The exact date of the end of his reign is not known,
and the history is not very clear until the accession of Vikramaditya.
Before him there were his brothers A'dityavarma and Chandraditya.
One inscription of the former is known, ^ but the latter is represented
only by grants made by his queen, Vijaya-mahadevi or Vijaya-bhatta-
rika.- She may therefore have been a widow at the time and regent
for a son who did not survive. I have also found a grant in
Goribidnur taluq by Ambera, a son or daughter of Satyas'raya/' It
seems certain that after the death of Pulikes'i II. the Pallavas attacked
and inflicted severe losses on the Chalukyas, driving them out of some
of their recently acquired possessions in the south.

Vikramaditya restored the power of the Chalukyas. Riding to
battle on his splendid charger Chitrakantha, he was victorious over
Pandya, Ch61a, Kerala, and Kalabhra (perhaps the Kalabhurvas or
Kalachuryas), all of whom may have aided the Pallavas in their late
hostilities. But his greatest achievement was the capture of Kanchi
and forcing the Pallava king, " who had never bowed to any other
man,"' to kiss his feet with his crown. \'inayaditya, his son, captured
and destroyed the army of Trairajya Pallava, the king of Kanchi, was
served by the Pallava, Kalabhra, Kerala, Haihaya, Vila, Malava, Chola
and Pandya kings, as well as by the A'luvas and Gangas ; and levying
tribute from the rulers of Kavera, Parasika, Simhala (Ceylon) and other
islands, churned the king of all the north and seized the Pali dhvaja."*
His son Vijayaditya completed the conquests of the two preceding
reigns, both in the south and the north, and in addition to the Pali
dhvaja gained the Ganga and "V'amuna dhvajas, which had been
possessions of the Guptas. His son Vikramaditya II gained an
important victory in the Tundaka province (Tonda-mandala) over the
I'allava king Nandipotavarma, whom he put to flight and, capturing all
the royal insignia, made a triumphal entry into Kanchi, which he
refrained from plundering, but presented gifts of gold to the Raja-
simhes'vara and other temples. He then, after withering up Pandya,
Chola, Kerala, Kalabhra and other kings, set up a pillar of victory on
the shore of the southern ocean. His queen, Lokamahadevi, of the
Haihaya family, caused a temple at Pattadkal to be erected in com-
memoration of his having three times defeated the Pallavas. His son
Kirtivarma II, while yet yuvaraja under his father, obtained permis-
sion to make another expedition against the Pallava king, whom he

> hid. Ant., XI, 66. ^ //'. VII. 163 : Mil, 273. ^ to. VIII, 89 ; IX, 304.

■* An arrangement of flags which seems m lui\r I'een a recognized Jaina symhul of
supreme sovereignty [see Iiid. Ant., XI\', 1041.

\ 2

324 HISTORY

drove to take refuge in a liill fort, and dispersing his army, plundered
his treasures.

While the Western Chalukyas had thus been engaged at a distance,
in the direction of Kanchi, in destroying the power of the Pallavas,
their other old enemies, the Rashtrakiitas, nearer home, had been
watching for the opportunity to free themselves. In this they were
successful, under the kings Dantidurga and Krishna. The Western
Chalukyas for about two centuries from this time disappear from view.
Kings of their line named Kirtivarma, Tailapa, Bhi'ma and Ayyana, who
is said to have married a daughter of the Rashtrakiita king Krishna, are
named as rulin;^ in succession, but the accounts are doubtful.

Rashtrakutas. — Meanwhile our attention must be directed to the
power which superseded them and which played an important part in
Mysore during their eclipse, as testified by inscriptions throughout the
northern and midland parts. ^ This was the Rashtrakutas or Rattas,
connected perhaps with the Rajput Rathors, and supposed to be
represented by the modern Reddis. They may have existed in the
Dekhan from very early times. Their territory at the period of which
we are writing is often referred to as Rattavadi, and their capital, at
first Mayurakhandi (Morkhand in Nasik district) was, early in the ninth
century, at Manyakheta (Malkhed in the Nizam's Dominions, about
ninety miles west by south of Haidarabad). The earliest decided
mention of them describes Indra, the son of Krishna, as overcome by
the early Chalukya king, Jayasimha, and coins supposed to belong to
this Krishna have been found on the Bombay side. Then we have a
Govinda repulsed by Pulikes'i I. But the connected list of kmgs is as
follows'" : — •

Dantivarma I j Krishna II, Kannara,

Indra I Akalavarsha, S'ubhatunga 8S4-913

Govinda I | Jagattunga, Prabhutavarsha,

Karka or Kakka I 1 Pratapavaloka

Indra II Indra III, Nityavarsha,

Dantidurga, Dantivarma I, m. Vijamba 9 1 5-9 1 7

Khadgavaloka 754 Govinda V, Prabhutavarsha,

Krishna I, Kannara, Akalavarsha, Suvarnavarsha 91S-9.33

S'ubhatunga Baddiga, Amoghavarsha,

Dhruva, Nirupama, Dharavarsha m. Kundakadevi

(jQvinda III, Prabhutavarsha, Krishna III, Kannara,

Jagattunga, Atis'aya-dhavala, Akalavarsha 939-968

m. Gamundabbe 7S2-814 , Khottiga, Nityavarsha 96S-971

Sarva, Nripatunga, Amoghavarsha j Kakka II, Kakkala

815-877 I Amoghavarsha, Nripatunga 972-973

' Their inscriptions are often on cruciform stones, very artistic in appearance, and
quite different from any others. The upper arm is deeply bevelled, and a larr'e
plough engraved from one end to the other of the cross tree. - cf. Ep. Ind., Ill, 54,

RASHTRAKUTAS 325

These kings very commonly had the title \'allabha, taken from the
Chalukyas. In its Prakrit form of Ballaha, which is often used alone
in their inscriptions in ^lysore, without any name, it furnishes the key
by which to identify the powerful dynasty called Balhards by Arab
travellers of the tenth century, and described by them as ruling from
Mankir (Manyakheta).

Indra II is said to have married a Chalukya princess, but Danti-
durga, who died without issue, and Krishna I, his maternal uncle, who
therefore came to the throne after him, were successful in overcoming
the Chalukyas and establishing the supremacy of the Rashtrakiitas.
The beautiful Kailasa temple of Elura was probably erected by
Krishna. Dhruva, Dhora, Dharavarsha or Nirupama, though the
younger son, superseded his brother Govinda and was a brave and
warlike prince. He humbled the Pallava king of Kanchi and took
from him a tribute of elephants. He also defeated and imprisoned
the impetuous Ganga, who had never been conquered before. In the
north he drove the king of the ^'atsas into the desert of Marvad.
Govinda or Prabhutavarsha, his son, was one of the most powerful
kings of his line. He conquered the Keralas, Malavas, S'autas,
Gurjaras and the kings of Chitrakuta (in Bandalkhand) and took away
from his enemies (the Chalukyas) the emblems of the (ianga and
Yamuna. He released Ganga from his long and painful captivity, but
had to imprison him again on account of his hostility, and took tribute
from Dantiga, the ruler of Kanchi. On this latter expedition, in 804,
he halted at the tb'tha of Rames'vara, on an island in the Tungabhadra
(Kuruva, about five miles south of Honnali), and had some sport with
wild boars there. The kings of Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malava and
\'engi did homage to him, and the latter, probably the Eastern Chalukya
king Vijayaditya Narendramrigaraja, was compelled to build the walls of
his fortress, apparently at Manyakheta. The newly acquired province
of Lata (in Gujarat) he gave to his younger brother Indra. Eventually
Govinda once more released the Ganga king (Sivamara), and in con-
junction with the Pallava king Nandivarma, replaced him on his throne.

During the time the Ganga king was a prisoner, Mysore was governed
by viceroys appointed by the Rashtrakiitas. The first of whom we
have any record is Kambharasa, Kambhaiya, or S'aucha Kambha,
surnamed Ranavaloka, who was apparently the son of Dharavarsha
and brother of Govinda. Of his time there are three inscriptions,^ one
dated in 802. At a later date, 813, we have Chaki Raja as viceroy,-
whose sister was married to a Chalukya prince named Vas'ovarma.

1 At Mattakere (Heggadadevankolc laliuj), Manne (Xelamangala taluq), and
S'ravana Belgola (No. 24). - Ind. Jut., XII, 18.

326 J [[STORY

Nripatunga or z\moghavarslia, his son, succeeded to the throne. He
defeated the Chalukyas, who made peace with him at VinguvulH. He
presented the Konkan to Kapardi of the Silahara family, and after a
prolonged reign of over sixty years, voluntarily retired from the throne.
The celebrated Jinasenacharya, author of the A'di Purana, was his
preceptor. Nripatunga evidently took a great interest in the Kannada
country and literature, for to him we owe the Kavirajamarga, the
earliest known work on metrical composition in that language. It is
written in Kannacla verse, and in it he gives a glowing account of the
country and of the culture of the people, as the following quotations
will show : — " The region which extends from the Kaveri to the
(jodavari is the country in which Kannatja is spoken, the most
beautiful land in the circle of the earth. . . , Apt are the people of that
land in speaking as if accustomed to verse, and in understanding it
when spoken : clever in truth are they, for they are ripely skilled in
the usages of poetry without giving themselves up to its study. Not only
students but others are all skilful in their speech, and know how to
teach wisdom to young children and words to the deaf"

Krishna or Kannara II, Akalavarsha, married a Haihaya princess
belonging to the Kalachuri family, daughter of the king of Chedi.
He seems to have been engaged in constant wars with the Eastern
Chalukyas. Of his son Jagattunga Prabhiitavarsha, there is an inscrip-
tion in Chellakere taluq, undated, in which a Pallavadhiraja is repre-
sented as governor under him. Of the succeeding kings, Govinda
had an elder brother, Amoghavarsha, from whom he seems to have
usurped the crown. Govinda was so liberal with his donations that he
w^as called Suvarnavarsha (raining gold). Owing to failure of heirs he
was succeeded by his uncle Baddiga, and he by his son Krishna HI
Kannara or Akalavarsha. It was the latter who was assisted by the
Ganga king Biituga, his brother-in-law, in securing the throne, as
previou.sly related. He, too, by the aid of Biituga, was victorious over
the Cholas,and in return for this service made over the north-western
parts of Mysore and districts beyond to the Ganga king.^ It is not
clear that some of these had not been occupied by the Gangas
before, and several formed the dowry assigned to his bride. The
dominions of the Rashtrakutas were in this reign at their utmost
extension, the Chola territories in the south and Gujarat in the north
being in their power. Krishna Raja's daughter was married to a son of
Butuga. But the relations between the Rattas and Gangas must have
changed in the time of Nityavarsha, the brother who next came to the
throne, as there are inscriptions of the Ganga king Marasimha Nolamba-
' See A'takur Inscription, Mandya taluq No. 41, Ep. Cam., Mysore I.

CHALUKYAS 327

kulantaka in which he appears as a feudatory of Nityavarsha. But
the Ratta supremacy was now drawing to a close. In 973 Kakka or
Kakkala was defeated, and probably slain, by Taila of the Western
Chalukya family, and the Rashtrakuta empire came to an end. Taila
married Kakkala's daughter, but the last representative of the
Rdshtrakutas was Indra, a grandson of Krishna III, who died at
S'ravana Belgola in 982.1

Chalukyas {continued). — We left the Chalukyas, on their being
superseded by the Rashtrakiitas, in order to follow the history of the
latter dynasty. Its downfall, however, restored the supremacy of the
Chalukyas, and we may resume the annals relating to this line of
kings. It was in the time of Kirtivarma II that the Chalukyas lost
their power. He may have been succeeded by another Kirtivarma, but
this is doufjtful. The names of the subsequent kings of the intervening
period are more reliable, namely, Taila, Vikramaditya, Bhima, Ayyana
(who married a daughter of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna), and
Vikramaditya IV (who married Bontha-devi, daughter v.f Lakshmana,
of the Chedi or Kalachurya family). One Chalukya, named Jayasimha,
fled to Anhalvara in Gujarat, the court of Bh6ja Raja, the last of the
Sauras. Here his son Miila Raja married the daughter of Bh6ja
Raja, and in 931 succeeded the latter on the throne, the Salic law
being set aside in his favour. He ruled at Anhalvara for fifty-eight
years, and his descendants occupied the throne of that country with
great glory till 1145.

Meanwhile Tailapa, the son of Vikramaditya above mentioned,
defeated the Rashtrakiitas in the person of the king Kakkala, and
retrieved the Chalukya fortunes. He succeeded to the throne in 973,
and transmitted to his posterity a kingdom which increased in
splendour and prosperity under each succeeding reign for nearly 200
years. The following is a list of the kings for this period' : —

Tailapa, Ni'irmadi Taila II,

A'havamalla 973^997

Satyas'raya, Irivahedeiiga 997-1009

\'ikraniadilya \ , Triljhuvana-

nialla 1009-1018

Jayasimha II, Jagadekamalla 101S-1042
Somes'vara I, Trailokyamalla,

Vikramaditya \T, Trililiuvana-

malla, I'ermadi 1076-1126

Somes'vara III, Bhuluka-

malla 1126 113S

Jagadekamalla, I'erma 1138-I150

Tailapa, Nurmadi Taila III,

Trailokyamalla 1150-11S2

A'havamalla 1042-1068 , Somes'vara I\', Trihhuvaiia-

Somes'vara II, Bhuvanaika- I malla I1S2 I1S9

malla 1068-1076

The former kings of the ^^'estern Chalukya line had been largely
occupied in the south in wars against the Pallavas, whose power they

' Ins. at Sr. Bel. No. 57. - </. Ep. Imi., Ill, 230.

328 IflSTORY

ultimately broke. The kings of the present period we shall find were
equally engaged in that quarter in struggles with the Cholas. The
thirty years' period of 973 to 1003, during which the Eastern Chalukya
kingdom of Vengi was w-ithout a ruler, seems to have been a time when
the Cholas had overrun the country, having first acquired the territories
of the Pallavas, including the city of Kanchi. We accordingly find
Tailapa described as full of desire to fight with the Chola Raja, and as
being a destroying fire to the Cholas. He married Jakabbe, the
daughter of Kakkala, the Rashtrakiita king whom he had subverted,
and their son was Satyas'raya, who succeeded him, and against whom
the Chola king Rajaraja fought. Satyas'raya, by his wife Ambikadevi,
had two sons, Vikrama and Das'avarma. He also, it is said, had a
daughter, who was married to the Pallava king Iriva Nolambadhiraja.
Vikrama came to the throne after his father's death, but, dying without
issue, was succeeded by Jayasimha, the son of Das'avarma and
Bhagala-devi. He is described as a lion to Rajendra Chola, who was
the son and successor of Rajaraja, during whose reign he had over-
thrown the Ganga kingdom, in about 1004, and established the
authority of the Cholas throughout the south and east of Mysore.
Jayasimha, or Jagadekamalla, in 1019, is said to have driven Chola into
the sea. On the other hand, in 102 1, he is said in Chola inscriptions
to have turned his back at Mus'angi (possibly Uchchangi, in the south-
west of the Bellary district'), and by 1026 Rajendra Chola is said to
have taken the 7I lakh country of Irattapadi (Rattavadi) from
Jayasimha. By 1039 the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja, are said to have
burnt the palace of the Chalukyas at Kampili (on the Tungabhadra,
in Bellary district). Jayasimha was succeeded by his son Somes'vara,
Trailokyamalla, or A'havamalla, who was exposed to a formidable
invasion by the Cholas, in which they burnt Pulikaranagara
(Lakshmes'vara in Dhawrar district), and destroyed its famous Jain
temples erected by Permadi Ganga. But he seems to have defeated
them at Kakkaragond on the Tungabhadra, and driven them south-
wards, though they claim a victory over him at Koppa on the Perar
(possibly Kuppam on the Palar, in Kangundi, North Arcot'-), and the
plundering of his camp. This must have stopped his pursuit of them,
on return from which he halted at Puliyar-pattana (perhaps Huliyar,
Chiknayakanhalli taluq). It was he who first made Kalyana the
capital. His chief queen was j\Iailala-devi, a Ganga princess, by
whom he had two sons, who succeeded him, and who assume all the
Ganga titles of Kongunivarma Satyavakya Permadi. He must also
have had a Pallava wife, his son by whom, Jayasimha, takes the
' See So. Ind. Ins., 11, 94. - zb. I, 134.

CHALUKYAS 329

Pallava and Nolamba titles. He also had a wife of the Hoysala
family, though no issue of this marriage is recorded. But he had
another son, ^■ishnuvardhana Vijayaditya, who is styled the lord of
Vengi, and whose mother must have been of the Eastern Chalukya
family. This is the prince described as about to sink into the ocean of
the Cholas, whom Rajaraja and Chola-Ganga of the Kalinga (langas
maintained in power and caused to enjoy prosperity for a long time in
the western region. We accordingly find him in 1064 and 1066
ruling over the Nolambavadi Thirty-two Thousand country (the
Bellary and Chitaldroog districts), with the seat of his government at
Kampili (before mentioned). \Mien the Cholas were driven out of the
north of Mysore, therefore, this province formed a harrier against their
future encroachments. A'havamalla died in 1068 at Kuruvatti (on the
Tungabhadra, in Bellary district, not far from Harpanhalli), and was
succeeded by his son Somes'vara II or Bhuvanaikamalla. He was
apparently a weak prince and did not long retain possession of the
crown. But he had a powerful minister and general in Udayaditya of
the (ianga family, who is said before 1071 to have defeated a secret
conspiracy against the throne and against the guru.

Vikrama in 1076 expelled his brother, seized the throne and
became one of the most powerful of the Chalukya monarchs. He set
aside' the S'aka era, and from his accession established the Chalukya
Vikrama era. which continued in use as long as the Chalukyas were in
power. Many interesting particulars regarding him are contained in
Bilhana's poem on his history.- Previous to his accession to the
throne he had gained so many important victories, chiefly against the
Cholas and other powers south of the Tungabhadra, that his brother,
moved by jealousy, sent forces into the Banavasi country (the Shimoga
district) to seize him, but Vikrama destroyed them. He seems,
however, to have taken the precaution of strengthening himself by
alliances, for he married his daughter to Jayakes'i, king of the
Kadambas, whose capital was then at Goa ; and formed a friendship
with his former enemy, the Chola Raja, receiving a Chola princess in
marriage. The Chola king died soon after and his kingdom was
thrown into a state of anarchy. On hearing this, \'ikrama, who was
still tarrying on the Tungabhadra, at once started for the south, in order
to place his wife's brother on the throne. He entered Kanchi and put
down the rebels there; then did the same at Gangakunda (Gangai-
kondas'olapuram in the north-east of Trichinopoly district) and
re-established the Chola ]Jowcr. But nut long after his return he

' Literally rubbed it out, as schoolboys rub out the figures they write in the s;iinl.
- Vikraiinxuka-deva Charita, published by Dr. ('i. Hiihler in Bombay.

330 IIISTORY

learned tliat his hrothcr-in-law had lost his life in a fresh rebellion, and
that Rajiga, the lord of Vengi, had taken possession of the throne of
Kanchi. \ikrama at once prepared to march himself against the
usurper ; hut the latter opened negotiations with Somes'vara, who,
thinking a favourable opportunity had offered itself for the destruction
of his hated brother, eagerly entered into the alliance. He followed so
closely on Vikrama's march to the south, that when the latter came up
with Rajiga's army, Somes'vara's forces were encamped not far off in
his rear. A terrible battle ensued, in which victory declared for
Vikrama ; Rajiga fled and Somes'vara was taken prisoner. Vikrama
placed his younger brother, Jayasimha, in the government of Banavase
and repaired to Kalyana. He there heard that a svayamvara was
proclaimed for Chandralekha or Chandala-devi, daughter of the
Silahara prince of Karahata, and possessed of marvellous beauty. He
also ascertained that the lady, on hearing of his valiant exploits, had
fallen in love with him, and therefore hastened to the festival, where he
was chosen as the bridegroom from among the assembled princes of
Ayodhya, Chedi, Kanyakubja, Kalinjara, Malava, Gurjara, &c., who,
though filled with anger at the result, were restrained from violence
through fear of the great Chalukya.^ Next year his brother Jayasimha
rebelled, and collecting a large army advanced to the Krishna.
Vikrama, being forced in self-defence to take the field against him, a
battle was fought, in which Jayasimha was defeated and taken prisoner.
The remainder of Vikrama's reign seems to have been peaceful, with
the exception of an expedition in loSi against Kanchi and the
Pallavas, and one north of the Narmada in 1083. But towards the
close he was invaded by the Hoysala king, who was driven back by his
general, Achyugi Deva. In his celebrated law book, the Mi'takshara,
A'ijnanes'vara, who lived at Kalyana at this period, says, "There has
not been, there is not, and there will not be, on the surface of the
earth, a city like Kalyana ; and never was a monarch like the prosperous
\'ikramarka seen or heard of -

Soma, called Bhiilokamalla, ^'ikrama's son, succeeded in 11 26 to a
kingdom powerful and prosperous on every hand. To him all kings
applied the name Sarvajna (all-wise), and he appears to have been of
literary tastes, as he was the author of ManasoUasa, on the policy and
recreations of kings, in Sanskrit. Jagadekamalla, whose real name
does not appear, is described as having taken possession of the Pallava
territories. He also repulsed an invasion by the Hoysalas.

Under Nurmadi Taila or Trailokyamalla, the Chalukya dynasty,

^ The names of five other wives of his occur in inscriptions.
- Bhandarkar's Early Hist, of the Dekhan.

KALA CRURIS 3 3 r

which had reached its zenith with the last Vikramaditya, began rapidly
to decHne. A powerful noble named Bijjala, of the Kalachurya race,
had been appointed general of the Chalukya armies, and the influence
which he thereby obtained he turned against his sovereign and expelled
him from the throne. This event occurred in 1157. The Chalukya
king retired south and maintained himself in the Banavase country.
The religious feuds which raged at Kalyana in connection with the
establishment of the Lingayit creed kept the hands of the Kalachuryas
fully occupied. The Chalukya influence, therefore, was not extin-
guished, and Somes'vara, the last of his race, succeeded to the fallen
fortunes of his house in 1182. He seems to have had his residence
at Annigeri in Dharwad, and later at Kurgod, to the north of Bellary.
What ultimately became of him does not appear, but the Hoysalas of
Dorasamudra from the south, and the Yadavas of Devagiri from the
north, soon closed in upon the disputed dominions ; and the great and
powerful Chalukya name disappears from history as that of a dominant
power, though certain descendants of the line appear to have ruled in
some parts of the Konkan till the middle of the thirteenth century.

Kalachuris. — The Kalachuris, or Kalabhuris, were one of the
royal houses subjected by the Chalukyas on their first arrival in the
south. They were apparently connected with the Haihayas in descent.
The founder of the line was named Krishna, and is said to have been
born of a Brahmani girl by Siva. Professing to be a barber, " he slew
in Kalanjara an evil spirit of a king who was a cannibal, and taking
possession of his kingdom, reduced the Nine-lakh country of Dahala
(Chedi or Bandelkhand) to obedience and ruled in peace." A Chedi
or Kalachuri era, dating from 249 a.d.,^ is used in their inscriptions in
the north, and is evidence of the antiquity of the family. Among the
titles in their inscriptions in Mysore, of which there are many in the
north of the country, are the following : — Lord of the city of Kalanjara
(the well-known fortress in Bandelkhand), having the flag of a golden
bull, S'anivara-siddhi, (liridurgamalla.

Our history is concerned with the Kalachuris from the lime of Bijjala,
who supplanted the Chalukyas in 1151, to 1182, when the line became
extinct. The period, though short, is of considerable importance and
interest from having seen the birth of the Lingayit religion, which so
largely [)revails throughout the Kannada-spcaking countries.

The following is the list of these kings : —

]!ijjala, 15ijjana, Nissanka- Sankania, Nissankamalla 1 176 liSl

malla, Tribhiivanamalla 1156-1167 j A'havaiiialla, .\imuimalla iiSi 11S3

Kayamurari Sovi, Somes'vara, | Sintrhana 11S3

Hhuvanaikanialla I167-1176 |

• As ilelermined hy rrofessor Kielhoni (.VfV /;'/. /W. , 11, 299).

332 HISTORY

I'ijjala was a Jain. As has been related, he took advantage of his
position as general of the Chalukya armies to usurj) the throne, liut
for several years he did not assume the royal titles. It was not till the
sixth year of his usurpation, or 1162 that he marched to the south,
whither the Chalukya prince had retired, and then proclaimed himself
supreme. During his reign, Basava, the son of an A'radhya, came to
settle in Kaly;ina, where he became the son-in-law of the chief
minister. He had a very beautiful sister named J'admavati, whom
Eijjala having seen, became enamoured of and married. Basava thus
in course of time was api)ointed chief minister and general. The
Raja gave himself up to the charms of his beautiful bride and left all
power in the hands of Basava, who employed the opportunity thus
afforded him to strengthen his own influence, displacing the old
officers of state and putting in adherents of his own, while at the same
time he sedulously cultivated the favour of the prince. By these
means, and the promulgation of a new faith, as will be elsewhere
described, he increased rapidly in power. At length Bijjala's fears were
roused, and he made an attempt to seize Basava ; but the latter
escaped, and afterwards dispersed the party sent in pursuit. His
adherents flocked to him, and Bijjala, advancing in person to quell the
insurrection, was defeated and compelled to reinstate the minister in
all his dignities. Basava not only resumed his former power and
authority, but formed a plot against the life of the king, probably in
the hope of becoming supreme in the state as regent during the
minority of his nephew, the son of Bijjala and Padmavati. Accounts
differ as to the mode in which the king was killed. According to
the Jain account, in the Bijjalanka Kdvya, he was poisoned on the
banks of the Bhima when returning from a successful expedition
against the Silahara chief of Kolhapur : while the Basava Piirdiia
of the Lingayits states that he was assassinated by three of Basava's
followers.

Rayamurari Sovi, the son of Bijjala, resolved to revenge his father's
death, and Basava fled to Ulive or Vrishabhapura on the Malabar
coast. Thither the king pursued him and laid siege to the place. It
was reduced to extremity, and Basava in despair threw himself into a
well and was drowned. But according to the Lingayits he disappeared
into the linga at Sangames'vara, at the junction of the Malprabha
and Krishna. The other three kings were brothers of Sovi, and
during this period the last Chalukya regained a certain portion of his
kingdom, but the territories of both towards the south were absorbed
into the dominions of the Hoysalas, who had by this time risen to
power in Mysore.

CHOLAS 333

Cholas. — The Cholas^ were one of the most ancient dynasties known
in the south, being mentioned along with the Pandyas in the edicts of
As'oka. They were of the Surya-vams'a or Solar line. In the second
century their capital was at Uraiyiir (^^'arriore near Trichinopoly), but
from the tenth century it was at Tanjore. They appear first to have
come into contact with Mysore at about that time, and, strange to say,
there arc hardly any earlier annals of the line. The following list
contains nearly all that is known of the kings who reigned at the time of
their greatest power. They have a great number of titles, but as these
apply to more than one king it is difficult to assign each to the right
one.

l';u;iiUaka Rajciulra, Rajadhiraja 1016-1064

Rajaditya - 950 KuloUuiiga I (1064) 1071-III2

950- Vikrama III2-1127

Rajaraja 984-1016 Kulottunga II II27-

Parantaka, who was perhaps preceded by Vijayalaya and A'dityavarma,

had the titles Madiraikonda (capturer of Madura) and Koparakesari-

varma, and is said to have married the daughter of the king of Kerala.

He conquered the Bana, Vaidumba, Lanka and Pandya kings, the

latter being named Rajasimha. Rajaditya it appears was Parantaka's

son. As before related (p. 315) he was killed at Takkola by the Ganga

king Biltuga, the brother-in-law of the Rashtrakiita king Kannara, who

had marched into the Mysore country to repel this invasion by the

Cholas. Kannara thus victorious, assumes in some Tamil inscriptions

the titles Kachchiyun-Tanjaiyun-konda- (the capturer of Kanchi and

Tanjore), and seems to have established his power for a time over these

territories. The Chola succession for the period following Rajaditya's

death is not clear until Rajaraja, in whose time the Cholas successfully

invaded all the south, up to Kalinga on the east and the Tungabhadra

on the west. The Vengi territory was without a ruler, probably as the

consequence of their incursions, from 973 to 1003. In the end, the

Chola king's daughter Kundava was married to the Eastern Chalukya

king ^^imaladitya and the Vengi territory virtually annexed. Meanwhile,

the king's son Rajendra Chola captured Talakad in about 1004 and

overthrew the Canga dynasty, taking in consequence the name of

(iangaikonda-Chola. The whole of Mysore, south of the Kaveri from

Coorg, and east of a line from about Seringapatam to Nandidroog, was

overrun and annexed. The policy of the Cholas seems to have been

to impose their names upon all their conquests. The south of (langa-

vadi, or that part of the Mysore district, thus acquired the name of

' In Us Tamil forni the name is more properly S'oya ; in the Tehigu cuunti)-, Choda.
* See paper by Venkayya, C/n: Coll. Mag:, April 1S92.

334 IT/S7VA' V

MudikoiKjachola-maivjala ; ihc nfjrlh-wcst of the IJangalore district was
the Vikramachola-mandala ; the Kolar district was the Nikarilichola-
maivlala ; more to the north, and extending beyond Mysore, was the
Irattap-idikondachola-mandala. The subdivisions of these larger pro-
vinces were called valanad, that is, olanad, or included district. Thus
the southern portion of the first above named was the (langaikonda-
chola-valanad, while that of the third was the J^y'inkondachola-
valanad. Towns were treated in the same way, so that Talakad
became Rdjanijapura ; Manalur (Makirpatna near Channapatna)
became Nikarilicholapura, but Kolar seems to have retained its original
name of Kuvalala. The list of Rajaraja's conquests, that is, those made
in his reign, as given in his inscriptions, are Gangavadi, Rattavadi,
Malenad, Nolambavadi, Andhra, Kongu, Kalinga, and Pandya, as well
as Vengai, Tadikaipadi, Kollam (Quilon) and Ila (Ceylon). But of
course only portions of some of these were subdued. This king had
the title K6virajakesarivarma.

He was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola, who had been his
father's principal general, aided by a brother, perhaps Rajadhiraja,
unless this was a name assumed by himself in the latter part of his
reign. The conquests he claims to have made are : Yedatore, Vanavasi,
Kollipaki, and Manne (Nelamangala taluq). He also seized the crown
of the king and queen of Ila, together with a celebrated crown and
necklace which the Pandya king had given up to theni; and also took
possession of a crown and necklace which were heirlooms worn by the
Kerala kings, and another crown of pure gold which Paras'urama had
placed in one of the islands of the western coast. He boasts of having
put to flight the Western Chalukya king Jayasimha at Mus'angi,
as previously related. His daughter Anmianga was married to the
Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja,^ who was the son of his sister.
Later on, another daughter, Rajasundari, was married to the Kalinga
Ganga king Rajaraja,' but this was not accompanied with submission
to the Chola power, though their son was called Chola-Ganga.
Rajendra Chola had, among others, the title Koparakesarivarma and
Madhurantaka.

The next king was Kulottunga Chola. He was the son of the
Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja and Ammanga, and was called
Rajendra Chola' before coming to the throne. He ruled at Vengi at
first, and did not take possession of the Chola throne till 107 1. He
may possibly be the Rajiga whose name is prominent in connection
with the expeditions of the Western Chalukya prince ^'ikramaditya, as

1 Great confusion has arisen from the repetition of these same names in different
families.

HOYS A LAS 335

having attempted to estai)li.sh himself at Kanchi. If so, other claimants
to the Chola throne must have existed, who eventually were remo\ed
and the way opened for his peaceful coronation. He married
Madhurantaki, daughter of the ("hola king Rajendra. Most of his
inscriptions in Mysore begin thus : — "The goddess Fame shining upon
him, the goddess Victory desiring him, the goddess Earth abiding with
him, the goddess Fortune wedded to him ; the wearer of the diamond
crown, having destroyed the Villavas (the Cheras), swaying his sceptre,
having made a victorious coronation, seated on his throne together
with his queen consort," expressions betokening a firmly established
and peaceful sovereignty, which in this reign reached its zenith.

His eldest son Vikrama Chola next came to the throne, but the
younger sons had, in imitation of his own beginning, been appointed
viceroys of Vengi. The second son Rajaraja thus ruled there in
succession to Vijayaditya for only one year, 1077 to 1078, as he did
not like it and returned to the south. The third son \'\x\x Chola was
then appointed and remained there till at least iioo. It was during
the time of ^'ikrama Chola, or before i 1 1 7, that the Hoysalas recovered
Talakad, driving out the Cholas from the Mysore country. Kulottunga
Chola II, son of \'ikrama, came to the throne in 1127, but we are no
further concerned with this line, whose power, indeed, now greatly
declined and was never again what it had been.

Hoysalas. — This dynasty, like that of the Kadambas, was essentially
Mysorean, and ruled this country with great glory from the nth to the
14th century. Their native place was Soseviir, or Sasaka])ura, which
1 have identified with Angadi in the Western Chats, in the Manjarabad
country (now in the south of Mudgere taluq). The earlier kings were
fains. They claim to be Yadavas, and therefore of the Lunar line.
The founder of the family was Sala, and the exploit which raised him
to a throne is related in numerous inscriptions, doing one day to
worship Vasantika, his family goddes.s, whose temple was in the forest
near Sasakapura, his devotions were interrupted by a tiger, which
bounded out of the jungle glaring with rage. The yati or priest of the
temple, snatching up a saldki (a slender iron rod), gave it to the chief,
saying in the Karnataka language Iioy Sala (strike, Sala I), on which
the latter discharged the weapon with such force at the tiger as to kill
him on the spot. From this circumstance he adopted the name
Hoysala,^ formed from the words of the yati's exclamation, and the
dynasty so called, descended from him, had a tiger {.uinfula) as the
device on their flag. The following is the list of the kings, with their
dates, as determined by me from inscriptions :

' The older form is I'o\->ala. whicti is the s-inu' woid.

Narasimha II 1220 1235

Somes' vara 1 233-1 254

Narasimha III 1254-1291

Ballala III 1 291- 1342

Ballala I\', Vin'ipaksha

Ballala 1343

336 HISTORY

Sala, I'.iysala, Hoysala 1007 ! Ballala II I172-1219

Mnayadilya, Trihiiuvana-

nialla 1047 i lOO

Ballala I iioi 1104

liilti Dcva, Vishnuvardliana,

Vira (iaiiga, Trihhuvaiia-

malla 1 104 1 141

Narasimha I 1136-1171

Of the reign of Sala we have no very reh'able records, except that
Hoysala-mahadevi, probably a daughter of his, was in 1047 the queen
of the Chalukya king Trailokyamalla. We also know that the Hoysalas
were at first feudatories of the Chalukyas. Pmt a narrative in the
Mackenzie MSS. states that the tiger Sala killed had committed such
ravages in the neighbourhood that the people were afraid to assemble
for the annual festival of Vasantika. Being now freed from the scourge
by the valour of Sala, they gladly agreed, at the instance of the yati, to
pay a contribution to their deliverer of one fanam (4 as. 8 p.) a year
for each family. This seemed so trifling a reward for the important
service rendered, that the second year it was doubled, the third year
trebled, and so on for five years. Hoysala had faithfully placed what
he received each year at the yati's feet, and in the second year had been
ordered to use the money in raising a small force. This having been
increased by the end of the fifth year to a respectable number, Hoysala
was directed to rebuild the ruined city of Devarapuri (? Dvarapuri), and
was informed that he would discover a large treasure for the purpose
among the ruins, to be applied to fortifying it. This may have been the
I )varasamudra, Dorasamudra, or Dvaravati (now Halebid, Belur taluq),
which became the Hoysala capital.

^'inayaditya, Hoysala's son, succeeded to the throne, and having
conquered the Malapas, ruled over a territory bounded by Konkana,
A'lvakheda, Bayalnad, Talakad and Sdvimale.^ The title Malaparol-
ganda is assumed by all the Hoysalas and used alone on some of their
coins. These Malapas or hill-chiefs may have been the Danayaks of
tradition, who, after the overthrow of the Ganga power, sought to
establish a kingdom of their own in the south and west of ]\Iysore.
There were nine brothers, the Nava Danayak, and their stronghold was
Bettadakote on the Gopalswdmi hill. Bhima Danayak, one of four of
the brothers, the chief of whom was named Perumal Danayak, and who

' The original is Konkanadalvakhedadabayalmida^ &c. If, as is natural to suppose,
four boundaries are meant, two, those of the east and west, must be found in these
words. They may be- east, Konkana and the A'lva tableland, i.e., the tableland of
South Kanara ; west, the plain country, i.e., of Mysore. The hill Savimale, which
continued for a long time to be the Hoysala boundary on the north, has not been
identified. Possibly it had some connection with Savanur.

HO YSALAS 337

had quarrelled with the other five, gained possession of Nagarapura
(Nanjangud) and Ratnapuri (Hedatale) and set up a separate govern-
ment. After a time they returned to attack Bettadakote, which, after
a siege of three years, was taken by stratagem. Mancha Danayak, who
conducted the defence, seeing the citadel taken, leaped from the hill
on horseback and was killed.^ The four victorious Danayaks, placing
a junior member of the family in the government of 15ettadak6te, set
forth on expeditions of conquest, in the course of which it is said that
they penetrated as far as Goa on the north ; to Davasi-betta (the
southern limit of Coorg) on the south ; to the Bisale Cihat (in the north-
west of Coorg) on the west ; and to the pass of Satyamangala (north-east
of the Nilagiris) on the east. Vinayaditya is said to have taken
pleasure in constructing tanks and buildings, and in forming populous
towns. The temples he built were on so large a scale that the pits dug
for making bricks became tanks, mountains quarried for stone became
level with the ground, the paths by which the mortar carts went to and
fro became ravines. This calls to mind the splendidly carved temples
of Halebid, the principal one still remaining being the Hoysales'vara, a
memorial of the founder of the family. Vinayaditya's wife was
Keleyabbe or Keleyala Devi, and they had a son, Ereyanga.

The latter was appointed Yuvaraja in 1062, but seems to have held that
position for thirty-three years and never to have come to the throne, as
his father outlived him. Ereyanga is described as a right hand to the
Chalukya king, and must have been a principal commander in the
Chalukya army, for he is said to have burnt Dhara, the city of the
Malava king ; struck terror into Chola, who was eager for war ; laid
waste Chakragotta, and broken the king of Kalinga. Ereyanga's wife
was Echala Devi, by whom he had three sons, Ballala, Bitti Deva, and
Udayaditya. Ballala succeeded his grandfather Vinayaditya, but did
not live long, and Udayaditya died in 1123. Ereyanga's second son,
Bitti Deva, came to the throne in 1 104 on the death of his elder
brother, and proved to be one of the most powerful rulers of his time.

His capacity had been early discerned by the valiant Chalukya
prince Vikramaditya, who is said to have remarked to his attendants,
" Know the Hoysala alone to be invincible among all the princes."
He soon set out on an extensive range of conquests over all the
neighbouring countries. His general Ganga Raja, having captured
Talakad, the former capital of the Gangas, he drove out the Cholas
and took possession of the Ganga kingdom, assuming the title of Vira
Ganga. Southwards, he subdued Kongu (Salem), Koyatiir (Coimba-
tore), and Nilddri (the Nilagiris) ; westwards, the Male and Tulu

' The site of this leap is still pointed out.

338 HISTORY

countries (Malabar and South Kanara) ; eastwards, Kolalapura,
Nangali and Kanchipura ; northwards, Vengiri, Uchchangi, Virata,
Polalu, Bankapura, and Banavase. In short, he is described as burning
to emulate the Sauvi'ra kings, as having " trodden the earth to dust with
the squadrons of his Kamboja horse," and "overwhelmed his enemies
as if the great deep had been broken up, the coursers of the sun being
borne away in the deluge, and all the points of the compass filled with
the sounds of their neighing." The boundaries of his kingdom in
1 1 1 7 are thus stated, — the lower ghat of Nangali on the east ; Kongu,
Cheram, A'namale on the south ; the Barkaniir ghat road of Konkana
on the west ; and Savimale on the north. The provinces over which
he ruled, as named in numerous inscriptions, were Talakad, Kongu,
Nangali, Gangavadi, Nolambavadi, Masavadi (perhaps Morasavadi),
Huligere, Halasige, Banavase and Hanungal. This includes the whole
of Mysore, with most of Salem, Coimbatore, Bellary and Dharwar.
Coins of his have been found bearing on the reverse the legends
s ri-Talakddu-goiida and s' ri-Nonambavddi-gonda. He virtually made
himself independent, but in the north of their territory the Hoysalas
continued to acknowledge the Chalukya sovereignty in their inscrip-
tions until the time of Ballala II.

An important event in his career was his conversion from the Jain
faith to that of Vishnu by the apostle Ramanujacharya, who had taken
refuge in the Hoysala territory from the persecutions of the Chola
king, an uncompromising S'aiva. This step, accompanied by a
change of his name to Vishnuvardhana, by which he is principally
known, was probably taken in about in 7. Different reasons are
given for it. One is that he had a daughter who was possessed : the
Jains being unable to effect her cure, it was undertaken by Ramanuja,
who cast out the evil spirit, and further, in eighteen days of public
disputation, refuted the Jains and convicted them of heresy ; those
who after this would not submit being ground in oil-mills. Another
version is, that the king had a Vaishnava wife who, by instigation of
Ramanuja, hinted to him that the Jain priests were so haughty they
would not even accept food at his hands. He was indignant at the idea
and resolved to put it to the proof. Now the king had lost a finger,
a mutilation that would prevent the Jain priests from eating with him.
When, therefore, he found himself dishonoured by a refusal of his
invitation, he went over in resentment to the other side, and abandoned
the Jains to persecution. Ramanuja demolished nearly all tne Jain
temples at the capital, said to have been 720 in number, and used the
stones in embanking the large tank. The succeeding kings professed
both the Vaishnava and the S'aiva creeds ; but there was much religious

HO YSALAS 339

toleration and the Jains were often recipients of the royal favour.
They were probably too numerous and influential to be ignored.

The character of the times and the government is illustrated by the
following story : — Siva, it is said, appeared to a poor but holy Brahman,
named Vishnus'arma, who was performing penance in the Chandradrona
(Baba Budan) mountains, and presented him with a vessel containing
siddarasa (mercury), explaining to him how it would convert iron into gold.
The poor man, delighted, went to the capital with his treasure tied up in a
bundle, which he placed for safety in a blacksmith's shop while preparing
his meal. But the heat of the forge caused the substance to melt, and a
drop or two falling out on some iron converted it at once to gold. The
blacksmith and his family thereupon examined the bundle, and discovering
what it contained secretly removed it and set fire to the hut. When the
Brahman returned to claim his bundle he was informed that everything had
been burnt. But on his making the matter known to the king, the black-
smith was ordered to be produced. He was beaten and tortured, but
without effect, when the person in whose house the bundle had been con-
cealed brought and laid it before the king, who ordered it to be at once
restored to the owner. The Brahman, astonished at such generosity,
made a present of it to the king, who in return gave him a valuable estate.
Vishnuvardhana, deeming himself now provided with the means of obtain-
ing wealth to any extent, sent for all the farmers and informed them that
instead of the usual assessment he should require them in future to deliver
up to him annually their old ploughshares, and on this condition they
might cultivate to any extent. (The well, it is said, may be pointed out
into which the ploughshares used to be cast I)

I cannot help considering the story to have some reference to gold-
mining. Though traces of this industry exist in so many parts, as
previously described under Geology, and although we know that vast
sums of gold must have been obtained by the old governments, yet
no mention of it is met with in the thousands of inscriptions that I
have examined. It was, therefore, no doubt a royal monopoly and
kept secret.

Vishnuvardhana's first wife was S'antala Devi, a Jain, who died in
1 131, apparently without any surviving male issue. He subsequently
married Lakuma or Lakshmi Devi, who was the mother of Narasimha,
the son who succeeded him. His death occurred at Bankapura in
1 141. Narasimha, born apparently in 1136, seems to have been
considered as on the throne from the time of his birth. He inherited
a secure and peaceful kingdom, and except that some expedition may
have been made in the direction of Devagiri, not much is said of
events in his reign. On the other hand he is described as being like a
god, enjoying the pleasures of the gods. His queen was Echala Devi,
and they had a son Vira Ballala, who became one of the most

340 /f /STORY

distinguislicd of Uic Hoysala kings, and after whom they are sometimes
called the Ballala kings.

Vi'ra Ballala came to the throne in 1172. He gained important
victories to the north over the Kalachurya and Yadava forces, and
carried the Hoysala kingdom up to and V)eyond the Peddore or
Krishna, establishing his residence at Lokkigundi (Lakkundi in
Dharwar). On the defeat of the Kalachuryas he assumed their titles
of S'anivarasiddhi and (liridurgamalla. He also defeated Jaitugi, son of
the Yadava king, at Lokkigundi, and thus acquired the sovereignty of
Kuntala. He moreover gained a great victory at Soratur over Sevuna.
the general of Jaitugi, and pursuing him to the banks of the Krishna,
there slew him. He further reduced all the hill forts about the
Tungabhadra, and subduing the Pandya who was ruling at Uchchangi,
restored to him his power. Ballala's wife was Padmala Devi, by whom
he had a son, Narasimha, born in 1183, who succeeded him in 1220.
The events of his reign are the overthrow of Pandya, who had taken
refuge with the Kadava (that is, the Pallava) army, and the subjuga-
tion of the Kadava and Makara kings, with the setting on his throne
of Chola, who had been covered up under the clouds of dust raised by
his enemies : also the erection of a pillar of victory at Setu (Adam's
Bridge). Whatever the transactions referred to were, the Hoysalas
always after this call themselves upsetters of the Pandya kingdom and
setters up of the Chola kingdom. The conquests of the previous
reign beyond the Tungabhadra seem to have reverted to the Yadavas.
Narasimha's wife was Lokambika, and their son was Somes'vara. He
is said to have fought against Krishna-Kandhara, who was a Yadava
king, and whose general claims to have acquired the territory of the
turbulent Hoysalas and to have set up pillars of victory as far as the
Kaveri. But Somes' vara's power was absolute to the south, where he
took up his residence at Kannanur or Vikramapura in the Chola
country, a place that has been identified as being close to Srirangam
near Trichinopoly.^ The boundaries of his kingdom in 1237 are given
as Kanchi in the east, Yelavura (Belur) in the west, the Peddore in the
north, and Chalas'eravi (probably in the south of the Malabar district)
on the south. By the Peddore is generally understood the Krishna,
but as the name literally means only Big River, we must suppose it to
be used here ambiguously and to refer to the Tungabhadra. His chief
queen was Bijjala Devi, but he had a wife named Somala Devi when he
went to live at Vikramapura, and also a wife Devala-mahadevi, a
Chalukya princess.-

He had two sons, between whom his territories seem to have been
» By Dr. Hultzsch, Ep. fiid.. Ill, 9. * loc. at.

HOYS A LAS 341

divided, probably by mutual agreement subsequent to his death.
Narasimha III, his son by Bijjali, continued in the ancestral kingdom
with his capital at Dorasamudra, while Ramanna or Ramandtha (who
ruled from 1255 to 1294), his son by Devala-mahadevi, obtained
the Tamil country on the south, together with the Kolar and part of
the Bangalore districts in the east of the Mysore country. His
inscriptions are generally in Grantha and Tamil characters.^ The reigns
of the two kings seem to have been peaceful, but it was the lull before
the storm. In the reign of Ballala III, son of Narasimha, the Hoysala
power was brought to an end. The whole kingdom seems to have
been united again under him, as he is credited with certain
conquests, including Perundurai (which is in the Coimbatore district).
To account for the destruction which shortly befell the Hoysalas, the
following story is related : —

The king's sister, married to the .S'enji raja, was now a widow. She there-
fore came on a visit to her brother, accompanied by her two sons, Lakkana
and Virana, who were very handsome young men. One of the king's wives
conceived a guilty passion for them, but her advances being alike repelled
by each in turn, her love changed to hate, and she denounced them to the
king as having made overtures to her. The king, justly enraged, ordered
them to be at once impaled, and their bodies exposed like those of common
malefactors at one of the city gates. Hearing what had happened, their
unfortunate mother hastened to the palace lo demand an inquiry and
justice. But it was too late, the fatal order had been executed, and she
was not only put out of the palace, but the inhabitants were forbidden to
give her any assistance. In the agony of despair she wandered from street
to street, invoking the vengeance of the Almighty on her brother, and
predicting the speedy downfall of his empire. Arriving at the potters'
street, worn with fatigue and sorrow, she requested and received a draught
of water, in return for which act of kindness she declared that in the
destruction of the capital that street should be spared. It is the only one
that has survived.

In 1 3 10 the Hoysala dominions were invaded by a Muhammadan
army under Kafur, the general of Ald-udT)in, the second king of the
house of Khilji or second Pathan dynasty. A great battle was fought, in
which the Hoysala king was defeated and taken prisoner. Dorasamudra
was sacked, and the enemy returned to Delhi literally laden with gold.

From an inscription of 1316 it appears that Narasimha rebuilt the
capital, having taken up his residence meanwhile at Belur. But in
1326, another expedition, sent by Muhammad III, of the house of
Toghlak, completely demolished the city. The king then retired to

' Ranianalha's wife was Kamala-tlcvi, daughter of Ariya-I'illai, and she had a
sister, Chikka Somala-devi. Raniandtha's own sister was Ponnambala-mahadevi.
/:■/. /W., Ill, 9.

342 IlIsrORY

'I'ondanur ('roninir), north of Scringapatani, at the foot of the Yadava
liills. In 1329, however, we find him residing at Unnamale (Tiruvanna-
malai, Trinomalce, South Arcot district). There is a record of a son
of his, Vira Virilpaksha ]}allala, said to have been crowned in 1343,
l>ut as the Vijayanagar power arose in 1336, the Hoysalas now
disappear from history.

Yadavas. — This Hne of kings claim descent from Krishna, tiirough
Subdhu, a universal monarch, who divided his empire between his
four sons. The second son, Dridhaprahara, obtained the south, and
his descendants ruled over the Seuna or Sevuna country, extending
from Nasik to Devagiri. He was succeeded by twenty-two kings of
his line, down to Bhillama,' who was contemporary with the Hoysala
king Vira Ballala II., and from whose time alone the history of Mysore
is concerned with the dynasty. They style themselves lords of
Dvaravati (the capital of Krishna, not that of the Hoysalas), and their
standard bore the device of a golden garuda. They overcame the
Kalachuryas and became masters of all the western Dekhan, having
their capital at Devagiri, the ancient Tagara, now known as Daulatabad.
The following is the list of the kings : —

Bhillama 1187-1191 | Mahadeva 1260- 127 1

Ramachandra, Rama Deva 1 271- 1309
S'ankara 1309-13 12

Jaitugi, Jaitrapala 1191-1210

Singhana 12 10-1247

Kandhara, Kanhara, Krishna 1247- 1260

We have already referred to the severe struggles that took place
between the Hoysala and Yadava armies for the possession of the
Chalukya-Kalachurya dominions, and how Vira Ballala, by a series of
victories over the forces of Bhillama and Jaitugi, carried his conquests
up to and beyond the Krishna. Later the Yadavas gained the advan-
tage, and the Hoysalas were forced to retire to the south of the
Tungabhadra. The earliest of the Yadava inscriptions in Mysore are
of the time of Singhana, and he probably took advantage of Vira
Ballala's death to extend his power to the south. In this and the
succeeding reigns a portion of the north-west of Mysore was
permanently in their possession. Kandhara was Singhana's grandson.
He describes himself as thruster out of the Hoysala king and restorer
of the Telunga king (Ganapati of Orangal). His general also boasts
of subduing the Rattas, the Kadambas of the Konkana, the Pandyas
of Gutti, and the turbulent Hoysalas, and setting up pillars of victory
near the Kaveri. Mahadeva was Kandhara's younger brother, and
attempted to establish his own son on the throne after him. But
Ramachandra, son of Kandhara, secured it. In his time the seat of
the Yadava government in Mysore was at Betur, near I^avangere.

1 Cf. Bhandarkar's Early Hist, of the Dekhan.

VABA VAS 343

His general, Saluva Tikkama, professes to have captured Dorasamudra,
and obtained a tribute from it of all manner of wealth, especially
horses and elephants. That he made a victorious expedition to the
south is probable, but whether it extended so far is uncertain.

It was in the time of Ramachandra that the Muhammadans first
appeared in the Dekhan. Ala-ud-I)in, nephew of Jalal ud-Din Khilji,
the founder of the second Pathan dynasty, resolved in 1294 to attempt
the conquest of the Dekhan, and in order to throw the enemy off their
guard, pretended to leave his uncle in disgust. Suddenly changing
his course to the west, he appeared before Devagiri. The Raja was
quite unprepared, but hastily collected a small army, and after vainly
trying to oppose the enemy near the city, retired to the fort, carrying
in a great quantity of sacks belonging to passing traders, believed to
contain grain, but really filled with salt. Ala-ud-Din plundered the
town, levying heavy contributions on the merchants, and besieged
the fort. He at the same time gave out that a larger army was follow-
ing, and thus induced Rama Deva to offer 50 maunds of gold to buy
him off. Meanwhile, the Raja's son, S'ankara Deva, arrived with a
large force, and, contrary to his father's advice, attacked the Muham-
madans. Though successful at first, he was defeated. Ala-ud-Din now
raised his demands, but the contest might have been prolonged had not
the troops in the fort discovered to their surprise that their provision
was salt and not grain. At last it was agreed that the enemy should
retire on receipt of 600 maunds of pearls, 2 of jewels, 1,000 of silver,
4,000 pieces of silk, etc., besides an annual tribute to be sent to Delhi.

How the aged J^^kil-ud-Din came forth to welcome his victorious
nephew, and how the latter, with the basest treachery, assassinated him
while making professions of attachment, are matters of history. Aki-ud-
Din, seated on the throne, again sent an expedition in 1306 against
Devagiri, which had withheld the promised tribute. It was com-
manded by Malik Kafur, surnamed Hazar Dinari,' a eunuch. He had
been the slave of a merchant, and taken prisoner in the conquest of
(iujarat ; but having attracted the king's notice, was speedily raised to
the highest offices in the state.

Kafur overran the whole country, and Rama Deva, finding resistance
hopeless, submitted, and offered to go to Delhi. He was there received
with distinction and restored to his kingdom with additional honours,
which kept him faithful during the rest of his life. In this expedition
occurred an incident deserving to be mentioned. On the conquest of
(iujarat, that raja's wife, Kaula Devi, had been taken captive, and being
admitted to Ala-ud- Din's harem, by her beauty and talent gained his

' A thousand i/iimis, tluit being the price for which he had l)een bought as a slave.

344 msroK y

favour. She had charged the commander during this expedition to
recover her daughter by the Gujarat raja, who had been long sought in
marriage by S'ankara, the son of Rama Deva, but refused, as she was a
Raj{)ut. Now, however, the Gujarat raja in his exile had consented,
and sent her under an escort to I )evagiri. No clue could be gained
as to where she was, when a party from the camp going to see the
caves of EUora, by chance fell in with the escort. They were forced to
fight in self-defence, and captured the princess. But it was not till
afterwards they knew the value of the prize. The girl was carried off
to Delhi, where the king's son, Khizr Khan, being brought up with
her, became enamoured of her and ultimately married her. Their
loves are the subject of a celebrated Persian poem by Amir Khusru.

In 1309, the army under Malik Kafur passed through Devagiri on
its way to the conquest of Orangal, and was hospitably entertained by
Rama Deva. But the following year S'ankara Deva came to the throne,
and the army being on its way to the conquest of Dorasamudra he was
less friendly. Soon after he withheld the tribute, on which Kafur a
fourth time marched into the Dekhan, in 13 12, seized S'ankara Deva,
put him to death, and took up his own residence in Devagiri.

In 13 1 6 Haripala, the son-in-law of Rama Deva, in common with
many of the conquered princes, raised the standard of revolt in the
Dekhan and recovered their possessions, expelling the Muhammadan
governors. The paroxysms of rage into which Ala-ud-Din was thrown
by this intelligence brought on his death, hastened, it is said, by poison
administered by Kafur. The latter attempted to place himself next on
the throne, but he was assassinated, and Mubarak succeeded. In 1318
he marched into the Dekhan, took Haripala prisoner, and ordered him
to be flayed alive and his head put up over the gate of his own capital.
Thus ended the line of the Yadavas of Devagiri, and in 1338 Muham-
mad Toghlak removed the capital of his empire from Delhi to Devagiri,
giving it the name of Daulatabad.

Yijayanagar. — The last great Hindu sovereignty of the south was
founded in 1336, and brings us back, after a lapse of more than two
thousand five hundred years, to the site of Kishkindha, whose annals
engaged our attention near the beginning of this historical survey.
Though the details vary, all accounts attribute the origin of the Vijaya-
nagar empire to two persons named Hakka and Bukka, assisted by the
celebrated scholar Madhava, surnamed ^'idyaranya, or forest of learn-
ing.^ Hakka and Bukka, of whom the former assumed the name of

' The capital was apparently called Vidydnagara (city of learning) at first, in
honour of the sage Vidyaranya, who was chiefly instrumental in its foundation ; but
by a natural transition it passed ere lonq; into Vijayanat^ara (city of victory), the

VIJAYANAGAR 345

Harihara, were the sons of Sangama, described as of the Yadava line
and the Lunar race. The earhest of the inscriptions of the Vijayanagar
kings are found north and west of Mysore, and they were probal)ly
Mysorean by origin and feudatories of the Hoysalas. Dorasamudra and
Orangal, the respective capitals of Karnataka and Telingana, had fallen
a prey at about the same time to the Muhammadans. But amid the
general revolts occasioned by the rash measures of Muhammad
Toghlak, the two brothers Harihara and Bukka took advantage of a
period of public commotion to lay the foundation of a new State : to
which they were moved by the sage Madhava or ^'idyaranya, who,
besides experience and talent, may have brought pecuniary aid to the
undertaking. He belonged to the school of S'ankardchdrya, and was
the jagat guru of Sringeri (Kadur district), the members of which
establishment, alarmed, as \\'ilson remarks, by the increasing numbers
of the Jangamas and Jains, and the approach of the Muhammadans,
may have contributed their wealth and influence to the aggrandisement
of the sons of Sangama.^

The site selected for the new capital was a remarkable one, on the
banks of the Pampa or Tungabhadra, where the ancient Kishkindha
had stood. In the words of an inscription, " its rampart was
Hemakuta, its moat the auspicious Tungabhadra, its guardian the
world-protector Virupaksha, its ruler the great king of kings Harihara."'-'
The Vijayanagar sovereigns adopted the vard/ia or boar as the emblem

Bijanagar of IMuhammadan historians, and the Bisnagar of the l-iench. It is also
commonly known as Anegundi, properly the name of a village on the other side i>l
the river, said to have been the capital of the Yavanas, regarding whom so little is
known. Anegundi, a Kannada name meaning "elephant pit," was translatetl into
Sanskrit as llastinapura and Ilaslinavati, which is the designation in the Maha

harata of the capital of the I'andus, near Delhi.

' Madhava succeeded to the pontifical throne of Sringeri in 1331, at the age of 36,
and lived till 1386. I lis brother Sayana was the most celebrated commentator on
the \'edas.

- The whole of the extensive site occupied by the ruins of Bijanagar on the soulii
bank of the Tungabhadra, and of its suliurb Anegundi on the northern bank, is
occupied by great bare piles and bosses of granite and granitoidal gneiss, sejiaraled
by rocky defdes and rugged valleys, encumbered by precijiitated masses of rock.
Some of the larger flat-bottomed valleys are irrigated by aqueducts from the river, and
apjjear like so many verdant oases in this Arabia I'etnva of Southern India. Indeed
some parts of the wilderness of Sinai reminded me, l)Ut on a far grander scale, of this
huddled asseml)lage of bare granite rocks on the banks of the Tungabhadra. The
formation is the same ; the scantiness of vegetation, the arid aspect of the bare rocks,
and the green spots marking the presence of s])rings few and far between in the
depths of the valleys, are features common to both localities.

The peaks, tors and logging stones of Bijanagar and Anegundi indent the horizon
in picturesque confusion, and are scarcely to be distinguished from the more arliticial
ruins of the ancient Hindu metropolis of the Deccan, which are usually constructed with

346

JflSTORY

on the royal signet, and their family god was Virupaksha, the name
under which Siva was worshiped in a celebrated temple erected at the
capital. Their grants are signed S'r'i Viri'tpdksha. Among their titles
were, ari-raya-vibhdda^ bhdshe^e tappuva rdyara ganda, pi'trvapas' chiiiia-
dixkshima-samudrddhipati^ Hindu-rdya-Suratrdna.

The following is the list of the Vijayanagar kings, based upon the
evidence of inscriptions, but some dates may require slight readjust-
ment when our information is complete : — -

Haiihara I, Hakka, Haii-

yappa 1336-135"

Bukka Raya I, TUikka Raya

Odeyar I350-I379

Ilarihara II, Hariyapjia

Odeyar 1379-1405

Deva Raya I, Bukka II,

Pratapa Deva Raya 1406-1415

\'ijaya Raya I 1416-1417

Deva Raya II, Praudha Deva

Raya, Pratapa Deva Raya 1417-1446
Mallikarjuna, Vijaya Raya

II, Immadi Deva Raya,

Iinniadi Praudha Deva

Raya

\'irupaksha

Narasa, Narasimha I,

Narasimha II, Immadi \ar-

asinga
Krishna Raya
iVchyula Raya
Sadas'iva Raya (Rama Raja

till 1565, Tirumala Raja

from 1566)
S'ri Ranga Raya I
^'enkatapati Raya I
Rama Deva
Venkatapati Raya II
S'ri Ranga Raya II

I 468- I 479
I 479- I 487

1 488- 1 508
1 508-1 529
1 530- 1 542

1542-1574
1574-1585
1585-1614
1615-1625
1626-1639
I 639- I 664

I 446- I 467

Sangama, by his wife Kamambika,' had five sons, Harihara, Kanipa,
Bukka, Marappa, and Muddapa. Harihara was the first ruler of the
Vijayanagar State, and was succeeded by Bukka. Kampa acquired
territory in the Nellore and Kadapa districts, and was succeeded by his
son Sangama, whose minister was Sayana, the brother of Madhava.
Marappa conquered the Kadamba territories, and ruled at Chandra-
gutti (Shimoga district). What became of Muddapa does not appear.
Harihara is said to have defeated the Sultan, a reference to his driving
the Muhammadans out of Orangal in conjunction with a confederacy of
Hindu chiefs who collected an immense force for the purpose.
Bukka Raya in 1355 was ruling from Hosapattana in the Hoysana
country (perhaps Hosur, Goribidnur taluq), said to be the capital of
Nijagali Kataka Raya. In 1368 he reconciled some serious disputes
between the Jainas and the Vaishnavas, " taking the hand of the
Jainas and placing it in the hand of the Vaishnavas."- The Jains are

blocks quarried from their sides, and vie in grotesqueness of outline and massiveness
of character with the alternate airiness and solidity exhibited by nature in the nicely
poised logging stones and columnar piles, and in the walls of prodigious cuboidal
blocks of granite, which often crest and top her massive domes and ridges in natural
Cyclopean masonry. — Newbold,y. A. S. B., xiv.

* One inscription says he had five sons by S'arada. Tliis is the name under whic
Sarasvati is worshipped as the tutelary goddess of Sringeri.

■■^ Ins. at Sr. Be/., No. 136.

VI/AYANAGAR 347

described as occupying the country lying between Anegundi, Hosa-
pattana, Penagonda and Kalleha (Kalya, Magadi taluq), and possibly
these were the boundaries at that time of his kingdom. He married
(iaurambika,and had a son Harihara, who succeeded him on the throne ;
but he also had a son, Chikka Kampana, governing in the south of
Mysore, and one Mallinatha, governing in the east of Mysore.
Harihara II. is principally praised for his liberality in gifts at various
sacred places, localities which show that his territories extended from
the Krishna at Karnul to Kumbhakona, or even further south. His
queen was Mela Devi, of the family of Rama Dcva, probably the
Yadava king. The son who succeeded him was Deva Raya, or
Pratapa Deva Raya, who at first apparently called himself Bukka
Raya. There were also two sons, Chikka Raya Odeyar, perhaps the
same prince before he came to the throne, governing at A'raga
(Tirthahalli taluq), the chief city of the Male-rajya or hill kingdom ;
and Virupaksha, who professes to have conquered all the eastern
countries down to and including Ceylon. Deva Raya's son Vijaya
Raya, by Demambika, was governing at Muluvagil (Mulbagal) and
seems to have come next to the throne, but there is some confusion
in the history here. Deva Raya also had a son Mallanna Odeyar, by
Mallayavve, who was governing in the west, at Honavar.

During the two last reigns the greater part of Karnata and Telin-
gana, with the coast of Kanara, had come under the \'ijayanagar sway.
To the north, the simultaneous origin of the Bahmani kingdom pre-
vented an extension of territory in that direction. The rivalry between
the Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms led to a continual succession
of wars and alliances between the two, many interesting details of
which are recorded by Ferishta, but perhaps with too favourable a
colouring, as might be expected, to the Muhammadan side of the
picture.' Among the earliest incidents that passed between them the
following is characteristic : —

' Vox convenience of reference the list of Bahmani Sultans is here given : — •

Hiisan Oangii, Ala-ucl-Din

- 1347

P'iroz Shah

•• 1397

Muhammad Shah...

... 1358

Ahmad Shah, Khan

Khanan

1422

-Mujahicl Shah

••• 1375

Ala-ud-Din Shah ...

• 1435

Daud Shah

... 1378 i

Ilumayun Shah ...

• 1457

Mahmud Shah

... 1378

Nizam Shah

1461

(;hiyas-ud-Din Shah

••• 1397

Muhammad Shah...

• 1463

Shams-ud-Din .Shah

••• 1397

1 Mahmud Shah

.. 1482

Hasan, the founder of the line, was a poor Afghan, a native of Delhi, who farmed
a small piece of land belonging to a Hrahman named (langu, who was in favour at
court. One day, while ploughing, Hasan accidentally found some hidden treasure
against which the plough-share had struck, and at once informed his landlord of it.
The latter was so struck by his tenant's honesty that he cast his horoscope, and

348 JJIS'J'OR Y

" One evening wlien the spring of the garden of mirth had infused the
cheek of Muhammad Shah with the rosy tinge of delight, a band of
musicians sang two verses of Amir Khusru in praise of kings, festivity
and music. The Sultan was delighted beyond measure, and commanded
to give the performers a draft for a gratuity on the treasury of the Roy
of Beejanuggur " (a deliberate insult). The draft was signed and despatched.
But " the Roy, haughty and proud of his independence, placed the presenter
of the draft on an ass, and parading him through all the quarters of
Beejanuggur, sent him back with every mark of contempt and derision."
War naturally followed. The Raja captured the frontier fortress of Mudkal
and put all the inhabitants to the sword, only one escaping to carry the
tale. The Sultan swore that he would not rest till he had slain a hundred
thousand of the infidels. A series of engagements took place, in which the
Raja was worsted, and an indiscriminate massacre of men, women and
children continued until the payment of the wretched draft was enforced.
'I'he cold-blooded slaughter of hosts of helpless human beings for so paltry
a provocation, led the ambassadors of the Raja to propose that in any future
wars the lives of unarmed inhabitants and prisoners should always be spared.
This merciful provision was agreed to and the rule long after observed.

Coming down later, to the time of Deva Raja and Firoz Shah, shortly
after the latter ascended the throne an invasion of his territories was made
by the Vijayanagar king on the south and by other enemies on the north .
Firoz, on marching to encounter Deva Raja, found the Krishna so swollen
with the rains that he could not cross in the face of the opposing army. At
this juncture a kdzi offered to cross with a few friends and by some plot to
assassinate either Deva Raja or his son, as he might find chance. He went,
and joining himself to a party of dancing girls in the camp, obtained
admission in the disguise of a woman to an entertainment given by the
Raja's son. While performing a dance with a dagger in each hand, he seized
an opportunity to plunge them into the prince's breast. His accomplices
extinguished the lights, and in the confusion and darkness all made their
escape. The Sultan, taking advantage of the alarm created in the Hindu
camp, crossed with a select body of troops, and before sunrise was in a
position to make an assault. The Hindus were panic stricken, and the
Raja, filled with grief, made no resistance, but securing the body of his son,
fled with all his forces. A treaty was at last concluded, fixing the common
boundary of the two powers, and De\a Raja paid a sum equal to forty
lakhs of rupees for the ransom of the prisoners.

foretold that he one day would be a king, requesting that when that should come to
pass he might be made the minister. Hasan, in honour of his patron, took the name
Gangu, and by the influence of the Brahman was advanced in various ways and
appointed to a command with a jagir. He became a marked man, and when the
measures of Muhammad Toghlak led to a rebellion, his talents placed him at the
head of the revolt. He finally succeeded in establishing himself as ruler of the
Dekhan, and fixed his capital at Kulbarga. He and his descendants styled themselves
kings of the Bahmani (that is, Brahmani) dynasty, in gratitude to the Brahman who
had first announced the fortune of their founder.

n/AVAXAGAR 349

In 1406 another war took place, brought about as follows : — •" There
resided in the town of Mudkal a farmer, who was blessed with a daughter of
such exquisite beauty that the Creator seemed to have united all his powers
in making her perfect." Hearing of her beauty and accomplishments, Deva
Raja resolved to marry her, and sent valuable presents to her and her
parents by a Brahman. The parents were overjoyed at such unexpected
good fortune, and displaying the rich gifts before the girl, showered on her
their congratulations. But the beautiful virgin, to their great astonishment,
refused to receive the gifts, and observed " that whoever entered the haram
of Beejanuggur, was afterwards not permitted to see her nearest relations
and friends ; and though they might be happy to sell her for worldly riches,
yet she was too fond of her parents to submit to eternal absence from them
even for all the splendour of the palace of Beejanuggur. This declaration
was accompanied with affectionate tears which melted her parents ; who,
rather than use force, dismissed the Brahman with all his gifts, and he
returned, chagrined and disappointed, to Beejanuggur."

The royal lover now became mad for the possession of the girl, and
resolved to obtain her by force. On the plea of making a tour, he went
towards the Tungabhadra, which suddenly crossing with a select body of
troops, he hastened by forced marches to Mudkal. In the excess of his
passion he had omitted to let the parents of the girl know the object of the
expedition. They, therefore, in common with all the country, fled on the
approach of the army to the most distant parts for shelter. Foiled in their
object, the troops returned in disgust, and committed depredations in the
country through which they passed. Firoz Shah resolved to be revenged
for this inroad on his territories. Unable to effect anything against the
Raja's capital, he laid waste all the adjacent country, and the hostile camps
remained in each other's presence for several months. At last a treaty was
concluded, by which the Raja was to give his daughter in marriage to the
Sultan, with the fort of Bankapur and a large sum of money.

" Preparations for celebrating the nuptials were made by both parties.
For forty days communication was open between the city and the Sultan's
camp. Both sides of the road were lined with shops and booths, in which
the jugglers, drolls, dancers and mimics of Karn^taka displayed their feats
and skill to amuse passengers." The bridegroom sent valuable presents to
Vijayanagar. from which, after the expiration of seven days, the bride was
brought forth with a rich portion and offerings from the Raja, to the Sultan's
camp. What followed is thus described by Ferishta : —

" Dewul Roy having expressed a strong desire to see the Sultan, Firoz
Shah, with great gallantry, agreed to visit him with his bride, as his father-
in-law. A day being fixed, he with the bride proceeded to Beejanuggur.
On the way he was met by Dewul Roy in great pomp. From the gate of
the city to the palace, being a distance of nearly six miles, the road was
spread with cloth of gold, velvet, satin, and other rich stuffs. The two
princes rode on horseback together, between ranks of beautiful boys and
girls, who waved plates of gold and silver flowers over their heads as they
advanced, and then threw them to be gathered by the populace. After this

35© IflSTOR Y

the inhabitants of the city made offerings, both men and women, according
to their rank. After passing through a square directly in the centre of the
city, the relations of Dewul Roy, who had lined the streets in crowds, made
their obeisance and offerings, and joined the cavalcade on foot, marching
before the princes. Upon their arrival at the palace gate the .Sultan and
Roy dismounted from their horses and ascended a splendid palanquin, set
with valuable jewels, in which they were carried together to the apartments
prepared for the reception of the bride and bridegroom ; when Dewul Roy
took his leave, and retired to his own palace. The Sultan, after being
treated with royal magnificence for three days, took his leave of the Roy,
who pressed upon hini richer presents than before given, and attended him
four miles on his way, when he returned to the city. Sultan Firoz Shah
was enraged at his not going with him to his camp, and said to Meer
Fuzzul OoUah that he would one day have revenge for the affront offered
him by such neglect. This declaration being told to Dewul Roy, he made
some insolent remarks, so that, notwithstanding the connection of family,
their hatred was not calmed." The girl who had been the innocent cause
of the war was sent for and married to the Sultan's son.

In T417 there was war again, in which Deva Raja inflicted a severe
defeat upon the Sultan. A great slaughter of the Muhammadans
followed, and the dominions of Bijapur were laid waste with all the
treasured resentment of many years. These reverses killed Firoz Shah.
Ahmed Shah, his successor, resolved to take revenge on the Hindus,
who had now been driven back. He desolated the possessions of
Vijayanagar, slaughtering women and children without mercy, ^^'hen-
ever the number of slain came to twenty thousand, he halted for three
days and made a feast. The Hindus, in desperation, formed a
plot against him, from which he escaped by a hairs-breadth. Terms
were then agreed to, and he retired to his own country, the capital of
which he shortly removed from Kulbarga to Bidar, a hundred miles to
the north.

The further progress of events in that country need be noticed only
so far as to state that the Bahmani empire was dismembered at the
end of the fifteenth century, and broken up into the five states of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, Berar, and Bidar. The first of these,
with which our history will be principally concerned, was founded in
1489.

To return to Vijayanagar, the following extracts from the interesting
account by Abdur Razzak,^ who visited that capital as ambassador
from Persia in 1441, during the reign of Ueva Raya, give a lofty idea
of the wealth and magnificence of the empire : —

From our former relation and well-adjusted narrative, well-informed
1 Matldii-s Sddaiii, Sir H. YAXwK^, Hist, hid., \o\. W .

VIJA YANA GAR 3 5 1

readers will have ascertained that the writer Abdu-r-razzak had arrived at
the city of Bijanagar. There he saw a city exceedingly large and populous,
and a king of great power and dominion, whose kingdom extended from the
borders of Sarandip to those of Kulbarga, and from Bengal to Malibar, a
space of more than 1,000 parauings. The country is for the most part well
cultivated and fertile, and about three hundred good seaports belong to it.
There are more than i.ooo elephants, lofty as the hills and gigantic as
demons. The army consists of eleven lacs of men. In the whole of
Hindustan there is no Rdi more absolute than himself, under which
denomination the kings of that country are known. The Brahmans are
held by him in higher estimation than all other men.

The city of Bijanagar is such that eye has not seen nor ear heard of anv
place resembling it upon the whole earth, It is so built that it has seven
fortified walls, one within the other. Beyond the circuit of the outer wall
there is an esplanade, extending for about fifty yards, in which stones are
fixed near one another to the height of a man ; one-half buried firmly in
the earth, and the other half rises above it, so that neither foot nor horse,
however bold, can advance with facility near the outer wall. The fortress
is in the form of a circle, situated on the top of a hill, and is made of stone
and mortar, with strong gates, where guards are always posted, who are
very diligent in the collection of taxes. . . .

The seventh fortress is placed in the centre of the others ; in it is situated
the palace of the king. From the northern gate of the outer fortress to the
southern is a distance of two statute parasa?igs, and the same with respect
to the distance between the eastern and western gates. Between the first,
second and third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses.
From the third to the seventh fortress shops and bazars are closely
crowded together. By the palace of the king there are four bazars,
situated opposite to one another. That which lies to the north is the
imperial palace, or abode of the Rai. At the head of each bazar there is
a lofty arcade and magnificent gallery, but the palace of the king is loftier
than all of them. The bazars are very broad and long, so that the sellers
of flowers, notwithstanding that they place high stands before their shops,
are yet able to sell flowers from both sides. Sweet-scented flowers are
always procurable fresh in that city, and they are considered as even
necessary sustenance, seeing that without them they could not exist. The
tradesmen of each separate guild or craft have their shops close to one
another. The jewellers sell their rubies and pearls and diamonds and
emeralds openly in the bazar. . . .

This country is so well populated that it is impossible in a reasonable
space to convey an idea of it. In the king's treasury there are chambers
with excavations in them filled with molten gold, forming one mass. All
the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, even down to the
artificers of the bazar, wear jewels and gilt ornaments in their ears and
around their necks, arms, wrists and fingers.

Deva Raya II is specially distinguished as ( "laja-bentikdra, the

352

HIS TOR V

elephant hunter, and an interesting account is given by Abdur Razzak
of the mode of capture and the treatment of elephants at Vijayanagar
at that time. One inscription describes the king as having received
the tlironc from his elder sister. This might be the princess married
into the Bahmani family.

Nothing of importance is known of the reigns of Mallikarjuna and
Virupaksha. The former had as his minister Timmanna-dannayaka,
lord of Nagamangala, who had held the same ofifice under his father.
Mallikarjuna is described as being at Penugonda, along with him^
engaged in the affairs of Narasinga's kingdom. This may therefore
have been a powerful chief whose possessions had escheated to the
crown.

With Narasa or Narsingha the line was changed. According to
some accounts, Virupaksha, having no issue, raised one of his slaves
named Sinhama to the throne, who took the title of Fraud ha Deva
and ruled four years. His son, Vira Narasimha, succeeded and ruled
but two years, when, he also being childless, gave his signet to his
falconer Narasa. According to other accounts, Narasa was a powerful
chief of Telingana, who possessed himself of the greater part of the
Vijayanagar territory. But an inscription at Shimoga brings him from
Tulava (South Kanara), and states that he was of the Yadu line, of the
family of Krishna Rava, and the son of Is'vara and Bukkama. He is
said to have crossed over the Kaveri when in flood, taken an unnamed
enemy prisoner alive, conquered his country, and founded Seringa-
patam as a capital. His conquests extended over the whole of the
south. By Tippakshi or Tippaji and Nagala Devi, he had two sons,
Vira Narasimha and Krishna Raya, who in turn succeeded him.

This does not agree with the traditional account, according to which
Krishna Raya was an illegitimate son, by Nagamba, a friend or
attendant of the queen. He was so superior as a boy to Vira Nara-
simha that Tippamba, the mother of the latter, became jealous, and
prevailed on the king to have him put to death. But the prime
minister concealed the prince, reporting that the orders had been
obeyed. In his last illness the king was much afflicted for the death
of his son, on which the minister produced the prince, and Krishna
Deva was declared the heir and successor to the throne. Vira Nara-
simha, it is added, died of vexation on his brother being acknowledged
Raja. But there is evidence that Narasimha ruled for some years, and
both he and his successor were distinguished for the munificence of
their gifts to sacred places. Narasimha's titles were medini-nusara
ganda and kathdri-sdluva.

Krishna Raya was one of the most powerful and distinguished

VIJAYANAGAR ■ 353

monarchs of the Vijayanagar line. About 1520 the Muhammadans
sustained a severe defeat from his armies, in consequence of which
a good understanding prevailed between the courts of Vijayanagar and
Bijapur for a considerable period. He not only restored the kingdom
to its former limits, but extended them in every direction. He kept
possession of all the country up to the Krishna; eastwards he captured
Orangal and ascended to Cuttack, where he married the daughter of
the Raja as the bond of peace; while westwards his conquests extended
up to Salsette. He was also a great patron of Sanskrit and Telugu
literature. Eight distinguished poets, called the askta-dig-gaja, were
maintained at his court, the principal of whom was Appaya Dikshita.

The Hindu traditions represent Krishna Raya as conducting his
affairs, both in peace and war, in person. But they acknowledge that
he owed much to the Brahman minister of his father, who had saved
his life, and who continued to be his minister until his death, three
years preceding that of the Raja. His name was Timma Raja, the
Hem raj of the Muhammadan historians. At no period probably in the
history of the south did any of its political divisions equal in extent
and power that of Vijayanagar in the reign of Krishna Raya. From
this time for a long period we shall meet with continual anarchy and
successive revolutions.

Edoardo Barbessa, who travelled in India in 15 16, describes the
city of Vijayanagar as " of great extent, highly populous, and the seat
of an active commerce in country diamonds, rubies from Pegu, silks of
China and Alexandria, and cinnabar, camphor, musk, pepper and
sandal from Malabar." The palaces of the king and his ministers,
and the temples were " stately buildings of stone," but the dwellings of
the common people were " hovels of straw and mud."

According to the received account, Krishna Raya had no legitimate
male issue, and Achyuta Raya, his half-brother by Obambika, was thus
the nearest heir. The latter being absent at the time, Krishna Raya,
on his death-bed, placed an infant named Sadasiva on the throne,
under the guardianship of his son-in-law Rama Raja, who was the
son, as is supposed, of the deceased minister Timma Raja. But
Achyuta soon returned and assumed the government, and on his death
Sadasiva succeeded, under the control of Rama Raja as before
arranged. Sadasiva was apparently the son of Ranga, a deceased elder
brother of Achyuta by the same mother : on the other hand, he is
expressly stated' to be the .son of Achyuta Raya.

As long as Rama Raja was alive, Sadasiva was only the nominal
sovereign, and little more than a tool in the hands of the minister. On

» ]\lys. Ins., S. S. 192.

.\ A

354 /f /STORY

one occasion it is stated that, aided by his maternal uncle and some of
the nobles, he conspired against the minister, who was forced to resign,
but allowed to live in the capital. Tirumala Raja, the uncle, then
assumed the whole power, having, it is said, murdered the prince. If
this were the case, several puppet rajas may have been successively set
up under the name of Sadasiva Raya, for grants in that name continue
down to 1574. 'I'irumala Raja conducted himself so tyrannically that
the chiefs rose against him, but he called in the assistance of the
Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah and put them down. No sooner, however,
had the Muhammadans retired than the nobles, with Rama Raja at
their head, again rebelled, and shut up the usurper in his palace ; where,
finding his fortunes desperate, he destroyed himself. Rama Raja now
seized the supreme power, and being an able and powerful ruler, not
only established his influence over all the kingdoms of the south, but
made encroachments on the Muhammadan states which they were power-
less to prevent, and on one occasion even assisted Bijapur against
Ahmednagar. His arrogance, however, was the prelude to his ruin.

The four Muhammadan principalities of the Dekhan resolved to
combine in an attack upon Vijayanagar, and in 1564 the allied armies
of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar and Bidar assembled at Bijapur,
prepared to march south. Rama Raja thought lightly of the impend-
ing danger, but took measures for the defence of his territory by sending
his brother, Tirumala Raja, with a strong force to occupy the fords of
the Krishna ; another division followed under his brother Venkatadri,
while he himself brought up the rear with the main body of the army.
The enemy, on arriving at the river, found the defending force
entrenched on the right bank, behind earthworks mounted with cannon,
and in such a position as to effectually bar the passage of the river.
As this was the only point where their troops could safely cross, the
allies resolved by a feint to draw their opponents out of the position.
They accordingly marched along the river as if to attempt a passage at
a different point, and were followed on the other side by the Hindu
army. But on the third night they suddenly decamped, and gaining
the now undefended ford, succeeded in carrying over their whole army,
and marched against Rama Raja. The latter, though surprised at
their activity, was not alarmed, but summoned his brothers to join him.

The 25th of January, 1565, saw the two armies confronting each
other in battle array on the since memorable field of Talikota, about
ten miles south of the Krishna, near Raichor. The Musalman right
was commanded by Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, the left by Ali Barid
Shah of Bidar and Ibrahim Kutb Shah of Golkonda, the centre by
Husen Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar. Rama Raja entrusted his left to

VIJA VAN A GAR 355

his brother Tirumala Raja, his right to his other brother Venkatadri,
and himself commanded in his centre. The alUes guarded their front
wrth a hne of cannon fastened together with strong chains and ropes.
The Hindu front was protected by a large number of war elephants, as
well as cannon. The battle opened with rapid discharges of artillery
and rockets from the Hindu side. A general action ensued, accom-
panied with great slaughter. The Hindu right and left drove back
both wings of the Musalman allies, but their centre was unbroken.
At this moment a war elephant, becoming ungovernable, rushed madly
about and overturned the litter of Rama Raja. Taking advantage of
the confusion, some Muhammadan gunners rushed in, and before he
could recover himself, seized Rama Raja and carried him off. His
head was instantly struck off and paraded on the point of a lance in
sight of both armies. The Hindus, on seeing their leader was slain,
gave up all for lost and fled in every direction, closely pursued by the
enemy. The slaughter was immense, and the booty sufficient to enrich
every private of the victorious army.^ The sultans marched to
Anegundi, the troops entered Vijayanagar, and plundered and destroyed
the capital, committing all manner of excess.

This terrible and decisive defeat broke up the Vijayanagar empire,
but the mutual jealousies of the allies prevented either of them enlarg-
ing his kingdom by appropriating any of the conquered territory. A
year after the battle, Tirumala Raja, the brother of Rama Raja,
returned to the capital. But he found the attempt to restore it hopeless,
and in 1567 retired to Penugonda. Venkatadri, the other brother,
established himself at Chandragiri.

Caesar Frederike visited the city of Vj'jayanagar two years after the battle.
He states that Ram Rai perished through the treachery of two Musalman
generals in his service, who turned against him in the middle of the battle.
The Musalmans spent six months in plundering the city, searching in all
directions for buried money. The houses were still standing, but they were
empty. The court had moved from Vijayanagar to Penugonda, which was
eight days' journey to the south. The inhabitants had disappeared and
gone elsewhere. The surrounding country was so infested with thieves
that he was compelled to stay six months longer at Vijayanagar than he
intended. When at last he set out for Goa, he was attacked every day, and
had to pay a ransom on each occasion.

He thus describes the palace : — " I have seen many kings' courts, yet have
never seen anything to compare with the royal palace of Bijianugger, which

I Such is Ferishta's account. The Hindu account says that the divisions of Kulb
Shah and Nizam Shah were routed, and reUcaled in confusion, covered hy the armies
of Adil Shah and Barid Shah. The Hindus, considering the engagement over and
the enemy annihilated, gave themselves up to rejoicing and festivity, and were
surprised in their encampment.

A A 2

356 Iff STORY

h.ith nine gates. First, when you go into that part where the king lodged,
there arc five great gates, kept by Captains and Soldiers. Within these
are four lesser gates, which are kept by porters, and through these you enter
into a very fair court at the end." He describes the city as being twenty-
four miles round, enclosing several hills. The ordinary dwellings had
earthen walls, but the three palaces and the pagodas were all built of fine
marble.

Grants in the name of Sadas'iva, the nominal sovereign, continued
to be made as late as 1574, but Tirumala Raja also made many in his
own name. S'ri Ranga, the son of Tirumala by Vengalamba, succeeded
to the throne. In 1577 the Musalmans attacked Penugonda, but were
defeated and driven back by the king's son-in-law, Jagadeva Raya, chief
of Channapatna, who was rewarded with a large accession to his
possessions in Mysore. Venkatapati Raya, in 1585, removed the capital
to Chandragiri (North Arcot district), and ruled there and at Vellore with
some show of power. He died in 1614, and the traveller Floris says
his three wives burned themselves on his funeral pyre. Raja Wodeyar
of Mysore had already seized Seringapatam in 1610, and thrown off his
allegiance. The other feudatories, like Sivappa Nayak of Bednur,
began to imitate his example, and the Vijayanagar power was now
virtually at an end. From S'ri Ranga Raya II the English obtained
the grant of the settlement of Madras in 1640. Si.x years after,
Chandragiri and Chingalput, his occasional residence and nominal
capitals, being taken by the forces of Golkonda, he fled to the protec-
tion of Sivappa Nayak of Bednur, who gave him the government of
Sakkarepatna (Kadur district), and even adventured to besiege Seringa-
patam under the pretence of restoring him. A member of the family,
named Rama Raja, established himself at Anegundi, two miles from
the ancient capital, and continued the line for seven generations, till
1776, when Tipu Sultan overran the whole country, dispossessed
Timmappa, the reigning chief, and burnt the town of Anegundi and
its suburbs.

The Palegars. — During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the
Vijayanagar kings had bestowed on or confirmed to vassal chiefs,
bearing various titles, sundry tracts in Mysore, on the condition of
payment of tribute and rendering of military service. Those in the
northern parts were directly controlled from the capital. The .southern
chiefs were placed under a vicero)- termed the S'ri Ranga Rayal, whose
seat of government was at Seringapatam. After the dissolution of the
empire which followed on the battle of Talikota, although a nominal
allegiance continued to be paid to the representative of the State at
Penugonda and to the viceroy at Seringapatam, such of the chiefs as

CHITAL- P*"**^

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; ChikBallap]

KjEMPEGAUDAS

ritory

'' YoAikalvr

chikkaraya's;^

Maati; ^

P ALEGARS y^i

had the power gradually broke loose of control and declared their
independence. An account of each of these Palegar families will be
found in connection with the localities which formed their respective
estates. It will be sufficient, therefore, here, to simply mention the
more important. Among these were : — in the north, the Nayaks of
Bednur, Basavapatna and Chitaldroog ; on the west, the Nayaks of
Balam ; in ihe centre, the Nayaks of Hagalvadi, and the Gaudas of
Yelahanka and Ballapur ; on the east, the Gauda of Sugatur ; on the
south, the Wodeyars of Mysore, Kajale, Ummatur, Yelandur, and
others.

In 1573 the Bijapur and Ahmednagar rulers came to a mutual
agreement to extend their conquests in such different directions as not
to interfere with one another. The Bijapur line of conquest was to the
south. Adoni having been captured, and the western coast regions
from Goa down to Barkalur overrun, an attempt was made in 1577 on
Penugonda. But it found a most gallant defender, as before stated,
in Jagadeva Raya, the king's son-in-law. Every attack was repelled,
and the Bijapur army forced to raise the siege and retire. For this
brilliant service Jagadeva was rewarded by a grant of a territory which
extended across Mysore, from Baramahal — the previous possession of
his family — on the east, to the Western Ghats on the west. He fixed
his capital at Channapatna (Bangalore district). Kankanhalli and
Nagamangala were two of the most important towns in his territory,
which also included Periyapatna on the west and Harnhalli and Bana-
war on the north, while a long arm reached even to Hole Honnur.

About the same period, Timme Gauda of Sugatur rendered some
important military service, for which he received the title of Chikka
Raya, with a grant of territory in the southern half of the Kolar
district, including Hoskote westwards and Punganur eastwards.

Meanwhile, in the south, the Rajas of Mysore, whose history will be
given in detail further on, had been gradually subduing all the lesser
chiefs: until in 1610 they gained Seringapatam, ousting the effete
viceroy of Vijayanagar, and became the dominant power in that part
of the country. In 1630 they took Channapatna, and Jagadeva Raya's
dominions were thus absorbed into the Mysore State.

This brief sketch of the principal changes which took place in the
seventy years following the battle of Talikota will serve to show how
matters stood, and the several divisions of the country, in 1636, when
the Bijapur armies successfully invaded Mysore and established the
government of that State over the Carnatic Balaghat.

Bijapur. — This State is more properly called Vijayapur, but as a
]\Iuhammadan kingdom, and to distinguish it from \'ijayanagar, the

358 HISTORY

Muhammadan form of the name has been retained. The founder of
the kingdom was Yusuf Adil Shah, after whom his descendants were
called the Adil Shahi kings. He is stated to have been a son of the
Ottoman Sultan Amurath or Murad, and brother of Muhammad the
Oreat, the conqueror of Constantinople. On the accession of the
latter to the Turkish throne in 1450, Yusuf, by the contrivance of his
mother, escaped being put to death with the rest of his brothers,
and was by her means conveyed to Persia. Being obliged to fly from
Persia at the age of sixteen on account of some suspicion of his birth,
he was inveigled to the Bahmani court and there sold as a slave. He
gradually rose into favour, was entrusted with the command of a body
of horse and a provincial government. He became the head of the
foreign or Shiah party, between which and the Dakhani or Sunni party
there was a continual contest for power. When the latter in the reign
of Mahmud gained an ascendancy, Yusuf Adil retired to his govern-
ment of Bijapur, and in 1489 took the royal title. He opposed the
usurper of the Bahmani kingdom, put down the neighbouring chiefs,
who like him were endeavouring to assert their independence, and was
successful in meeting the attacks of the Vijayanagar raja. The Bahmani
kingdom was eventually partitioned between him and the other new
kings that arose about the same time in the Dekhan.

The following is the succession of the Adil Shahi kings : —

Yusuf Adil Shah ...

... 1489

Ibrahim Adil Shah

• 1579

Ismail Adil Shah ...

... 1510

Muhammad Adil Shah ..

. 1626

Mallu Adil Shah ...

-• 1534

Ali Adil Shah

1660

Ibrahim Adil Snah ...

••■ 1535

Sikandar Adil Shah

. 1672

Ali Adil Shah

••• 1557

The territory of Bijapur extended from the Nira to the Tungabhadra,
and from the Bhima to the sea. South of the Tungabhadra, it owned
Adoni and perhaps Nandyal. The limits of its western boundary were
Bankot and cape Ramas. Between this power and Vijayanagar there
were constant collisions, until in 1565 the battle of Talikota terminated
the power of the latter. In 1577, as we have already seen, a raid was
made into the conquered territory, but repelled by the defence of Jaga-
deva Raya at Penugonda.

In 1637 a more formidable invasion took place. The Mughals had
taken Daulatabad in 1634, and Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of
the Dekhan ; but the contests with the Mughal power were shortly
brought to a close for the time by the treaty which extinguished the
State of Ahmednagar and made Bijapur tributary to Delhi. The
Bijapur arms were now directed to the south, under Ran-dulha Khan ;
with whom Shahji, father of the famous Sivaji, was sent as second

BIJAPUR 359

in command, with a promise of a jagir in the territories to be con-
quered.

The course of this invasion' was by the open country of Bankapur,
Harihar, Basvapatna and Tarikcre, up to the woods of Bednur, the
whole of which was overrun. The Bednur chief was besieged in
Kavale-durga but bought off the enemy. An attempt was next made
on Seringapatam. A breach was effected, but the Mysoreans repulsed
the general assault with great slaughter, and the enemy was not only
compelled to raise the siege but harassed in his retreat by successive
attacks, in which, adds Wilks, the Raja obtained considerable booty.
The invading army retired to the north of Melukote and then turned
east. Kempe Gauda, representative of the Yelahanka family, who had
by this time grown into a considerable chieftain, holding possession of
Bangalore and Magadi, with the impregnable hill fortress of Savan-
durga, was next attacked, and Bangalore captureti from him in 1638.
The possessions of the Chikka Raya, namely, Hoskote and all the
present Kolar District east of it, were then seized, in 1639, and the
victorious army, passing below the Ghats, took Vellore and S'enji.
Returning to the tableland, Dod Ballapur, Sira and all the south of the
Chitaldroog district fell to Bijapur in 1644.

By this time the conquests were complete, and a Province under the
designation of Carnatic Bijapur Balaghat was formed out of the
districts of Bangalore, Hoskote, Kolar, Dod Ballapur and Sira ; and
bestowed as a jagir on Shahji, who was also governor of the conquests
below the Ghats, called Carnatic Bijapur Payanghat. He resided at
first at Bangalore, but subsequently, when not engaged in military
expeditions, lived sometimes at Kolar and sometimes at Dod Ballapur.

The policy of the invaders was, while taking possession of the capital
town, and administering the revenues of each principality, to grant
the ousted chief an estate in some less productive part of his territory.
This resulted in bringing under cultivation and attracting population to
the more neglected tracts of the country. Thus Basavapatna and its
possessions being retained, Tarikere was given to the palegar ; Banga-
lore was taken but Magadi left to Kempe Gauda ; similarly Hoskote
was taken and Anekal granted ; Kolar was taken and Punganur
granted ; Sira was taken and Ratnagiri granted.

Shahji was one of the most prominent characters of his day in India.
A sketch of his remarkable career is given in the history of the Bangalore

' The palegar of Basvapatna or Tarikere is charged with having invited the
Bijapur Sultan to invade the country, in order to revenge himself for an insult
received from the jialegar of Ratnagiri or Sira, arising out of an obscene jest and
a coarse and fdthy practical joke which will not admit of mention.

36o Jl/STOR V

district. Under him the Mahralta element was largely introduced into
the north of Mysore, as well as into the Tanjore and other districts
which he conquered below the Ghats. The Mahrattas, or Maha-
Ratlas, in whom we may recognize the descendants of a people that
have already appeared more than once in our historical review, after
the overthrow of the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, had been subjects
fu'st of the Bahmani and subsequently of the Ahmednagar and Bijapur
kingdoms. Their influence was much increased by a remarkable
change introduced, chiefly for sectarian reasons, by Ibrahim Adil Shah,
the fourth king of Bijapur, who came to the throne in 1535. Previous
to his reign all the revenue and official accounts had been kept in
Persian. But he recognized Mahratti or Hindvi as the official language
of the revenue accountants, vvho were, to a great extent, Brahmans.
He also employed large bodies of Mahratta cavalry called Bargeer.
They differed from Silahdars in being provided with horses by the
State. The rise of the Mahratta power in the person of Sivaji, the
son of Shahji, and the struggles of that race for empire, have been
often recorded. We shall meet with them frequently in the remaining
portion of our history.

The possessions of Shahji in Mysore and Tanjore were governed
after his death, which occurred in 1664, by his son Venkoji, or Ekoji.
But Sivaji, the only surviving son by the first marriage, resolved to lay
claim to a half share, for this purpose, in which he was encouraged
by Raghunath Narayan, who from being the minister first of Shahji
and then of Venkoji, had now come over to Sivaji, he made an expedi-
tion into the Carnatic in 1677. Before entering upon it, Sivaji paid
his celebrated visit to the temple of Parvati at S'ris'aila, where he spent
twelve days in penance, and when about in his enthusiasm to sacrifice
himself to the deity, was saved, it is said, by the interposition of the
goddess Bhavani. He then joined the army and, leaving the heavy
part to besiege Vellore, pushed on with the remainder, consisting prin-
cipally of cavalry, and gained possession of S'enji. He induced
Venkoji, who resided at Tanjore, to meet him at Trivadi for the
purpose of discussing matters, but could not persuade him to give up
half the property. Sivaji thought to make him prisoner and compel
him, but refrained. He returned to Vellore, which had surrendered,
took Carnatic Ghur, Ami and other forts, and overran all the jagir
districts, levying contributions or plundering. Affairs at Golkonda
now obliged him to hasten thither, Bellary being captured on the way.
Venkoji took the opportunity to attack the troops left in the Carnatic.
Sivaji, on hearing of it, wrote a remarkable letter^ to his brother, full of

' See Grant Duff, ///sL Main:, I, 211.

MUG HALS 361

good sense and injunctions to union and peace, which won over
Venkoji. He agreed to pay a large sum of money, to divide their
father's jewels, and to share the revenues with his brother. On these
conditions Sivaji allowed him to retain Tanjore, and restored the jagir
districts. This was in 1678. In 1680 Sivaji died.

The Mughals. — In 1684 the Mughal arms, under Aurangzeb, now
seated on the throne with the title of Alamgir, were once more directed
to the Dekhan for the purpose of crushing the Mahrattas and subju-
gating the Pathan states of Bijapur and (iolkonda. Kijapur was taken
in 1687, Golkonda in 1688. Flying columns were sent out after each
of these captures to secure the dependent districts south of the
Tungabhadra.

A nev,' Province was thus formed in 1687, with Sira as its capital,
composed of the seven parganas of Easvapatna, Budihal, Sira, Penu-
gonda, Dod Ballapur, Hoskote and Kolar; and having Harpanhalli,
Kondarpi, Anegundi, Bednur, Chitaldroog and Mysore as tributary
states. Bangalore, which had been seized, was at the same time
sold to the Raja of Mysore for three lakhs of rupees, the sum
for which he had just previously agreed to buy it of Venkoji ; who,
finding it too far from the seat of his government to be effectually
protected, had offered it for sale. Khasim Khan, with the designation
of Paujdar Divan, was the first governor of the Province of Sira. Its
annals are elsewhere given. It continued a Mughal possession till

1757-

Mysore Rajas. — Our attention will now be directed to the south,
to the history of the royal family of Mysore. Their origin is traced to
the heroes of a chivalrous exploit, Vijaya and Krishna, two young
Kshatriyas of Yadava descent, who, according to tradition, had left
Dvaraka, in Gujarat, with the view of establishing themselves in the
south. On arriving at Hadi-nad, or Hada-nad (called Hadana by
Wilks, but now known as Hadinaru), a few miles southeast of the
present city of Mysore, they learned that the chief of the place had
wandered away in a state of mental derangement ; and that the neigh-
bouring chief of Karugahalli, who was of inferior caste, taking advantage
of the defenceless condition of the family, had demanded the only
daughter of the house in marriage. To this a consent had been given
under compulsion, and arrangements unwillingly made for the cere-
mony. The two brothers espoused the cause of the distressed maiden,
and having secreted themselves with some followers, fell upon the chief
and his retinue while seated at the banquet, and slew them. Marching
at once on Karugahalli, they surprised it, and returned in triumph to
Hadanad. The girl became the willing bride of \'ijaya, who took the

362 HISTORY

title f)f Odcyar, or Wodcyar,^ and assumed the government of Hadanad
and Karugahalli ; adopting at the same time the religion of the
Jangamas, or Lingavantas.

The following is the succession of the Mysore Rjijas, according to
annals compiled in the palace, Vijaya being here called Yadu Raya : —

Vadu Raya, Vijaya 1399- 1423

Hire Bettada Chama-Raja

Wodeyar (I) 1423- 1458

Timnia-Raja Wodeyar (I) 1458- 1478
Hire Chama-Raja Wodeyar

(II), A'rberal^ 1478-1513

Ranadhira Kanthirava-

Narasa-Raja Wodeyar 1638- 1659

Dodda Deva-Raja Wodeyar 1659- 1672

Chikka Deva-Raja Wodeyar 1672-1704
Kanthirava Wodeyar, Miika-

rasu-* 1 704- 1 7 1 3

Bettada Chama-RajaWodeyar Dodda Krishna-Raja Wode-

(ill) 1513-1552 yar(I) 1713-1731

Timma-Raja Wodeyar (II),

Appanna 1552-1571
Bola Chama-Raja Wodeyar

(IV) 1571-1576
Bettada Chama-Raja Wodeyar

(V) ■ 1576-1578

Raja Wodeyar (I) 1578-1617

Chama-Raja Wodeyar (VI) 1617-1637

Immadi Raja Wodeyar (II) 1637-1638

Chama-Raja Wodeyar (VII) 1731-1734
Krishna- Raja Wodeyar (II) 1 734-1766
Nanja-Raja Wodeyar 1766-1770

Bettada Chama-Raja Wode-
yar (VIII) 1 770-1 776
Khasa Chama-Raja Wodeyar

(IX) 1776-1796

Krishna-Raja Wodeyar (III) 1799-1868
Chama-Rajendra Wodeyar (X)i868-i894
Krishna-Raja Wodeyar (IV) 1895

Yadu Raya, or Vijaya, is said to have been eleventh in descent from
Yaduvira, of the A'treya-g6tra and As'valayana-siitra. But of the early
period no annals have been preserved until the time of Chama-Raja III.
He, during his lifetime, made a partition of his dominions between his
three sons. To Timma-Raja, or Appanna, he gave Hemmanhalli, to
Krishna-Raja he gave Kembala, and to Chama-Raja IV, surnamed
B61 or Bald,"* he gave Mysore. No male heir surviving to either of the
elder brothers, the succession was continued in the junior or Mysore
branch. With Krishna-Raja I the direct descent ended. Chama-
Raja VII, a member of the Hemmanhalli family, was next elected, but
eventually deposed by the dalavayi' Deva-Raj, and the minister Nanja-
Raj. He died a prisoner at Kabbaldurga in 1734. Chikka or

' Odeyar, W'odeyar, or Wadeyar, is the phiral and honorific form of Odeya, a
Kannada word meaning lord, master. Wilks states that it indicated, at the period of
which we are writing, the governor of a small district, generally of thirty-three
villages. But we find it applied, in the Tamil form Udaiyar, to the Chola kings
as far back as the eleventh century, and in the Kannada form, W^odeyar, to the
Vijayanagar kings from the beginning of their rule. Vader, a modification of the
word, is the title of respect by which Jangama priests are addressed.

- Six-fingered. •^ Dumb king ; he was born deaf and dumb.

■* Owing, it is said, to a stroke of lightning.

■'' The itle of the chief officer of the state, who comljined the functions of a general
and a minister. It is derived from dala, Kan. for army, and vdyi or bayi, mouth :
the mouthpiece of the army. The office was mostly hereditary.

MYSORE RAJAS 363

Immadi Krishna-Raja II, of Kenchengod, a younger and distant
branch, was put on the throne in 1734, and died in 1766. His eldest
son, Nanja-Raja, was directed by Haidar to be installed, but finding
him not sufficiently subservient, Haidar turned him out of the palace
in 1767, and took all control into his own hands. Nanja-Raja was
strangled in 1770, being nominally succeeded by his brother Chama-
Raja VIII, who died childless in 1775. Chama-Raja IX, son of Devaraj
Arasu of Arkotar, a member of the Kdrugahalli family, was then
selected at random by Haidar. He died in 1796, and Tipu appointed
no successor. But the real rulers during this period were :• — ■

Haidar All Khan 1761-1782

Tipu Sultan 1782-1799

On the fall of Seringapatam and death of Tipu, the British Govern-
ment restored the Hindu raj and placed on the throne Krishna-Raja
III, the son of the last-named Chama-Raja. Owing to misrule he was
deposed in 1831, but in 1867, a year before his death, his adoption was
recognized of Chama-Rajendra X (third son of Krishna Arasu, of the
Bettadakote family), who succeeded him, being placed on the throne
on attaining his majority in 1881. He died at the close of 1894, and
his eldest son, Krishna-Raja IV, now a minor, has been installed as his
successor.

At what period Mysore (properly Mahish-uru, buffalo town')
acquired that name is uncertain. Reasons have been given for sup-
posing that it may have been known by that designation before the
Christian era. The vulgar name of the place when Chama-Raja the
Bald received it as his portion was Puragadi, but for the last four
centuries Mysore (Mahishiir) has been the common name of the fort
and town originally erected or repaired by Hire Chama-Raja the Bald.

The fatal disaster which befell the Vijayanagar empire on the field of
Talikota in 1565 diminished the influence of its viceroy at Seringa-
patam. We accordingly find this Chama-Raja evading the payment of
the revenue or tribute due by him, and obtaining permission to erect
some works, probably barriers, on the pretext that the wild hogs
destroyed the crojjs and disabled him from paying the tribute. The
works were, however, no sooner erected than the collectors of the royal
dues were expelled. The imbecile viceroy attempted shortly after to
seize Chama-Raja while paying his devotions at the temple of Ranga-
natlia, at Seringapatam. But he received warning of the plot and

' So called with reference to Maliishasura, the niinotaur or huffalo-hcacled monster
whose destruction is the most noted exploit of Chamundi, under which name the
consort of Siva, the tutelary goddess of the Mysore Rajas, is worshipped on the hill
near the capital.

364 JIISTOR V

esca[)ed, and continued to evade all the demands oi tiie vireroy with
impunity.

Bettada Chama-Raja Wodeyar, who succeeded, was not long on the
throne. Though brave, he had no capacity for government, and his
younger brother. Raja Wodeyar, was shortly raised to the throne by the
elders.^ During his reign occurred one of the most important events
in the annals of the Mysore house, the acquisition of Seringapatam.
By what means this was effected is not known with certainty ; but in
1610 the aged viceroy, Tirumala Raja, retired to Talkad, where he
shortly after died, and on his retirement Raja Wodeyar took possession
of Seringapatam and transferred thither the seat of government. At
the same time the religion of Vishnu was adopted by the court.

Raja Wodeyar extended the possessions of his family over all the
south of the present Mysore district, and captured several places towards
the north from Jagadeva Raya. " His rule was remarkable for the
rigour and severity which he exercised towards the subordinate ^^'ocleyars,
and his indulgence towards the ryots. The Wodeyars were generally
dispossessed and kept in confinement, on a scanty allowance, at the
seat of government ; and it was the policy of Raja Wodeyar to recon-
cile the ryots to the change by exacting from them no larger sums than
they had formerly paid."

All the sons being dead, Chama-Raja, a grandson, succeeded. By
the capture of Channapatna, in 1630, he absorbed the territories of
Jagadeva Raya into the Mysore State, and completed what remained of
conquest in the south. He pursued the same policy as his predecessor.

Immadi Raja, who came next, was a posthumous son of Raja
Wodeyar. He was shortly poisoned by the dalavayi, and Kanthirava
Narasa Raja placed on the throne. He was the son of the gallant
and generous Bettada Chc4ma-Raja, who had been superseded by his
younger brother. The dalavayi thought to find him as forbearing and
unambitious as his father. But he had already, when living in
obscurity, given an evidence of his emulous and chivalric spirit.
Hearing of a celebrated champion athlete at Trichinopoly who had
overcome all opponents, he went there in disguise, and defeated and
slew him in the presence of the whole court. Declining all honours
for the feat, he quietly slipped away at night and returned home.
Soon after his installation at Mysore, where that ceremony continued
to be performed, he learned of the means by which his predecessor had
been removed, and had the minister assassinated. -

' Many noble and interesting traits of the characters of the two brothers, and their
mutual consideration, are recorded in Wilks.
- The two peons, or foot-soldiers, who did the deed scaled the wall of the minister's

DODDA DEVA RAJA 365

The year after his accession^ he had to defend Seringapatam against
the attack of the Bijapur forces under Ran-dulha Khan ; and, as
already related, succeeded in effectually repelling the invnder. He
subsequently carried his conquests over many districts to the south,
taking J )anaikankote, Satyamangala and other places from the Nayak
of Madura. Westwards, Arkalgud and Bettadpur were captured.
Northwards, he took Hosur (now in Salem), and at Yelahanka inflicted
a severe defeat on Kempe Claucla of Magadi, levying a large contribu-
tion on him. With the booty obtained in his various expeditions, and
the heavy tribute which from motives of policy he imposed on the
gaudas or heads of villages in order to reduce their power, he improved
and enlarged the fortifications of Seringapatam, and endowed the
principal temples. He assumed more of royal state in his court, and
was the first to establish a mint, at which were coined the Kanthi
Raya huns and fanams called after him, which continued to be the
current national money until the Muhammadan usurpation.

He died without issue, and of the possible claimants to the throne
the most suitable were a grandson and a great-grandson of B61a Chama-
Raja, both about thirty-two years of age. The former, though of a
junior branch, was selected, and is known as Dodda Deva Raja; the
latter, afterwards Chikka Deva Raja, was, with his father, placed in
confinement at Hangala. It was during Dodda Deva Raja's reign
that Sri Ranga Raya, the last representative of Vijayanagar, fled for
refuge to Bednur. Sivappa Nayak, who was the de facto ruler of that
state, entered upon a considerable range of conquests southwards under
pretence of establishing the royal line, and appeared before Seringa-
patam with a large force. He was, however, compelled to retreat, and
the Mysore armies before long overran Sakkarepatna, Hassan, and other
places, with the government of which Sri Ranga Raja had been invested
by Sivappa Nayak. The Nayak of Madura now invaded Mysore,
meditating the conquest of the country ; but not only was he forced to
retire, but Erode and Dharapuram yielded to the Mysoreans, who
levied heavy contributions on Trichinopoly and other important places.
Dodda Deva Raja was a great friend of the Brahmans, and was profuse
in his grants and donations to the holy order. He died at Chikn.-iya-
kanhalli, which, together with Hulyurdurga and Kunigal, had been

court-y;ii(l after darl^, and lay in wail until lie passed across, preceded by a l(jrch-
bearer. The latter was first killed, and the torch went out. " Who are you ?'' said
the minister. " \'our enemy," replied one of the peons, and made a blow. The
minister closed with him and threw him down, holding him by the throat. The
other peon, in the dark, knew not which was which. " Are you top or bottom?"
lie asked. " Bottom," gasped the half-strangled peon, on which his companion
dealt the fatal blow.

366 J IIS TOR Y

conquered not long hefcjre. The Mysore kingdom at tliis [jeriod
extended from Sakkarepatna in the west to Salem in the east, and
from Chiknayakanhalli in the north to Dharapuram (Coimbatore
District) in the south.

Chikka Deva Rdja, who was passed over at the commencement of
the preceding reign, now succeeded, and became one of the most
distinguished of the Mysore Rajas. His early youth had been passed
at Yelandur, where he had formed an intimacy with a Jain named
Vishalaksha Pandit. When Chikka Deva Raja and his father were
confined at Hangala, this man continued his attachment and followed
them into captivity ; not, however, from disinterested affection, but
because he had ascertained by his knowledge of the stars that Chikka
Deva Raja would certainly succeed to the throne. Having obtained a
promise that if such an event should come to pass he should be made
prime minister, he repaired to the capital and industriously circulated
in secret among influential persons the prediction of Chikka Deva
Raja's destiny. When, therefore, Dodda Deva Raja died, every one
was prepared to receive the successor decreed by fate. They did not
acquiesce quite so readily when the pandit was made minister, but
the ability of the Raja and his adviser soon silenced all murmurs.

One of the earliest measures of the new reign was the establishment,
for the first time, of a regular post throughout the country. Its
functions were, however, conjoined with those usually discharged by a
detective police, and information of the private transactions of each
district was thus regularly collected and sent to court by the postal
officials. Several conquests were made between 1675 and 1678, the
most important of which were those of Madgiri and Midagesi, with
some of the intermediate districts ; which brought the Mysore frontier,
projecting in a long arm northwards, up to that of Carnatic Bijapur,
now disorganized by the raids of Sivaji, consequent on the dispute
previously mentioned between him and his half brother Venkoji, or
Ekoji.

During the next ten years were introduced a number of financial
changes, having for their object the increase of the revenue. The Raja
was unwilling to incur the risk of increasing in a direct manner the
established proportion of one-sixth share of the crop payable to the
crown as land revenue. A number of petty taxes were therefore
imposed, of a vexatious character,^ in order that the ryots might be
driven to seek relief and compound for their abolition in voluntarily
submitting to an increase of the land assessment. Lands held by the
soldiery as part payment for their services were, on grounds of policy,
' For a list see Wilks.

CHIKKA DEVA RAJA 367

exempted. These measures gave rise to great discontent, which was
fanned by the Jangama priests. The opposition was manifested by a
determination not to till the land. The ryots deserted their villages
and assembled as if to emigrate. The Raja's resolution was prompt,
but sanguinary and treacherous. He invited all the Jangama priests to
meet him at Nanjangud for the purpose of discussing matters. Only
four hundred attended. What followed is thus described by \\'ilks : —

A large pit had been previously prepared in a walled inclosure, connected
by a series of squares composed of tent walls with the canopy of audience,
at which they were successively received one at a time, and after making
their obeisance were desired to retire to a place where, according to custom,
they expected to find refreshments prepared at the expense of the Raja.
Expert executioners were in waiting in the square, and every individual in
succession was so skilfully beheaded and tumbled into the pit as to give no
alarm to those who followed, and the business of the public audience went
on without interruption or suspicion. Circular orders had been sent for the
destruction, on the same day, of all the Jangam miits (places of residence
and worship) in his dominions ; and the number reported to have been in
jonsequence destroyed v/as upwards of seven hundred. This notable
achievement was followed by the operations of the troops, which had also
been previously combined. Wherever a mob had assembled, a detachment of
troops, chiefly cavalry, was collected in the neighbourhood, and prepared to
act on one and the same day. The orders were distinct and simple ; to
charge without parley into the midst of the mob ; to cut down in the first
selection every man wearing an orange-coloured robe (the peculiar garb of
the Jangam priests) ; and not to cease acting until the crowds had every-
where dispersed. It may be concluded that the effects of this system of
terror left no material difficulties to the final establishment of the new
system of revenue.

The chief odium of these massacres, as well as the innovations
which had led to them, naturally fell upon the Yelandur Pandit who
was at the head of the administration. An imjjression also got abroad
that the Raja was about to abandon the doctrines of the Jangama in
which he was brought up, and to revive the ascendancy of the Jain
fLiilh. The result was that the minister fell a victim to a j)l()t against
his life, and he was assassinated one night while returning from court.
The Raja was much affected at the news and hastened to the death-
bed of his faithful counsellor ; who, with his dying breath, recom-
mended a Brahman named Tirumalaiyangar as the most able and
honourable man to succeed him as minister.

These transactions bring us to 1687 — the period when the Mughals,
having captured Bijapur, were taking possession of the Carnatic
provinces dependent on it, and forming the Province of Sira. 'I'he

368 inSTORY

agreement as to the sale at this time of Bangalore by Venkoji, or Ekoji,
to the Mysore Raja for three lakhs of rupees ; its seizure by Khasim
Khan, the Mughal general, before the entry of the Mysore troops, and
the conclusion of the bargain notwithstanding, — are related in the
account of that district. Bangalore had now become a possession of
the Mysore Raja, who assiduously cultivated an alliance with Aurangzeb
through the general Khasim Khan, while at the same time extending
his territories in directions that would not interfere with the Mughal
operations.

Tiimkur was taken the same year ; then, turning east by way of
Hoskote, the Mysore army descended the Ghats and subdued a great
part of Baramahal and Salem. Between 1690 and 169J, the territories
were extended westwards, and all the districts up to the Baba Budan
mountains, including Hassan, Banavar, Chikmagalur, and Vastara were
taken from Bednur. And by a treaty concluded in 1694 with the chief
of that state, all these conquests, except Aigur and Vastara, were
retained by Mysore.

The project was next formed of invading the possessions of the
Nay.ik of Madura, and Trichinopoly was besieged in 1696. But whild
the strength of the army was engaged before that fortress, a Mahratta
force, — marching to the relief of S'enji, where Rama, the second son of
Sivaji, had been long besieged by the Mughals under Zulfikar Khan, —
attracted by the hope of plunder, suddenly appeared before Seringa-
patam. An express was at once sent to the dajavayi Kumaraiya
directing him to return for the protection of the capital. But as he
had made a vow not to appear before his Raja before he had taken
Trichinopoly, he despatched his son Doddaiya in command of a force,
which came up by rapid marches, and, by means of a stratagem which
seems often to have been resorted to by the Mysore troops,^ inflicted a
total defeat upon the enemy, in which the leaders were slain and the whole
of the ordnance, baggage and military stores of every description captured.

1 It was the practice of the Mysore army to perform their night marches by the
light of numerous torches, and this was made the foundation of a stratagem effected
in the following manner : — In the evening the dalavayi sent a small detachment in the
direction opposite to that on which he had planned his attack ; and in the probable line
by which he would move to throw his force into the capital. This detachment was sup-
plied with the requisite number of torches and an equal number of oxen, which were
arranged at proper distances, with a flambeau tied to the horns of each, in a situation
where they could not be observed by the enemy. At an appointed signal, the torches
were lighted and the oxen driven in the concerted direction, so as to indicate the
march of the army attempting to force its way through the besiegers by an attack on
the flank of their position. So soon as it was perceived that the enemy were making
a disposition to receive the army of torches, Doddaiya silently approached their rear,
and obtained an easy but most sanguinarj- victory.

To illustrate the

STORY OF MYSORE

LIMITS OF MYSORE
1 1617 at the death of Raja Wodeyar

1 1704 at the death of Chikka Deva Raja

1 1782 at the death of Haldar All Khan

nee 1799 by Treaty of Seringapatam

J^^Bu^n\oin«w * Co.. Uiu'

DODDA KRISHNA-RAJA 369

Next year, Khasini Khan, the friend of the Raja at the court of
Aurangzeb, died ; and Chikka Deva-Raja resolved to send an embassy
to the emperor for the purpose of establishing a fresh interest at court,
and gaining if possible a recognition of his authority over the newly-
conquered territories. The embassy, which set out in 1699, found the
imperial court at Ahmednagar, and returned in 1700, bringing with it,
as is alleged, a new signet from the emperor, bearing the title Jug Deo
Raj,i and permission to sit on an ivory throne.^

The Raja now formed various administrative departments, eighteen
in numl)er, in imitation of what his ambassadors had observed as the
system pursued at the Mughal court. The revenues were realized with
great regularity. It was the fixed practice of the Raja not to break
his fast every day until he had deposited two bags (thousands) of
pagodas in the treasury of reserve funds from cash received from the
districts. He had thus, by economy and victories, accumulated a
treasure which obtained for him the designation of Navakoti Narayaiia,
the lord of nine crores (of pagodas).

Chikka Deva-Raja died in 1704, at the advanced age of 76, after
a youth spent in exile, followed by an eventful reign of more than
thirty-one years ; during which, amid the convulsions and revolutions
which prevailed throughout the Dekhan and Carnatic, a secure and
prosperous State had been established, extending from Palni and
Anemale in the south to Midagesi in the north, and from near Carnatic
Ghur of the Baramahal in the east to the borders of Coorg and Balam
in the west.

Kanthirava Raja, the son of Chikka Deva-Raja, was born deaf and
dumb, and thence called Muk-arasu. Rut, through the influence of
Tirumalaiyangar, he succeeded to the throne. During his reign the
dal.avayi Kanthirava attempted to reduce Chik Ballapur, but lost his
life in the enterprise. His son, Basava Raja, appears to have con-
tinued the siege, and succeeded in levying tribute.

Doclda Krishna-Raja, son of the dumb king, next came to the
throne. At this time a change was made in the government of Sira,
whereby the jurisdiction of Sadat-ulla Khan, who Iiad hitherto governed
the whole of Carnatic Bijapur, was confined to the Payanghat, and he
was called Navab of Arcot ; while a separate officer, Amin Khan,
styled Navab of Sira, was appointed to the charge of the Balaghdt,
situated on the tableland of Mysore. Sadat-ulla Khan, aware of the
riches accumulated at Mysore, resented the removal of that State from
his control, and formed a combination with the Pathan Xavabs of

' Jagat Dcva Raja, the sovereign of the \vi)rld.
- For the history of this throne see Vol. II.

370 JflSTOR V

Kadapa, Karnul and Savanur, and the Mahratta chief of (lutti, to seize
upon it. Aniiii Khan resolved to l)e beforehand, and marched against
the Mysore army. But the alHes came up with him, and they ulti-
mately agreed to joint action, of which Sadat-ulla was to be the leader.
The Mysore Raja was glad to buy off this formidable confederacy, and
Sadat-ulla received a crore of rupees. He accounted, however, for
only 72 lakhs, which he divided in the proportion of 12 lakhs to each
of the allies, pocketing the rest. This affair led to further exactions.
Two years after, the Mahrattas appeared before Seringapatam and
levied a contribution. In order to replenish these drains upon the
treasury, an attack was made upon Kempe Cauda, the chief of Magadi,
who was taken prisoner; and Savan-durga, w-ith the accumulated
plunder of two hundred years, fell to Mysore.

The following estimate of the Raja's character will show the direc-
tion in which matters were now tending : —

" Whatever portion of vigour or of wisdom appeared in the conduct of
this reign belonged exclusively to the ministers, who secured their own
authority by appearing with affected humility to study in all things the
inclinations and wishes of the Raja. Weak and capricious in his temper,
he committed the most cruel excesses on the persons and property of those
who approached him, and as quickly restored them to his favour. While
no opposition was made to an establishment of almost incredible absurdity,
amounting to a lac of rupees annually, for the maintenance of an almshouse
to feed beasts of prey, reptiles, and insects ; he believed himself to be an
unlimited despot ; and, while amply supplied with the means of sensual
pleasure, to which he devoted the largest portion of his time, he thought
himself the greatest and happiest of monarchs, without understanding, or
caring to understand, during a reign of nineteen years, the troublesome
details through which he was supplied with all that is necessary for animal
gratification."'

Under these circumstances all power fell into the hands of the
ministers, and they sought only to perpetuate their authority by placing
pageant rajas on the throne. Chama-Raja, of the Hemanhalli family,
was selected as a fit person to succeed the last raja ; while the three
chief offices in the state, those of da/avdyi or head of the army,
sarz'ddhikdri or head of finance and revenue, and pradhdna or privy
councillor, were held by De\a-Raj, who was dalavayi, and Xanja-
Raj, his cousin, who combined in himself the other two offices.
Chama-Raja managed to effect a revolution and displace these two ;
but they were imprudently left at large, while the new administration,
by ill-advised measures of economy, became so unpopular that Deva-
Raj and Nanja-Raj found means to reco\er their power. The Raja

CHIKKA KRISHNA-RAJA 371

and his wife were seized and sent prisoners to Ivabbal-durga, the deadly
cHmate of which they did not long survive.

A younger brother of the deceased Raja, named Venkat Arasu, was
passed over as having too much talent to be subservient ; and a child
of five years old, of a distant branch, was placed on the throne. He
is known as Chikka Krishna-Raja. The administration continued as
before, except that Venkatapati was appointed to the office of pradhana,
while Nanja-Raj, as sarvadhikari, was the head of the government.
He died after six years, refunding at the approach of death eight lakhs
of rupees, which he estimated as the amount he had improperly
acquired. He also left a warning against employing the person who
was his actual successor, Nanja-Raj, the younger brother of Deva-
Raj, and surnamed Karachdri. '

The Navabs of Arcot continued to eye with jealousy the rights of
the Navabs of Sira to receive tribute from the rich State of Mysore.
The weakness of Tahir Khan, now in power at Sira, led Dost AH Khan,
the governor at Arcot, to despatch a powerful and well-appointed army
to exact from Seringapatam the largest contribution that had ever been
obtained from it. Deva-Raj, though no longer young, advanced to
meet this invasion. The chiefs on both sides were reconnoitring at
Kailancha on the Arkavati, a few miles east of Channapatna, when the
two Musalman chiefs, not heeding, came too far. Deva-Raj skilfully
cut off their retreat, and falling upon them with his party, they were
both slain after a brave resistance. Deva-Raj followed up the blow,
and attacked the Musalman cami) with his whole army. They were
completely surprised and overthrown, fleeing in confusion below the
Ghats, while the victor returned in triumph to Seringapatam.

In 1746 Nanja-Raj commanded an expedition into the Coimbatore
country against the palegar of Dharapuram ; Deva-Raj, the dalavayi,
taking charge of the revenue and finances. During the absence of the
army, Nasir Jang, son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, now Subadar of the Dekhan,
marched towards the capital by order of his father to levy a contribu-
tion. A deputation was sent forth to meet him, tendering allegiance ;
and while the negotiations were going on, Nasir Jang, encamped at
Tonnur, amused himself on the large tank, to which he gave the name
of Moti Talab, which it still retains.

Nanja-Raj having returned successful from the south, his daughter
was married to the nominal Raja, as the first ste[i to other ambitious
l)rojects. I5ut in 1749 was undertaken the siege of Devanhalli, in
which obscure service an unknown volunteer horseman joined, who was
destined before long to gain the sui)reme power of the state and to play
/i'(?;v?,lian(l,(7;//r/, dagger; c(jnivalcnl lo llic I'.nglisli cxprcNsion "a word and a hlow.'

B U 2

372 J/ISTORY

no moan i)arl in the history of India. This was Haidar, who, in a
private capacity, had accompanied his elder brother Shabaz, the com-
mander of a small body of horse and foot in the Mysore army. The
sief^e of Devanhalli was prolonged for nine months, after which the
palegar was allowed to retire to his relation at Chik Ballapur. Haidar's
coolness and courage during the hostilities attracted the notice of
Nanja-Rdj, who gave him the command of fifty horse and 200 foot,
with orders to recruit and augment his corps ; and also appointed him
to the charge of one of the gates of Devanhalli, then a frontier fortress
of Mysore.^

' Haidar was the great-grandson of Muhammad Bhelol, an emigrant from the
Panjab, who had settled in a reHgious capacity at Aland, in Kalburga district. His
sons Muhammad Ali and Muhammad Wali married at Kalburga, and then coming to
Sira, obtained employment as customs peons. Before long they removed to Kolar,
where the elder died ; upon which the other seized all the domestic property and
turned his brother's wife and son out of doors. A Nayak of peons at Kolar took
them in, and when Fatte Muhammad, the son, was old enough, made him a peon.
At the siege of Ganjikota, on the troops being repulsed in a general assault, the young
man distinguished himself by seizing a standard and planting it once more on the
breach, which rallied the assailants and thus carried the day. For this exploit the
Subadar of Sira made him a Nayak, and he continued to rise. But on a change of
Subadars, finding himself not in favour, he repaired to Arcot with fifty horse and
1,400 peons ; and, on failing to obtain service from the Nabob on the conditions he
demanded, entered the service of the Faujdar of Chittur. The latter was soon
recalled to court, on which Fatte Nayak returned to Mysore and was appointed
Faujdar of Kolar, with Budikote as a jagir, and the title of Fatte Muhammad Khan.
At Budikote were born Shabaz and his Ijrother Haidar, the latter in 1722. They
were the sons by a third wife. For Fatte Muhammad, after three sons were born to
them, had lost his first wife at Kolar, to which place she belonged, and on whose death
he Ijegan the erection of the mausoleum there. His second wife was the daughter of
a Nevayet who, in travelling from the Konkan to Arcot, had been robbed and mur-
dered at Tarikere. The wife, with a son Ibrahim, and two daughters, escaping,
had begged their way as far as Kolar, where Fatte Na)-ak proposed to marry the
elder and was accepted. She, however, died without issue, and he then took to
himself her younger sister, who became the mother of Haidar.

Fatte Muhammad and the eldest son by the first wife were killed in 1729, in a
battle between his patron, Abdul Rasul Khan of Dod Ballapur, Subadar of Sira, and
Tahir Khan, the Faujdar of Chittur, under whom he had formerly served, who now
sought to gain possession of Sira as Subadar. The bodies of the slain father and son
were conveyed to Kolar, and buried in the mausoleum. Meanwhile, the family of
Fatte Muhammad had been confined in Dod Ballapur as hostages for his fidelity, in
accordance with the usual practice of those times. Abdul Rasul had also fallen in
battle, and Abbas Khuli Khan, his son, being left in possession of the Dod Ballapur
jagir on resigning all claim to Sira, now proceeded to plunder the families thus
placed in his power. Shabaz and Haidar, the former about nine and the latter seven
years of age, were tortured for payment of a pretended balance due from their father.
When suffered to depart, the mother with her children went to Bangalore, and found
shelter with her brother, Ibrahim Sahib, who commanded some peons under the
Killedar. Shabaz, when old enough, obtained a subordinate command, and rose to
the position in which he appears before Devanhalli.

NANJA-RAJ 373

An order soon arrived from Nasir Jang as Subadar of the Dekhan
for the Mysore troops to attend him in an expedition against Arcot. A
force, which included Haidar and his brother, was accordingly sent
under Berki ^'enkata Kao, and joined the main army at Madgiri. It is
unnecessary to follow the fortunes of the several claimants to the
Navabship of the Carnatic, with the rival struggles of the English and
the French in support of one or other. Suffice it to say that when
Nasir Jang was treacherously killed and his camp broken up, Haidar
took advantage of the confusion and managed to secure two camel
loads of gold coins, which were safely despatched to Devanhalli, as well
as aljout 300 horses and 500 muskets, picked up at various times.
The Mysore troops shortly after returned to their own country.

In 1751 Muhammad Ali, the English candidate at Trichinopoly,
opposed to Chanda Sahib, the French candidate at Arcot, sent an
ambassador named Seshagiri Pandit to Mysore for assistance. The
dalavayi Deva-Raj was adverse to engaging in the enterprise ; liut his
younger brother Nanja-Raj was tempted by an extravagant promise of
the cession of Trichinopoly and all its possessions down to Cape
Comorin, to lend the acquired assistance, and agreed to make pro-
vision for Muhammad Ali in giving him Hardanhalli, at the head of
the pass to Trichinopoly, as a jdgir.

About the time of Clive's celebrated siege and subsequent defence
of Arcot, a Mysore army, consisting of 5,000 horse and 10,000 infantry,
marched from Seringapatam under the command of Nanja-Rdj. The
only regular troops in the force were a small body in the corps of Haidar
Ndyak, armed with the muskets before mentioned. The army had
borne no part in warfare, when the desertion and murder of Chanda
Sahib occurred. His head, however, was sent as a trophy to Seringa-
patam, and hung up over the Mysore gate. The war seemed now to
be at an end, and Nanja-Raj claimed Trichinopoly. Muhammad Ali,
unable any longer to conceal from the English the illegally formed
agreement, declared that he had never intended to observe the compact.
At the same time he endeavoured to deceive Nanja-Raj with fresh
promises that he would deliver up the place in two months, and gave
up to him the revenues of the island of Seringham and the adjacent
districts. Nanja-Rdj occupied the island, intercepted the supplies from
Trichinopoly, mtrigued with the French, and tried to gain the fort by
treachery. Though powerfully assisted by the French, all attempts on
the place were frustrated by the skilful measures of Major Lawrence.
Nanja-Rdj then endeavoured to enter into a treaty with the ICnglish,
but this came to nothing. Meanwhile news arrived of a serious danger
threatening at home, and Nanja-Rdj returned to Mysore in 1755 at the

374

JIISTORY

summons of his brother, having nearly exhausted the treasury in the
expenses of this unprofitable war, added to a subsidy paid during most
of the time to his Mahratta ally Morari Rao, and a loan of ten lakhs
of pagodas to Muhammad Ali, which was never repaid.

The danger which called for the return of the troops under Nanja-
Raj was the approach of Salabat Jang, Subadar of the Dekhan, with
a powerful French force under M. Ikissy, to demand arrears of tribute.
Deva-Raj had no money to meet this demand and the enemy therefore
invested Seringapatam. Matters were brought to a crisis before Nanja-
Raj, though hastening with forced marches, could arrive. Deva-Raj
was therefore driven to compromise for a payment of fifty-six lakhs of
rupees. To raise this sum " the whole of the plate and jewels belong-
ing to the Hindu temples in the town were put into requisition,
together with the jewels and precious metals constituting the immediate
property or personal ornaments of the Raja and his family : but the
total sum which could thus be realized amounted to no more than one-
third of what was stipulated. For the remainder Deva-Raj prevailed
on the soucars, or bankers, of the capital to give security, and to deliver
as hostages their principal gumdstas or confidential agents : but as he
was never afterwards enabled to satisfy the soucars, they left the
gumastas to their fate, and of the two-thirds for which security was
given not one rupee was ever realized. Of the unhappy hostages,
some died in prison, others escaped, and after a period the remainder
were released." On hearing of this transaction, Nanja-Raj halted, and
discharged one-third of his army ; not without great difficulty in paying
their arrears.

Haidar, who had continued to advance in fa\ our during the opera-
tions before Trichinopoly, was now appointed Faujdar of Dindigal.
He had enlisted a considerable body of Bedar peons and of Pindari
horsemen, and with the aid of Khande Rao, a Brahman miitsaddi,
organized a perfect system of plunder, the profits of which were
divided between Haidar and the plunderers.

" Moveable property of every description was their object ; and they did
not hesitate to acquire it by simple theft from friends, when that could be done
without suspicion and with moi'e convenience than from enemies. Nothing
was unseasonable or unacceptable ; from convoys of ^rain, down to the
clothes, turbans, and ear-rings of travellers or villagers, whether men,
women, or children. Cattle and sheep were among the most profitable heads
of plunder : muskets and horses were sometimes obtained in booty, some-
times by purchase. The numbers under his command increased with his
resources ; and before he left Trichinopoly, besides the usual appendages of
a chief of rank, in elephants, camels, tents, and magnificent appointments,
he was rated on the returns and received pay for one thousand five hundred

HAIDAR ALT 2>1S

horses, three thousand regular infantry, two thousand peons, and four guns,
with their equipments."

Haidar proceeded with a considerable force to the south to lake
charge of his district, while Khande Rao was left at the capital to
protect his interests. By a great variety of fictitious charges, Haidar
managed to accumulate a large treasure, and, with the aid of skilled
artificers under French masters, began to organize a regular artillery,
arsenal and laboratory.

In 1756 the young Raja, now twenty-seven years of age, becoming
impatient of his position, was led into a plot for confining the ministers
and taking the power into his own hands. The plot was discovered,
and Deva-Raj counselled mild measures. But Nanja-Raj stormed the
palace, forced the Raja to take his seat on the throne, and then cut off
the noses and ears of his partisans before his face. This disgusting
affair, and the contempt of his counsel, led Deva-Raj to retire from the
capital. Accompanied by his family and a large body of adherents, he
descended the Gajalhatti pass in February 1757, and fixed his residence
at Satyamangala. To meet his expenses he revoked the assignments
made to Haidar, whom, therefore, Khande Rao advised to come to
Seringapatam at once. Before he arrived, however, the Mahrattas under
Balaji Rao appeared, demanding a contribution. Nanja-Raj in vain
represented his absolute inability. Seringapatam was besieged, and the
operations being directed by Europeans, was soon reduced to extremity.
Nanja-Raj was forced to compromise for thirty-two lakhs of rupees, but
as all the cash and jewels he could muster amounted to no more than
five lakhs, a large tract of country wis surrendered in pledge,^ and the
Mahrattas departed, leaving agents for the collection of revenue, and
six thousand horse, in the pledged districts. On Haidar's arrival he
expressed his regret that his troops had not been ordered up from
Dindigal, advi.sed that the revenue should be withheld from the
Mahrattas, and their troops expelled at the beginning of the rains,
which would prevent an invasion for that season. This was accordingly
done. Haidar then waited on Deva-Raj, and it was arranged between
them that the resumed revenues should be restored to Haidar, with
soucar security for three lakhs, in exchange for a military contribution
of twelve lakhs to Haidar for assistance rendered to the Nair Raja of
Palghat, which Hari Singh, a bra\e I\.ajput adherent of Deva-Raj and
Haidar's rival in the Mysore army, was deputed to collect Haidar now
returned to Dindigal and planned the conc^uest of Madura, which did

1 The districts plc(li:;etl weio Nafjamangala, Bellur, Kikkeri, Cli;uiia\patna, Kadiir,
Banavar, Ihunlialli, Ilonvalli, 'ruiixckcrc, Kaiulikoio, Cliikiuiyakanlialli, Kaikilia,
Kallur, and lluliyurdurga.

37^^ HISTORY

not succeed ; and he shorlly returned to Scringapatam, wlierc his
presence was urgently required.

I'he troops, whose pay had long fallen into arrears, had mutinied
and sat in dhariia at the gate of the minister. Xanja-Raj sold the
provisions in store, but the proceeds fell far short of the demand.
Haidar, hearing of the state of affairs, hastened to Satyamangala and
prevailed on the old chief Deva-Raj, then very ill, to return to the
capital and unite with his brother in restoring order at this critical
juncture. But Nanja-Raj was required first to make atonement to
the Raja for his former outrage. This done, he went forth with a great
procession to meet Deva-Raj and conduct him from Mysore to the
capital. Here Deva-Raj died, six days after his arrival, probably from
dropsy, though suspicion naturally fell on Nanja-Raj.

Nanja-Raj, disgusted with the task of liquidating the arrears due to
the troops, now requested Haidar and Khande Rao to undertake it.
This they did after a strict scrutiny of the demands, which their con-
summate skill in such matters enabled them to rid of all excessive and
false charges ; and the claims were finally settled by distribution of all
the available state property, down to the Raja's elephants and horses.
At the same time Haidar's own troops were placed as guards of the
fort ; and as soon as the mutineers, having been paid and discharged,
had left the capital, the most wealthy chiefs in the army were seized and
all their property confiscated as ringleaders in the mutiny.

Hari Singh, who had been sent to receive the tribute due from Mala-
bar, found himself unable to realize any of it, and on hearing of the
death of his patron Deva-Raj, was marching back, when Haidar, to get
rid of his rival, under pretence of sending back troops to Dindigal, des-
patched a force which fell upon Hari Singh at night while encamped at
Avanashi, and massacred him as a mutineer with the greater part of his
followers. Haidar presented three guns and fifteen horses to the Raja,
and kept the rest of the plunder. At the same time, in lieu of the soucar
security which I)e\a-Rdj had given him, an assignment was granted on
the revenues of Coimbatore, and the fort and district of Bangalore were
conferred on him as a personal jdgir.

The Mahrattas, whose troops had been expelled as before stated, now
returned, early in 1759, in great force, under Gopal Hari; and re-
occupying all the pledged districts, suddenly appeared before Bangalore,
which they invested, and at the same time sent a detachment which
surprised Channapatna. Haidar was appointed to the chief command
of the army to oppose this invasion. He stationed one detachment at
Malvalli, under his maternal uncle Mir Ibrahim, and another at Maddur
under Latf Ali Beg. The latter, by feigning fear of attack, drew out the

HAIDAR A LI 377

Mahrattas from Chaimapatna, and then surprised and took it by
escalade. Haidar now concentrated his forces near Channapatna, and
(lopal Hari, raising the blockade of Bangalore, marched to meet him with
a superior force. After three months of various warfare, Gopal Hari,
finding himself straitened by the activity of his opponent, proposed a
negotiation. It was arranged that the Mahrattas should relinquish all
claim to the districts formerly pledged, and that Mysore should pay thirty-
two lakhs in discharge of all demands, past and present. To raise the
money a nazardna or gift was levied from all the principal public ser-
vants and wealthy inhabitants, but Khande Rao could obtain only six-
teen lakhs from this source. The Mahratta soucars, however, made them-
selves responsilile for the rest on the personal security of Haidar, on
the understanding that he should have the management of the restored
districts in order to realize the amount.

The Mahrattas now withdrew to their own country, and Haidar
returned in triumph to Seringapatam, where he was received by the
Raja in the most splendid durbar since the time of Chikka De\a-Raja.
He was saluted with the title of Fatte Haidar Bahddi'ii\ and Nanja-Raj
on his aj)proach rose up to receive him and embraced him.

Before long the pay of the troops again fell into arrears, and Haidar
was again the medium of satisfying their demands. This he was com-
missioned to do by the Raja on condition that he renounced Xanja-
Raj \ and the fresh assignments made to enable him to meet the
demand placed in his hands more than half the possessions of the king-
dom. Khande Rao was viXdAo. pradhana^ and on Nanja-Raj was settled
a jagir of three lakhs of pagodas, with a stipulation that he should main-
tain 1,000 horse and 3,000 foot without personal service. Nanja-Raj,
who had been the virtual ruler of Mysore for nearly twenty years, yielded
to necessity, and departed from the capital in June, 1759, with all his
family and adherents. He lingered, however, at Mysore, under pre-
tence of visiting the temple at Nanjangud, until it became necessary
for Haidar to regularly besiege the place and force him to retire. His
jagir was in consequence reduced to one lakh, and he was re(|uired to
fix his residence at Konanur in the west. His daughter, married to the
Raja, died soon after. Haidar now received a further assignment of
four districts for the expenses of this siege, though the grant was
opposed even by Khande Rao.

A French emissary, styling himself the Bishui) of Halicarnassus,
shortly arrived with proposals to Haidar to join them in expelling the
English from Arcot. The terms of a treaty for the purpose were con-
cluded with 1-ally at I'ondicherry on the 4th of June, 1760. Haidar
was to furnish 3,000 select horse and 5,000 se[)oys, wilii artillery, to be

378 HISTORY

paid hy the l-'rcnch ; and on a favourable conclusion of the vvar Trichi-
nopoly, Madura, and Tinnevelly were to be ceded to Mysore. In order
to clear the way from Seringapatam to Arcot, the district of KaramahaV
though in the possession of the Navah of Kadapa, was taken posses-
sion of by Haidar, as well as Anekal, from the palegar of that place ;
while the French yielded up the fort of Tyagar as a point of communi-
cation. The Mysorean troops, commanded by Makhdum Ali, on
descending the ghats, gained one easy and unexpected victory at
Trivadi on the 17th of July. But the ambitious prospects which this
opened up were swiftly blighted by the imminent jeopardy in which
Haidar in a moment was placed.

The royal party at Seringapatam found that an exchange of Haidar
for Nanja Raj had left them in the same dependent condition as before,
and a plot was formed by the old dowager and Khande Rao for getting
rid of one whose recent encroachments tended to a complete usurpation
of the government. A favourable opportunity seemed now to offer. A
large portion of Haidar's troops were absent at Arcot ; the remainder
were encamped on the north of the river, which was too full to ford ;
while Haidar himself with a small guard occupied an exposed position
under the guns of the fort. Negotiations were opened with a Mahratta
force under Visaji Pandit, which was ravaging the country between
Ballapur and Devanhalli, and the services obtained of 6,000 horse to
reach Seringapatam by the 12th of August. On the morning of that
day the fort gates were not opened as usual, and Haidar was roused up
by a tremendous cannonade upon his position at the INIahanavami
mantapa — the site of the present Darya Daulat. In amazement he sent
for Khande Rao, and was informed that he it was who was directing
the fire. He saw at once the extent of the treachery, and sheltering his
family- and followers as well as possible, promptly secured all the boats
{harigbbi) on the river. The Mahrattas, as usual, not having arrived,
Khande Rao could not attack, and the day passed in negotiations.
The result was that the landing-place on the northern bank was left
unguarded, and Haidar escaped that night across the river with a few
tried followers, bearing what money and jewels they could carry, but
forced to leave behind his wife with his eldest son Tipu, nine years of
age, and all his foot-guards. The family were removed to the fort and
kindly treated by Khande Rao.

Haidar fled north-east and arrived before daylight at Anekal,

' Meaning the twelve districts, and so called after twelve hill forts, viz., Krishna-
giii, Tripatur, \'aniambadi, Jagadeva-gada, Kavila-gada, Maharaj-gada, Bhiijanga-
gada, Katara-gada, Gagana-gada, Sudarshana-gada, Tatukal, and Rayakota.

- In the fright his wife was prematurely delivered of a son, Karim.

KHANDE RylO 379

commanded by his brother-in-law Ismail Ali, having ridden seventy-five
miles on one horse. Ismail Ali was at once despatched to see how
matters stood at Bangalore. He had scarcely arrived there before
Ivhande Rao's orders to seize the kiledar were received. But it was
too late. Kabir Beg, an old friend of Haidar.s, was faithful to him.
The Hindu soldiers were excluded and the fort gates shut. Haidar,
on receiving the news, at once set out and reached Bangalore the same
evening.

His position was indeed desperate. " He was now left, as it were, to
begin the world again on the resources of his own mind. The bulk of
his treasures and his train of artillery and military stores all lost : the
territorial revenue at the command of Khande Rao : and the only
possessions on which he could rest any hope for the restoration of his
affairs were — Bangalore at the northern, and Dindigal at the southern
extremity of the territories of Mysore, with Anekal and the fortresses of
Baramahal. The sole foundation of a new army was the corps of
Makhdum Ali ; and its junction was nearly a desperate hope. He had,
however, despatched from Anekal positive orders for them to commence
their march without an hour's delay ; withdrawing altogether the garrison
of Tyagar, and every man that could be spared from the posts of Bara-
mahal." He obtained a loan of four lakhs on his personal security from
the saukars of Bangalore and was joined by a few adherents. Among
others, a Muhammadan of rank, Fazal-ulla Khan, son of the late Xavab
of Sira, offered him his services. All hope now rested on the corps of
Makhdum Ali ; against whom Khande Rao had sent the Mahrattas
and the best of his troops, and reduced him to i^reat extremities.

A most unexpected turn in events saved Haidar from apparent
destruction. Visaji Pandit was found ready to negotiate, and agreed to
depart on the cession of Baramahal and a payment of three lakhs of
rupees. The money was at once paid, and the Mahrattas marched off.
Makhdum Ali, relieved from his critical blockade, proceeded to Banga-
lore. The explanation of the haste of the Mahratta retreat, which had
excited Haidar's suspicion, now appeared. News had secretly been
received of the crushing defeat of the Mahrattas by the Abdalis on the
memorable field of Panipat, and all their forces were ordered to
concentrate. Haidar, who had delayed giving up Baramahal, therefore
retained it. He detached Makhdum Ali to secure the revenues of
Coimbatore and Salem ; and proceeded in person, accompanied by a
French contingent, against Khande Rao, to whom place after place was
yielding. He crossed the Kaveri below Sosile, and the two armies met
near Nanjangud. Haidar's force being inferior in point of numbers, he
endeavoured to avoid an action while waiting for reinforcements. But

38o JJISTORY

Khandc Rao forced on a battle, and com[)elling Haidars infantry to
change its front, charged it while performing that evolution. Haidar
was severely defeated and retired to Hardanhalli.

" Nothing but a confidence in powers of simulation altogether un-
rivalled could have suggested to Haidar the step which he next pursued.
With a select body of two hundred horse, including about seventy
French hussars under M. Hugel, he made a circuitous march by night ;
and early on the next morning, unarmed, and alone, presented himself
as a suppliant at the door of Nanja-Raj at Konanur, and being admitted,
threw himself at his feet. With the semblance of real penitence and
grief, he attributed all his misfortunes to the gross ingratitude with
which he had requited the patronage of Nanja-Raj, entreated him to
resume the direction of public affairs and take his old servant once
more under his protection. Nanja-Raj was completely deceived ; and
with his remaining household troops, which during the present troubles
he had augmented to two thousand horse and about an equal number
of indifferent infantry, he gave to the ruined fortunes of Haidar the
advantages of his name and influence, announcing in letters despatched
in every direction his determination to exercise the office of
sarvdd/iikdri, which he still nominally retained, with Haidar as his
da/avdyi."

Khande Rao now manoeuvred to prevent the junction of Haidar
with his army, and had arrived at Katte Malalvadi. The destruction of
Haidar and his new friends appeared to be inevitable, when his talent
for deception again released him from the danger. He fabricated
letters, in the name and with the seal of Nanja-Rdj, to the principal
officers of Khande Rao's army, to deliver him up in accordance with an
imaginary pre\ious compact. It was arranged that these letters should
fall into the hands of Khande Rao, who, thinking himself betrayed,
mounted his horse and fled in haste to Seringapatam. His forces
became in consequence disorganized, when Haidar fell upon and
routed them, capturing all the infantry, guns, stores and baggage. He
next descended the Ghats, took all the forts that had declared for
Khande Rao, and by the month of May returned to the south of
Seringapatam with a large force. Here for several days he pretended
to be engaged in negotiating, and every evening made a show of
exercising his troops till after sunset. On the eighth day, instead of
dismissing them as usual, he made a sudden dash across the river, and
surprising Khande Rao's forces, completely routed them and encamped
on the island.

He now sent a message to the trembling Raja, demanding the sur-
render of Khande Rao as being his servant, and the liquidation of

HAIDAR A LI 381

arrears due, which were designedly enhanced ; offering at the same
time to reHnquish the service when the conditions were complied with.
He however expounded his real views to the ofificers of state, and they,
working upon the fears of the helpless Raja, prevailed upon him to
resign the entire management of the country into the hands of the
conqueror, reserving only districts yielding three lakhs of pagodas for
himself and one lakh for Nanja-Raj. Khande Rao was delivered up,
Haidar having promised to spare his life and take care of him as a
parrot, an expression used to denote kind treatment. It was however
fulfilled to the letter, by confining him in an iron cage and giving him
rice and milk for his food, in which condition he ended his days.

Haidar's usurpation was by this time complete ; but he entered on
the government of the country, in June 1761, with a studied show of
reluctance and the form of a mock submission to the wishes of the
Raja. After two months, having placed Seringapatam under the
command of his brother-in-law Makhdum Ali, he proceeded to
Bangalore. Basalat Jang, a brother of the Subadar of the Dekhan,
and therefore one of the claimants to that dignity, was at this time in
possession of Adoni and meditated establishing his own pretensions.
The south was the direction in which he could with least opposition
extend his territory. He accordingly, in June 1761, planned to reduce
Sira, then in the hands of the ]Mahrattas, but found it would require
too long a siege. He therefore marched to Hoskote, which also defied
his efforts. Negotiations were soon opened between Haidar and
Basalat Jang ; and the latter, in return for a gift of three lakhs of
rupees, invested Haidar with the office of Navab of Sira, styling him in
the deeds of investiture Haidar Ali Khan Bahadur.^

Haidar now united his army to that of Basalat Jang and captured
Hoskote. Dod Ballapur was next taken,'- and lastly Sira. Here
Basalat Jang left Haidar, being called to the north by the hostile
movements of his brother Nizam Ali, now Subadar of the Dekhan.
Haidar returned and attacked Chik Ballapur. Morari Rao of Ciutti.
advancing to its relief, was defeated, and the place fell after a most
obstinate defence, the palegar taking refuge on Nandi-durga.
Kodikonda, Penugonda and Madaksira, possessions of Morari Rao,
were next taken ; and returning to Sira, Haidar received the submission
of the palegars of Raydurga and Harpanhalli, and forced that of the
palegar of Chitaldroog. The latter introduced to him a pretender to

' He also offered him the tille oi Jang, h\\\ Haidar, who could not pronounce it
better than Zaitg, fancied it contained some covert sneer, and so declined it in favour
of Fazal-ulla, who thus became Haibat Jang.

- Abbas Khuli Khan, to whom he owed a deeji revenge (sec y. 372), abaiuifined
his family and fled to Madras. But Haidar treated the family with great generosity.

382 JIISTOR Y

the ihroiic ul" Hcdiuir, as related in the history of the Chitaldroog
district, and the invasion of ikdnur was planned. He entered the
province at the end of January, 1763, and at Kumsi found the late
Raja's prime minister, who had been long imprisoned at this place.
From him every information was obtained as to the approaches and
resources of the capital, in consequence of which Haidar, rejecting all
the offers of money made to buy him off, pressed on. The Rani and
her paramour fled, followed by the inhabitants en masse, who took
shelter in the woods. Haidar, the instant of his arrival at the barrier,
in March, ordered a noisy but feigned attack to be made on the posts
in his front, while he himself, at the head of a select column, entered
the city by a private path pointed out by the minister. The flames of
the palace were extinguished and a seal placed on the doors of all but
the poorest of the deserted dwellings. A booty was thus secured which
has been valued at twelve millions sterling. Detachments were
despatched to the coast and in pursuit of the Rani. The former took
possession of the fortified island of Basavaraj-durga, as well as of
Honavar and Mangalore. The latter took the Rani prisoner at
Ballalrayan-durga. She, with her paramour, her adopted son, the
nominal Raja, and even the pretender whose cause Haidar had
ostensibly espoused, were all alike sent to a common imprisonment at
Madgiri.

This important conquest was ever spoken of by Haidar Ali as the
foundation of ail his subsequent greatness. He designed to make Bed-
nur his capital, and gave it the name of Haidar-nagar. His family was
removed thither, and the building commenced of a splendid palace
(never finished). He also established a mint and struck coins — known
as Haidari and Bahaduri pagodas — in his own name. A dockyard and
naval arsenal were further formed on the western coast for the construc-
tion of ships of war.

The former officials of Bednur had been, to a great extent, retained
in their offices, and when Haidar Ali, having contracted the usual Mal-
nad fever, was unable to attend to business, they formed a conspiracy
for assassinating him and recovering the capital. But it was discovered.
The commissioners appointed to investigate it were found to be involved,
and instantly hanged in his presence. Three hundred conspirators
suffered the same fate before the day ended. All opposition was thus
effectually crushed.

The hill country of Sunda was subdued in December. Meanwhile
Reza Ali Khan, son of Chanda Sahib, and the French candidate for the
Navabship of the Carnatic, who, escaping from Pondicherry on its
capture by the English in i 761, had been living since in Ceylon, landed

HAIDAR A LI 383

in Kanara and claimed protection from Haidar. He was received with
distinction, and presented with a jagir of a lakh of rupees. By his ad-
vice many changes were introduced into the army. The infantry were
for the first time dressed in a uniform manner, and classed into avval,
first, and duyam, second; the former composed of tried and veteran
troops with superior pay. The etiquette and ceremonials of the court
were also regulated, and a greater show of splendour assumed in retinue
and personal surroundings.

Haidar now bethought himself of appeasing the Mahrattas and the
Nizam, the former for the seizure of Sira, the latter for accepting the
title of Navab from his brother. Embassies with gifts were accordingly
sent to either court. At Haidarabad the object was attained, but the
]^Iahrattas could not be reconciled, and Haidar resolved to anticipate
an invasion. Savanur was conquered, and the Mysore frontier ad-
vanced nearly to the Krishna, when Gopal Rao, the Mahratta chief of
Miraj, was ordered to check further progress, but he was defeated.
Madhava Rao, the Peshva, now crossed the Krishna with an immense
army, and Haidar sustained a damaging defeat at Rattihalli, with severe
loss of the flower of his army. He fell back to Anavatti, where also
the Mahrattas were victorious, and Haidar, with fifty cavalry, barely
escaped by the fleetness of their horses. The Mahrattas retook all the
recent conquests to the north ; and Haidar, driven back into IJednur
with the most hopeless prospects, sent off his family and treasure with
all speed to Seringapatam. At length negotiations were opened, and the
Mahrattas retired in February, 1765, on the restoration of all places
taken from Morari Rao of Ciutti and Abdul Hakim Khan of Savanur,
and the payment of thirty-two lakhs of rupees. Sira was left in Haidar's
hands.

During this unfavourable aspect of his affairs to the west, all his
recent acquisitions to the east were in a flame of rebellion. His brother-
in-law, Mir Ali Reza, was sent thither, and restored his authority. The
palegar of Chik Ballapur, being starved out on Nandi-durga, was forced
to surrender, and sent a prisoner, with his family, first to Bangalore and
then to Coimbatore.

The conquest of Malabar was next undertaken, on information
derived from Ali Raja, the Mapilla ruler of Cannamore, who thought
with help from Haidar to extend his own power. A force was left at
Basvapatna for the security of the north, and with all disposable troops
Haidar descended into Kanara early in 1 766. The Nairs were subdued
with difficulty, owing to the wooded nature of the country. The northern
states being conquered, the Zamorin of Calicul came forward and made
his submission. Haidar suspected treachery, and, while concluding an

384 JITSrOR Y

agreement to reinstate him on payment of four lakhs of Venetian sequins,
secretly sent a force to seize Calicut. The Zamorin was perplexed and
delayed payment, on which he was confined to his palace and his minis-
ters tortured. Fearing the same fate, he set fire to the building and
perished with all his family. Leaving a force at Calicut, Haidar moved
on to Coimbatore, receiving the submission of the Rajas of Cochin and
Palghat on the way. In three months the Nairs rebelled. Haidar
returned to put them down, and adopted the expedient of deporting
vast numbers to the less populous parts of Mysore. But the usual con-
sequence to which the natives of Malabar are subject followed from the
change of climate, and of 15,000 who were removed not 200 survived.
A general amnesty was proclaimed, and the erection commenced of a
fort at Palghat as a point of communication with the country.

During these operations the pageant raja, Chikka Krishna-Raja, had
died, and Haidar had sent instructions to instal his eldest son, Nanja-
Raj, then eighteen years of age, in his place. On arriving at the capital in
1767, he discovered that this youth was not likely to acquiesce in his
subservient position. Haidar immediately resumed the three lakhs of
pagodas allowed for the Raja, plundered the palace of every article of
value except the ornaments the women actually had on their persons
at the time, and placed his own guards over the place.

Intelligence meanwhile arrived that the Mahrattas and Nizam Ali
had planned a joint invasion of Mysore. The Mahrattas first appeared,
under Madhava Rao, and Haidar in vain endeavoured to stop their
progress by cutting the embankments of the tanks, poisoning the water
in the wells, burning the forage, and driving off all the villagers and
cattle on their route. The Mahrattas arrived at Raydurga and marched
down the bed of the Haggari to Sira. Here Mir Sahib, Haidar's
brother-in-law, betrayed his trust, and gave it up in return for Guram-
konda, the possession of his ancestors. Haidar now made strenuous
efforts to treat with the Mahrattas, who had overrun all the east, before
Nizam Ali should join them. At length, by the address of Appaji Ram,
a witty and skilful negotiator, the Mahrattas agreed to retire on payment
of 35 lakhs of rupees, half to be paid on the spot, and Kolar to be
retained in pledge for the rest. On Nizam All's arrival soon after,
Haidar persuaded him into an alliance with himself against the English.
Meanwhile, discovering that Nanja-Raj, the old minister, was intriguing
with the Mahrattas and Nizam Ali, he induced him by a false oath of
security to come to Seringapatam, on the plea that his advice was
needed in the critical state of the country, and then made him prisoner,
reducing his allowances to the bare necessaries of life.

Nizam Ali deceived the English, with whom he was allied, up to the

If'AR WITH THE EXGLISH 385

last moment, but on the 25th of August, 1767, the forces of Mysore
and Haidarabacl descended the Ghats and attacked Colonel Smith, who,
though at first taken by surprise, completely defeated them at Trino-
mali on the 26th September. Tipu, then seventeen, had, under guidance
of Ghazi Khan, his military preceptor, penetrated with a body of horse to
the very precincts of Madras, when, hearing the result of the battle of
Trinomali, he retired with precipitation to join his father. Mutual
recriminations ensued between Haidar Ali and Nizam Ali, and notning
was done for a month. The former then seized u[)on Tripatur and
Vaniambadi, but signally failed in an attack on the hill fort of Ambur.
In the hope of closing the campaign with a brilliant exploit, he went in
person against an English detachment escorting supplies, but was
repulsed, his horse being shot under him and his turban pierced by a
bullet. Leaving some cavalry to watch the English, the confederates
retired in disappointment above the Ghats with all their forces at the
end of the year.

On the side of the English, a force operating from the Northern Sir-
kars soon penetrated to Orangal. The Nizam was therefore glad to
conclude a treaty with them, resigning all claims to Mysore, and,
separating from Haidar Ali, returned to his capital. Haidar also made
overtures, but without success. Meanwhile a fleet was fitting out at
Bombay for capturing the Mysorean ports on the western coast, and
the chiefs of Malabar were prepared to rebel. Haidar, leaving Fazal
Ulla Khan at Bangalore, marched with all haste to the west and retook
Mangalore, Honavar, and Basavaraj-durga, whi( h had fallen to the
English. He then visited Bednur, and levied heavy fines on all the
landholders for furnishing supplies to his enemies. He also obtained
large contributions from the chiefs of Malabar in consideration of
recognizing their independence, which, however, they never attained.

The English forces in the east were in two detachments. One
secured all the fortified places in Salem, Erode, Coimbatore, and I )indi-
gal ; while the other, after losing much time in the capture of Krish-
nagiri, had ascended the Ghats, taken Mulbagal, Kolar, and Hosur,
and was awaiting, burdened with the care of Muhammad Ali, the junc-
tion of the two at Hoskote. Here a corps under Morari Rao joined it,
on the same day that Haidar Ali arrived at Bangalore. He made a
desperate attempt to surprise the camp of Morari Rao, but failed.
Then, sending off his family and treasure to Savan-durga, he set off on
one of tho.se extraordinary diversions which seemed always to occur to
him when his affairs were most critical. He passed rapidly by a cir-
cuitous route, east and then north, to Guramkonda, with the view of
inducing Mir Sahib to return to his allegiance. Ihis unlikely object

c c

386 I/ISTOK Y

was actually attained, and Haidar, reinforced, returned towards Kolar,
and opened negotiations. But his offer of Biramahal and ten lakhs of
rupees fell far short of the demands of the English and of Muhammad
Ali, and came to nothing.

Haidar had meanwhile despatched Fazal Ulla Khan to Seringapatam,
whence he descended the Gajalhatti pass with a field force for the
recovery of the districts in the south. He himself, after some indecisive
engagements, suddenly descended into the Baramahal, and, giving out
that he had defeated the E)nglish, passed on to Coimbatore, gaining
possession of the fortified places on the route. The garrisons of Erod
and Kaveri[)uram held out, but, induced to surrender on a promise of
safety, were marched off as prisoners to Seringapatam. Fazal Ulla
Khan invaded Madura and Tinnivelly, while Haidar, levying four lakhs
of rupees from the Raja of Tanjore, moved by rapid marches towards
Cuddalore. Negotiations were again opened, Haidar's first condition
being that he would treat only with the English and not with Muham-
mad Ali. But the terms could not be agreed on, and hostilities con-
tinued. Haidar, who knew that the Mahrattas were preparing for
another invasion of Mysore, now secretly sent off the whole body of
his army to reascend the Ghats, while he himself, with 6,000 chosen
horse, marched 140 miles in three days and a half, and appeared at the
gates of Madras. He had come to make peace in person with he
English. A treaty was thus concluded on the 29th March, 1769, on
the moderate conditions of mutual restitution of conquered districts,
an exchange of prisoners, and reciprocal assistance in purely defensive
war. Thus ended what is known in the annals of British India as the
first Mysore war. Haidar returned leisurely to Kolar and then to
Bangalore.^

He was soon again in the field, in order to acquire the means to meet
the meditated Mahratta invasion. When he had allied himself with
Nizam Ali, it was secretly stipulated that Kadapa, Karnul, and other
places up to the Tungabhadra, should be transferred to the control of
Mysore. He resolved now to enforce this agreement, and, moving
north-east, levied contributions on the Pathan navabs of Kadapa and
Karnul, and the palegars of the neighbourhood. He, however, feigned
friendship for Morari Rao, and was repulsed in an attempt on Bellary.
But, unable to meet the superior forces of the Mahrattas, now (1770)
in full march on his capital, he gradually retired before them, laying
waste the whole country to prevent their advance, and placing adetach-

' When Haidar appeared before Madras, so terrified was Abbas Khuli Khan of
Dod Ballapur, who had taken refuge here {see page 381), that he embarl<:ed in a crazy
vessel, and dared not land until the Mysore army had returned above the Ghats.

CHAM A RAJA 387

mcnt at Bednur, under Tipu, to cut off their supplies and harass them
in the rear. Negotiations being opened, Madhava Rao demanded a
crore of rupees ; Haidar would offer only twelve lakhs. Both parties
claimed help from the English, who therefore remained neutral.

The Mahrattas conquered the whole of the north and east of the
country, their progress being, however, long arrested by a gallant defence
of the little fort of Nijagal (Nelamangala taluq), which was at last taken
by the palegar of Chitaldroog, who had joined the Mahrattas. Mad-
hava Rao was now taken ill and returned to Poona, leaving Tryambak
Mama in command. Haidar was emboldened by this change and took
the field, but met with no success. At last an attempt to retreat un-
observed by way of the Melukote hills being discovered, the Mysore
army was attacked, disorganized, and totally routed with great slaughter,
at Chinkurali, on the 5th of March, 1771. Haidar fled on horseback to
Seringapatam. Tipu, who was thought to have fallen, escaped in dis-
guise. For ten days the Mahrattas were engaged in dividing their
spoils. They then sat down before Seringapatam with a large force, the
remainder being employed in ravaging the whole country above and
below the Ghats. Haidar could produce little effect on them, and in
June, 1772, a treaty was concluded, by which he bound himself to pay
thirty lakhs of rupees, one-half at once, besides five lakhs for " durbar
expenses" ! For the balance, Kolar, Hoskote, Dod Ballapur, Sira, Mad-
giri, Chanraydurga, and Guramkonda were left in their hands.

The Raja was found during these commotions to have opened an
intrigue with Tryambak Rao. He was therefore strangled, and his
brother, Chdma Rdja, put in his place. Haidar now proceeded to extort
money from all who were supposed to have any, applying the torture
where necessary. Even his brave general, Fazal UUa Khan, was not
spared, nor Xanja-Rdj, his old benefactor. The latter survived only
one year, the former gave up all he had and died in extreme poverty.

Madhava Rao died in November 1772, his successor Narayan Rao
Avas killed in August 1773, and Raghunatha Rao or Ragoba became
ostensible Peshva. Haidar considered the time favourable for action.
He sent an embassy to Madras to form an alliance with the ICnglish.
'J'ipu was detached to the north to recover the places ceded to the
Mahrattas, while Haidar suddenly invaded Coorg, as the first step
towards reconquering Malabar. The Coorgs, entirely unprejiared, were
surrounded by his troops, and a reward of five rupees offered for every
head. About 700 had been paid for, when, struck by the fine features,
Haidar relented and ordered the ma.s.sacre to cease. The landholders
Avere confirmed in their possessions on a moderately-increased rent, a
fort was erected at Mercara, and Devaiya, the Raja, who had become a

c c 2

388 HISTORY

fugitive, was captured and sent to Scringapatam. A force was at once
despatched to Malabar, which seized CaHcut and reduced the Nair
chiefs to dependence in n wonderfully short time. Tipu was equally
successful in the north, and thus, between September 1773 and
February 1774, Haidar completely recovered all the territory he had
lost. A treaty was shortly formed with Ragoba, by which Haidar
engaged to support his pretensions to be the head of the Mahratta
State, in consideration of the tribute payable from Mysore being reduced
to six lakhs. An insurrection in Coorg was promptly put down, and
Haidar returned with his army to Seringapatam early in 1775. The
negotiations with the English unfortunately came to nothing, owing to
the intrigues of Muhammad Ali, and Haidar therefore turned towards
the French.

Chima Raja now died, and there being no heir to the throne, Haidar,
who from motives of expediency .still wished it to be occupied by a
pageant king, resorted to the following method of selecting one : —
Assembling all the male children of the different branches of the
family, he introduced them into a hall strewed with fruits, sweetmeats,
and toys, telling them to help themselves. They were soon scrambling
for the things, when one little fellow took up a dagger in one hand and
a lime in the other. "That is the Raja !" exclaimed Haidar, "his first
care is military protection, his second to realize the produce of his
dominions ; bring him hither and let me embrace him." Thus did Chama
Raja IX obtain the throne, and he was accordingly installed as Raja.

About this time Haidar received a body of 1,000 men from Shiraz in
Persia to serve in his army, and sent an embassy for more. But the
latter was lost in the Gulf of Kach, and the first instalment did not long
survive the change of climate. Brahman agents were now employed to
foment dissensions in such neighbouring states as Haidar had resolved
to conquer. His assistance was thus applied for by the palegar of
Bellary, who, having been induced by such emissaries to declare his
independence, was attacked by Basalat Jang. Haidar marched to the
relief in the incredibly short space of five days, fell upon the besiegers
before they knew he had left his capital, and completely routed them,
the commander being killed, and Lally escaping with difficulty. But
Haidar promptly took their place in the batteries, and forced the chief
to surrender it to himself at discretion. Meanwhile the forces sent in
pursuit of Basalat Jang Avere bought off with a lakh of pagodas. A
demand was next made by Haidar on Morari Rao, of Gutti, and
refused. A siege ensued, and after some months Gutti was taken, all
its dependencies added to Mysore, and Morari Rao sent prisoner, first
to Seringapatam and then to Kabbal-durga, where he shortly died.

MAHRATTA IXVASION 389

Meanwhile Ragolja's power had met with a reverse which caused him
to fly to Surat, where, on the 6th of March, 1775, a treaty was con-
cluded with the English to aid him in recovering his authority. He also
proposed to Haidar to take possession of the Mahratta territories up to
the Krishna, that he might be at hand to assist. No second invitation
was needed. All the tributary palegars in the north were summoned
to attend with their troops, and Savanur was overrun ; but the monsoon
bursting with such violence as to cause great mortality in the army.
Haidar, disbanding the troops, returned to Seringapatam. All the
amildars were, however, sunmioned to the capital, the rates of revenue
were investigated and increased, the peshkash payable by tributaries
was also raised, and finally a general contribution under the name of
nazardna was levied on the whole country for the expenses of the war.

Of the claimants to Mahratta sovereignty, Ragoba being supported
by Haidar, while Nizam Ali declared for the ministerial party and the
reputed son of Narayan Rao, a joint invasion of Mysore by the latter
was the consequence. Four chiefs were sent in advance to clear Sava-
nur of Haidar's troops, but they were skilfully and completely defeated
by his general at Saunsi, two of them being taken prisoners. 'i"he main
armies of the confederates now approached. The Mahrattas, under
Parasu Ram Bhao, numbered 30,000, and were to march south-east
through Savanur. The army of Nizam Ali, estimated at 40,000, under
Ibrahim Khan, were to move south by Raichur. Haidar took post at
Gutti. Parasu Ram Bhao, on hearing of the defeat of the advance
corps, fell back beyond the Krishna for reinforcements. Ibrahim Khan,
informed of this movement, and secretly bribed by Haidar, thereupon
also retired beyond the Krishna, after he had marched as far as Adoni.
The rains set in, and j^ut a stop to further proceedings for the present.
The naval) of Kadapa and the palegar of Clhitaldroog, instead of assist-
ing Haidar, had joined the enemy. He resolved now to punish them,
and sat down before Chitaldroog. It was bravely tlcfcnded for months,
when Haidar, aware that 60,000 Mahrattas, under Hari Pant, were
approaching, concluded an agreement to retire on payment of thirteen
lakhs of pagodas.

Haidar thence advanced to meet the enemy, in whose forces his
agent had managed, by a bribe of six lakhs of rupees, to secure the
treachery of a chief of 10,000, who was to come over in the first action.
The Mahrattas, after waiting in vain for the forces of Nizam Ali, crossed
the Tungabhadra. The armies met at Raravi. Manaji Pankria, the
chief who had been bribed, hesitated. Haidar, suspecting double
treason, made dispositions which excited the suspicions of Hari Pant,
who saw he was betrayed, but knew not to what extent. "In a few

390 in STORY

moments an impenetraljlc cloud of dust arose both in front and rear of
the Mahratta h'ne, which neither decidedly approached nor decidedly
receded ; it was evidently the mass of their cavalry in full charge ; h)Ut
not towards Haidar. Some time had elapsed before he perceived that
the corps of Manaji Pankria had been enveloped and swept off the field,
and that a powerful rear-guard presented itself to cover the retreat of
the whole. The armies had not sufficiently closed to render pursuit
decisive, and two guns only were lost by Hari Pant in effecting his
retreat behind the Tungabhadra, where a strong position secured him
from insult, and afforded him leisure to investigate the extent of the dis-
affection which had produced his retreat. The troops of Manaji Pank-
ria had made a tolerabl)- gallant resistance, and attempted to move in
mass towards Haidar : the greater part, however, were cut to pieces,
and -Manaji Pankria himself wounded, and, accompanied by no more
than thirty select friends, had opened a way through the surrounding
mass, and made good his escape to Haidar." But the project of in-
vasion was thus defeated. Hari Pant retreated. Haidar rapidly
followed, and drove the enemy over the Krishna in December 1777.
He now reduced all the forts between the Krishna and the Tunga-
bhadra, making the Deshayis, or chiefs, tributary to himself.

He then returned to Chitaldroog, which was taken at last in March
1779, by treachery, as related in the history of the place. The Bedar
population, to the number of 20,000, were deported to people the island
of Seringapatam, while all the boys were converted and trained up as
soldiers, forming what were called Chela battalions.^ Kadapa was the
next object of attack. The Pathan guards were surprised and forced
to surrender : the navab retired to Sidhout, and Kadapa was taken

' A ) oung Xair, who had been taken from Malabar and forcibly converted to
Islam, with the name of Sheikh Ayaz, was appointed governor of Chitaldroog. He
was a handsome youth, and Haidar had formed the most exalted opinion of his
merits, frequently upbraiding his son Tipu for inferiority to him. "Modest as he
was faithful and brave, Ayaz wished to decline the distinction as one to which he felt
himself incompetent ; and particularly objected that he could neither read nor write,
and was consequently incapable of a civil charge." " Keep a korla* at your right
hand," said Haidar, " and that will do you better service than pen and ink." Then
assuming a graver countenance, "Place reliance," added he, "on your excellent
understanding : act from yourself alone : fear nothing firom the calumnies of the
scribblers ; but trust in me as I trust in you. Reading and writing I I how have I
risen to empire without the knowledge of either ?"

* A long whip of cotton rope, about an inch and a half in diameter at the thick
end where it is grasped, and tapering to a point at the other extremity ; this severe
instrument of personal punishment is about nine feet long ; and Haidar was con-
stantly attended by a considerable number of persons too constantly practised in
its use.

NEC O TIA TIOXS 391

without opposition. But Haidar was near losing liis life by a plot of
the Afghans. Admiring their courage, he had taken into his service all
who could find security for their behaviour among his own followers,
l^^ighty, who had not succeeded, were left that night with their arms near
his tent. They suddenly arose at dead of night, slew the guard.s, and
made for Haidar's tent. The noise awaking him, he guessed the danger,
pushed the bolster into the bed to resemble a sleeping figure, and, slit-
ting a hole in the tent, escaped. The assassins rushed in and cut at
the bed. Paralyzed with astonishment to find their victim gone, they
were instantly overpowered. Of those who survived till morning, some
had their hands and feet chopped off, and the rest were dragged at the
feet of elephants. Sidhout surrendered on the 27th of May, and Abdul
Halim Khan, the navab, was sent prisoner to Seringapatam. His
sister, whose sense of honour was only equalled by her beauty,
which surpassed that of any female captive yet secured, threatened to
destroy herself rather than enter the unlimited harem of the con(iueror
ill the usual informal manner. The ceremony of nika was therefore
performed, and this lad\-, under the title of Bakshi Begam, was soon
after placed at the head of the seraglio.

On returning to the capital, a complete revision was made of the
civil departments. Mir Sadak was made finance minister, Shamaiya
head of the police and post-office. Since the defection of Khande Rao,
every one of Haidar's ministers, Hindu and Muhammadan alike, had
died from tortures inflicted to recover real or pretended defalcations.
The unscrupulous ability of Shamaiya developed to the most cruel
perfection the system of espionage and fabrication of such charges, to
atone for which the utmost farthing was exacted under the pressure of
tortures which often terminated the lives of the unfortunate victims. A
systeuT was introduced of paying the troops on half-monthly pattis
instead of monthly, which gradually resulted in their getting only nine
or ten months' pay for the year. A double marriage was arranged in
T779 with the family of the navab of Savanur, whose eldest son was
united to Haidar's daughter, and Haidar's second son, Karim, to the
navab's daughter. The ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp at
Seringapatam, and accompanied with the gift of the unrestored half of
Savanur to the navab.

During these festivities an envoy arrived from the ministerial party
at Poona, by whom Haidar was expecting an invasion. But, induced
by the hopelessness of Ragoba's cause, now a second lime a fugitive,
and other considerations, Haidar entered into a treaty. On condition
that Ragoba's grant of territories u[i to the Krishna was i-onfirmed, the
future tribute fixed at eleven lakhs of rui)ees, and all arrears cancelled,

392 in STORY

he agreed to co-operate with the d(jniinant iMahratta party and Nizam
Ali for the expulsion of the Engh'sh from India. The failure of nego-
tiations with the latter had made him ill-disposed towards them. Two
events gave ground for open hostilities. The English being then at war
with the French, Pondicherry was taken in October 1778, and Mahe
in March 1779. The capture of the former did not directly affect
Haidar, but the latter was the port through which he received military
supplies from the Mauritius. He had, therefore, declared it to be
under his protection, as being situated in his territory, and had
threatened to lay waste the province of Arcol if it were attacked. The
other event was that an English corps, marching to relieve Adoni, pro-
ceeded through the territory of Kadapa without formal permission
obtained from Haidar, to whom it now belonged, the commanding
officer being merely furnished with a letter to the manager of the
district.

The news of this reached Haidar at the very time that the missionary
Schwartz had arrived at Seringapatam, commissioned by the Governor
of Madras to assure him of the amicable designs of the English
Government. " If the English offer the hand of peace and concord, I
will not withdraw mine," .said Haidar, but he sent letters to the Governor
requiring reparation for the alleged grievances, and referring to his
unfulfilled threat of revenge. Meanwhile, some English travellers who
landed at Calicut were seized and conveyed to Seringapatam. Mr.
Gray, member of council, was sent as an envoy to demand their release,
and to bring about a good understanding. But Haidar, on finding
that none of them were military, had let them go, and ^Ir. Gray met
them on his way ; but he proceeded on to the capital, where he was
treated with studied disrespect, for war had been determined on.

After prayers for success, in both mosques and temples, Haidar Ali
left his capital and descended the Ghats in July, 1780, with a force of
90,000 men, unequalled in strength and efficiency by any native army
that had ever been assembled in the south of India. French officers
of ability guided the operations, and the commissariat was under the
management of Purnai^'a, one of the ministers of finance. A body of
horse, under his second son, Karim Sahib, was sent to plunder Porto
Novo ; a larger body proceeded towards Madras, burning the villages
and mutilating the people who lingered near them. From Pulicat to
Pondicherry a line of desolation, extending from thirty to fifty miles in-
land, was drawn round Madras. The black columns of smoke were
visible from St. Thomas's Mount, and the bleeding victims were pouring
into Madras.

The English forces were rapidly assembled under Sir Hector Munro

BATTLE OF PORTO \'0]'0 393

at Conjcverani, but a detachment under Colonel P>aillie, which was on
its way to join the main army, was hemmed in and cut off. Arcot also
fell. Sir Eyre Coote, the Commander-in-Chief, arrived and took the
field in January. The forts in greatest danger, such as Chingleput and
Wandiwash, were at once relieved. Haidar at the same time raised
the sieges of Permacoil and Vellore. A French fleet now appeared off
the coast, and the English force moved to cover Cuddalore, which was
threatened by Haidar with the view of occupying it as a depot for the
troops expected from France. But Sir Edward Hughes, being off the
western coast with a British squadron, destroying Haidar's infant navy
in his own ports of Calicut and Mangalore, the French fleet made ofi"
for Mauritius ; and Haidar, who had avoided every opportunity of
coming to close quarters with Coote, withdrew rapidly to the interior,
leaving a sufficient force to intercept all supplies. While a want of
these, and a wretched equipment, prevented the English from following,
lie ravaged the district of Tanjore, sending off to the upper country all
that was movable, including immense herds of cattle. " Weavers and
their families," adds AVilks, " were collected and forcibly sent to people
the island of Seringapatam. Captive boys, destined to the exterior
honour of Islam, were driven to the same place with equal numbers of
females, the associates of the (then) present and the mothers of a future
race of military slaves."

In June Coote moved out against Chidambram, but, being repulsed,
retired to Porto Novo. Encouraged by this, Haidar marched a hun-
dred miles in two days and a half, and placed himself between the
English and Cuddalore. Sir Edward Hughes at this juncture arrived
off the coast. While with a portion of the scjuadron he protected
Cuddalore, the English force, with only four days' rice, carried on the
soldiers' backs, marched against Haidar's position ; and on the same
day, the ist of July, was fought the battle of Porto Novo, in which, with
a force one-eighth that of the enemy. Sir Eyre Coote, after a severe
engagement, completely beat the Mysorean army from the field.
Haidar Ali, who was watching the operations seated on a stool on a
small hill, was near being taken prisoner. He was conveyed out of
danger by a faithful groom, who made bold to force the slipi)ers on to
his master's feet, saying, " We will beat them to-morrow ; in the mean-
time mount your horse.' He reluctantly left the field, pouring forth a
torrent of abuse. Wandiwash, invested by Tipu, was again relieved,
and he was recalled to join his father at Arcot.

Haidar, resolved to risk another battle, chose, as being fortunate to
himself, the very spot on which Colonel Baillie's detachment had been
overcome, and the anniversary of that event was the day fixed on. Sir

;,(;4 ///S'/'OA'V

I'-yrc Cootc, after forming a junction with troops sent by land from
JJengal, had taken Tripassore, and wished for nothing so much as to
bring his enemy to action. The result was the battle of Pollilore, fought
on the 27th August, in which, after an engagement of eight hours, the
Mysoreans were forced to abandon the field. Haidar now took up a
strong position in the pass of Sholinghur, to prevent the relief of Vellore,
reduced almost to extremities. At the battle of Sholinghur, fought on
the 27th of September, victory again declared for the English, and
Vellore was saved. The palegars of Chittor now came over to the
English, and Haidar, indignant at their desertion, detached a select
corps to burn their villages and lay waste their country. But Sir Eyre
Coote, placing himself at the head of a light corps, after an absence of
thirty-eight hours, during thirty-two of which he had never dismounted
from his horse, returned to camp, having completely surprised and
defeated these troops, capturing all their equipments.

The energy of \\'arren Hastings, the Governor-General — never more
conspicuous than at this critical time, when England, at war with
America, France, and Holland, was engaged in a life struggle in India
with the Mahratta hosts in the west, and the Mysoreans under Haidar
in the south — having triumphed over the mischievous opposition of a
Council which frustrated every public measure, had succeeded in with-
drawing the active opposition of Nizam Ali and of one branch of the
Mahrattas, under Madoji Bhonsla. He now concluded a treaty with
Sindhia, on the 13th October 1781, and the mediation of the latter was
to be employed in bringing about a peace between the English and the
Poona Mahrattas under Nana Farnavis, which was actually effected in
May 1782. Meanwhile Haidar's vakil had ascertained that this was
intended, and that the Mahrattas would unite with the English in com-
pelling his master to make peace, unless the latter would at once give
up all the territories acquired by him north of the Tungabhadra and all
claims over the palegars to the south, in which case they undertook to
continue the war and bring back Sindhia to the confederacy. Haidar
now- felt himself in a critical situation. He was beaten at all points by
Sir Eyre Coote ; he had received no adequate assistance from the
French ; the west coast was lost ; Malabar, Coorg, and Balam were in
rebellion. The defeat of Colonel Braithwaite's corps in Tanjore by
Tipu, which occurred at this time, had no permanent effect in improving
his prospects.'

• It was about this period that Haidar, being much indisposed, was, either by
accident or design, left entirely alone with his minister Poorniah ; after being for some
time apparently immersed in deep thought, he addressed himself to Poorniah in the
following words (related to Colonel Wilks by Poorniah) : —

" I have committed a great error, I have purchased a draught of .fc'W?' (spirits) at

DEATH OF HAIDAK 395

He now resolved to abandon the east and to try his fortune in the
west. In December he sent all the heavy guns and stores to Mysore,
compelled the people below the Ghats to emigrate thither with their
flocks and herds, destroyed the forts, and made arrangements for
demolishing Arcot, when news suddenly arrived that a French force
had actually arrived off Porto Novo. But of the troops M. Bussy had
originally embarked for the prosecution of his plans in India, the first
division had been captured by Admiral Kempenfelt in December 1781,
and a second in April 17S2. Several naval engagements also took
place at this time in Indian waters, in which the English uniformly
gained the advantage. Cuddalore, however, was now taken 1)\- the
French ; and, forming a junction with Haidar, they carried Permacoil
in May, before Sir Eyre Coote could arrive for its relief But on the
2nd of June was fought the battle of Ami, in which the English were
victorious, and nothing but the want of cavalry prevented a large capture
of artillery.

On the other coast, the corps sent to Malabar under Makhdum Ali
was completely defeated and destroyed at Tricalore by Colonel Hum-
berstone, the commander being killed. Nothing could be done during
the monsoon to retrieve this disaster, but as soon as the weather per-
mitted in November, Tipu, assisted as usual by Lally's corps, under
pretence of striking some blow near Trichinopoly, proceeded by forced
marches across the peninsula, hoping to fall upon the English, who were
l)reparing for the siege of Palghatcheri. But in this he was dis-
appointed, and sustained a defeat at Paniani on the 25th. ^^'hile
waiting for reinforcements to renew the attack, an event occurred of
the utmost importance. The Mysorean army in Coromandel had
cantoned sixteen miles north of Arcot for the rains, the French being
at Cuddalore, and the English at Madras. The health of Haidar had
been declining, and in November was developed an abscess, or cancer,
in the back, known as the rdjpora, or royal boil. The united efforts of
Hindu, Muhammadan, and French physicians did no good, and on the
7th of December 1782, this remarkable man l)reathed his last, at the
age of sixty.

War first brought him to notice, and engaged in war he died. War
was his element. The brief periods of repose between one warlike
expedition and another were consumed in repairing the losses of the

tlie i)rice of a lakh of pagodas : I shall pay dearly for my arrogance ; between me and
llie English there were perhaps mutual grounds of dissatisl;iction, hut not sufficient
cause for war, and I might have made them my friends in spite of Muhammad Ali,
the most treacherous of men. The defeat of many Uaillies and lirailhwaites will not
destroy them. I can ruin their resources by land, but I cannot dry uj^ the sea ; and
I must be the first to weary of a war in which I can gain nothing by fighting.''

3y6 ///STOR V

last, or providing the means for the next. The arts and products of
peace he valued only as they furnished the sinews of war. liut it is
impossible to withhold homage from the great natural talents which
raised an unlettered adventurer^ to the supreme control of a powerful
kingdom, or the indomitable energy and fertility of resource which
found in the most desperate reverses but fresh opportunities of rising.

In person he is described as robust and of medium height, of dark
complexion, with an aquiline nose and small eyes. Contrary to the usual
custom of Musalmans, his face was clean shaven, even the eyebrows and
eyelashes being removed. The most striking article of his dress was a
scarlet turban, flat at the top, and of immens'e diameter. His uniform
was flowered white satin, with yellow facings and yellow boots, and a
white silk scarf round his waist. He was fond of show and parade on
great occasions, and at such times was attended by a thousand spear-
men, and preceded by bards who sang his exploits in the Kannada
language. He was an accomplished horseman, a skilful swordsman,
and a dead shot. He had a large harem of six hundred women, but his
strong sensual instincts were never allowed to interfere with public
business. From sunrise to past noon he was occupied in public durbar ;
he then made his first meal, and retired to rest for an hour or two. In
the evening he either rode out or returned to business. But frec^uently
the night was enlivened with the performances of dancing girls or of
actors of comedies. He took a second meal about midnight and retired
to rest, sometimes having drunk freely.

The following extracts from accounts by the Rev. ^^\ Schwartz, who
w^as sent by the English in 1779 to Haidar as a peace-maker, contain a
graphic description of his characteristics and modes of business : —
" Haidar's palace is a fine building in the Indian style. Opposite to it
is an open place. On both sides are ranges of open buildings, where
the military and civil servants have their otBces, and constantly attend.
Haidar can overlook them from his balcony. Here reigns no pomp,
but the utmost regularity and despatch. Although Haidar sometimes
rewards his servants, yet the principal motive is fear. Two hundred
people with whips stand always ready to use them. Not a day passes
on which numbers are not flogged. Haidar applies the same cut to all
transgressors alike, gentlemen and horsekeepers, tax-gatherers and his
own sons. And when he has inflicted such a public scourging upon the

^ Me could neither read nor write any language, though he spoke fluently Hin-
dustani, Kannada, Mahratti, Telugu, and Tamil. The sum of his literary attain-
ments consisted in learning to write the initial of his own name, //, to serve as his
signature on public occasions ; but either from inaptitude to learn, or for the purpose
of originality, he inverted its form, and sii^ned thus, I/^IT^ (copied from a grant in
the Inam office).

HAIDAKS HABITS 397

greatest gentlemen he does not dismiss them. No, they remain in the
same office, and bear the marks of the stripes on their backs as public
warnings, for he seems to think that almost all people who seek to
enrich themselves are void of all principles of honour.

"When I came to Haidar he desired me to sit down alongside of
him. The floor was covered with exquisite tapestry. He received me
very politely, listened friendly and with seeming pleasure to all I had to
say. In reply he spoke very openly and without reserve. . . . When I
sat near Haidar I particularly observed in what a regular succession,
and with what rapid despatch, his affairs proceeded one after the other.
^Vhenever he made a pause in speaking, an account was read to him of
tlie district and letters received. He heard it, and ordered the answer
immediately. The writers ran, wrote the letter, read it, and Haidar
affixed his seal. Thus, in one evening, a great many letters were expe-
dited. Haidar can neither read nor write, but his memory is excellent.
He orders one man to write a letter and another to read it to him. If
the writer has in the least deviated from his orders his head pavs for it.
^Vhat religion people profess, or whether they profess any at all, that is
perfectly indifferent to him. He has none himself, and leaves everyone
to his choice."

The Nishani Haidari^ says : — " In all the cities and towns of his terri-
tory, besides news-writers, he appointed .separately secret writers and
spies to patrol the streets at night, and from them he received his intel-
ligence. From morning to night he never remained a moment idle.
He was a slave to the regulation of his working establishments. . . .
All the operations or measures undertaken by Haidar's government,
small or great, were superintended by himself in person ; insomuch
that even leather, the lining of bullock-bags, tent walls, and strands of
rope, all passed under his inspection, and were then de[)osited in his
stores."

The Ahvali Haidar Naik'- thus describes the state of the country in
Haidar's time : — " By his power mankind were held in fear and
trembling ; and from his severity C.od's creatures, day and night, were
thrown into apprehension and terror. Cutting off the nose and ears of
any person in his territories was the commonest thing imaginable, and
the killing a man there was thought no more of than the treading on an
ant. No person of respectability ever left his house with the expecta-
tion to return safe to it."

The minister Purnaiya sagaciously j)lanncd that the death of Haidar
should be concealed from the army until the arrival of Tipu, and

' History of Hydiir Naik, by Kiimani, tninslalcd from the Persian l)y Colonel W.
Miles. ^ By Mirza Ikl)al. — Sec supplemenl lo the above.

398 rrrsTOR v

Krishna Rao, his official colleague, acceded to the same course. It is
a high testimony to the order and discipline of the army, and the
influence and ability of Purnaiya, that this was successfully carried out.
"rhc body of Haidar, deposited in a large chest filled with aromatics,
was sent off to Kolar under escort, as if a case of valuable plunder. Al
business went on as u.sual. The chiefs of the army were separately and
quietly taken into confidence, and all inquiries were answered to the
effect that Haidar was better, but weak. Only one ofticer, commanding
4,000 horse, conceived the project of removing the ministers, seizing the
treasury, and proclaiming Abdul Karim, Haidar's second son. But the
plot was discovered, and the accomplices were put into irons and sent
off under guard.

A courier on a dromedary, travelling 100 miles a day, con\eyed the
intelligence to Tipu at Paniani by the afternoon of the nth. Next
morning he was in full march eastward. Dispensing with all ceremony
calculated to excite inquiry, he went forward as rapidly as possible, and
after performing the funeral ceremonies at Kolar, joined the army in a
private manner between Arni and Vellore on the 2nd of January 1783.
The most ample acknowledgments were made to all the public officers,
and especially to Purnaiya, for their prudent management of affairs
during this critical period, and Tipu Sultan took peaceable possession
of an army of 88,000 men, and a treasury containing three crores of
rupees in cash, besides an immense amount of jewels and valuables.

The Mysoreans and the French, awaiting with sanguine prospects
the arrival of M. Bussy to decide on the plan of the campaign, were
offered battle by the English near Wandiwash on the 13th of February.
But this was declined, and within a week news from the west obliged
Tipu and his allies to withdraw the main body of the army for the
defence of his possessions in that quarter. General ^Matthews had
landed at Kundapur, carried Haidarghar, and on the i6th February
captured Bednur. Honavar and Mangalore had also fallen to the
English, who were now in possession of all the intermediate country.
Shekh Ayaz, the Chela, whom we have pre\iousIy mentioned in con-
nection with his appointment to the government of Chitaldroog, was at
this time governor of the Bednur country. He had abundant reason
for fear in the accession of Tipu, and having discovered, as he antici-
pated, that the latter had ordered his immediate assassination, aban-
doned his charge and fled to Bombay, at the same time that the Mysore
army was marchiug for its recovery. General Matthews, having gained
spoils to the value of eighty-one lakhs of pagodas, besides jewels, was
waiting for reinforcements, when Tipu appeared on the 9th of April.
The latter, dividing his army into two columns, with one retook

TIPU SULTAN 399

Kavale-durga and Haidarghar, and with the other Anantapur : and,
cutting off all communication with the coast, invested Hednur. The
garrison, being starved out, capitulated on the 30th on honourable
terms. But instead of being sent to the coast as stipulated, both officers
and men were marched off in irons to Seringapatam. Tipu now
advanced for the recovery of Mangalore, and invested it on the 4th of
May. The garrison held out in spite of great hardships. In July arrived
intelligence that peace had been concluded in Europe between the English
and the French ; the leaders of the French forces, therefore, to the
great indignation of Tipu, announced the necessity for their withdrawal.
An armistice was agreed to on the 2nd of August, but the articles were
not observed by Tipu. Mangalore held out till the 30th of January 1 784,
when the starved-out garrison, whose bravery had excited the highest
admiration even from Tipu, were allowed to retire to Tellicherry.

Meanwhile, in the east, the English had concluded an agreement at
Tanjore with Tirumal Rao, an emissary sent by the Mysore Rani' —
and had occupied the whole of the Coimbatore country. At Seringa-
patam, Shamaiya, the postal and police minister, at the same time
formed a plot for seizing the fortress and restoring the Hindu Raja. It
was accidentally discovered on the very eve of the date appointed for
its execution, the 24th of July. Shamaiya and his brother were confined
in iron cages, in which they perished. The other conspirators were
dragged at the feet of elephants.

After negotiations, purposely prolonged by Tipu until the fall of
Mangalore, peace was concluded on the nth March 1785, on the con-
dition of the mutual release of prisoners and restitution of conquests.
But of the English officers the most distinguished had been previously
removed by poison or assassination. Sayyid Ibrahim, the commandant
of the prison, is honourably distinguished for his humanity in attempt-
ing to alleviate their condition. On the capture of the country by the
English, a mausoleum was erected over his tomb at Channapatna and
endowed by the East India Company.

The reversion of Mangalore to the possession of Tipu was signalized
by the forcible circumcision of many thousands of native Christians and
their deportation to Seringapatam. A revolt in Coorg next year led to
the same treatment of the greater part of the inhabitants, the occasion
being marked by Tipu's as.sumption of the title of I'adshah. All Brah-
man endowments were at this period resumed.

1 Tirumal Rao was assisted in his coinnumicalions hy liis l)r<)ihor Narayan Kao.
Their reward in case of success was to be ten per cent, on the revenues of the restored
<listricts, and the office of I'radhdna or minister. Tirumal Rao, after a conference
with the authorities at Madras, was placed under the orders nf Mr. John Sullivan,
Resident at Tanjore.

400 fffSlVRY

On returning from Mangalore a demand had Ijeen made upon Nizam
Ali for the delivery of IJijapur. He therefore formed an alliance with
the Mahrattas, who not only countenanced the Deshayi of Nargund in
refusing Tipu's requisitions, hut sent the latter notice that three years'
tribute from Mysore was in arrears. On this he despatched a force
against Nargund, which the Mahrattas failed to relieve ; and, after
operations protracted for several months, the Deshayi, induced on a
false promise to deliver himself up, was treacherously put into chains
and sent off to Kabbal-durga in October 1785. Kittur was taken in
a similar manner. War now ensued. The Mahrattas under Hari
I'ant, and the forces of Nizam Ali under Tohavar Jang, were on the
banks of the Krishna early in 1 786, prepared for the invasion of Mysore.
They first attacked Badami, and took it on the 20th of May. Tipu,
keeping close to the Bednur and Sunda woods, made a sudden dash
across the country to Adoni. Two assaults had been gallantly repulsed,
when the approach of the confederate armies forced him to raise the
siege. But the rising of the Tungabhadra induced the allies to abandon
Adoni and cross to the north of that stream, and the Sultan, hastening
to glut his vengeance on the fort, found it evacuated. In August Tipu
boldly crossed the stream, a movement quite unlooked-for by the allies
at that season, and formed a junction with the Bednur division. The
hostile armies were now encamped in each other's view near Savanur.
The unfortunate navab of this place, who, as we have seen, had allied
himself by marriage with Haidar's family, had been ruined by every
method of exaction, and now threw himself into the hands of the allies.
Tipu was successful in his operations, especially in his night attacks,
and the allies retiring from Savanur, he entered it without opposition.
The navab fled. A peace was at last concluded in 1787, by which
Tipu agreed to pay forty-five lakhs of rupees, thirty at once and fifteen
after a year ; also to give up Badami, Adoni, Kittur, and Nargund.

Returning by way of Harpanhalli and Raydurga, after deceiving those
palegars by repeated acknowledgments of their services, he treacherously
seized and sent them off to Kabbal-durga, plundering their capitals of
every article of the slightest value, and annexing their territories. On
returning to the capital he ordered the destruction of the town and fort
of Mvsore, and commenced building Nazarabad, as related in the
account of that place.

In January 1788 he descended to Calicut, and remained there
several months framing various ordinances, and then marched to Coim-
batore in the monsoon. He also now began to lay claim to the title
of Paitrhambar, or apostle, on the ground of his religious successes, and
symptoms of incipient madness, it is said, appeared. From Coimbatore

INVASION OF TRAVANCORE 401

he visited Dindigal, and meditated, it appears, the conquest of Travan-
core. Laying waste with fire and sword the territories of refractory
palegars, he returned to Seringapatam, and devoted four months to a
classification of sayyids and shekhs in his army into distinct brigades.
A rebelHon occurred now in Coorg and Malabar, and the Sultan, pass-
ing through Coorg to quiet it, entered Malabar. Large parties of the
Nairs were surrounded and offered the alternative of death or circum-
cision. The Nair Raja of Cherkal, who had voluntarily submitted, was
received and dismissed with distinction, but immediately after seized
and hanged, his body being treated with every insult. Before leaving
Malabar Tipu visited Cannanore, where the daughter of the Beebee
was betrothed to one of his sons. He also divided the country of
Malabar into districts, each of which had three officers, charged
respectively with the duties of collecting the revenue, numbering the
productive trees, and seizing and giving religious instruction to the
Nairs. 1

Nizam Ali now sent an embassy proposing a union between himself
and the Sultan as being the only remaining Muhammadan powers of
the Dekhan and the south. But Tipu demanded as a preliminary an
intermarriage in the families, at which the pride of Nizam Ali recoiled,
and the negotiations came to nothing.

Meanwhile embassies with ludicrous pretensions had been sent twice
to Constantinople, and once to Paris. The visionary character of the
Sultan's views may be gathered from the objects sought by the former.
They were — either to deliver up Mangalore in exchange for Bassora on
the Persian Gulf, or to obtain permission to erect a commercial factory
at Bassora with exclusive privileges ; and, lastly, permission to dig a
canal for the purpose of bringing the waters of the Euphrates to the
holy shrine of Nejef.

The conquest of Travancore had for obvious reasons been contem-
plated by Haidar, and was now resolved on by Tipu. The Raja had,
however, been specially named in former treaties as the ally of the
English, and any attack upon him it had been declared would be con-
sidered ground for war. But a pretext was soon found. In 1 759, when
the Zamorin of Calicut had overrun the territories of the Raja of
Cochin, the latter had applied for aid to Travancore ; the Raja of
which, sending an army under his general, Rama, had recovered the

1 His orders \sere, that " ever)- being in the district, without distinction, should be
honoured with Islam ; that the houses of such as tied to avoid that honour should
be burned ; that they should be traced to their lurking-places, and that all means of
truth and falsehood, fraud or force, should be employed to eflect their universal
conversion."

It I)

402 HISTORY

entire country and driven out the Zamorin during 1760 and 17C1. In
return for this service certain districts were ceded by Cochin to Travan-
core, across which Hnes for the defence of its northern boundary had
been erected by the latter power, which now bought from the iJutch
the forts of Ayakota and Cranganur, situated at the extremity of the
lines and essential to their security. Tipu, objecting to this step, set
forth that the lines were erected on territory belonging to Cochin which
wast ributary to him, and proceeded to attack them on the 29th Decem-
ber, 1789. But, contrary to expectation, he was repulsed with great
loss, and was himself severely injured by falling into the ditch, into
which he was forced by the rush of fugitives. He was saved with
ditificulty, his seals, rings, and personal ornaments falling into the hands
of the enemy as trophies. Beside himself with rage, he ordered the
whole of his forces from Malabar and other parts, with battering guns
from Seringapatam and Bangalore, to be sent for. At the same time he
wrote to the Governor-General stating that the attack was an unautho-
rized raid of his troops. But Lord Cornwallis was not to be deceived.

Tipu carried the lines and took the town of Travancore in March.
An English force destined for Mysore was therefore assembled at
Trichinopoly, and General Medows took command of it on the 24th of
May. The Sultan — who only ten days before had written lamenting
the misrepresentations that had led to the assemblage of troops, and
offering to send an envoy " to remove the dust which had obscured the
upright mind of the General " — now hastened to Coimbatore, where he
received the reply that " the English, equally incapable of offering an
insult as of submitting to one, had always looked upon war as declared
from the moment he attacked their ally the king of Travancore."

An alliance had meanwhile been formed by the English with the
Mahrattas and Nizam Ali, and treaties were signed in July, binding them
to unite against Tipu, on the basis of an equal division of conquests,
with the exception of any made by the English before the others
joined. The plan of the campaign was — for the main division of the
English, after taking all the forts of Coimbatore and Palghat, to ascend
to the tableland by the Gajalhatti pass, while another division invaded
Baramahal. Karur, Dharapuram, Coimbatore, Dindigal, Erode and
other places had been taken, when in September, the Sultan, leaving
stores and baggage under charge of Purnaiya at the summit, descended
the Gajalhatti pass and attacked Floyd's detachment at Satyamangala.
But after much fighting he retired, and Floyd crossing the Bhavani
without opposition, proceeded to join the force with General Medows.
While the several English detachments were forming a junction, Tipu
retook Erode and Dharapuram, but finding an attempt on Coimbatore

JFAJ^ WITH THE ENGLISH. 403

to be hopeless, set off with three-fourths of his army to Bdramahal, which
the EngHsh had invaded on the 24th of October. Colonel Maxwell
had posted himself at Kavcripatam, and by his skilful manoeuvres foiled
all the Sultan's attempts.

Being advised by Krishna Rao, the only person at this period
admitted to his counsels, the Sultan now resolved to carry the war into
the enemy's country, in order to draw them off in pursuit of him. He
accordingly made rapid marches to Trichinopoly, and threatening that
place, plundered Seringham. On (leneral Medows' approach, he went
northward, burning and plundering along his route ; was repulsed in an
attempt to take Tydgar, but took Trinomalee and Permacoil, and then
despatched an envoy to Pondicherry. The services of a French official
were there engaged as ambassador to Louis XVI., demanding the aid of
6,000 men and offering to pay all expenses. (The king of France,
however, on receiving Tipu's message, declined the assistance applied
for.) On the west coast, the Mysorean army was totally defeated
on the loth December. Cannanore was taken and the whole of
Malabar was in possession of the English. The allies, too, at last took
part in operations, the Mahrattas besieging Dharwar, and Nizam Ali's
army Kopal.

Lord Cornwallis, the (lOvernor-General, now himself took command
of the British army, and concentrated the forces near Vellore. Tipu
hastened up the pass of Changama to oppose the English advance. Rut
Lord Cornwallis, by a feint of ascending by the pass of Ambur, conveyed
the whole army with all its stores and baggage by the Mugli pass and
arrived at Hoskote without firing a shot. Tipu, dreaming of the 6,000
I'Venchmen, had been outmanoeuvred by the English. He was now
alarmed for his harem, and with his whole army personally superintended
their removal from Bangalore. The English encamped before it on
the 5th of March, overcoming with ease the efforts of Tipu to capture
their baggage. The Sultan deemed it prudent to draw off to Kcngeri.
But when on the 7th the petta was carried, he was astonished and
indignant, and moved out with his whole force for its recovery. But
the Mysoreans were repulsed with great slaughter from every point, and
so evacuated the town. The fort of Bangalore was next besieged.
" Few sieges," remarks Wilks, " have ever been conducted under parallel
circumstances : a place not only not invested, but regularly relieved by
fresh troops ; a besieging army not only not undisturbed by field
operations, but incessantly threatened by the whole of the enemy's
force. No day or night elapsed without some new project for frustrating
the operations of the siege ; and during its continuance, the whole of
the besieging army was accoutred, and the ca\alry saddled, every night

I) I) 2

404 IflS'l'OKY

from sunset to sunrise." A breach having been made in the curtain to
the left of the projecting works of the . Delhi gate and part of the
adjoining tower, Lord Cornwallis resolved to give the assault on the
night of the 2TSt.

It was bright moonlight — eleven was the hour appointed, and a whisper
along the ranks was the signal appointed for advancing in profound silence ;
the ladders were nearly planted, not only to ascend the faussebray but the
projecting work on the right, before the garrison took the alarm ; and just as
the serious struggle commenced on the breach, a narrow and circuitous way
along a thin shattered wall had led a few men to the rampart on the left
flank of its defenders, where they coolly halted to accumulate their numbers
till sufficient to charge with the bayonet. The gallantry of the killedar, who
was in an instant at his post, protracted the obstinacy of resistance until he
fell ; but the energy of the assailants in front and flank at length prevailed.
Once established on the ramparts, the flank companies proceeded as told
off, by alternate companies to the right and left, where the resistance was
everywhere respectable, until they met over the Mysore gate : separate
columns then descended into the body of the place ; and at the expiration of
an hour all opposition had ceased.

On ascending the breach, a heavy column was observed on the left,
advancing from the embankment described to attack the assailants in flank
and rear ; but this also had been foreseen and provided for, and they were
repulsed with great slaughter by the troops reserved for that special purpose ;
a similar column, lodged in the covered way on the right, had been dispersed
at the commencement of the assault by a body appointed to scour it and
draw off the enemy's attention from the breach ; and at the moment the
flank companies had met over the Mysore gate, another column was
perceived advancing along the sortie to enter and reinforce the garrison ;
but a few shot from the guns on the ramparts announced that the place
had changed masters. The carnage had been severe but unavoidable,
particularly in the pressure of the fugitives at the Mysore gate, which at
length was completely choked.

The Sultan had warned the garrison to expect the assault, and moving
at nightfall from his camp at Jigani, had conveyed his whole army to
near the Bull temple, within a mile and a half of the Mysore gate, to
support the place. But so rapidly was it carried that the fugitives
crowding out of the gate gave him the first intimation of its capture.
Fears of an immediate advance on Seringapatam agitated the Sultan.
He therefore despatched Krishna Rao, the treasurer, and IMir Sadak,
the divan, to remove all the treasure and the harem to Chitaldroog ;
but his mother dissuaded from this step as betokening fear to the
troops. But the obscene caricatures of the English, painted by his
orders on the walls of the houses in the main streets, were effaced with
whitewash : and the English boys, retained in violation of the treaty of

ADVANCE OX SERIXGAPATAM 405

1784, who had been trained up to sing and dance, were strangled.
His own people now begart to fall away from him. Evidence of
conspiracies came to light, and Krishna Rao, with his brothers, as well
as others of the Hindu ministers, were in the next few days strangled or
dragged to death by elephants. Meanwhile, in order to form a junction
with the cavalry from Nizam Ali, Lord Cornwallis moved north on the
28th. Devanhalli and Chile Ballapur yielded to the English, and several
palegars tendered their allegiance.

The British force now prepared to march on Seringapatam, and Tipu
took up a position on the Channapatna road, supported by the hill forts
of Rdmgiri and Sivangiri, with the view of opposing it. But Lord
Cornwallis, unexpectedly marching by way of Kankanhalli, arrived
without opposition at Arikere, 9 miles from Seringapatam, on the 1 3th
of May. His route had been converted into a desolate waste, all the
villagers and cattle being driven into the island of Sivasamudram, and
every vestige of supplies or forage destroyed. The passage of the river
at Arikere being impracticable, it was resolved to move to Kannambadi,
higher up ; for the double purpose of fording the river there and forming
a junction with General Abercromby, who, advancing through the
friendly country of Coorg, had taken Periyapatna.

Tipu had always avoided a general action with the English, but
goaded on to risk a battle for the capital, he took up a strong position
between Karigatta and the river, to oppose the march of the English.
Lord Cornwallis planned a night attack io turn his left flank and cut
off his retreat, but the bursting of a tremendous storm threw the troops
into confusion. A general engagement ensued the next day, the 15th,
in which the English were completely victorious, and the Mysoreans,
driven from every point, forced to take refuge on the island. Lord
Cornwallis then moved to Kannambadi ; but the incessant rain and
exhausted supplies brought on so great a mortality of the cattle, and
sickness in camp, as to put a stop to all operations. He resolved,
therefore, to bury the battering guns and retire to Bangalore till the
rains were over. Abercromby was also forced to return to the coast.
At Chinkurali, the two divisions of the Mahratta army, under Hari Pant
and Parasu Ram Bhao, most unexpectedly made their appearance, and
the sufferings of the troops were somewhat relieved by the supplies they
brought. The Mahrattas had taken Dharwar and reduced all the places
north of the Tungabhadra. The army of Nizam Ali had captured
Kopal, Bahadur Bandar and Ganjikota, and obtained the submission of
all places in the north-east except Guramkonda.

It was now arranged that the British should take possession of the
hill forts and places in the east, in order to open free communication

4o6 JflSTOR Y

with Madras; that the Mahrattas, who obtained a loan from the Governor-
General of 15 lakhs of rupees, should proceed to Sira under Parasu
Ram Bhao and operate to the north-west, Hari Pant remaining with the
English camp ; and that the Nizam's force should operate to the north-
east against Guramkonda. Between July and January, the English,
having taken Hosur, Rayakota and all places to the east, succeeded
in capturing the hill forts of Nandidroog and Savandroog, deemed
impregnable, as well as Hutridroog, Ramgiri, Sivangiri and Hulyilr-
droog. The Mahrattas, bent on plunder, after placing a corps in Dod
Ballapur and one near Madgiri, and making some fruitless attempts
against Chitaldroog, went off towards Bednur at the time they should,
according to the plan concerted with the allies, have been marching to
Seringapatam. Hole Honnur was taken by them, and near Shimoga a
battle was fought, in which the Mysoreans were worsted. But the
Mahratta detachment left at Madgiri was completely routed by a force
under Kammar-ud-Din, on which the garrison of Dod Ballapur withdrew
to Bangalore in alarm, leaving the way open for a relief of Guram-
konda. The Mysore forces sent south to act upon the communications
of the English were generally unsuccessful, but Coimbatore surrendered
after a long and brave defence, the garrison being marched off
as prisoners to Seringapatam in violation of the terms of capitulation.

All the arrangements for the siege of Seringapatam being now
matured, communications free and supplies abundant, the English army
under Lord Cornwallis marched from Hulyiirdroog on the 25th of
January, 1792, accompanied by the Nizam's force under one of his
sons, Sikandar Jah, and a small party of the Mahrattas under Hari
Pant. General Abercromby, who had returned to Malabar in
November, also marched from the head of the western passes on the
22nd of January.

Lord Cornwallis encamped on the 5th of February 6 miles north of
Seringapatam. The Sultan had made every effort to strengthen the
defences during the past six months, and was now encamped on the
north. He had persuaded himself that nothing decisive would be
undertaken until the arrival of General Abercromby's army, now at
Periyapatna. But Lord Cornwallis resolved to attack at once, on the
night of the 6th. The English force was formed into three columns,
without artillery, the centre being commanded by the Governor-
General in person. Under a brilliant moonlight, the three columns
marched in dead silence, at about 8 o'clock, towards the Sultan's
encampment. The head of the centre column was discovered by his
advanced outposts about 11, and they galloped back to give the alarm.
But still perfect silence was preserved, while the pace was redoubled.

CAPTURE OF GANJAM 407

In a quarter of an hour the Mysore h'nes were entered. Though a
damaging fire was opened on the advancing columns, they remained
steady, and carried every point with the bayonet. The Mysoreans fled,
panic-stricken. Victors and vanquished crossed the river and gained
the island together, and would probably have entered the fort simulta-
neously had not the gates been closed and the bridge drawn up to
exclude the foe. The petta of Shahar Ganjam was taken with ease, as
were all the batteries and redoubts, except one, which was the scene of
a sanguinary struggle before its capture.

The Sultan, at the commencement of this eventful night, had made
his evening meal in a redoubt to the right of the spot where the centre
columns had entered. On the first alarm he mounted, but before he
could get news of the nature of the attack, the crowds of fugitives
announced that the enemy had penetrated the camp. He fled
precipitately to the ford, and barely succeeded in passing over before
the advanced column of the enemy. Taking his station on an outwork
of the fort which conmianded the scene, he remained there till morning,
issuing orders and spending one of the most anxious nights in his life.
During the confusion 10,000 Coorgs, who had been forcibly converted,
made their escape to their own country ; and a number of French and
other Europeans, who had rendered unwilling obedience to Haidar and
Tipu, seized the opportunity to gain their liberty. It so happened
that a large treasure was in camp that night for the purpose of paying
the troops next day. But it was all safely conveyed into the fort by
the skill and ability of Purnaiya, although he was severely wounded.

The whole of the next day the most vigorous attempts were made to
dislodge the English from the island. The Sultan's passionate appeal
"Havel no faithful servants to retrieve my honour?" was gallantly
responded to by a body of 2,000 cavalry ; but being foiled at every
point, all the redoubts north of the river were evacuated the same
night, and promptly occupied by the English.

Various efforts at negotiation had been made by Tipu since Lord
Cornwallis took command of the army, but they were not calculated to
succeed. He now resumed the matter, but was informed that the release
of the prisoners taken at Coimbatore in violation of promises was
indispensable as a preliminary. He therefore set free the officers, and
sent letters containing offers of peace by them. But— at the same time
he secretly despatched a body of horsemen in disguise to penetrate to
the English camp and assassinate the Governor-General. The plot was
discovered and frustrated.

General Abercromby crossed the river at \'cdatore and joimd the
main army on the i6th, and the dispositions for the siege were rapidly

4o8 J U STORY

inishcd on. Negotiations at the same time continued, and on the 22nd
the envoys of Tipu brouglit him tlie ultimatum of the confederates,
requiring the cession to the alhes, from the countries adjacent to theirs,
of one-half of the dominions which he possessed before the war ; the
payment of three crores and thirty lakhs of rupees, one-half immediately,
the remainder in three instalments of four months each ; the release of
all prisoners from the time of Haidar Ali ; and the delivery of two of
his sons as hostages. On the 23rd Tipu assembled all the principal
officers in the mosque and sought their advice. They unanimously
offered to lay down their lives in defence of the capital, but hinted with
various shades of expression that the army was disheartened and
unreliable. After a great mental struggle, the preliminary articles, duly
signed and sealed, were returned to Lord Cornwall is the same day. The
two young princes surrendered as hostages, one aged ten and the other
eight, were received in the English camp with every consideration due to
their rank, and by Lord Cornwallis with all the tenderness of a father.

The territories to be ceded formed a lengthened subject of discussion,
and the claim of the English to Coorg so exasperated Tipu' that the
peace was on the point of being broken, when he yielded. The English
obtained Malabar and Coorg, Dindigal and Baramahal : the Mahratta
boundary was extended to the Tungabhadra ; Nizam Ali recovered his
possessions to the north of that river and Kadapa to the south. Thus
ended the third Mysore war.

After the departure of the confederates, the Sultan, brooding over the
heavy losses he had sustained and the deep wounds that had been
inflicted on his pride, shut himself up for several days in an agony of
despair. His first public act was to make arrangements regarding the
money due under the treaty. It was resolved that one crore and ten
lakhs of the total amount should be paid from the treasury, that sixty
lakhs should be contributed by the army, and one crore and sixty lakhs
by the civil officers and inhabitants at large under the head of nazarana.
The oppression of the population in levying the last drove great numbers
to seek an asylum in Baramahal and other neighbouring districts,
though there was a large balance standing in the accounts for several
years afterwards.

The Sultan's caprice, fanaticism and spirit of innovation increased
with his misfortunes, and were carried to the verge of insanity. " The
professed and formal regulations for the conduct of affairs had
commenced before his departure from Mangalore, with the aid of his
great innovator Zain-ul-Abidin ; and embraced, either directly or

' " To which of the English possessions," he said, " is Coorg adjacent ? ^^'hy do
tliey not ask for the key of SeringaiDatam ? "'

TIFU'S IXXOVATIOXS 409

incidentally, every department in the science of government. Regula-
tions military, naval, commercial and fiscal ; police, judicature, and
ethics ; were embraced by the code of this modern Minos : and his
reformation of the calendar and of the system of weights and measures,
was to class him with those philosophical statesmen and sovereigns of
whose useful labours the secretary had obtained some obscure intelli-
gence. It may be briefly stated regarding the whole, that the name
of every object was changed : of cycles, years, and months ; weights,
measures, coins ; forts, towns ; offices, military and civil, the official
designations of all persons and things without one exception " — ■ a
singular parody of what was transpiring in France. The administration
itself was named the Sarkdr K/ioddddd, or God-given Covernment.
Persian was introduced for all words of command in the military
regulations, and the same language used for the revenue accounts in
preference to that of the country. The construction of a navy to vie
with that of England was proposed. .Vn improvement of the fortifica-
tions of Seringapatam was also commenced, and labourers impressed
from all parts of the country for the work.

The fiscal and revenue arrangements consisted principally in the
prohibition of all exports and imports, for the protection of domestic
trade ; and the interdiction of the growth of poppy-seeds, with the
abolition of liquor-shops to check intoxication. A board of trade was
also organized, with a new code for its guidance; and it was in
contemplation to have established something like a bank, while the
State itself monopolized the profits of money-changers. Lands and
money allowances granted to Hindu pagodas, as well as the service
inams of patels, were confiscated; and an income was raised by
dividing the houses in the fort of Seringapatam into separate wards for
different classes, and putting prices upon them. The revenue
regulations of Chikka Deva Raja, however, remained unaltered ; but
they were republished as the ordinances of the Sultan himself. Me
strove, in short, to obliterate every trace of the previous rulers. For
this purpose even the fine irrigation works, centuries old, of the
Hindu Rajas were to be destroyed and reconstructed in his own name.

As regards selections for offices, the Sultan fancied that he could
discover by mere look the capacity of a person, which naturally resulted
in the most absurd blunders.' The manner in which complaints were

• All candidalcs for every department were ordered to he admitted and drawn up
in line before him, when, looking steadfastly at them, he would as if .actuated by
insjiiralion call out in a solemn voice — " Let the third from the left be .^sttph of such
a district; he with the yellow drawers understands n.aval afl'airs, let him be Mir c
^■em, Lord of the .\dmiralty ; he with the long beard and he with the red turban are
but Amils, let them i)e promoted" ; &c., &c. — Wilks, II, 2S9.

4IO iriSl'ORV

hoard and disposed of may be illustrated by a single example. A
number of ryots appeared on a certain occasion before their sovereign
to complain of exaction. Mir Sadak, the divan, admitted the fact and
said it was made on account of fiazardna, which silenced the Sultan at
once. The divan, however, holding out to the ryots a hope of future
immunity, succeeded in inducing them to agree to pay thirty-seven and
a half per cent, additional, and this circumstance being brought to the
notice of Tipu as demonstrating the falsehood of their former complaint,
the patel or head man was hung on the spot, and the increase extended
to the whole of the Mysore dominions.

By 1794 the money due under the treaty was paid, and the hostages
were returned to the Sultan at Devanhalli, now called Yusufabad. In
1796 Chama Raja Wodeyar, the pageant Raja, died of smallpox. The
practice of annually exhibiting him on the throne at the Dasara had
been kept up, but now Tipu considered the appointment of a successor
unnecessary, removed the family to a mean dwelling and plundered the
palace of everything.

Tipu next strained every nerve to form a coalition for the expulsion
of the English from India. Embassies were despatched at various
times to the Ottoman Porte and to the court of Kabul : letters were
exchanged with Arabia, Persia, and Muscat ; and agents employed at
Delhi, Oude, Haidarabad and Poona, the object sought in the two last-
named courts being twofold, namely, an alliance with the sovereigns
themselves, and the seduction of their officers from them. Even the
princes of Jodhpur, Jeypur and Kashmir did not escape an invitation
to join this mighty coalition. The French in particular were repeatedly
applied to.

At last, in the early part of 1797, stress of weather drove a French
privateer to the coast of Mangalore, having on board an obscure
individual by name Ripaud. This person represented himself to be the
second in command at the Isle of France, and being sent to Seringa-
patam by (jhulam Ali, the former envoy to the court of France, was
honoured with several interviews with the Sultan. In the course of
these he took occasion to extol the power and magnify the resources of
his countrymen, and added that a considerable force was assembled at
the Isle of France waiting for the Sultan's summons. Tipu took the
hint, commissioned Ripaud to proceed to the Mauritius, conveying
with him two servants as ambassadors to the Government of that island,
with letters. The embassy left Seringapatam in the month of April
1797, but did not embark till October.

The embassy reached the Isle of France in January 179S, and, in
spite of the obvious necessity for secrecy, was openly received by

EMBASSY TO MAURITIUS 411

Malartic, the French Governor, with distinguished marks of respect.
The kurreetahs were read with all solemnity in a council, and were
found to contain a proposal for a coalition to expel the English. To
the great disappointment of the ambassadors, there was not a single
soldier available ; but to make amends, the Governor sent the Directory
at home a duplicate of the Sultan's kurreetah, and deputed two officers,
by name Chapuis and Dubuc, to reside at the court of Seringapatam.
At the same time he issued a public proclamation, dated the 30th
January, 1798, inviting the people of the island to join the Sultan's
standard. The result of these measures was that the embassy, which
was intended to have conveyed an armament sufficient to have swept
the English off the face of India, returned with ninety-four men, the
refuse of the Isle of France, burning with a zeal for " liberty and equality."

A Jacobin club was formed in Seringapatam, a tree of liberty set up
crowned with the cap of liberty, and the Sultan, who looked upon the
general denunciation of kings and rulers as directed against the English
alone, enrolled as Ciiizeft Tipu Sultan. At the same time M. Dubuc
himself was sent in July 1798 with two Muhammadan envoys to the
French Directory. Buonaparte's sudden invasion of Egypt now took
place, encouraging the hope of immediate French intervention ; and
Dubuc, who did not actually sail till the 7th of February, assured
Tipu that they must have already embarked on the Red Sea for his
assistance.

But Lord Mornington, then Governor-General, was fully aware of
these hostile preparations ; and when a copy of Malartic's proclamation
reached his hands, deemed it high time to put a check on the Sultan's
designs. The French force at Haidarabad was dismissed by a master-
stroke of policy, and the Nizam and Peshva united in stronger bonds of
alliance with the British. This being effected, the Governor-General
wrote to the Sultan on the 8th November, 1798, giving expression for
the first time to the feelings awakened by his late proceedings in gentle
and cautious language, informing him that certain precautions had been
adopted for self-defence, offering to depute Major 1 )oveton on the part
of the allies to explain the means by which a good understanding might
be finally established, and desiring Tipu to state when he intended to
receive him.

On the loth of December he wrote again, calling the Sultan's
attention to the above, and requesting to be favoured with a rejjly at
Madras, whither the Earl of Mornington was about to proceed as
being nearer the scene of action. On reaching Madras on the last day
of the month, the Governor-General found a reply waiting for him,
dated the 25th. This letter opened with the intimation of Tipu's joy

412 HISTORY

at the brilliant naval victory of the Nile over the French, of which he
had been advised by the Governor-General, and a wish for greater
success. He explained away the embassy to the Isle of France as
being simply the trip of a merchantman that conveyed rice and
brought back some forty artificers, an incident which, it was alleged,
had been distorted by the French, The Sultan added also that he
had never swerved from the path of friendship, and could not see
more effectual measures for establishing it than those that already
existed.

The Governor-General replied on the 9th of January, 1799, exposing
the whole affair of the mission to the Isle of France, which had
rendered the demand of further security necessary ; expressing a wish
still to listen to negotiations, and allowing one day's time for a reply,
with a significant warning that " dangerous consequences result from
the delay of arduous affairs." This letter was accompanied by a copy
of the manifesto issued by the Ottoman Porte, declaring war against
the French. After a lapse of more than a month, or on the 13th of
February, 1799, the Sultan replied, with utter disregard, that he was
proceeding on a hunting excursion, and desired that Major Doveton
might be sent "slightly attended." The Governor-General, interpreting
this as contempt and as an effort to gain time, ordered at once the
march of the troops, informing the Sultan of the same.

Tipu first went to Maddur to oppose the Carnatic army, but
subsequently changing his mind, left a detachment at that place under
Purnaiya and Sayyid Sahib, and hastened in three days to Periyapatna
to meet the Bombay force under General Stuart, who had already
ascended into Coorg. The romantic Raja of Coorg discerned on the
morning of the 5th March, from the summit of the Siddesvara hill,
the plain near Periyapatna dotted with tents, including a green one,
and flew to the English with the news. But the dawn following
Tipu's force was in motion. A fog and the dense jungle screened its
approach till the advanced British line was attacked both in front and
rear. The small band sustained the conflict for several hours, till
General Stuart coming up, the Mysoreans were entirely routed.

Meantime, in the east. General Harris in command of the grand
army crossed the Mysore frontier by way of Rayakota unopposed, and
selecting the Kankanhalli road, arrived with his troops on the 27th
March, 1799, at Malvalli, within forty miles of Seringapatam. Here
the Mysorean army was drawn up on the heights two miles west of the
town, and threatened the advance. A general action ensued, from
which Tipu was forced to retreat with loss.

Anticipating that the British army would take the same route to the

SIEGE OF SEKINGAPATAM 413

capital which had been taken in 1792, Tipu had destroyed all the
forage in that direction, but Cieneral Harris defeated his project by
crossing the Kaveri at Sosile. When the intelligence of this skilful
movement reached the ears of the Sultan, he was deeply dejected.
Assembling a council of his principal officers at Bannur, "We
have," he observed with great emotion, "now arrived at our last
stage " — intimating that there was no hope. " What is your deter-
mination?" "To die with you,"' was the universal reply, and the
meeting broke up bathed in tears, as if convened for the last time.
In accordance with the deliberation of this assembly, the Sultan
hastened to the southern point of the island, and took up his position
at the village of Chandagal ; but General Harris again thwarted his
plans, and making a circuit to the left, safely reached the ground
towards the west, occupied by General Abercromby in 1792, and .sat
down before the capital on the 5th April, or exactly in the space of a
month from the date of his crossing the frontier.

Since the year 1792 a new line of intrenchments had been con-
structed on this side of the fort, from the Daulat Bagh to the
Periyapatam bridge, within six or seven hundred yards from the fort,
thus avoiding the fault of the redoubts in 1792, which were too
distant to be supported by the guns of the fort. The Sultan's infantry
was now encamped between these works and the river, and on the
same evening on which the British army took up its position a portion
was attacked by Colonel \Vellesley, the future hero of AN'aterloo.
Although this first attempt failed, success was achieved on the
following morning, and strong advanced posts were established within
1,800 yards of the fort, with their left on the river and their right at
Sultanpet.

General Stuart safely effected his junction with the main army on
tlie 14th, notwithstanding the active and well-conducted exertions of
the Mysore cavalry under Kammar-ud-Din Khan to check his progress.
He took up his position on the north side of the fort. The regular
siege may be said to date from the 17th, and it was decided ultimately
to storm at the western angle, across the river.

Tipu, in order to open communications, had written to General
Harris on the 9th, affecting ignorance of the cause of hostilities ; on
which he was referred to the Governor-General's letters. He now on
the 20th proposed a conference, and was furnished in reply with the
draft of a preliminary treaty, to be executed in twenty-four hours, the
principal conditions of which were — the cession of half of his
remaining territories, the payment of two crores of rupees in two
instalments, and the delivery of four of his sons and four of his

414 /JISTORY

principal officers as hostages. 15ut the time passed without his
accepting it. A sortie on a large scale was repulsed by the besiegers,
who pushed on their operations with vigour, till on the 27th the
Mysoreans were driven from their last exterior line of defence.

The Sultan now again attempted negotiation, and was informed that
the terms previously offered would be held open until three o'clock
next day, but no longer. From this time despair seemed to brood
over him. Supernatural aid was sought both by the incantations of
Brahmans and the prayers of Muhammadan mullas, while the stars
were consulted and solemn ceremonies of divination performed with
the view of ascertaining what was decreed in the book of fate. But
his officers were more alive to their duty at such a crisis. Meanwhile
the approaches and breaching batteries of the besiegers were steadily
advancing, and, on the morning of the 2nd of May, began to form the
breach, which next day was reported practicable.

Before daybreak on the memorable 4th of May the assaulting party,
consisting of two thousand four hundred and ninety-four Europeans,
and one thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven natives, under the
command of General Baird, had taken their stand in the trenches,
with scaling-ladders and other implements ready. The Sultan had
persuaded himself the assault would never be made by daylight. One
o'clock, however, had been decided on as the hour.

At that precise moment General Baird, eager to avenge the hard-
ships he had suffered within the walls of Seringapatam and the secret
massacre of his countrymen, stepped forward from the trenches in full
view of both armies, and drawing his sword, called on the soldiers in a
tone which thrilled along the trenches to " follow him and prove
worthy of the British name." His men rushed at once into the bed of
the river. Though immediately assailed by musketry and rockets,
nothing could withstand their ardour, and in less than seven minutes
the forlorn hope reached the summit of the breach, and there hoisted
the British flag, which proclaimed to the world that the fate of Mysore
was decided.^

For fourteen days preceding, the Sultan, who could not be
convinced that the fall of his capital was so near at hand, had taken
up his quarters in the inner partition of the Kalale Diddi, a water gate
through the outer rampart on the north face of the fort. The general

* The capture of Seringapatam and glorious termination of the Mysore war were
celebrated with great rejoicings and a day of public thanksgiving throughout the
British possessions, and the anniversary of the event was specially observed for
many years after. As an indication of the progress made in communications since
that lime it may be noted that the news did not reach London till the 13th of
September.

DEATH OF TIPU SULTAX 415

charge of the angle attacked had been committed to Sayyid Sahib, his
father-in-law, assisted by Sayyid Gaffur, formerly an ofificer in the
British service, who was taken prisoner with Colonel IJraithwaite and
was now serving 7'ipu. The eldest of the princes, with Purnaiya,
commanded a corps intended to disturb the northern attack, and the
second prince was in charge of the Mysore gate and the southern face
of the fort, while Kammar-ud-din was absent watching Colonel Floyd.
Sayyid Sahib had sent a message in the morning that the fatal hour of
storming was drawing nigh, but the Sultan replied that it would not be
by daylight. He had ordered his midday repast, but had scarcely
finished it when the report was made to him of the actual assault.
Hastily arming, he heard that Sayyid Ciaffur had been killed. " Sayyid
Gaffur was never afraid to die," he said, and ordered another officer to
take his place. He then mounted the northern rampart with a few
attendants and eunuchs, and when within two hundred yards of the
breach fired several times with his own hands at the assailants, under
cover of a traverse. But seeing that his men had either fled or lay
dead, and that the assailants were advancing in great numbers, he
retired along the rampart, slightly wounded, and meeting one of his
favourite horses, mounted him and proceeded eastward till he came to'
the gateway leading into the inner fort, which he entered with a crowd
of fugitives.

A deadly volley was poured into this crowded passage by a portion
of the storming party. Tipu received a second and third wound, and
his horse was struck, while the faithful Raja Khan, who still clung to
his master's side, was also hit. Raja Khan advised him to discover
himself " Are you mad ? Be silent," was the prompt reply. He
then made an effort to disengage his master from the saddle, but both
master and servant fell in the attempt on a heap of dead and dying.
Tipu's other attendants obtained a palankeen and placed him in it, but
he contrived to move out of it. While he lay with the lower part of
his tjody buried underneath the slain, the gold buckle of his belt
excited the cupidity of a soldier, who attempted to seize it. Tipu
snatching up a sword made a cut at him, but the grenadier shot him
through the temple, and thus terminated his earthly career. He was
then in his forty-seventh year and had reigned seventeen years.

So long as the Sultan was present, a portion of his troops on the
north side made efforts at resistance, and his French corps persevered
in it for some time longer, but they were soon (juelled. Immediately
after the assault. General Baird hastened to the palace in the hope of
finding the Sultan. The inmates, including two princes who were
themselves ignorant of his fate, solemnly denied his presence, but the

4i6 J IJ STORY

doubts of the ( Icncral were not satisfied. The princes were assured of
protection and removed under miHtary honours to the British camp,
and the palace was thoroughly searched with the exception of the
zenana, but all to no purpose. At last the General's threats extorted
from the unwilling killedar the disclosure of the secret that the Sultan
lay wounded in the gate ; and here, after a search in the promiscuous
and ghastly heap of slain, the body was discovered. It was removed to
the palace in a palankeen and next day consigned with all military
honours to its last resting-place, at the Lai Bagh by the side of Haidar
Ali. The solemn day closed with one of the most dreadful storms that
ever visited this part of the country.

" Haidar was born to create an empire ; Tipu to lose one," — was
the proverbial opinion, based on the prediction of the former and an
observation of their respective characters. It was justified by the
events, and forcibly sums up the merits of the two Musalman rulers of
Mysore.

Compared with his father, who often lamented his son's defects,
Tipu was weak both in mind and character. In person he was neither
so tall nor so robust as Haidar, and his complexion was darker. His
hands and feet were small and delicate, his eyes large and full, but he
had a short thick neck and was slightly inclined to corpulence. His
face was clean shaven, except for a thin line on the upper lip, and,
unlike his father, he retained his eyebrows and eyelashes. In dress
he generally affected simplicity and made this the rule for his courtiers
also. His turban, which was latterly green, was fastened in, in the
Mahratta fashion, by a white handkerchief tied over the top and under
the chin. He was very garrulous, and spoke in loud and sharp tones,
laying down the law on every conceivable topic.

There is a popular idea that as Haidar means lion (a name of 'Ali,
the son-in-law of Muhammad), so Tipu means tiger, but this appears
to be a mistake. He was named Tipu after a holy man whose shrine
is at Arcot, near which Haidar was when he heard of the birth of his
son at Devanhalli. The tiger, however, was adopted by Tipu as
emblematic. His throne was in the form of a tiger, with the head life-
size, in tTold,^ and tigers' heads formed the capitals of the eight pillars
supporting the canopy. His own uniform and that of his soldiers was
covered with the tiger stripe, and this was also engraved on his guns
and other articles. Tigers were chained at the entrance to his palace,
and he is declared to have said that he would rather live two days as a
tiger than two centuries as a sheep.

1 Now at Windsor Castle ; also the hitina, or bird of paradise, covered with jewels,
which glittered at the top of the canopy.

RESTORATION OF THE HINDU RAJ 417

He was a good horseman and active in the field : also very
industrious in writing, the pen being scarcely ever out of his hand.
He could speak fluently Hindustani, Kannada, and Persian, but
though the range of his studies was limited, he vainly regarded himself
as one of the wisest of men. And so great was his conceit that he
also imagined himself to be one of the most handsome. He affected
an acquaintance with every known subject, and himself wrote detailed
instructions on the most diversified matters, both civil and military, to
all his subordinates. His rage for innovations, which has already been
illustrated in the account of his reign (see above, p. 409) unsettled
everything, while his dark and cruel bigotry blinded his perceptions,
threw power into unworthy hands, and alienated from him whole classes
of the most important of his subjects. Though perhaps he deceived
himself into a belief that his measures were for the good of the
people, they were really the outcome of caprice and self-conceit,
which at length gave rise to suspicions of aberration of the mind.

The town suffered plunder for a day, and at last guards having been
placed over the houses of the respectable persons, and four of the
plunderers executed, the soldiery was effectually restrained, and
tranquillity restored. This event was followed by the surrender of
Fatteh Haidar, the eldest of the sons of Tipu, and of Purnaiya, Kamar-
ud-Din Khan and other officers, on the following day. Circular orders
were issued by General Harris, accompanied by communications from
the Meer Soodoor, to the officers in charge of the different forts in the
territories, to deliver their charges to the British authorities, and giving
them general assurance of favour and protection. By these means the
country submitted, the ryots returned to their peaceful occupations,
and the land had rest from the ince.s.sant warfare of the past fifty years.
The disposal of the conquered territories engaged attention next.
After a mature deliberation of the various interests involved in the
question, the restoration of the descendant of the Rajas of Mysore to
the sovereignty, under British protection, of a part of the dominions,
and the division of the remainder between the allies, were the measures
resolved upon.^ The British share consisted of all the districts below
the (ihdts lying between their possessions on the eastern and western
coasts, namely, Kanara, Coimbatore, &:c., with such posts and fortresses
as commanded the passes ; and the island of SLriiigapatam. To the
Nizam were assigned the districts of (Uitti and Cluramkoinla, bordering
on the cessions made in 1792, together with all the country north from

' By a Commission composed of (Joneial Harris, Cnlimcl Arlluir Wcllcslcy, llic
Honourable Henry Wellesley, Lieut. -Colonel Williaiu Kirkpalrick, and Lieut. -
Colonel Barry Close, the Nizam concurring.

E K

4I-S ///STORY

Chitaklroog and Sira. I'or the Mahrattas, whose forces were not
present at the siege, were reserved, on certain conditions, Harpanhalli,
Siinda and Ancgundi, with parts of the districts of Chitaldroog and
Bednur above the Ghats ; hut as they would not agree to the terms of
the proposed treaty renouncing a claim to plunder, these districts were
divided between the British and the Nizam.

The sons of Tipu were provided with liberal allowances, and
removed from the scene of their former greatness to the fortress of
Vellore.' The principal officers of the late Government were divided
into three classes, according to their respective ranks,, and pensioned ;
the stipends varying from three thousand to two hundred and ten star
pagodas per annum. To Mir Kamar-ud-Din Khan were assigned two
jagirs, one from the Company and the other from the Nizam, and he
was permitted to reside at Guramkonda. Purnaiya, who had been the
principal financial minister under the late Government, having given
satisfactory proof of his readiness to serve the new one in the same
capacity, it was deemed advisable to appoint him Divan to the young
Raja.- All negotiations regarding the revival of the kingdom of
Mysore were considerately postponed till the departure of the sons of
the Sultan from the capital, which took place on the iSth of June, 1799.

(Subsequently, in 1800, the Nizam ceded to the British the territories
acquired from Mysore in 1792 and 1799, in return for a force of British
troops to be stationed at Haidarabad. And in 1803 Holalkere,
Mayakonda, and Harihar districts were given to Mysore by the British
Government in exchange for parts of Punganur, Wynad, Yelusavirasime,
and some other places contiguous to their boundary.)

The Brahmans having fixed upon the 30th of June as the most
auspicious day for placing Krishna Raja Wodeyar on the masnad, the
ceremony was performed at Mysore at noon on that day by the Com-
missioners, headed by General Harris, and accompanied by Mir Alam
(the representative of the Nizam), under three volleys of musketry
from the troops on the spot and a royal salute from the guns of
Seringapatam. The deportment of the young prince, the despatch
on the subject says, was remarkably decorous. Some high Musal-
man officers of the late Government spontaneously attended on
the occasion. The inauguration having taken place under an open
pandal, the spectators were very numerous, and it would be difficult to

' Five years later, on the occurrence of the nuitiny at \"eIlore, they were removed
to Calcutta.

■ Tirumal Rao, previously referred to (p. 399), was also a candidate for this office,
with the support of the Rani. But a letter on the subject was sent to her by Mr.
Webbe, in Mahratta, signed S'rl Veb (in Devanagari characters), and Tirumal Rao
was liberally pensioned. He lived at Madras till his death in 181 5.

PURXAIYA REGEXT 419

describe the joy which was visible in the countenances of all the
Hindus present.

The rebuilding of the old palace of Mysore was at the same time
commenced. Dr. Buchanan, writing in May 1800, says, "It is now so
far advanced as to be a comfortable dwelling, and I found the young
prince seated in it on a handsome throne. He has very much recovered
his health, and though he is only between six and seven years of age,
speaks and behaves with great propriety and decorum. From Indian
etiquette, he endeavours in i)ublic to preserve a dignified gravity of
countenance ; but the attentions of Colonel Close, the Resident, make
him sometimes relax, and then his face is very lively and interesting."

Purnaiya was now Divan and Regent, Colonel (afterwards Sir
Barry) Close^ was Resident, and Colonel Arthur Wellesley (the future
Duke of AVellington) commanded the Division. The combined
influence of such a triad was a sufficient guarantee for all that could
render the State secure and prosperous. The disturbances caused by
the Aigur chief in Manjarabad, and by Dhundia Wahag' in the north-
west were soon quelled. Purnaiya's thorough knowledge of the
resources of the country enabled him to add materially to the revenue,
which was further swelled by the sale of the large stores of sandalwood
which had accumulated for several years owing to Tipu's prohibition of
its export from his dominions ; so that although the Mysore State,
according to treaty, kept a considerable body of troops in the field
during the Mahratta war, the treasury continued to fill. " The

' lie came out as a cadet in 177 1, and was in TcUicherry during ils siege l)y
riaidar : served as Deputy-Adjutanl-Cleneral with the army before Seringapalani in
1792, and as Adjutant-General at the final capture in 1799. He was then ajipoinled
Resident in Mysore. In 1801 he was transferred as Resident to Toona, where he
remained till his retirement in 181 1, and died in England in 1813. He was aji
accomplished Arabic and Persian scholar. Closepet is named after him.

* He was a Mahratta by descent, and a native of Channagiri. From 17S0 lie
served as a horseman in Haidar's army, but during the invasion of Lord Cornwallis
decamped with a few followers and as much booty as they could get hold of lo
Dliarwar, where he lived by plundering. In 1794 he was induced to come to
Scringapatam with the prospect of being received into Tipu's service with all his
followers, consisting of two hundred horse. But refusing to embrace Islam, he was
forcibly converted and thrust into prison. At the capture of Seringapatam he was
ftjund chained to the wall like a wild beast, and the British soldiers out of jiily at
(mce freed him. He then escaped to the Mahratta country, and collecting a large
force committed many depredations in the north-west. In 1800, having assumed
the title of " King of the Two Worlds," he threatened the Mysore frontier with a
body of 5,000 horse. Colonel Wellesley went against him, and pursuing him for
months from point to point without being able to come up with him, at last succeetled
in surprising him, when this freebooter's army was entirely routed anil he himself
killed in a cavalry charge led in person by his distinguished opjioncnt.

E E 2

420

///STORY

settlement of Mysore," as Major Wilks remarks, " was distinguished
from all preceding measures of British policy, was quoted with
applause in the remotest parts of India, and was acknowledged with
unlimited gratitude by the people to be governed, by leaving every
office, civil and military, to be filled by the natives themselves, with
the single guard of those powers of interposition in the internal affairs
of the government which were reserved by a special provision of
the treaty. . The experiment was new, and with relation to its
remote consequences, of momentous importance." It was, therefore,
no little satisfaction to the Governor-General, the Marquess of
Wellesley, in 1804, to record it as his deliberate declaration, that
during the past five years, " the affairs of the government of
Mysore had been conducted with a degree of regularity, wisdom,
di.scretion and justice unparalleled in any Native State in India."

Of the young prince himself we obtain a further glimpse in 1806,
from Colonel Welsh's account of a procession from Nanjangud to
Kalale. " The young Rajah," he writes, " was now twelve years old,
and as promising a boy as I ever beheld ; indeed, Major Wilks, who
was a man of sense and refinement, declared he had never known
a finer youth, European or native. His manners were far above his
age, but he was then under the tutelage of the celebrated Poorniah. .
During the procession, which took place on horseback, old Poorniah
checked the ardour of the Rajah, and we moved at a snail's pace for
the first three miles, when this fine boy, longing for a gallop, obtained
his guardian's leave, exchanged his State turban for a plain one, and
disengaging himself from several valuable chains and jewels which
decorated his person, gave his horse the whip, and commenced a
hi?ige, which he managed with grace and dexterity, while we formed
a ring outside and enjoyed the exhibition. After indulging himself for
a few minutes, in which we much admired his manliness, he resumed
his dress, and we proceeded in state to the end of the march." ^

Beyond advice from the Resident, little interference with internal
affairs was called for during the administration of Purnaiya, which
continued till 181 1. "The knowledge of the right of interposing had
proved sufficient of itself to prevent any .frequent or urgent necessity
for its exercise, and to secure in a respectable degree the protection
of the people in the enjoyment of their most important rights."
Purnaiya's system of go\-ernment was no doubt absolute ; and, as a
financier, the accumulation of surplus revenue presented itself to him
as a prime end to be attained. It may be questioned, therefore,

' ^/i/itary Rt'niiitisa'nces, from a Journal of Forty \ 'ears' Active Seii'iee in the
East /ndies. By Colonel James Welsh.

KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 421

whether he did not to some extent enrich the treasury at the expense
of the State, by narrowing the resources of the people ; t'or by 181 1 he
had amassed in the public coffers ui)\vards of two crores of rupees. He
was a minister of the old school, and viewed with chagrin any attempts
which the Raja, as he came to years of discretion, made to assert his
prerogatives. This i)rovoked the resentment of the young Raja,
surrounded as he was by parasites who constantly urged him to take
the government into his own hands. In 181 1 he expressed to the
Resident a wish to govern for himself. The Resident endeavoured to
secure a share in the administration for Purnaiya, but the latter
declined further office, and retired to Seringapatam, where he soon
after died, on the 28th of March 18 12. Old and infirm, after a life of
unusual activity and care, " I am going to the land of my fathers," was
the tranquil message he sent a few days before to his friend Colonel
Hill, the Commandant of the fort. " Say that I am travelling the
same road," was the reply returned, and he survived the minister but a
short time.

Purnaiya was a Brahman of the Madhva sect, descended from a family
of the Coimbatore country. Plis talents were recognized by Haidar,
and he was made not only minister of finance, but was also put in charge
of the commissariat. He was short and stout in person, but much more
active than Prahmans in general are, and Haidar rewarded him with a
grant of the village of Maruhalli (south-west of Mysore). His tact and
the influence he had acquired are well illustrated by the course he
pursued, already related, at the death of Haidar, and the means he
took to secure the succession to Tipu. His services to the latter were
of the highest value, and next to Mir Sadak lie enjoyed greater power
under the Sultan than any other person. But he was in no small
■danger from the bigotry of his master. For the Sultan, it is said, once
proposed to him to become a Musalman. " 1 am \our servant,"
replied Purnaiya, and hastily withdrew. The Sultan's mother, who
had great influence with her son, on hearing of what hvid occurred,
strongly remonstrated with him on his folly, and he had the sense to
see the danger of proceeding any further in the matter. It must have
been with a sense of relief, therefore, that Purnaiya, when, after the fall
of Seringapatam, he was summoned to surrender, and assured that he
had no cause to be alarmed, replied, " How can I hesitate to
surrender to a nation who are the protectors of my tribe from Kas'i to
Rames'varam ? " The subsequent distinguished career of Purnaiya has
been made plain by our history. In 1807 he was offered a jiigir in
recognition of his services, and chose the fertile tract of ^'elandur, on
the borders of Mysore and Coimbatore.

42 2 HISTORY

Mr. Josiah Wcbbc had been appointed Resident in Mysore in succes-
sion to Colonel Close, but only consented to hold the office temporarily,
as he was anxious to leave India. Until his arrival Mr. J. H. Peile
acted as Resident for a few months. Mr. Webbe had been for many
years Chief Secretary to the Ciovernment of Madras, and was intimately
concerned in all the transactions of the south from the days of Haidar.
He left Mysore to go as Resident to Nagpore, and from there went
in June 1804, to relieve Malcolm at Gwalior, where he fell sick and
died at a critical time in the spring of 1805. An obelisk erected to
his memory by Purnaiya is conspicuous to the north of Seringapatam.

Major (afterwards Sir John) Malcolm^ became Resident of Mysore at
the beginning of 1803, but was destined to continue as an actor on a
far wider stage, and was one of the foremost men of his day in India.
Only the briefest outline can here be given of his illustrious career.
Serving in the army before Seringapatam in 1792, he was selected by
Lord Cornwallis to be Persian interpreter with the Nizam's contingent.
He returned to England in 1794, and came out with General (Sir
Alured) Clarke next year as Military Secretary on the secret expedition
destined for India, in which the ships were driven out of their course
to South America, and eventually arrived off the Cape of Good Hope
at a most opportune moment, which enabled them to decide the
contest with the Dutch that made the Cape a British colony. He
continued as ^Military Secretary under General Harris at Madras, and
in 1798 was appointed Assistant Resident at Haidarabad, where he
nearly lost his life in carrying out the disbandment of the French
forces. In 1799 he was First Secretary to the Commissioners for the
settlement of Mysore (Captain Thomas Munro being the other), and
immediately after was sent as Envoy to Persia by the Governor-General,
Lord Wellesley, who had early discerned his abilities. In ^March 1803,
he joined the army of General Wellesley, marching against theMahrattas,
at Harihar, as representative of the Governor-General, and was after-
wards sent on a mission to Bombay. Thus it was not till November
1804 that he came to Mysore itself, and after the stirring events in which

' He was of a Scotch family and not thirteen when taken by his uncle before the
Directors of the East India Company in 1781 for a cadetship. They were about to
refuse a commission in their army to such a boy, but on one of the Directors in a
disparaging manner saying to him, " WTiy, my Httle man, what would you do if you
met Haidar Ali ?" " I'd out with my sword and cut ofT his head," was the unex-
pected reply, on w hich lliey passed him at once. Boy Malcolm, as he was called,
became very popular and developed great talents. "WTien sent in charge of the escort
for exchange of prisoners with Tipu, the officer of the opposite party, seeing such a
stripling, asked where the commanding officer was. " I am the commanding officer,"
was the answer he was astonished to receive.

S//^ JOHN MALCOLM 423

he had been engaged was turning his thoughts to a hfe of Hterary leisure
and the compilation of his History of Persia, when, in March 1805, he
was again summoned to Calcutta by the Govuirnor-General, and was
employed in negotiations with Holkar and Sindiah. In fact, " send
Malcolm " had come to be the remedy proposed for every emergency.
He returned to Mysore in April 1807, and was married there in July
to the daughter of an officer in Madras. But in February 1808, he
was a second time sent to Persia. Returning to Madras in 1809, he
was ordered to Masuli[)atam to repress the mutiny of the European
regiment, and was afterwards reappointed to Persia. In 1812 he received
five years' furlough to England. On his return to India he was engaged
in operations against the Pindaris and Mahrattas, and in 18 19 took charge
of the administration of Central India. He went home again in 1822,
and was subsequently appointed Governor of Bombay. After a most
distinguished career in India^ he retired to England in 1831, entered
Parliament, and died in London of influenza in 1833. A statue of him
by Chantrey was erected in Westminster Abbey and one in Bombay.

He was very tall and strong, and of untiring activity in body and mind.
Simple, manly, generous and accessible to all, he was universally beloved
both by Europeans and natives. Colonel Welsh, who met him at
Belgaum at the end of 1828, when he was Governor of Bombay, says,
" He proved to be the same honest John Malcolm I knew twenty-five
years ago, in General Wellesley's arm}-. All the fire, strength and activity
of youth, with those abilities which enable him to transact his business
in less time than most other men would take to consider about it."

During the prolonged absence of the permanent Resident the duties
of the office were ably discharged by Major Mark ^^'ilks, whose
History of Mysore is a monument of his knowledge of and interest in
the country. In about 180S he went to England and afterwards
became Governor of St. Helena, an appointment which he held till the
imprisonment on that island of the Emperor Napoleon Buonaparte.
He was succeeded at Mysore by the Hon. Arthur H. Cole, who had
been the Assistant Resident. This gentleman, a connection of the
Earls of Enniskillcn, held the position of Resident for many years, but
I have not been able to obtain any particular infi)rmation al)OUt
him, except that I believe he had been in Parliament. On leaving
Mysore he went to the Mauritius. In 1825 Mr. J. A. Casamaijor, of

' The Duke of Wellington, writing to him in 1824, says, " I can answer for it thai
from the year 1796 no great transaction has taken place in the East in which you have
not played a principal, most useful, conspicuous and honourable i>art ; and you have
in many services, di]ilomatic as well as military, been distinguished by successes, any
one of which in ordinary circumstances would have been deemetl sufficient for the life
of a man."

424 n/STORY

tlic Madras Civil Service, was Resident, and continued so till 1834,
when he was transferred to Travancore.^

To return to the Raja of Mysore. Krishna Raja Wodeyar, then
about sixteen years of age, commenced his rule under the most
favourable auspices, with a treasury well filled and the good wishes
of the whole country. Flatterers and parasites, however, gained
too ready an ear, and in 18 14 the Resident was compelled to
report that the Raja had already dissipated on worthless persons
the treasure accumulated by Purnaiya, while the pay of his troops
was several months in arrears. Though possessed of great natural
intelligence, he lacked the administrative ability which was essential
for governing the country, and was yet too jealous to delegate
the necessary authority to the Divan. While the Resident's advice
was disregarded, a lute player named Venkat Subbaiya, and other
indifferent characters, obtained an extraordinary influence over him.
The disinterested counsels of the few respectable native gentlemen at
his court met with no more attention than those of the Resident, and
although sharply rebuked by the British Government and warned of
the inevitable result of his extravagance and sensuality, the Raja
turned a deaf ear to all remonstrance. In 181 7 he was foolish enough
to enter into political intrigues which gave umbrage to the British,
though they did not proceed from want of loyalty on his part.

Colonel Welsh, an eye-witness whom we have already quoted,
writing of Bangalore so early as October 181 1, says, "The Rajah of
Mysore paid us a visit for the races, accompanied by the Hon. A. Cole
and his staff. . I have formerly mentioned this prince as a most
promising youth ; I much fear he has now broken that promise, for,
so far as outward appearance goes, no two beings could be more
different." Again, writing in 1830, he says: — "The after-life of this
prince, I am truly sorry to state, has not fulfilled the promise of his
youth. . I must own I had never felt such a predilection for
any native as for this young Rajah ; and Major Wilks's accounts of the
proofs he gave of good sense and honourable feeling made an
impression on my mind which led me afterwards to hope, when hope
was vain ; for on acquiring the entire management, he threw himself
into the most improper hands, and disregarded the advice of his
real friends to such a degree that some of the most important stations
were filled by low and insignificant wretches, and the whole country
groaned under oppression. . He has long ruled his own kingdom,

' He eventually retired to the Xilagiri Hills, where in 1S42 he bought the resi-
dence and property of the Governor, Lord Elphinstone, at Kaity, and al his death
in 1849 bequeathed it to the Basel Lutheran Mission.

THE RAJAS MISRULE 425

and with able and honourable advice, which he has never wanted in Major
Wilks's successors, might have acquired a name among his subjects
equal to that of his virtuous minister (Poorniah) ; but he has miserably
failed, and those who now frequent that once well-regulated country
hear nothing but complaints against the Sovereign in every village."

" All remonstrances failed to check the Raja's downward course.
High offices of State were sold to the highest bidder, while the people
were oppressed by the system of shar/i, which had its origin under
Purnaiya's regency. Sharii was a contract made by the Amildar that
he would realize for the Government a certain amount of revenue ;
that if his collections should fall short of that amount he would make
good the deficiency, and that if they exceeded it the surplus should be
paid to the Government. The amount which the Amildar thus
engaged to realize was generally an increase on what had been
obtained the year preceding. In the viuchalika or agreement the
Amildar usually bound himself not to oppress the ryots, nor impose
any new taxes, nor compel the ryots to purchase the Government
share of grain, but this proviso was merely formal ; for any violation
of the contractors in any of these points when represented to the
Government was taken no notice of The consequence was that the
ryots became impoverished, the revenues more embarrassed, and the
Amildars themselves frequently suffered losses. The distress arising
from this state of things, and from the neglect of duties incumbent
upon Government, fell heavily upon the ryots, who groaned under the
oppression of every tyrannical sharti Faujdar and Amildar.''

As another instance of maladministration which prevailed it may be
mentioned that the courts of justice had no power to pass sentence,
their prerogative being limited to the mere finding of guilty or not guilty.
The Raja, who had retained the power of passing sentence, was too
indolent to attend to business, and the result was that the jails
remained for years crowded with prisoners who, if guilty at all, were
only guilty of light offences.

Once, in 1825, the venerable Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of
Madras, actuated by a sincere desire to avert the ruin which threatened
the Raja, visited Mysore and remonstrated personally with him. In
his minute upon the interview, he writes, " I concluded by saying
that the disorder of the Rajah's affairs had reached such a height as
would justify the Government in acting upon the Fourth Article of the
Treaty ; but that as a direct interference in the administration, or the
assumption for a time of part of the Mysore territory, could not be
undertaken without lessening the dignity of his Highness, and shaking
his authority in such a manner that it would be impracticable ever to

426 HISTORY

re-establish it, I was unwilling to adopt such a course until the last
extremity, and wished to give him an opportunity of restoring order
himself. I'.ut if reform was not immediately begun, direct interference
would be unavoidable." The effect of this advice was at best
transient, and Munro unfortunately died of cholera at Gutti in July,
1827. Between this time and 1831 matters went from bad to worse.
The Resident, Mr. Cassamaijor, strove ineffectually to arrest the
Raja's downfall, but did not succeed in securing his confidence. His
Highness seemed destined to place his trust always in unworthy
advi.sers.

In 1830 symptoms of disaffection began to show themselves in the
Nagar country. A Brahman named Kama Rao, from the Mahratta
territory, who had served with credit under Haidar and Tipu as a
commander of cavalry, had been appointed Faujdar of Nagar in 1799,
and held that office till 1805. He afterwards became Bakshi of the
Sowar Cutcherry, and was one of the Rc4ja"s most intimate counsellors,
and virtually the Dewan for a few years after Purnaiya's retirement.
By his influence almost every public situation of importance in Nagar
down to 1828 was, with a slight interruption, filled up by his
dependents or relatives. Though charged with flagrant frauds and
embezzlements, their conduct was shielded from scrutiny ; while some
of them even enriched themselves by giving encouragement to robbers
— for whose operations the -wild nature of the country offers many
facilities — and partaking of the plunder. The outstanding balances of
revenue having accumulated to upwards of thirteen lakhs of rupees,
the Bakshi contrived that he himself should be deputed to inquire into
and settle the claims. He made large remissions to the extent of
seven-and-a-half lakhs, and returned to the Darbar in 1828. The Raja
being led to question the propriety of these proceedings, resolved to
appoint a relative of his own, named Vira Raj Arasu, as Faujdar.
The latter discovered that much fraud had been practised in the
remissions, and re-imposed the claims, which naturally excited dis-
satisfaction in those afiected. The Bakshi's party, also, fearful of the
consequences to themselves if the inquiries which Vira Raj Arasu was
pursuing should expose the corruption and malversation they had
practised during so many years, connived at the seditious proceedings
of a pretender to the throne of Nagar.'

' This man, whose real name was Sadar Malla, was the son of a common r}-ot of
Kumsi. Before the age of twenty he had been concerned in several robberies and
spent two years in jail. He afterwards entered the service of a Jangama who had
been "priest of the last Nayak of Bednur and was possessed of his seal rings. These,
on the death of the priest, Sadar Malla got hold of, and assuming the name of Biidi
Basavappa, wandered about the countrj- secretly giving out that he was a descendant

INSURRECTION IN NAGAR 427

In August (1830) a force in his name attempted to surprise the fort
of Anantapur, but failed. At the same period the ryots in various
places assembled in ki'ita or indignation meetings. On the ground of
these commotions, Vira Raj Arasu was recalled, and the former
Faujdar of the Bakshi's party restored. He made use of troops to
disperse the ryots at Hole Honnur on the 7th December, and several
were killed and wounded. Ilut they rallied near Honnali and were
joined by larger numbers from all parts, who openly espoused the
cause of the pretender. The Faujdar again attacked them with a
regiment of horse and broke up the assembly. The Palegar of
Tarikere now suddenly left Mysore and joined the in.surgents, seizing
on Kaldroog and Kamandroog. The Faujdar of Bangalore also
reported his Division to be in a general state of insurrection. Strong
reinforcements of troops were sent to the disturbed districts in the
Bangalore, Chitaldroog and Nagar Divisions ; and the Raja set out with
a considerable force on the 13th December for Chanraypatna, where it
was proclaimed that the grievances of the ryots would be inquired into.
Investigations were made by the Dewan for some days; several
persons were hanged, others flogged or mutilated. Meanwhile there
were encounters in various parts between the insurgents and the troops.

In January the Rdja's camp was established at Hebbur, and the
Dewan was despatched with troops against Kamandroog, while
Annapi)a, an officer of cavalry, was appointed to supersede the Faujdar
of Nagar. Annappa maintained an arduous conflict for several weeks
with the insurgents, and was forced to take refuge in Anantapur.
Here he remained till nearly starved, when addressing his troop.s, he
said, " Rather than die in this way of starvation, let us go and fight,
and die like soldiers." They responded, and .sallying forth on the
Shikarpur road, fought their way stoutly for fifteen miles to Masur in
the Company's territory, whence they retreated to Harihar. The
operations against Kamandroog failed, but Kaldroog was taken in
February. British aid was now applied for, and a regiment started
from Harihar. At the same time, Lieut. Rochfort, of the Resident's
escort, taking command of the Mysore troops, captured Kamandroog
on the 3rd of .March, the palegars escaping during the assault. Hence

of the Nagar family. Al)()ut i8i2 he was imprisoned for some lime in Canara for
rolibery, and on release obtained a passport bearing the seal of the Zillah court, in
which was entered his name as he himself gave it, Bi'idi Rasavajijia Nagar Khavind.
This document was now exhibited as a sannad from the l">ast India Company recog-
nizing his claims. These deceptions were effectual, and when the discontent to
which we have alluded was at its height, taking advantage of it to promise a full
remission of all balances and a reduction of the assessment, he was, about .\pril
1S30, formally recognized by several patels as the sovereign of Nagar.

428 JIJSTORY

Lieut. Roclifort marched to Shimoga, and hearing that a large body of
insurgents li;id taken Hoiinah, he proceeded there and took it by
assauU on the 12th. He now marched west, and carrying several
stockades, temporarily recovered Nagar or Bcdnur on the 26th, and
Chandragutti on the 6th of April. Meanwhile, enriched by the plunder
of district treasuries and other depredations, the rebel leaders were joined
by bodies of armed men, both horse and foot. Attracted by the hope of
plunder, 1,500 Candachar peons of the Eedar caste also deserted to them.

Owing to the increasing strength of the insurgents, the employment
of the entire subsidiary force became imperative. One regiment had to
retire from a fortified barrier at Fattepet, but the British forces being
concentrated at Shimoga, moved on the 31st of May by a circuitous
route to Nagar, which was finally taken on the 12th of June, and a
death-blow given to the insurrection. By the next month the majority
of the ryots had returned to their villages under the protection of letters
of cowl. But the rebel leaders continued at large with marauding bands,
committing outrages and raising disturbances for many months.

The state of Mysore had been for some time attracting the notice
of the (lOvernment of India, and as it was considered that the
insurrection was of so serious a character as to call for special inquiry,
the Governor-General ordered the formation of a Committee' to
investigate the " origin, progress and suppression of the recent
disturbances in Mysore." Their report showed that the misgovern-
ment of the Raja had produced grave and widely-spread discontent,
that the revenues were rapidly failing, and that mal-administration
was rampant in all departments of the State. The Governor-General,
Lord William Bentinck, therefore determined upon acting on the
fourth and fifth articles of the subsidiary treaty. In a letter addressed
to the Raja, after recounting at some length and in forcible terms the
circumstances under which the Raja had been placed on the throne,
the objects of the subsidiary treaty, and the mismanagement, tyranny,
and oppression of the Raja's government, Lord William Bentinck went
on to say, " I have in consequence felt it to be indispensable, as well
with reference to the stipulations of the treaty above quoted, as from a
regard to the obligation of the protective character which the British
Government holds towards the State of Mysore, to interfere for its
preservation, and to save the various interests at stake from further
ruin. It has seemed to me that in order to do this effectually, it will
be necessary to transfer the entire administration of the country into
the hands of British officers ; and I have accordingly determined to

' The members were Major-General Hawker, Colonel W. Morison, Mr. J. M.
Macleod, and Lieut.-Col. (afterwards Sir Mark) Cubbon.

DEPOSITION OF THE RAJA 429

nominate two Commissioners for the purpose, who will proceed
immediately to Mysore.

"I now therefore give to your Highness this formal and final notice,
and I request your Highness to consider this letter in that light ; that
is, as the notice required by the treaty to be given to your Highness of
the measure determined upon for the assumption and management of
the Mysore territory in the case stipulated. I beg of your Highness,
therefore, to issue the requisite orders and proclamations to the officers
and authorities of Mysore, within ten days from the date when this
letter may be delivered to your Highness, for giving effect to the transfer
of the territory, and investing the British Commissioners with full
authority in all departments, so as to enable them to proceed to take
charge and carry on affairs as they have been ordered, or may be here-
after instructed.'' To the Raja, in accordance with the treaty, the sum of
one lakh of star pagodas per annum was allotted for his private expenses.

The Raja, who received this mandate at the time of the Dasara
(19th Oct. 1 831), peaceably surrendered the reins of government, and
continued to reside in his palace at Mysore. The Governor-General vested
the government in the hands of two Commissioners, the senior of whom
was appointed by himself, and the junior by the Madras Government.
The senior Commissioner, who possessed what was termed a casting-
vote, and was therefore enabled to overrule his colleague on every
point, was aided in financial matters by the Divan, which latter post
was not abolished until 1S34. Up to June 1832 the Commissioners
were under the Government of Madras, but in that month they were
made immediately subordinate to the Government of India. It was
soon found that a Board of two Commissioners, who naturalh-
constantly differed in opinion, was an agency ill-adapted for the
organization of a proper system of government.^ Accordingly, in
April 1834, one Commissioner, Colonel Morison, was appointed for
the whole Province, and on his transfer to Calcutta, Colonel (after-
wards Sir Mark) Cubbon took charge in June. But the office of
Resident was still maintained, and thus a dual and divided interest
continued to exist. (Colonel J. S. Fraser, who had just carried out the
deposition of the Raja of Coorg and the annexation of that country,
was in June 1834 appointed Resident in Mysore and Commissioner

' The lollowing is a list of these Commissioners, with their dates of office : —
Senior Junior

Colunel J. Briggs 4 Oct. 1S31 [ Mr. C. M. Lushingtoii 4(^-1.1831

I ,, C. D. Drury 18 Kel). 1832

j ,, J. M. Macleod 16 June 1832

,, VV. Morison 6 Kel). 1S33 | Colonel Mark Cuhhon 17 Fcl). 1834

430 J II ST OR Y

of (Jooig. In 1836 he was made Resident in Travancorc, and in 1838
at Haidarabad. Major R. I). Stokes succeeded him at Mysore, and
rrniaincd till 1843, when the post of Resident was aixjlishcd.

A [jroposal, it appears, had been made by Lord William Jientinck
before he left India, at the time of Oeneral Fraser's ap[jc;intment, t<j
restore the districts of Mysore, Ashtagram and Manjarabad to the Raja,
and to annex the remainder of the country as an ecjuivalent for the
subsidy. Hut the reply of the Court of Directors, which arrived in
the time of vSir (afterwards Lord) Charles Metcalfe, and was made
known to the Raja by Lord Auckland, the new Covernor-(jeneral,
refused to sanction either the partition of a State whose integrity had been
guaranteed by treaty, or the subjection of the inhabitants of any portion,
however small, to the misrule from which they had been rescued.

The instructions of the Governor-General to the Madras Govern-
ment on the first assumption of the Province had been to the effect
that "the agency under the Commissioners should be exclusively
native ; indeed, that the existing native institutions should be carefully
maintained." These views were subsequently confirmed by the Court of
Directors in their letter dated 25th September 1835, in which they stated
that they were " desirous of adhering as far as can be done to the native
usage, and not to introduce a system which cannot be worked
hereafter by native agency." The above instructions were, as far as
possible, adhered to in the early days of the Commission. But in
process of time it became known that the machinery of government
was rotten to the core. Moreover, the opposing influence of the Raja
and his adherents throughout the country hampered the carrying out of
all new measures and added to the difficulties of the situation. The
powers of the various descriptions of courts were ill-defined, and
involved endless appeals. The evils involved by this state of things
lay too deep to be remedied by one Commissioner aided by the
existing native agency, and it was therefore determined to substitute
four European Superintendents for the Native Faujdars. Later on
European Assistants were also appointed. The Huziir Adalat,
composed of Native Judges, was allowed to remain the highest
judicial authority in the Province, but its sentences were made subject
to the confirmation of the Commissioner.

Lord Dalhousie, who visited Mysore in 1855, recorded his opinion
that the administration had been highly honourable to the British
name and reflected the utmost credit upon the exertions of the
valuable body of officers by whom such great results had been
accomplished. Several changes were soon after introduced, arising
out of the renewal of the Company's charter in 1854. A Judicial

SIR MARK CUB BON 431

Commissioner was appointed, and departments were formed for Pulilic
Works and Public Instruction.

The abolition of the post of Resident was at first felt by the Raja as
a great blow, but it brought him into closer relations with the Com-
missioner, and from 1847 they continued on the most friendly terms.
I5efore this, however, in 1844, in a letter to Lord Hardinge, then
(lovernor-Cieneral, the Raja urged his claim to the restoration of his
kingdom, to whicli the Directors replied in 1847, that "the real
liindrance is the hazard which would be incurred to the prosperity and
good government whicn the country now enjoys by replacing it under
a ruler known by experience to be thoroughly incompetent." No
indication, indeed, had been given that his rule would be any better
ik.an before. Though receiving on an average eleven lakhs a year, his
extravagance had accumulated private debts for the settlement of
which the appointment of a special officer, Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. P.
Crant, was necessary, and nearly thirty-five lakhs were paid. The
public debts due from the time of his deposition were not extinguished
till 1857. Lord Dalhousie, in view of the Raja's age (then 62), his
having no heir, and his expressed disinclination to adopt, anticipated that
Mysore, at his decease, would lapse to the British Ciovernment, and that
the good work which had been so well begun in it would be completed.

Such was the form of administration under Sir Mark Cubbon. The
history of the Province under his rule is that of a people made happy
by release from serfdom, and of a ruined State restored to financial
prosperity. There was a gradual rise of the revenue notwithstanding
that no less than seven hundred and sixty-nine petty items of taxation
were swept away.' \x\ addition, the abuses in the working of the
land revenue, whith had crept in since the time of Purnaiya, were
removed ; the payment of the assessment was made as easy as possible
to the ryot by dividing it into five instalments, })ayable with reference to
the periods of harvest ; the system of baUiyi or payment of as.sessment
in kind, which exposed the ryot to numberless exactions, was in great
measure abolished, and the land assessment in many cases was lowered.

At the beginning of i860 the intention was formed of transferring
the superintendence of Mysore affairs from the Ciovcrnor-Cieneral to
the Covernment of ALadras, then under Sir Charles Trevelyan, thus
reversing what had been done in 1832 ; but the stej) was so distasteful

' Anions; these were sucli whimsical taxes as taxes on marriage, on incontinency,
on a child being horn, on its heing given a name, and on its heaS being shaved. In
one village the inhabitants had to jiay a tax because their ancestors had failed to find
the stray horse of a palegar, and any one passing a particular spot in Xagar without
keeping his hands close to his side had to pay a tA. .\11 these taxes were fornially
entered in the government records as part of the rc^urces of the state.

432 J lis TORY

to the Raja, no less than to Sir Mark Cubbon, who tendered his
resignation, that it was withdrawn. Early the following year Sir Mark
was attacked with serious illness, which compelled him to resign, and
he died at Suez on his way to England in April 1861, at an advanced
age, having spent the whole of the century in India. He left Mysore
full of honours as full of years, and his memory is cherished with
affection by the people over whom he ruled so long.

He was the son of a Manx clergyman, and came out to India in
1 80 1, at the age of 16. On arrival he joined his uncle. Major Wilks,
at the Mysore Residency, and there gained an early acquaintance with
native habits. Before long he was appointed to the Commissariat
Department at Hunsur, and became the head of it when Colonel
Morison was made Resident of Travancore. This officer returned to
Mysore as Senior Commissioner in 1833, and was next year appointed
to the Council of the Governor-General at Calcutta,' on which Colonel
Cubbon, then lately made Junior Commissioner, succeeded him and
became the sole Commissioner.-

He was a statesman of the old school, and, says General Dobbs, was
particularly in his element when engaged in disentangling webs of native
intrigue. In this he fought the natives with their own weapons, with one
noble exception — he abhorred and never resorted to espionage, and often
spoke of the failure of Europeans who descended to such tactics. He was
intensely conservative, but his strong reluctance to change was corrected
by his wide reading of the public journals, then few in number. To his
deputies, in all matters in which he considered they possessed practical
knowledge, he allowed great liberty in exercising their own judgment,
and was generous and kind-hearted in support of them. He was
passionately fond of horses, and kept up to fifty or more, chiefly Arabs,
in his stables as pets. To encourage the production of high-bred

' A complimentary Order issued in Nov. 1839, on his departure to England, says,
" His Lordship in Council would particularly draw the attention of the young officers
of the Madras Army to the career of Colonel Morison." He was transferred from the
line to the artillery solely on account of his talents, and made Instructor. He after-
wards became Surveyor-General, and when the Commissariat department was formed,
Commissary-General. His subsequent appointments have been stated above. He was
the first Madras officer, since the days of Lord Clive, selected for a seat in the Supreme
Council.

* I regret that more information could not be obtained regarding an officer who
filled so prominent a position for so long a period with such distinguished success.
My efforts to get further particulars from the Isle of Man or from surviving friends
were not successful, and I am assured, on the best authority, that before leaving
India, Sir Mark, in spite of the remonstrances of friends, deliberately destroyed all
his papers. The sketch above given is taken from Reviiniscences of Life in Mysore,
South Africa, and Burinah, bv Major-General R. S. Dobbs, a well-known officer of
the Mysore Commission througfiout the whole period referred to.

SIR MARK CUBBOX 433

animals he had a number trained for the races, but did not run them,
preferring to pay the fines. Though he did not go to church, he was
particular in enforcing the observance of Sunday as a day of rest in all
courts and offices, and would not receive native visitors on that day.
His favourite retreat was Nandidroog, where he spent several months
in the year.

We obtain a delightful picture of him in 1858, at the time of Lady
Canning's visit. Her companion, the Hon. Mrs. Stuart, writes : —
"At seven in the morning (22nd March) drove up, through the lines
of the 60th Rifles, to General Cubbon's charming bungalow at
Bangalore. . \\'e found the whole house prepared for us, the chival-
rous old man of 74 having put himself into a tent. He is a very hand-
some," keen-eyed, intelligent man, and the quantity of anecdote of the
deepest interest that he has told us has been more entertaining than I
can describe." Lady Canning, writing from Nandidroog, says : — " I
am visiting a charming old General, Sir Mark Cubbon, 1,500 feet
above the tableland of Bangalore, and with a view over about 150
miles of country on all sides. It is cool fresh air and a very pleasant
spot, and the old gentleman is very delightful. He has been all this
century in Lidia. but seems to know all that has gone on all
over the world, and is the most gra?id seipieiir old man I almost
ever saw."'

His remains were conveyed by Dr. Campbell, the Durbar Surgeon,
who had accompanied him on the voyage, to the Isle of Man, where he
was met by Colonels Macqueen and Haines, old officers of the
Mysore Commission, and the body was laid to rest in the family
vault in a pul^lic funeral in which the whole island took part. As
the mourners left the tomb, "There lies," .said the archdeacon,
"the greatest man this island has produced for centuries back."
An equestrian statue, by Baron Marochetti, was erected to his
memory at Bangalore by public subscription, and stands in front of
the Public Offices.

The control of India had now passed from the Company to the
Crown, so, on the departure of Sir Mark Cubbon, the Rdja,
encouraged by the friendly terms in which Lord Canning had in the
previous year acknowledged his steadfastness during the mutiny, and
had supported his objection to be transferred to the control of Madras,
as well as bv his proclaimed goodwill to the native princes of India,
thought the opportunity favourable for again bringing forward his
claims to the restoration of his country. He accordingly addressed
Lord Canning on the subject in February 1861. That nobleman, in
^ The Story of Two Noble Lives, by A. J. C Hare.

434 ///STORY

n reply dated in Marcli 1862, the day before lie left fcjr ICngland, took
exce[>ti()n to the terms of the petition as ill-advised, and rejected it,
stating that "whilst the liritish (lovernment had been careful to satisfy
the right which it originally conceded to your Highness . . it is equally
alive to its obligations to the jjcople of Mysore and to the responsibility
for their prosperity and welfare of which it cannot divest itself." The
Raja, however, renewed his appeal through the new Viceroy, Lord Elgin.
The decision of the Home Government, rejecting the appeal, on the
ground that " the reinstatement of your Highness in the administration
of the country is incompatible with the true interests of the people of
Mysore," was made known to him at the end of 1863, on which the Raja
annoimced his intention of adopting a son. His debts had now again
accumulated, since the last clearance of them, to fifty-five-and-a-half
lakhs, and two officers were appointed for their liquidation.

Sir Mark Cubbon handed over charge to Mr. C. B. Saunders, the
Judicial Commissioner, who conducted the administration till the
arrival in Feb. 1862 of the new Commissioner, Mr. L. B. Bowring,'
and the latter, with the interval of a year's leave in 1866-7, during
which Mr. Saunders again ofificiated, held office until 1870. During
this period many radical changes were effected. Mysore had hitherto
been a non-regulation province. In 1862 the administration was re-
organized on the model of the Punjab system, and other reforms were
set on foot all tending towards the introduction of the regulation
system. The Province was now formed into three Divisions, sub-
divided into eight Districts, each Division being placed under a
Superintendent with enlarged powers, and each District in charge of a
Deputy Superintendent, aided by Assistant Superintendents. The
department of finance underwent at the same time a sweeping reform,
and in place of the large discretion previously allowed to officers of all
grades in regard to the disbursement of moneys, the Indian budget
system of audit and accounts was introduced.

In 1863 was commenced a much-needed revenue survey and settle-
ment, for the purposes of olitaining an accurate land measurement, of
regulating the customary land tax, and of preserving all proprietary and
other rights connected with the soil. In conjunction with this, the field
assessment was fixed for thirty years, thus securing to the cultivator the
full advantages of a lease for that period without burdening him with any

* Mr. Bowring, of the Bengal Civil Service, had been Assistant- Resident at Lahore
in 1847, and subsequently in the Punjab Commission. P'rom 1S58 to 1862 he was
Private Secretary to the Governor-Ceneral, Lord Canning. Created C.S.I, in 1867,
and retired to England in 1870. The Bowring Institute in Bangalore was erected,
partly by subscriptions, as a memorial to him.

THE RAJA'S ADOPTION 435

condition beyond that of discharging the assessment for the single year
to which his engagements extend. Soon after, it was found necessary to
form an inam commission, to inquire into the validity of titles to lands
held by individuals or religious institutions as real or pretended
endowments from the sovereigns of the country, considerable aliena-
tions of whole villages having been made during the administration of
the Raja. The conservation of the numerous irrigation channels and
of the valuable forests of the country received attention ; and as judicial
work grew heavier, judicial assistants were appointed, one for each
District, for the disposal of civil suits. Education was greatly
extended. Municipalities were established. In short, there was
scarcely a branch of the administration but came under the scrutiny
and reforming hand of the untiring and energetic head of the
Government.

Meanwhile affairs had taken a turn of the utmost importance to the
fortunes of the Mysore royal family. In June 1865 the Raja adopted
a scion, then two years old, of one of the leading families of his house,^
who on his adoption received the name of Chama Rajendra. A\'hether
this adoption would be recognized by the British (Government was for
some time doubtful, and questions asked in the House of Commons
elicited no positive or final answer. In 1866 a deputation, headed by
Sir H. Rawlinson, waited on the Secretary of State for India, Lord
Cranborne (now Marquess of Salisbury), to urge upon him a recon-
sideration of the whole case of Mysore, more particularly as modified
by the adoption ; and later on, a petition, to which several old Indian
officers had added their signatures, was presented to the House of
Commons by Mr. John Stuart Mill, praying that '• your Honourable
House will take such steps as may seem in ) our wisdom most efficacious
for ensuring, with the least possible delay, the re-establishment of a
Native (Government in the tributary State of Mysore, with every
possible security for Ikitish interests and for the prosperity and
happiness of the people of the country.''

In April 1867 Viscount Cranborne stated to the House of (Commons
the decision to which the Government (of which Mr. Disraeli was
Prime Minister) had come, influenced by the belief that the existence
of well-governed native States is a benefit to the stability of British
rule; and on the i6th Sir Stafford Northcote, then Secretary of State
for India, penned the despatch to the (jOvernor-(jeneral which decided
the future fate of Mysore. After stating that no hope could be held

' He was the third son of Chikk;i Kiislma Arasii of the Betladakote family ; a
descendant, by adoption, of Katli Gopalraj Arasii, father of Krishna K.-ija II.'s wife
Lakshmamnianni, who signed the treaty of Serin{;a])atani in 1799.

436 HISTORY

oul thai tlu! piL'vious decision regarding the reinstatement of the
Maharaja himself wcnild he reversed, he went on to say : —

"Without entering upon any minute examination of the terms of the
Treaties of 1799, Her Majesty's Government recognize in the pohcy which
dictated that setdemcnt, a desire to provide for the maintenance of an
Indian dynasty on the throne of Mysore, upon terms which should at once
afford a guarantee for the good government of the people, and for the
security of British rights and interests. Her Majesty is animated by the
same desire, and shares the views to which I have referred. It is her
earnest wish that those portions of India which are not at present under her
immediate dominion may continue to flourish under native Indian rulers,
co-operating with her representatives in the prorhotion of the general pros-
perity of the country ; and, in the present case more especially, having
regard to the antiquity of the Maharaja's family, its long connection with
Mysore, and the personal loyalty and attachment to the British Govern-
ment which his Highness has so conspicuously manifested, Her Majesty
desires to maintain that family on the throne in the person of his
Highness's adopted son, upon terms corresponding with those made
in 1799, so far as the altered circumstances of the present time will
allow.

" In considering the stipulations which will be necessary to give effect
to this arrangement, I have, in the first place, to observe, that Her
Majesty's Government cannot but feel a peculiar interest in the welfare
of those who have now for so long a period been subject to their direct
administration, and that they will feel it their duty, before replacing them
under the rule of a native sovereign, to take all the pains they can
with the education of that sovereign, and also to enter into a distinct
agreement with him as to the principles upon which he shall administer
the country, and to take sufficient securities for the observance of the
agreement.

" It is, therefore, the intention of Her Majesty that the young prince
should have the advantage of an education suitable to his rank and position,
and calculated to prepare him for the duties of administration ; and I have
to desire you to propose to the Maharaja that he should receive his
education under the superintendence of your Government. I have to
request that you will communicate with me as to the mode in which
this can best be effected without separating the young prince more
than is necessary from those over whom he may hereafter be called on
to rule."

The despatch went on to direct that if at the demise of his Highness
the young prince should not have attained the age fixed for his majority,
'•the territory shall continue to be governed in his name upon the
same principles and under the same regulations as at the present time."
Before confiding to him the administration of the whole, or any portion,
of the State, arrangements would be made "for the purpose of adequately

DEATH OF KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 437

providing for the maintenance of a system of government well adapted
to the wants and interests of the people," and, in regard to the rights
and interests of the British Government, for some addition to the
subsidy.

The Raja, though this gave the final blow to his own pretensions,
was much gratified with the remainder of the decision, and with the
friendly tone of the despatch. He was as alive as the British Ciovern-
nicnt to the fact that defective training had been to a great extent at
the bottom of his misfortunes. He accordingly selected Colonel G.
Haines, formerly in the Mysore Commission, as guardian of the young
prince, to superintend his education and training. Next year he died,
on the 27th of March 1868, having reached the ripe age of seventy-four
years. Though deprived of political power, the assignment to him of a
fifth of the revenue for his personal expenditure had enabled him to
give reins to tlie princely lil)eralit.y which formed one of the main
elements of his character, and he possessed many amiable personal
qualities much appreciated by those with whom he was intimate.
Immediately on the occurrence of this event the following proclama-
tion was issued : —

" His Excellency the Right Honourable the Viceroy and Governor-
General' in Council announces to the Chiefs and people of Mysore, the
death of his Highness the Maharaja Krishna RAja Wodiar Bahadoor,
Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India.
This event is regarded with sorrow by the Government of India, with which
the late Maharaja had preserved relations of friendship for more than half a
century.

" His Highness Chamarajendra Wodiar Bahadoor, at present a
minor, the adopted son of the late Maharaja, is acknowledged by the
Government of India as his successor and as Maharaja of the Mysore
territories.

" During the minority of his Highness the said territories will be
administered in his Highness's name by the British Government, and
will be governed on the same principles and under the same regulations
as heretofore.

"When his Highness sliall attain to the period of majority, that is,
the age of eighteen years, and if his Highness shall then be found
qualified for the discharge of the duties of his exalted position, the
government of the country will be entrusted to him, subject to such
conditions as may be determined at that time."

The young Maharaja was installed at Mysore at noon on the J3rd of
September, at the time of the Dasara, by the Commissioner, Mr.
Bowring, who reported thai "during the whole of the fatiguing cere-

' Sir Jdlin (afterwards Lord) Lawrence.

438 HISTOR Y

monies attendant on his installation the young prince showed great
self-control and composure, and it was not a little remarkable to see a
child of his tender years behave with so much dignity."

Mr. Bowring, who from 1869 was styled Chief Commissioner,
resigned office at the beginning of 1870. His Indian experience and
well-known acquaintance with the oriental classical languages enabled
him to sympathize readily with native institutions and interests. The
assimilation of the system of government, therefore, to that of the
15ritish Provinces, although it had necessitated the introduction of a
larger European element than before, was conjoined with the recognition
of native merit and talent. Two out of the eight Districts were placed
under the administration of native Deputy-Superintendents, appoint-
ments which ranked among the highest anywhere held at that period
by their countrymen. Many important judicial and other offices were
filled in a similar manner, and the way was left open for a more extensive
employment of native agency.

Colonel (afterwards Sir Richard) Meade^ assumed charge in February
1870, and was unexpectedly called away five years later by Lord
Northbrook, to the control of the Baroda State, where he had also
previously for several months (October 1873 to March 1874) been a
member of the Commission for the trial of the Gaikwar. His able
administration of Mysore was therefore subject to unlooked-for inter-
ruptions of a harassing nature. Among the more important measures
of this period a great impetus was given to public works, in raising all
works of irrigation to a complete standard of repair and efficiency, in
opening out communications in the remotest and most difficult parts
of the country, in surveys for railway extension, and in the erection of
public buildings, and carrying out of local improvements in towns.
Education continued to flourish. A topographical survey, the planting
of village topes, improvements in agriculture, and other useful works
were set on foot. In 187 1, Sub-Divisions, composed of groups of taluqs,
were constituted, and an Assistant-Superintendent was placed in charge
of each, the object being to bring Government officers into closer

' This distinguished of¥icer had made a name when only a Captain in connection
with the surrender of the fort of Gwahor, in the Mutiny. He subsequently com-
manded the column which captured the rebel leader Tantia Topee. Was Political
Agent at Gwalior in i860, and for Central India, at Indore, in 1861. Arrested
and deported the Gaikwar Malhar Rao in 1S75, selected and installed his successor,
and reorganized the administration of Baroda. When on his way back to Mysore
at the end of that year, he was appointed Resident at Haidarabad, from which he
retired to England in 1881, and died in the south of France in 1894. To him
Bangalore owes the Cubbon Park, at first called Meade Park, the name being
changed in accordance with his wishes.

THE GREAT FA.]fEyE

439

communication with the people and to give the Assistant-Super-
intendents a greater interest in their work.

In 1873 the designation of Commissioner was substituted for Super-
intendent through all the grades ; and in the same year, an important
measure for the establishment of Munsiffs' courts, with purely civil
jurisdiction, was Ijrought into operation. The amildars were thus
relieved of jurisdiction in civil cases, and the judicial powers of other
officers were greatly modified. The re-organization of the police was
commenced, one of the principal features of the scheme being the
recognition of the village police, and its utilization after being placed on
a reasonable footing of efficiency. The local military force, somewhat
reduced, was greatly improved by proper selection of men and horses,
and by the enforcement of a regular course of drill. Native agency
was systematically introduced into every department. Special training
was provided for preparing native officers for the Public Works, Survey
and Forest departments, and young men of good family were
appointed as Attache's, with the view of enabling them to gain
experience in civil and revenue matters before being entrusted with
responsible charges.

Mr. R. A. Dalyell, of the Madras Civil Service and Member of the
Viceroy's Council, officiated for a year from April 1875, ^^'hci ^Ir.
C. B. Saunders, who for some years had been Resident at Haidarabad,
was re-transferred to Mysore.' During the two years that he was Chief
Commissioner occurred the great famine which swept off more than a
million of the population, and for a time beclouded all the prosperity of
the State.

The young Raja (to whom, on the resignation of Colonel
Haines in 1869, Colonel G. B. Malleson' had been appointed
guardian) attended, with Mr. Saunders, the Imperial Assemblage at
Delhi on the ist of January 1877, when the Queen was proclaimed
Empress of India. Soon after their return gloomy prospects began
rapidly to thicken.

The late rains of 1875 and the rains throughout 1876 had generally
failed. The harvests of two successive years were lost, and the surplus
stores of grain were consumed. Relief works had been started in
several parts ; remissions of assessment had been granted ; the State
forests were thrown open to grazing ; house-to-hou.se visitation had

' He had served in the I'unjah in 1849, and was I'oHtical .\gent and Conimissidiicr
with the army before Delhi at its final siege and capture in the Mutiny in 1S57.
Created C. B. in 1864. Retired to England in 1878, and died there some years after.

- Previously Controller-( General in the Military Finance Department. Author of
several standard works on Indian historical subjects. Created C.S.I, in 1872.

440 IIISTOR V

been iii.stituicd and other palliative measures adopted. When, therefore,
spring showers fell in 1877, hope revived ; but only to be quenched.
The regular rains failed for the third year in succession. The
surrounding Madras and Bombay districts were in the same plight.
Panic and mortality now spread among the people, and famine became
sore in the land. From November, the only railway, the one from
Madras to Bangalore, had been pouring in 400 to 500 tons of grain a
day, the latter sufficient to support 900,000 people ; yet, in May, there
were 100,000 starving paupers being fed in relief kitchens, and in
August the numbers rose to 227,000; besides 60,000 employed on
relief works, paid in grain, and 20,000 on the railway to Mysore. Sir
Richard Temple had been deputed as Special Commissioner, to advise
the Government, but it became evident that the utmost exertions of the
local officers were unequal to cope with the growing distress. The
Viceroy, Lord Lytton, then came himself. A larger European agency
was seen to be absolutely necessary. A number of officers, therefore,
of regiments in Upper India, as well as civilians, were induced to
volunteer for famine duty. Mr. (afterwards Sir Charles) Elliott was
appointed Famine Commissioner, and Major (afterwards Sir Colin)
Scott-Moncrieff, chief engineer.

Relief works were now concentrated, and gratuitous relief was
confined as far as possible to those whose condition was too low to
expect any work from them at all. Bountiful rains in September and
October caused the cloud to lift, and the pressure of famine began to
abate, but mortality from attendant sickness continued and relief works
were not all closed till November 1878. Private hoards of gold and
silver coins, and articles of jewellery, had been generally parted with,
often at ruinous rates. The Mansion House fund, subscribed for the
famine by English charity, thus afforded the means of reinstating
numbers of agriculturists who had been left destitute, while missionary
and other bodies, aided by Government contributions, took charge of
orphans, to be brought up and respectably settled.

The financial effects were indeed disastrous, especially in view of the
approaching Rendition. The in-vested surplus of 63 lakhs had
disappeared and a debt of 80 lakhs had been incurred. The revenue
collections, which in the year before the famine stood at over 109 lakhs,
fell in 1876-7 to 82 lakhs and in 1877-8 to 69 lakhs. A Committee
was convened to report on the measures practicable for reducing
expenditure to meet the deficit, and the proposed reductions were
generally carried out in 1878 and 1879, involving the abolition of many
appointments and the removal of European officers, with the substitu-
tion of natives on lower pay.

Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Gordon, who had been Judicial

THE RENDITION 441

Commissioner since 1868/ was made Guardian to the Maharaja at the
end of 1877. This appointment had been in abeyance since vacated
by Colonel Malleson in 1876. Captain F. A. Wilson' then acted as
tutor to the Maharaja till 1878, when Mr. \\. A. Porter' was appointed
tutor. The method adopted in his education had been to teach him
along with other boys of good family and suitable age, away from his
residence, in a select school, where all were treated alike, and he took
his place with them in lessons and games. Por the benefit of change
of scene and association he was taken on trips to Calcutta and
Bangalore, and spent the hot weather on the hills at Ootacamund.

In April 1878 Mr. Gordon was made Chief Commissioner in
addition to his office as Guardian. On him, therefore, devolved the
responsibility of the final steps needed to fit both the young prince for
his kingdom, and the kingdom for the prince. On the latter, who
proved to be of a most tractable disposition, the good effects of his
influence were soon manifest, while, as the result of favourable seasons,
the country was at the same time rapidly recovering its prosperity,
though crippled by the results of the famine. To the young Maharaja
(whose marriage had now been celebrated with an accomplished
princess of the Kalale family, educated in a similar manner), the system
and principles of the administration conti'.iued to be the subject of
careful instruction on the part of Mr. Gordon, and in 1880 he
accompanied Mr. Gordon on a tour throughout the State as
the best means of impressing the lessons on his mind, and making him
acquainted with the country he was so soon to rule.

The Rendition took place on the 25th of March 1881, when, at
seven o'clock in the morning, amidst universal good wishes and every
demonstration of joy on the part of the people, the Maharaja Chama
Rajendra Wodeyar was placed on the throne at Mysore. The ceremony
was performed in an impressive manner by the Governor of Madras,
the Right Honourable \\\ P. Adam, and during the inauguration a
gentle shower of rain descended, a welcome omen, seeming to betoken
a blessing from the skies on this great act of State. Mr. Gordon
now became Resident, and was knighted shortly after. The terms
on which the Government was entrusted to the Maharaja are con-
tained in the Instrument of Transfer, printed at the end of this chapter. ■*

' From 1863 to i86S was Private Secretary to the (lovernor-Cicneral, Lord I^awrence.

■■' rreviously tutor to the Xawab f)f [owra. (Jii leavint; Mysore lie l)ecanie
Assistant-Resident at Haidaraliad.

■' A distinguished graduate of Caniliridge, and l'rinci|>al of the Kunihliakonam
College.

* The Bombay Government wanted to take ailvantage of this occasion to straighten
their boundary, where it touches -Mysore on the north-west, by annexing the Sorab
tahu] and pari of Shikarpur, Init the Home Government refused to sanction it.

442 JJISTOR V

In view of the finaneial straits of the country, the payment of the
enhanced subsidy of lo^ lakhs was postponed for five years : the
Maliaraja's civil list, fixed at 13 lakhs, being also limited to 10 lakhs
for the first five years. A proclamation was issued by the Maharaja
on assuming the government, confirming all existing officers in their
appointments, nominating as Dewan Mr. C. Rangacharlu ; ^ and form-
ing, under him as President, a Council of two or more members, " the
said Council to submit for our consideration their opinions on all
questions relating to legislation and taxation, and on all other measures
connected with the good administration of our territories and the well-
being of our subjects." The duties of the Council have been the
subject of regulation from time to time, and in 1895 certain depart-
ments were placed under each member.

A popular institution formed soon after, of considerable interest and
conceived in the liberal spirit of the times, was a Representative
Assembly, the nature of which was thus stated in an order issued in
August : " His Highness the Maharaja is desirous that the views and
objects which his Government has in view in the measures adopted for
the administration of the Province should be better known and
appreciated by the people for whose benefit they are intended, and he
is of opinion that a beginning towards the attainment of this object
may be made by an annual meeting of the representative landholders
and merchants from all parts of the Province, before whom the Dewan
will place the results of the past year's administration and a programme
of what is intended to be carried out in the coming year. Such an
arrangement, by bringing the people into immediate communication
with the Government, would serve to remove from their minds any
misapprehensions in regard to the views and action of Government, and
would convince them that the interests of the Government are identical
with those of the people. This annual meeting will be conveniently
held at Mysore, immediately after the close of the Dasara festival, which
occasion will offer an additional inducement to those invited to attend
the meeting." The Local Fund Boards (to be formed) were to select
one or two cultivating landholders from each taluq, possessed of general
information and influence amongst the people, and three or four leading
merchants for the District generally. As attendance at the meeting was

* A Srivaishnavii Brahman of the Conjeveram country. He was a Deputy-
Collector under the Madras Government, and had been engaged as an assistant on
the Inam inquiry, when brovight to Mysore by Mr. Bowring in 1868, on the decease of
the Maharaja, to aid in arranging his affairs and settling his debts. He was sub-
sequently made Controller of the Palace, and in 1879 Revenue Secretary to the Chief
Commissioner. Created CLE. in 1878.

REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 443

to be entirely voluntary, the wishes and convenience of the persons
invited was to be consulted.

The Assembly met for the first time on the 7th October 1881, when
144 members were present, and it has met at the Dasara season every
year since. The numbers rose to 279 in 1886, and have varied from
year to year. The Dewan, surrounded by the chief officers of the
State, reads his Annual Statement, which is translated into Kannada.
The delegates then, District by District, bring forward such matters as
they have resolved upon, which are either summarily dis{)osed of, or
discussed and reserved to be dealt with after inquiry and consideration.
The members in the earlier period were nominated by the Dewan and
the District officers, but from 1885 they were selected by the Local and
Municipal Boards, by this time formed. In 1887 a property qualifica-
tion was imposed ; in 1890 the privilege of election was conceded to
the wealthier and more enlightened classes ; and in 1893 membership
was made tenable for three years. The property qualification for a
member is the annual payment, according to locality, of land revenue
of from Rs. 100 to 300, of mohatarfa (house or shop tax) of Rs. 13
to 17, or the ownership of one or more inam villages with a beriz (total
land revenue) of Rs. 500. The authorized number of members for
each taluq, and for the cities of Bangalore and Mysore, are elected by
those entitled to vote by reason of property or education. Local Fund
Boards, Municipalities, and certain Associations depute a specified
number of members from among their respective bodies. Lists are
maintained of those qualified as members and as voters, Government
servants being excluded from both. The maximum number of
members returnable is 351, and all interests in the country are thus
efficiently represented.

The first measures of the new (Government were directed to
reductions of expenditure. With this view two Districts (Chitaldroog
and Hassan) and nine taluqs' were abolished, as well as the Small
Cause Court and several Subordinate Judges' Courts, while the
number of jails was reduced from nine to three, the Silahdar regiments
from three to two, and District and taluq boundaries were generally
altered. The duties of some of the higher appointments retained were
before long doubled up under fewer officers, with lower designation.s.
These changes caused a feeling of much unrest, and tended to sever
continuity with the past. But the loss of the able Dewan, Mr.
Rangacharlu, who died at Madras on the 20th January 1883, brought
matters to a pause. In consideration of his services the grant of a

' Channapatna, Dcvanlialli, Gudiljanda, Malur, Srinivaspur, Malvalli, Kuralagere,
Arkalgud, Kankuppa.

444 JIISTOR V

lakh was made to his family,' and Mr. (now Sir K.) Sheshadri lycr"
was selected to succeed him, a choice which after events have proved
was guided by the good fortune that has watched over the destinies of
Mysore. But Sir James Oordon, who had .safely steered the State
through all the recent eventful changes was now disabled by a paralytic
stroke, and he retired to England, where he died some years later. His
great services to Mysore are commemorated by a statue, the work of
Onslow Ford, erected in front of the Public Offices at the capital.

The changes in the appointment of Resident were frequent after this,
as the following list from the time of the Rendition will show'* : —

Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Gordon Mar. 1881 to June 1883

Mr. J. D. Sandford, acting, May 1882 to June 1883

Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Lyall June 1883 to Mar. 1887

Col. T. G. Clarke, acting, Dec. 1884 to May 1885

Mr. C. E. R. Girdlestone, acting, June 1885 to May 1886
Sir Charles Bernard (did not join)

Mr. (afterwards Sir Dennis) Fitzpatrick Mar. 1887 to Oct. 1887

General Sir Harry Prendergast, V.C Oct. 1887 to Jan. 1889

Colonel Sir Oliver St. John Jan. 1889 to June 1891

General Sir Harry Prendergast June 1891 to April 1892

Colonel P. D. Henderson April 1892 to Feb. 1895

Colonel H. P. Peacock, acting, July to Oct. 1892

Mr. W. Lee-Warner Feb. 1895 to Sept. 1895

Mr. (now Sir) W. Mackworth Young Sept. 1895 to Dec. 1896

Colonel Donald Robertson ... ... ... ... ... Dec. 1896

When it was known that Sir James Gordon would not return to his
appointment, in which Mr. Sandford, the Judicial Commissioner, had
meanwhile been acting, Mr. Lyall, Settlement Commissioner in the
Punjab, was made Resident. During most of his absence on leave,
Mr. Girdlestone, Resident in Nepal, was transferred to Mysore. Mr.

* The Rangacharlu Memorial Hall at ISIysore was erected, partly by subscriptions,
as a monument to him.

^ A Smarta Brahman of the Palghat country, graduated in Arts and Law. He
entered the Mysore service in 1868 as judicial Sheristadar, and from 1879 was Deputy
Commissioner. Had also acted as Controller of the Palace, Sessions Judge, and in
other capacities. Created C.S.L in 1887, and K.C.S.L in 1893. Iri a laudatory
notice which appeared at this latter time of his management of Mysore affairs, Sir
W. W. Hunter described him as a statesman who had given his head to Herbert
Spencer and his heart to Para Brahma.

3 The changes of Assistant-Residents, as below, have been even more frequent : —

Mr. W. J. Cuningham from Mar. 1881

Major H. Wylie ... „

Nov.

1882

Mr. A. H. T. Martindale ,,

Feb.

1885

MajorJ. H. NewiU ... „

Oct.

1885

Major E. A. Fraser ... ,,

Apl.

1886

Major D. Robertson ,,

Dec.

1886

Mr. L. W. King

July

1887

Major D. Robertson... ,,

Dec.

1887

Mr. F. E. K. Wedderburn ,.

May

1SS8

Mr. E. G. Colvin ... from Dec. 1888

Mr. J. A. Crawford ... „ Apl. 1889

Captain L. S. Newmarch ,, Oct. 1889

Major C. W. Ravenshaw ,, Apl. 1891

Mr. H. V.Cobb ... ,, Aug. 1893

Major C. W. Ravenshaw ,, Nov. 1893

Mr. H. V. Cobb ... ,, Apl. 1895

Captain K. D. Erskine ,, June 1895

CHAM A RAJENDRA WODEYAR 445

Lyall was eventually appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, and
Sir Charles Bernard, Chief Commissioner of Burma, was nominated,
l)Ut being almost immediately transferred to the India Office, did not
join, and Mr. Fitzpatrick, Legislative Secretary to the Government of
India, received the appointment. On the transfer of the latter to
Assam,' Sir Harry Prendergast became Resident, and when he left for
Baroda, Sir Oliver St. John* succeeded. Sir Oliver was afterwards sent
to Baluchistan, and died a few days after arrival at Quetta, Sir Harry
Prendergast' then again held office till the appointment of Colonel
Henderson, Superintendent for the Suppression of Thuggee and
Dacoity. During the latter's absence on leave, Colonel Peacock acted,
and on leaving Mysore became Consul-General at Baghdad. Colonel
Henderson retired in 1895, and Mr. Lee- Warner, Political Secretary to
the Boml)ay Government, succeeded."* But in a few months he was
transferred to the India Office, and Mr. Mackworth Young, Financial
Commissioner in the Punjab, was appointed. At the end of 1896 he
in his turn was made Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, and Colonel
Donald Robertson, Resident at Gwalior, took his place in Mysore. The
office has thus been filled by distinguished men of every variety of
service and experience.

In the policy continued under the new Dewan measures to [irovide
against a recurrence of famine had still the foremost place. Railwavs
and irrigation works were recognized as the most potent agents to this
end. The latter, however, are subject to the drawback that, being
largely dependent on the rains, they are liable to fail in a time of drought
when most needed. Railway construction was therefore pushed on,
and by the end of 1884 there had been completed 140 miles of State
railway (Bangalore to Mysore, and Bangalore to Gubbi), from current
revenues and a local loan of twenty lakhs. This line was then
hypothecated to the Southern Mahratta Railway Company on terms
which allowed of its being extended to Harihar from capital borrowed
in England, and this portion was opened for traffic in 1889. A line
from ]?angalore to Hindupur was afterwards completed in 1893 from
State funds. The tracts that suffered most from the famine were
thus effectually provided for, and the Mysore railways were linked with
those of the Bombay and Madras districts beyond. The fear of famine
was not unwarranted, for in 1884 and again in 1891 great anxiety

' Subsequently Resident at Ilaidarahad and Lieutenanl-Clovernor of ilie I'unjal).

- Had served in Persia and Abyssinia, as Trincipal uf the Mayo Chiefs' College at
Ajniere, and as Political Agent at Kandahar.

^ After a distinguished military career, ending with his capture of Upper Hurnia,
on which he was made K.C.Ij. , was successively resident at Travancore, Baroda,
Beluchistan and Mysore.

•* Colonel Henderson was created C.S.I, in 1S76, and Mr. Lee-Warner in 1S92.

446 HISTOR V

arose from failure of the rains, especially in the north, and relief
works had actually been devised when rain fell and the prospect
changed. A short line from Mysore to Nanjangud, admitting of the
transport of timber floated to that point from the southern forests,
opened in December 1891, and one for the Gold-fields in 1893 were
constructed in the same manner, and a line from Birur to Shimoga
decided on. The fifty-eight miles of railway open at the time of the
Rendition thus increased to 315 by 1895, and surveys had been made of
lines from Nanjangud to Gudalur, Nanjangud to Erode, and Arsikere
via Hassan to Mangalore. The latter may now be carried out.

Irrigation works had all along been receiving particular attention, and
all available funds were devoted to the carrying out of large projects in
tracts where they were most required. To 1895 the expenditure under
this head amounted to 100 lakhs, making an addition of 355 square
miles to the area under wet cultivation, and bringing in an additional
revenue of eight and a quarter lakhs. With this addition 1,558 square
miles are protected by irrigation. Another very important measure was
the granting of loans for digging irrigation wells, of which 1,078 had been
completed, benefiting 7,000 acres, against loans aggregating four lakhs.

The reductions in establishments previously referred to were com-
pleted in 1884, and a Chief Court of three judges was formed, the Chief
Judge being a European. Next year Inspectors-General were also
appointed for Police and for Forests. The revenue in the first three
years after the Rendition was generally stationary, but in the fourth
year it declined, owing to the drought. The payment of the enhanced
subsidy was therefore again postponed by the British Government for
ten years more, while the revenue administration of the Assigned Tract,
forming the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, was transferred
entirely to the British Government, which retains the surplus. The
former measure relieved financial pressure, and allowed of the Districts
and Taluqs abolished in 1881 being again formed. During the next
ten years the revenue continually rose until in 1894-5 it reached i8oi
lakhs. Expenditure on a large and liberal scale had also meanwhile
continued on all works and purposes of public utility. The famine debt
was extinguished in 1888, and a commencement was made towards
paying off the railway loan. In shori, in place of the net liability against
the State of 3of lakhs in 1881 there were in 1895 net assets of over
176 lakhs in its favour. This result was not due to new taxation in any
form or shape. Next to good seasons, it was the effect of natural
growth, under the stimulus afforded by the opening out of the country
by means of new roads and railways, the execution of important irriga-
tion works and the general expansion of industries ; also in some
measure of an improved management of particular sources of income.

CHAM A RAJENDRA WODEYAR 447

A Department ot" Agriculture and Statistics was formed in 1SS6, and
an Agricultural Exhibition held in 1888. The Revenue Laws were
codified, the time for paying assessments was postponed till after the
produce could be realized, and agricultural banks were started in 1894.
But the importance of promoting industrial enterprise in a country so
largely dependent on agriculture was clearly seen. Coffee-planting had
been much assisted by the substitution in 1S81 of an acreage assess-
ment on the land in place of the old lidlat or duty levied on the
produce, and the area under coffee has since increased by twenty-eight
square miles. But the most remarkable industrial development has
been that of gold-mining. The first indication of profit from this
source was in 1886, and in that year a preliminary examination of
auriferous tracts in the State was carried out. The liberal terms
granted to encourage gold-mining on a large scale by European
Companies had a good effect, but the principal returns obtained so far
have been in the Kolar gold-fields. What was a desolate waste has thus
become a great industrial town, employing nearly 10,000 labourers.
The 16,325 ounces of gold extracted in 1886-7, valued at about
9 lakhs, rose every year, until in 1894-5 the quantity reached 234,859
ounces, valued at ^844,271, or about 150 lakhs. The royalty, with
premia and deposits on leases, paid annually to the Mysore Govern-
ment, increased in the same period from half a lakh to more than
75 lakhs. Cotton and woollen mills were brought into operation at
various times, and the silk industry revived. In 1889 liberal con-
cessions were granted with the view of promoting the establishment of
iron works on a large scale in Malavalli, and as an aid a railway from
Maddur to Sivasamudram was proposed. But as yet this scheme has
not been carried out. In 1894 a (Geological Department was formed
to scientifically explore the mineral resources of the State.

The Medical Department was early reorganized, and medical relief
extended to all parts by the appointment of local surgeons, the
establishment of taluq dispensaries, and the appointment of trained
midwives. Sanitation and water supply in the principal towns received
jiarticular attention, and extensive works were carried out in the cities
of Mysore and Bangalore, both of which had large additions made to
their area. The prospects of the Educational Department were much
improved, and vernacular and primary instruction greatly extended.
The higher staff was strengthened and female education made marked
l)rogress. Charges which in the time of reductions had been thrown
on local funds were in 1889 again met from provincial funds: a
more liberal expenditure followed, and the numbers under instruction
rose accordingly. Archceology, which had already received attention,

448 JirSTOKY

was spccinlly provided for, to rillow of thu numerous and valuable
inscriptions throughout the country being copied and published. A
much-needed Muzrai Department, to control the funds and manage-
ment of temples, was formed. Also an Excise Department, to regulate
the manufacture and sale of spirituous licjuors. A corps of Imperial
Service Lancers was enrolled, to aid in imperial defence. An Observa-
tory, well equipped with meteorological instruments, has been recently
established at Bangalore.

An important measure was the transfer in 1889 of the Anche or
ancient postal service of Mysore to the British Imperial post-office.
This amalgamation, though at first opposed as being an abrogation of
one of the Maharaja's privileges, has proved of great convenience to
the public and economical to the country. A scheme of State Life
Assurance was introduced about the same time, for the benefit princi-
pally of the subordinate classes of officials, to enable them to make
provision for their families. And in order to secure well-qualified men
for the higher administrative posts, a Civil Service scheme was adopted
in 1 89 1, providing a competitive examination of an advanced standard
to be passed by accepted candidates, while a fixed scale of salaries was
laid down. More recently an interdict on early marriages was passed.

The foregoing review, though not exhaustive, will sufficiently serve
as evidence of the liberal and enlightened system of administration
pursued under the Native Government established in 1881. Since
then Mysore has received more than one visit from the Viceroy of the
day. In 1886 the Earl of Dufferin was here, and the following extract
from one of his speeches indicates the impression made upon his mind
by what he saw : — " Under the benevolent rule of the Maharaja and of
his dynasty, good government, enlightened progress, universal peace
and the blessings of education are everywhere ascendant, and there is
no State within the confines of the Indian Empire which has more
fully justified the wise policy of the British Government in supplement-
ing its own direct administration of its vast territories by the associated
rule of our great feudatory Princes." The lamented Prince Albert Victor
had visited Mysore in 1889 and derived great pleasure from the elephant
keddahs. The Marquess of Lansdowne followed in 1892, and among
other expressions of approval said : — " There is probably no State in
India where the ruler and the ruled are on more satisfactory terms, or in
which the great principle, that government should be for the happiness
of the governed, receives a greater measure of practical recognition."

But Mysore, thus flourishing and placed in the front rank of the
States of India, was doomed to suffer a bitter loss at the end of 1S94.
His Highness the Maharaja had gone on a tour as usual in the cold

THE MAHARAJA'S DEATH 449

weather to the north, accompanied by all his family. On his arrival at
Calcutta at the end of December, a slight throat affection, which he had
been feeling for a few days before, developed into diphtheria, and so
rapid was the progress of the disease that in spite of the best medical
skill he suddenly expired on the 28th. The people of Mysore were
simply stunned by the shock which this sad news created, so utterly
unexpected. The entire press of India, with all the leading journals
in England and other countries, were unanimous in lamenting that a
career so promising had been thus cut short, for the Maharaja's virtues
and the interest of his country had become known far and wide.

Dignified and unassuming, his bearing was that of the English
gentleman. An accomplished horseman and whip, fond of sport, a
liberal patron of the turf, and hospitable as a host, while at the same
time careful in observance of Hindu customs, he was popular with
both Europeans and natives. His palace was purged of all former evil
associations, and the Court of the Queen in England was not purer in
tone than that of Mysore under the late Maharaja. He was devoted
to his family, and of a cultured and refined taste which led him to take
special pleasure in European music and in works of art. He was also
diligent and conscientious in attending to business. The rainy season
was spent partly at Mysore and partly at Bangalore ; in the cold
weather a tour was undertaken to some other part of India, and the
hot weather was passed on the hills at Ootacamund. He had thus
travelled much and been brought into intercourse with most of the
leading men in India, who were impressed with his high character.

The installation of his eldest son, Maharaja Krishna Raja W'odeyar,
then ten years old, was performed at Mysore, by the Resident, Colonel
Henderson, with all the customary ceremonies, on the ist of February
1895, ^t noon, at the moment of the conjunction of Mercury and
Venus, which had been conspicuous objects in the evening sky for
some days before. Her Highness the Mahdrani was at the same time
proclaimed Regent. The education of the Maharaja, while a minor,
is being conducted in a manner suited to his rank and prospects.'
His intelligence and disposition augur well for his future. The present
\'iceroy, the Earl of Elgin, visited Mysore at the end of 1S95, and his
advice to the Maharaja, in view of the cares thus early in life thrust
upon him, was not to hasten to be old too soon.

Here this history, so eventful and full of incident, now ends. Mysore
has played no inconspicuous part in the past, and a great future

' Mr. J.J. Whiteley, of Cooper's Hill Kni^inccrint; College, was appointed as tutor
some time before the father's dealli. Mr. S. M. Fraser, of the Iioinl)ay Civil
Service, has since been appointed.

G G

450 HISTOR V

doubtless yet lies before it. In the century now closing it has been
an example of the complete failure of purely native administration,
conducted without reference to European advice, and of the con-
spicuous success of administration on Western lines by Europeans and
natives combined. As history tends to repeat itself, these lessons
should be pondered.

Instrument of Transfer/

Whereas the British Government has now been for a long period in
possession of the territories of Mysore and has introduced into the said
territories an improved system of administration : And whereas, on the
death of the late Maharaja, the said Government, being desirous that the
said territories should be administered by an Indian dynasty, under such
restrictions and conditions as might be necessary for ensuring the main-
tenance of the system of administration so introduced, declared that if
Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur, the adopted son of the late
Maharaja, should, on attaining the age of eighteen years, be found qualified
for the position of ruler of the said territories, the government thereof
should be entrusted to him, subject to such conditions and restrictions as
might be thereafter determined : And whereas the said Maharaja Cham-
rajendra Wadiar Bahadur has now attained the said age of eighteen years,
and appears to the British Government qualified for the position aforesaid,
and is about to be entrusted with the government of the said territories :
And whereas it is e.xpedient to grant to the said Maharaja Chamrajendra
Wadiar Bahadur a written instrument defining the conditions subject to
which he will be so entrusted. It is hereby declared as follows : —

1. The Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur shall, on the 25th day
of March 1881, be placed in possession of the territories of Mysore, and
installed in the administration thereof.

2. The said Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur and those who
succeed him in manner hereinafter provided, shall be entitled to hold
possession of, and administer the said territories as long as he and they
fulfil the conditions hereinafter prescribed.

3. The succession to the administration of the said territories shall
devolve upon the lineal descendants of the said Maharaja Chamrajendra
Wadiar Bahadur, whether by blood or adoption, according to the rules and
usages of his family, except in the case of disqualification through manifest
unfitness to rule.

Provided that no succession shall be valid until it has been recognized by
the Governor-General in Council.

In the event of a failure of lineal descendants, by blood and adoption, of
the said Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur, it shall be within the
discretion of the Governor-General in Council to select as a successor any
member of any collateral branch of the family whom he thinks fit.

4. The Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bnhadur and his successors

* See above, p. 441.

INSTRUMENT OF TRANSFER 451

(hereinafter called the Maharaja of Mysore) shall at all times remain
faithful in allegiance and subordination to Her Majesty the <^ueen of Great
Britain and Ireland and Empress of India, Her heirs and successors, and
perform all the duties which, in virtue of such allegiance and subordination,
may be demanded of them.

5. The British Government having undertaken to defend and protect
the said territories against all external enemies, and to relieve the
Maharaja of Mysore of the obligation to keep troops ready to serve with the
British army when required, there shall, in consideration of such undertaking,
be paid from the revenues of the said territories to the British Government
an annual sum of Government rupees thirty-five lakhs in two half-yearly
instalments, commencing from the said 25th day of March 1881.

6. From the date of the Maharaja's taking possession of the territories of
Mysore, the British sovereignty in the island of Seringapatam shall cease
and determine, and the said island shall become part of the said territories,
and be held by the Maharaja upon the same condition as those subject to
which he holds the rest of the said territories.

7. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not, without the previous sanction of
the Governor-General in Council, build any new fortresses or strongholds,
or repair the defences of any existing fortresses or strongholds in the said
territories.

8. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not, without the permission of the
Governor-General in Council, import, or permit to be imported, into the
said territories, arms, ammunition, or military stores, and shall prohibit the
manufacture of arms, ammunition, and military stores, throughout the said
territories, or at any specified place therein, whenever required by the
Governor-General in Council to do so.

9. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not object to the maintenance or
establishment of British cantonments in the said territories, whenever and
wherever the Governor-General in Council may consider such cantonments
necessary. He shall grant free of all charge such land as may be required
for such cantonments, and shall renounce all jurisdiction within the lands
so granted. He shall carry out in the lands adjoining British cantonments
in the said territories such sanitary measures as the Governor-General
in Council may declare to be necessary. He shall give every facility
for the provision of supplies and articles required for the troops in such
cantonments ; and on goods imported or purchased for that purpose no
duties or taxes of any kind shall be levied without the assent of the British
Government.

10. The Military force employed in the Mysore State for the main-
tenance of internal order and the Maharaja's personal dignity, and for any
other purposes approved by the Governor-General in Council, shall not
exceed the strength which the Governor-General in Council may, from time
to time, fix. The directions of the Governor-General in Council in respect
to the enlistment, organization, equipment and drill of troops shall at all
times be complied with.

11. The Maharaja of Mysore shall abstain from interference in the

G G 2

452 HISTORY

affairs of any other State or power, and shall have no communication or
correspondence with any other State or power, or the agents or officers of
any other State or power, except with the previous sanction, and through
the medium of the Governor-General in Council.

12. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not employ in his service any person
not a native of India without a previous sanction of the Governor-General
in Council, and shall, on being so required by the Governor-General in
Council, dismiss from his service any person so employed.

13. The coins of the Government of India shall be legal tender in the
said territories in the cases in which payment made in such coins would,
under the law for the time being in force, be a legal tender in British
India ; and all laws and rules for the time being applicable to coins current
in British India shall apply to coins current in the said territories. The
separate coinage of the Mysore State, which has long been discontinued,
shall not be revived.

14. The Maharaja of Mysore shall grant free of all charge such land as
may be required for the construction and working of lines of telegraph in
the said territories wherever the Governor-General in Council may require
such land, and shall do his utmost to facilitate the construction and working
of such lines. All lines of telegraph in the said territories, whether
constructed and maintained at the expense of the British Government, or
out of the revenues of the said territories, shall form part of the British
telegraph system, and shall, save in cases to be specially excepted by
agreement between the British Government and the Maharaja of Mysore,
be worked by the British Telegraph Department ; and all laws and rules for
the time being in force in British India in respect to telegraphs shall apply
to such lines of telegraph when so worked.

15. If the British Government at anytime desires to construct or work,
by itself or otherwise, a railway in the said territories, the Maharaja of
Mysore shall grant free of all charge such land as may be required for that
purpose, and shall transfer to the Governor-General in Council plenary
jurisdiction within such land ; and no duty or tax whatever shall be levied
on through traffic carried by such railway which may not break bulk in the
said territories.

16. The Maharaja of Mysore shall cause to be arrested and sur-
rendered to the proper officers of the British Government any person within
the said territories accused of having committed an offence in British India,
for whose arrest and surrender a demand may be made by the British
Resident in Mysore, or some other officer authorized by him in this behalf ;
and he shall afford every assistance for the trial of such persons by
causing the attendance of witnesses required, and by such other means as
may be necessary.

17. Plenary criminal jurisdiction over European British subjects in the
said territories, shall continue to be vested in the Governor- General in
Council, and the Maharaja of Mysore shall exercise only such jurisdiction
in respect to European British subjects as may from time to time be
delegated to him by the Governor-General in Council.

INSTRU^rENT OF TRANSFER 453

1 8. The Maharaja of Mysore sliall comply with the wishes of the
Governor-General in Council in the matter of prohibiting or limiting the
manufacture of salt and opium, and the cultivation of poppy, in Mysore ;
also in the matter of giving effect to all such regulations as may be
considered proper in respect to the export and import of salt, opium, and
poppy heads.

19. All laws in force and rules having the force of law in the said
territories when the Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur is placed
in possession thereof, as shown in the Schedule hereto annexed, shall be
maintained and efficiently administered, and, except with the previous
consent of the Governor-General in Council, the Maharaja of Mysore shall
not repeal or modify such laws, or pass any laws or rules inconsistent
therewith.

20. No material change in the system of administration, as established
when the Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur is placed in possession
of the territories, shall be made without the consent of the Governor.
General in Council.

21. All title-deeds granted, and all settlements of land revenue made
during the administration of the said territories by the British Government,
and in force on the said 25th day of March 1881, shall be maintained in
accordance with the respective terms thereof, except in so far as they may
be rescinded or modified either by a competent Court of law, or with the
consent of the Governor-General in Council.

22. The Maharaja of Mysore shall at all times conform to such advice as
the Governor-General in Council may offer him with a view to the
management of his finances, the settlement and collection of liis revenues,
the imposition of taxes, the administration of justice, the extension ot
commerce, the encouragement of trade, agriculture and industry, and
any other objects connected with the advancement of His Highness'
interests, the happiness of his subjects, and his relations to the British
Government.

23. In the event of breach or non-observance by the Maharaja of
Mysore of any of the foregoing conditions, the Governor-General in
Council may resume possession of the said territories and assume the
direct administration thereof, or make such other arrangements as he
may think necessary to provide adequately for the good government of the
people of Mysore, or for the security of British rights and interests within
the province.

24. This document shall supersede all other documents by which the

position of the British Government with reference to the said territories

has been formally recorded. And if any question arise as to whether any

of the above conditions has been faithfully performed, or as to whether any

person is entitled to succeed, or is fit to succeed, to the administration of

the said territories, the decision thereon of the Govcrnor-CJencral in

Council shall be final. (.Signed) Rii'ox,

\'^iccroy and Govcrnor-Gcncr.il.
FoKT William, \st March 1881.

454

RELIGION

Thk earliest religious worship probably sprang from a desire to
propitiate powers from whom injury to one's person or property might
be feared. In what manner this feeling came to find expression in the
worship of the serpent is not easy to say. But from the time when that
" most subtle of the beasts of the field " beguiled Eve, the mother of
mankind, down to the present day, it has never failed to be the object
of sacred rites. Mr. Fergusson has shown how extensively this worship
has prevailed in every country on the face of the globe.

In India, this land of many gods, serpent worship, specially that of
the deadly hooded cobra, is of great antiquity and survives to this day.
There is scarcely a village in Mysore which has not effigies of the
serpent, carved on stone, erected on a raised platform near the entrance
for the adoration of the public.^ The living serpent is in many parts
systematically worshipped, and few natives will consent to kill one.^
The body of one that has been killed is often solemnly disposed of by
cremation, while a cobra which takes up its abode, as they sometimes
do, in the thatch or roof of the house, is generally not only left undis-
turbed, but fed with milk, etc.

The Nagas who so frequently occur in ancient Hindu history were
no doubt a widespread race of serpent worshippers, and there is every
reason to believe that they occupied most parts of Mysore. The
traditions that indicate this have been mentioned in the historical
portions of this work. Jinadatta, the founder of Humcha, married a
Naga kanya ; and the great serpent sacrifice by Janamejaya is said to
have taken place at Hiremagalur. An inscription at Balagami,'* of the
eleventh century, bears at its head the half-human, half-serpent forms of
a Naga and Nagini. The worship of the living serpent is not, I believe,

' The orthodox arrangement consists of three slabs, set up side by side. The first
bears the figure of a male cobra, with one or more heads of an odd number up to
seven ; the middle slab exhibits the female serpent, the upper half of human form,
generally crowned with a tiara, and sometimes holding a young serpent under each
arm ; the third slab has two serpents intertwined in congress, after the manner of the
/Esculapian rod or the cadiiceits of Mercury, with sometimes a linga engraved between
them.

" Some believe that the person who does so will be visited with leprosy.

* Mys. Ins., S. S. 92.

SERPENT WORSHIP 455

uncommon in any part of the country : I have myself been witness to
it at many places in different directions. A hutta or deserted ant-hill,
popularly regarded as the shrine of the god, is very often in reality the
residence of a snake. From a similar sentiment arose the ancient
custom of taking sanctuary by embracing an ant-hill, a refuge as invio-
lable as the horns of the altar among the Jews.

With the worship of the serpent seems to be intimately associated
that of trees, which again carries us back to the story of Eden and the
mysterious tree of forbidden fruit. The stones bearing the sculptured
figures of serpents near every village are always erected under certain
trees, which are most frequently built round with a raised platform, on
which the stones are set up, facing the rising sun. One is invariably a
sacred fig, which represents a female, and another a margosa, which
represents a male ; and these two are married with the same ceremonies
as human beings. The bilpatre {cegle /iinrinelos), sacred to Siva, is
often planted with them.

Whether the planting of topes — a term which in Northern India
signifies a Buddhist sfupa, but here is applied to a grove of trees — had
a religious origin or any connection with Buddhism is uncertain. It
does not now seem to have a .special relation to religion except as a
work of charity. But particular trees and plants are held sacred to
certain objects or deities, or are themselves regarded in that light. The
asvattha or pipal, the sacred fig, is a common object of reverence as a
sort of wishing tree. One on the bank of the N. Pennar near
Goribidnur, called the Vidur asvattha, is said to have been planted by
Vidura, the uncle of the Pandavas, and is visited by all the country
round. It is built round with various shrines for protection and is
believed never to die. At Hunsur may be seen a large neein tree which
is an object of worship. The lower part is enclosed in a shrine and the
branches are hung with iron chains. Out of the Jain temple of
Padmavati at Humcha is growing a sacred tree called lakkc gi(/(i, said
to be the same that Jinadatta tied his horse to as described in the
account of that place. The bilpaire or bael tree, as above stated, is
sacred to Siva, while the titlasi ox holy basil {ihyiiui in sanctum) is sacred
to Vishnu and is grown on an altar in the courtyard of ^^'^ishnava
houses. The yekke {arisfo/ochia ijidica) and the plantain are the
subject of some curious rites." Connected apparently with tree worship
is the regard paid to the kakkc or Indian laburnum, which furnishes the
central stake of the threshing floor, decorated at top with a little bunch
of field flowers.

The general object of the worship of trees and of scr[)ents appears
> See Imi. An!., IV, 5.

45^1 RELIGION

to be lor the [nirposL; of obtaining offspring. A woman is nearly always
the priest, and women are the chief worshippers.

Mih-iaini/in or Mdni/iuna, familiarly styled Ajiiina, the mother, or in
the honorific plural A/niiiaiiavaru,^ is the universal object of rural
worship, as the grama di'va/d, or village goddess. She seems to corre-
spond in some of her attributes with Durga or Kali, also called
Chamundi, and is explained to be one of the furies attendant on that
goddess. Though bearing so tender an appellation as mother, she is
feared and propitiated as the source of calamity rather than loved as the
bestower of blessings." She is supposed to inflict small-pox — which
indeed is called after her, ainma, as chicken-pox and measles are called
chik-amijta — and to send cholera and other epidemics upon those who
have incurred her wrath. She is appeased only by the shedding of
blood and therefore receives animal sacrifices. In former times there
is no doubt that human victims were offered up at her shrine. She
appears also to be the author of cattle disease. To avert this and other
evils the sacrifice is annually made in many parts of a buffalo.' I find
the following description of the ceremony by Mr. Elliot as performed
in Manjarabad : — ■

A three or four year old (male) buffalo is brought before the temple of
Miira, after which its hoofs are washed and unboiled rice thrown over its
head, the whole village repeating the words Mara ko?m, or in other words
buffalo devoted to Mdra. It is then let loose and allowed to roam about
for a year, during which time it is at liberty to eat of any crops without fear
of molestation, as an idea prevails that to interfere with the buffalo in any
way would be sure to bring down the wrath of Mara. At the end of that
time it is killed at the feast held annually in honour, or rather to divert the
wrath, of Md.ra.'*

Almost every village has its Mari gudi, though .she sometimes bears
various local names compounded with amvia.

At the foundation of a village it is the practice to erect at some
point of the ground two or three large slabs of stone, which are called
kari kallu or kani kallu. These are also objects of worship, and are
generally painted in broad vertical stripes of red and white. An annual
ceremony is held in connection with them, when all the cattle of the

^ This is evidently the Amnor of the Todas mentioned in Colonel Marshall's book,
but by him misunderstood as the name of a place, answering to heaven.

* Buddhists believe in a kind of devil or demon of love, anger, evil and death,
called Mara, who opposed Buddha and the spread of his religion — Monier Williams,
Ind. Wis., 58 ; cf. Wilson, Works, II, 340.

•'' For a similar Toda custom see Phren. am. Todas, 81.

* Exper. of PL, I, 66. Reference is also there made to Jour. Ethnol. Soc. of
July 1S69, for further particulars by Sir Walter Elliot.

ANIMISM 457

village are presented before the stone. This is supposed to avert cattle
disease. For the same purpose a sylvan god named Kdtama Rdya is
worshipped under the form of an acute conical mound of mud,
erected on a circular base, also of mud. At a little distance it
looks not unlike a large ant-hill' This rude symbol may often be
seen in a field in the open, with a bunch of wild flowers adorning
the apex.

Another deity, or class of deities, is known by the name of bhuta,
a word which is taken to mean demon, but may relate to bhi'i fayi,
Mother Earth, or the occult powers of Nature." It is generally
worship[)ed under the form of a few naturally rounded stones, placed
together either under a tree or in a small temple and smeared with oil
aiid turmeric. To avert calamity to crops from the bhuta, a rude figure
of a man is sometimes drawn with charcoal on the ground at the
angles of the field, and a small earthen vessel containing boiled rice
and a few flowers broken over it. An off'ering is also made in some
parts by a man walking round the skirts of the field, at every few
steps casting grains of seed into the air, shouting out at the same
time ho ball !

The various objects of superstitious awe described above may
perhaps be classified as .spirits of the air and spirits of the ground. The
former include disembodied ghosts, those of the dead for whom the
prescribed ceremonies have not been performed. The spirits of the air
seem inclined to lodge in trees and burial-places, and by them human
beings are sometimes possessed or bewitched. Charms, consisting of
a bit of metal engraved with a numerical puzzle in squares, are
suspended round the necks of children to protect them against this
danger, as well as against " the evil eye," and similar charms are
inscribed on stones called jia/z/z-fj; kallu, often erected at the entrance of
villages. The spirits of the ground guard hidden treasure, breach tank
bunds, undermine houses, stop the growth of the crops, and perform a
variety of other malignant oi)erations. All have to l)e propitiated
according to their supposed influence and disposition.

The above are doubtless all relics of aboriginal or primitive beliefs
and rites, and may be included under the name of Animism, which is
thus explained by Dr. Tiele : —

■ ' It bears a striking resemblance, in external form at least, to the Toda conical
temple called l)y Colonel Marshall the boath, though on a greatly reduced scale,
much too small for an interior chamlier. — Phrcn. am. Tod., ch. XIX. See the closing
remarks regarding the bolhaii or bee-hi%-e houses in Scotland, &C.

^ "YXm:. paiuha bhiita are the five elements — earth, air, fire, water, and ether.

^ Bali — presentation of food to all created beings ; it consists in throwing a small
parcel of the offering into the open air. — Benfey, Sans. Diet., s. v.

458 RELIGION

Animism is the belief in the existence of souls or spirits, of which only
the powerful— those on which man feels himself dependent, and before
which he stands in awe — acquire the rank of divine beings, and become
objects of worship. These spirits are conceived as moving freely through
earth and air, and, either of their own accord, or because conjured by some
spell, and thus under compulsion, appearing to men {Spiritism). But they
may also take up their abode, either permanently or temporarily, in some
object, whether lifeless or living it matters not : and this object, as endowed
with higher power, is then worshipped or employed to protect individuals or
communities {Fetishism).

The more regularly organized systems of Hindu faith may be
described as four in number, associated with the worship respectively
of Jina, Buddha, Siva and Vishnu. Though they existed contem-
poraneously in various parts, as is the case at the present day, each of
these religions had its period of ascendancy, but not to the exclusion of
the others. 1

Brahmanism. — Preceding them all was the ancient Indo-Aryan
Brahmanism, based upon the Vedas. The generally received opinion
which assigned these works to about 1500 to 1200 B.C., has lately been
disturbed by calculations based on astronomical data, which would
throw back their date to from 4500 to 2500 i;.c.'' But these con-
clusions, though arrived at independently by different scholars, are
not undisputed.'^ On the other hand, that Jainism was older than
Buddhism has been definitely established. Its founder, it seems
probable, was Pars'vanatha, which would take us back to the eighth
century i;.c., but its more recent chief apostle, Varddhamana or
Mahavira, was a little earlier than Buddha. Buddhism, as is well
known, dates from the fifth century B.C., and was at the height of
its power in the third century b.c. If it be the case that the
s'rutakevali Bhadrabahu came to Mysore, accompanied as his chief
disciple by the abdicated emperor Chandra Gupta, and that they died
at S'ravana Belgola, the introduction of Jainism into this State cannot
be placed later than early in the third century B.C. But two generations
after, we have the testimony of the edicts of As'oka discovered by me,
that Buddhism was established in the north of Mysore. Dr. Biihler

• We shall perhaps find that the past did not differ so much from the present as
might at first appear ; that India has always had, alongside of the Veda, something
equivalent to its great Sivaite and Vishnuite religions, which we see in the ascendant
at a later date, and that these anyhow existed contemporaneously with it for a very
much longer period than has till now been generally supposed. — Barth, Religions of
India, Pref., xv.

- Tilak's Orion : Jacobi's Date of the Rig Veda (Ind. Ant., XXIII, 154). Cf. the
valuable Note by Dr. Biihler, toe. cit., 238.

=* See Dr. Thibaut, Ind. Ant., XXIV, 85.

BRAHMANISM 459

also considers^ that the iwu geographical names which these edicts
contain are Aryan, and point to the conclusion that the country was by
that time thoroughly under Aryan influence. The record of the
despatch by A'soka of missions to Banavasi and Mahis'a-mandala (the
Mysore District) to propagate the faith, indicates that the north-west and
south were not then Buddhist. They may, therefore, have been to
some extent, if not entirely, Jain. Jainism was in the main the State
religion of Mysore throughout the first thousand years of the Christian
era, and ceased not to be influential till after the conversion in the
twelfth century of the Hoysala king since known as Vishnuvardhana,
and the murder some time later of the Kalachurya king Bijjala by the
Lingayits.

The actual introduction of Brahmans into Mysore is assigned to -^
the third century a.d. According to tradition, the Kadamba king
Mukanna or Trinetra at that time settled them at Sthanagundur
(Talgunda in the Shikarpur taluq). This was in the west. In the east
the Pallava king Mukunti is said to have introduced Brahmans at
about the same period. In the south the Ganga king Vishnugopa,
belonging to the same century, is said to have become devoted to the
worship of Brahmans, and to have thus lost the Jain tokens which were
heirlooms of his house. But the evidence of inscriptions is in favour
of an earlier existence of Brahmanism in this country. The Malavalli
inscriptions of the second century, discovered by me, show the king
Satakarni making a grant to a Brahman for a S'iva temple, followed by
a Kadamba king also making a grant to a Brahman for the same.
Moreover, the remarkable Talgunda inscription discovered by me,
represents the Kadambas themselves as very devout Brahmans, and
one of them, perhaps the founder of the royal line, as going with his
Brahman guru to the Pallava capital (Kdnchi) to study there. It also
states that Satakarni, probably the one above mentioned, was among
the famous kings who had worshipped at the S'iva temple to which it
belongs. We must therefore suppose that I)rahmanism, more parti- ^
cularly the worship of S'iva in the form of the Linga, existed in Mysore
in the first centuries of our era, concurrently with other forms of faith,
Buddhism or Jainism, but that the latter were in the ascendaiU.
Hence the traditions perhaps indicate the time when Brahmanism
received general public recognition by the State.

But the chief revival of Brahmanical religion took place in the eighth
century, when the labours of Kumarila and of S'ankaracharya, the first
apostle of S'ringeri (Kadar District), dealt a deathblow to Buddhism

» Op. iiL, .\XIII, 246.

46o RELIGION

and raised the Saiva faith to the first place. In hke manner, in the
twelfth century, the Vaishnava religion gained ground, and through the
teaching of the reformer Ramanujacharya, put an end to the influence
of Jainism, Vishnu worship thus became a national religion, but
divided the empire with the followers of Siva, a compromise of which
the form Harihara was symbolical, uniting in one person both Hari or
Vishnu and Hara or Siva. For the reformation of the Saiva religion,
which was effected about the same time by Basava, ending in the
establishment of the Lingayit sect, imparted to it a vitality which it has
never since lost in the south, especially amongst the Kannada-speaking
races. Forty years later a somewhat similar reformation of the
Vaishnava religion was brought about through the teaching of
jNIadhvacharya, and before another century further innovations were
introduced by Ramdnand, and afterwards by Chaitanya and
others.

Jainism. — Though so ancient, the existence of the sect of the Jains
was first brought to light in Mysore, the discovery being due to
Colonel Colin Mackenzie, the distinguished officer who conducted the
survey of Mysore in 1799 and following years. They are dispersed
throughout India, and their numbers are probably understated at a
million and a half according to the census of 1891. They are most
numerous in Rajputana, Gujarat, Central India, and Mysore. In the
north and west of India they are chiefly engaged in commerce ; in the
south they are also agriculturists. As before stated, they were more
or less predominant in Mysore from the earliest part of the Christian
era to the twelfth century. And in the Chola and Pandya countries,
and in Kanara (South and North), Dharwar, and other adjacent
parts, they were also generally established from a very early
period. The oldest Kannada and Tamil literature is of Jain
authorship, and to the Jains is due the first cultivation of these
languages.

The principal seats of the Jain faith in Mysore now are at S'ravana
Belgola in Hassan District, Maleyur in Mysore District, and Humcha
in Shimoga District. The first place is the residence of a guru who
claims authority over the Jains throughout the south of India, and is, I
believe, admitted to be their chief pontiff' The consecration of
Chandra-giri, the small hill there, dates back to the third century B.C.

' He professes to be guru to all the Jaiiia Kshatriyas in India : and in an inscrip-
tion dating so late as 1830, claims to be occupant of the throne of the Dilli (Delhi),
Hemadri (Maleyur), Sudha (Sode in North Kanara), Sangitapura (Haduvalli),
Svetapura (Bilige), Kshemavenu (Mi'idu Bidare, these last three in South Kanara),
and Belgula (S'ravana Belgola) samsthanas. — Ins. at Sr. Bel.., Xo. 141.

JAINISM 461

{see p. 287). But the foundation of the present religious establishment
is attributed to Chamunda Raya, who, in about 983, set up the colossal
statue of Gomata on the biggest hill, Indra-giri or Vindhya-giri. To
provide for the maintenance and worship of the image, he established
a matha and other religious institutions, with liberal endowments.
According to a list from the matha the following was the succession of
gurus. They were of the Kundakundanvaya, Mula-sangha, Des'i-gana,
and Pustaka-gachcha.

Nemichandra Siddhautacharya appointed by Chamunda Raya c. 9S3

Kundakundacharya

Pandya Raya

Siddhantachaiya

Vira Pandya

Amalakirtyacharya

Kuna Pan((lya

Somanandyacharya

\'inayaditya "^

1050

Tridama \'ibiidhanandyacliarya

Hoysala J

1070

Prahhachandra Siddhdntacharya

Ereyanga

1090

Gunachandracharya

Ballala Raya

1 102

S'ubhachandracharya

Bitti Deva

From 1 1 1 7 the gurus all bear the name of Charukirti Panditdcharya,
and endowments have been granted to the matha by all succeeding
lines of kings.

The Maleyur matha is subordinate to that of Sravana Belgola, and
is now closed. According to Wilson, Akalanka, the Jain who con-
futed the Buddhists at the court of Plemasitala in Kanchi in 788,
and procured their expulsion from the south of India, was from
Sravana Belgola, but a manuscript in my possession states that he was
a yati of IMaleyur, and that Bhattakalanka is the title of the line of
yatis of that place.

The Humcha matha was established by Jinadatta Raya, the founder
of the Humcha State, in about the eighth century. The gurus, as
given in the following list, were of the Kujidakiindanvaya and Nandi-
sangha. From Jayakirtti Deva they were of the Sarasvati gncJichii.
The descent is traced in a general way from Bhadrabahu the s'nitake-
vali, through Vis'akhamuni the das'apurvi, his successor, through
Umasvati, author o^ i\\Q Tattvdrtiha-si'ih-a, and then the following : —

.Samantal)hadra, author of Diroagaiita stolra.

Pujyapada, author o{ Jaitioidra lydkaraiia, of a nyiisa on Panini called

Sahdik'atdra, and of a Vaidya s'astra.
Siddhantikirlti, guru to Jinadatta Raya. ? about 730 A. p.

Akalanka, author of a hhdshya on the Dctuigania s/o/m.
Vidyananda, author of a bhdshya on the A'ptamitndmsa, also of Sloka

varttikdla)ikdra.
Manikyanandi.
Prahhachandra, autlior of Nydyalatmrtdachandrodaya and of a nydsa on

Sdkatdyana.

462 RELIGION

\';u(lilliam;in;i iminiiKlra, by iho power of whose iiiaiilra Iloysala sul;-

(hied the tifjer' 980-1040

1 lis successors were gurus lo the Hoysala kings.
\';isupi'ijya vrati, guru to Ballala Raya ... ... ... ... ... 1040-1100

Sripala. I Subhakirtti Deva.

Nemichandra. I l'a(hiianandi.

Abhayachandra, guru lo Charama Maghanandi.

Ke.savarya.
Jayakirtti Deva.
Jinachandrarya.
Indranandi.
Vasantakirtti.

Simhanandi.

Padmapraljha.

Vasunandi.

Meghachandra.

Viranandi.

Visalakirtti. Dhanunjaya.

Dharmal)hushana, guru to Deva Raya ... ... ... ... ... 1401-1451

\'idyananda, who debated Ijefore Deva Raya and Krishna Raya, ... 1451-1508

and maintained the Jain faith at Bilgi and Karkala. His sons were : —
Sinihakirtti, who debated at the court of Muhammad Shah ... ... 1463-1482

Sudarshana.

Merunandi.

Devendrakirtti.

Amarakirtti.

Visalakirtti, who debated before Sikandar and Virupaksha Raya ... 1465- 1479

Nemichandra, who debated at the court of Krishna Raya and Achyuta

Raya ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 1508-1542

The gurus are now named Devendra Tirtha Bhattaraka.

There are two sects among the Jains, the Digambara, clad with
space, that is naked ; and the Svetambara, clad in white. The first is
the original and most ancient. The yatis in Mysore belong to the
former division, but cover themselves with a yellow robe, which they
throw off only when taking food. The yatis form the religious order,
the laity are called srdvakas. Certain deified men, termed Tirthan-
karas, of whom there are twenty-four principal ones, are the chief
objects of Jain reverence. Implicit belief in the doctrines and actions
of these is obligatory on both yatis and sravakas. But the former are
expected to follow a life of abstinence, taciturnity and continence ;
whilst the latter add to their moral and religious code the practical
worship of the Tirthankaras and profound reverence for their more
pious brethren. The moral code of the Jains is expressed in five
mahd-vratas or great duties : — refraining from injury to life, truth,
honesty, chastity, and freedom from worldly desire. There are four
dharmas or merits — liberality, gentleness, piety, and penance ; there are
three sorts of restraint — government of the mind, the tongue, and the
person. To these are superadded a number of minor instructions or
prohibitions, sometimes of a beneficial and sometimes of a trivial or

' For an e.xpkinaiion of this allusion see p. t,"^},.

JAINISM 463

even ludicrous tendency.' The Jains hold the doctrine of Xindna,
but it is with them a state of beatific rest or quiescence, cessation from
re-birth, but not annihilation. The practice of salkkhana or religious
suicide is considered meritorious, and was at one time not uncommon,
especially to bring to a close a life made intolerable by incuraijle
disease or other dire calamity. At the same time, ahimsd or avoidance
of the destruction of life in whatever shape, is a fundamental doctrine,
carried to extremes.

The ritual of the Jains is as simple as their moral code. Thej-rt//
dispenses with acts of worship at his pleasure ; and the lay votary is
only bound to visit daily a temple where some of the images of the
Tirthankaras are erected, walk round it three times, make an obeisance
to the images with an offering of some trifle, usually fruit or flowers,
and pronounce a mantra or prayer.^

The Jains reject the Vedas, and have their own sacred books. The
original Purvas, fourteen in number, were lost at an early period, but
the forty-five A'gamas, which include the eleven Angas (specially con-
sidered the sacred books), the twelve Upangas, and other religious works
have been handed down. In their present form they were, according
to tradition, collected and committed to writing in the fifth century at
"Wilabhi, under the directions of Devarddhiganin, but the Angas had
previously been collected in the fourth century at Pataliputra. The
sacred language of the Jains is called Arddha-Magadhi, but is a Prakrit
corresponding more with Maharashtri than with Magadhi. In the
eleventh century they adopted the use of Sanskrit.'* Caste as
observed among the Jains is a social and not a religious institution.
In the edicts of As'oka and early Buddhist literature they are called
Nirgranthas (those who have forsaken every tie). AVith reference to
their philosophical tenets they are also by the Brahmans designated
Syadvadins (those who say perhaps, or // may be so\ as they
maintain that we can neither aftirm nor deny anything absolutely
of an object, and that a predicate never expresses more than a
probability."*

Parsvanatha and Mahdvi'ra, the twenty-third and twenty-fourth Tirth-

' Such as to al)stain al cerlaiii seasons from salt, flowers, green friiil and root.s,
honey, grai)es, and tobacco ; not to deal in soap, natron, intligo and iron : and
never to eat in the dark lest a fly shoidd lie swallowed. The hair must not l)o cut
Init should be plucked out.

' The prayer-formula of the Jains is : — Nanio .Vrihanlanam namo Siddhanam
namo Ayariyanam namo Uvajjhayanam namo loe sabba-sahi'inam. (Reverence to
the Arhats, to the Siddhas, to the A'char)as, to the Upadhyayas, to all Sadhus in
the world.)

3 Jacobi, Kalpa si'itra. * Barth, Religious of India.

464

RELIGION

ankaras,! were historical persons, of whom the former it is supposed
was the real founder of Jainism, while the latter, whose country,
descent, connections and life bear a close resemblance to those of
Buddha (also called Mahavira and Jina, and the last of twenty-four
Buddhas), and whose period also nearly corresponds with his, was its
greatest apostle and propagator.

Pdrs'va or Pdrs'vandtha was of the race of Ikshvdku, and the son of king
As'va Sena by Vdmd. or Bdmd. Devi. He was born at Bhelupura, in the
suburbs of Benares, and married Prabhdvati, daughter of king Prasenajita.
He adopted an ascetic life at the age of thirty, and practised austerities for
eighty days before arriving at perfect wisdom. Once, whilst engaged in his
devotions, his enemy Kamatha caused a great rain to fall upon him. But
the serpent Dharanidhara, or the Ndga king Dharana, overshadowed his
head with his hood outspread as a chhatra, whence the place was called
Ahichhatra.- After becoming an ascetic he lived seventy years less eighty
days, and at the age of 100 died, performing a fast, on the top of Samet
S'ikhara. He wore one garment, and had under him a large number of
male and female ascetics. His death occurred 250 years before that of the
last Tirthankara, or about 776 B.C.

Varddhamdna or Mahavira, also of the race of Ikshvaku, was a N^yaputa
or Ndtaputta, that is, a Jndtri Rajput and Kshattriya, the son of Siddhdrtha,
prince of Pavana, by Trisald., and was born at Chitrakot or Kundagrdma.
He married Yasodd, daughter of the prince Samara Vira, and had by her a
daughter Priyadarsana, who became the wife of Jamali, his nephew, one of
his pupils and the founder of a schism. Varddhamdna's father and mother
died when he was twenty-eight, and two years afterwards he devoted him-
self to austerities, which he continued twelve years and a half, nearly eleven
of which were spent in fasts. As a Digambara " he went robeless, and had
no vessel but his hand." At last the bonds of action were snapped like an

' The following is the list of the twenty-four Tirthankaras : —

Name.

Sign.

Silsana Devi.

Name.

Sign.

Sdsana Devi.

Rishabha or

Vimalanatha

Boar

Vidita

A'dinatha

Bull

Chakresvari

Anantanatha

Falcon

Ankus'a

Ajitanatha

Elephant

Ajitabala

Dharnianatha

Thunderbolt

Kandarpa

S'amljhava

Horse

Duritari

S'antinatha

Antelope

Nirvani

Abhinandana

Monkey

Kalika

Kunthunatha

Goat

Bala

Sumati

Curlew

Mahakali

Aranatha

Nandyavarta

Dharini

Padmaprabha

Lotus

S'yama

Mallinatha

Water jar

Dharanapriya

Su]iars'va

Swastika

S'anta

Muni Suvrata

Tortoise

Naradatta

Chandraprabha

Moon

Bhrikuti

Ximinatha

Blue waterlily

Gandharl

Pushpadanta

Crocodile

Sutaraka

Xeminalha

Conch

Ambika

S'itala

S'rivatsa

As'oka

Pars'vanatha

Cobra

Padmavati

S'reyams'a

Rhinoceros

Manavi

A'arddhaniana

\'asupiij)a

Buffalo

Chanda

or Mahavira

Lion

Siddhajika

Ahi, serpent ; chhatra, canopy or umbrella.

BUDDHISM 465

old rope, and he attained to Kevala or the only knowledge, becoming an
Arhant or Jina. Proceeding to Papapuri or Apdpapuri (Pd\a) in Behar, he
commenced teaching his doctrines. Several eminent Hrr.hmans of Magadha
became converts and founded i^anai or schools. The chief of tliem was
Indrabhuti or Gautama (not to be confounded, as has sometimes been done,
with Buddha, also so called, who was a Kshatriya). Mahavira continued
to teach, chiefly at the cities of Kausambi and RAjagriha, under the kings
Sasanika and Srenika, and died at the age of seventy-two at Apdpapuri.
The date of his death is the era from which Jain chronology reckons, and
the traditional date corresponds with 527 H.c, but this should probably be
sixty years later.'

Buddhism. — The evidence of the establisliment of ]5uddhi.sm in the /
north of Mysore in the third century r..c., and the efforts made at
that time to propagate it in other parts, have already been referred to."'*
The S'dtavdhana and Pallava kings, from the remains of their erections
at Amaravati and Mamallapura, were to some extent Buddhist, and
there are references in early Pali writings to Buddhist scholarship in
Karnataka.'^ Inscriptions record the maintenance, as one of five great
mathas, of a Buddhist establishment (Bauddhalaya) at Balagami
(Shikarpur taluq), the capital of the Banavasi country, down to 1098,
and apparently the residence there at that time of a nun named
Nagiyaka. But the long ascendancy of their great rivals, the Jains,
makes it unlikely that Buddhists were more than an inconsiderable
minority. The Jain traditions, however, preserve some memory of
argumentative collisions with expounders of the rival system. A Jain
named Akalanka, whom "Wilson brings from Sravana Balgola in 788,^
finally confuted the Buddhists in argument at the court of Hemasitala
at Kanchi, and procured their expulsion to Kandy in Ceylon.

So many works are now available on the subject that it is un-
necessary in this place to give more than the briefest outline of the life
of IJuddha and the doctrines he taught.

Gautama (Gotama in P.-lli) was a Sakya and a Kshattriya, prince of
Kapila-vastu, south of Nepal, about 100 miles north-east of Benares. His
wife was Yas'odhara. He was naturally of a serious disposition, and had
become satiated with a life of pleasure and indulgence, during which every
object of sadness had been studiously kept out of his view. The accidental
sight, in succession, of an old man, a diseased man, and a dead man, led
him to reflect on the illusory nature of youth, health and life. This wciglied

' Jacobi, op. (it.

■■' In Mr. Fcrgusson".s opinion, "it is nearly coirccl to assert thai no people
adopted Buddhism, except those among whom serpenl-woiship can certainly he
traced as pre-existing." — Tr. Ser. Jl'or., 21.

* I am indebted for this information to Professor Rhys Davids.

•• J/cA'. Co//., I, Ixv.

H M

466 RELIGION

on liis mind imtil one day he saw a religious mendicant, calm in his
renunciation of tlie world. It suggested to him a mode of relief. He fled
at midnight from the royal palace and all its gay inmates, forsaking his
young wife and their infant son, assumed the yellow garb of an ascetic, and
gave himself up to austerities and meditation in the forest of Buddha (]aya,
acquiring the name of Sdkya Muni. But penance and austerities had not
power to appease his spiritual yearnings. Eventually, by meditation, he
became a Buddha or Enlightened, in order that he might teach mankind
the true way of deliverance from the miseries of existence. He entered
upon his mission in the district of Magadha or Behar when 35 years old,
and died or attained nirvana at the age of eighty, while travelling through
the country of Kosala or Oudh, about 543 B.c.^

After his death a council was held by Ajdtasatru, king of Magadha, at
which all the teachings and sayings of Buddha were collected into three sets
of books, called Tripitaka, the three baskets or collections, which form the
Buddhist sacred scriptures. Of these the Siitra pitaka contains the maxims
and discourses of Sdkya Muni, which had all been delivered orally ; the
Vinaya pitaka relates to morals and discipline ; and the Abhidharma pitaka
is philosophical. Three other great Buddhist councils were held, one in the
middle of the fifth century B.C. by Kalasoka, when the scriptures were
revised ; the third by Asoka in 246 B.C., after which missions were sent
abroad for the propagation of the faith ; and the fourth by Kanishka, king
of Kashmir, in the first century A.D., when the Tripitaka were finally
established as canonical. According to some accounts they were not
committed to writing before this. The sacred language of the Buddhists is
Pdli.

Buddhism may be described as two-fold, consisting of dharina, or
religion, and vinaya, or discipline. Buddha's enlightenment had led
him to recognize existence as the cause of all sorrow. Avidya or
ignorance was the remote cause of existence, and Jiin'dna or extinction
of existence the chief good.

The dharma or religion was for the masses or the laity, the so-called
ignorant, who had no longing for nirvana, but only desired a happier
life in the next stage of existence ; for life, of gods and animals as well
as of men, was held to continue through an endless series of trans-
migrations, introducing to a higher or a lower grade according to the
merit or demerit of the previous existence. This religion was based
upon the law of universal benevolence or kindness, and found
expression in five great commandments, namely, against killing,
stealing, adultery, intoxication, and lying, each of which was amplified
into numerous precepts intended to guard not only against the

' This is the traditional date, but the correct date is probably about 412 K.c,
according to Rhys Davids (Ntimis. Or., Ceylon), or l^etween 482 and 472 according
to others. — Earth, /.V/. of Ind., 106.

BUDDHISM 467

commission of sin but against the inclination or temptation to sin. The
practice of universal goodness or kindness, in thought, word and deed>
was the only way by which man could raise himself to a higher state of
existence.

The vinaya or discipline was for the wise, the monastic orders, those
who cared not to continue in the vortex of transmigrations, but sought
only to purify their souls from all desire for the hollow and delusive
pleasures of the world and to escape from all the pains and miseries of
existence into the everlasting rest of nirvana. To effect this deliverance
it was neces.sary to renounce five things, namely, children, wife, goods,
life and self; in short, to lead a religious life of celibacy, mendicancy
and strict discipline, in order that the soul might be freed from every
stain of affection or passion. Four great truths, known as the hnv of
/he wheel, resulted in indicating four paths to nirvana, namely, perfection
in faith, in thought, in speech, and in conduct : and the only true
wisdom was to walk in these paths. The Buddhist formula of faith
is expressed in words meaning, " I go for refuge to the Buddha, the
Dharma and the Sangha."

At the time when Buddha began to proclaim his doctrines, all the
affairs of life were supposed to be regulated by the rigid code of Manu.^
Religion consisted in ceremonial observances, which beset every moment
of existence from birth to death, and its advantages were confined to an
exclusive caste, whose instrumentality alone could render any ceremony
efficacious. Buddhism was a revolt of the religion of humanity against
the ritualism and asceticism, the lifeless superstition and arrogant
pretensions of the Brahmanical priesthood.- It taught that religion

' Bui il may be questioned whether the code was not as much a theoretical system
of the claims of the hierarchy as one in practical operation. — cf. Auguste Harth as
translated Iiid. Anl., Ill, 329.

• "The revolt of Buddhism against Brahmanism is only to l)e appreciated by those
who are familiar with the results of both systems. The India of the present day
presents many of the characteristics which must have distinguished ancient India
l)rior to the advent of CJotama Buddha. It is a land of deities, temples and priests.
The whole Indian continent is dotted with little sanctuaries which apjK-ar like the
sepulchres of defunct gods, whose grotesque and tlistorted effigies are to l)e seen
within ; and fathers and mothers bow down to these idols, praise them, propitiate
them with gifts and offerings, and invoke them for help and prosjiority. Again, there
are temples of more colossal dimensions, with jiyramidal towers or cone-shajjed
domes covered with sculptures and surrounded by walls, courtyards and rmifed
passages. But all are of the same sepulchral character. Some are the recejitacles of
archaic gods, who are arrayed in jewels and tinsel ; but even these deities are little
better than the gaudy mummies of a primeval age. The women alone seem to Ik;
fervent worshipjiers, for the men have begun to groan beneath the oppression of
idolatry and Brahmanism. Indeed the rapacity of the temple-priests is unlnumded,
whilst their culture is beneath contempt. They celebrate their festivals like children

H H 2

468 RELIGION

consisted in the suppression of evil desire, the practice of self-denial,
and the exercise of active benevolence ; and that men and women alike,
and that of all castes, may equally enjoy the benefits of a religious
life. Hence thousands and tens of thousands, both high and low,
hastened to embrace the new faith, and Buddhism continued to grow
till the time of Asoka, under whom it was established as the dominant
religion of India.

Hinduism. — It is next to impossible (M. Barth remarks) to say
exactly what Hinduism is, where it begins, and where it ends. Diversity
is its very essence, and its proper manifestation is sect — sect in constant
mobility. The rise of the religions comprised under this head was in
general due to the unsatisfactory nature of the old Brahmanical theology,
the divinities of which had gradually retired and disappeared behind a
host of abstractions too subtle to affect the conscience of the masses.
But they did not, like Buddhism, openly sunder all connection with the
past. They, on the contrary, claim to be its continuation, or rather they
represent themselves to be that very past unchanged and unmodified.
Most of them profess to be based on the Veda, with which at bottom
they have almost nothing in common, and which they virtually super-
seded by a quite different literature, but to which they nevertheless
continue to appeal as their highest authority. The characteristic
common to the majority of these religions is the worship of new
divinities exalted above all the rest, identified either with Siva or with
1 Vishnu.^ And it is singular that the Mysore country should have been
the home or refuge of the two principal founders and exponents of the
Saiva and Vaishnava creeds respectively.

Though it is sought to identify Siva with Rudra of the Vedas, who is
there introduced in a very subordinate position, it is doubtful whether
there is any correspondence between them ; and if the one was a later
development out of the other, there is no trace whatever of the process
by which Siva was raised to a supreme position as a chief member of the
Trimurti or Hindu trinity. How again the linga, under which form he
has for centuries been worshipped, came to be associated with Siva is
unknown. The introduction of an entirely new di^•inity from the
mountains of the north has been supposed, who was grafted in upon
the ancient religion by being identified with Rudra ; and it is not
impossible that the linga may have been an object of veneration among

playing with dolls. They cany the gods in procession, or induce the gaping crowd
to drag them along in huge idol cars ; hut they cannot evoke those joyous outj^Kaurings
of adoration i,ir thanksgiving which indicate the presence of religious feeling in the
hearts of the worshippers."' — Talboys Wheeler, Hist. Iiici.. III. 94.
I Rel.oflnd., 153, 159.

HINDUISM 469

the aboriginal or non-Aryan Indians, and that it was subsequently
adopted by the Brahmans from them and associated with the worship
of Rudra.'

The legend regarding Daksha's sacrifice seems to bear out these views.
The probable interpretation of it is that Siva — a deity according to
(iorresio of Cushite or Hamitic tribes which preceded on the soil of
India the Aryan or Indo-Sanskrit races — wished to have a part in the
worship of the conquerors and in their sacrifices, from which he was
excluded ; and by disturbing their rites and by a display of violence
at their sacrifices, he succeeded in being admitted to participate in
them.

The worship of Siva succeeded Buddhism, but the period which
intervened before the supremacy of Siva was generally accepted
brought to the surface many Hindu gods as candidates for the popular
favour. The records of Sankarachar)a's polemical victories show
that in his time there prevailed, among others, the worship of Brahma,
Agni, Silrya, and Ganes'a. None of these have now distinct classes
of worshippers, but Oanes'a shares a sort of homage with almost all
the other divinities. There were also sects devoted to the exclusive
worship of the female deities Bhavani, Lakshmi, Sarasvati ; and also of
Bhairava.

The account of Gritsamada in the (lancs'a purana is supposed to
contain an allusion to the period of transition.

A king named Rukmanga one day lost his way in the woods while hunting,
and came to the hermitage of a rishi, whose wife /ell in love with him ; wlien
he refused her solicitations, she cursed him, and he was attacked with
leprosy, which was eventually cured through the favour of Ganes'a. But
Indra, it is stated, assuming the form of the king, gratified her desires, and
the fruit of the connection was the sage Gritsamada, the author of certain
hymns of the Rig-veda. He was not aware of his origin until attending
once at a ceremony with the intention of taking part in it, the Brahmans
present reproached him as of spurious descent, called him the son of
Rukmdnga, and ordered him to quit the assembly. Stung to the quick,
he went to his mother, and on her acknowledging her guilt he cursed her to
become a jujube-tree, badari, and she retorted that he should be a Brahma
Rakshasa.

He now joined himself to certain munis of a different persuasion, and
thence before long devoted himself to meditation on tlie Supreme Bcing>
standing on his great toe, with liis mind intensely fixed on the deity. At
length Ganes'a appeared to Iiini and granted certain boons. He thus

' It may be noticed that Brahmans ilo not officiate in Siva temples : these arc
served by an inferior order of priests called Sh'a dvija. A few excejitions, however,
seem to e.xist in what are distinguished as \'aiiiika Siva temples, such as the famous
one of Visvesvara at Benares.

470 RELIGION

became an object of reverence and even worship to the otiier sages. Crit-
samada continued thus in meditation, when one day on opening his eyes a
beautiful boy came up to him, who prayed to be adopted as his. Gritsamada
compHed with his request, taught him the mystic incantation OM, and sent
him away to stand on his great toe contemplating the supreme Ganes'a.
The deity after a long interval appeared and desired him to ask a boon.
He accordingly requested the power of conquering the three worlds, which
was granted, together with immunity from any weapon except that of Siva ;
and it was added that he should possess three famous cities, one of iron,
one of silver, and one of gold, and that on leaving the world he should be
absorbed into the divine essence.

This wonderful child was no other than the famous Tripurasura. He
vanquished Indra and all the gods, and reduced them to the greatest state
of leanness and distress by putting a stop to the offering up of the oblations
which mortals had been accustomed to present to them. He took posses-
sion of the abodes of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, while Ganes'a in disguise
built for him the three famous cities, one of iron, one of silver, and one of
gold. Siva now did penance to Ganes'a, who at length appeared and
granted him the boon of victory over their enemy. The gods, led by Siva,
overcame Tripurasura and consumed with fiery darts the three cities.

Now this account evidently indicates a period when the religious
system of the Brahmans was superseded by another, which Gritsamada
partly learned from sages of a different persuasion after he had been
expelled from the society of the Brahmans, and which he taught to
Tripurasura, who thereby gained the supremacy over heaven and earth,
and thrust down from heaven all the Brahmanical deities. This
system consisted of spiritual and mystical contemplation of the
Supreme Being, which, with other features, corresponds so well with
the main characteristics of Buddhism that we seem here to have an
allegory of the ascendancy of that faith and its overthrow by the
revival of the worship of Siva.^

It has been noticed here on account of its apparent localisation in
certain parts of Mysore, and Gritsamada in one account is said to be of
Haihaya descent. Thus Rukmanga, it will be seen from the account
of the Kadur District, is claimed to have been the king of Sakkare-
patna. The yagache, or in Sanskrit badari, is the name of the neigh-
bouring stream, which flows from the Baba Budan mountains past
Belur to the Hemavati, and which is so-called from its source at the
jujube-tree, into which form Gritsamada doomed his mother to pass.
Tripura and Tripurasura we have more than once had occasion to refer
to. From the drops of sweat which fell from Siva after his contest
with Tripurasura are fabled to have sprung the Kadamba line of
kings. And the introduction of Brahmans into the north-west of

> /. R. A. S., VIII.

S ANKARA CHAR YA 471

INIysore by Mayuravarma of that line was no doubt one of the earliest
results of a declension of Buddhist influence.

The Buddhist writer Tardnatha, the Jaina writer Brahmanemidatta,
and the Brahmanical writer Madhavacharya are all agreed in dating the
final decline of Buddhism from the time when the illustrious authors
Kumarila Bhatta, Akalanka-deva, and S'ankaracharya appeared in
Southern India,' that is, the eighth century. The first was celebrated
as a great teacher of the Mimamsa philosophy (the Purva Mimamsa)
and a dreaded antagonist of both Jainas and Bauddhas. He
strenuously asserted the pretensions of the Brahmans, affirming that, as
Kshatriyas and Vais'yas, the Jainas and Bauddhas were by nature
incapable of the highest spiritual discernment, which was inherent in
the Brahmans alone. Akalanka was the Jaina already referred to
above (p. 465),

S ankardchdrya was a great religious reformer, and teacher of the
\'edanta philosophy (the Uttara Mimamsa). He was a prime agent in
bringing about the establishment of Siva worship, and was the founder
of the Smarta sect.

He was born in 737 A.D., and is most generally acknowledged to liave
been a Brahman of Cranganore in Malabar, though his actual birthplace
was in the north of Travancore. He was consecrated as a sannydsi at the age
of eight years by Govinda yogi, and his life was spent in controversy with
the professors of various religious sects, whom he successfully refuted, as
recorded in the Sankara Vijaya and several other similar extant v/orks. In
the course of his wanderings he visited the greater part of India, and
eventually went as far as mount Kaiklsa. He set up a linga at Keddra and
returned by way of Ayodhya, Gaya and Jaganndth to S'ris'aila, where he
encountered Bhattdchdrya (that is, Kumdrila), who had, it is said,
ground the Bauddhas and Jainas in oil-mills. The latter declined to argue,
but referred him to Mandana-misra, married to his younger sister, who
was an incarnation of Sarasvati. Thither Sankardchdri repaired, and
though successful in defeating the husband, was overcome. in an argument
on sensual pleasures with the wife, who proved more tlian equal to iiim in
discussions of this nature. He thereupon went to Amritapura, and
animated the dead body of its prince, named Amaru, in whose form he
gained familiarity with the subject by practice in the gratification of the pas-
sions, and then returning was victorious over her. The throne of Sarasvati
on which he then sat is still shown in Kashmir. Consecrating Mandana-
misra as a sannydsi under the name of Suresvardchdrya, he bound
Sarasvati or S'drad-amma- with spells and conveyed her to Sringa-giri

' Pailiak,/. Bo. Ih: R. A. A'., XVIII, 23S.

- Kasliniir is sonicliines called Sarad;i-dcs;i, and its ancient manuscripts arc
written in Saracla characters. — Iitd. Ant., V, 2S.

H H *

47 2 REIJG/ON

(Siin^eii), wlicic he established her ihronc. 'I'lierc he remained, and ended
Iiis days twelve years afterwards, at the aj,^e, it is said, of thirty-two.'

Hut his influL'ncc was i)cr|)etuatcd in his writings. He is the most
celebrated of all commentators, and his works arc almost countless,
including commentaries on the Upanishads, ^^cdanta siitras and
Bhagavad Ciita. 'J'he sect of Vedantists founded by him has always
held the highest reputation for learning, and is distinguished for the
cultivation of the study of Sanskrit and especially of the vedic
literature. It is also the most unsectarian, admitting in fact all other
objects of worship as but manifestations of Siva or Mahddcva, the
Great Clod.

The Vedantist system advocated by S'ankara is pantheistic, and
based on the doctrine of advaita or non-dualism, which means that
the universe is not distinct from the Supreme Soul. The leading
tenet of the sect is the recognition of Brahma Para Brahma as the
only really existing Being, the sole cause and supreme ruler of the
universe, and as distinct from Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, or any individual
member of the pantheon : to know Him is the supreme good. The
attainment of complete wisdom results in vmkti or liberation, and
re-union with the divine essence. But as the mind of man cannot
elevate itself to the contemplation of the inscrutable First Cause and
Only Soul, he may be contemplated through inferior deities and sought
through the prescribed rites and exercises. This creed thus tolerates
all the Hindu deities, and the worship of the following was, by
Sankarachari's express permission, taught by some of his disciples : —
that of Siva, Vishnu, Krishna, Siirya, Sakti, Ganes'a and Bhairava.

" Individual souls emanating from the supreme one are likened to
innumerable sparks issuing from a blazing fire. From him they pro-
ceed, and to him they return, being of the same essence. The soul
which governs the body together With its organs, neither is born nor
does it die. It is a portion of the divine substance, and as such
infinite, immortal, intelligent, sentient, true. It is governed by the
supreme. Its activity is not of its essence, but inductive through its
organs : as an artisan taking his tools labours and undergoes toil and
pain, but laying them aside reposes, so is the soul active and a sufferer
by means of its organs, but divested of them and returning to the
supreme one is at rest and is happy. It is not a free and independent

' Wilson makes him die at Kedarniith in the Ilimalajas (His. I, 200). But il
will be seen that he apparently died at Sringeri. The succession of gurus at Sringeri
is traced from him directly, and a small temple is there shown as the place where he
disappeared from life. It contains a statue of liim, seated after the manner of
Buddhist and Jain images.

SRINGER! G'URt/S 473

ngent, but made to act by the supreme one, who Callses it to do in one
state as it had purposed in a former condition. According to its
predisposition for good or evil, for enjoined or forbidden deeds, it is
made to do good or ill, and thus has its retribution for previous works."
The Sringeri swami or head of the niatha or monastery at Sringeri,
the principal one established by Sankaracharya, is styled the Jagat
(juru, or Jagad-Guru, the priest of the world, and is possessed of
extensive authority and influence. The matha is situated on the left
I)ank of the Tunga, in the centre of a fertile tract, with which it was
endowed al)out 400 years ago by the Vijayanagar kings. The estate
yields a revenue of Rs. 50,000 a year, and a further sum of Rs. 10,000
a year is received from the Mysore State. But the expenses connected
with the feeding of ]>rahmans, and the distribution of food and
clothing on festival days to all comers of both sexes, exceed the
income, and the (luru is constantly engaged in long and protracted
tours through various parts for the purpose of receiving contributions
from his disciples. He wears a tiara like the Pope's, covered with
pearls and jewels, said to have been given to him by the Peshwa of
Poona, and a handsome necklace of pearls. His sandals are covered
with silver. He is an ascetic and a celibate, and in diet very
abstemious. He is borne along in an aMa pdlld or palanquin carried
crossways, which prevents anything else passing. He is attended by
an ele])hant and escort, and accompanied by a numerous body of
Prahmans and disciples.

'I'he following is the succession of Sringeri gurus, obtained from the
matha : —

Coiisaratcd. Die J.

Sankaracharya (liorn a.d. 737) 745 7^9

Surcsvarachdrya ... ... ... ... ... 753 773'

Nityal)0(lhaj;hanach;irya ... ... ... — 75^ ^4^

Jnanaglianacharya ... ... ... ... ... S46 9'0

Jnanoltania.sivacharya... ... ... ... ... 905 953

Jnanayiri acliarya ... ... ... ... ... 949 lojS

Simliaj^irLsvaracharya ... ... ... ... ... 1036 109S

Isvaralirthacharya 1 097 1 146

Narasimha muni or nu'irti ... ... ... ... II45 I22b

• This (laic is plainly given in tin.- annals, iiccording to the Sali\aliana .saka. Hul
the prccechng dales arc absurdly referred lo ihc ^■il<ranKl saka, in the fourtccnlh
) ear of which Sankaracharya is said to have been born ; and lo ct)nnecl ihe Iwo eras,
Suresvaracharya is gravely asserled lo have held his authorily 800 years, allhough
only thirly-lwo years arc grantctl lo Sankar.acharya. Accepling ihe succession as
correct, I have taken ihc names of the years, and calculated the preceding dales
accordingly. That Sankaracharya lived in the latter jiart of the eighth century has
been conclusively proved by Mr. i'athak (J. Jio. A'r. A'. .7. .S'., Will, 88;
Procccdiitgs Ninth Oriental Congress), as admitted by Dr. Huhkr and M. Harth.

474

RELIGION

Viclyasankara swami...

Bharati Krishna lirtlia

Vidyaranya

Chandrasckliara Bharati

Narasimha Bharati

Bhaktasankara Purushottama Bharati

Sankarananda Bharati

Chandrasekhara Bharati

Narasimha Bharati ...

T'uru.shottama Bharati

Ramachandra Bharati

Nara.simha Idharati

Nara.simha P>harati

Imniadi Narasimha Bharati ...

Aljhinava Narasimha Bharati

Sachchidananda Bharati

Narasimha Bharati ...

Sachchidananda Bharati

Abhinava Sachchidananda 15harati...

Nrisimha Bharati

Sachchidananda Bharati

Abhinava Sachchidananda Bharati...

Narasimha Bharati ...

Sachchidananda Sivabhinava-Narasimha Bharati

Cousecra/ecl.

... 1228

... 1328

•• 1331

... 1368

... 1387
1 406

... 1428

... 1449

... 1464

... 1472

... 1508

... 1557

- 1563

... 1576

•• 1599

.. 1622

.. 1663

.. 1705

•■ 1741

.. 1767

•• 1770

1814

.. 1817

Died.

1333
1380
1386

1389
1408
1448

1454
1464

1479
1517
1560

1573
1576

1599
1622
1663

1705
1741
1767
1770
1814
1817
1879

1867 (now guru, 1S95)

RihudnvjdcJidrya. — The next great religious movement took place at
the beginning of the twelfth century, and is identified with Ramanuj-
acharya. He was born at Sri Permatur near Madras, and studied at
Conjeveram. He then retired to the island of Sri Ranga (Seringam),
at the parting of the Kaveri and Coleroon, and there perfected his
system and composed his religious works. He then travelled over
great part of Southern India, defending and expounding the Vaishnava
creed. He established several maths, the principal one being at
Ahobala. He also converted or restored many Saiva temples to the
worship of Vishnu, among others the celebrated temple of Tirupati.
The Chola king Karikala Chola, in whose dominion Sri Ranga was
situated, was an uncompromising Saiva, and on Ramanujacharya's
return thither after these religious successes, he was required in com-
mon with all the Brahmans to subscribe to a declaration of faith in
Siva. To escape persecution he fled to the Hoysala kingdom in
Mysore. Here he converted from the Jain faith the king thencefor-
ward known as ^'ishnuvarddhana, the date assigned to this event being
1 1 17. Having put down the J^ins by the severest measures, he settled
under the royal favour and protection at Melukote, and there estab-
lished his throne, which is still occupied by the guru known as the
Parakalaswami. After twelve years, on the death of the Chola king, he
returned to Sri Rangn and there ended his days.

RAMANUJA CHAR YA 475

The chief religious tenet of the sect of Ramanujas or Sri Vaishnavas
founded by him is the assertion that Vishnu is Brahma, that he was
before all worlds, and was the cause and creator of all. Although they
maintain that Vishnu and the universe are one, yet, in opposition to
the vedanta doctrines, they deny that the deity is void of form or
quality, and regard him as endowed with all good qualities and with a
two-fold form — the supreme spirit, Paramatma or cause, and the gross
one, the effect, the universe or matter. The doctrine is hence called
the vis'ishtddvaita, or doctrine of unity with attributes.

Besides his primary and secondary form as the creator and creation,
the deity has assumed at different times particular forms and appear-
ances for the benefit of his creatures, hence the avatdras, &c.^ The
prescribed acts of adoration are the cleaning and purifying of temples
and images, presentation of flowers and perfumes, repeating the divine
names, and effort to unite with the deity. The reward of these acts is
elevation to the heaven of Vishnu, for perpetual residence there in a
condition of pure ecstasy and eternal rapture.

Harihara. — The form Harihara, a combination of Hari or \'ishnu
and Hara or Siva, is declared in inscriptions to have been revealed at
Kudalur,- for the destruction of a giant named Ciuhasura, who opposed
the vedas ; and also to establish the veda vdda, or sayings of the veda,
regarding the ndTaita, the non-duality or unity, of Vishnu and Siva. A
similar form seems to be worshipped in Kanara under the denomin-
ation of S'ankara Nardyana. The terms are evidently indicative of
toleration or compromise, but the history of this manifestation is
obscure. In Mysore the worship of Harihara is almost, if not entirely,
confined to the town on the Tungabhadra bearing the same name.''
The existing temple was built in 1223, by Polalva, the general of the
Hoysala king Narasimha II.

' Mr. Fergusson speculates as follows : — Recent discoveries in Assyria seem to
point to that country as the origin of much that we find underlying the local colouring
of the Vaishnava faith, (iaruda, the eagle-headed vahana and companion of Vishnu,
seems identical with the figure now so familiar to us in Assyrian sculpture, prohahly
representing Ormazd. The fish-god of the Assyrians, Dagon, prefigures the fish
avatar of Vishnu. The man-lion (nara-simha) is not more familiar to us in Assyria
than in India, and tradition generally points to the West for the other figures scarcely
so easily recognized, more especially Huli, whose name alone is an index to his origin ;
and Mahishasura, who by a singular inversion is a man with a hull's head instead of
a bull with a man's head, as he is always figured in his native land. It is worthy of
remark that the ninth avatar of \'ishnu is always Huddha himself, thus jiointing to a
connection between these two extremes of Indian faith. - /;/</. An/i., J24.

* That is, apparently, at the junction of the Ilaridra and Tungabhadra.

•■' Converted into Hurryhur, Harry Heir, Hurry Hurry and other ludicrous forms
in the military histories.

476 RELIGION

Lifigdyils. — About 1160, little more than forty years after the
establishment of the Vaishnava faith in Mysore by Ramdnujacharya,
arose the well-known sect of Siva worshippers called Lingayits, chiefly
composed of the Kannada and Tehigu-speaking races.

Basava, the founder of the sect, whose name literally means bull, was in
fact regarded as the incarnation of Nandi, the bull of Siva. His political
career has been sketched in connection with the history of the Kalachuryas.
He was the son of an A'rddhya Brahman, a native of Bagwadi in lielgaum.
According to the legends, he refused to wear the brahmanical thread
because its investiture required the adoration of the sun, and repaired to
Kalydna, the capital of Bijjala, where he became, as elsewhere related, the
prime minister, and where he founded the new sect.

Its distinctive mark was the wearing on the person of a jangama
lingam or portable linga. It is a small black stone, about the size of
an acorn, and is enshrined in a silver box of peculiar shape, which is
worn suspended from the neck or tied round the arm. The followers
of Basava are properly called Lingavantas, but Lingayits has become a
well-known designation, though not used by themselves ; the name
Sivabhakta or Sivachar being one they generally assume.

Basava rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans,
together with the obserA-ances of caste, pilgrimage, and penance.
These continue to be fundamental distinctions of the sect.^ He
declared that all holiness consisted in due regard for three things —
guru, linga, and jangam — the guide, the image, and the fellow-
religionist. The guide or confessor can be any man or woman who is
in the creed ; who whispers the sacred mantram in the ear of the
jangam or worshipper ; and hangs the image on the neck or binds it on
the arm. A guru is forbidden to eat flesh, to chew betel or touch
liquor, and wears a kempu kdvi vastra or garment died with red ochre.
Those who adopt the extreme views of this sect are termed Vira
Saivas, ultra or warrior followers of the Saiva system, a term which
indicates their polemical zeal.

The sacred books of the sect are the Basava Purana and Channa
Basava Purana, written in Hala Kannada, but not of the oldest form.
They consist of tales and miraculous stories regarding their gurus and
saints, and of this nature is nearly all their literature, whose character
is more popular than learned. The Lingayit faith soon spread through
the north-west of Mysore, and, according to tradition, within sixty
years of Basava's death, or 1 168-1228, it was embraced from Ulavi,
near Goa, to Sholapur, and from Balehalli or Bdlehonnur (Koppa
taluq) to Sivaganga (Nelamangala taluq). It was the State religion of
' They disapprove of child marriage, and permit the re-marriage of widows.

MADH] 'A CHAR YA 477

the Wodeyars of Mysore from 1399 to 16 10, and of the Nayaks of
Keladi, Ikkeri, or Bednur from 1550 to 1763. The principal Lingdyit
maths in the Mysore country are the Murigi math at Chitaldroog, and
the Bale Honniir math, but there are numerous others.

Mddhvdchdrya, the founder of the sect of Madhva Brahmans, is the
representative of another religious movement, the result of which was
to effect a certain compromise between the worship of Vishnu and
Siva, though maintaining the supremacy of the first.

Madhviichdrya, represented as an incarnation of Vdyu, the god of the air,
was by birth probably a Saiva Brahman. He was born in Tuluva or
S. Canara in AD. 1 199, and was educated at Anantesvara, where he was
initiated into the Saiva faith. But he subsequently became a convert to
the ^^'^ishnava faith, and set up the sdlagrdms at Udipi, Madhyatala and
-Subrahmanya. He also set up an image of Krishna at Udipi, which has
since continued to be the chief seat of the sect. He resided there for many
years and composed a number of works. \\. length he went on a con-
troversial tour, in which he triumphed over various teachers, and finally in
his seventy-ninth year departed to Badarikasrama. He established eight
temples of Vishnu under different forms, all in Tuluva, under as many
sannyasis, each of whom in turn officiates as superior of the chief station at
Udipi for two years. Other mathas were established above the Ghats,
those in Mysore being at Sosile and Hole Narsipur.

The creed of the Madhvas is dvaita or duality, that is, they regard
jivdtina or the principle of life as distinct from Paranidtma or the
Supreme Being. Life is one and eternal, dependent upon the
Supreme and indissolubly connected with, but not the same with
him. Hence they reject the doctrine of wbksha in the sense of
al)Sorption into the universal spirit and loss of independent existence
after death.

The religious observances of the Madhvas consist in three methods
of devotion to Vishnu, namely, ankana, ndmakarana and bhajatia : or
marking the body with his .symbols, especially with a hot iron ; giving
his names to children, and other objects of interest ; and the practice
of virtue in word, act and thought. Truth, good council, mild
speaking, and study belong to the first ; liberality, kindness, and
protection to the second ; and clemenc\-, freedom from cnv\-, and faith
to the last. These ten duties form their moral code.

Sdtdnis. — -The caste system and supremacy of the Brahmans had
been rejected by Inisava and the i.ingayits for the Saivas. A similar
movement was later inaugurated for the \'aishnavas, giving rise in tlu-
north to widely i)()i)ular sects, and in the south to the Satanis.

Ramanand, a disciple descended from i\;im;inuja, about the end of the
fourteenth century, after travelling through various parts of India, was on

478 A'E/J(;/ON

his return to his rnatha denied the privilege of eating with tlie other
disciples, on the ground that he had not observed the privacy in his meals
which is a vital observance with the Ramanujas or Sri Vaishnavas. He
was highly incensed, and, proceeding to Benares, established a sect of his
own, to whom he gave the name of Avadhuta or liberated, as holding that
all personal distinctions of rank or caste were merged in the holy character.
He had twelve disciples, of whom the most famous was Kabir, the weaver,
the popular reformer of Bengal.

In the same sect arose Chaitanya. He was born at Nadiya in 1485, and
was the son of a Brahman from Sylhet, but is represented as an incar-
nation of Krishna. At the age of twenty-four he abandoned his family and
domestic life, and began his career as a religious devotee and teacher. For
six years he travelled between Mathura and Jaganndth, teaching his
doctrines and acquiring followers, and finally settled at Nildchala or
Cuttack, where he remained eighteen years, engaging deeply in the
worship of Jagannath, to whose festival at Puri he seems to have com-
municated great energy and repute. Later, his intent meditation on
Krishna seems to have brought on mental derangement. He became
subject to visions and dreams, and died in 1534, at the age of forty-eight.

The Satanis derive their name either direct from him, or from
Satdnana, one of his chief disciples. The whole religious and moral
code of the sect is comprised in one word — hhakti — a term that
signifies a union of implicit faith with incessant devotion, and which
consists in the momentary repetition of any name of Krishna {fidrna
kirtana), under a firm belief that such a practice is sufficient for
salvation. The principle of devotion is exemplified and illustrated by
the mutual loves of Radha and Krishna.

The most popular religious observances connected with the Brah-
manical deities at the present time seem to be pilgrimages, and the
celebration of the annual car festivals, which are not, however, fre-
quented to the same extent as formerly. The maintenance of these
gatherings is no doubt greatly due to the combination of business with
religion. Traders from all parts eagerly carry their goods to a scene
where they are likely to meet with thousands of customers, and the
rural population are glad of the chance of purchasing wares which
they cannot so easily meet with at other times. Hence, apart from the
religious merit to be acquired, these occasions, which generally fall in
the season when there is no work in the fields, affords a pleasant
excitement to all.

For certain of the great temples there are touts sent all over the
country by the managers, to announce the dates of the feasts and to
secure pilgrims. The shrine of Tirupati in North Arcot is one of the
most celebrated, and is now easily reached by rail. The Subrahmanya

ISLAM 479

festival and that of Chunchankatte are also very popular, as well as
those accompanied with cattle fairs at Nandi and Avani. The
Navaratri is the chief festival at Sringeri, the Vaira Mudi at Melukote,
the Tippa Rudra at Nayakanhatti : a list is given with each District in
"\^ol. II of the ■\^x\wz\\>':Ajdtres^ parishes and rathbtsavas.

The Hindu festivals most generally observed by all sects are the
Holi and the Dasara, which respectively mark the seasons of the
vernal and autumnal equinox ; the Pongal, at the time of the winter
solstice ; the Di'pavali, or feast of lights ; and the Yugadi or new year's
day. The Sivaratri, or watch-night of fasting, is kept by all the
adherents of Siva.'

Islam. — The commercial intercourse which existed from the
remotest times between the western coast and Arabia doubtless led to
a spread of Muhammadan influence into the neighbouring countries,
but the first appearance of Musalmans by land south of the ^'indhya
mountains was in 1294, in the invasion of Ala-ud-I)in, who captured
Devagiri. Their introduction into Mysore was probably in 13 10, when
Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala kingdom, was taken by the
Muhammadan general Malik Kafur. There is a story that the Sultan's
daughter fell in love with the king Ballala from the reports of his
valour, and threatened to destroy herself unless married to him.
Eventually his sword was sent as his representative, with a due escort,
and to that the princess was formally wedded, and then joined the
king. They lived happily for ten years, after which he was induced,
by the consideration that he was a Rajput and she of inferior caste, to
put her away, which provoked, it is said, the second invasion of 1326.
Under the Vijayanagar empire, the continued rivalry and struggles
between that power and the Bahmani and Bijapur Pathan kingdoms
gave occasion for the further introduction of Islam into Mysore. But
it was in 1406, in the reign of Deva Raya, who, as elsewhere related,
gave his dauglitcr in marriage to Firoz Shah, that Musalmans were
first enlisted into the ^'ijayanagar army. The Raja built them a
mosque, and had the Koran pkaced before his throne in order to
receive their obeisance, which they refused to make to him as an
idolater, but wilHngly made to tlieir sacred book. Subsequently, about
1560, a Musalman force from Bijapur assisted the usurper Tirumal
Rao, and a little later the \'ijayanagar army helped ]5ijapur against
Ahmadnagar.

The permanent settlement of .Musalmans in Mysore may be assigned
with certainty to the time, first, of the I'ijapur con(]iiL'St untler Ran-
(lulha Khan in 1637, and second, to the Mughal concjuest under
' The roligitnis endowments arc noticed elsewhere.

48o RELIGION

Khasiiii Khan in 1687 and the formation of the Province of Sira. By
settlement, conquest, and conversions there were considerable numbers
of Muhammadans employed in the military and other services in the
territories of Mysore, Bednur, Chitaldroog and other provinces at the
time of Haidar Ali's usurpation in 1761. A Nevayet commanded the
forces of Bednur in the decisive battle of Mayakonda in 1 748, when
Madakeri Nayak fell, and Chanda Sahib, whose cause he had espoused,
was taken prisoner, his son being also slain. Under Haidar Ali there
was doubtless a considerable accession to the Musalman ranks, by
forcible conversion of captives in war and other means ; but the dark
and intolerant zeal of Tipu Sultan made the cause of Islam a pretext
for the most terrible persecutions and degradation, with the avowed
object of extinguishing every other form of belief. The chapter on
Ethnography shows the present numbers of the Muhammadan subjects
of Mysore, with other particulars regarding them.

It is unnecessary in this work to give an account of the life of
Muhammad, or of the tenets and propagation of the religion established
by the Arabian prophet in the seventh century. They are contained
in every general history. Its fundamental idea is entire submission of
the will to God. Faith {imdn) includes belief in one God, and in
Muhammad as his prophet ; also in the Koran and its teachings.
Practical religion {din) consists of the following observances : — recital
of the kalma or formula of belief, prayer with ablutions, fasting, alms-
giving, pilgrimage, especially to Mecca {haJJ). The kalma or creed
sums up the belief in one sentence : — " There is no God but God, and
Muhammad is God's prophet." Four revelations are acknowledged,
namely, those given to Moses, to David, to Jesus, and to Muhammad,
but the last is final and implicitly to be believed under the severest
penalties. Prayer is enjoined daily, at five stated times. The chief
season of fasting is the month of Ramzan, when thirty days of
abstinence are observed. The Muharram, properly a season of
lamentation, is generally kept here as a festival. The principal other
public feasts are the Bakr-id and Shube-barat.

Christianity. — Christianity was introduced into the south of India,
on the ^Malabar coast, in the first century, perhaps by St. Thomas the
Apostle.' The tradition is that he suffered martyrdom at the Little
Mount, near Madras, in consequence of a tumult raised against him at
Mailapur (San Tome or St. Thome, a suburb of Madras).- Whatever

' According to another version, by St. Bartholomew.

' Marco Polo, who visited the place in the thirteenth century, was told the story
of the death of St. Thomas as follows : — " The Saint was in the wood outside his
hermitage saying his prayers ; and round him w ere many peacocks, for these are

CHRISTIANITY 48 1

amount of truth there may be in that account, his visit to this country
seems borne out Ijy the following evidence, namely, by the Acta Thonia:,
a work which is attributed by Dr. Haug to the end of the second
century, and is mentioned by Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in 368 ;
by the Teaching of the Apostles, a Syriac document older than the
Nicene Council of 325 ; and by the connection which was kept up
between the early Christians of Malabar and the church of Edessa in
Persia, of which St. Thomas is said to have been the first apostolic
overseer and director. Alfred the Creat of England sent ambassadors
with presents to the shrine of St. Thomas in India in the ninth century.

The existence of the early Christian communities of the western
coast rests upon trustworthy evidence. Passing over the statement by
Eusebius and Jerome that Pantainus visited India in the second
century and found there a Christian community who possessed the
Cospel of St. Matthew in Hebrew, Cosmas Indicopleustcs informs us
that there was a Christian bishop in the sixth century at Kalyana, near
Udupi ; and it is known from existing grants that in their first colony
at Cranganore the Christians were privileged before the ninth century
to elect their own chief, but acknowledged the supremacy of the
Cochin Rdja. A further proof of the settlement of Christians is found
in the crosses with Pahlavi inscriptions, probably of the seventh or
eighth century, which have been found at the Mount near Madras, and
at Kottayam in Travancore.^ These communities were known as
Nestorians, and still exist under the name of Syrian (Christians.

The close connection of the greater part of Mysore with Malabar
and the west coast, affords ground for supposing that Christian
influences may even at that early period have been extended to this

more plentiful in that country than anywhen; else. And one of the idolaters of that
country, having gone with his how and arrows to shoot peafowl, not seeing the
Saint, let fly an arrow at one of the peacocks, and this arrow struck the holy man in
the right side, insomuch that he died of the wound, sweetly addressing himself to his
Creator."— Yule's J/rtn-o Polo, Bk. Ill, ch. XVIII.

' It is remarkable that the localities al)ove-mentioned should have been those
which gave birth to the great Hindu religious reformers, for Sankaracharya was lK)rii
near Cranganore, Ramanujacharya near Madras, and Madhvacharya near Udupi. It
seems probable, therefore, in the absence of any other testimony, that much of the
philosophy of the modern \'edanta sects of Southern India comes from some form of
Ciiristiaiiity derived from the Persians. Dr. Burnell, who has made these suggestions,
adds: — " I'atriotic Hindus will hardly like the notion that their greatest modern
jihilosophers have borrowed from Christianity ; but as ihey cannot give an historical
or credible account of the origin of these Vedanlist sects, there is more than a strong
]iresumption in its favour, for these doctrines were certainly unknown to India in
\cdic or Buddhistic times." On the other hand, M. Barth considers that Islamism
introduced by Arab merchants to the western coast may also have indirectly con-
trilaued lu the promotion of these great religious reforms. — Rel. of Itid., 211.

I I

482 RELIGION

country. IJut coming down to a later period, the intimate relations
which existed between the Bijapur state and the Portuguese settle-
ments at Goa are well known, and it is from the capture of Ooa by
Albuquerque in 1508, and the establishment there not long after of the
Inquisition, that the foundation of the Roman Catholic church in
Southern India dates. There is a statement that a Christian was
divan at Vijayanagar in 1445, and through the Bijapur conquest of the
north and east of Mysore some Christian influence must have found
its way hither, especially in connection with the labours of Francis
Xavier, the zealous disciple of Ignatius Loyola, though whether either
he or John de Britto visited Mysore is uncertain.

The oldest Christian mission to Mysore war> the Roman Catholic, in
the middle of the seventeenth century. Little is known of its origin,
except that the priests by whom the Canarese mission was founded
came from Coimbatore (where a mission had been established by a
Jesuit), through the wild tracts of jungle on the borders of the Kaveri,
and established congregations, the descendants of whom are still to be
found, in a few villages in the south-east. On one spot is pointed out
a ruined chapel marked by four large stones, on which are inscriptions,
dated 1704, authenticating the gift of the land to "the Sanyasis of
Rome."

Before the time of Haidar a church was built in Seringapatam for a
Canarese congregation, and another at Kankanhalli, the site of which
is known, though there are now no Christians there. Among others,
established in the west, was one at Heggadadevankote, of which
tradition relates that the priest who built the chapel was beaten to
death by the natives. In the east, a Telugu mission was established in
1702, by two French Jesuits, named Boucher and Manduit, from
Vellore, who built chapels at Bangalore, Devanhalli, Chik Ballapur and
other places. The progress of the missions received severe checks
from the suppression of the Jesuits, which stopped the supply of
missionaries ; and from the fanatical persecution of Tipu, who was
determined, if possible, to extirpate Christianity from his dominions.^
By his orders almost all the churches and chapels were razed to the
ground, with two remarkable exceptions — one a'small chapel at Grama

' Verj- (lifterenl was Haidar's treatment of the missionary Swartz, who was sent
by Sir Thomas Rumbold, Governor of Madras, to Seringapatam in 1778 with a
message of peace {see above, p. 392), and who took the opportunity of preaching
wherever he could. The tablet to the memory of Swartz in the church at Fort St.
George says : — Hyder Ally Cawn, in the midst of a bloody and vindictive war with
the Carnatic, sent orders to his officers, " Permit the Venerable Father Swartz to
pass unmolested, and show him respect and kindness, for he is a holy man and means
no harm to my government."

ABBE DUBOIS 483

near Hassan, which was preserved by a .Muhammadan officer, and the
other, that in the Fort of Seringapatam, which was protected by the
Native Christian troops under their commander Siirappa.

On the fall of Seringapatam, the Abbe Dubois, then in the south,
was invited to Seringapatam by the Catholic congregation there. This
remarkable man had escaped from one of the fusillades of the French
Revolution and sought refuge in India. On entering on mission work
he resolved to follow the example illustriously set by de Xobili and
Beschi, of adopting the native costume and accommodating himself to
the customs and mode of life of the country.

•' During the long period," he states, " that I remained amongst the
natives, I made it my constant rule to live as they did, conforming exactly
in all things to their manners, to their style of living and clothing, and even
to most of their prejudices. In this way I became quite familiar with the
various tribes that compose the Indian nation, and acquired the confidence
of those whose aid was most necessary for the purpose of my work." The
influence he thus acquired is testified to by Major Wilks, who says :— " Of
the respect which his irreproachable conduct inspires, it may be sufficient
to state that, when travelling, on his approach to a village, the house of a
Brahman is uniformly cleared for his reception, without interference and
generally without communication to the officers of Government, as a
spontaneous mark of deference and respect."

He was the founder of the church at Mysore, and of the Christian
agricultural community of Sathalli near Hassan, and laboured in the
Mysore for twenty-two years. ^ He wrote a well known work on The
People of India, the manuscript of which was purchased by the British
(rovernment. He is also said to have introduced vaccination into the
Province." He left India in 1823, the Oovernment paying his passage
and giving him a pension.

1 On his reUirii Uj France he l)ecanie ihe lieail of ihe Missions Klrangeres in I'aris,
and died universally respected in 1848.

■■^ The death of Chania Raja from small-pox had directed special attenlion to the
recent wonderful discovery of Jenner, and the Asiatic Annual Ki\i,nsler contains the
following interesting extract on the subject from the proceedings of the Madras
Ciovernment in June 1809 : —

His Lordship in Council being impressed with confidence that the example of a
government which is administered on principles so enlightened as those of the
government of Mysore, will not fail to have a salutary influence on the minds of the
natives of this country, it is deemed jiroper that the event which has l)een announced
should be made generally known ; and his lordship has been accordingly, under that
impression, induced to jjublish the following extract of a letter from the Dewan of
.Mysore, stating the circumstances which have attended it : —

Extract of a Letter from the Deivan of Mysore, dated \Oth of May.

" The Ranee having determined to celebrate the nujitials of the Maha Raja,
deferred the ceremony merely because the young bride ha<l never had the small-|K)x.

I I 2

484 RELIGION

Till 1848 there were only two priests for the whole of Mysore, one
at Bangalore and one at Scringapatam. In 1852, Mysore, Coorg, and
Wainad, were formed into a Vicariate Apostolic, with head-quarters at
Bangalore. In 1887 the hierarchy was proclaimed in India, and the
countries above mentioned, with the addition of the taluqs of Hosur
(Salem district) and Kollegal (Coiml)atore district), were erected into a
Bishopric, under the title of the Diocese of Mysore, the head-quarters
remaining at Bangalore as before. There are in Bangalore a cathedral
for luiropeans and Eurasians, and four churches for natives. The out-
stations of the diocese arc divided into sixteen districts, of which
eleven are in the Mysore country, the latter under the ministration of
between twenty and thirty European priests, appointed by the Society
of Foreign Missions in Paris, and several native priests. There is a
large number of schools, both for boys and girls, the most important of
the former being St. Joseph's College at Bangalore, teaching up to the
B.A. standard, with a staff of ten priests and twenty other masters.
Nuns of the order of the Good Shepherd of x\ngers have a convent at
Bangalore and a large girls' school, with branches of both at Mysore.
There are also a Magdalen asylum and orphanages, both male and
female, in Bangalore and other places. Connected with the Mission is
St. Martha's Hospital at Bangalore, an institution on a large scale, with
an Eye Infirmary attached ; and nuns act as nurses in the Civil
hospitals both at Bangalore and Mysore. Agricultural farms, with
villages populated chiefly by famine orphans, have been established at
Siluvepura (Nelamangala laluq) and Mariapura (Kankanhalli taluq).
The Catholic population of Mysore, according to the census of 1891,
is 26,518, of whom five per cent, are Europeans, six per cent. Eurasians,
and the remainder natives.

Loudon Mission. — The first Protestant mission to the Canarese
people seems to have been established at Bellary by the London

— I communicated the cause of the delay to Major Wilks, who recommended an
operation invented by some skilful physician of England, and lately introduced into
his country, which alleviates the violence of this pernicious disease. — The operation
was accordingly performed by the Resident's surgeon, and in consequence six mild
jiustules appeared on the young bride, who soon after recovered. — The Ranee
expressed her extreme astonishment at a remedy so easy and surprising for a malady
so deleterious ; a remedy which, until now, was unknown in these regions. — She was
made very happy thereby, and determined that the nuptials should be celebrated
within the year."

His Lordship in Council trusts that the publication of the preceding extract will
evince the continued desire with which this government is actuated in the encourage-
ment of the vaccine practice ; and, above all, that it will hold forth to all persons in
India an interesting and illustrious example, of the safety with which that practice
may be extended.

PROTESTANT MISSIONS 485

Missionary Society. Thence, in 1820, operations were commenced
in Bangalore by the Revs. Laicller and Forbes, and in 1839 extended
to Mysore; but in 1850 the latter station was given up. From the
commencement, the efforts of the Mission have been devoted to public
preaching in Bangalore and the surrounding country, and to literary
and educational work. The valuable dictionaries — Carnataca-English,
and English-Carnataca, — the only works of the kind then in existence,
were the production of the Rev. W. Reeve of this Mission. And the
same gentleman, in conjunction with the Revs. J. Hands and W.
Campbell, were the translators of the earliest version of the Canarese
Bible, for the printing of which Canarese type was first cast, under the
direction of Mr. Hands. A new translation was subseciuenlly made,
in which the Revs. B. Rice and C. Campbell had a large share, and
this has been recently revised by a committee composed of missionaries
from various Missions. Native female education is especially indebted
to the ladies of this Mission (Mrs. Rice and Mrs. Sewell), who opened
the first Canarese girls' schools in 1840.

The agency now includes five European missionaries with one lad)
missionary and two European lay evangelists, and four native ministers
with seven native evangelists. Of the native ministers, one is in charge of
the Canarese church formed in the Bangalore Petta, and another of
the Tamil church in the Cantonment. The principal out-station is at
Chik Ballapur ; but there are out-stations at Malur, Anekal, and other
places east and north from Bangalore. There are a large number of
children under instruction in the Mission schools, both boys and girls.
The principal institution is the High School (established in 1847 in
Bangalore) and its branches, educating up to the standard of
matriculation at the Madras University.

The W'cskyan Mission commenced its work in the Mysore country
in 1822, but for many years the missionaries laboured only among the
Tamil people of the Cantonment of Bangalore. The Canarese Mission
was begun in Bangalore in 1835. The following year a lengthened tour
through Mysore and Coorg was undertaken by two of the missionaries
(Revs. Hodson and l'"ranklin), and suitable stations were selected.
Cubbi was made the residence of a missionary in 1837, and a consider-
able number of populous villages in the neighbourhood were brought
under Christian instruction. In 1839 a circuit was established in llu-
city of Mysore, and at various times other circuits in the prin( ipal
towns, the number now being forty.

The Mission employs thirteen European missionaries and six
native ministers, with four European and forty-three native evangelists.
There are 3,724 adherents, of whom 1,486 arc church members.

4<S6 RELIGION

T'lc Wcslcyans have 125 schools, with ^,756 pupils, and 376
teachers.

Many of the missionaries are employed almost daily in i)reaching in
the open air, as well as on certain days in chapels and school-rooms.
Others are engaged in schools. The educational operations of the
Mission have been attended with much success, and until the forma-
tion of the Government Educational Department in 1857, the English
instruction of native youth was entirely in their hands. An institution
at Bangalore, established in 1836, was made a first-class institution from
1851, and this High School, with one established at Mysore in 1854,
are still carried on, teaching up to the University entrance standard.
The Hardwicke College at Mysore is for sons of native Christians.

To the printing establishment of the Mission, set up at Bangalore
in 1840, the Canarese people are much indebted. Here, in 1848, were
perfected by the Revs. J. Garrett and T. Hodson, in conjunction with
Mr. Watt, a type-founder in England, a variety of improvements in
Canarese type, resulting in a great saving of time and labour, and by
the introduction of spaces between the words promoting facility in
reading. A Canarese translation of the Bhagavad Gita was printed in
the new type, and subsequently a portable edition of Reeve's Canarese-
English Dictionary, edited by the Rev. D. Sanderson of this Mission.
The Canarese Bible, in the new translstion of which this gentleman
took an important share, and a great number of other useful
publications issued from this Press. In 1872 the Mission disposed of
the establishment to a private person ; but they have a press at Mysore,
since 1890, from which are issued a m.onthly periodical, called the
Harvest Field, and a vernacular newspaper.

The Churcli of Englaiid vs, represented by three chaplains, one other
clergyman, and one S.P.G. missionary in Bangalore, and one chaplain
at Mysore, all under the Bishop of Madras. Their work lies prin-
cipally among the military and the European residents, but the
chaplains in Bangalore visit the Remount I )ep6t at Hosur, the railway
officials at Arsikere, and Europeans at the Kolar gold-fields, while the
chaplain of Mysore makes periodical tours to Coorg and to important
places in the planting districts. The number of churches on the
establishment is six, and the number of persons returned in the census
as belonging to the Church of England is 5,366, of whom sixty-five
per cent, are Europeans, and twenty-five per cent. Eurasians. There
are large schools, the principal being Bishop Cotton's school for boys
and girls at Bangalore, and an orphanage.

The Church of Scotland has a Kirk and good schools at Bangalore,
under the care of a chaplain, who also visits Coorg once a year.

PROTESTANT MISSIONS 487

Methodist Episcopal Church. — Since 1880 two American Methodist
Episcopal churches have been estabhshed in Bangalore, chiefly for the
Anglo-Indian and Eurasian population, and the Baldwin schools for
boys and girls are important institutions maintained by this Mission.
There is also an orphanage at Kolar.

Church of England Zenana Mission. — This has been at work for
several years in Bangalore, and the ladies belonging to it visit
principally among Musalman families. A large hospital for women has
lately been erected in connection with the Mission.

There are also two small communities of Baptists and a Leipzig
Lutheran Mission in Bangalore, and some Brethren in Malavalli.

488

LANGUAGE and LITERATURE

The distinctive language of Mysore is Kannada — -the Karnataka of
the Sanskrit pandits and the Canarese of European writers,^ the latter
name {see Hobson Jobson) being the Canarijs of the Portuguese. It
is one of the family of South Indian languages,- on which the name
I )ravidian has been bestowed ;' but Karnataka seems to have been a
generic term originally applied to both Kannada and Telugu, though
now confined to the former. The South Indian languages may there-
fore be conveniently described as forming two branches of one family — •
the northern or Karnataka, and the southern or Dravida, the two
being separated by the foot of the Ghat ranges, or a line running along
their base from a little north of Mangalore on the western coast,
through Coimbatore, to a little north of Madras on the east coast.

The derivation of Karnata, and its qiiasi adjectival form Karnataka,
is unknown, but it is the only name for a South Indian people used in
Sanskrit writers which appears not to be Sanskrit. Dr. Gundert has
proposed kar ndd, " the black country,"' as the original form of
Karnata, in allusion to the black cotton soil of the plateau of the
southern Dekhan. Sir Walter Elliot was inclined to connect it with
Kama or Kami, as in Satakarni, the family name of the early rulers
before and after the Christian era."* Kannada is supposed by the native
grammarians to be a tadbhava formed from Karnata. Kan itself is said
in the Rev. Y. Kittel's Dictionary to mean blackness.^ The name

* Telugu is spoken in the east of Mysore ; Tamil by camp-followers and body-
servants of Europeans ; it is also the house language of Sri Vaishnava Brahmans, but
they can neither read nor write it. Hindustani is the common language in use among
Musalmans. The following are the proportions in which these several languages are
spoken in Mysore, as stated in the census report of India for 1891 : — Kannada, 73*94 ;
Telugu, I5'I9 ; Tamil, 3"22 ; Hindustani, 473. In Coorg 43*99 per cent, of the
population speak Kannada; in the Madras country, 4'o6 ; in Haidarabad, I2'58 ; in
the Bombay country, 15 "59 ; and in the native states under Bombay, 7 '25.

- The other chief ones are Telugu or A'ndhra ; and Tamil or Dravida, which is
called Arava (ill-sounding) by the Mysoreans, as well as by the Telugu people.
Malayalam may be considered an off-shoot from Tamil.

^ By Dr. Caldwell, who considers Dravida or Tamil as the representative of the
group.

* Nitmisviata Orientalia, " Coins of Southern India," p. 21.

* Mr. C. P. Brown, with his usual versatility, has striven to get a clue from the
name of Canada, the British Dominion in North America, which, according to him,
is a name unknown to the aborigines, and supposed to mean ca-nada, " we have

LANGUAGE 489

Karnata occurs as far back as the beginning of the fifth century, in
^'arahamihira.' It is also used by Alberuni, who wrote in about 1030,
as if a general term for the South. T'or, in describing the limits within
which a Brahman might reside, he says : " He is obliged to dwell
between the river Sindh in the north and the river Charmanvati (the
Chambal) in the south. He is not allowed to cross either of these
frontiers so as to enter the country of the Turks or of the Karnata.
. Further, he must live between the ocean in the east and west."-'

The limits within which the Kannada proper is spoken comprise the
plateau of Mysore, Coorg, the Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Salem, Bellary, the
southern Mahratta country, the west of the Nizam's dominions, and
Canara. A\'ilks thus defines the region, but omitted the last, which is
added in I)rackets.

The noithern limits commence near the town of Bcder, in lat 18 45' N.,
about 60 miles N.W. from Haidarabad ; following the course of t'ne language
to the S.E., it is found to be limited by a waving line which nearly touches
Adoni, winds to the west of Gutti, skirts the town of Anantapur, and passing
exactly through Nandidroog, touches the range of Eastern Ghats ; thence,
pursuing their southern course to the mountainous pass of Gajalhatti, it
continues to follow the abrupt turn caused by the great chasm of the western
hills between the towns of Coimbatore, Palachi and Palghat ; and sweeping
to the N.W., skirts the edges of the precipitous Western (Jhats [to a point
about opposite Mangalore, whence it follows the coast line to Carwar, and
again goes with the Ghats] nearly as far north as the sources of the
Krishna ; whence following an eastern and afterwards a north-eastern
course, it terminates in rather an acute angle near Beder, already described
as its northern limit.

The following dialects of Kannada are also spoken in the south : —

Kodagu, Kudagii or Coorg, in the principality of that name ;

Tulu or TuUiva, in South Canara ;

Tuda or Toda, the language of the people of that name in the Nilgiris ;

Kola, spoken by tlie tril)e so called in the iS'ilgiris ;

Kadaga, the speech of the jieople bearing that name in the Nilgiris.

nothing !" (6rt;-//. C/z/w/., App. 84). Hut Webster puts it down as an (American)
Indian word, meaning a collection of huts, a village, a town.

In the Mackenzie J/.S'.V. the derivation of Karnataka is gi\en as karna alaka,
" i)assing to the ears" of all men, and hence applied to " this honoured and renowned
country." The same derivation also appears in the Vis'vagtiuadars a, a work more
tlian 200 years old.

If a heterogeneous compound {arisaiiiasa) be permissible — of which there are many
examples, and for which there are special rules in the language— Karn.ila might
perhaps be karna tita, amusing or jileasing to the ear : the " sweet musical Canarese
of Colonel Meadows Taylor.

It is curious that A'annada-vakki, ox the Kannada bird, is a name of the parrot,
which is also called /aWi'/rt-iw/'/'/, or the learned bird.

' Caldwell's Gram. Drav. Lan^., 34. - Albenints India, by Sachau, II, 134-

Kaiinada or Canarcsc

.. 9,751.885

Kodagii or Coorg ...

37,218

Tulu

491,728

Toda or Tuda

736

Kota

1,201

Badaga

30,656

10,313,424

490 LANGUAGE

The numbers of the races speaking these languages and dialects are

estimated at ten millions and a third,
according to the statement in the
margin, taken from the census re-
turns of 1 89 1.'

The classical or literary dialect of
Kannada is called Pala-Gannada or
Hala-Gannada, that is Ancient or
Old Kannada, while the colloquial
or modern dialect is called Posa-Gannada or Hosa-Gannada, that is
New Kannada. The former differs from the latter, not — as classical
Telugu and Malayalam diff^er from the colloquial dialects of those
languages — by containing a larger infusion of Sanskrit derivatives, but
by the use of different inflexional terminations. In fact, the mongrel
introduction of Sanskrit or Sakkada words in combination with
Kannada words is strongly condemned by some of the principal old
writers, who denounce the practice as the mark of an imperfect educa-
tion. Nripatunga compares it to an unnatural union with an old
woman; Nayasena, to the mixing of ghi and oil — one of the most
pernicious adulterations of the bazaar ; and Nagavarma, to the stringing
of pearls along with peppercorns."- In those old inscription.s, moreover,
which display the most literary skill, we find separate verses in Sanskrit
and in Kannada interspersed with one another, according to the oppor-
tunities afforded by the theme, in such a way as greatly to heighten the
general effect. But though the terms above given may serve to indicate
the two main divisions of the language, the classical dialect had already
passed through an earlier stage, which may be designated Piir^-ada
Hala-Gannada, the Primitive or Earlier Old Kannada, which Wilks
tells us was the language of Banavasi, and therefore belongs to the
beginning of the Christian era and the S'atavuhana and Kadamba
period. Whether the Buddhist scholars in this part of the country
referred to in early Pali writings may have made use of this dialect we
have no means of knowing, or whether it was supposed to be exclusively
appropriated by the Jainas and so concerned with their Purvas. Hala-
Gannada, as we know it, arose out of this ancient source in about the
eighth century, perhaps at the time when the Rashtrakiitas gained the
ascendancy over the Chalukyas. It was highly cultivated by a
succession of gifted Jaina authors in the centuries following, which
form the Augustan age of Kannada literature. A writer of the twelfth

' Telugu is spoken by 19,885,137; Tamil by 15,229,759; and Malayalam by
5,428,250 : these are the figures of the census of 1S91.

- For references, see my Introduction to the Karnataka-BMsha-Bhiishanam.

WKITTEX CHARACTER 491

century states that he had composed his work in the new Hosa-
Gannada.^ This, therefore, is the very earh'est period to which the rise
of the modern form of the language can be assigned, but its general
adoption was a good deal later.

There are also certain other terms used in some writers to describe
component elements of Kannada, which are not easy to identify. Thus
we have mention oi behi-Ga7inada, or white Kannada; te/u-Gannada,
clear Kannada ; and olu-Gannada, local or home Kannada. But the
name of universal application for pure Kannada is achcha-Gannada ;
the well of Kannada undefiled, and all the terms are apparently efforts
to express composition that was clear and perspicuous, as opposed to a
certain obscurity which seems to have been chargeable on the oldest
forms of the language.

The written character which is common to Kannada and Telugu,
and which spread over the south and was carried even to Java, is
derived, through that of the cave inscriptions in the west of the
peninsula, from the south As'oka character, or that of all his inscriptions
except in the extreme north-west of the Punjab. It belongs to about
250 B.C., prior to which date no specimens of writing have been
discovered in India, though there are numerous earlier allusions to
writing. This ancient alphabet has lately been satisfactorily proved by
Dr. Biihler to be of Semitic origin. It is properly called the Brahiiii
lipi, and was introduced into India probably about 800 u.c.- The
same scholar has also shown that the north As'oka alphabet, or
Kharoshthi, written from right and left (the use of which is confined to
the extreme north-west of the Punjab, though very curiously one word
in that character occurs in the As'oka inscriptions found by me in
-Mysore), is derived from the Aramaic of the Akhaemenian period (the
sixth to the fourth century u.c), and was introduced by the
Persian satraps as their official hand. But it was always of secondary
importance, the Brahmi being the special Indian mode of writing.'*

" It may be accepted as a scientific fact," says Mr. Cust, " that all
the characters used in the East Indies can sooner or later be traced
back to the As'oka inscriptions, and through them to the Phtenician
nl[)hal)et, and thence backwards to the hieratic ideographs of the old
kingdom of Egypt, and thence to the venerable hieroglyphics of the
fourth dynasty."'' The i)criod assigned for the commencement of this
dynasty is 3700 D.c''

The Kannada alphabet, as now arranged, corresponds with the
Sanskrit, l)ut with some additional characteristic letters. Thus, among

' See Ind. Ant., XIV, 14. ^ Indian Studies, \ , X... 3. •' Ind. Ant., XXI\", 31 1.
^ Mod. Lang, of the East Indies, 19. * Aeadeiny, 29 Ocl. 1892.

492 LANGUAGE

the vowels, while Sanskrit has only long e and long o, Kannada has
both a short and a long form of each of these vowels : /-/, r'l, Iri^ Iri^ are
not Kannada. Of the consonants, according to Nagavarma, the
aspirated letters and two sibilants seem not to have belonged to the
language originally, namely, kha, gha, chha,jha, tha, dha, tha, dha, pha,
bha, s'a and sha. On the other hand, three consonants not in Sanskrit
are pure Kannada, namely, /a, ra, and la. Of these, only the first,
which corresponds with the Vedic /a, is now in use.^ The other two
are obsolete, though the ra is still used in Telugu.

The disappearance from Kannada literature, first of the la (perhaps
about the twelfth century), and subsequently of the ra (perhaps not till the
seventeenth century), serves to some extent to mark definite periods, and
is so far a guide in determining the date of manuscript works, especially
if in verse, as the requirements of the rhyme will show infallibly what
was the original letter used, though it may have been changed in tran-
scribing. Similarly there is what have been called the P and H periods,
words now spelt with the latter having formerly appeared with the
former, as J>osa, hosa ; Foysala, Hoysala ; &c. The different stages of
the language exhibit a change or transition in the forms of most of the
letters of the alphabet, especially the pure Kannada ones ; but these
again cannot be assigned so exactly to fixed dates as to be sufficient by
themselves for chronological purposes.

The relationship of the South Indian languages to the other grand
divisions of human speech is thus stated by Dr. Caldwell : —

" The Dravidian languages occupy a position of their own, between the
languages of the Indo-European family and those of the Turanian or Scythian
group — not quite a midway position, but one considerably nearer the latter
than the former. The particulars in which they accord with the Indo-
European languages are numerous and remarkable, and some of them are of
such a nature that it is impossible to suppose that they have been accidental ;
but the relationship to which they testify — in so far as they do testify to any
real relationship — appears to me very indefinite as well as very remote. On
the other hand, the particulars in which they seem to me to accord with
most of the so-called Scythian languages are not only so numerous but are
so distinctive and of so essential a nature that they appear to me to amount
to what is called a family likeness, and therefore naturally to suggest the
idea of a common descent.

" The Scythian family to which on the whole the Dravidian languages may
be regarded as most nearly allied is the Finnish or Ugrian, with some
special affinities as it appears to the Ostiak branch of that family ; and this
supposition derives some confirmation from the fact brought to light by

' This is rather quaintly expressed, as follows, in one of the examples in the
S' abddiiHs dsana — Kannadigar la-kdraman odambattar.

RELATIOXSHir 493

the Behistun t.iblcts that the ancient Scythic race, by which the greater
part of Central Asia was peopled prior to the irruption of the Medo-
Persians, belonged not to the Turkish, or to the Mongolian, but to the
Ugrian stock."

On the other hand the Indo-European relationship of the Dravidian
languages has been advocated by Dr. Pope on the ground of " deep-
seated and radical affinities between them and the Celtic and Teutonic
languages." Ikit Dr. Caldwell observes in reply that "of all the
members of the Indo-European family the Celtic is that which appears
to have most in common with the Scythian group, and especially
with the languages of the Finnish family — languages which may
})Ossibly have been widely spoken in Europe previously to the arrival
of the Celts."

Professor Max Miiller, who has placed Kannafja among the Turanian
languages, describes them as follows : —

" The most characteristic feature of tlic Turanian languages is what has
been called ai^j^li/tifiatifln, or ' gluing together.' This means not only that,
in their grammar, pronouns arc joined to the verbs in order to form the
conjugation, or prepositions to substantives in order to form declension ;
.... but that in them the conjugation and declension can still be taken to
pieces : and although the terminations have by no means always retained
their significative power as independent words, they are felt as modificatory
syllables, and as distinct from the roots to which they are appended. In
the Aryan languages the modifications of words, comprised under declension
and conjugation, were likewise originally expressed by agglutination. But
the component parts began soon to coalesce, so as to form one integral
word, liable in its turn to phonetic corruption to such an extent that it
became impossible after a time to decide which was the root and wliich the
modificatory element. The difference between an Aryan and a Turanian
language is somewhat the same as between good and bad mosaic. The
Aryan words seem made of one piece, the Turanian words clearly show the
sutures and fissures where the small stones are cemented together."

Professor Whitney has the following remarks on the subject : —

"The Dravidian tongues have some peculiar phonetic elements, are
richly polysyllabic, of general agglutinative structure, with prefixes only, and
very soft and harmonious in their utterance ; they are of a very high type of
agglutination, like the Finnish and Hungarian .... Excepting that they
show no trace of the harmonic sequence of vowels, these languages are not
in their structure so different from the Scythian that they might not belong
to one family with them, if only sufficient correspondences of material were
found between the two groups. And some have been ready, though on
grounds not to be accepted as sufficient, to declare them related."

The native grammarians, as is well known, deduce all the Intlian
languages from Sanskrit, through one or other of the Prakrits. Naga-

494 LANGUAGE

varma, the earliest Kannada grammarian whose works have been dis-
covered, assumes the existence in India of three and a-half mother
languages — Samskrita, Prakrita, Apabhrams'a and Paisdchika'^ — and of
fifty-six daughter languages sprung from them — Dravida, A'ndhra,
Karnataka, &c. But Kannada, in common with the cognate languages
of the south, recognizes four classes of words as in current use for
hterary purposes — ta/scDiia, pure Sanskrit words ; tadbhava, Sanskrit
words changed to suit the language ; dcs'ya, indigenous words ; and
gnimya, provincialisms. To these a later classification adds a/yvz^tVjv?,
foreign words. Now the dis'ya class alone can be taken to represent
the pure language of the country, the real Kannada as distinguished
from what has been imported from Sanskrit or other sources. And
this view is borne out by the fact that the dcs'ya words not only include
all the terms expressive of primitive ideas and common names of things
connected with the earlier stages of society, but that they form the bulk
of the language, and furnish the model on which terms introduced
from other languages are framed. Imported expressions, therefore,
though largely used — especially by Brahmans, who venerate Sanskrit,
and who are now the principal literary class — for the purpose of
imparting a scholarly elegance to their composition, are not essential
to the culture of the language.

The first cultivators of the Kannada language for literary purposes
were the Jains, and down to the twelfth century we have none but Jaina
authors. For about two centuries after, though an occasional Brahman
writer appears, they were succeeded principally by Lingayit and S'aiva
authors, and from about the sixteenth century date numerous Brahmanical
and Vaishnava works. There were during these later periods some
compositions by Jains, but most of the literature of later times
originated with the other sects. The leading characteristic of the
Jaina earlier works is that they are champu kdtyas, or poems in a
variety of composite metres, interspersed with paragraphs in prose.
The Lingayits principally made use of the raga/e and shatpadi metres
of the more modern works, while the most recent compositions are
in yaksha gdna metre, and some in prose only.

The Ancient Kannada, as Mr. Kittel says,'- is quite uniform, and shows
an extraordinary amount of polish and refinement. Its principal character-
istics are the elaborate and highly artificial champu composition, — strict
adherence to the use of now more or less disused case- and tense-signs
(that towards the end of the period were fixed in grammatical treatises) and
to the rules of syntax,— perspicuity resulting therefrom— the use of classical

' Perhaps called half a language because spoken only by barbarous tribes.
- Preface to Kannada- English Dictionary.

DIALECTS 495

Sanskrit also specifically Jaina) words in their unaltered form whenever
desirable or necessary as an aid in composition, and that of a conventionally
received number of Azrt'M^ZT/rtj (Sanskrit words changed to suit the tongue
of the Kannada people), — the proper distinction between the letters /, r, /,
/ and r, — alliteration carefully based also on this distinction, — and lastly
pleasing euphonic junction of letters. Mediaval KiDinadah^'g-xn to appear
as contained in the poetry of S'aiva and Lingdyit authors. It is, as a rule,
written in any one of the Shatpada metres, is somewhat negligent as to the
use of suffixes and the rules of syntax, and therefore occasionally ambiguous,
uses a few new suffixes, contains a number of tadbhavas not sanctioned by
previous authors, has entirely lost the letter / (using r or / in its stead), and
frequently changes the letter/ of the present or future verbal suffix and an
initial p into h. The transition to Modern Kannada, or the language of the
present day, is seen especially in the poetry of the Vaishnavas. Several
ancient verbs and nouns fell into disuse, the letter r began to be discarded,
at least so far as regards its proper position in alliteration, words borrowed
from Mahratti and Hindustani came into use, more frequent omission of
suffixes took place, etc. The Modern dialect comprises the present
Kannada of prose writings and of common conversation. Of these, the
first have two branches, one being tales, school-books and letters, and the
other, business proceedings (especially those of courts of justice). The
first branch differs from the second chiefly in so far as it is more exact in
the use of inflexional terminations and less abounding in Hindustani and
Mahratti. The language of ordinary conversation (excepting that of the
educated classes) may be called a union of the two branches that is less
particular in the choice of words, arbitrary about the use of suffixes, and at
the same time full of vulgarisms. Many words of the modern dialect also
are Sanskrit, especially such as are abstract, religious, or scientific terms.
The ancient form of the present tense has been changed, most verbal
suffixes have been somewhat altered, a few of the suffixes of nouns and pro-
nouns have ceased to be used, many verbs, nouns and particles have become
obsolete, and other verbs and nouns (based on existing roots) have been
formed. But in spite of this, of the introduction of much Hindustani and
Mahratti, of the lack of refinement, etc., the Modern dialect is essentially
one with the Ancient and the Mediicval. It is, however, not uniform, but
more or less varies according to localities.

On the history and extent of Kannada literature an immense
amount of light has been thrown in recent years. My researches had
brought into my hands a number of ancient manuscript works
previously unknown, an examination of the references in which,
combined with dates in some, enabled the preparation of a provisional
chronological table of authors. The results were communicated by me
to the Royal Asiatic Society in London in 1882, 1883 and 1890. loiter
and fuller information was separately published by me in this last year.'

' In my IiUruduclion lo tlic Karnalaka-S' abdiinusWsanaiii. These researches

496 LITER A TURK

The oldest work of which manuscripts have actually been oV)tained
is the Kavirdjamdrga of Nripatiinga, whiclt was composed in the ninth
century. But we have references which enable us to place the rise of
Kannada literature much farther back than this. In fact, there seems
reason to believe that Kannada was the earliest to be cultivated of all
the South Indian languages. Ancient inscriptions give us the initial
information on the subject.

The first notice we have of authorship is in connection with the
Ganga kings. Simhanandi, who helped to establish this dynasty,
perhaps in the second century, is classed as a great poet ; Madhava, the
second king, ruling in about the third century, is stated to have written
a commentary on the law of adoption : and Durvinita, the eighth
king, about the fifth century, is said to have had the celebrated Jaina
grammarian Piijyapada for his preceptor, and to have written a
commentary on a portion of Bharavi's poem, the Kiratarjuniya. Of
course it does not follow that any of these wrote in Kannada. But
it becomes not improbable from the fact that Nripatunga, in naming
Kannada authors who had preceded him, expressly mentions Uurvinita,
and as this is an uncommon name, most unlikely to be borne by other
persons, it may be concluded that he means the Ganga king.

Again, all the principal poets, in the introductory part of their works,
refer to Samantabhadra, Kaviparimeshthi and Pdjyapada, invariably in
this order, as forming the earliest and most distinguished trio among
the authors who preceded them. The first may, according to
tradition, be placed in about the second century. The second, whose
real name must have been Brahma, and who is probably the one
called Kavis'vara among the early Kannada poets named by Nripatunga,
must naturally be placed some time between the other two. Pujyapada
we have already seen belongs to about the fifth century.

We next have a very remarkable combination of statements.
Bhattakalanka, in his great grammar of the language, mentions the
Chiidamani, a work of no less than 96,000 verses, in terms of the
highest praise, as if it were the most important production in early
Kannada literature. Inscriptions^ further inform us that its author was
S'rivarddha, also called the Tumbulur-acharya, and that it displayed all
the graces of composition. Unfortunately no trace of the work has as yet
been discovered. The most interesting statement of all, however, is

have been followed up with real interest by Mr. R. Narasimhachari, M.A., now
Kannada Translator to the Education Department, and he has placed at my disposal
some notes prepared by him on the subject. I am glad, therefore, to be able to
incorporate the additional information thus supplied.
' Sravan Belgola, No. 54 ; Mysore District, T.N. 105.

EARL V A UTHORS 497

that S'rivarddha's eloquence was praised in a couplet by the celebrated
Sanskrit author Dandi, who is assigned by the principal Orientalists to
the sixth century. Hence S'rivarddha must have lived at or before that
time. Moreover, a work of such extent as his could neither have been
produced nor required unless there had pre-existed a considerable
literature in Kannada and a wide-spread culture of the language.
These considerations dispose of any objections that might be raised
against the dates previously given as being too early.

We next have mention of a Ravikirti in 634, whose fame equalled
that of Kdliddsa and Bharavi. Nripatunga also names as his
predecessors in Kannada composition, besides those given above,
Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, S'rivijaya, Chandra, and
L6kapala. Of these, Vimala was probably Vimalachandra, whose
disciple Vadiraja was guru to the Ganga king Rachamalla. S'rivijaya
was praised by Vadiraja, and therefore came before him. Chandra
may be the Chandrabhatta mentioned by some later authors.

We now come to Nripatunga, and a more certain period, amply
illustrated by works that are extant. Nripatunga, or Amoghavarsha,
was a Rashtrakiita king, who, after an unusually long reign, from 814 to
877, voluntarily abdicated the throne. He evidently took a great
interest in the Kannada country, people and language. In his work
called Kavirajamdrga,' the subject of which is alankara (rhetoric or
elegant composition), he makes some interesting statements. "The
region which extends from the Kaveri as far as the G6davari," he says,
" is the country in which Kannada is spoken, the most beautiful land
in the circle of the earth. In the central parts thereof, situated
between Kisuvolal, the famous great city of Kopana, Puligere, and the
justly celebrated Onkunda, is found the pith {tiru/) of high Kannada."
Of these places, the first is the modern Pattadakal in Kaladgi district,
Kopana is probably Kopal in the south-west of the Nizam's Dominions,
Puligere is Lakshmes'vara in the Miraj State, and Onkunda, perhaps
Vakkunda, in Belgaum district. The region indicated, owing to the
numerous vicissitudes through which it has passed, is far from being
regarded at the present day as the seat of the purest Kannada, which
is more probably to be found in Mysore. Nripatunga also praises the
Kannada people as having by nature an ear for poetry, and as speaking
in a rhythmical manner, though quite unstudied. He states Kannada,
moreover, to be a much more difficult language in which to compose
poetry than either Sakkada (San.skrit) or Pagada (Prakrit).

Gunabhadra, preceptor of Nripatunga's son Krishna while yet yuva-

• Now going through the press, under my <hrcclion, as well as the I'amixi Bharala
(see next page).

K K

498 LITERATURE

raja, is mentioned by later writers ; but the next poet whose works we
actually have is Pampa, who wrote the Adi Purdna and the Vikramar-
juna-vijaya in 941. The latter is also known as the Pampa Bharata.
In it, Pampa's patron, a Chdlukya prince named Arik^sari, is identified
with Arjuna and made the hero. These two works seem to have given
a great impetus to Kannada composition. " In the pithy {tirula)
Kannada^ of Puligere,' the royal city," says the poet, "did he write,
naturally and without effort ; thus his Bharata and Adi Purana put all
former poems under their feet. . He completed the one in six months
and the other in three months, . , and they were read by all classes
of people, by servants as well as by the greatest poets." Pampa was the
son of a Brahman from the Vengi country who had embraced Jainism.

It is impossible in this place to do more than briefly name some of
the principal Kannada writers who followed, and their chief works, with
dates where they are known.

In the tenth century we have Asaga ; Ponna, author of the S'anti
Purana, who claims to be superior to all other poets in command of
both Kannada and Sakkada, excelling a hundred-fold Asaga in the
former and Kalidasa in the latter, while in style he was fourfold both
combined : he received a title from the Rashtrakiita king Krishna
(probably Krishna or Kannara Akalavarsha, tuling 939 to 968). He
was a Brahman who had become a Jaina. In 978 we have Chamunda
Raya, author of the Chamunda Raya Purana, an excellent specimen
of prose composition of that period. In 993 came Ranna, author of
the Ajita Purana (which he was emulous should endure as long as the
Adi Purana and S'anti Purana above mentioned) and of Sahasa-Bhima-
vijaya, also called Gada-yuddha,- the hero of which is the Chalukya
prince Satyas'raya. He was of the bangle-sellers' caste and received
a title from the Chalukya king Tailapa (973 to 997). At the same
time as the two preceding we have Nagavarma, all three having had
as their preceptor Ajitasena, guru of the Ganga king Rachamalla.
This Nagavarma, apparently a younger brother of Chamunda Raya,
was the author of Chhandombudhi (the first work and chief authority
in the language on prosody),' and of Kadambari,^ a close version of
Bana's work in Sanskrit. There is reason to suppose that he was not
strictly orthodox as a Jain. His brother, by the erection of the
colossal statue of Gomata at S'ravana Belgola, and by reputation, was
one of the greatest upholders of the Jaina faith.

' See above, under Nripatunga. ^ Lately published in Mysore.

3 Published by Mr. Kittel at Mangalore in 1S75, under the title of Nagavarma s
Canarese Prosody,

^ Published in Mysore, by B. Mallappa, Headmaster of the Maharaja's Kannada
School.

TWELFTH CEXTURY 499

In the eleventh century may perhaps be placed Gunavarma, author
of a Harivams'a, and Chandraraja, author of Madana-tilaka. The
latter would appear to be the first Brahman who composed a work in
Kannada. His patron was Recha (or Macha), a general under the
Chalukya prince Jayasimha. There are not many names in this
century, probably owing to the check caused by the Chola invasions.

The twelfth century, when Mysore was restored to Kannada rule
under the Hoysalas, seems to have been specially prolific in Kannada
works of high excellence. Nayasena, author of Dharmamrita ; Ndga-
chandra or Abhinava Pampa, author of Ramachandra Charita Purdna
(also known as the Pampa Ramayana),^ and of Mallinatha Purdna'-;
Aggala, author of Chandraprabha Purana ; Karnaparya, author of
Neminatha Purana ; Nemichandra, author of a romance called Lilavati,
and of another Neminatha Purana, called Ardha Nemi from its being
only half finished ; Vrittavildsa, author of Dharmaparikshe and S'astra-
sdra ; and Sujandttamsa, who wrote a panegyric on domata — were
all Jains, as well as Nagavarma (apparently a different person from the
one before mentioned). He is distinguished as Abhinava S'arvavarma,
and was the author of several important works on the language,
namely, Kavyavalokana, a work on rhetoric, the first part of which is a
brief grammar, called ij'abda-smriti, in Kannada verse ; Karndtaka
Bhasha Bhiishana,'^ a grammar in Sanskrit sutras ; and Vastukos'a, a
nighantu or dictionary, composed in many artificial metres, giving the
meanings of Sanskrit words used in Kannada. He appears to have
been a teacher in the capital of Jagadekamalla (? the Chalukya king
of 1 1 38 to 1 1 50), and also a tutor of Janna {see below).

But there were writers of other faiths besides at this time. Thus,
the Brahmans Rudrabhatta, author of Jaganndtha ^'ijaya,^ who seems
to have been under the patronage of Chandramauli, minister of the
Hoysala king Vira Balldla (1172 to 12 19); and Kama, author of
S'ringdra-ratndkara, may come here. Lingdyit poets, too, now made
their appearance: — Harihara, author of Cirija-kalydna ; Raghavdnka,
his nephew, author of Haris'chandra-kdvya \ and Kcre Padmarasa,
author of Dikshab6dhe.

In the thirteenth century we find a group of excellent Jaina poets,
all closely related to one another, patronized by the Vddava and
Hoysala kings. Sumanobana, priest of the Yddava capital, and
described as a poet ; his son Janna, author of Yas odhara-charita in
1 217, and of Anantandtha Purdna in 1230, patronized by Nara-
simha II., and honoured with a title by tlie Hoysala king \'ira Balldla ;

* Published by me in 1S92. - l'ul)lished in Mysore.

- Published by me in 1884. * (^ften published.

K K 2

50O LITERATURE

Suman6bana's son-in-law, Mallikarjuna, author of Silkta-sudharnava,
written for the Hoysala king Somes'vara ; his son, Kes'irdja, author of
the S'abdamanidarpana, a standard work on the grammar of the
language.^ Other Jaina poets of this period were Kumudendu, author
of the Kumudendu Ramdyana ; Bandhuvarma, author of Harivams'a-
bhyudaya and Jivasamb6dhane ; Kamr^ilabhava, author of Santis'vara
Purana ; Andayya, author of Kabbigara-kava,* a work of special interest
from its being written in Achcha-Kannada or pure Kannada, in
response to a challenge that this was virtually impossible ; Ciunavarma,
author of Pushpadanta Purana ; Salva, author of Rasaratnakara, a work
on dramatic composition ; Mangarasa, author of Khagendra-manidar-
pana ; and Mayana, author of Tripura-dahana. This latter seems to be
the first work written in the sdngatya metre, intended to be sung to the
accompaniment of some musical instrument.

Of other authors of this period may be named Chaundaraja, a
Brahman, author of Abhinava Das'akumara-charita, a Kannada metrical
version of Dandi's work in Sanskrit. The Lingayit poets were Kumara
Padmarasa, author of Sananda-charitra ; Palkurike Soma, author
of S'ila-sampadane and other works ; and Somaraja, author of
Udbhata-kdvya.

From the fourteenth century Jaina poets are. more rarely met with.
But the following belong to that time : — Madhura, author of Dhar-
manatha Purana ; Abhinava Mangaraja, author of Mangaraja Nighantu,
a vocabulary in verse, giving Kannada meanings of Sanskrit words ;
and perhaps Kavi Bomma, author of Chaturdsya Nighantu. Among
Lingayits were Bhima Kavi, author of the Basava Purana in 1369 ; and
Singirdja, author of Mala Basava Charitra.

The fifteenth century produced, among others, the Lingayit writers —
Linga, author of Kabbigara Kaipidi ; T6ntadarya, author of Karnataka
S'abdamanjari, both vocabularies ; Chamarasa, author of Prabhu-
lingalile ; and I's'varakavi, author of Kavijihvabandhane, a work on
prosody. Bhaskarakavi, a Jain, wrote Jivandhara-charite.

But the authors now become too numerous to allow of more than
a few of the principal ones being named. Among Jainas there were in
the sixteenth century : — Mangarasa, author of Nemi Jines'a sdngatya,
Samyaktva-kaumudi, &c.; Linga, author of Chola Rdja sdngatya;
Nanjunda, author of Kuradra Rama kathe ; Ratnakararya, author of
Tril6ka-s'ataka ; Bommarasa, author of Sanatkumdra-shatpadi ; S'ruta-
kirti, author of Vijayakumdri-kathe. Among Lingdyits were : —
Bommarasa, author of Saundara Purana ; Basavdnka, author of

* First pul)li.slietl at Bangalore in 1S6S by Mr. Garrett ; subsequently at Mangalore
in 1872 by Mr. Kitlel. ^ Published at Mysore.

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 501

Udbhatadeva Charitre ; Sadas'iva y6gi, author of Ramanalha-vilasa ;
Depa, author of Sobagina S6ne ; Mallanarya, author of Bhava-
chintaratna; Virupaksha-panfjita, author of Chcnna Basava Parana;
Adris'appa, author of Praudha Raya Charitra ; and others. Among
Brahmans were : — Kumara Vyasa, who, in the reign of Krishna Raya
of Vijayanagar, translated into Kannada verse the first ten parvas of the
Mahabharata ; Timmanna, who completed the work ; Purandara and
Kanaka, authors of Vaishnava Dasarapadas, &c.; Kumara Vdlmiki,
author of the Torave Ramayana, a Kannada version of Valiniki's work ;
Vilhala, author of a Kannada rendering of the Bhagavata Purana ; and
others.

The seventeenth century saw the production of several works which
arc of the first importance in Kannada literature. In 1604 was
completed by the Jaina author Bhattakalanka ©eva, his great work on
Kannada grammar, the Karnataka S'abdanus'asanam,^ an exhaustive
treatise in Sanskrit siitras, after the manner of Panini, with extensive
commentaries, emulating the Mahabhashya of Patanjali. No other
South Indian language possesses such a work. In 1657 appeared the
Rajas'ekhara Vilasa, a poem by the Lingayit author Shadakshara Deva.
This divides with the Jaimini Bharata {see beloiv) the honour of being
the most highly esteemed poem in Kannada. The same author wrote
S'abara S'ankara Vilasa, Vrishabhendra-vijaya, and other poems.

A remarkable development of Kannada literature also took place in
the latter part of the century, at Mysore, under the rule of Chikka
Deva Raja (1672 to 1704). Not only was he an author himself, but
numerous works of great excellence, some in imitation of the old poets,
were composed by his two ministers, Tirumaldrya antl Chikkopadhyaya,
or Alasingdrya. The former wrote Apratimavira Charita, a work on
rhetoric; Chikadevaraja Vijaya, a champu work, describing the king's
conquests ; Chikadevaraja-vamsavali, a prose work on the king's
ancestors, &c. The latter wrote about thirty works, champu.s, sangatya
and prose. Among the more imi)ortant were \'ishnu l^unina, Kamala-
chala-mahdtmya, and Satvikabrahmavidyavihisa, on the ^'is'ishtadvaita
philosophy. Singararya, Tirumalarya's brother, wrote a play called
Mitravinda Govinda." There was also a poetess at the court,
called Honnamnia, who wrote Hadibadeyadharma, the duties of a
f:\ithful wife.

Early in the eighteenth century the Brahman poet I^akshmis'a
produced his Jaimini Bharata, which is probal)ly the most popular
poem in the Kannada language, being more easily understood than its

• l'ul)lished l)y me in 1890.

" This and several of the worUs of these three authors have been inil)lished at Mysore.

502 LrrERATURE

rival above named. The numerous authors of this period do not
otherwise call for special notice ; and the troublous times of Mahratta
invasions and Muhammadan usurpation were not favourable to the
progress of literature.

At a later period the yakshagdna stories gained poj)ularity. These
are generally based on episodes in the Mahabhdrata or purdnic works,
and are dramatic in form, written for recitation on the native stage and
suited for performance to rustic audiences. The number issued is very
great, and many are attributed to S'dntappa, a Brahman of (lersappe.
In some parts of South Mysore almost every important village has
periodical performances of one of these plays, the actors being some of
the villagers themselves, trained for the purpose ; of course female parts
are taken by boys. I have sometimes witnessed excellent acting in such
performances, primitive as the accessories are. In other parts of the
country, to the north, parties of professional actors travel about,
performing in the villages. They generally have a woman with them
who takes the part of the heroine. But under the late Mahardja
encouragement was given to the production of a higher style of drama,
to be placed on the stage like European plays. A good deal of success
has rewarded some of the companies that adopted the idea. The
principal poet at the court was the late Basavappa S'dstri, ^vho produced
excellent Kannada adaptations of Kalidasa's Sakuntala and other
Sanskrit dramas. Others have followed in the same path, and a
number of Shakespeare's plays have also been made the foundation of
Kannada dramas with Hindu names. Praiseworthy as these efforts
are, however, they can never have that hold on the national mind,
or tend so much to the revival of Kannada learning, as a careful
study of the ancient spontaneously-produced original works of the
country, recently brought to light. Sectarian animosity against the
Jains was perhaps at the bottom of their neglect heretofore, but such
feelings are giving way, as they are bound to do, now that the linguistic
excellence of the old works is recognized.

A college has been formed at Mysore specially for the study of
Kannada literature to a high standard, and prizes are awarded to pandits
who distinguish themselves in the language at the Palace examinations.
A few young men have combined to publish a monthly periodical,
called the Kdvya-manjari, in which ancient works recently discovered
are published with careful editing.^ A learned class with knowledge
and appreciation of the language are thus arising, who are not ashamed
to extend their study beyond the orthodox confines of Sanskrit, high as

* Jaina works are being published in the Budliajaiiamauoraujiin in Kannada, and
the Kavydmbudhi in Sanskrit.

WRITING MATERIALS. 503

the rei)utation of scholarship in that language must ever stand. But as
regards the great mass of the population, the works that issue from the
presses and find most sale, next to school books and Yakshagana plays,
are republications of former works, sectarian religious books, works on
astrology, omens, and horoscopy, established collections of tales, and
such like. Few are new works of literary importance.

An Oriental Library has been established in the Victoria Jubilee
Institute at Mysore, from which some unedited Sanskrit texts are being
published, and where has been deposited a large collection of rare
Kannada works in manuscript, copied under my direction during many
years past.

The Hindu manuscripts arc on the two kinds of writing-material,
exclusively employed till about 200 years ago, and still used by the
learned. They are the ble and the kadata. The former was mostly
used for literary works, the latter for accounts and historical records.

The die is the leaf of the td(a or palmyra {horassus flabelliformis).
The material, as used for manuscripts, is stiff and flexible but brittle,
of a yellowish-brown colour, from i foot to 2 feet long, and from i inch
to i^ inches wide. It is written on lengthwise, with an iron style, the
characters being afterwards brought out by rubbing in black colouring
matter. The l)undle of leaves forming a work are all of the same size,
and strung on thin cord, which passes through holes punched in the
middle towards either extremity. A piece of wood, the size of the leaf,
is placed at top and bottom, and tied down with the string, forming a
binding for protection. The writing is often very minute and close
together, with no break but a perpendicular stroke between one part
and another. Such being the materials, the wonder is that so many
works of antiquity have survived to this day.

The kadafa is composed of cloth covered with a composition of
charcoal and gum. It presents a black surface, which is written on
like a slate, with a piece of balapam or pot stone. The book is of one
piece, folded in and out, and is from 8 inches to i foot wide, and 12 to
18 feet long. A piece of wood, the size of the book, is attached at either
end like a binding, and the whole is put into a case of silk or cotton, or
simply tied up with a bit of string. The writing can be rubbed out
and renewed at will. The kadata is still used by merchants and shop-
keepers for accounts. Though liable to be expunged, it is perhaps a
more durable record and material than the best writing on the best paper.

The introduction of paper is due to the Muhammadans, and certain
coarse kinds were till lately made in the country, resembling the whitey-
brown unglazed paper used in England for packets.

Of the Muhamniadan literature of .^^ysore there is not much

504 LITERATURE

api)arcntly to be said. Some of the Persian annals of the reigns of
Haidar and 'J'ipu arc of interest, and translations into l'2nglish, by
Colonel W. Miles, have been published for the Oriental Translation
Fund, with dedication to the Queen.

A few words may be added on what has been done for Kannada
literature by Europeans. The first undertaking was the English-
Carnataca Dictionary of the Rev. W. Reeve, completed in 1817, and
published in 1824 with a dedication to Sir Thomas Munro, Governor
of Madras. Meanwhile, in 1820, Mr. McKerrell, Judge of Canara, and
Carnataca Translator to Government, published his Carnataca
Grajiimar, commenced in 1809, in the preparation of which he
consulted the S'abdamanidarpana. His work was dedicated to the
King (George IV). In 1832 appeared Reeve's Carnataca- English
Dictionary^ commenced in 181 7, a valuable work, for long the only one
of its kind, though not up to the scholarship of the present day. It
was reprinted at Bangalore, in portable form, in 1858, edited by the
Rev. D. Sanderson of the Wesleyan Mission. But the work having
long been out of print, the compilation of a new one was undertaken
by the Rev. F. Kittel of the Basel Mission, aided by the India Ofifice
and the Mysore Government. The result has been the Kannada-
Englisii Dictionary, published at Mangalore in 1894, a bulky volume
of 1752 pages. It is a work of great labour, and may now be con-
sidered the standard dictionary of the language.

Before 1850, the publication had been commenced, under the super-
intendence of the Revs. Dr. Moegling and Weigle of the Basel Mission
at Mangalore, and at the expense of Mr. Casamaijor, former Resident
of Mysore, of a series of works to form a Bihliothcca Carnatica. The
following appeared : — Basava Purana, Channa Basava Purana,
Jainiini Bhdrata, Rdnidyana (2 kdndas), Rdvana Digvijaya, Ddsara-
pada, and Rdjefidrandnie, a Coorg History. A grammar compiled by
Krishnamachari, College Munshi, was also published about the same
time at Madras, called Hosa-Gan7iada-7iHdi-gannadi}

For the introduction of printing, Canarese is indebted to the
missionaries at Bellary who translated the Holy Scriptures, as before
related. The first complete translation of the Bible was finished in
1827, after sixteen years had been spent on the work. A similar
period, from 1843 to 1859, was subsequently devoted to revising the

* All these works were lithographed, and in the Rajeiidratidme an attempt was
made to overcome the mechanical difficulty presented in subscript letters by placing
the compound letters side by side on the line, a system which made the reading verj-
difficult, if not impossible, and to natives was incomprehensible, being opposed to
the immemorial and established practice of the language.

INSCRIPTIONS 505

translation. 1 The study of the language especially with a view to this
undertaking, directed attention to such of the indigenous literature as
was accessible ; and the effort to produce so voluminous a work in
portable form, was the means of effecting the improvements in
typography previously referred to.

The wants of schools and universities, and of officers required to pass
an examination in the language, have been the principal motives for the
publication of a variety of useful works, some of the educational books
in no small numbers. But, besides the publications in connection with
the Bibliotheca Carnatica, the most valuable original literary works that
have been published have been indicated in the footnotes above. It
may be added that the collections of the numerous inscriptions
throughout the country (now going through the press under my
direction)'- are invaluable as adjuncts to the study of the language.
Though their primary importance is for historical purposes, they afford
perfect models of the composition of the various periods to which they
belong. Many are elaborate compositions by scholars of repute, and
we have in them not alone specimens of the written characters of the
time, but the exact spelling and arrangement, free from the errors,
conscious or unconscious, that always creep into manuscripts copied
from hand to hand, however carefully made.

Much might be added regarding the European works, some of great
excellence, which Mysore has given rise to, such as IVi/ks' History,
Buchaimn's Travels, &c., not to mention the military works upon the
wars with Mysore. Here Sir Walter Scott laid the scene of one of
the Waverley novels — the Surgeon's Daughter:^ Colonel Meadows
Taylor's novel called Tippoo Suliaun contains masterly sketches of the
times \ and several lifelike and graphic sketches of the Canarese people
may be found in his other Indian novels. Hut it seems unnecessary to
enter farther upon this subject, except to add that a volume on Haidar
AH and Tipu Sultan, by Mr. Bowring, is included in the recent Rulers
of India series, edited by Sir ^V. W. Hunter.

' Another revision has l^een completed in the last few years.

2 There have already Ijeen issued two vohnnes — lusiriptiom at S'ravana Belgola, in
18S9 ; and Inscriptions in the Mysore District, Part I., in 1S94.

^ There is a memorial tal)iet in Trinity Church, Bangalore, to tlie great novelist's
eldest son, Sir WaUer Scott, who was a cavalry ofticer here, and died on his way
home.

5o6

ART AND INDUSTRY

FINE ARTS

The monuments of sculpture, engraving, and architecture in Mysore
have not been surpassed by those of any country in India. Before
describing the masterpieces of design and execution, which remain and
continue to extort admiration to this day, a few words may be devoted
to the ruder megahthic structures which preceded them, and which
abound in such numbers in all parts of the country.

Sto7ie monuments. — The earliest, probably, in point of time are the
dolmens,! consisting of enormous massive slabs of unhewn stone,
supported on naturally formed slabs or columns of stone. The most
numerous class of dolmens found in Mysore are stone chambers or
cists, also called kistvaens. They consist sometimes of only three or
four, but generally of six or more stones, set up edgeways and covered
by a capstone. The stone chambers or cells, which are usually not
more than 2 or 3 feet high, may often be seen in great numbers near
Sivite temples, arranged side by side, as if forming the boundary of a
yard or enclosure towards which their open ends face, and seem to be
erections of the Kurubar. They are sometimes isolated, and of larger
size, containing rude sculptures similar to those of zvVrt/^rt/ and fndstika!,
to be mentioned further on.

The kistvaens are generally found below the surface of the soil, their
site being indicated by one or more stone circles or cromlechs'- above.
They are thus described by Major Cole, who explored many in Mysore
and Coorg.'^ " They are not excavations, but actual structures, consist-
ing of a large flagstone of granite at the bottom, with four similar slabs,
all hewn and made to fit, forming a stone cist, the capstone being
a large unhewn block of granite. This block is generally found in
the centre of the circle of stones, with the top just visible above the
surface, or about a foot below it. The stones forming the circle are
buried from i to 3 feet below the surface, and project above from i to 2
feet." The stone forming the eastern end of the cist generally has a
circular opening towards the top, of about i foot 8 inches diameter, and

' From the Celtic do! or daul, table, and men or mcun, stone.

^ From croin, a circle or curved, and lech, stone.

^ Ind. Ant., II, 88. See also a paper by Captain Mackenzie, ib., II, 7.

STONE MONUMENTS 507

the capstone projects over this entrance from i to 2 feet. The interior
dimensions of the chambers vary.^

The contents of the kistvaens consist, in nearly every case, of vessels
of pottery placed against the western side facing the orifice, both kists
and vessels being completely filled with earth, well rammed in by the
action probably of time and water. The vessels are of various sizes
and forms, often elegantly shaped. They are usually of red or black
clay, well burnt and polished, and decorated with beading and lines in
different patterns.- Sometimes the stone circles or cromlechs have
been found on tumuli, or independent and not surrounding a kistvaen.
A\'ithin them have been found, on digging, the remnants of vessels
apparently buried without the stone receptacle. In one case (in Coorg)
the vessels were found buried at the foot of a large stone, opposite an
entrance to the circle, formed of two upright slabs arched above.

These curious structures, — dolmens, cromlechs, kistvaens, etc. — it is
now known, are found throughout every part of the globe, in some
countries in extraordinary numbers. In India they most abound in the
west.'* That they are memorials of a primeval race there can be no
doubt, and it is generally held that they are either Turanian or Celtic.
In the south of India they are often called by the natives PdnHu ko/is*
and are supposed to have been the residences of a pigmy race.* Others
call them tombs of the Pandavas. That their object was sepulchral
scarcely admits of question, and the vessels in them were probably
cinerary urns for the preservation of ashes or other remains of the dead,
while the open vases and dishes contained either offerings to the manes
or food for the dead, introduced through the opening in the end, which
may have been left for this purpose.

It is curious that in Molkalmuru taluq, the similar structures on a

' Of those opened, one was 1 1 feel long, 5 feet 8 inches broad, and 4 feet high.
Another was only 6 by 4, l)ut 4 feet high. One capstone measured 12 feet 3 inches liy
8 feet, and was i foot thick ; another was 11 feet 4 inches l)y 10 feel 2 inches, and
varied in thickness from i foot 4 inches to i foot 8 inches.

* One of the finest specimens found was a vase standing 2 feet 9 inches high, and
5 feet 1 1 inches in circumference at the centre. The mouth was 3 feet 6 inches in
circumference, and the neck of the vase 2 feet io|t inches round.

^ A map to ilUistrate their distril)ution will lie found at the end of Mr. Fergusson's
book, Ritdc Sto)ic iMoiituiicii/s.

* But may not this term be really of European origin, suggested by the French
name, which some of the early Jesuit priests may have used to designate them ? hor
VVace, an Anglo-Norman poet, says of Stonehenge and similar structures : —

Stanheiiges out nom en Englois,

Pieres pandues en Francois.— Sir J. Li'nnocK, Prchisl. Times, 122.

* With regard to this, again, it is singular to note, as there may be the same under-
lying idea, that " the Latin manes meant probably in the beginning no more than the
Little Ones, the Small Folk."— Max Miiller, Sc. KcL, 366.

5o8 FINE ARTS

somewhat smaller scale are called Mbryara 7na}ie, houses of the Moryas
or Mauryas, as if affording a clue to their period, and I find that this
is also the name given to them by the Badagas on the Nilagiri hills.'
There are also stone circles, single or in groups, on high waste places,
which are called Mbrya dimie, mounds of the Moryas. These occur in
the Molkalmuru, Challakeri, and Chitaldroog taluqs. I have opened
several of the circles, but they contain nothing, and are evidently
foundations for something above ground and not intended to cover
excavations underground. They may possibly mark the sites of Bedar
encampments, as the Bedar commonly erect circular mud huts, and
their temple is a circular hut on a raised platform, with a wooden stake
in the middle for the god.

Menhirs'- or free standing big stones, have been commonly erected
for ages to mark particular spots. The karu kallu erected at the
foundation of a village have been previously referred to. Others called
yelle kallu are boundary stones, and are often rudely carved either with
the Saiva symbol of the Unga^ or the Vaishnava symbols of the s'atikha
and chakra, the conch and discus, according to the creed of the erector.

A more interesting class are the mdsti-kallu and vira-kallu. The
former, properly mahd-sati-kallu, are supposed to mark the spots where
widows became sail by burning wdth the dead bodies of their husbands :
the latter where some hero fell in battle, or otherwise came by his
death. The masti-kal are slabs about 4 feet high, bearing the sculpture
of a pillar or post with a human arm projecting from it. The hand is
outstretched and pointing upwards, the fingers being separated, with
often a lime in the hollow between the thumb and forefinger. Under
this is a rude sculpture of the man and his wife. These stones are very
common, principally, I think, in the west of Mysore.

The vira-kal or hero stones are often elaborately sculptured. The
slab is generally divided into three compartments, each containing
sculpture in relief. The lowest represents the scene in which the hero
fell; the middle one his triumphant ascent to the world of gods,
generally borne along in a car surrounded by apsaras or celestial
nymphs ; the top one shows the hero in the upper world, seated in
the immediate presence of the divinity. Between the scenes are
sometimes a few lines of inscription, giving the name of the hero, the
date of the event, etc. The lower tableaux are of much interest, as
illustrating scenes from life, and showing the costumes, weapons, and
other features of the time in which they were erected.

' Gngg's Manual of /he Nilagiri Disfriit, 242.

- Jleii, stone, and hir, tall or big. Minar and minaret are said to be derived from
the same root.

SCULPTURE

509

Sculpture. — The most remarkable specimen of sculpture in Mysore,
if not in India, is the colossal Jain statue of Gomates'vara at Sravana
Belgola. It was erected in about 983, and is 57 feet in height. It is
in the simple human form, nude, and stands at the summit of a rocky
hill, having no support above the thighs. The sculptor's name was
possibly Aritto Nemi.

"The images of this king or Jain saint,'' Mr. Fergusson remarks, "are
among the most remarkable works of native art in the south of India. Three
of them are known, and have long been known, to Europeans, and it is
doubtful if any more exist.' They are too remarkable objects not to attract
the attention of even the most indifferent Sa.xon. That at Sravan Belgola
attracted the attention of the late Duke of Wellington, when as Sir Arthur
Wellesley he commanded a division at the siege of Seringapatam. He, like
all those who followed him, was astonished at the amount of labour such a
work must have entailed, and puzzled to know whether it was a part of the
hill or had been moved to the spot v/here it now stands. The fomier is the
more probable theory. The hill, called Indra-giri, is one mass of granite,
about 400 feet in height, and probably had a mass or Tor standing on its
summit, either a part of the subjacent mass or lying on it. This the Jains
undertook to fashion into a statue 70 feet 3 inches in height, and have
achieved it with marvellous success. The task of carving a rock standing
in its place the Hindu mind never would have shrunk from had it even been
twice the size ; but to move such a mass up the steep smooth side of the
hill seems a labour beyond their power, even with all their skill in concen-
trating masses of men on a single point. Whether, however, the rock was
found in situ or was moved, nothing grander or more imposing exists any-
where out of Egypt, and even there no known statue surpasses it in height,
though it must be confessed they do excel it in the perfection of art they
exhibit."^

Another excellent example of sculpture is the fine group of Sala and
the tiger, which is placed in a conspicuous position on a projection
immediately in front of the vinidna, or tower, of many temples erected
under the Hoysalas. The incident is conventionally treated, and with
many variations in details. But generally there is a figure of .Sala on

1 The three are the one at Sravan Belgola, 70 feet 3 inches high (according to some,
Init l)y actual measurement 57 feet); one at Karkala, erected in 1431, said to lie
41 feet 5 inches in height ; and one at V<?nur, erected in 1603, alxml 37 feet high.
They are engraved in Moor's Paiithi-on, Buchanan's Travels and the ludiaii Anti-
quary. But the best representation of the Sravana Belgola statue is the fr<intis])icce
of my Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola. The statue of the Sun, called the Colossus
of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, wxs 105 feet high, hut this
was of bronze. It was erected in the third century B.C., hut was thr»nvn down ami
broken by an earthquake fifty-six years after. The Cierman statue of Hermann or
Herminius, completed in 1875, 's 90 feet high to the point nf the raised sword, and
also of metal. - For description, see Vol. H, under Sravan Belgola.

510 I'INE ARTS

one knee, guarding himself with a shield, and plunging a dagger into a
ferocious tiger of mythological breed, which is springing on him.
These groups of statuary, says Sir Walter Elliot, "are of considerable
merit and are the only instances I have met with of free sculpture."^
Unfortunately it is difficult to find one that is not mutilated.

The sculpture of Mysore is otherwise principally exemplified in two
classes of monuments, the decoration of buildings, especially temples,
and the vira-kal. Both draw their subjects largely from Hindu
mythology, and to this the carvings on temples are entirely sub-
ordinated, but the pediment is sometimes elaborately covered with
scenes from the epic poems, the illustrations being more or less drawn
from life ; and in the lower compartment of vira-kal, as before remarked,
events are portrayed pretty nearly as they must have occurred. The
latter class of sculpture is perhaps less varied and of ruder execution
than that of temples, but some specimens which have been well
preserved are equal to any in the former. The scenes from the lives
of Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta at Sravana Belgola are unique of
their kind, the w^ork of Das6ja.

Architecture. — The oldest architecture of which any specimens
exist in India is Buddhist, of the third century B.C., and Mr. Fergusson
argues that it was developed from the stone monuments above referred
to, as it is " essentially tumular, circular, and external, thus possessing
the three great characteristics of all the so-called Druidical remains."
The wonderfully carved rail of the Amaravati sti'ipa and the so-called
rathas of Mamallapura~ are perhaps the earliest Buddhist remains in
the south, and as the Pallavas under whom they were executed ruled a
part of Mysore, may be mentioned here though not included within the
present limits of the territory.

"W^Qjain architecture of the south of India is represented by two
classes of temples, bastis and bettas, and is in this respect different from
that of the north, where the latter are unknown. The bastis are regular
temples in the usual acceptance of that word, containing an image of
one of the Tirthankaras as the object of worship. The bettas (literally
hills) are courtyards,^ — properly, though not always, at the summit of a
hill, — open to the sky, and containing a colossal image of Gomatesvara.

» Num. Or., Ill, Part II, So.

' There seems no doubt that the little rath, with its circular termination, is as exact
a copy of what a Buddhist chaitya hall was at the time it was carved, as that the great
rath is a correct reproduction of a Buddhist vihara at the same period.

The excavations could not well have been made later than the sixth century, and it
seems hardly to admit of doubt that we have here petrifactions of the last forms of
Buddhist architecture, and of the first forms of that of the Dravidians. — Fergusson,
Hist. Ind. Arcti., 175, 329.

AR CHITECTURE 5 r i

The principal group of bastis at present known above the Ghats is that
at Sravan Belgola. There are there two hills— the Indra-giri on whose
summit the colossal image just described stands and dominates the plain.
On a shoulder of the other, called Chandra-giri, stand the bastis, fifteen in
number. As might be expected from their situation, they are all of the
Dravidian style of architecture, and are consequently built in gradually
receding storeys, each of which is ornamented with small simulated cells.
.... Their external appearance is more ornamental than that of the
generality of northern Jaina temples. The outer wall of those in the north
is almost always quite plain. The southern ones are as generally
ornamented with pilasters, and crowned with a row of ornamental cells.
Inside is a court, probably square, and surrounded by cloisters, at the back
of which rises the vimuna over the cell which contains the principal image
of the Tirthankara. It always is surmounted by a small dome, as is
universally the case with every vimjlna in Dravidian architecture.

It may be a vain speculation, but it seems impossible not to be struck
with the resemblance to the temples of southern Babylonia. The same
division into storeys with their cells ; the backward position of the temple
itself ; the panelled or pilastered basement, arc all points of resemblance it
seems difficult to regard as purely accidental.^

Besides the greater temples, there are several varieties of smaller ones,
which seem peculiar to the style. Four-pillared pavilions are not uncommon
in front of Hindu temples in the south, but these Jain mantapas are five-
pillared^ [that is, with a pillar at each angle and one in the middle. There
is one before the entrance to the betta on .Sravan Belgola, the middle pillar
being so supported from above that a handkerchief can be passed through
below its base].

Though not the grandest, certainly the most elegant and graceful objects
belonging to the Jaina style of architecture are the stambhas which are found
attached to almost every temple. They are used sometimes by the Hindus,
but then generally as di'p-ddns or lamp-bearing pillars, and in that case
have some arrangenient for exhibiting light from their summit. With the
Jains this does not appear ever to have been the case. Their pillars are the
Hneal descendants of those of the Buddhists, which bore either emblems or
statues, generally the former— or figures of animals. With the Jains or
Vaishnavas they as generally bore statues. Be this as it may, they seem
nowhere to have been so frequent or so elaborately adorned as among the
Jains in the south. . . . They generally consist of a single block of granite,
square at base, changing to an octagon, and again to a figure of sixteen
sides, with a capital of very elegant shape. Some, however, are circular,
and indeed their variety is infinite. They range from thirty to forty feet and
even fifty feet in height, and whatever their dimensions, arc among the most
elegant specimens of art in southern India.'

The Hindu temples of Mysore, as distinguished from those of the
Jains, arc divided between two styles, which the great authority on

' Hist. Ind. Arch., 267-270. ' //'., 27.]. 3 /^.^ 276, 336.

5^2

FINE ARTS

architectural questions already (luoted, designates Dravidian and
Chalukyan. The former prevails in the south and east, the latter in
the north and west, but occasionally a building of one style will be
found within the region mostly occupied by the other. The Chalukyan
style, which was adopted all over the Dekhan from coast to coast — its
northern limit being a line from the source of the Godavari to the
mouth of the Mahanadi, and its southern, one from the sources of the
Kaveri passing west of Vijayanagar to the mouth of the Krishna-
attained its fullest development and highest degree of perfection in
Mysore. The Dravidian style did at one time, during the temporary
eclipse of the Chalukya power, penetrate further north as far as Ellora,
but it seems to have been a spasmodic effort and it took no permanent
root there. At that time were excavated the beautiful Kailasa and
other temples of Dravidian architecture at Ellora, now known to have
been executed under the Rashtrakiitas in the eighth century.'

Dravidian style. — The raths at Mahabalipur, dating from the sixth
century, may be considered as the prototypes of the style. From them
to the Kailisa at Ellora " the transition is easy, but the step consider-
able. At the first-named place we have manifest copies of structures
intended originally for other purposes and used at Mahabalipur in a
fragmentary and disjointed manner. At Ellora, on the contrary, the
whole is welded together, and we have a perfect Dravidian temple, as
complete in all its parts as at any future period. ... It seems certain
that the square raths are copies of Buddhist viharas, and are the
originals from which all the vimanas in southern India were copied,
and continued to be copied, nearly unchanged, to a very late period.
.... On the other hand, the oblong raths were halls or porticoes with
the Buddhists, and became the gopuras or gateways which are frequently
— indeed generally — more important parts of Dravidian temples than
the vimanas themselves. They too, like the vimanas, retain their
original features very little changed to the present day."

The temples consist almost invariably of four parts, arranged in
various manners, and differing in themselves only according to the age
in which they were executed, i. The vimdjia, or actual temple itself.
It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one
or more storeys. It contains the cell in which the image of the god or
his emblem is placed. 2. The tiianfapas, or porches which always cover
and precede the door leading to the cell. 3. T\\q gopuras, or pyramidal
towers over the gateway, often the loftiest and most imposing feature in
the temple. 4. Choultries or pillared halls used for various purposes.
Besides these, are tanks or wells and other buildings for the residence
or use of the priests.

' See above, p. 325.

ARCHITE CTURE 5 1 5

The finest Dravidian temples, as might be expected, are to be met
with south and east beyond the limits of the Mysore territory. But the
temple of Ranganatha at Seringapatam, of Chamundi on the hill of that
name, the Halsur pagoda, the temples of Melukote, Talkad, Tiruma-
kiidlu, Ramnathpur and other places may be referred to as effective
illustrations.

Chdlukyan style. — The Chalukyan style is neither the least extensive
nor the least beautiful of the three Hindu styles of architecture. It
reached its greatest perfection in Mysore. The style is thus described : —
The temple itself (that is, the compartment occupied by the god) is
polygonal or star-shaped. The sides, however, are not obtained as in
the northern style by increments added flatly to a square, but are points
touching a circle, at one time apparently right angles, but afterwards
either more acute or flatter than a right angle. There are four principal
faces larger than the others, three occupied by niches, the fourth by the
entrance. The roof is in steps, and with a flat band on each face in
continuation of the larger face below. The porch is simple, consisting
of columns disposed equidistantly over its floor. [I would add that this
porch is generally surrounded by a wide stone seat or bench, with a
sloping back, which runs completely round the porch and forms as it
were a low wall on every side.] The details are often of great beauty,
especially the entrances, which are objects on which the architects
generally lavished their utmost skill. Nothing in Hindu art is more
pleasing than the pierced slabs which the Chdlukyas used for windows.
The pillars, too, are rich without being overdone : and as it is only in
pairs that they are of the same design, the effect of the whole is
singularly varied and yet at the same time pleasing and elegant.
The temples generally stand on a terrace a few feet high and from
ten to fifteen feet wide. This is one of the characteristic features of
Chalukyan design, and adds very considerably to the effect of their
temples.

The buildings of this style arc very numerous in the north and west
of Mysore. The temple of Kedaresvara at Ikilagami is probably one of
the oldest, and judging from the ruined and deserted temples at that
place it must have been one of the richest museums of sculpture and
architecture in Mysore. The temples at Kubattur also must at onetime
have been splendid buildings. Those at Arsikere, Harnhalli, Turvekere,
Naglapura, and numerous other places might be adduced as good
examples of the style.

But it was to the munificence of the Hoysala kings, and to the genius
of their gifted architects and sculptors, whom tradition declares to have
been Jakanachari and his son Dankanachari, that the Chdlukyan style

I, T.

514 FINE ARTS

owed its fullest development and highest degree of perfection. The
temples of Halebid, Belur and Somnathpur may be regarded as master-
pieces of the style. The Hoysales'vara, the oldest of the two
ornamental temples at Halebid, was probably commenced by Vinaya-
ditya (1047 to iioo). It is unfinished, but whether this was always
the case, or whether it was completed and afterwards lost its towers, it
is difficult to say.' The Kedares'vara,- the other temple, was erected
by Vira Ballala and his junior queen Abhinava Ketala Devi, apparently
at the close of his reign, about 12 19. The Belur temple was founded
by Vishnuvarddhana after his renunciation of the Jain faith in 11 17,
and perhaps completed during his reign, which ended in 1141. It
appears, however, to have suffered injury at the time of the INIuham-
madan invasion in 13 10, and was shut up till the reign of Harihara,
probably the first Vijayanagar king of that name, who reigned 1336 to
1350. He repaired the temple, built the gopura and restored the
endowments. If it was Harihara II who did this, it would be between
1379 and 1405. The Somnathpur temple was completed in 1270, and
was erected by Soma or Somanatha, the general of the Hoysala king
Narasimha III, who also founded the agrahara of Somnathpur.'* Of
these the Belur temple is the only one that has not been abandoned,
but owing to repairs and additions at various times the unity of design
is somewhat marred.

Halebid. — The Halebid temples were sacred to Siva, under the
respective forms of HoysalesVara and Kedares'vara. The second only
was completed, and was a perfect gem of art. Its sculptor seems to
have been Dev6ja.

Its plan was star-shaped, with sixteen points, and it had a porch well pro-
portioned in size. Its roof was conical, and from the basement to the
summit it was covered with sculptures of the very best class of Indian art,
and these so arranged as not materially to interfere with the outlines of the
building, while they imparted to it an amount of richness only to be found
among specimens of Hindu art. If it were possible, adds Mr. Fergusson,
to illustrate this little temple in anything like completeness, there is probably

' There is a picture in Mr. Fergiisson's book, p. 400, of a restored view of the
temple as he conceives it would have been if complete. The chief thing requiring
correction is the finial ornament of the towers, resembling a lantern. It should
really be a kalas'a or sacrificial vase, bound round with a cloth knotted towards the
four cardinal points, which, filled with holy water, is used at the consecration of temples.

- This has been erroneously called Kaites'vara and Kaitabhes'vara by some writers.

^ These dates and facts are taken from inscriptions, except for the big Halebid
temple, for the exact date of which no such authority has been obtained. Mr. Fergusson
has been misled (p. 392) about the dates, putting down Somnathpura temple (on what
authority is not stated) as erected in the time of Vinayaditya, who came to the throne
in 1047.

AR CHITE CTURE 5 1 5

nothing in India which would convey a better idea of what its architects were
capable of accomplishing.'

It is, however, surpassed in size and magnificence by its neighbour, the
great temple at Halebid, which, had it been completed, is one of the
buildings on which the advocate of Hindu architecture would desire to take
his stand. Unfortunately it never was finished, the works having been
stopped after they had been in progress apparently for eighty-six years.*
[The names of some of the sculptors were Devdja, Kesimoja's son Masana,
Mayana, and Tdnagundiir Harisha.]

The general arrangements of the building are that it is a double temple.
If it were cut into halves, each part would be complete, with a pillared porch
of the same type as that at Belur, an antardla or intermediate porch, and a
sanctuary containing a lingam, the emblem of Siva. Besides this, each half
has in front of it a detached pillared porch as a shrine for the bull Xandi.
Such double temples are by no means uncommon in India, but the two
sanctuaries usually face each other and have the porch between them. Its
dimensions may roughly be stated as 200 feet square over all, including all
the detached pavilions. The temple itself is 160 feet north and south, by
122 feet east and west. Its height, as it now remains, to the cornice is about
twenty-five feet from the terrace on which it stands. It cannot, therefore, be
considered by any means as a large building, though large enough for
effect. This, however, can hardly be judged of as it now stands, for
there is no doubt but that it was intended to raise two pyramidal spires
over the sanctuaries, four smaller ones in front of these, and two more,
one over each of the two central pavilions. Thus completed, the
temple, if carried out with the richness of detail exhibited in the Keddr-
esvara, would have made up a whole which it would be difficult to
rival anywhere.

The material out of which this temple is erected is an indurated potstone
of volcanic origin, found in the neighbourhood. This stone is saidtobesoft
when first quarried, and easily cut in that state, though hardening on
exposure to the atmosphere. Even this, however, will not diminish our
admiration of the amount of labour bestowed on the temple ; for, from the
number of parts still unfinished, it is evident that, like most others of its
class, it was built in block and carved long after the stone had become hard.
As we now see it the stone is of a pleasing creamy colour and so close-
grained as to take a polish like marble. The pillars of the great Nandi
pavilion, which look as if they had been turned in a lathe, are so polished

1 This exquisite specimen of the most ornate Chiilukyan style of aichilccture is —
with shame be it written — a thing of the past. Mr. Fergusson's gloomy anticipations
(p. 397) have been completely fulfilled. The trees which had rooted themselves in
the vimana were suffered to do their work unchecked, and the building is now a
hideous heap of ruin. Some of the most perfect figures have been conveyed to Banga-
lore, and set up in the Museum, Init divorced from their artistic setting they have
lost their meaning. A proposal has been made, I believe, to convey the ruins to
Mysore, and erect the restored lemjile there as a memorial to the late Mahdrdja.

- There seems to be no authority for this statement.

L L 2

5i6 FINE ARTS

as to exhibit what the natives call a double reflection — in other words to
reflect light from each other. The enduring qualities of the stone seem to
be unrivalled, for, though neglected and exposed to all the vicissitudes of a
tropical climate for more than six centuries, the minutest details are as clear
and sharp as the day they were finished. Except from the splitting of the
stone arising from bad masonry, the building is as perfect as when its
erection was stopped by the Muhammadan conquest.

The building stands on a terrace, ranging from five feet to six feet in
height, and paved with lai-ge slabs. On this stands a frieze of elephants,
following all the sinuosities of the plan and extending to some 710 feet in
length, and containing not less than 2,000 elephants, most of them with
riders and trappings, sculptured as only an oriental can represent the wisest
of brutes. Above these is a frieze of shdrdiilas, or conventional tigers — the
emblems of the Hoysala BalMlas who built the temple. Then comes a
scroll of infinite beauty and variety of design ; over this a frieze of horsemen
and another scroll ; over which is a bas-relief of scenes from the Ramayana,
representing the conquest of Ceylon and all the varied incidents of that
epic. This, like the other, is about 700 feet long. (The frieze of the
Parthenon is less than 550 feet.) Then come celestial beasts and celestial
birds, and all along the east front a frieze of groups from human life, and
then a cornice, with a rail, divided into panels, each containing two figures.
Over this are windows of pierced slabs, like those of Belur, though not so
rich or varied. In the centre, in place of the windows, is first a scroll, and
then a frieze of gods and heavenly apsaras— dancing girls and other objects
of Hindu mythology. This frieze, which is about five feet six inches in
height, is continued all round the western front of the building, and extends
to some 400 feet in length. Siva, with his consort Parvati seated on his
knee, is repeated at least fourteen times ; Vishnu in his nine avatars even
oftener. Brahma occurs three or four times, and every great god of the
Hindu pantheon finds his place. Some of these are carved with a minute
elaboration of detail which can only be reproduced by photography, and may
probably be considered as one of the most marvellous exhibitions of human
labour to be found even in the patient East.

It must not, however, be considered that it is only for patient industry
that this building is remarkable. The mode in which the eastern face is
broken up by the larger masses, so as to give height and play of light and
shade, is a better way of accomplishing what the Gothic architects attempted
by their transepts and projections. This, however, is surpassed by the
western front, where the variety of outline, and the arrangement and sub-
ordination of the various facets in which it is disposed, must be considered
as a masterpiece of design in its class. If the frieze of gods were spread
along a plain surface it would lose more than half its efl'ect, while the
vertical angles, without interfering with the continuity of the frieze, give
height and strength to the whole composition. The disposition of the
horizontal lines of the lower friezes is equally effective. Here again the
artistic combination of horizontal with vertical lines, and the play of outline
and of light and shade, far surpass anything in Gothic art. The effects are

ARCHITE CTURE 5 1 7

just what mediaeval architects were often aiming at, but which they never
attained so perfectly as was done at Halebid.

Before leaving Halebid, it may be well again to call attention to the
order of superposition of the different animal friezes. As in the rock-cut
monastery described by the Chinese pilgrims, so here, the lowest were the
elephants ; then the lions ; above these came the horses ; then the oxen,
and the fifth storey was in the shape of a pigeon. The oxen here are re-
placed by a conventional animal, and the pigeon also by a bird of a species
that would puzzle a naturalist. The succession, however, is the same, and
the same five genera of living things form the ornaments of the moonstones
of the various monuments in Ceylon. Sometimes in modern Hindu temples
only two or three animal friezes are found, but the succession is always the
same, the elephants being the lowest, the next above them are the lions,
and then the horses, etc. When we know the cause of it, it seems as if this
curious selection and ^succession might lead to some very suggestive
conclusions. At present we can only call attention to it in hopes that
further investigation may afford the means of solving the mystery.

If it were possible to illustrate the Halebid temple to such an extent as
to render its peculiarities familiar, there would be few things more interest-
ing or more instructive than to institute a comparison between it and the
Parthenon at Athens. Not that the two buildings are at all like one
another ; on the contrary, they form the two opposite poles — the alpha and
omega of architectural design ; but they are the best examples of their class,
and between these two extremes lies the whole range of the art. The
Parthenon is the best example we know of pure refined intellectual power
applied to the production of an architectural design. Every part and every
effect is calculated with mathematical exactness, and executed with a
mechanical precision that never was equalled. All the curves are hyper-
bolas, parabolas, or other developments of the highest mathematical forms
— every optical defect is foreseen and provided for, and every part has a
relation to every other part in so recondite a proportion that we feel inclined
to call it fanciful, because we can hardly rise to its appreciation. The
sculpture is exquisitely designed to aid the perfection of the masonry —
severe and godlike, but with no condescension to the lower feelings of
humanity.

The Halebid temple is the opposite of all this. It is regular, but with
a studied variety of outline in plan, and even greater variety in detail. All
the pillars of the Parthenon are identical, while no two facets of the Indian
temple are the same ; every convolution of every scroll is different. No two
canopies in the whole building are alike, and every part exhibits a joyous
exuberance of fancy scorning every mechanical restraint. All that is wild
in human faith or warm in human feeling is found portrayed on these
walls ; but of pure intellect there is little — less than there is of human feel-
ing in the Parthenon.

The great value of the study of these Indian examples is that it widens so
immensely our basis for architectural criticism. It is only by becoming
familiar with forms so utterly dissimilar from those we have hitherto been

5i8 FINE ARTS

conversant with, that we perceive how narrow is the purview that is content
with one form or one passing fashion. By rising to this wider range we
shall perceive that architecture is as many-sided as human nature itself, and
learn how few feelings and how few aspirations of the human heart and
brain there are that cannot be expressed by its means. On the other hand,
it is only by taking this wide survey that we appreciate how worthless any
product of architectural art becomes which does not honestly represent the
thoughts and feelings of those who built it, or the height of their loftiest
aspirations.

The Belur and Somnathpur temples were dedicated to Vishnu, under his
denomination of Kes'ava.

Belur.— This consists of a principal temple, surrounded by four or five
others and numerous subordinate buildings, enclosed in a court by a high
wall, measuring 360 feet by 440 feet, and having two very fine gateways or
gopuras in its eastern front. The great temple consists of a very solid
vimdna, with an antarala, or porch ; and in front of this a porch of the usual
star-like form, measuring ninety feet across. The whole length of the
temple, from the east door to the back of the cell, is 115 feet, and the whole
stands on a terrace about three feet high, and from ten feet to fifteen
feet wide. The arrangements of the pillars have much of that pleasing
subordination and variety of spacing which is found in those of the Jains,
but we miss here the octagonal dome, which gives such poetry and meaning
to the arrangements they adopted. Instead of that, we have only an
exaggerated compartment in the centre, which fits nothing, and though it
does give dignity to the centre, it does it so clumsily as to be almost offensive
in an architectural sense.'

It is not, however, either to its dimensions, or the disposition of its plan,
that this temple owes its pre-eminence among others of its class, but to the
marvellous elaboration and beauty of its details. The effect of these, it is
true, has been, in modern times, considerably marred by the repeated coats
of whitewash which the present low order of priests consider the most
appropriate way of adding to the beauty of the most delicate sculptures.
Notwithstanding this, however, their outline can always be traced, and where
the whitewash has not been applied, or has been worn off, their beauty comes
out with wonderful sharpness.

The richness and variety of pattern displayed in the windows of the porch
are astonishing. These are twenty-eight in number, and all are different.
Some are pierced with merely conventional patterns, generally star-shaped,
and with foliaged bands between ; others are interspersed with figures and
mythological subjects — for instance, the Varaha avatar, and other scenes
connected with the worship of Vishnu, to whom the temple is dedicated.
The pierced slabs themselves, however, are hardly so remarkable as the
richly-carved base on which they rest, and the deep cornice which over-
shadows and protects them. The amount of labour, indeed, which each
facet of this porch displays is such as, I believe, never was bestowed on any
surface of equal extent in any building in the world ; and though the design

' This dome fell in and is now beinsr rebuilt.

ARCHITECTURE 5 1 9

is not of the highest order of art, it is elegant and appropriate, and never
ofifends against good taste. [The names of some of the sculptors are
Balligrdme Ddsuja, his son Chdvana, Chikka Hampa, Malliyanna, Mdchdri,
Mdyana, Yallana's son Masada, and Kdtoja's son Ndg6ja.]*

The sculptures at the base of the vim.-ina, which have not been white-
washed, are as elaborate as those of the porch, in some places more so ; and
the mode in which the undersides of the cornices have been elaborated and
adorned is such as is only to be found in temples of this class. The upper
part of the tower is anomalous. It may be that it has been whitewashed
and repaired till it has assumed its present discordant appearance, which
renders it certainly a blot on the whole design. My own impression rather
is, that, like many others of its class, it was left unfinished, and the upper
part added at subsequent periods. Its original form most probably was that
of the little pavilions that adorn its portals, which have all the peculiar
features of the style— the flat band on each face, the three star-like projec-
tions between, and the peculiar crowning ornament of the style. The plan
of the great tower, and the presence of the pavilions where they stand, seems
to prove almost beyond doubt that this was the original design ; but the
design may have been altered as it progressed, or it may, as I suspect, have
been changed afterwards.

Somnathpiir. — The building at Somnathpur is a single but complete
whole. The temple is triple, the cells with their sikharas being attached
to a square pillared hall, to the fourth side of which a portico, now in
ruins, is attached, in this instance of very moderate dimensions. It is
impossible without illustrations to give an idea of the elegance of out-
line and marvellous elaboration of detail that characterizes these shrines.
The temple stands on a raised terrace intended to correspond with the
ground plan of the temple, each of the numerous angles being supported
by an elephant. The whole stands in a court-yard, surrounded by an
open verandah, containing a cell between every set of columns. The
exterior walls of the temple are carved with an elaborate profusion of
detail, the arrangement of the subjects being similar to that at Halebid.
The small canopies with pendants, which cover each compartment of
the antarala, are all, like those of the Balagami temples, carved with a
different design, on which the architect has expended the utmost fertility
of his skill.

Malnad. — The temples of the Malnad regions in the west are of a
totally different style, corresponding to that of Canara. The frame-
work is of wood, standing on a terrace of lateritc, and the whole covered
with a tiled and gabled roof. The wooden pillars and joists are often
well carved, but not in the highest style of art. Better specimens of

» One of them has sculptured to the life a fly, of the natural size, as if settled on
one of the figures ; thus rivalling the feat of Apelles, the most celebrated of the
Grecian painters, and the one who accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia.

520 FINE ARTS

this order of architecture must most proljably l)e souf^ht Ijcyond the
western limits of Mysore.

Saracenic style. — The best examples of Saracenic architecture in
Mysore are to be found at Sira, and are doubtless to be classed under
the Mughal style. It is true that the Pathan state of Bijapur, distin-
guished for its architecture, was the first Musalman power that subdued
the north and east, but the governors of its Carnatic possessions being
Mahrattas, no buildings of note seem to have been erected in the
I'athan style. At Sante Bennur is an imposing mosque erected by
Randulha Khan, together with some elegant pavilions in the centre of
and around the tank in front of it, built on the original Hindu work of
Hanumappa Nayak.

]>ija23ur was taken by the Mughals under Aurangzeb in 1687, and
the subjection of the Carnatic provinces belonging to it immediately
followed, ending in the establishment of Sira as the capital of the new
territory acquired in Mysore. The architectural remains now existing
are the Jama Masjid at Sira, and several tombs, partly ruined, both
at Sira and Goribidnur. The domes at Sira are not large, but of
a very light and elegant design, being well raised on a sort of floral
cup, the petals of which press close round the base. These struc-
tures have survived through being of stone. It is on record that a
palace was erected by one of the governors of Sira, named Dilavar
Khan, of such elegance that it was adopted as the model on which
Haidar and Tipu built their palaces at Bangalore and Seringa-
patam. But all three were of such perishable materials, though richly
decorated with gilding and colour, that hardly anything now remains
of either of them.^ We have, however, some buildings of the latter

^ The Bangalore palace was used for the offices of the Administration until 1868,
when, being no longer safe, it was abandoned, and the greater part has since been
demolished.

Of the palace at Seruigapatam, Buchanan says that it was a very large building,
surrounded by a massy and lofty wall of stone and mud ; and though outwardly of a
mean appearance, containing some handsome apartments, but ill-ventilated. The
private apartments of Tipu formed a square, in one side of which were the rooms that
he himself used. The other three sides of the square were occupied with warehouses,
in which he had deposited a vast variety of goods, for he acted not only as a prince,
Init also as a merchant. These goods were occasionally distributed among the
amildars with orders to sell them, on the Sultan's account, at a price far above their
real value, which was done by forcing a share of them upon every man in proportion
to his supposed wealth.

The apartment most commonly used by Tipu was a large lofty hall, open in front
after the Musalman fashion, and on the other three sides entirely shut up from ventila-
tion. From the principal front of the palace, which served as a revenue office, and
as a place from whence the Sultan occasionally showed himself to the populace, the
chief entry into the private square was through a strong narrow passage, wherein were

AR CHITE CTURE 5 2 1

period still maintained in good order. They are the Makbara or
mausoleum of Haidar's family at Kolar, the great mosque at Seringa-
patam, with the Gumbaz or mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu in the
Lai Bagh at the same place, and the summer palace known as the
Darya Daulat. Of this latter building, Mr. Rees, who has travelled
much in India and Persia, says : — " The lavish decorations, which
cover every inch of wall from first to last, from top to bottom, recall
the palaces of Ispahan, and resemble nothing that I know in India." '
There are also tombs at Channapatna and a mosque at Nagar.

The mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu is an effective building. The
central apartment, containing tlie tombs, is covered with a great dome,
and is surrounded with a colonnade of pillars of polished black
serpentine, the inner entrance being enriched with doors of ebony
inlaid with ivory, the gift of Lord Dalhousie. The same Governor-
General, on his visit to Mysore in 1855, directed the restoration and
repair of the Darya Daulat, then falling to decay, in commemoration of
its having been the residence of the great Duke of Wellington. An
account of it will be found under Seringapatam in Vol. II.

Li)igdyits. — The Lingayits have adopted what seems to me a some-
what distinctive style in their pul)lic buildings, such as mathas, tomb.s,
etc., which is a combination of the Hindu and Saracenic. The best
specimens perhaps are the tombs of the Coorg Rajas at Mercara, but
there are buildings at Nagar, Chitaldroog, Nayakanhatti and other
places which may serve as illustrations.

In connection with Hindu architecture may be mentioned the rude
Ijut substantial and durable bridges across the Kaveri at Seringapatam
and at Sivasamudram. The latter are said to be 700 years old. The
former was erected under the regency of Purnaiya, and by him named,
as stated in an inscription at the place, the ^^'ellesley Bridge, in honour
of the then Governor-General. It is composed, as also is the other, of
rough stone pillars, firmly let into the rocky bed of the stream. These
support stone brackets, on which rest tne stones forming the framework
of the bridge, upon which again the floor of the roadway is laid.

Of Anglo-Indian architecture perhaps the less said the better. \'et
there are structures deserving of remark. Among these is the de

chained four tigers. Within these was the hall in which Tipu wrote, and into wliioh
very few persons except Mir Satiak were ever admitted. Immediately behind this
was the bed-chamber, which communicated with the hall by a door and two wintlows,
and was shut up on every other side. The door was strongly secured on the inside,
and a close iron grating defended the windows. The Sultan, lest any person should
fire upon him while in bed, sle])l in a hammock which was suspended from the roof
by chains in such a situation as to be invisible through the windows. The only other
]>assage from the private square was into the zenana or women's aiiarlmenls.
^ The Duke of Clarence in Southern India, ji. 8l.

522 FINE ARTS

Havilland arch at Seringapatam. This engineer officer seems to have-
been of somewhat erratic genius. He proposed the construction of a
brick arch, of a span greatly exceeding anything that had at that time
been attempted, and on his design being set aside as visionary, resolved
to demonstrate its practicability, and thus built the great arch (112 feet
span) across the garden attached to his own house, where it still stands-
as a monument of his skill. ^ But, as a rule, it is perhaps not too much,
to say that in public, no less than in private, buildings erected under
European direction all pretensions to architecture were too long ignored
as being totally unconnected with engineering. Of late years, however,
under Colonel (afterwards Sir Richard) Sankey as Chief Engineer, and
his successors, more attention has been paid to this point, and several,
effective buildings have been erected, those on the largest scale being
at Bangalore and Mysore.

Engraving. — Of the art of engraving the best examples are to be
found in the numerous inscriptions on copper or stone scattered over
the country. Some of the oldest on stone (as those of the Bana kings-
at Srinivaspur) are deeply and heavily cut, on ponderous and massive
slabs, as if by the hands of a giant race. But the Kadamba inscription
of the fifth century on a stone pillar at Talgunda is a beautiful example
of regular and ornamental engraving in the so-called box-headed
character. Some of the old rock inscriptions at S'ravana Belgola are
also fine specimens. The Ganga grants on copper of the fifth to the
eighth centuries are most artistically incised, both as to form and
execution. Many of these are the work of a Vis'vakarma, and as the
Kadamba inscription of about the third century on a stone pillar at
Malavalli, in the Cave character, was also engraved by a Vis'vakarma,
it is evident that there was a family of this name attached to the court
as engravers, first under the Kadambas and then under the Gangas.
With the Chalukyas the style improves, and later on the Cholas
covered some of the eastern temples with inscriptions in old Tamil
deeply and well cut. But it is under the Hoysalas, perhaps, that we
find the most perfect specimens. Their inscriptions, on beautifully
polished slabs of hornblende, are masterpieces of the art. The letters
are of ornamental design, varied to suit their positions, and the whole
so well fitted and harmonized together that no space is left where a
single additional letter could be introduced. Sometimes the initial
letters are formed into designs imitating birds or other animals.

Wood carving. — Mysore is famous for its ornamental sandal-wood
carving. It is done by a class called Giidigar, who are settled in the
Shimoga District, chiefly at Sorab. The designs with which they

^ He also designed the large room without pillars in the old Residency at Mysore^
and the wide circular roof of St. Andrew's Kirk at Madras.

INLAID WORK 523

entirely cover the boxes, desks and other articles made, are of an
extremely involved and elaborate pattern, consisting for the most part
of intricate interlacing foliage and scroll work, completely enveloping
medallions containing the representation of some Hindu deity or
subject of mythology, and here and there relieved by the introduction
of animal forms. The details, though in themselves often highly
incongruous, are grouped and blended with a skill that seems to be
instinctive in the East, and form an exceedingly rich and appropriate
ornamentation, decidedly oriental in style, which leaves not the smallest
portion of the surface of the wood untouched. The material is hard,
and the minuteness of the work demands the utmost care and patience.
Hence the carving of a desk or cabinet involves a labour of many
months, and the artists are said to lose their eyesight at a compara-
tively early age. European designs they imitate to perfection.

Many old Hindu houses contain beautiful specimens of ornamental
wood carving in the frames of doors, and in pillars and beams.

Inlaid work. — The art of inlaying ebony and rosewood with ivory,
which seems to have been cultivated by Muhammadans, and of which
the doors of the mausoleum at Seringapatam are good examples, has
latterly been revived at Mysore, and many useful and ornamental
articles are now made there of this kind of intaglio. Similar work is
also met with in choice musical instruments, especially the v'lna.

Music. — It is perhaps not superfluous to refer to this subject, as
Captain Day, who is an authority, says : — " There are two distinct
systems of music in use in India, the Hindustani and the Karnatik.
The latter, practised chiefly in Southern India, may be called the
national system ; the Hindustani shows traces of Arabian and Persian
influence. The Hindu scale has, possibly from a natural transfor-
mation tending to simplicity, become practically a half tone one,
allowing of the performance of expressive melodic music capable of the
greatest refinement of treatment, and altogether outside the experience
of the Western musician. As regards the apparent similarity of the
Indian and European scales, it must be remembered that the latter
were evolved in process of time from those of ancient Cireece. It is
tolerably certain that the music of the whole ancient world consisted
entirely of melody, and that harmony or counterpoint, in the modern
acceptation of the word, was altogether unknown. The historian
Strabo shows that (Ireek influence extended to India, and also that
Greek musicians of a certain school attributed the greater part of the
science of music to India. Even now, most of the old Greek modes
are represented in the Indian system.'" The study of music in this

' Notes on Indian Music, a lecture deliveretl before the Musical Association in

524 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

country originutcd, perhaps, in the chanting of the Sama Veda, and
sacrificial rites, it is said, lost their efificacy unless three Brahmans
were present, two playing on the vina and the third chanting.' The
designation of the seven notes by the initial letters of their names is
older tlian tlie time of Panini (fourth century n.c.) This notation
passed from the Hindus to the Persians, and from these again to the
Arabs, and was introduced into European music by Guido d'Arezzo at
the beginning of the eleventh century. Our word gamut, indeed, is
supposed to come from the Sanskrit grama, Prakrit gdma, a musical
scale. ^

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The most generally practised industrial arts of native growth are those
connected with metallurgy, pottery, carpentry, tanning, glass-making, the
production of textile fabrics or the raw material for them, rope-making, the
expression of oil and saccharine matter, and the manufacture of earth
salt. Other arts have doubtless sprung up in the large centres of popula-
tion, chiefly in connection with the wants of Europeans or under their
instruction, but the above are the principal ones extensively practised
among the people, except the last, which is now partially prohibited.

Gold-mining. — The most remarkable industrial development of late
years in Mysore has been in connection with gold-mining. This State
is now the principal gold-producing country in India, the output for
1894 being valued at 14^ million rupees against only Rs. 86,352 from
other parts. Mysore has thus acquired a definite place among the gold-
fields of the world.'*

The main source of the metal at present is the Kolar gold-fields,
situated to the east of a low ridge in the Bowringpet taluq. The
existence here of the remains of old workings has long been known
(see above, p. 32).^ But it was not till 1873 that any special attention
was directed to them. In that year Mr. M. F. Lavelle, a resident in
Bangalore, retired from the army, with some knowledge of geology,
applied to the Government for the exclusive privilege of mining in the

February 1894; sec also an article by E. Stradiot in Mad. Joiirn. Lit. and Sc,
1887-8.

' Stringed instruments played with the bow were considered vulgar, while wind
and percussion instruments were left to the lower classes.

^ See Weber's Htst. Ind. Lit. , 272.

•'' The output in the principal gold-producing countries in 1895 ^"^s valued at —
United States, ;iC9)348,ooo ; Australasia, ;^9,i67,ooo; Transvaal, ;,{^8, 896,000 ;
Russia, ;^7,o8i,ooo ; Mexico, ;^i, 167,000. Join. Soc. Arts, xxiv., 525.

Nothing has been found in the mines to show at what period they were excavated,
or why they were abandoned.

GOLD-MINING 525

Kolar District, his thoughts being principally directed to the possibility
of finding coal. His request was granted on certain terms, the
principal of which, in addition to the maintenance of existing rights,
were, — liberty to select separate pieces of land, not in excess of ten, no
one piece to exceed two square miles in area ; each block to be leased
for twenty years, with exclusive mining rights ; a royalty of 10 percent.
on net sale proceeds of all ores, coal, &c., and of 20 per cent on
that of precious stones, to be paid to the Mysore Government. If the
land should be arable waste, a premium of thirty times the assessment
was to be paid, besides the annual rent fixed by the revenue authorities.
On these conditions Mr. Lavelle commenced operations by sinking a
shaft in 1875 near Urigam. But finding that large capital would be
required for carrying out the work, he next year, with the approval of
Government, transferred all his rights and concessions to Colonel
Beresford. This officer, with some friends among racing men, formed
a syndicate known as the Kolar Concessionaires, who took up the
matter in earnest. Certain modifications were made, on their
representations, in the terms of the concession. Thus the time for
prospecting was extended to 1883 ; the selected lands were leased for
thirty instead of twenty years; and the royalties of 10 and 20 per
cent, were reduced to 5 and 10. On these terms twenty square
miles, forming the Kolar gold-field {see above, p. 43), were from time to
time taken up by the Concessionaires, and the royalty and rent claimed
by Government were further optionally allowed to be commuted by a
present payment of Rs. 55,000 per square mile.

By 1 88 1 the Concessionaires had secured the valuable aid of Messrs.
John Taylor and Sons, a firm of mining engineers in London. A
general rush was made for gold, and rules for mining leases in other
parts were drawn up on similar terms, with the addition (in order to
discourage mere speculators) that a deposit of Rs. 1,000 was to be paid
for every square mile applied for, and an assessment of eight annas an
acre paid on all unarable land. If after two years the Government
were not satisfied with the working, the right was reserved to levy an
assessment of Rs. 5 an acre in lieu of royalty, <S:c. In 1SS6, finding
that the Kolar Concessionaires were realizing vast sums by sale of land
containing gold, a fine of one-tenth of the consideration for every
assignment of a lease was levied by Government. The only other,
besides the Kolar gold-field, where work was being carried on at this
period, was the Honnali gold-field {see above, p. 41).

The Government considered it necessary now to have the country
generally surveyed with reference to auriferous tracts. Mr. I^velle,
with an assistant, accordingly made a rough survey, which was then

526 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

gone over by Mr. Bruce Footc, of the Geological Survey of India, and
duly mapped out. On the information thus obtained it was resolved to
modify the existing rules, by providing for the grant of prospecting
licenses ; by making the grant of a lease conditional on a Company
being formed within two years with a paid-up working capital of not
less than ^5,000 per square mile ; and by reserving to Government the
right to limit the total area to be leased for the time being, and to
dispose of mining leases for such area by public competition.

Under these conditions, up to 1891, about ninety-seven square miles
in all had been leased out for gold-mining, the land being situated in
every District except Bangalore, which is not within the auriferous
band. The Honnali gold-field has ceased work for some time, great
difficulty having arisen in controlling the water in the mines. The
Hamhalli gold mines made a beginning, but are now at a standstill.
The Holgere mines were also started. The principal mines at the
present time at work, in addition to the Kolar mines, are those at
Kempinkote, of which high expectations have been formed. At the
end of 1894 a regular Geological Department was established under
Mr. Bruce Foote, for the examination and record of the mineral
resources of the State, and a number of apprentice geologists are under
training for employment in the Province. The old abandoned gold
workings at Butugahalli are also being explored.

From its nature there is a great element of risk and uncertainty
inherent in gold-mining, and the success of even the Kolar gold mines
was for a considerable time far from assured ; in fact, they were on
the verge of extinction. It was in February 1881 that Captain
B. D. Plummer, a miner of great experience, appointed manager of
the Nundydroog mine, commenced operations there. These were
continued till April 1883, when work was stopped for want of funds.
Three trial crushings had resulted in yields of i dwt. 23 grs., 2 dwts.,
and 2 dwts. 8 grs. respectively, per ton of quartz, and Captain
Plummer considered the indications so favourable that he strongly
urged a continuance of the works, but the shareholders had not the
courage to venture more on the concern. Meanwhile the Mysore
Company had also come nearly to the end of their resources. A
balance of only ^13,000 remained, and it was a question whether to
divide this amongst the shareholders or to risk it on the mine. The
strong advice of Mr, John Taylor prevailed, and Captain Plummer was
sent out in December 1883, to do the best he could with the amount
available. There were probably not half-a-dozen persons at that time
who retained any faith in the future of Indian gold-mining, and he was
considered to be engaged in a lost cause. What actually occurred is

GOLD-MINING

527

matter of history. The champion lode was discovered by him, and by
1885 the success of the Kolar gold-field had been established. ^ The J[^\
shares of the Mysore mine,' which had been as low as lod., were soon
quoted at £,1 los. It paid next year a royalty of Rs. 33,368 to Govern-
ment, the first sum in a since ever-increasing item of revenue that in
1895 had risen to Rs. 733,527. In March 1895 the Nundydroog mine
was again started. Urigam, for carrying on which an appeal for h:ilf-a-
crown per share had before been made in vain, followed. The whole
field was roused into activity. In 1892 Champion Reefs began to pay,
and now takes the lead, with its ^i shares quoted at ^7. In 1895 there
were thirteen Companies at work, representing a capital of ^^3, 500,000,
with a labour population, including women and children, of 400
Europeans and 11,700 natives. The annual payments on the spot in
wages and otherwise exxced 60 lakhs of rupees. In what was a desolate
waste, a large and flourishing town has sprung up, provided with most
of the conveniences and institutions of European life. A branch railway
on the standard gauge, ten miles in length, was opened in 1893, running
from the Bowringpet junction of the Bangalore line through most of the
principal mining properties, and has proved an immense convenience
and a great success. The principal commodity carried by it is coal, to
which may be added timber and machinery.

The following table shows the output of gold in ounces for the past
.seven years in the four dividend-paying mines and in the whole field"' : —

Mine.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894. 1 1895.

Mysore 49,238

Urigam 16,437

Nundydroog ... 6, 1 29
Champion Reefs' —
Others 3,586

58,181 \ 66,501 ' 64,385

27,350 , 34,841 55,836

15,633 1 23,590 ' 31,225

— ! — ' 6,712

3,768 1 5,205 j 4,982

65,415 i 52,089 ; 63,446
75,092 69,42s 70,352
27,802 1 29,658 38,628
31,547 53,516 70,963
7,279 5,038 6,704

Total oz.

75,390

104,932 130,137 158,158

207,135 ^ 209,729^ 250,093

But taking the returns for the official years, the figures from 18S6-7
are as below, giving the total output, total value (the last three years
in sterling), amount of royalty, premium, &c., [)aid to the Mysore

1 The champion lode runs, at an angle of al)out 45", through a- large hed of horn-
blende schistose rock, surroundeil by granite. It is not of uniform thickness, being in
some places 4 or 5 feel wide, in others almost vanishing, and then widening again.

" The deepest level yet worked isin this mine — a shaft of 1,460 feet, in 1895. The
old native miners had never got lower than 260 feet.

^ It may be as well to note here that these and other statements in this chapter,
though compileil from the only statistics available, do not profess to be absolutely
correct ; Inil they are aiipro.ximalely so, and it was thought l)eller to give wliat were
procural)Ie.

528

IND U STRIA L A R TS

(k)vcrnmcnt, and amount of dividends paid to shareholders (the latter
for calendar years and stated in sterling) : —

Year

Output of gold

Royalty, &c., paid

Amount paid in

in oz.

to Government.

Dividends.)

1886-87

16,325

Rs. 88S,6o6

Rs. 51,248

1887-88

19,083

1,045,678

33,432

—

1888-89

42,548

2,369,946

108,525

—

1889-90

92,014

5,142,016

196,637

;(^ I 60, 242

1890-91

109,643

5,577,930

305,565

227,129

1891-92

146,810

8,415,176

518,450

264,716

1892-93

196,017

;^744,957

495,859

297,630

1893-94

199,642

756,687

725,629

247,234

1894-95

234,859

844,271

733,527

358,375

Total

1,056,941

Rs. 23,439,352
+ .;^2,345,9I5

Rs. 3,168,872

;^i,555,326

These figures show the magnitude of the interests created. But
although the country has naturally benefited greatly thereby, the
principal transactions are pretty much confined to England, where all
the capital has been raised and where all the gold goes. The dealings
in shares take place entirely on the London Stock Exchange, and but
an insignificant amount is held in this country, none of it probably by
natives, except what shares the Mysore Government hold. The
Captains and other officials are English, but the labour employed, as
far as Europeans are concerned, consists principally of Italian miners,
and the native miners were at one time largely INIoplahs from the
Western coast, but this is not now the case.

Gold and Silver. — ^Gold and silver are employed to a very large
extent in making jewellery and ornaments, the most favourite method
with natives of investing their savings, what is not turned to account
in this way being frequently buried. A very small quantity of gold is
obtained in the country from washings of the alluvial soil.

The purity of gold is distinguished by its colour. Pure gold is of
the twelfth colour, and whatever is wanting to make up twelve is to be
considered as alloy. Thus gold of the eleventh colour means a metal
composed of eleven parts of gold and one part of alloy. The native
mode of purifying gold is to take equal quantities of brickdust and
common salt, a good handful, which is put between two pieces of
potter's ware and into it the gold. These are placed in the midst of a
heap of dried cow-dung (bratties), and lighted at top in a place where
the wind cannot produce a strong fire. The pieces of gold when
taken out appear incrusted with a black crust, which must be
removed, and the process as often repeated as the same is reproduced.
1 For the first three years I have not been able to get the figures.

GOLD AND SILVER 529

The following are some of the ordinary gold and silver ornarnents
worn by the people : —

Ragate — circular ornaments worn by women at the crown of the head.
Kyadige — crescent-shaped ornaments worn at the l:)ack of the head.
Jede bille — smaller ones worn on the plait which hangs down the hack.
Chauri kuppe — ornamental pins for the hair, with a bunch of chauri hair
attached for stuffing the chignon or plait.

Bavali — earrings for the upper rim of the ear.

Vole, vale — earrings to fill the large hole in the lobe of the ear.

I'adaka — a pear-shaped drop worn generally on the forehead.

Addike, Gundina sara — necklaces.

Kankani — l:)racelets.

Vanki, Xagamurige, Toju tayiti. Band! — bracelets worn by women above the elbow.

Bajuband — armlets or Inroad belt-like ornaments worn by women above the elbow.

Dabu — a broad, flat zone or hoop for the waist worn by women, generally silver.

Luli, Ruli, Kalsarpini — anklets (silver).

Kalu-gejje — small, round silver bells worn with anklets, especially by children.

Pilli — silver toe-rings.

Udidhara — silver chains worn by men r(jund the waist.

Karadige — silver shrine containing the linga worn by Lingayits.

Tayiti — small silver money-boxes attached to the girdle.

Sunna kayi — an egg-shaped silver chunam-box.

Gold and silver thread and lace for uniforms and for ornamenting
different fabrics are made in Bangalore, and electro-plating is also done
here.

A kind of false gilding was formerly used in the decoration of the
palaces at Seringapatam. It consisted of paper covered with the false
gilding, which was cut into the shape of flowers and pasted on the walls
or columns, the interstices being filled up with oil-colours. The manner
of making this false gilded paper was as follows : —

Take any quantity of lead, and beat it with a hammer into leaves, as thin as
possible. To twenty-four parts of these leaves add three parts of English glue,
dissolved in water, and beat them together with a hammer till thoroughly
united — which requires the labour of two persons for a whole day. The mass
is then cut into small cakes and dried in the shade. These cakes can at any
time be dissolved in water and spread thin with a hair-brush on common
writing-paper. The paper must then be put on a smooth plank and rubbed
with a polished stone till it acquires a coinplete metallic lustre. The edges
of the paper are then pasted down on the board and the metallic surface is
rubbed with the palm of the hand, which is smeared with an oil called
f^iirna, and then exposed to the sun. On the two following days the same
operation is repeated : when the paper acquires a metallic yellow colour.

The gurna oil is prepared as follows : Take threc-c[uartcts of a maund
(about 18 lb.) of agase ycnne (linseed-oil), half a maund (12 lb.) of the
size called chandarasa, and quarter of a maund (6 lb ) of musamhra or
aloes prepared in the country. Boil the oil for two hours in a brass pot.

M M

53° INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Bruise the musambra, and having put it into the oil, boil lliem for four hours
more. Another pot having been made red-hot, the chandarasa is to be put
into it and will immediately melt. Take a third pot, and having tied a cloth
over its mouth, strain into it the oil and musambra : these must be kept in a
gentle heat and the chandarasa added to them gradually. The oil must be
strained again and it is then fit for use. The chandarasa is prepared from
the milky juice of any of the following trees : Jlciis g/oiiierata, ^oni, bela,
bevina, gobali, &c. ; it is therefore an elastic gum.'

Iro?i and Steel. — The metal most widely diffused and generally
wrought is iron. It is obtained both from ore and from black iron-sand.
The iron ore is obtained in small irregular masses by digging a few feet
below the surface, generally on low rocky hills, but in some places in the
fields. The small masses are generally mixed with clay and sand, which
is separated by beating to powder and washing. The ore is of two kinds,
one eiiflorescing into red ochre, the other into yellow. The stones which
are too hard to be broken up are called male, while those which being in
a state of decay yield to the hammer are called female. The collectors
of the ore convey it on either asses or buffaloes to the smelting furnaces.
The black sand is found in the rainy season in the nuUas or channels
formed by torrents from certain hills. The principal places where iron
is smelted are in Magadi, Chiknayakanhalli, Malvalli, Heggadadevankote
and Arsikere taluqs, and in the southern and central parts of Chitaldroog
District, and the eastern parts of Shimoga and Kadur Districts. A
steam iron foundry on a considerable scale has been established at
Bangalore under European management. There is also a native iron
foundry at Chik Ballapur, where sugar-mills and agricultural implements
are made or repaired.

Iron-smelting is performed in furnaces, the heat of which is fed by a pair
of bellows formed of whole buffalo hides, worked by hand. The process
commences with filling the furnace with charcoal. After it is heated, which
requires an hour, a basket of ore, containing about thirty-three pounds,
reduced to pieces the size of a filbert or pea, is put into the funnel and
covered with charcoal ; an hour afterwards a similar basketful of ore is put
in, and this addition repeated three times at the stated intervals, care being
taken that it is always covered with charcoal and the furnace supplied with
a sufficient quantity of this article. After the third addition of ore, a small
hole is made at the lowest extremity of the furnace to let out the dross.
About an hour after the last replenishment, the process is finished, which
lasts altogether from five to six hours.

After the charcoal has been consumed, the temporary part of the furnace

is pulled down, and the iron collected at the bottom of it is taken out with a

long forceps, carried to a small distance, and beaten with large wooden

clubs. During this operation a great quantity of scoriae are seen running

1 Tliis and other processes quoted are from Buchanan.

IRON AND STEEL 531

from the porous mass of iron. When the red heat is nearly over, it is cut
into three pieces. In this state it is very porous, and ^vorse in appearance
than any crude iron of European manufacture. To prepare it for the
market, it is several times heated to whiteness, cut into thirteen pieces of
about two pounds each, and hammered into cyHndrical pieces of eight inches
in length. It is in this state a good soft iron, answering all purposes for
which it is wanted in cultivation and building. The maund of this iron
(twenty-seven pounds) is sold for about two rupees.

In order to convert the iron into steel, each piece is cut into three parts,
making fifty-two in the whole, each of which is put into a crucible, together
with a handful of the dried branches of tangadi {cassia auriculaia), and
another of fresh leaves of vonangadi {convolvulus laurifolia). In some parts
the iron is heated, hammered and reduced into pieces of eight inches long,
two inches broad and half-an-inch thick, before putting into the crucible.
The mouth of the crucible is then closely shut with a handful of red mud,
and the whole arranged in circular order, with their bottoms turned toward
the centre, in a hole made on the ground for the purpose. The hole is then
filled up with charcoal, and large bellows are kept blowing for si.x hours, by
which time the operation is finished. Tlie crucibles are then removed from
the furnace, ranged in rows on moistened mud, and water is thrown on them
whilst yet hot. The steel is found in conical pieces at the bottom of the
crucibles, the form of which it has taken. The upper or broader surfaces
often striated from the centre to the circumference.

In some crucibles half of the iron only is converted into steel, and others
are found empty, the smelted metal having run through a crack in the
crucible. This is smelted again and sold for making fireworks. The
conical pieces are sold at the price of 100, or 15 lbs. per about Rs. 3^, or
the maund of 27 lbs. per Rs. 5 to Rs. '■^\. Sometimes they are heated again
and hammered into small bars of four or five inches long.

It is probably not quite indifferent what crucibles are used in this opera-
tion : at all events they must be able to stand a strong fire. The loam
employed for these crucibles is of a brown red colour, and is probably
derived from the decomposition of the greenish slaty rock of the neigh-
bouring hills. It is of an earthy appearance and crumbles between the
fingers ; mixed with white sand and some shining particles ; it has no earthy
smell when breathed upon, nor effervesces with acids. From this the finer
particles used for crucibles are separated by water, which keeps them
suspended for some time, during which it is drawn off and left to deposit
them. The dried sediment of many of these washings is compact, has a
liver-brown colour, with some shining particles ; of the consistence of chalk ;
a conchoidal fracture, feels soft and soapy, and takes a polish from the
nail. It makes a pretty good brown paint. Of this the crucibles are made,
by moistening it and mixing it with the husks of rice. It is then dried in
the open air.

The stone used in the construction of the fire-places of tiic iron and steel
furnaces is called balapam by the natives — a name applied to all stones of
the magnesian order, which have a soapy and greasy feel, and little hardness.

M M 2

532 INnUSjyUAL ARTS

The principal point of makin;^' steel by fusion seems to consist in the
exclusion of atmospheric air from the crucible, and the use of fresh vege-
tables instead of charcoal, by which means it is probable a higher tempera-
ture is obtained than could easily be procured by the use of common
charcoal. Hence the iron is more certainly fused and at a smaller expense.
The grain of the steel is much finer than that of the ore ; but there still
appear spots which are not well fused.

An instrument maker in England, consulted by Dr. Heyne regarding
wootz or Indian steel, expressed the following opinion: —

" In the state in which it is brought from India it is not perfectly adapted
for the purpose of fine cutlery. The mass of metal is unequal, and the cause
of inequality is evidently imperfect fusion ; hence the necessity of repeating
this operation by a second and very complete fusion. I have succeeded in
equalizing it, and I now have it in a very pure and perfect state, and in the
shape of bars like English cast steel. If one of these is broken by ablow of
a hammer, it will exhibit a fracture that indicates steel of a superior quality
and high value, and is excellently adapted for the purpose of fine cutlery,
and particularly for all edge instruments used for surgical purposes. A
very considerable degree of care and attention is required on the part of the
workmen employed in making steel ; the metal must on no account be
over-heated, either in forging or hardening ; the fire ought to be charcoal or
good coke.

" The art of hardening and tempering steel is admitted, by all who have
attended to the subject, to be of vast importance ; the excellence of the
instrument depending in a great measure on the judgment and care with
which this is performed. I find the Indian steel to be extremely well
hardened when heated to a cherry-red colour in a bed of charcoal dust, and
quenched in water cooled down to about the freezing point. In the process
of tempering, a bath of the well-known fusible mixture of lead, tin, and
bismuth, may be used with advantage ; linseed-oil will also answer the
purpose, or, indeed, any fluid whose boiling point is not below 600 degrees.
The temper is to be ascertained by a thermometer, without any regard to
the colours produced by oxidation. It is worthy of notice, that an instru-
ment of Indian steel will require to be tempered from forty to fifty degrees
above that of cast steel. For example, if a knife of cast steel is tempered
when the mercury in the thermometer has risen to 450, one of Indian steel
will require it to be 490 ; the latter will then prove to be the best of the two,
provided always that both have been treated by the workman with equal
judgment and care.

" Upon the whole, the steel of India promises to be of importance to the
manufactures of this country. But the trouble and expense of submitting it
to a second fusion will, I fear, militate against its more general introduction.
If the steel makers of India were made acquainted with a more perfect
method of fusing the metal, and taught to form it into bars by the tilt
hammers, it might then be delivered here at a price not much exceeding
that of cast steel."'

IRON AND STEEL 533

Steel is made especially in Heggadadevankote, Malvalli, Kortagiri
and Madgiri taluqs. Steel wire drawing is performed at Channapatna
for the purpose of providing strings for musical instruments, and of a
quality which makes the wire sought after throughout Southern India.

The mode of preparing the steel before it is drawn into wire is by
taking any quantity and heating it in a charcoal fire until it is red hot ;
when it is taken out, beaten into a long thin plate upwards of an inch
in breadth, and rolled up into an oval or round form, leaving a small
space between each of the folds. It is then put into the fire again,
well heated, and hammered out as before. This process is repeated
eight times, by which the weight of the steel is reduced to one-fifth of
the original (quantity.

^Vhen this is done it is ready for being formed into wire, and is
again heated and beaten into slender rods, with a stroke alternately
on either side, which gives them a wavy appearance. The rod being
heated again is stretched round a wooden post, and then drawn
through a small hole in a plate of common steel into wire by means
of pincers. In this plate there are several holes of various dimensions
for the purpose of gradually reducing the wire to the size required.
After it has been once drawn, it is necessary to heat it again
before it can be drawn a second time, which is done through a hole
somewhat smaller than the former one. It afterwards requires no
further heat, but is drawn eight or ten times more until it is sufficiently
fine, and this is partly ascertained by the sound it gives when struck by
the finger on being stretched out. At the time of drawing it through
the plates a small quantity of oil is applied to it to make it pass easily.

The following are statistics, so far as available, of the annual quantity
and value of iron smelted in the Province. Shimoga District produces
the greatest amount, followed by C^hitaldroog, Kolar and Kadur
Districts. In the other Districts the following taluijs are the principal
seats of the industry : — Magadi, Chikiiayakaiihalli, (jubbi, Heggada-
devankote, and Malavalli.

Year.

Quantity produced, tr i ■ d

Alaunds of 24 lbs. \ V'''"<= '" '^"P''^-

1881-82

21,203

1882-83

33.^^>5

1883-84

47,5'6

1884-85

47,103

1885-86

41,117

1886-87

21,882

1887-88

22,532

1888-89

21,910

1889-90

2 1 ,099

1890-91

17.31S

1891-92

12,671

45,214
78,834
79,148
64,035
59,638
45,009

42,734
46,197
39,226
29,999
23,188

534 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The industry seems thus to be on the decline, local manufactures
being driven from the field by the cheaper imported articles from
F.urope turned out on a large scale with the aid of machinery. But
with the view of developing this important source of wealth, the
Government in 1S90 offered liberal concessions to a native gentleman
who had studied the subject for many years, and had visited most of
the iron-producing countries of Europe, and who proposed to start
ironworks in the Malavalli taluq on an extensive scale on the most
approved modern principles. Iron ores from Government land being
now free to al , it was agreed to guarantee such freedom for fifty
years to the new industry, without creating any monopoly of the article
in its favour. A similar guarantee was to be given for twenty-five years
against the imposition of export and import duties which do not at
present exist. As regards the supply of wood fuel — the most important
requisite of all — it was proposed to give it for the first ten years free of
seigniorage, and during the second and third decades at Rs. i and 2
respectively per acre of fuel tract felled. The fellings were to be
restricted to tracts carefully selected, so as to benefit the health of the
neighbourhood and not to prejudice the climate, and so situated with
regard to the railway and large centres of population that the fuel in
question had no present marketable value. The fellings, moreover,
were to be confined to small detached blocks aggregating five square
miles per annum, thus making impossible the clearing of any
continuous large area ; and even in such blocks the more valuable
timber-trees of the reserved kind were to be left standing, as well as all
fruit-trees in bearing. A block once worked was not to be touched for
twenty years, thus allowing ample time for regeneration by natural
growth, which it was estimated in fifteen to twenty years would fully
equal the original stock. It was also proposed to establish a plantation
on half a square mile, to be clean felled each year, in special eligible
situations. These yearly accretions of half a square mile of well-
stocked plantations would, it was calculated, add to forest reser\-es
valuable wood, with an admixture of sandal, equal in quantity to as
much as could now be obtained from five, ten, or even more square
miles of the present scrub. It was at the same time provided that the
fuel that was collected must all be used directly and exclusively on the
new industry ; the quantity actually taken therefore would be strictly
proportionate to the extent of the iron works actually carried on. The
concession was to be held open for two years, and if not availed of by
that time was to lapse.

For some reason this promismg scheme, calculated to confer
manifold benefits on the country, has hitherto remained dormant. A

BRASS AND COPPER

535

further subsequent proposal in connection with it was the construction
of a line of rail from near Maddur to Sivasamudam, a survey for which
has been made. This would greatly reduce the cost of transit.
Possibly a number of smaller local works, like those as in some
countries of Europe and America, might be found to suit the condi-
tions of the problem better than large central ones.

Brass and Copper. — The manufacture of brass and copper water
and drinking vessels is to a great extent in the hands of the Bhogars,
who are Jains, some of the chief seats of the manufacture being at
Sravan Belgola and Sitakal. Brass is also used for making lamp
stands, musical instruments, and images of the gods ; and bell metal
for the bells and gongs used in temples and in religious services, and
by mendicants. Hassan and Tumkur Districts produce the largest
number of articles.

Manufactures. — The total value of manufactures is thus stated
for ten years. The figures apparently include textile fabrics, oils,
sugar, coffee, and wooden or metal articles. They do not pretend to
be strictly accurate, but serve to show a decided increase in the annual
value of manufactures, which perhaps would be still clearer if later
statistics were available : —

Rs.

I8SI-2

5.391,246

1886-7

6,766,848

1882-3

5,030,449

18S7-8

7,979,668

1883-4

5,668,206

1888-9

9-334,965

1884-5

7,921,696

1889-90

14,541,774

1885-6

7.501,43s

I 890-9 I

9,766,390

The following statement shows the proportion in which each District
contributes to the totals of the last five years : —

District.

1886-7.

1887-8.

1888-9.

1839-90.

1890-1.

Rs.

Bangalore

.. 2,468,636 .

. 2,732,110 .

• 4,355,500

•• 3,977.170 .

. 3.896,653

Kolar

939,280 .

. 1,025,385 .

• 1,035,325

.. 1,091,940 .

. 1,188,150

Tumkur ...

245,873 ..

329,3^4 ••

• 44^,320

.. 359,822 ..

. 388,379

Mysore ...

694,845 .

770,060 .

• 428,370

698,221 .

• 472,425

Shinioga . . .

439,974 ■

. 285,588 .

• 273,860

■■ 524,476 .

• 393,530

Hassan ...

186,118 .

. 292,504 .

• 341,5^9

.. 6,126,500 .

• 1,547,996

Kadur

• I. 571. 592 ■

■ 2,213,787 .

• 1,474,251

.. 1,234,870 .

• 1,444,191

Chilaklroog

220,530 .

• 330,850 .

• 977,750

528,775 .

455,066

Textile Fabrics.— These are of cotton, wool and silk, with a few
from fibre. The following are the only years for wliich I can
obtain complete statistics of the annual estimated value of such
fabrics : —

53^ INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Cotton Fabrics.

Woollen Fabrics.

Silk Fabrics.

Other Fabrics

Rs.

IS8I-2

2,118,490

266,525

161,800

... 32,470

1882-3

1,752,400

330,060

157,550

19,480

IS83-4

1,733,340

..• 413,950 ••

136,500

... 38,124

IS84-5

•• 2,712,799

251,630

107,500

... 67,556

1S85-6

1,853,082

203,125

52,500

... 64,356

These figures do not include the value of raw materials sent out of
the Province for manufacture. Raw silk especially is largely exported
to various parts in Southern India.

Cotton. — The spinning of cotton into yarn or thread is the occupa-
tion of large numbers of women of the lower orders. But before the
cotton is ready for the spinning-wheel, it is cleaned or separated from
the seed by passing through a rude gin, and then, as it is too lumpy
for spinning, it is fluffed up with a how, which is the special occupation
of a class of Musalmans called Pinjari. It is then carded into rolls
handy for the spinner. The wheel is turned by means of a handle
with the right hand, whilst .with the left, which holds the cotton, the
thread is spun on to the reel. After the bobbin is full, the yarn is
rewound on to a swift. This is done by placing the axle of the swift
perpendicularly on the ground, and keeping it in rapid motion by a
touch with the third and fourth fingers of the left hand. The thread is
then reeled off on to a bigger reel, and finally into a large skein, by
passing round five small stakes set up in the ground in the form of a
square. The skein is next dressed for the loom. The requisite
number of threads is fastened firmly to fixed points, and being
separated by small sticks, is supported by cross sticks. The cleaner
then takes a brush of cocoanut fibre, and dipping it in a preparation
of flour and water, passes it steadily up and down the entire length of
the skein, using at the same time one of the small dividing sticks to
facilitate the operation.

The loom is placed over a kind of well or hole, large enough to
contain the lower portion of the machinery, which is worked on the
pedal principle, with the toes, the weaver sitting with his legs in the
hole for the purpose. The combs are supported by ropes attached to
beams in the roof, working over pulleys, and stretching down into the
well to the toes of the weaver. In his right hand is the shuttle, which
contains the thread, and which, passed rapidly through the spaces
created by the combs, forms the pattern. The principal comb is
held in the left hand. As the cloth is manufactured it is wound on
the beam by slightly easing the rope on the right hand and turning
round the lever.

Particulars will be found under each District, in Vol. II., of the

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES 537

cotton fabrics manufactured in the various localities. In addition to
the cotton stuffs used for clothing, the principal are tape for bedding,
carpets or rugs, tent cloth, cordage, &c.

Of ]VoolIen fabrics the kavibli or camblet is an indispensable article
of covering for almost all classes. Its manufacture is a characteristic
industry, more especially of the Chitaldroog and Kolar Districts, and
of Mandya and Hunsur in Mysore District. For the finest kinds, made
only in Chitaldroog District, the best of which are of very high value
(see Vol. II) and rarely made except to order, the fleece from the first
shearing must be used. This is taken from the sheep when about six
months old. Every successive fleece becomes coarser and does not
increase in quantity. The wool is commonly black, and the deeper
this colour the more valuable the wool is reckoned. The fleece is
shorn twice a year, in the second month after the shortest day, and
in that which follows the summer solstice. Twelve sheep give as
much wool as makes a kambli six cubits long and three wide.

Before the sheep are shorn they are well washed. The wool, when it has
been shorn, is tensed with the fingers, and then beaten with a bow like
cotton, and formed into bundles for spinning. This operation is performed
both by men and women, partly on the small cotton wheel and partly with
the distaff. Some tamarind-seeds arc bruised, and after having been
infused for a night in cold water, are boiled. The thread when about to be
put into the loom is sprinkled with the cold decoction. The loom is of the
same simple structure as that for cotton weaving. The new-made cloth is
washed by beating it on a stone ; and when dried it is fit for sale. The
high price of the finer kinds is thus evidenUy owing to the great trouble
required in selecting wool sufficiently fine, the quantity of which in any one
tlecce is very small.

The carpets of Ilangalore are well known for their durable quality,
and for the peculiarity of having the same pattern on both sides.
The old patterns are bold in design and coloining. The pile carpets
made in the Central Jail from Persian and Turkish designs are
probably superior to any other in India. In connection with l>anga-
lore carpets the following interesting remarks and testimony l)y Sir
(".eorge IJirdwood may be quoted from his sumptuous work' prei)ared
lor the Austro-Hungarian (jovernment: —

The decoration of textile fabrics was at first extremely ritualistic, and
pre-historically it would seem to have originated in tatooing, from which
the rich symbolical vestments worn by kings and priests have, in great
part of tlie world, been obviously derived. The practice was once

' Enlitlc'tl The Termless Antiquity, Historical Coittiiiiiity, and IittCi^ral Identity
of the Oriental Manufacture of Sumptuary Carpets,

538 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

universal and is still widespread, and where it yet survives is invariably
ritualistic, indicating the relation of those so " stigmatised " to their tribes
and tribal divinities. . . , Already at the time of the composition of the
Iliad and Odyssey these textiles had acquired the ritualistic Euphratean
types by which they have ever since been predominantly characterised
throughout Central, Southern and Western Asia, as also in their passage
through Phoenicia and Phrygia into Europe.

[The author considers that the coloured slabs and other decorations
discovered by Layard in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon] all incon-
testably prove that, in design and colour, the carpets woven in Hindustan
and Central Asia to-day are the self-same carpets as were used for awnings
and floor covering in the palaces of Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and
Sardanapalus, " the great and noble Asnaper " of the Book of Ezra. The
stone slab from Koyundjik [palace of Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681], and the
door sill from Khorsabad [palace of Sargon, B.C. 722-703], are palpably
copied from carpets, the first of the style of the carpets of Bangalore, and
they were probably coloured like carpets.

The wonderful carpets of Bangalore probably approach in their bold
scale of design and archaic force of colouring nearest to their Euphratean
prototypes. . . , The Italianesque style introduced in the treatment of
modern Persian carpets, and, with local modifications, of the Masulipatam
and other denominations of Indian carpets, if a departure from the
traditionary Euphratean mode, is yet undeniably pleasing, and on account
of its broken patterning and generally diffused colouring, better adapted to
carpets intended for European rooms, where they are overcrowded and
overshadowed by the furniture, than the severely co-ordinated designs and
immense masses of clearly-defined, deep-toned colours of the carpets of
Ushak, Koula, and Bangalore.

Notwithstanding, however, the sweet charm of the Abbasi Persian
carpets of modern trade, the palm for pre-eminent artistic merit above that
of all other denominations of Oriental carpets now manufactured for merely
commercial gain must be awarded to those of Masulipatam and Bangalore,
to the former for their perfect adaptability to European domestic uses, and
to the latter on account of the marvellously-balanced arrangement of their
colossal proportions and the Titanic power of their colouring, which in
these carpets satisfy the feeling for breadth, and space, and impressiveness
in State furniture, as if they were indeed made for the palaces of kings and
the temples of the gods : and these Southern-Indian carpets, the Masulipa-
tam, derived from the Abbasi- Persian, and the Bangalore, without a trace of
the Saracenic, or any other modern influence, are both, relatively to their
special applications, the noblest designed of any denominations of carpets
now made, while the Bangalore carpets are unapproachable by the com-
mercial carpets of any time and place.

Silk fabrics, of stout texture and excellent designs, are made,
chiefly by Patvegars and Khatris, in Bangalore and at Molakalmuru.
Women of the wealthier classes are often richly attired in silk cloths

TEXTILE MANUFACTURES 539

on ceremonial or festival occasions. These, with and without gold and
silver or gilt lace borders, are largely manufactured in Bangalore ; the
silk and wire used for this purpose are also produced in Mysore. The
silk industry is reviving, owing to the cessation of disease in the silk-
worms, and silk filature is largely carried on in Closepet, Kankanhalli,
Magadi, Chik Ballapur, Tirumakudal-Narsipur and other taluqs. But
Bangalore is the centre of the silk trade, where raw silk is prepared in
large quantities for the loom and dyed.

Mills and Factories. — But the produce of hand-looms can hardly
compete in quantity and price with that of machinery worked by
steam. Of recent years mills on a large scale have been established in
Bangalore city for textile manufactures.

The Maharaja of Mysore Spinning and Manufacturing Company
(Limited), was originally established by a Bombay firm in August
1883, with a nominal capital of Rs. 450,000. It has been assisted by
the Mysore Government, which has taken some shares and advanced
loans on easy terms for extending the machinery. The mill contains
187 looms and 15,624 spindles, and employs up to 600 hands, of whom
more than a half are men, the rest being women, boys and children.
In 1888 it paid a dividend of 7 per cent, but none in subsequent
years. The following is the quantity and value of work turned out : —

Yarn. Cloth.

lbs.

Value Rs.

lbs.

Value Rs.

1890-1

1,429,389 .,

• 519,345 •

56,115

28,057

1891-2

1,358,080

509,280

.. 281,757

132,073

1892-3 ..

1,609,076

. 653,687 ..

401,678

220,207

1893-4 .,

• 1,232,755 ••

462,283

• 294,393 ..

. 147,196

The Bangalore Woollen, Cotton and Silk Mills Company (Limited),
under the management of Messrs. Binny and Co., of Madras, was
started in November 1888. The capital is Rs. 400,000, and the
average annual dividend 4 to 4^ per cent. The Ciovernment of
Mysore holds shares in tliis concern also. There are 14,160 spindles
for cotton, and 26 looms and 780 spindles for woollens. The number
of hands employed varies from 500 to 600, a half or more being men.
The out-turn of work is as follows : —

Cotton Yarn. Woollen Blankets and Jhools.

Ib.s. N'aluc Rs. lbs. Value Rs.

189O-I ... 1,615,844 ... 608,341 ... 251,862 ... 125,931

1891-2 .. 1,388,785 ... 512,058 ... 182,967 ... 104,795

1892-3 ... 1,481,700 ... 578,443 • •• 119,53s ••• 64,152

1893-4 ... 1,439,148 ... 558,402 ... 105,348 ... 59,286
A cotton-ginning factory has been established by Messrs. Binny
and Co. at Davangere, which is a great mart for that staple. There
is also a cloth manufactory at Siddarhalli in Belur taluq.

540 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Dyes. — In connection with the foregoing textile fabrics may be
mentioned the dye stuffs used to produce different colours : —

Woollen dyes. — Blues, from indigo ; yellow, from turmeric ; red, from
Sanders wood and lac ; browns, from popli chakkc ; orange, purple, and
green, by mixing the primitive colour stuffs ; rose and magenta, from aniline
dye ; crimson and dark red, from red-wood and lac ; scarlet, from red-wood
and tin mordant.

Silk dyes. — P'rom suringi {calysaccion loiigifolium) are obtained red
and crimson, used with two parts of pesti pods by boiling. From
kamala powder {rottlera imclon'a, Kan. kapila piidi) are obtained the
following — blue, for bleached silk, by maceration in cold solution of indigo ;
black, by steeping again with alum and iron mordants ; greens, for
yellow thread steeped in indigo solution. From safflowers {carthamus
ttnctoriiis, Kan. kitsumba) yellow and pink for red thread steeped in indigo
solution.

Cotton dyes. — From Indian madder {rubia munjisia, Kan. viunjistd) are
obtained pink, crimson, lake, and orange. Native dyers use it commonly
for red colour by boiling with alum. From chay root {pldenlandia iimbel-
lata, Kan. chiri verji) are obtained red, orange, and purple. It is very
e.\tensi\-ely used for red dye by the native dyers. The process varies to
some extent in obtaining the evanescent and permanent colours. From
morinda bark {morinda uinbellata, Kan. maddi chakke) is obtained red, by
boiling with milk-hedge ashes. The colour is dull, yet it is considered
faster than the brighter colours obtained from other substances. The best
dye is procured from the bark of the roots of trees three years old. From
popli stem {ventilago ntadraspatatia, Kan. popli chakke) is obtained brown.
The bark of the root is used also for orange dye. With chay root it forms
a rich chocolate colour, and with galls black ; used by oiling and steeping,
with or without alum. From myrabolan {tenninalia c/iebida, Kan. alale
kayi) used with other stuffs, is obtained yellow and black, by maceration
and boiling. The three kinds of myrabolans yield, with alum, a good
durable yellow, and with salts of iron a black colour, commonly used for
tanning purposes. From babool bark {acacia arabica, Kan. mtigali chakke)
are obtained buff and fawn, by boiling. From indigo seeds (Kan. tagasi
bija) is obtained an adjunct for blue dye. From annotto {bixa orellana,
Kan. rajiga vidlike) and from mara manjil {coccinium fenestratum, Kan.
mara arisina) is obtained yellow. From cassia flowers {cassia aiiriculaia,
Kan. tdvarike htivii) is obtained blue. It is also an adjunct for yellow dye.
From cochineal {coccus cacti., Kan. kirimanji htila) red and scarlet are
obtained.

Other dyes. — From indigo {indigo/era tinctoria, Kan. iiili) is obtained
blue and its shades, green, purple and black, by maceration in solutions.
From turmeric {curcuma longa, Kan. arisina) yellow and orange, by boiling
with alum mordant. From sanders wood {pterocarpiis santalinus, Kan.
patanga) red, crimson, scarlet, orange, and purple, by boiling with alum or
tin \ from poras flower {biitea frondjsa, Kan. viuttugada htivic) yellow.

GO XI 541

green, and orange, by steeping in : with the addition of a Httle soda it
turns to orange. From lac {coccus lacca, Kan. arafru) red, crimson and
scarlet, by steeping. From log wood {hcrmatovylon campechianuiit) red and
black, by boiling. From tugra seeds (cassia tora, Kan. tan^adi bija) blue,
used as an adjunct to green and yellow. Cassan leaves (inemccylon /inc/oria,
Kan. ulli yele) are used in red colours by boiling with alum.

Goni. — In many parts of the country, goni is a considerable article
of manufacture. It is a coarse, but very strong sackcloth, from 18 to
22 cubits in length, and from ^ to f of a cubit broad, and is made
from /«;;<//, \\\Q: janupa or crotaiaria ju7icea. It is divided into three
kinds, which differ in value according to their strength, and to the
closeness of the fabric. The same people, who are a particular caste
of men, cultivate the plant and carry on the manufacture. After
being cut down, the plant is dried in the sun and tied up in bundles,
which are taken out as wanted and put in the water, at which time
their bands are cut, and the stems being opened out, are kept down to
the bottom by stones or mud. According to circumstances they
require to be kept in the water from si.\ to eight days. They are
known to be ready when the bark separates easily from the pith. It
is then taken out of the water, and a man, taking it up by handfuls,
beats them on the ground, occasionally washes them until they are
clean, and at the same time picks out with his hand the remainder of
the pith, until nothing except the bark is left. This is then dried,
and being taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to separate and
clean the fibres. The hemp is then completely ready, and is spun
into thread on a spindle, both by the men and women. The men
alone weave it, and perform this labour in the open air with a very
rude loom.

Jiopeinaki/ig from cocoanut fibre, sufficient for agricultural wants, is
common in all parts.

Oil-pressing. — This is a very generally followed calling all over the
country by the class called Ganigas, described in a previous chapter.
The oil mills are in the form of an immense mortar and pestle of
stone : in the kind driven by two bullocks the mortar is a block of
granite, 6 feet 9 inches above ground, with a pedestal let in to an equal
distance under ground. A wooden beam, 17 or iS feet long, pressing
at one end closely against the foot of the mill with a loud creaking
noise, which is the well-known indication of the neighbourhood of oil-
mills, has an arm projecting upwards at about a third of its length,
which is attached to the head of the pestle. The mill is driven by
o.xen yoked at the farther end of the beam, who pull it round and
round.

542 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The different kinds of oil made are : —

\\'()I1 cllu, lil or gingclly oil, from two kinds of scsatniim.

I Inch ellu, or ram Ul, from guizotca oleifera.

Ilaralu, castor-oil, from the large and small varieties of ricintis.

Kobri, from the dried kernel (kobri) of the cocoanut.

Hippe, from the friiit of the bassia loiigifolia.

Honge, from the seed of \\\(i pongatnia glabra.

The woll eUu oil is expressed from surugana and kari ellus, the
same with the woUe and phidagana ellus of other parts. The first
gives the least oil ; but for the table it is esteemed the best of any in
the country ; the price, however, of the two kinds is the same. The
mill receives at one time about seventy seers measure (2 "42 bushels)
of sesainwn seed ; and, in the course of grinding, ten kachcha seers
measure of water (278 ale quarts) are gradually added. The grinding
continues for six hours, when the farinaceous parts of the seed, and
the water, form a cake ; and this having been removed, the oil is found
clean and pure in the bottom of the mortar, from whence it is taken
by a cup. Seventy /^M^ seers of surugana, or 65 seers of kari eliu
seed give 2 kachcha maunds (rather more than 5^ ale gallons) of oil.
The mill requires the labour of two men and four oxen, and grinds
twice a day. The oxen are fed entirely on straw, and are allowed none
of the cake, which is sometimes dressed with greens and fruits into
curry, and at others given to milch cattle.

The huch ellu is managed exactly in the same manner. The seventy
seers measure require a little more water than the other ellu^ and gives
65 seers of oil (or a little more than 4I gallons). This also is used for
the table. The cake is never used for curry, but is commonly given to
milch cattle.

The haralu, or castor-oil, is made indifferently from either the large
or small varieties of the ricinus. It is the common lamp oil of the
country, and is also used in medicine. What is made by boiling, as
described below, is only for family use ; all that is made for sale is
expressed in the mill. To form the cake, seventy seers of the seed
require only five seers, kachcha measure (i"39 ale quarts) of water, and
give 60 seers (4'i7 ale gallons) of oil, which after being taken out of
the mill, must be boiled for half an hour, and then strained through a
cloth. The cake is used as fuel.

The following is the process for making castor-oil for domestic
use : — -

The seed is parched in pots containing about a seer, which is somewhat
more than a quart. It is then beaten in a mortar, by which process balls
of it are formed. Of these from four to sixteen seers are put into an

OIL-PRESSING 543

earthen pot. with an equal quantity of boiling water, and boiled for five
hours, during which care must be taken, by frequent stirring, to prevent the
decoction from burning. The oil now floats on the surface, and is decanted
off in another pot, in which it is boiled by itself for a quarter of an hour. It
is then fit for use, and by the last boiling is prevented from becoming
rancid. After the oil has been poured from the seed, the pot is filled up
with water, which is again boiled, and next day the decoction is given to
buffaloes, by which their milk is said to be remarkably increased. The
boiled seed is mixed with cow-dung and formed into cakes for fuel. The
dry stems of the plant are also used for the fire. The oil is commonly used
for the lamp. It is also taken internally as a purgative ; and the Sudras,
and lower castes, frequently anoint their heads with it, when they labour
under any complaint which they attribute to heat in the system.

Kohri oil is made from the dried kernel of the cocoanut, which is
called kobri. This oil is chiefly used for anointing the hair and skin.
Cakes are also fried in it, and it is sometimes used for the lamp. The
mill receives 6 maunds weight of the kobri (almost 93 lbs.), and 11
kachcha seers measure of water (a little more than 3 ale quarts). This
produces three maunds (about 7*8 ale gallons) of oil. The natives eat
the rake dressed in various ways.

The hippe oil, made from the fruit of the hassia longifo'ia, is used
for the lamps burned before the gods, being esteemed of a better
quality than that of the ricinus. The mill takes 70 seers measure, and
the seed requires to be moistened with 12 kachcha seers (3^ ale quarts)
of tamarind water, in which 2 seers of tamarinds have been infused.
The produce is 70 seers (4*365 ale gallons) of oil. The cake is used
as soap to wash oil out of the hair of those who anoint themselves.

The honge oil, produced from the seed of the poiigamia glabra^ is
used for the lamp ; but it consumes very quickly. It is also used
externally in many diseases. Take 70 seers, pakka measure, of the
seed freed from the pods, add 4 kachcha seers measure of water (ri i
ale quart), and beat them in a mortar into a paste. Then tread the
paste with the feet ; and, having kept it for two or three days, dry it in
the sun. It is then put into the mill, with one kachcha seer (i9'6
cubical inches) of water. It produces 40 seers (2^ ale gallons) of oil.
For fuel, the cake is mi.xed with cow-dung.

Although all these kinds of oil are made as of old, the imported
kerosene oil has to a great extent superseded them for domestic use
among all classes.

Oil-mills worked by steam have been established at Bangalore by
Messrs. Binny & Co. of Madras. There is also an Oil-Mill Company
working at Mysore. A combined rice and oil-mill factory has also
been established by native agency at Tumkur, where both screw

544

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

presses worked by hand and steam machinery are in use. A Bombay
firm maintain an agent at Davangere, whose special duty it is to
procure oil-seeds for export to that place.

The above account contains no notice of the distillation of sandal-oil,
which comes more under the head of perfumery, and is of importance
in connection with Mysore, the home of the sandal. The native
method of extracting sandal-oil is very different from the European
process. Large quantities of sandal-wood roots are yearly bought at
the Mysore sandal-wood auctions and exported to France, to be there
manufactured into oil, for which the demand is great in certain
contagious diseases. A concession was offered to a French firm to
erect a factory in this Province for distilling sandal-oil. The oil is also
distilled at Mr. Hay's factory at Hunsur.

Soap and candle works, worked by steam, have been set up in
Bangalore city, under European management, and the concern, which
has been aided by the Mysore Government, is being formed into a
Joint-Stock Company. Soap, made from cocoanut-oil, and candles,
made from di'tpa seeds {vateria indica), have been manufactured on a
small scale at Shikarpur by Amildar Nagesha Rao.

The following are the only figures available showing the estimated
value of the oils manufactured in the Province : —

Rs.

I88I-2

653,184

1884-5

539,835

1882-3

431,113

1885-6

662,176

1883-4

.. 578,588

Glass-making. — This art is principally, if not entirely, applied to
the manufacture of bangles or glass rings, worn on the wrists like
bracelets by all classes of women. The chief seat of the trade, which
is not so extensive as at one time, used to be at Mattod, but some
glass is also made at Channapatna, part of which is formed into small
bottles.

At Mattod the furnaces are constructed in a high terrace, which is
built against the inside of the fort-wall, and are in the form of a dome,
or like an oven, eight feet in diameter, and about ten feet in height.
The oven is not arched, but contracted above into a circular opening,
about 18 inches in diameter, by making the upper rows of stones
project beyond those below them. At the bottom of the furnace, in
the side opposite to the town wall, is a small opening, through which
the fuel is supplied. The crucibles are oblong, and would contain
about 5 i Winchester gallons. Having been filled with the materials,
they are lowered down into the furnace by the aperture in the top, by

GLASS-MAKIXG 545

which also the workmen descend. They first place a row of the
crucibles all round the furnace, with their bottoms to the wall and their
mouths sloping inwards. In this position they are secured by a bed of
clay, which covers the crucibles entirely, leaving their open mouths
only exposed. Above this row another is placed in a similar manner,
and then a third and a fourth. The furnaces vary in size, from
such as can contain fifty crucibles thus disposed to such as can
contain twice that number. The fuel consists of small sticks,
which having been gathered a year are quite dry. A quantity having
been put in the bottom of the furnace, the workmen ascend, and some
burning coals are thrown upon the fuel. By the opening below, fresh
fuel is added night and day, until the time allowed for vitrifying the
materials has expired. The fire is then allowed to burn out, and the
furnace to cool. Afterwards the workmen descend, and take out the
crucibles, which must be broken to get at their contents.

The materials used in this manufacture are : soda, quartz or compact
ironstone, compact specular iron ore, and copper.

The soda is gained in the following manner : Some pits about a foot
and a half deep are filled with salt earth, and water is poured upon it. The
same quantity of water is poured successively upon different portions of salt
earth till it is conceived to be sufficiently impregnated with saline matter,
which is judged of by its brown colour. This water is then worked into a
pultaceous mass with cow-dung, and spread about an inch thick upon a
straw mat, and dried in the sun. Another layer prepared in the same way
is applied the next day, and for twelve successive days it is kept moist by
the addition of fresh portions of lixivium of soda. The large cake is then
divided into smaller pieces, which, when quite dry, are piled up into a heap
and burnt. The fine ashes which are found along with the more solid
pieces are kept separate. The latter are reduced to powder, stored up,
and called saiilu sdravi (essence of soda) ; because they contain the largest
quantity of soda.

The quartz (1!^/// >i'a//«) used is a little iron-shot. Corn kallit is an iron
ore that comes nearest to compact brown ironstone (hydrate of iron).
Kcmmidic kalhc, iron glance, specular iron ore or red oxide of iron, is
found in sufficient quantities after heavy rains in a nullah in Hudihal
taluq. The nullah comes from the north side of a hill which probably
contains the ore in rocks. This ore is reckoned best when firm and
sound. If red ochre appear in the fracture, the specimen is esteemed
inferior to the best kind, in the proportion of two to three. And accord-
ingly a greater quantity of it is considered as necessary in the manufacture
of glass.

From these few materials the following kinds of glass are made : —

Bija or mother glass. — It is a soft, imperfect, porous glass ; and is used
only as a substratum or basis to the other kinds of glass. It is made of the

N N

546 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

following ingredients : — The ashes which remain when the soda is made,
and which, as was mentioned before, are kept apart. If these ashes do not
contain many grains of salt, five parts of them are taken ; but if they are
mixed with much salt, three parts are deemed sufficient. To these are
added of pounded quartz, or bili kallu, one part. These two ingredients are
separately pounded and then mixed together, put into clay pots and kept in
the heated furnace for eight days. To see whether glass is formed, an iron
hook fastened to a long bamboo is dipped into a pot containing the glass
materials. If the mass adhering to it be of the consistence of wax, the
operation is finished. If not, another day's heat is given.

Red glass. — This is of a hyacinthine colour, penetrated with large
round white spots. It is composed of bija 7 parts, soda or saulu sdram
21, and kemmidu kallu 10. All the ingredients are first separately
reduced to an impalpable powder, and then mixed. It requires first
three days of slow heat, and then seven days of the strongest fire that
can be given. If more than the stated quantity of kemmidu be taken,
the glass acquires a black colour ; if less, it assumes a lighter shade
of red.

Green glass. — This glass has a dark emerald green colour with opaque
spots, and is composed of the following ingredients : soda or saulu sdram
21 parts, bija 7, kemmidu kallu y, and copper filings y. These materials
having been mixed and put into the crucibles, these are properly disposed in
the furnace, and a fire is kept up for nine days and nine nights. For the
first five days the fuel is added slowly, so that the flame just rises to the
aperture ; and afterwards it is not necessary to occasion quite so great a
heat as for the frit (bija) or black glass. The copper is calcined by burning
it, on the fireplace in the bottom of the furnace, during the whole
nine days that are required to make this glass. The saline crust formed
on the surface of this glass is considered by the natives as unfit for eating.

Black ^lass. — This glass is made of 3 parts of saulu sdram and i of bija.
Four days' moderate heat is enough for obtaining it. The charcoal of the
saulu sdram probably gives it the black colour, as it will lose it if the fire be
too long continued or too strong. This glass is the least esteemed of all.
It is quite opaque and has a close resemblance to enamel. The common
salt contained in the soda separates itself from the other ingredients, and is
found covering the glass or bija in a firm crust of one inch or more in thick-
ness. It is very fine and white, and used like sea-salt.

Blue glass. — This is composed of 21 parts of soda, 7 of bija, i of
copper filings, and an equal quantity of powdered kari kallu. For
fifteen days and nights, these materials must be burned with a moderate
fire.

Yelloiv glass is made of 2 1 parts of soda, and 7 parts of native soda (salt
earth) from which all the small stones have been picked, but which of course
contains a good deal of sand. For fifteen days these are burned with a
slow fire. When this glass is wrought up into rings, it receives a bright
yellow colour by enamelling it with the melted calces of the following
metals : five parts of lead, and one of tin are calcined together. Then one

CARPENTRY AND TURNING. 547

part oi satin or zinc is calcined in a separate crucible. The two calces are
then mixed, and further calcined, until they begin to adhere together.
They are then powdered in a mortar. When the ring-maker is at work, he
melts some of this powder, and, while the ring is hot, with an iron rod he
applies a little of the powder to the surface of the glass.

The yield for each crucible in all cases is the same, except the red
and green kinds, which give respectively i\ niaund (30/,-, lbs.)
and ifV maund (3i|-i- lbs.) ; while the others give only i maund or
24^ lbs.

Carpentry and Turning. — The ordinary carpenters arc engaged
chiefly in making of carts and agricultural implements, with fittings and
furniture for the houses of the villagers. In Bangalore and some other
large places, cabinet work is turned out of great excellence, copied
from English designs Coach and carriage building is also successfully
carried on.

The toys for which Channapatna is noted are remarkably well
suited for their purpose, and much sought after by Europeans as well
as natives. The miniature imitations of native vessels and implements
are turned from hdk wood, and coated with lac of bright colours,
simply applied by the heat of the friction in turning. These toys are
of brilliant colours, smooth, and hard, and the colour never comes
off. Larger toys, representing various animals, are made from a soft
wood like touch-wood, bhurige mara. They are elaborately painted by
hand ; the birds especially, and some fruits, being very fairly modelled
and painted to imitate nature.

The sandal-wood carving, for which Mysore is famous, has already
been described above, p 522.

Sugar and Jaggory. — ^The expression of juice from the sugar-cane
is an important industrial operation, the details of which may be
described as follows : — •

The boiling-house is a thatched hut, about 40 feet long and 20
broad, with a door in front, but without windows. The walls are mud,
and stand all the year ; but a new roof of very slight materials is put on
annually, when the crop is ripe. At one end is a square pit for holding
the cuttings of the sugar-cane, and at the other is the boiler. The
furnace is partly raised and partly sunk ; it is in the form of a truncated
cone, and the fuel is supplied from without by an opening in the
wall. A small hole for letting out the smoke is placed before the
boiler, and has no chimney. The iron boiler is flat, and completely
shuts the mouth of the furnace. 15efore the boiler is a cavity for
containing the large cooling jar. The sugar-mill consists of a mortar,
beam, lever, pestle and regulator.

548 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The mortar is a tree, about lo feet in length, and 14 inches in diameter.
It is sunk perpendicularly into the earth, leaving one end two feet above
the surface. The hollow is conical, truncated downwards, and then
becomes cylindrical with a hemispherical projection in its bottom, in order
to allow the juice to run freely to the small opening that conveys it to a
spout, from which it falls into an earthen pot. Round the upper mouth of
the cone is a circular cavity, which collects any of the juice that may run
over from the upper ends of the pieces of cane ; and from thence a canal
conveys this juice down the outside of the mortar to the spout.

The beam is about 16 feet in length and 6 inches in thickness, and is cut
out from a large tree that is divided by a fork into two arms. In the fork
an excavation is made for the mortar, round which the beam turns
horizontally. The surface of this excavation is secured by a semicircle of
strong wood. The end towards the forks is quite open for changing the
beam without trouble. On the undivided end of the beam sits the bullock
driver, whose cattle are yoked by a rope, which comes from the end of the
beam ; and they are prevented from dragging out of the circle by another
rope which passes from the yoke to the forked end of the beam. On the
arms a basket is placed to hold the cuttings of cane ; and between this and
the mortar sits the man who feeds the mill. Just as the pestle comes
round, he places the pieces of cane sloping down the cavity of the mortar ;
and, after the pestle has passed, he removes those which have been
squeezed.

The lever is a piece of timber nearly of the same length with the beam.
Its thicker and lower end is connected with the undivided end of the beam
by the regulator. Some way above its junction with the regulator, a piece of
siijjalu, which is a very hard wood, is dovetailed into the lower side of the
lever ; and in this piece is made a smooth conical hollow, which rests on the
head of the pestle. The upper end of the lever is fastened to the two arms
of the beam by two ropes.

The pestle is a strong cylindrical piece of timber, about four feet in
length. At each end it is cut to a point, so as at the upper end to fonn a
cone, and at the lower a pyramid of from twelve to fifteen sides, sur-
mounted by a short cylinder. The cavity in the lever being towards one
end, makes the position of the pestle always oblique ; so that as it passes
round it rubs strongly against the sides of the mortar. Its cylindrical
point rubs on the top of the hemispherical projection that is in the
bottom of the cylindrical cavity of the mortar.

The regulator is a strong square piece of timber, which passes through
the undivided end of the beam, and is secured below by part of its circum-
ference being left for cheeks. It is perforated by eight holes, in the lowest
of which is placed a pin to prevent the regulator from falling when the
strain is removed. A pin in one of the upper holes of the regulator and
another in one of the holes in the thick end of the lever, serve to secure in
their place the ropes that bind closely together these two parts of the
machine. According as these pins are placed, higher or lower, the relative
direction of all the moveable parts of the machine is altered, and the

SUGAR AND JAGGORY 549

balance of the beam is so regulated that it goes round without any friction,
but yet with its fork closely applied to the mortar. The only frictions in
this machine, it must be observed, are at the two extremities of the pestle ;
and that which is at the lower end is entirely employed in bruising the
cane, which is the object in view ; still, however, it is a machine badly
contrived for the purpose to which it is applied.

When the works and machinery have been prepared for making
jaggory, all the proprietors of sugar-cane in the village assemble, and
work together a day at each man's field, in rotation, until the whole is
finished. A sufficient number of people bring the canes to a man who
cuts them into pieces about six inches long, and puts them in the
square cavity in the boiling-house. From thence one man supplies
the basket of the person who feeds the mill, and who is the third man
employed at the works. The fourth man drives the bullocks ; a fifth
carries the juice to the boiler ; a sixth attends the fire ; and a seventh
manages the boiler. The mill goes night and day ; and gives fifty-six
pots of juice, containing in all about 218 ale gallons. The bullocks
are changed after having expressed three pots, and do no more work
that day, having been obliged to go very fast. Two of them are in the
yoke at a time.

The cane raised on black mould gives about a fifth part more juice
than that produced on sandy soil ; but then nine pots of the latter give
a hundred balls of jaggory, while it requires twelve, or even fourteen,
pots of the former to produce the same quantity. The workmen
always put into the boiler as much juice as will yield a hundred balls
of jaggory. It is strained into the boiler through a cotton cloth, and
there is added to it a proper quantity of lime-water. In a boiler full of
rich juice, from cane raised on sandy soil, there is put half a seer of
lime-water, or about thirty-four cubical inches ; and poorer juice from
the same kind of soil requires double that quantity. The boiler full of
juice from black mould cane requires five or six seers, which is added
by degrees. The boiler performs his operations three times in the
twenty-four hours.

When the juice has been evaporated to a proper consistence, it is
put into a large pot and allowed to cool for two or three hours. It is
then poured into the mould, which consists of a long thick plank, in
which a hundred holes are formed, each in the shape of a quadrilateral
inverted pyramid. The jaggory, or inspissated juice, is allowed to dry
in the mould for four hours ; when the plank being turned over, the
lialls, or rather pyramids, of jaggory fall down. They are dried b\-
placing them on leaves for a day, and arc then fit for sale. These
balls weigh i:} seer, or ro6 lb. The jaggory thus contains both the

550 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

sugar and molasses, and is similar to what in Jamaica comes out of the
cooler before it is taken to the curing-house. It is, however, some-
what more inspissated ; for which an allowance must be made if we
wish to compare the strength of the sugar-cane juice in the two
countries. By the foregoing account it requires about 37 gallons of
the best juice to make i cwt. of jaggory.

The sugar-mills used in the north-east are two cylinders, wrought by
a perpetual screw, and two bullocks ; but seven times in the twenty-
four hours the bullocks are changed. The mill goes night and day ;
and, by the labour of fourteen bullocks, expresses 7,000 canes, which
produce fourteen maunds of jaggory, or seven maunds of raw sugar,
equal to li cwt.

This cumbrous and tedious process, with its imperfect results, has
been in many parts superseded by the introduction of iron sugar-cane
mills, which are expeditious in working and express the juice more
completely and with greater cleanliness. This is, in fact, almost the
only European machinery that the ryots have adopted.

The Ashtagram Sugar Works were established at Palhalli in 1847,
for refining into sugar the jaggory produced by the ryots. The then
Commissioner of Mysore, Sir Mark Cubbon, afforded the spirited pro-
jectors, Messrs. Groves & Co., every help in his power, and the factory
was a source of great public benefit in developing the resources of
agriculture in that part of the country. The number of men employed
at the works, when in full operation, was about 10 Europeans and 300
natives. The works were afterwards carried on by a Joint-Stock Com-
pany. The prize and medal for the best crystallized sugar at the Great
Exhibitions in London in 1851 and 1861 were awarded to the Ash-
tagram Sugar Works; and at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1867,
where the exhibitors in sugar were numerous and competition great,
" honourable mention " w^as awarded. But the factory has now been
closed for many years since the retirement of the proprietors, though
the buildings and machinery are still there.

The following were the details of manufacture : —

Cane jaggory is usually in the form of small compressed square cakes^
shelving on one side into an inverted cone. This jaggory is sold by the
growers of the cane at so much per cake. But at the sugar works it was
purchased by weight, in order to render which uniform, a table was pre-
pared fixing the weight of 1,000 cakes at 7 cwt. 6 lbs., and the price was
computed at so much per 1,000 cakes.

The jaggory was placed in two large copper caldrons, called " blow-ups,"'
mixed with water, a small quantity of lime, and animal blood, and boiled
by steam until the whole was dissolved and attained a certain consistency.

SUGAR AND JAGGORY 551

The lime was added to neutralize any acidity which might remain in the
jaggory, and the blood combined with the gluten matter contained in the
solution and carried it to the bottom. The solution or liquor (as it was now-
termed) was let into troughs, and underwent a course of filtration through
drill bags fixed in machines fitted up for the purpose. This filtered liquor
was conducted to a cistern, whence it was pumped up to the top of a large
iron cylinder filled with about 20 tons weight of animal charcoal made into
grain, through which the liquor had to pass that it might become
decolourized. It was then let into a tank, whence it was drawn up by the
action of an air-pump into the vacuum pan, where it was again boiled by
steam in vacuo, and crystallization ensued. After this it was let down into
large wooden bo.xes to cool, and was skimmed and allowed to drain to a
small extent. The sugar was now put into machinery, where by centrifugal
action and the application of certain liquors, composed of dissolved sugar
and spirits, the pure white crystals were entirely separated from the
remaining syrup and treacle, and the process was then complete.

The sugar thus obtained was put into a room with a boarded floor, and
sorted into three classes according to quality ; that consisting of large clear
crystals was called P., or the first sort ; the smaller crystals were termed N.,
or the second sort ; and the rest K. X., or the third sort. These were now
put into bags and ready for sale. The first and second sorts were made
entirely of sugar-cane jaggory, and were composed of the early or first
boilings, while the third sort was that which was produced from the last
boilings, and contained an admixture of selected and carefully prepared
date jaggory, of which only a small portion, or about 20 per cent, in
quantity, was added at the " blow-ups." The syrup and treacle that were
skimmed and drained from the wooden and centrifugal boxes were some-
times again boiled in the vacuum pan and converted into molasses sugar,
which, on being drained by a further tedious process, was converted into
the third sort of sugar. But more frequently the molasses and skimmings
were fermented and distilled for rum.

Date jaggory, as crudely manuf;\ctured by the native method, is not
capable of being converted into good crystallized sugar. An establish-
ment for the purpose of manufacturing date jaggory more carefully was
instituted some years ago by Messrs. Clroves ^^ Co. in Banavar takK].
But practical results, as compared with the sugar-cane jaggory, led to
the abandonment of the project. The out-turn of sugar from jaggory,
manufactured as above, was estimated at 50 per cent. Of the
remainder, about 30 per cent, was utilizable for distilling rum, and the
rest went to waste. \\'\\\\ the machinery, comprising water and steam-
power and other facilities, in the Ashtagram Sugar Works, it was
reckoned that not less than 2,000 tons of sugar might be manufactured
annually. This would utilize 4,000 tons of jaggory, which, at an
average price of Rs. 30 per 1,000 cakes, would find the growers of
sugar-cane a market for Rs, 170,000 worth of produce ut their fields, or

Rs.

iS8i-2

844,175

1882-3

534,150

1883-4

.. 1,388,918

552 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

for one-half of wliat may be grown in the late two Ashtagram taluqs
witli ease.

A sugar factory has now been established at Goribidnur by Messrs.
Arbuthnot & Co. of Madras. There is also a Sugar-cane Plantation
Company at Shikarpur, under native management.

The estimated value of the manufacture of sugar is thus stated for
five years : —

Rs.

1884-5 ••• 1,430,472
1885-6 ... 1,873,554

Leather-dressing. — A Government tannery and leather factory were
long maintained in connection with the Commissariat at Hunsur.
Although they have been abolished, the district continues to reap the
advantage which they conferred in training workmen after European
methods. Tanneries have been established on a considerable scale by
]\Iuhammadans near Bangalore. They cure the leather very well, and
export it to European markets.

Leather is tanned by the Madigas at Bangalore in the following
way : —

To dress the raw hides of sheep or goats, the Mddigas in the first place
wash them clean, and then rub each with the fourth part of a kind of soft
paste, made of 6 dudus weight of the milky juice of the yakkada {asclepias
giganled), about 6 dudus weight (2"426 ounces) of salt (muriate of soda),
and 12 dudus weight of ragi anibali or pudding, with a sufficient quantity of
water. This paste is rubbed on the hairy side, and the skins are then
exposed for three days to the sun ; after which they are washed with water,
beating them well on a stone. This takes off the hair. Then powder

2 seers (r2i3 lb.) of myrobalans, and put them and one skin into a pot with

3 or 4 seers measure of hot water, where it is to remain for three days. The
skin is then to be washed and dried.

This tanned skin is dyed black as follows : take of old iron, and of the
dross of iron forges, each a handful ; of plantain and lime skins, each five
or six ; put them into a pot with some ragi kanji, or decoction of ragi, and
let them stand for eight days. Then rub the liquor on the skins, which
immediately become black.

These skins may be dyed red by the following process : take of ungarbled
lac a dudus weight (about 13 drams), of suja kara, or fine soda, i dudu
weight, and of lodu bark 2 dudus weight. Having taken the sticks from
the lac, and powdered the soda and bark, boil them all together in a seer of
water (68^ cubical inches) for ih hour. Rub the skin, after it has been
freed from the hair as before mentioned, with this decoction ; and then put
it into the pot with the myrobalans and water for three days. This is a
good colour, and for many purposes the skins are well-dressed.

The hides of oxen and buffaloes are dressed as follows : — For each skin

LEA THER-DRESSIXG 5 5 3

take 2 seers (r2i3 lb.) of quicklime, and 5 or 6 seers measure (about \\ ale
gallon) of water ; and in this mixture keep the skins for eight days, and rub
off the hair. Then for each skin take 10 seers by weight (about 6 lbs.), of
the unpeeled sticks of thetangade {cassia aiirictilatd), and 10 seers measure
of water (about 2^ ale gallons), and in this infusion keep the skins for four
days. For an equal length of time add the same quantity of tangadi and
water. Then wash, and dry the skins in the sun, stretching them out with
pegs. This leather is very bad.

A very pretty kind of red morocco is manufactured at Harihar by a
set of people called Muchikar.

It is in the first place tanned. The goat skins (for these only are
employed) are dried in the sun for one day ; next day they are washed in
the river, rolled up and put into a pot, with a mixture (for each skin) of one
handful of common salt, as much water, and half of that quantity of the
milk of wild cotton {asclepias gigantea). After the skins have been soaked
in this mixture for four days, the pot is filled up with water, and the leather
suffered to remain four days longer in it : the hair now comes easily off the
skins when scraped by a piece of broken pot. The leather thus cleaned is
laid in the shade, and when dry is rolled up and kept in a house for two or
three days, in a place secure from smoke and from insects ; it is then
soaked for eight hours in pure water, and scraped with a piece of earthen-
ware till it becomes quite white. Before the leather is dyed it is soaked for
one night in a pakka seer of water which has been mixed with a handful of
cholam meal [Iwlciis sorghum) and warmed on the fire ; in the morning it
is taken out and dried with a piece of cloth : when well dried, it is soaked
again for half an hour in water with which one seer of tamarinds has been
mixed ; it is then spread on a mat and the colour applied.

For the red colour take \ kachcha seer of lac (18 drams), alii toppalu
(leaves of the miiiiecylon capitellatiim) j\ of a dub weight, and the same
quantity of the salt extracted from washerman's earth (carbonate of soda) :
pound these ingredients together, boil \ of a seer of water in a place where
there is no wind ; put the pounded mass into it and keep it for a quarter of
an hour over a slow fire. To ascertain whether it has acquired the requisite
consistence, dip a cholam straw into it ; if the liquid does not run down the
straw when turned up it is sufficiently done, but if it runs, the boiling must
be continued for some time longer.

The leather (previously extended on a mat) is, at three different times,
rubbed over with this liquid ; it is then thrice sprinkled over with tamarind
water, and lastly it is steeped for five or six days in a liquid composed of
3 seers of water and i seer of pounded tangadi bark. Every morning it is
taken out, washed a little, and again replaced, till at last it is well washed
in clear water and dried : thus prepared, it has a fine crimson colour, and
is very soft.

Earth Salt. — The manufacture of earth salt, which was once con-
siderable, has greatly declined. Within five miles of the British

554 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

frontier it is prohibited, with the view of preventing smuggling of the
salt into British territory. The process is conducted as follows : —

In the dry season, the surface of the earth is scraped off and collected in
heaps. In front of these heaps the native salt-makers construct a semi-
circle of small round cisterns, each about three feet in diameter and a foot
deep. The sides and floors of these cisterns are made of dry mud : and
each, at its bottom, on the side toward the heaps of saline earth, has a small
aperture, with a wooden spout, to convey the brine into an earthen pot that
is placed in a cavity under it. The bottoms of the cisterns are covered
with straw, and then the saline earth is put in, till it rises nearly to the level
of the tops of the walls. Water is now poured on the surface of the saline
earth, and, in filtering through into the pots, carries with it all the salt.
The inert earth is then thrown out behind the cisterns, and new earth is put
in, for impregnating more water. In the meantime the brine is emptied into
a cavity cut in a rock, and the evaporation is performed entirely by the sun.
The grain of the salt is large, and consists of well-formed cubes ; but it is
mixed with much earthy impurity.

Coffee Works. — A very important industry, which has come into
existence in recent times, is the preparation of coffee for the European
market. The largest works are those belonging to Messrs. Binny & Co.
of Madras, at Bangalore, for peeling, sizing, and sorting coffee. During
the cleaning season, extending from December to March, about i,ooo
hands are employed there, and about 1,500 tons of coffee, the produce
not only of Mysore, but of Coorg, the Nilagiris, the Shevaroys, (Sec,
pass through the works. The factory is also engaged in the compound-
ing of artificial manures for coffee plantations. Other works of a
similar character, for the preparation of coffee for transhipment to
Europe, are carried on by ]Mr. Hay at Hunsur.

The following figures show the value of this manufacture for five
years :-

Rs.

I88I-2

1,114,488

1884-5

3,287,869

1882-3

1,567,192

j 1885-6

2,733,207

1883-4

1,188,308

Brick and Tile J forks. — The great demand for building materials
has led to the establishment recently of a factory for machine-made
bricks and tiles, fire-bricks, drain-pipes, &c., in the Bangalore city, by
Messrs. Arbuthnot & Co. of Madras.

Paper Mills. — The local manufacture of country paper is quite
extinct. A proposal brought forward for paper mills was not carried
out solely because other undertakings seemed to promise better
results.

555

TRADE AND COMMERCE

The land-locked position of Mysore, the mountain barriers which
separate it from the surrounding countries on three sides, and the want
of navigable rivers, are circumstances unfavourable for external trade.
In the time of Tipu all importation was forbidden, with the view of
stimulating home production. But owing to the arbitrary measures
adopted to bring about this result, the Government itself entering the
market as a wholesale dealer, the effect was rather to check the natural
growth of trade and to paralyze industry. Although under the Raja's
government which followed, the same restriction did not exist, yet
commerce was shackled by incredibly vexatious transit duties, to the
abolition of which the early efforts of the British Commissioners were
directed.

After 1 83 1, the construction of an excellent system of trunk roads
throughout the country, leading through the ghats or mountain passes
to the surrounding territories and to the chief ports on the \Vestern
coast, greatly stimulated traffic. But the most powerful impetus has been
given by the railways now in operation, which connect Mysore with
Madras and Bombay, and the intermediate Districts, as well as with the
whole of India beyond. The proposed line from Arsikere to Manga-
lore will aid in developing the trade of the western Districts.

The religious festivals, and the weekly fairs or santes, are the
principal opportunities of trade in the rural districts. The large
merchants are chiefly residents in the towns. They employ agents
throughout the districts to buy up the grain, in many places giving
half the price in advance before the harvest is reaped. By this means
a few men of large capital are able to some extent to regulate the
market.

Sandal-wood, grain, cotton, areca-nut, coffee and a few other com-
modities are the principal articles of commerce. The best method of
exhibiting the interchange of trade will be to give the imports and
exports for a series of years. Though the figures cannot be accepted as
altogether correct, they no doubt show roughly the general course of
trade, the articles carried to and from the country, and the annual
value of the transactions. The means of transport, except where there
are railways, arc country carts on lines of road, and pack-bullocks or
asses in wild and forest tracts

556

TABLE OF IMPORTS

INTO MYSO.
1

1881

-82.

1882-83.

1883-84.

1884-85.

1885-86.

Articles.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Val
R

Arecanut

1,299

565,876

426

415,898

697

512,200

446

345.443

1,480

'''>3!J

Betel-leaves )
(bundles))

25.629,350

1.5871400

33.699.550

91.850

2i27S,340

134,453

2,469,900

147.015

2,717,000

i&l

Camphor

41.925

54,250

60,950

Cardamoms ...

19,110

38.529

25,878

27,763

Chillies

1.434

204,280

1,692

241.975

1.475

306,405

1,568

284,225

1,428

Cholam (jowari)

2,356

70,949

2,078

50.250

2,641

93.444

2,727

93,558

2.414

Cloves

33.845

22,300

9,755

Coarse clothsNo.

275.864

391,820

250,000

348,300

1,466,180

4,293,100

175.550

326,080

285,700

Cocoanuts, dry

341

69,283

205

58,049

234

63,468

246

67,219

184

,, fresh No.

2,196,740

85,412

S.595,500

197,960

583,500

36,846

2,169,000

229,740

3,600,300

Coffee

32S

246,371

232

172,960

63; 690

66,585

104

Cotton

1. 147

640,868

1.177

648,968

1,178

584,400

975

544,201

513

-V

Cotton thread ...

416

375-963

339

165,250

246

180,250

201

198,126

268

26;

Gold

441,320

328,500

496,500

642,960

53=

Gram, Bengal

1,964

102,389

2,804

127,340

1,651

92,370

1.756

122,710

2,010

16?

„ black ...

1,538

75,538

622

43.770

944

62,730

1,258

96,204

1.234

„ green ...

2,495

116,117

1,910

122,774

2,020

99,385

1,962

129,161

2,184

i3i

,, horse ...

9.343

277,935

4,303

126,197

4.306

152,700

6,077

232,050

2,6o6

Hides ... No.

50,300

45,300

50,000

25,000

52,000

28,500

42,000

28,000

54.000

ili

Iron ... •..

2,837

554,660

3,154

605,656

3,843

721,450

3,975

773.450

3,937

7if

Jaggory

1,877

190,472

2,414

225,800

374

35.100

1,483

140,558

1,309

121

Oil, cocoanut ...

161

72,587

189

89.542

42,040

116

50,303

160

„ gingelli ...

296

99,850

285

126,075

170

50,960

424

142,078

217

Pepper

254

184,450

214

155.560

155

100,500

174

128,412

155

14'

Piece goods, No.

1,002,692

2,994,765

1,153,300

3,489,000

1,211,260

4,891,159

2,008,521

4,73;

Poppy-seed

6,186

307

46,080

432

67,480

4,102

16,630

870

Ragi

63,860

2,129,705

16,646

1,134,600

15,300

438,900

48.504

1,499,710

34,430

1,59;

Rice

38.453

2,717,765

16,769

1,540,4x5

30,080

2,465,688

25.151

2,268,770

23,072

2,51!

., paddy ...

28,797

1,084,834

47,382

1,218,510

43.792

1,097,800

24,310

1,037,500

29,352

1,59'

Silk

44,800

142

16,300

109

118,080

III

138,876

108

1,62;

„ cloths No.

15.700

143,180

16,730

182,200

6,285

82,900

20,323

238.719

16,915

19.

Silver

581,240

486,250

487.500

542.234

54^

Sugar

222

67,263

329

83.250

303

66,850

347

97i2i5

399

11;

Tamarind

188

7,720

270

24,100

607

38.250

2,501

195.335

2,373

i6<

Tobacco

497

247,936

413

83.764

594

195,600

608

247,010

■506

Togari (dal) ...

3.706

252,838

5,018

310,855

4,628

176,800

4,291

419.157

4,044

41'

Wheat

13.537

721,999

15,550

887,030

15,999

985,988

20,943

1,358,308

22,714

1,90

Included i

n coarse c

oths.

i
i'

FOR TEN YEARS

557

1886

-87.

1887

-88.

1883-89.

1889-90.

1890-91.

Quantity Value
Tons. Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

1.557 1,030,742

1,633

958,730

1.788

1,014,712

1,076

689,900

1,172

680,639

6,863,000 155,410

7,000,000

120,750

3,831,000

85.454

47,500

112,125

1,854,000

232,449

3 24,010

24,150

22,919

19.985

20,710

1,410 200,200

1,371

329,845

1.509

337,380

1,400 282,409

1,427

305,948

1,907

79,500

2,172

78,246

S.700

180,400

5,445 : 137,128

5.783

467,566

20,545,800

60,738,050

625,900

780,000

549.953

666,191

690,690 1,184,190

642,900

854,500

708

202,187

643

160,359

653

179,359

618 175,520

826

1.124,473

3,670,707

108,841

4,560.000

107,100

3,305,728

107,006

3,390,000 2,061,137

2,671,000

94,041

133

186,030

117

210.705

112

215,164

III 127,288

2,042

2,445,091

653

415,922

533

295.940

1,088

542,416

1,372 771,849

2,076

786,702

1.237 ,1,140,270

1,251

1,139,740

1,300

1,175.520

1,211 1,109,090

1,285

1,184,678

— 1,428,800

392,416

382,200

423,860

482,360

3,316

242,968

4.101

316,026

5,190

429,341

4,345

354.008

4,229

369,628

3,136

250,647

3,903

309.756

4,404

362,190

4,609

407.141

3,822

383,344

3,03s

268,791

4,713

343.073

4,475

337,590

4,186

377,046

4-771

330,481

8,366

177,030

6,436

250,805

6,874

314,520

7,107

500,022

7,920

190,228

45,000

41,000

77,800

103,100

52,000

63,620

—

40,000

58,000

41,000

3,61s

712,292

8,052

1,589.736

8,214

1,687,520

1,107,600

'.850,370

9.25s

1,801,666

2,228

224,712

4,014

570,352

4>059

528,421

4,112

505.953

4,029

523,562

304

110,258

281

126,000

251

102,630

97,588

244

106,488

242

80,210

125

34,746

457

212,568

145

135.543

181

68,758

138

149,750

.46

163,478

142

165,262

134

142.598

149

133,108

3,098,690 7,716,700

4,859,800

8,884,000

1,641,830

7,119,600

3,388,297

6,829,820

1,042,430

4.045.490

164 ! 22,697

112

19,64s

119

22,246

111

21,961

III

21,983

42,413 '1,398,02s

42.450

1,220,617

42,637

1,205,920

37,939 1,179.390

31,265

1,127,025

27,330

2,392,906

29-874

2,768,587

28,600

3,315,866

27,474 588,485

38,969

3,252,364

28,382

932,720

32,971

1,440,400

23,784

784,523

31,586

987,956

26,798

1,318,102

116 1,679,560

1,655,620

107

1,474,275

113

1,623,550

133

1.738.594

106,131

403,120

105,882

621,500

111,925

664,400

116,390

780,090

13,910

208,400

777,200

709,632

811,180

603,580

409,960

554

148,054

266

60,405

358

47,616

552

20,523

507

135,137

2,530

226,360

2,265

230,965

2,150

189.408

2,076 178,860

1.834

59,300

1,100

557,800

1,023

497,057

1,118

601,313

989 515,392

i,o6S

493.703

6,059

437,865

3.501

284,447

2,803

89,365

4,543 381.028

3.84s

395.784

23,197

1,876,002

21,686

2,195,065

21,764 2,191,725

20,687 1,027,129

20,813

2.938.958

558

TABLE OF EXPORTS

FROM MYSO.

1 88

-82.

188

2-33-

1883-84.

1884-85.

1885-86.

Articles.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

' Value
1 Rs.

Quantity Val
Tons. Kj

Arecanut

8,266

1,124,040

5,184

2,434.645

4.444

2,620,296

5,498

1
3.011,545

6,397

3,971

Betel-leaves )
(bundles) f

11,191,210

660,113

1,478,360

56,523

2.707,299

181,825

2,539.586

85,290

4,602,800

Camphor

1,200

—

1,280

1,500

—

Cardamoms ...

118,500

110,506

171,998

270,405

27!

Chillies

531

74,864

214

35.305

316

50,850

500

70,425

577

Cholam (jowari)

S.iSi

207,760

7.671

341.540

9,073

68,175

14,300

483,200

2,745

13!

Cloves

2,000

1,500

—

Coarse cloths No.

275,864

391,820

3,000

5,500

268,600

797,000

29,360

59,860

6,000

Cocoanuts, dry

383

92,220

201

45.150

275

68,160

216

57,116

291

,, fresh No.

4,773.000

115.267

2,512,100

50,850

1,258,500

46,587

2,273,860

61,779

5,114,000

Coffee

1,909

1,219,197

2,163

1,253,412

2,898

1,156,408

4,407

1,389,340

4,916

3.09;

Cotton

173

70.750

265

116,978

1,029

234,711

260

1 19,090

24,281

igt

Cotton thread ...

33.000

180

150,000

32,250

39,775

43.

Gold

80,000

100,000

200,000

—

564.

Gram, Bengal ..

2,897

193.340

2,454

168,590

1,351

72,510

1,298

83,100

1,125

83,'i

„ black ...

101

6,800

—

998

23.700

—

414

3;.

„ green ...

488

26,540

564

30,460

813

36,180

544

36,000

442

,, horse ...

13.719

415.998

10,617

330,228

11,739

380,200

7,760

325.300

5.378

250.

Hides ... No.

125,900

127,275

119,400

"4.133

105,650

140,600

147,992

136,046

145,200

iS-;

Iron

179

31,100

148

27,872

159

29,000

31,200

236

4;-

Jaggory

2,702

287,300

2,235

227,700

13,085

856,800

2,116

223,500

6,377

52I,«|

Oil, cocoanut ...

5.928

11,750

2,200

8,800

7.'

„ gingelH ...

28,500

25,111

15,050

38,774

Pepper

191

136,160

181

98,620

177

115,825

201

144,900

150

11:. •

Piece goods, No.

1,002,692

2.994.765

162,700

462,812

222,350

665,500

254,200

7C0,:

Poppy-seed

2,000

8,cl

Ragi

37,888

1,263,228

52,970

1,361,926

48.933

1,550,400

20,000

665.250

33,700

1,250,2 j

Rice

7,280

576.525

31,142

1,696,600

15,052

784,200

22,934

1.944.330

11,472

1,192.-

,, paddy

33,559

935.025

51,472

2,147,300

205,950

1.322,075

45.201

1,739,242

45.447

1,843.:

Silk

44,800

3,000

51,000

28,000

3-:^-

,, cloths. No.

143,180

5,000

50,000

2,200

2I,00O

2,300

21.

Silver

96,000

Sugar

104

31.903

11,400

18,000

1,496

468,060

1,138

334--

Tamarind

1,600

118,525

497

24,700

4,998

337,175

1,116

75.855

1,167

75.3

Tobacco

29.394

127

38,050

23,300

13,100

46 15.:

Togari (dal) ...

909

58,600

9S0

71,466

914

46,290

1,095

99,300

1,221 11: -

Wheat

449

18,930

1,482

79.710

1,768

100,300

1,140

65,100

1,185

Included in coarse cloths.

FOR TEN YEARS

559

1886-87.

1887-88.

1888-89.

1889-90. 1

1890-91.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

i^uantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

Quantity Value
Tons. Rs.

Quantity
Tons.

Value
Rs.

5,967 .

ii 760,701

6.993

J.449.455

6,229

3,891,290

6,202 3.838,559

6308

3,186,138

6,360,500

104,994 '

(,460,000

121,145

1,662,704

636,492 43,509,214

690,770

♦1,014,960

971,588

—

242,840

358,350

106

273,324

310.454

312.857

919

98,460

830

136,080

1,258

227.595

2,202

368,854

1,069

203,238

22,295

669,000

19.974

479,299

27,433

737.200

32.370

664,951

43. '79

1,066,355

—

18,000

28,000

26,000

39,000

32,500

47,861

28,500

44,350

37,200

53,500

460

129,420

458

53.492

931

130,200

6,236

1,497.660

2,269

565,315

4,285,000

137,076

3.995.500

302 042

6,144,999

176,199

7.339,474

380,063

1,196,200

132.457

2,707

2,334,200 6,974

5,647,630

3,660

4,080,000

3,980

4,732.630

3.632

4,354.720

362

187,588

339

157.801

598

318,067

2,091

780,288

442

195.139

301

272,250

252

227,000

303

302,500

678

678,000

684

683,900

—

1,001,245

1,063,929

2,470,692

622,347

6,033,562

3,629

247,280

14,430

540,374

2,297

182,852

3.548

260,775

3.375

280,938

Ii537

115,287

2,129

177.735

1,662

132,319

2,785

230,010

2,02I

241,063

1.949

143,870

4,343

207,991

1.553

120,239

1,867

176,984

1,912

164,550

9.529

394,500

14.230

540,374

7,849

308,214

12,377

717,241

6,102

740,237

280,890

675,906

276,100

333.650

270,219

343,289

189,000

273,500

159,600

200,035

322

61,295

805

203,474

492

113,290

3.692

707,186

3.768

711,041

3,051

542,27s

7,045

1,007,045

6,835

1,094,357

8,054

1,086,127

6,876

677,116

126

21 840

20, 340

16,450

17,400

17,430

236

90,625

355

113.950

236

87,250

25,650

28,734

131

117,600

123

107,360

167

165,400

150

96,040

150

"3,455

205,250

675,000

254,400

772,450

25,500

100,000

40,250

118,000

30,000

67,500

10,000

15,000

9.100

9,100

107,772

2,678,700

125,778

3,228,199

96,573

2,592,133

226,310

2.872,785

109,917

4. 116. 579

■53,073

4,348,587

47,188

3,822,881

59,330

5.154,840

42,568

4,341.745

38.346

4,433,700

36,827

1,034,410

43,701

1,729,248

127,822

4,562,056

28,248

3,956,531

113.460

5,114.478

460,000

649,820

1,400,165

1,333,500

103

1,391,089

2,000

20,000

3,000

30,000

3,000

30,000

2,500

25,000

103,600

336,000

89,600

144,000

192,000

90,240

6,878

634,640

1,453

346,504

1,460

349,504

1,805

533.980

i,47«

475,200

1,564

113,910

1,166

118,986

2,298

180,696

1,477

96,480

1,400

"5.943

143

69,940

22 1

130,034

245

140,849

198

139,471

381

117,804

14,081

734,800

9,178

456,401

6,137

370,211

6,340

438,864

3,106

'95.703

1.432

109,076

1,462

145,175

1,569

155.400

1,363

132,896

1,508

146,043

56o

TRADE AND COMMERCE

Imports.

Exports.

Imports.

Exports.

Rs.

Ks.

Rs.

i7)495>6o8 ..

9,190,729

1886-7 ..

. 86,536,629 .

• 18,971,916

13.971,561 ■■

11,859,114

1887-8 ..

• 28,993,093 .

. 32,876,214

14,470,550 ..

11,534,075

1888-9 ..

. 27,518,820 .

. 18,770,504

17,766,503 ..

12,756,192

1889-90 ..

. 28,423,514 .

. 32,284,429

21,390,418 ..

16,164,389

1890-I ..

28,072,520 .

. 25,267,151

The following are the total estimated values of imports and exports
for the ten years : —

1881-2
1882-3
1883-4
1884-5
1885-6

The detailed statement of the articles included in these figures is
contained in the preceding tables.

A great development has taken place in late years of commercial
speculations and transactions, as may be gathered from the number of
banking and trading Joint-Stock Companies (Limited) registered in
Mysore. At the close of the year 1894-5 there were altogether 92
such Companies or Associations, whose aggregate nominal capital
amounted to Rs. 4,340,292. Of course this refers only to local Com-
panies, and does not include the Gold-mining Companies, which are all
formed in England.

The subjoined statement gives further details as to the Companies : —

Nature of Business. Number.

Nominal Capital

Paid-up Capital.

Rs.

Banking and Loans

• ■ 3>6i9,292

... 1,958,250

Banking and Insurance

105,000

101,100

Trading and Merchandise

100,000

84,925

Plantation

30,000

22,467

Mills

486,000

400,000

Others (one a Dramatic Company)

(limited to

36 members).

The following is a summary of the places in which these Companies
are located : —

Mysore ...

Chik Ballapur ...

Bangalore

Tirumakudal Narsipur .

Seringapatam

Sidlaghatta

Melukote

Tumkur ...

Hassan ...

Chitaldroog

From 1873 Government servants have been interdicted from holding
such posts as Directors, Managers, Agents, &c., of Banks, and required
to sever all connection with Companies established in the District in
which they are employed. The duties of Auditor have however been
permitted, as an exception to the rule, to be performed by public
servants, as they are of a temporary character.

Srinivaspur

Nanjangud

Chamrajnagar

Kolar

Gudibanda

Goribidnur

Shikarpur

Devanhalli

Mandya ...

56i

WAGES AND PRICES

JVages. — The great development of industries in the last decade,
and the extensive scale on which railways and puljlic works of all kinds
have been carried out, following upon the loss of population incurred
in the famine of 187 7-8, have led to much rise in the rates of wages for
all classes of work. The following are given as the rates of daily
wages ruling in each District in 1893, and they are still advancing : —

I Bangalore

i to 12a

Skilled

labour

Unskilled ,

11 2 „ 6 a.

labour "

Cart hire 8 „ i r.

Kolar

to a. to I r.
4 . , 6 a.

Tiimkur Mysore

I
8 to 12 a. 8 to 12 a.

4 ,, 6a. 2 ,, 4 a.

Ha.ssan

!a. to I Jr.
- 11 4 ^

Shimoga I Kadiir IChitaldroog

i .T. to I r. 8 a. to If.! 8 a. lo I r.
• ., 4a. 3 ,, 6a. 4 ,, 8a.
! ,, I r. 12 ,, ijr. 12 „ I r.

The corresponding average rates in 1876, as stated in the former
edition, were — for skilled labour, 4 as. to i R. a day ; unskilled
labour, 2 as. to 8 as. a day; cart hire, 8 as. to \\ R. a day. The
minimum daily wage for skilled labour has thus doubled in the past
twenty years in all Districts ; that for unskilled has doubled in three
Districts and increased by a half in another; the maximum daily rate
of cart-hire is one-fourth higher in Mysore District, and a half higher
in the three western Districts and Chitaldroog. It is also probable
that the hours of labour are generally shorter now than they used to be.

Figures for comparison are not available for any long period back,
but in 1876 it was the opinion that the j)rice of un.skilled labour had
doubled since 1850, and that of skilled labour risen threefold.

According to Buchanan, the wages paid to day labourers in 1800
were : — men, ^ to | a fanam, women \ a fanam ; or, in the present
currency, about 2 as. to 2 as. 8 ]). and i a. 4 p. respectively. At
the present time (1896) 5 as. is a common rate in 15angalore for men,
and 2 as. 4 p. for women.

Of the cost of living some estimate may be formed from the charge
per head of dieting the convicts in jail. In 1866-7, a dear year, the
rate varied from Rs. 3 — 4 — o to Rs. 4 — 6 — o a month. In 187 1-2, a
cheap year, the rates were — for labouring convicts from R. i — 11 — 10
to Rs. 2 — ID — o, and for non-labouring convicts from R. i — 4 — 11 to
Rs. 2 — 1 — 2. In 1875, the average was Rs. 2 — 6 — o per head. In
1890, when a new scale of diet was introduced, the average cost was
Rs. 2 — 8 — 10 per head. It must be remembered, however, that the

o o

5^2

WAGES AND PRICES

articles consumed in the jails are obtained in large quantities, whole-
sale.

The maximum daily rations of a labouring ryot, at hard work, may
be stated at i^ seers (3 lbs.) of ragi flour and about ^ seer (4 ozs.)
of gram or ballar (bean), with condiments, while the quantity of ragi
flour required by other adults varies from ^ seer (i lb.) to 'I seer per
day.

Prices. — -There are not sufficient statistics available to illustrate
the general rise in prices. Buchanan states that the prices at
Bangalore in 1800 were, — ragi, 12 Sultani fanams per kandaga of 200
seers ; rice, best sort, 28^, coarse, 66|; wheat, 57. That is to say, ragi
was 50 seers for the rupee ; rice, ist sort, 9, 2nd sort, 21 ; wheat, io|.
These rates seem high, being perhaps unduly raised by the late wars
and desolation. Dr. Heyne's prices for different places between
Bangalore and Chitaldroog at about the same period, or perhaps a year
or two later, vary as follows : — for paddy or unhusked rice from 18 to
7 3 "8 seers per rupee ; ragi, 38-4 to 113 ; jola, 73*8 to 120 ; wheat, 6 to
24; horse-gram, 11 to 113 ; Bengal gram 6 to 147*7.

The following comparative statement embraces twelve years past,
and gives the average rates for three principal grains : —

Average Prices of Produce from 1881 to 1893,

PER MAUND of 8o LBS.

Rice.

Ragi.

rse-g

ram.

P-

I88I-2

1882-3

1883-4

1884-5

1885-6

1886-7

I8S7-8

1888-9

IS89-90

I 890- I

I89I-2

1892-3

Regarding fluctuations in prices of produce as influenced by the
seasons, the following remarks are extracted from the Annual Reports :

1855-6. — In the Chitaldroog and Nagar Divisions, the season was rather
more favourable than in the preceding year. In the Ashtagram Division it
was less so, and in Bangalore there was a total failure of the early rains.
As, however, there was a fair average fall throughout the country in July,

PRICES 563

August, September and October, and as a fourth disastrous season in
succession was hardly to be expected, all were sanguine that we were once
more to be blessed with an abundant harvest. In this we were doomed to
be disappointed ; for in November, when a few showers are absolutely
necessary for watering the dry crops, there was a total failure of rain, and
in the prospect which then became certain of a fourth scanty harvest,
prices, already high, at once rose still higher, and grain continued at almost
famine rates till the opening of the last monsoon, which in the eastern por-
tion of the Territory set in in a style that had an immediate eliect on the
market. The long prevalence of these high rates fell very heavily on the
non-agricultural classes, but pressed comparatively lightly on the cultivating
ryots ; for although their crops were scanty and vast numbers of their cattle
died for want of forage, yet the prices which they received for what
remained of their crops was so high that they were able to pay their rents
with ease, and to replace their farm stock.

1856-7. — The season commenced auspiciously, and the rains of the
south-west monsoon were for the most part steady and regular. There was,
however, a partial failure of the north-east monsoon, in consequence of
\vhich the dry crops in some taluqs of the Ashtagram Division were
withered up, and the yield of the batayi crops in all the Divisions, more
particularly in Bangalore, was much less than in the preceding year. The
harvest altogether was below the average, but the prices of all grains were
steady and remunerative, and the ryots would have had no serious cause of
complaint had there not been a most fatal murrain among cattle which
spread havoc through the country.

1857-8. — The season has been the sixth bad season in succession with
which Mysore has been afflicted. In the Ashtagram Division it is true that
it was less unfavourable than it had been in the two preceding years, but in
the other three Divisons it was worse if possible than the previous ones.
The south-west monsoon came down in scattered showers and was
altogether insufficient and partial. The north-east monsoon was more
copious, but still not what ic usually is, and altogether insufficient to make
up for what had been wanting from the south-west. In consequence of
this, a large expanse of land cultivated with wet crops was left untilied in
the Bangalore Division. In Chitaldroog the harvest was only one-third of
what is considered an average crop. In Nagar the supari gardens are
regarded as having suffered lasting damage, except in those favoured spots
where the irrigation is derived from lakes fed by perennial springs. In
Ashtagram alone the prospects of the ryots were brighter than they had
been for some time before.

1858-9. — The season, although not favourable, was on the whole better
than the preceding. The south-west monsoon almost totally failed, and
gave rise to the apprehension that another bad season was about to follow
the five highly unfavourable years which immediately preceded the past ;
later in the year, however, copious rain fell ; all those tanks which were
strong enough to stand the rush of water were filled to overllowing, but in
many places great destruction ensued.

002

564 J FACES AND PRICES

1859-60. — On the whole, the past season commenced more favourably
than the four seasons immediately preceding ; the copious showers of the
south-west monsoon giving the promise of an abundant crop of dry
grain. But unfortunately the hopes then formed were to a great extent
disappointed by a considerable defalcation of the rains of the north-east
monsoon, on which the wet cultivation chiefly depends, and which are
required to bring the dry grain to maturity. The consequence has been
a great increase of prices throughout the Territory, without, however,
causing serious distress, the wages of labour having risen in about the
same proportion.

1860-1. — The season was not a good one. It was not quite as bad as
some that have preceded it since 1853, but the almost entire failure of the
latter rains caused a very serious loss both in the quantity and quality of
the crops. In the Malnad taluqs even the south-west monsoon did not
pour down with its usual abundance, and the consequence has been a
failure both in garden produce and rice. Many of the wells and streams
in those parts dried up so completely as to inconvenience very seriously
both the inhabitants and their cattle. In the Chitaldroog Division, the
rains ceased abruptly at the end of August, and not a single shower fell in
that District during September or October, the most critical period of the
season for the crops. In some exceptional parts of the Province, the
harvest was very fair in quantity, but these spots were few and far between,
with the exception perhaps of those taluqs to the southward, where the wet
lands are supplied copiously with water by the channels drawn from the
Kaveri and other rivers. Two reasons exist for the non-appearance of
actual famine in some parts. The first being the habit which prevails in
this country of storing the surplus ragi in underground pits, from which it
is withdrawn in times of scarcity, as the grain will keep sound and good
for forty or fifty years. The second reason was the extraordinarily high
prices which all kinds of produce realized. In fact every article of con-
sumption rose during the latter year in value, and the ryots and garden
cultivators were thereby enabled to pay their khists and hire ; whilst the
poorer classes and labourers received a higher rate of wage than has ever
previously been known in Mysore. But the high prices press very heavily
on all people of fixed incomes.

1S61-2. — The season was decidedly the best for some years past, and
had the latter rains been as copious as those of the early part of the season,
the ryots would once again have begun to think that the days of abundant
harvests which they knew prior to 1S53 were about to return. But the
Nagar Division did not fare so well as the others. It would appear that as
soon as the ryots of Nagar became apprehensive of a short monsoon, they
began sowing the rice lands with dry crops. A subsequent heavy downpour
in many cases destroyed these also. As compared with former years, high
prices continue to rule in Mysore. People have given up hoping for the
return of those days when grain that is now 20 seers was sold as low as 60,
70 and even 80 seers for the rupee. The only solution of this state of
things is increase of population, and consequent higher prices, the daily

PRICES 565

increasing facility of communication, and the decline in the mercantile
value of the current coin of the realm. Not even in the most remote parts
of the country will a rupee now purchase the quantity of grain which could
have been bought with it a few years ago.

1862-3. — In Bangalore the season was considered generally favourable.
In Kolar, though the rains were irregular, the outturn of the crops was
considered superior to that of any harvest for ten years. In Tumkur the
season began favourably with showers in May, but owing to the failure of
the rains anticipated in June and July, and the prevalence of boisterous
winds, some loss was experienced and the land had in many places to be
resown. The latter rains were abundant, and the tanks generally received
an adequate supply of water without injury. The yield of ragi was a full
average, but there was a partial failure in some of the pulse crops. The
grain harvest in Ashtagram was one of the best known for years, but the
season was unfavourable to tobacco, supari, chillies and some other pro-
ducts. The season throughout the Nagar Division, as compared with that
of the previous year, was generally more favourable, notwithstanding a
diminished rainfall, but it varied much in the three Districts and cannot be
pronounced to be a good year. The prices of the principal grains were
lower than in 186 1-2, but are still considered high with reference to those
prevailing a few years ago. Cotton was in great demand, the exports to
England having completely cut off the supply from Bellary and other cotton-
growing Districts, and the price was higher than it has ever been known to
be in Mysore.

1863-4. — The dry cultivation in the Nundidroog Division was extensive,
and the ragi crops were generally good, though, consequent on the failure
of the latter rains, the prospect of an unusually heavy crop was not
realized. The grain crop was below the average and the later pulse crops
almost entirely perished. The north-east monsoon in Novenil^cr and
December completely failed and the cultivation of wet lands was therefore
limited. In Ashtagram the season is reported to have been on the whole
very similar to that of the preceding year. The whole wet crop throughout
the Division was that of a good average year, but the dry crops, except in
the taluqs bordering on the Malnad, were as a rule unfavourable, and
failed from want of rain, or rather from unseasonable weather, partial
showers and sometimes heat destroying the plants. In Nagar the season
generally was unfavourable, the rains being scanty and for the most part
unseasonable. The latter rains almost entirely failed. Nearly all the
tanks were consequently dried up, and the people and cattle sulTcred
much.

1S64-5. — In the Nundidroog Division the season was on the whole a
favourable one. The paddy crop reaped in November was abundant and
made up for a deficiency in the May crop, which suffered from the want of
a sufficient supply of water in the tanks. The dry grain harvest was an
average one. From the Ashtagram Division the report is not so favour-
able. In Nagar the season was generally unpropitious, scarcely a shower
of rain having fallen in the six months from October to March. After the

566 WAGES AND PRICES

first sliowcrs in April, a small smooth brown caterpillar made its appear-
ance in a portion of the Division, and in a few days ate up ever)- green
thing, the grass assuming the appearance of having been burnt up. Both
monsoons were characterized by violent storms of wind and rain which
did much damage to public works and cattle. The price of agricultural
produce of all kinds is still high.

1865-6. — A year which commenced with abundant rain and every
prospect of plentiful harvests, became, as it ran its course, less and less
promising, and in its latter months ended in drought, sickness and heavy
mortality. The high prices which had everywhere prevailed had been
more disastrous to the mass of the people than they have been advanta-
geous to the purely agricultural portion of it. Indeed, the ryots themselves
have exported so much grain, owing to the extravagant rates which ruled in
the markets in the cotton-growmg Districts of Bellar)"^ and Dharwar, that
the hoarded supply of years which formerly filled their grain pits has been
well nigh exhausted, and there has therefore in many places been
apparently an absolute want of seed for sowing purposes. Among the
officials and the non-agricultural classes there has been much distress, and
the failure of the ragi harvest has been a most serious misfortune to the
population generally.

1866-7. — The immediate cause of the distress in the past year was
undoubtedly the failure of the early rains of 1866 succeeding upon the
scanty harvest obtained in the previous autumn. The ryots had moreover
to a great extent neglected the provision which it had been customary to
make against bad seasons. Grain was largely exported to supply the
necessities of districts to the northward, where the cultivation of cotton had
in a considerable degree superseded that of food grains. The drought
made itself felt more or less throughout the province, but nowhere so
severely as in the taluqs lying along the northern and eastern frontiers.
Before the month of June the scarcity of food had grown into a famine of
an appalling character. The people were driven to feed on the kernel of
the tamarind fruit and cotton-seed reduced to flour, and even on leaves and
roots. \''illages were deserted by their inhabitants, who fled to other parts
of the country in search of food, and from the instances that came to notice
it is to be feared that deaths from actual starvation were not of rare
occurrence. Sickness was speedily engendered by the deleterious food,
and cholera, dysentery, and fever carried off large numbers of people. In
the absence of any pasturage, the cattle suffered severely. This state of
things was fortunately limited to one portion, and that a comparatively
small portion, of the Province, but the effects of the drought, which
continued till the month of September, when rain fell copiously, were felt
in a greater or less degree in every District, and caused much misery and
suffering among the poorer classes.

1 867-8. — Compared with the condition of things last year, the ryots and
people of all classes have reason to congratulate themselves on the season-
able rain and consequent good pasturage. The price of grain has fallen in
all Districts 25 and 50 per cent., and even lower. This is especially notice-

PRICES 567

able in Chitaldroog District, where 23 seers of ragi instead of <)\ can now
be purchased for a rupee.

1868-9. — The great fall in prices of grain and other produce induced
cultivators to give up large tracts of the more heavily assessed land.

1870-1. — The harvest was generally a most luxuriant one, and the price
of grain of all kinds fell to a point which brought a full supply of good and
wholesome food within the means of the poorest classes. These low prices
have, however, been productive of loss to the agricultural classes, who in
some instances have experienced a difficulty in the disposal of the produce
of their fields without submitting to a heavy sacrifice.

1871-2. — The harvest was generally good, and the prices of grains of all
sorts continued to decline. The wages of labour have not as yet been
affected by the decrease in the cost of food. The fall in the value of
produce has, however, been attended by considerable relinquishment of
land, chiefly on the part of speculators, who appear to have taken up land
wherever it could be obtained during the period of high prices, and who
doubtless in many instances have found it no longer worth retaining.

1873-4. — The year was on the whole not favourable for the crops.
During June and July there was an almost total failure of rain. In August
and until October rain fell in abundance, but the late rain was also deficient.

1874-5.— Notwithstanding that the year had been a favourable one for
agriculture and the harvest good, ragi, the principal food of four-fifths ot
the inhabitants, was dearer. On the other hand the price of rice and the
minor pulses was somewhat lower.

1875-6. — A rainfall only half that of the previous year, and two-thirds
the average of the past five years, seriously affected the outturn of crop.
To make matters w-orse, this short rainfall was in many places unseason-
able. The south-west monsoon gave nineteen inches, while the north-east
yielded only two inches. The eastern Districts, which are to a certain extent
dependent on the north-east monsoon rains for a good harvest, suffered
more than the westerly Districts, where moderate crops were harvested.
The price of food grains ruled high. The great rise in the price of the
staple food of the Province pressed heavily on the poorer labouring classes .
Owing to want of fodder and scarcity of water, the loss among agricultural
stock was very great.

1876-7. — The year marked the commencement of a famine unparalleled
in the annals of the Province. Though there was a fair average rainfall
during June, the sowing season, it became capricious and most scanty as
the year advanced. The north-east monsoon wholly failed. In lieu of the
twelve to fifteen inches usual in September and October, one inch was
registered at Bangalore in the first sveck of .September, another inch after
an interval of two weeks, and again half an inch after a further interval of
four weeks. The result was that the dry crops died on the ground after
they were half or three-quarters grown ; and the tanks were deprived of
their water-supply, on which alone the spring paddy crops depended. The
failure of the north-east monsoon completed the destruction to the extent of
80 per cent, of kharif crops in all Districts. Tumkur District suffered the

568

WAGES AND PRICES

heaviest loss, but was closely followed by liangalore and Chitaldroog.
Kolar and Kadur held an intermediate position. Hassan and Mysore
failed but slightly, and Shimoga was almost untouched. No measures of
relief would have been of avail to meet the grave crisis with which the
administration had to deal, had it not been for the ready means afforded by
the Madras Railway for importing grain into the country. From Bangalore
the grain thus imported was transported by bullock carts to every part of
the Province, as well as to certain portions of Bellary lying adjacent to the
Kolar and Tumkur Districts.

The subjoined table gives the market rates (lbs. per rupee), at which
rice (of the second sort) and ragi (the staple grain) were selling on the 31st
March 1877 in the several Districts as compared with the average prices
in the year 1873-4 : —

Bangalore

Kolar

Tumkur

Mysore

Hassan

Shimoga

Kadur

Chital-
droog

Rice

1877
i 1873-4

14
24i

13
28J

13
234

13
29

12
29

12
25

Ragi

1877 18
1873-4 74^

17
88^

16
116

18
65

16
109

16 '

15
694

15
95

1877-S. — The year will be ever memorable in the annals of Mysore as
that in which the great famine, which had been growing in intensity since
the light monsoon of 1875, reached its height. Early in the season, good,
and almost general, rain fell. The prospect of a good monsoon and
plentiful harvest, though it could not bring material relief in easing prices,
afforded employment and encouraged drooping spirits. But the promise
was not fulfilled. June, July and August passed away without the rain
that was essential to the very life of the people. Distress increased rapidly
and in alarming proportions. Prices rose to such a pitch that in some
places in July only seven and eight pounds of grain were sold for a rupee :
indeed grave fears were entertained in Chitaldroog that it would soon be
impossible to get grain at all. In September there happily occurred a most
welcome change in the character of the season. The long-prayed for rain
came copiously. Prospects brightened, agriculture quickened, and prices
fell. The tanks, though sorely tried by the sudden and heavy fall of rain
after the long-continued drought had dried and cracked the soil of their
banks, filled and enabled extensive sowings to be made for the Vaisakh or
late paddy harvest. The rain, however, was too heavy for some crops, and
all anxiety was not yet at an end. Especially in the Nagar Division, where
javari is very extensively grown, the excessive moisture when the crops
were coming into ear caused the grain to rot and sprout as it stood. Field
upon field of the most promising and luxuriant corn were damaged beyond
all hope of recovery, and the necessity of continuing relief until another
harvest should relieve the pressure was soon recognized. The last month

PRICES 569

of the year saw a new cause of great anxiety in vast flights of locusts,
an evil that appeared the greater as it was so entirely new and unexpected.
Less damage was done by them than the most sanguine could at their first
appearance have hoped for, and a good X'aisakh harvest ushered in return-
ing prosperity.

1878-9. — Most providentially the season was exceptionally favourable,
and though there were not wanting causes for serious anxiety, the crops,
particularly the rice and ragi crops, on which the agricultural prosperity of
the country mainly depends, were most bountiful. Although the rainfall
was slightly less than that gauged in 1S77 it was much more seasonably
distributed, and did not, as in the end of 1877, cause damage by copious
but untimely fall. A plentiful harvest soon effected a most welcome fall
in prices, especially in the prices of food-grains consumed by the people,
which were sold at rates within the reach of the poor. The population was
thus relieved from the stress of famine and enabled to return to ordinary
occupations and again be self-supporting. At the same time prices of
agricultural produce did not fall to the low level at which they used to
stand, and the agricultural classes reaped the double blessing of large
crops and good prices. Live stock, which had been greatly reduced during
the past few years, began to recover in numbers, and whether it was from
the rich and abundant pasture everywhere procurable, or from other
causes, is not known, but the fecundity of the cattle was most remark-
able.

1879-80. — The rainfall in tracts other than the Malnad was less than
what was gauged in the year previous, but the crops in general throve well
notwithstanding. The cereals were all over the Province good, and in
some Districts ragi, ballar and horse-gram turned out remarkably well.
The only crops that suffered slightly were paddy in the Kolar and Hassan
Districts dependent on tank irrigation, and supari in the Malnad tracts,
where a very heavy fall of rain produced the rot disease. The prices of
agricultural produce fell in the year almost to the level at which they
generally stood prior to the famine.

18S0-1. — Just at the beginning of the ragi harvest, when but little was cut
and the bulk of this most important crop was all but ripe, a great part of
the State was visited by a storm of wind and rain of unusual severity,
which did \ery considerable damage to the crops, and was the cause,
moreover, of the breaching of a number of irrigation tanks. This was
perhaps the only untoward event in an otherwise exceptionally favourable
season, and but for that misfortune the harvest would have been singularly
bountiful in every part of the Province, except the Kolar District, which
alone did not participate fully in the plentiful and seasonably distributed
rainfall. As it was, however, the outturn of the har\est was well above the
average, and the prices of food-grains were low in proportion.

1S81-5. — In 1881 the rainfall was very poor, and the failure of- the
south-west monsoon gave room for apprehensions of distress, which, how-
ever, was happily averted by a good fall of rain in the latter part of the year.
In 1882 and 1883 the rainfall was fair, but again in 1S84 the south-west

570 WAGES AND PRICES

monsoon was a failure more or less throughout the greater part of the
Districts of Tumkur, Chitaldroog, Bangalore, Kolar and Mysore. In the
Mysore District, except in a few taluqs, nearly the whole of the early crop
was lost ; the later and more important dry crop throughout the whole of
the affected area was in a precarious condition ; cattle began to suffer from
want of fodder, and prices showed a tendency to rise. The north-east
monsoon, however, proved favourable, and was sufficient to save a portion
of the standing crops, though insufficient to fill the tanks or to allow of
more than one-half of the usual amount of wet cultivation under them.
The dry crops in the north-eastern and eastern Districts yielded only a
harvest which \aried from a quarter to a half of the usual average. On
the whole, a harvest sufficient to avert immediate distress was secured. In
1885, ^83-in, the unfavourable conditions of the tirst half of 1884 repeated
themselves in a more aggravated form. The south-west monsoon began
very well in May and continued to promise fair during that month and
June. In July, however, it showed signs of failing, and as the season
advanced, the drought became greater and more general till about the end
of September. The rain which then fell was extremely scanty. The dry
crops began to wither from the long-continued drought. The early crops
were entirely lost in parts of Mysore, Chitaldroog and Tumkur. In parts
of Kolar and the Maiddn portions of Kadur the early rains were so scanty
as not to allow of sowings to the usual extent. The tanks everywhere were
empty, and no Kartik wet cultivation was carried on under them ; and even
in the Malnad the rains were insufficient for the paddy crops. In Maidin
taluqs the springs rapidly dried up, and much difficulty was experienced
as regards drinking water. Fodder for cattle became scarce. Prices began
to rise. At this crisis plentiful showers fell all over the Province and
dispelled all cause for anxiety.

1886-91. — The rainfall in 1886 was abundant and above the average.
In 1887 it was generally fair, but the south-west monsoon was a partial
failure in greater part of the Districts of Chitaldroog, Mysore and Hassan.
In 1888 the average rainfall was somewhat below the mark, and the Mysore
District suffered the most. The season of 1889 was one of general
prosperity. Good crops were harvested throughout the country, and
towards the end of the year, owing to the apprehended scarcity in some of
the neighbouring Districts of Madras, there was a large export of grains.
The rainfall in i8go was below the average. In the Hassan, Shimoga and
Kadur Districts the fall was scantier than in the previous year, while in the
Bangalore District it was unseasonable. In the Mysore District the mungdr
crop was saved by the early north-east monsoon, but in the Kolar District
there was a general failure of the Kartika crop. In Chitaldroog and Tum-
kur the fall was on the whole timely and fairly sufficient for agricultural
operations.

1 891-2. — Though a year of serious famine in most parts of Southern
India, in Mysore it was happily a year of only moderate agricultural
disturbance, though the unsatisfactory state of the usual monsoon seasons
gave cause for anxiety towards the latter part of the year. The Kar rains

PRICES 571

as well as the south-west and north-east monsoon rains were almost every-
where below the average.

1892-3. — The year was one of agricultural prosperity. The rains were
seasonable, and the total quantity of rainfall in all the Districts was on the
whole greater than in the previous year, although in certain isolated tracts
of the Tumkur District and in Arsikere and Chanraypatna of the Hassan
District wet cultivation suffered slightly from insufficient and scanty rain.
In the Malnad taluqs the rains were excessive and slightly damaged the
supari crop. On the whole the good rainfall served to relieve the tension in
the market and to lower the prices of the principal food-grains, rice and
ragi in particular, in all the Districts.

572

ADMINISTRATION

Under the Early Hindu Knlers

Regarding the ancient forms of government some information may
be gathered from inscriptions, but not in much detail. The earliest
are the Edicts of Asoka discovered by me, in which we find the
Ayaputa or Prince in charge of a provincial government, assisted by
mahdmdtras. As Dr. Biihler remarks, " the position of a prince, sent
out as a viceroy, was probably not an independent one. The distrust
and the jealousy of the father and sovereign no doubt surrounded him
with high officials, possessing almost, if not quite, the same powers, in
order to watch, and, if necessary, to check him." The prince and the
mahdmdtras issue their orders to the mahamatras of Isila, which
possibly represents Sidda in Siddapura, where the inscriptions were
found. As to the functions of the mahamatras we have the following
statements in the seventh and eighth Pillar Edicts : — " I have also
appointed dhamma-mahamatras whose duty it is to occupy themselves
with all matters of charity, and their duties extend to men of all
creeds, whether ascetics or householders. . . The mahamatras will deal
with the various classes in accordance with their several requirements.
But the dhamma-mahamatras will occupy themselves both with those,
and with all others." They were, in short, high superintending officials,
whose duty it was to see that the King's orders and wishes were carried
out. The official formula, in addressing the subordinate authorities,
began by wishing them health, and went on to say " the Beloved of the
(lods (that is, the King) commands thus." The edicts were written
out by a lipikara or scribe, a representative no doubt of the army of
clerks attached to all public offices, and his making use in one place
of Kharoshti characters, which are met with only in the extreme north-
west of the Punjab, seems to imply that the office hands were liable to
transfer to very distantly removed stations.

The next inscriptions in point of date are those of Satakarni. He,
in making his grant, conveys his orders to the viahdvalabhavi rajjukam.
The rajjukas were officials who are frequently mentioned in Asoka's
edicts.^ Dr. Biihler has shown that rajjuka literally means " the holder

' In the 7lh and Sth I'illar Edicts he says : — "I have appointed numerous (officers)
over the people, each having his own jurisdiction, that they may spread abroad my
instructions, and develop (my wishes). I have also appointed rajjukas over hundreds

UNDER EARLY HINDU RULERS 573

of the rope," 1 that is, his proper duty was the measurement of the fields
with a view to the revenue settlement. And it is curious to learn that
this title is represented by the modern sheristadar, a corruption of the
Persian sar-i rishia dcir, he who holds the end of the rope.- The
sheristadar is generally the chief native official in a Commissioner's or
Collector's office (and popularly supposed, in another sense, to be the
one who pulls the strings). In the taluqs of Mysore he is ne.\t to the
Amildar, having charge of the treasury and the revenue accounts.
From this we may perhaps infer the standing of the rajjukas, and trace
the identity of Indian executive appointments from the earliest to the
latest times.

Coming down to a later period we find the Maha Pradhdna,
Sarvadhikari, or prime minister at the head of affairs, under the Raja
or King, with whom was generally, when of sufficient age, associated
the Yuva Raja, or heir-apparent to the throne ; and a number of other
mantris or counsellors assisted in the deliberations of State. Many of
these were Maha Mandalesvara or high nobles, the hereditary chiefs of
principalities. The State was divided into several large provinces,
each placed under a governor, generally styled the Dandandyaka or
Danndyaka, who seems to have combined civil and military functions,
and in newly acquired territories was often a senddhipati, chamupati
or general. He exercised control over the sdinanta or feudatory
chiefs within his jurisdiction (the pdlegars of later times), whence he
had the title of Maha Sdmantddhipati. The title of Heggade or
Pergarle seems to have been sometimes borne by the provincial
governors.

For revenue matters tliere was a consideralile body of kariiams or
revenue accountants, who were no doubt chiefly Brahmans, as at
present. The excise appears to have been either farmed out, or
managed by an agent appointed by government, and is referred to
under the different heads of hej-junka or perjunka, that is the large
sunka, or custom dues on the chief articles of trade, and the kirukula^
or miscellaneous duties on articles in which the transactions were
small. There is often mention of another official under the name of
odda hyavahdri and odda rd^'ii/a, whose functions are not clear, but

of thousands of living loeings, and ihcy have been ordered l)y- n»e to instruct the
faithful." In the 4th Edict the Kin<j refers to their appointment in a singularly (juaint
manner, as follows : — "Just as, after confiding a child to a skilful nurse, a man feels
secure, saying to himself, ' a skilful nurse sets herself to take care of my child,' so
have I appointed these rajjukas for the hap])iness and prosperity of my subjects." —
See Ind. Ant., xviii. 9, 307 ; also Ep. /ml, II. 253, 271.

' Zeilsihri/t der Deittschcn Morgcn/iiiidisihen Geselhchaft, .\lvii. 466.

* J. Beames,/. K. A. S., July 1895, p. 661.

574 ADMINISTRA TION

seem to have been something like those of a commissariat agent for
the army.

The chief divisions of the country had each their revenue value
affixed to their name. Thus we have invariably the Banavase Twelve
Thousand, the Nolambavadi or Nonambavadi Thirty-two Thousand,
and the Gangavadi Ninety-six Thousand ; also the Punnad Ten
Thousand. Sometimes the numerical designation alone was used,
without naming the country. Thus many of the oldest inscriptions
speak of the Ninety-six Thousand, and others describe certain kings as
ruling the Seven-and-a-half-lakh region. A similar name still survives
in that of one of the present taluqs of Coorg, which is called the
Yelusavirashime or the Seven Thousand country. Whether the
reckoning has reference to the amount of revenue realized, as seems
likely, or to extent of cultivation, or to what other denomination of
value, is not certain. The nomenclature still lingers in parts of the
Malnad, where I was told by an inferior native official that his juris-
diction extended over fourteen villages, which constituted, according to
the custom of the place, a Thousand country. The inscriptions of the
Karkala rulers refer to the Kalasa country as being administered by
three Hebbar, each the head of a Thousand country. Smaller circles,
called such-and-such a Seventy, frequently recur in inscriptions ; as well
as divisions termed khainpana, vefitya, &c.^

The chief men of nads or rural circles were the gdnmnda, a word
which, after becoming gaunda, now appears as gauda. Their head or
chief was the ndd prabhu, and they seem to have represented and been
responsible for the agricultural classes, as the pattaua swdf/ii, pattatfa
shetti or town mayor was for the mercantile and industrial classes.

The Village Tivelve. — The constitution of the village corporation, the
unit of the body politic, and basis of administration at all times, is thus
graphically described by Wilks : —

Every Indian village is, and appears always to have been, in fact, a
separate community or republic ; the gauda or patel is the judge and magis-
trate ; the karnam or shanbhdg is the registrar ; the taMri or sthaliwar, and
the tdti, are severally the watchmen of the village and of the crops ; the
nirganti distributes the water of the streams or reservoirs in just proportion
to the several fields ; the jotishya, joisa or astrologer performs the essential
service of announcing the seasons of seed-time and harvest, and the
imaginary benefit of unfolding the lucky or unlucky days and hours for all

' An old report explains the terms thus : — A country yielding loo nishka (said to
be pagodas) is called a shima or kshetra : i8,000 shima form a khampana ; 2 khampana,
a ventya ; 33^ ventya, or t^t, ventya and 12,000 shima, a phanichhasana. The latter
name is properly panichchhasira, which means 12,000. The above scale applies it to
a country yielding 12 crores of nishka or pagodas.

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 575

the operations of farming ; the smith, and carpenter, frame the rude instru-
ments of husbandry, and the ruder dweUing of the fixrmer ; the potter
fabricates the only utensils of the village : the washerman keeps clean the
few garments which are spun and sometimes woven in the family of the
farmer, or purchased at the nearest market ; the barber contributes to the
cleanliness and assists in the toilet of the villagers ; the goldsmith,' marking
the approach of luxury, manufactures the simple ornaments with which
they delight to bedeck their wives and their daughters : and these Twelve
Officers, styled the Biirabaliiti or Ayangadi, as requisite members of the
community, receive the compensation of their la1)our, either in allotments of
land from the corporate stock, or in fees consisting of fixed proportions of
the crop of every farmer in the village.

In some instances the lands of a village are cultivated in common,
and the crop divided in the proportions of the labour contributed, but
generally each occupant tills his own field ; the waste land is a common
pasture for the cattle of the village ; its external boundaries are as
carefully marked as those of the richest field, and they are maintained
as a common right of the village, or rather the township (a term which
more correctly describes the thing in our contemi)lation), to the exclu-
sion of others, with as much jealousy and rancour as the frontiers of the
most potent kingdoms.

Such are the primitive component parts of all the kingdoms of India.
Their technical combination to compose districts, provinces, or princi-
jialities of from ten to a hundred thousand villages, has Ijcen infinitely
diversified at different periods by the wisdom or caprice of the chief
ruler, or by the vigour and resistance of those who, in every age,
country, and condition, have coveted independence for themselves and
the power to govern the greatest possible number of their fellow-crea-
tures. Manu's scheme of government recognizes none of those persons
who, in later days, were known by the several designations of W'odeyars,
Palegars, Zamindars, Deshayis, &c., all in their respective jurisdictions
assuming, when they dare, the title of Raja or King. All the officers
enumerated by Manu have, in their several scales, at different periods,
simply acted as agents of the sovereign ; as farmers of revenue con-
tracting with the sovereign for a certain sum and levying what they
can ; as partisans or chiefs of troops, receiving an assignment on
revenues managed by another, or the direct management themselves,
for the puri)ose of defraying the pay of the troops. In these several
capacities they may have continued obedient to the .sovereign who
deputed them ; they may have obtained from his favour, or from his

1 In some pans of the country the goldsmilh is not found included in the enumera-
tion of ihe Twelve, his jilace lieing occupied l)y the poet, a less expensive meml)cr of
the community, \s\\o frequently fills also the office of schoolmaster.

576 ADMINISTRATION

fears, a remission of a part of the sum to be accounted for ; they may
have rebelled and usurped the whole government, or have established
a small independent principality, or a larger ; but with regard to the
villages or townships of which the principality is composed, they have
appeared but in one character, viz. the government, the sovereign : a
person exercising the sovereign authority on his own account, or by
delegation on account of another. The interior constitution and condi-
tion of each separate township remains unchanged ; no revolutions affect
it ; no conquest reaches it.^

It is not intended to assert that the village in our contemplation may
not have produced the Caesar of his little world ; the rights of the
inhabitants may have been invaded by the patel, by the palegar ruling
over twenty, by the wodeyar ruling over thirty-three, by the collector
over two hundred, or by the sovereign of twenty thousand townships ;
each or either of these persons may have attempted, or have succeeded,
or have failed, in persuading or forcing an augmentation of the pro-
portion of money or of grain paid by the township to the State ; but
conquests, usurpations, or revolutions, considered as such, have
absolutely no influence on its condition. The conqueror, or usurper,
directly or through his agents, addresses himself as sovereign, or
representative of the sovereign, to the head of the township ; its ofificers,
its boundaries, and the whole frame of its interior management remain
unalterably the same ; and it is of importance to remember that every
State in India is a congeries of these little republics. -

Revenue System. — The adjustment and mode of realizing the land
revenue was the great, or almost the only, problem of civil government
which formed the subject of legislation under the various dynasties of
native rulers, and in this branch of the administration alone, therefore,
are any regulations referred to as emanating from the ancient rulers.

With reference to the land settlement of the Kadamba kingdom, the
following particulars are given in a report by Mr. H. Stokes.

Kadamba Raya with Gopa mantri and Naga Deva Karnika caused

* Every village, with its twelve Ayangadis as they are called, is a kind of little
republic, with the patel at the head of it ; and India is a mass of such republics.
The inhabitants, during war, look chiefly to their own patel. They give themselves
no trouble about the" breaking up and division of kingdoms ; while the village remains
entire, they care not to what power it is transferred, wherever it goes the internal
management remains unaltered ; the patel is still the collector and magistrate and
head farmer. From the age of Menu until this day, the settlements have been made
either with or through the patel. — Report by Lieut. -Col. Mitnro.

• The Village Community of India exhibits resemblances to the Teutonic Township
which are much too strong and numerous to be accidental, observes Sir H. S. Maine,
whose works on this subject are of great interest.

UNDER K AD A MB A KINGS 577

to be measured,' between Nagara khanda and Varada khanda (Shi-
karpur and Sorab taluqs), all the land within the limits of each village
that had been or was fit to be cultivated, and marked its boundaries by
stones. In the year Kilaka, Sal. 90 (.\.D. 168) Gopa mantri made the
bi'javari and assessment as follows : — One grain from each of the nava
dkiinya, or nine kinds of produce (paddy, wheat, hesaru, uddu, kadale,
jola, avare, togari, and ellu), being taken to form one nishka, 10 nishka
were called a phala or navtakku ; 64 phala, a mana ; 20 mana, akolaga ;
20 kolaga, a khandaga. ]3ut in some places 40 or 60 kolaga formed a
khandaga.

For watered land of the best quality, namely, black soil near a river
or mountain, red soil, or black mixed with yellow and containing springs,
there were three rates, — 18, 21 and 9^ (pagodas per khandaga). Black
land, suitable for wheat and kadale, paid i pagoda for every 9^ mana of
seed. Watered land of white soil mixed with sand, near a hill, paid 7
pagodas for every khandaga. Similar land near a river paid 5^. White
or red land watered by a well, paid 9 pagodas per khandaga.

A garden containing areca nut, cocoanut, plantains, limes and citrons
was called aga?na, and was measured with a rod 18 lengths {nictfu) of a
man's foot, measured so as to take in also half the right foot at the
beginning and half the left foot at the end.- This rod was called mana
danda. In the square of such a rod might be planted 3 areca-nut trees,
with cocoanuts intermixed ; and for a 1,000 such squares the king's
share was 7 pagodas, the other productions being included in the assess-
ment. Of a garden containing vines, sugar-cane, dates, betel-leaf, cocoa-
nut, mango, jack, sampige, ashoka malagi, jessamin and such choice
plants, together with areca nut, the produce might be estimated at 25
pagodas, and one-third of this was the king's share. In two of the above
rods 3 cocoanut-trees might be planted, and the king's share was half a
nishka and 5 nuts on 10 trees.

Of the assessment under the Hoysala kings the same document says :
— Under them each cultivator paid to the king one iron kula or bar
(? ploughshare). This was dropped into a well of quicksilver in the temple
of Padmavati at Humcha and became gold. Hence the word kula
came to be applied to a ryot, and the money paid by him is still called
kulnvaiia. In the time of the Vijayanagar kings, it is added, the well
dried up, and the iron ploughshare was commuted for a payment of one
pagoda for every plough. {See p. 339.)

1 Willi a line of six bdhu — each bdhu lieing two cubits — at cither extremity and in
c middle, for both length and breadth, and the mean of the three measurements
aken for each.

- The rod used was measured by the feet of Dharadwaja Haritika (perhaps a guru).
This corresponds with Sivappa Nayak's standard for the daya. Sw farther on.

1' P

5 7 8 ADMINISTRA TION

Under the Vijayanagar Sovereii^ns.

For the later system of government, under the Vijayanagar empire
and the governments which succeeded it in the north of Mysore, the
following particulars, greatly condensed, have been taken from the
Mackenzie MSS.

It appears that in the time of Krishna Raya and Achyuta Raya the
revenues of the Vijayanagar State were first reduced to a regular form,
checked by ordinances, and a system of accounts and management
introduced, calculated to improve the revenue of the empire gradually
in yearly amount without distressing the inhabitants."

In the course of their conquests the kings of Vijayanagar reinstated
some of the original rajas in their ancient possessions on submitting to
be tributary vassals to them as superior lords. They also appointed
some of their own slaves and servants, recommended by their fidelity
and abilities, to manage tracts of uncultivated waste country, wnth
instructions to clear away the jungles and to bring the lands into
culture, with a view of increasing population, the wealth of the State,
and the prosperity of the land by good management. By the royal
commands, these governors formed many Pdlyams ox Pdlepats, and new
establishments, cleared away the jungle, and recovered the country
from the robbers and lawless banditti who infested it, and from the
wild people of the hills. Those who established Palyams under these
sovereigns were distinguished by the title of Pdlegars (polygars).

When they had thus settled these Palegars, and appointed various
other officers for the management of these woodland countries, they
then formed regulations to improve the revenue, and published the
Rayarekas, which fixed the settlement of the revenues, the boundaries,
duties and customs, and made ordinances for all other affairs. These
were transmitted to the headmen of the towns and nads for preser\-adon
as records of this settlement, for reference on future emergencies, or
disputes about revenues, boundaries, &c. At the same time, landmarks
and stones, inscribed with writings or with symbols, were erected on
the boundaries even of every little village. Unto our times the custom

' The empire at this period had acquired its utmost extent, by the reduction of
several extensive provinces, particularly the northern districts, which increased its
revenues in their reign to 8i crores of Avakoti chakras or pagodas ; this increase of
revenue and territory, it would appear, suggested the expediency of a more general
and comprehensive system, better adapted to the various tribes and nations now
reduced to one common sway.

The system of letting out the lands in perpetuity, as appears in some instances,
prevailed sometime previous, in the reign of Harihara Raya, and perhaps existed
long before.

UNDER VIJAYANAGAR

579

generally prevailed in the Bala Ghat of referring to the Rayar^kas when
any doubts occurred on these points.

The words Atthavane and Sfma mulam were applied to the Revenue
department. The Military branch was called Kandachar. The fol-
lowing terms were also used in the management : —

Karnataka ancient
names.

Corresponding
Musalman names.

Sima

Mulk .

Gadi

Taluq .

Hobali, hobli

Taraf .

Halli

Gaam .

Kaluhalli .

Majara

Aramane .

Iluzur or Mahal .

Samsthdn .

Riyasat, Sarkar .

Umbalike .

Jagi'r .

Bhatavrilti

Srotriyani ,

Meaning.

Agraharam

Brahmadayam,
Devadayam

Inam

Great Division or Province.

District.

Subdivision or inferior district.

Ancient village.

New additional village.

Presence or Palace.

The Government.

Rent-free estates, granted as a gift.

Lands given away to Brahmans.

Lands granted in perpetuity, for which the

proprietors receive a yearly money rent from

the occupiers.
Lands or villages granted in charity, generally

to Brahmans ; or free gift.

Shares of the crop given to Brahmans.

The following offices were hereditary, and established in all towns
and villages, under the general name of A'yagar in Canarese and Bara

Baliiti in Hindustani : —

1. Shanbhog, accountant,

2. Gauda, headman.

3. Kammara, ironsmith.

4, Badagi, carpenter,

5, Agasa, washerman,

6, Panchangi, calendar.

7. Nayinda, barber.

8. Madiga, shoemaker.

9. Akasale, goldsmith,

10, Talari, watchman of the village.

11, Nirganti, watchman of the tanks.

12, Kumbara, potmaker.

The A'yagdr depended on the financial or revenue branch. 'I'he
ryots gave them a share, called tiijayam and ard/iciya/n, of the crop
produced in their village ; these were for each ka[)ila, bed, kandi or
putti, varying according to regulations established anciently in dilTercnt
parganas. The nijayam above the Ghats was 4 seers or measures of
grain, and the ardhayam 2, Mdnyams or privileged lands were also
allowed to the A'yagar, for which they regularly paid the Jot/i, a small
tax from which none of these official hereditary estates were exempt
except the Panchangi.

To the Shanbhog, as accountant of tiic village, the ryots paid the full

P P 2

58o ADMINISTRATION

dyam. If he had a share of any charity lands from the inhabitants or from
the Sarkar, he paid the j6di to Government : to him and to the head gauda
the inferior classes rendered their rents or shares of the revenue.

The duty of the Gauda was to see that the farmers cultivated the land
for the kandiiyaiii or rent agreed on in the jamdbaiidi or annual settlement ;
to collect the revenue composed of the different branches, duties, &c., and
to pay it to the proprietors of the districts according to the kist or agree-
ment ; to adjust all accounts relating to these at the end of the year ; and
then to settle the rent of the ensuing year according to the estimate made
by the Amildar by order of the Government. But in adjusting these
concerns it frequently happened that, the ryots having no access to people
in the higher offices, parcels of lands were unaccounted for, and their
produce clandestinely secreted by the gaudas and shdnbhdgs, which they
collusively divided among themselves.^

The Kammdr or ironsmith, and Badagi or carpenter, had to supply the
ryots with ploughs and other implements of husbandry without taking any
price for the same. If a ryot wanted to build a house, he must then pay
some consideration to these artificers ; but they paid nothing for the public
duty, such as ploughs, buckets, &c., for which the horc-hiillu and viura-
batta were assigned.^

The Agasa or washerman, and Ndyinda or barber, must wash and shave
gratis for all the ryots of a village ; the latter also dressed wounds and
performed other surgical operations — for this they received hore-huUu and
mura-batta. When the washerman delivered the cloths after washing, he
received provision sufificient for one day. The washerman paid annually
some money to the Sarkar for the rent of the drying-ground.

The duties of the Panchdiigi (always a Brahman) were to mark the
proper times for sowing the great and small grains in their right season ;
also to declare from the calendar the fortunate time for commencing any-
new undertaking. This Brahman also officiated as priest, to perform the
ceremonies of funerals and marriages according to the laws. He must
daily attend the headman of the village, and from his calendar read off the
day of the week, month and year, the predominant signs and constellations,
&c. For these duties he collected the hore-hullu and mura-batta.

The Mddiga or chuckler, furnished shoes, ropes, leather buckets, and

> The clandestine embezzlements happened from the following causes : — From the
Gauda and Shanbhog taking advantage of the timidity of the ryots, who were afraid
to discover the frauds of people under whose control they had lived time out of mind,
their offices going from father to son. The ryots were so very timid that they were
even alarmed to see the peons of the Sarkar. — The Gaudas having full authority to
settle the revenue of the village, and the ryots generally requiring extension of time,
particularly when the Sarkar augmented the rent of a village, these gaudas had it in
their power to distress those who displeased them by overrating their proportions and
selling their effects and cattle at a reduced valuation, and thus utterly ruining those to
whom they entertained a grudge. The ryots for these reasons endeavoured to
preserve a good understanding with these officers, that they might not be exposed to
extraordinary impositions.

^ Hore-hidlu seems to be a bundle of straw : Mura-batta, some portion of grain.

UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 581

other little necessaries for cultivation, for which he was entitled to the dyam,
hore-hullu and mura-batta.

The duty of the Akasdle or goldsmith was to measure the songiiru or
half-share of the crop which the ryots paid to the Sarkar, and to shroff the
money collected in the village in payment of the revenue. For any other
work done by him he might take payment, but for these the hore-hullu and
mura-batta were his perquisites.

The Talari was the police officer or kotwal of the inferior villages.
Besides the nijdyam and ardhdyam, and the niAnyams allowed for their
maintenance to encourage them to a due performance of their duties, the
ryots privately bribed them with ragi, vegetables and conks (?) in the harvest
time, to conciliate their favour and protect themselves from certain
inconveniences, such as being forcibly delivered over to travellers to carry
burdens to the next stage, &c. The appropriate duty of the Tahiri also
was to watch over the safety of the village, and to be ready to provide
forage and conveniences for those employed by the Sarkar. He was
responsible for all things stolen within the enclosure of his village : what-
ever was lost or stolen on the highways, or without the precincts of the town,
was to be recovered or accounted for by the KAvalgdrs. People of all
castes were employed in this station, except in the Chitaldroog country,
where only the Boyis or Bedars acted in this capacity.

The Nirganti's duty was to attend to the tanks and to shut up, when
necessary, their sluices or tubus with the stoppers usually fitted for this
purpose ; in the winter time he must watch carefully on the banks of the
tanks to preserve the water. It was his appropriate duty to divide among
the ryots of the village what water was requisite for the production of the
crop ; when the water diminished, he rendered account thereof to the
managers, lest he be suspected of disposing of it clandestinely. For these
duties he received hore-hullu and mura-batta.

The Kmnbdra or pot-makers were not stationed in every village, one or
two being generally sufficient for a hobli or taraf ; he furnished pots for all
the ryots of his taraf, and was entitled to ayam in an equal proportion as
the other A'yagar. For liberty of exposing his wares for sale to travellers in
the markets he paid chakra-kdnikc to the Sarkar.

I'hc above twelve were the village servants ; their oflfices were
hereditary, going from father to son ; and they were authorized to sell
or mortgage their office when in distress.

From 10 to 40 villages were called a Hobli or Taraf, and from 4
to 10 of these constituted a Gadi, called pargana in the Northern
Sarkars. From 10 to 20 of these gadis, annexed to a kaslm or capital
town, constituted a Sima or country ; a name in latter times applied
to provinces of considerable extent, in like manner as the Ndds more
anciently. The chief officer of a gadi was the Parpattegar, at present
an Amildar ; of a hobli, the Nadiga ; of a village, the Gauda, in whose
absence the Shdnbhog was the chief. The chief ( '.overnor or magistrate

5 8 2 ADMINISTKA TION

of a Si'ma was an officer of great consideration, distinguished by
particular titles, applicable to circumstances under the several States.

The ^Sarvddhikdri or Atthavane Pdrpattegar, the chief director of
the Revenue, arranged the forms of accounts, and issued all orders
relating to that Department, and for the improvement or increase of the
collections ; but he could do nothing, even in the most trivial matters,
without the Raja's knowledge and permission. In his office the renters
of villages settled their accounts. In the time of the Chitaldroog rulers,
the chief managers employed the gaudas to direct the cultivation of the
lands, and the revenue was collected by the nadiga appointed for the
hobli from the Aramane or Palace : the nadiga, at the end of the year,
accompanied by some of the principal Desasts or inhabitants, went to
the office of the Atthavane to clear the accounts of the preceding year,
according to the settlement or agreements made in the beginning of
the year. These customs were observed by all the Carnatic Palegars
above the Ghats. The gaudas collected the rent from the ryots
according to the settlement of the Atthavane office, and paid it in to the
Parpatti appointed by Government. If the managers of the Atthavane
found it necessary to introduce any new regulation, after stating the
same to the Raja and obtaining his consent, they transmitted orders
under the royal signature and seal to the Parpattegars of the districts
for execution.

The la7id rent consisted of that for land sown with one ko]aga of
seed, at rates equal to from 3 to lo Kanthiraya pagodas according to
the nature of the soil. Land watered by kapiles was let for a money
rent ; but for lands cultivated with paddy by means of tanks, the
songaru, or one-half of the crop, was generally required, without any
money, though in some districts the ryots rendered inugiiru, or one-
third of the produce, with 2 or 3 pagodas in money for each plough.
Waste lands were let to strangers at first for small sums (called bhumi'ila
gntta or kola gittta) for a term of years, according to agreement, after
which they were annexed to the cultivated tracts and brought under the
same management.

Gardens and plantations were numerous in the districts of Madgiri,
Sira, Banavar, Chanraypatna, Nagar, and in those adjacent to Seringa-
patam, from the collections of which (called dgram) the Government
derived a considerable revenue. In the Mysore country great quantities
of areca-nut, and cocoanut ; and in Nagar, pepper and other kinds of
spices were cultivated in these plantations. These gardens were con-
sidered as belonging to the wet land, or nirdvari, for which the
Government collected the rents in some cases from the soil, and in others
from a share of the produce. These regulations appear to have been

UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 583

established of old, so far as 1,000 years ago, as observed in some
inscriptions in the Banavar district.

Besides the land rent, there were several heads of customs,, duties,
taxes, &c., which the nadigas (or tarafdars) collected from the different
trades. The inhabitants were divided into three classes — Jirayati, Bagair
Jirayati and Khushbash. The Jirayati were those who cultivated the
soil ; Bagair Jirayati those from whom the Government derived revenue
by other means. The Khushbash were those who led a free life, the
servants of the Sarkar and others, who were exempted from paying any
revenue or taxes.

The revenue derived from the Bagair Jirayati yQ:\.x\)- for the privilege
of exercising their trades, for rent of the houses {matte gutta), &c.,
according to their stations, was carried to account in the revenue lists
under the head of mane-bdb. The duties paid by the shopkeepers in
towns and villages, exclusive of the customs at the several places or
kattes where goods were exported and imported, were included in angadi
gutta. The yV'yagar and others who enjoyed lands in consequence of
their offices or gifts, in some places accounted for one-third or one-eighth
of the produce to the Sarkar, according to the usual custom of these
places ; this was carried to account under the head of jbdi and manc-
gdnike. In the countries about Seringapatam and Chitaldroog, the
toddy of the ichalu or country date was used for distillation, there being
few palmyras : the palanquin-bearers, or caste of Bestars, also made
arrack from sugar, the ippe flower, and some from the bark of a tree ;
these people, for permission to sell this spirituous liquor, paid a certain
revenue to Government, called kallali.

In the Sunkam or customs, there were three different heads.
Customs on goods imported to be sold at one place were called sthahx-
ddyam ; customs taken for goods in transit through a district were called
77idrgdddyam ; customs taken for goods exported to foreign countries
were called mdmuldddyaiii. Under these heads the land customs were
collected at the different kattes or custom-houses. All kinds of goods,
even firewood and straw, paid these duties, excepting glass rings, brass
pots and soap balls. There were no particular regulations for the rates
of collection of land customs ; the Government farmed out the kattes to
renters, who took various measures frequently for increasing the perqui-
sites of their respective chaukis at the e.vpense of others. For instance,
they advanced money to some of the merchants, requiring only one-half
the duty which was paid by others, thus encouraging them to come by
their kattes, where they paid reduced customs, with a view of inducing
others to follow the same route. It is impossible to fix on any certain
rate in collecting customs on goods imported. When one farmer

5 84 ADMINISTRA TION

demanded lo pagodas for loo loads, another took only 2 pagodas, and
their rates widely differed as collected in various places. These farmers,
from the collections of the customs on different descriptions of goods and
trades, paid the amount of the agreed rent to the Sarkar, reserving the
profits, which were more or less considerable according to circumstances.

The butchers, for liberty of purchasing sheep at the first price from the
country and selling them in the markets for a certain profit, paid yearly a tax
called kasdyi-giUta, which was carried to account in the settlement of the
jamdbandi. The washermen, for liberty to wash and bleach their cloths on
the banks of rivers, tanks, &c., paid the tax iibbe giitta. In the winter season,
a certain class employed themselves in collecting black sand and earth in
channels from the hills, from which they smelted iron used for agricultural
and other uses. This ore was smelted in a kind of furnace or large fire-stand
called hoinjiial. For permission of cutting down wood for charcoal and for
digging the ore they paid a yearly revenue called hoinla gutta, proportioned
to the quantity of iron made in the district.

The Kurubas or weavers of kamblis, and the Julays or manufacturers of
cotton cloth, for liberty to sell their goods to the merchants, paid to the
Government a duty for each loom, rated according to the quantity of the
manufacture, which formed a separate branch of the revenue caXled. jakdyati.
The weavers paid no duties to the land customers for the goods they disposed
of in their own villages ; but the merchants who transported the cloths from
one place to another must first pay the customs previous to exportation.
The weavers generally preferred disposing of their goods to the merchants
of their own place. In some places the weavers paid a trifling tax, called
kaddivaram, to the collectors of the sunka. For the privilege of making oil,
the oilmakers'paid yearly gdnige gutta, a rent for their ganas or mills for
grinding oil-seeds ; for this the Sarkar provided a great tree for the mill and
a place to erect it on ; and none other was permitted to manufacture oil in
the village except him who paid this rent.

The Government used to appoint some aged men of the several inferior
classes to be the heads of their respective castes, and to administer justice.
These Headmen, on any complaint against their people, should investigate
it and fine them if guilty, adjudging the fine or punishment proportioned
according to the law and the nature of the case. For instance, a husband
convicting his wife of adultery, was allowed to sell her to another man, but
of his own caste, and receive the price for his use.' These Headmen
employed Dasaris as subordinate officers to minister in religious ceremonies

• An instance of this kind occurred at Harihar, says the writer, when we were in
that neighbourhood in 1800 ; a Brahman among many other fugitives from the seat of
war in the Savanur country, then overrun by Dundia and the contending parties,
offered his wife for sale, because the unfortunate woman had been violated ; but the
Brahmans of Harihar, though at first of opinion that she ought to be sold as a slave,
on further consideration, and consulting with more enlightened persons, found that as
her misfortune had been involuntary, it might be expiated by penance and a pecuniary
mulct to the offended law.

UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 585

among the inferior castes. Previous to the ceremonies commencing, the
customary duty or gratuity was given to this minister of religion, and they
were then at hberty to proceed with the festival, whether of marriage or any
other occasion. But if the parties neglected the established presents, the
Dasaris returned to their houses in displeasure and no other Ddsaris would
perform the office, as they would be liable to punishment for interfering. Hy
these means the Headmen collected fines, perquisites and presents from their
castes, from which they paid an annual tax to the Government. This branch
of custom was called samaydchdrai)i and was taken credit for in the jamd-
bandi accounts.

As the Madiga or chuckler had a greater dyam or allowance than the
other A'yagdr, and that besides when he supplied ropes and leather for the
use of the gardens they paid him a quantity of grain proportioned to the
produce, he therefore \)1l\(S. jdti-vidnyavi, a higher ta.\ than the other village
officers, and the Sarkar people presented him with a coarse cloth at the time
of settlement yearly. In some places it was customary, if the chuckler was
not able to pay the jati-mdnyam, that the Sarkar assumed his allowances
and share of the crop, and giving him one-half of his perquisites, the rest
was included in the government rental. He must be always ready to serve
and obey the orders of the Sarkar officers ; and the villagers generally
employed the chuckler to show the roads to travellers, and carry letters from
their village to the next stage. Besides the dyams already mentioned, the
chucklers in many places had indm or free gift lands, for which they paid
some gratuity to the Sarkar.

The people who extracted salt from the soil of the Sarkar lands paid a
revenue to the Government, called nppitia molla, proportioned to the
produce. The cow-keepers or Gollas paid luillti-banni for the liberty of
feeding their flocks and cattle in the public lands. The Amildar of the
district appointed one headman to collect the money arising from the duty
of hullu-banni in different places, which was thus included in the jamabandi.
The jungles were let out for a certain rent, kdvali }^utta or konda gutta, to
people who sold the grass and firewood to the inhabitants, according to the
accounts of their kists. Those who farmed the exclusive sale of different
articles from the Sarkar, purchased these articles at a low price and sold
them in the market at an advanced rate ; no other shopkeepers being
permitted to interfere in this trade. From these articles altogether a
certain revenue arose to the Sarkar, payable at the terms agreed on in the
jamabandi. The shroff used formerly to pay a very handsome tax to the
Sarkar, which was suppressed in 1801 at Chitaldroog.

The Jayaris were people convicted of murder, who were under the ancient
government employed as executors to put criminals to death by order of the
magistrate. For this duty they were permitted to take one gold fanam
from each pariah house ; their allowance is still admitted in the Chitaldroog
country ; they paid yearly 100 pagodas to Government as Jayari gutta.
Sivdyajama, not being certain, was the only item not included in the
jamabandi and estimate. It is composed of the hnes imjjosed for certain
malversations or misdemeanours, and carried to account under this head.

586 ADMINISTRATION

The foregoing formed the heads of the several branches, called Bdb,
of revenue arising to the sovereign, of which the Jamdbandi included
the estimated amount, which being settled, and the revenue collected
according to the kist, the occupiers used to remit the produce into the
general treasury, which accounts for the disbursements made by order
in the Civil and Military establishments of the Districts. The balances
due by the renters were carried to the next jamabandi, under the head
of Silsila Baki, which they collected from the renters with the next
year's rent. The Rajas and many of the other governors, even Haidar,
used to remit the charge of repairs of tanks.

For the improvement of the revenue, the following methods were
generally observed : —

The Government advanced money to the ryot who ploughed one vokkala
with one plough, to enable him to provide cattle, instruments of tillage and
other means to bring into cultivation next year three or four vokkalas of
waste land. They also took pains to get broken tanks repaired, as well
as the channels that conducted water to the fields ; and on the high
grounds where channels could not be led from the tanks, they dug many
kapile wells.

They gave kauls, or a sufficient surety of protection, to the head gaudas
of the country, who used their influence to introduce such inhabitants (from
foreign countries) as might be dissatisfied with their state at home ; these
were placed in convenient situations until they were settled and acquainted
with the management of the country, when the Sarkar gave them waste
lands to cultivate at a reduced rate, till the expiration of a certain term,
after which they were to pay the same rent as other ryots of the country.

The Government also encouraged the cultivation or manufacture of
various articles of commerce much in demand, by supplying seeds, plants,
&c., and the first expenses ; sugar, indigo, opium and other articles were
thus cultivated by the ryots according to instructions given on this subject.

The Government used further to make advances of money to foreign
merchants and encouraged them to settle in new pettas and markets, to
which they brought scarce and valuable goods from distant countries, and
in return exported the product of this country to places where they could
be disposed of to advantage : the customs were by this means increased,
and an additional income derived by the renters of the new market places.

Some of the ancient Rajas used to trade for their own advantage in the
following manner : — The cattle belonging to the Sarkar were employed in
time of peace to transport the grain and other products received in the half-
share of the crop from the ryots, to the market towns where they were sold
at the highest price, whence a more considerable price was secured, even
twice or thrice more than they would get in the country, by being free of
those duties that the merchants were liable to.

The establishments employed in the management of the Gadis were

UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 587

on a very moderate footing. The Nadiga had no pay allotted to him
in many cases, as he rented generally the country, and was supposed
to derive some advantage from his district ; the pay of the Parpattegar
or Amildar was 10 pagodas per month ; Sheristedar, 5 pagodas ; other
writers from i^ to 3 pagodas; when the Rajas employed people to
collect the sunkam on their own account, and accounts of this depart-
ment were kept, they gave a salary to the Sunkadava of from 2 to 5
pagodas ; the regulated pay of Atthavane or revenue peons was from 6
to 10 Kanthiraya fanams.

Little information could be obtained of any regular Courts of Justice
or Judges specially appointed for that purpose under the ancient forms
of government.^ Among the eight established great offices of State or
Ashta Pradhana, we do not find any mention of a Judge ; but there
were seven Heads of Departments under Rama Raya, as follows,
among whom one was apparently so designated : —

Pradhani Durga Daksha — governor of the hill forts.

Bhila Daksha — superintendent of tanks and lower forts, master of the pioneers and

workmen.
Dharma Karta — lord of justice and superintendent of charities and alms.
Senadhipati — commander-in-chief of the army.

superintendent of the haisebs or vakils, the Intelligence Dejiartment.

Pura Daksha — superintendent of towns, &c.

Devasthan Alapati — superintendent of temples and religious buildings.

But the pandits may be considered as expounders of the law or
counsellors of the Rajas, who in their own persons united the office of
judge and legislator. The Palegars had courts of pufichdyixti, wherein
complaints were heard and decisions given, by five respectable persons,
whence the name — pa/icha, five, and ayati, gathering.

The Persian Ambassador previously quoted (p. 351) has the
following remarks on the administration of justice and police regula-
tions at Vijayanagar as he saw them in 1441, in the reign of Deva
Raya : —

On the right hand of the palace of the Sultan there is the divAn-klulna,
or minister's ofhce, which is extremely large, and presents the appearance
of a chihal-suiiin, or forty-pillared hall ; and in front of it there rims a

* On this subject Sir II. S. Maine says: — Though llie Urahiuiiiical written l;isv
assumes the existence of king and judge, yet at the present moment in some of the
best governed semi-independent Native States, there are no institutions corresjwnding
to our Courts of Justice. Disputes of a civil nature are adjusted by the ciders of each
village, community, or occasionally, when they relate to land, by the functionaries
charged with the collection of the prince's revenue. Such criminal jurisdiction as is
found consists in the interposition of the military power to punish l)reaches of the
peace of more than ordinary gravity. What must be called criminal law is admin-
istered through the arm of the soldier. — /'///. Com., 71.

588 ADMINISTRATION

raised gallery, higher than the stature of a man, thirty yards long and six
broad, where the records are kept and the scribes are seated.' In the
middle of the pillared hall, a eunuch, called a Dandik, sits alone upon a
raised platform, and presides over the administration ; and below it the
mace-bcarers stand, drawn up in a row on each side. Whoever has any
business to transact, advances between the lines of mace-bearers, offers
some trifling present, places his face upon the ground, and standing upon
his legs again, represents his grievance. Upon this, the Dandik issues
orders founded upon the rules of justice prevalent in that country, and no
other person has any power of remonstrance. When the Dandik leaves the
chamber, several coloured umbrellas are borne before him, and trumpets are
sounded, and on both sides of his way panegyrists pronounce benedictions
upon him. Before he reaches the King he has to pass through seven gates,
at which porters are seated, and as the Dandik arrives at each door, an
umbrella is left behind, so that on reaching the seventh gate the Dandik
enters alone. He reports upon the affairs of the State to the King, and,
after remaining some time, returns. His residence lies beyond the palace
of the King.

On the left hand of the palace there is the mint. Opposite the mint is
the office of the Prefect of the City, to which it is said 12,000 policemen are
attached ; and their pay, which equals each day 12,000 fanams, is derived
from the proceeds of the brothels. The splendour of those houses, the
beauty of the heart-ravishers, their blandishments and ogles, are beyond all
description. It is best to be brief on the matter .... The revenues of
the brothels, as stated before, go to pay the wages of the policemen. The
business of these men is to acquaint themselves with all the events and
accidents that happen within the seven walls and to recover everything that
is lost, or that may be abstracted by theft ; otherwise they are fined. Thus,
certain slaves which my companion had bought, took to flight, and when
the circumstance was reported to the Prefect, he ordered the watchmen of
that quarter where the poorest people dwelt to produce them or pay the
penalty ; which last they did, on ascertaining the amount. Such are the
details relating to the city of Bijanagar and the condition of its sovereign. ^

Carnatic Bijapur. — 'When from the conquests of Ran-dulha Khan,
the Bijapur general, parganas had been formed, he arranged the sub-
ordinate divisions of samats, tarnfs, inaiije, imijare of each Pargana,
and appointed Jamadars or collectors. In the time of the Rayals, the
accountants had been called Samprati, but the Mahrattas introduced
the different ofifices of Deshpande, Deshkulkarni, Sar-Nad-Gaud,

' These people, he adds, have two kinds of writing, one upon a leaf of the Hindu
nut (palmyra) which is two yards long and two digits broad, on which they scratch
with an iron style. These characters present no colour, and endure but for a little
while. In the second kind they blacken a white surface, on which they write with a
soft stone cut into the shape of a pen, so that the characters are white on a black
surface and are durable. This kind of writing is highly esteemed. {See above, p. 503. )

- Sir H. Elliot, Hist. Iiid., iv, 107, iii.

UNDER BIJAPUR 589

Ueshmuki and Kanungo, by \Yhoni the accounts of the country were
kept; they also appointed Sheristedars to all the parganas. When
jagirs were granted to the Killedars and Mansubdars by the Sarkar,
the revenue accounts of the districts for the last years were previously
examined, and the new revenue rated annually on the jagir to be
granted. In fixing the revenue thus established, the inams or free gift
lands, land customs, &:c., were discontinued or deducted, and the net
revenue, more or less than the former, ascertained by means of the
Jamadars.

The Deshkulkarni was to write the kaul pa/fa, the contract or lease
for the revenue ; the Deshpande was to sign it in :\Iahratti characters
at the bottom of the paper ; the Deshmuki, Kanunga and Sar-Nad-
Gaud were also to add their signatures to the written deed, and the
Amildar finally to seal it. The particular accounts of the parganas
were kept as follows : the Shanbh6g was to keep the written accounts
of the mauje or village, the Deshkulkarni to keep the accounts of the
samats, the Deshpande the accounts of the parganas, and the Kanunga
to sign the patte or revenue agreements. He was also to keep a
written 'register of the revenue of the district, to be delivered to the
Sarkar. It was the duty of the Deshmuki and Sar-Nad-Gaud to control
and inspect all accounts, and report them to their superiors ; they were
also to inquire and report generally on all affairs, and the settlement
of the district.

Sim. — When the Moguls formed the Suba of Sira, 1 2 parganas were
annexed to it, and the other districts were permitted to be still held by
the Palcgars on condition of paying an annual tribute. Ofiicers for
collecting and managing the revenues were appointed in the amani
districts only ; at the same time the ofiices of Deshmuki, Deshkulkarni
and Sar-Nad-Gaud were formed into one office. Deshpandes,
jMajmundars, Kanungoyas, and Kulkarnis were maintained according
to the forms long established in the dominions of Uijajjur. The
Deshmuk was to settle the accounts with the patels ; the Deshpande
to check the accounts of the karnams ; the Kanunga to register the
official regulations, and to explain the ordinances and regulations to the
inhabitants and public officers to prevent errors or mistakes. In the
Majmiindar's office, the accounts of the settlement were made out and
issued.

The accounts of all kinds were anciently kept in Kannada, but after
the Mahratta chiefs attained power in the Carnatic, many Deshasts or
natives of their countries followed them, who introduced their language
and written character into the public accounts. Even in the samsthans
of the Palegars, where the revenue and military accounts had been kept

590 ADMINISTRATION

in Kannacla alone, some of them beginning then to entertain large
bodies of horse, employed Mahratta accountants to check the pay
accounts in that language for the satisfaction of the horsemen of that
nation. After the Moguls came into the country and established the
Suba of Sira, the Persian language came into use.

Under the Rajas of Mysore, &rc.

In the south, in the growing kingdom of Mysore, about the year
1 701, Chikka Dcva Raja, it is stated, distributed the business of govern-
ment into 18 cutcherries or departments, probably from having learned
from his ambassadors to Aurangzib that such was the practice at the
imperial court. These departments were : —

I. yVzV/^/rt; i:/i(^f'Z/rt(// or the secretary's department, to which he appointed
one daroga or superintendent, and three daftars, registers or books of record.
Everything was recorded in each of the three in exactly the same manner ;
all letters or orders despatched, to be previously read to the Rd.ja. 2. Ekka-
da chdvadi, whose business it was to keep the general accounts of revenue,
treasury, and disbursements, civil and military ; this seems to approach
our office of accountant-general. 3 and 4. Ubhaika vichdra, or two-fold
inquiry. He divided his whole possessions into two portions ; that north of
the Kaverihe called the Patna H6bli ; that south of the Kaveri was named
the Mysore Hdbli : to each of these cutcherries he appointed one divan and
three daftars. 5. Shi)ne Ka7iddchdr ; it was the duty of this cutcherry to
keep the accounts of provisions and military stores, and all expenses of the
provincial troops, including those connected with the maintenance of the
crarrisons ; one bakshi and three daftars. 6. Bdkal Kanddchdr (bdkal, a
oate or portal) ; it was the duty of this department to keep the accounts of
the troops attending at the porte, that is to say, the army, or disposable
force. 7. Siinkada chdvadi, or duties and customs ; it was their duty to
keep the general accounts of customs levied within his dominions. 8. Povt
chdvadi : in every taluq where the sunka was taken, there was another or
second station, where a farther sum equal to half the former amount was
levied ; for this duty he established a separate cutcherry. 9. Tiindeya
chdvadi [tinide, half, i.e., half of the pom) ; this was a farther fourth of the
first duty, levied in Seringapatam only. 10 and 11. In the Ubhaika vichara
were not included the Srirangapatna and Mysore Ashtagrama (eight town-
ships) : for each of these he had a separate cutcherry ; besides the business
of revenue, they were charged with the provisions and necessaries of the
o-arrison and palace. 12. Benne chdvadi, the butter department ; the
establishment of cows, both as a breeding stud, and to furnish milk and
butter for the palace : the name was changed by Tipu to Amrit Mahal,
and then to Keren Barik. (Amrit, the Indian nectar. Keren Barik, an
Arabic term, may be translated almost A-erbally Cornu Copia.) 13. Patnada
chdvadi ; this cutcherrj- was charged with the police of the metropolis, the
repairs of the fortifications and public buildings. 14. Behijt chdvadi, the

UNDER THE MYSORE RAJAS 591

department of expedition, or the post-office : the business of espionage
belon^^ed also to this department. 15. Samukha chavadi : the officers of
the palace, domestics, and personal servants of ever)- description belonged
to the charge of this cutcherry. 16. Dcvasthan c/uivadt\ kept the accounts
of the lands allotted to the support of religious establishments, the daily
rations of food to the Brahmans, lighting the pagodas, &c. 17. Kabbinadci
chdvatU, iron cutcherry : this article was made a monopoly, and its
management was committed to a separate cutcherry. 18. Hoge soppin
chavadi, the tobacco department, another monopoly by the government,
which in Seringapatam was the exclusive tobacco merchant.

It is certain that the revenues were realised with great regularity and
precision, and this Raja is stated to hvive established a separate treasury
to provide for extraordinary and unexpected disbursements, of which
he himself assumed the direct custody. It was his fixed practice, after
the performance of his morning ablutions, and marking his forehead
with the insignia of Vishnu, to deposit two bags (thousands) of pagodas
in this treasury from the cash despatched from the districts, before he
proceeded to break his fast. If there were any delay in bringing the
money, he also delayed his breakfast, and it was well known that
this previous operation was indispensable. By a course of rigid
economy and order, and by a widely extended and well-organized
system of securing for himself the great mass of plunder obtained by
his conquests, he had accumulated a treasure from which he obtained
the designation of Navak6ti Ndrayana, or the lord of nine crores (of
pagodas), and a territory producing a revenue calculated to have been
Kanthirdya pagodas 13,23,571.

The method by which he raised the revenue is thus described : — The
sixth was the lawful share of the crop, for which the Raja received his
equivalent in money ; and he was unwilling to risk the odium of
increasing this proportion in a direct manner. He therefore had
recourse to the law of the shdstras, which authorized him, by no
very forced construction, to attack the husbandman by a variety of
vexatious taxes, which should compel him to seek relief by desiring to
compound for their abolition by a voluntary increase of the landed
assessment : and this is the arrangement which generally ensued ;
although, from the great discontent excited by the taxes, the com-
promise was generally made on the condition of excepting some one or
more of the most offensive, and proportionally increasing those which
remained. But the Rdja, with that profound knowledge of human
nature which distinguished all his measures, exempted from these new
imposts all the lands which were allotted to the provincial soldiery in
lieu of pay, according to the ordinary practice of the smaller Hindu

592

ADMINISTRA TION

States and thus neutralized, in some degree, the opposition to the
measure, and ensured the means of eventual compulsion. Subjoined
is the detail of these taxes. ^ The whole .system is stated to have been
at once unfolded, with intimation that it would be gradually introduced
according to circumstances ; but the commotions which it produced,
by leading to measures of extreme severity, precipitated its total and
abrupt introduction.

One of the earliest measures of this Raja's reign had been to compel
the dependent Wodeyars and Palegars, who, like his own ancestors,
had commenced the career of ambition by affecting in their respective

' Mane terige, or house-tax. 2. Htil kaita, a lax upon the straw prockiced on the
ground which already paid kandaya, or the land-tax, on the pretence that a share of
the straw, as well as of the grain, belonged to government. 3. Deva Ray tttta —
utta is literally loss, the difference of exchange on a defective coin. Deva Raj, on
the pretence of receiving many such defective coins, exacted this tax as a reimlnirse-
ment ; this was now permanently added to the ryots' payments. It was different
according to the coins in use in the several districts, and averaged about two per
cent. 4. Bergi — a patel (for example) farmed his village, or engaged for the pay-
ment of a fixed sum to the government ; his actual receipts from the ryots fell short
of the amount, and he induced them to make it up by a proportional contribution.
The name of such a contribution is hergi, and the largest that had ever been so
collected was now added, under the same name, to the kandaya of each ryot.
5. Yeru siinka — sunka is properly a duty of transit on goods or grain ; yerii, a
plough. The ryot, instead of carrying his grain to where a transit duty is payable,
sells it in his own village. The yeru sunka was a tax of one to two gold fanams on
each plough, as an equivalent for the tax which would have been paid if the grain
had been exported. 6. Jdti mdnya, a tax upon the heads of those castes {Jogi,
Jangam, &c. ) who do not come within the general scope of Hindu establishments,
and form separate communities which occasionally oppose the Brahminical rule. On
every occasion of marriage, birth, or law-suit, or quarrel, a certain fine was levied on
each house concerned as parties or judges, and a chief of each caste was made
responsible for the collection. 7. Magga kandaya or loom-tax. 8. Kutike terige, a
tax on fornication. 9. Aladive terige, a tax upon marriage. 10. Angadi pattadi, or
shop-tax. II. Angadi passera, a tax upon the movable booths which are set up
daily in the middle of the bazaar streets. 12. Kavadi terige (kavadi is the name of
a bullock saddle) a tax upon bullocks kept for hire. 13. Mdrike (selling), a tax
upon the purchase and sale of cattle. 14. Uppin mala, a tax upon the manufacture
of inland salt, produced by lixiviating saline earths. 15. Ubbe kdnike — ubbe is the
kettle or vessel made use of by washermen to boil and bleach their cloths ; this was
a tax on each kettle. 16. Kiiri terige, a tax of a certain sum per cent, on flocks of
sheep. 17. Pashioara (Pasha is a fisherman, a net). 18. Gida gdval, a tax upon
wood for building, or fuel brought in from the forests. 19. Gulavina pommu. (Gula
is the name of a plough-share.) This is a separate tax on that instrument, exclusively
of the plough-tax, No. 5, which is professed to be a tax on the alienation of grain.
20. Terad hagalu (opening a door). In a country and a state of society where
window-glass was unknown, this was a most ingenious substitute for the window-tax.
The husbandman paid it, as expressed by the name, for the permission to open his
door. It was, however, levied only on those made of planks, and not on the common
bamboo door of the poorer villagers.

UNDER THE BEOXUR NAYAKS 593

districts to be addressed by the title of Riija, publicly to renounce that
assumption of independence, to disclaim the local prerogatives of
punishment and confiscation without previous authority from the Raja,
and to revert to their original character of obedient officers of the
government. This object was aided by first inviting, and then com-
pelling, them to fix their residence at Seringapatam ; by assigning to
them offices of honour about the Raja's person, and gradually convert-
ing them from rebellious chieftains to obsequious courtiers. The
insurgents in the districts were left, in consequence, destitute of the
direction of their accustomed leaders, and the Jangam priests, deprived
of their local importance, and much of their pecuniary receipts, by the
removal of these mock courts from the provinces, were foremost in
expressing their detestation of this new and unheard-uf measure of
finance, and in exhorting their disciples to resistance. The terrible
mode in which this was put down has been described p. 367. The
new system of revenue was finally established, and there is a tradition
that the Raja exacted from every village a written renunciation,
ostensibly voluntary, of private property in the land, and an acknow-
ledgment that it was the right of the State.

Bedmir. — In the Bednur territory, the west of the country, the most
distinguished ruler was Sivappa Nayak, who reigned 1648 to 1670.
His shist or land assessment, and prahar paiti or rules for collecting
the halat on areca-nut, i!cc., are frerjuently referred to in proof of his
financial skill, and he is said to have framed a scale of expenditure,
including every contingency for each day in the year, for the Sringeri
matha.

During twelve successive years, he caused one field of each descrip-
tion of land, in every village, to be cultivated on his own account, and
an accurate record kept of the seed sown, the expense of culture, and
the quantity and value of the produce. He then struck averages of
the produce and prices, and taking the value of one khanclaga (of 50
seers) at one fanam, and the Sarkar share as one-third of the gross
produce, fixed the rates shown in the table on the following page,
land being distributed into five classes, with two rates for each class.

Gardens were measured with a rod, the length of the stone steps at
the Ikkeri Aghoresvara devasthan (18 feet 6 inches English exactly).
This rod was the space called ddya allowed for one tree. The shist
was fixed on 1,000 such daya at various rates. These are not given,
but they appear to have varied from 7 to 25 Bahaduri pagodas.

The shist continued for thirty-nine years from 1660. The following
additions were afterwards made :— In 1700, one anna in the pagoda,
called dasoha, by Chinnammaji, for the support of an establishment

594

ADMINISTRA T/ON

for providing food gratis to all who applied. In 1736, one fanam four
as. per pagoda, called J)a_i;udi\ by Chikka Somasekhara, when the
Moguls threatened an invasion. In 1753, one fanam four as. per
pagoda, called paiii, by liasappa Nayak, to pay the Mahratta chout.
Shi.st on Land requiring one Khand.\ca of Seed. Wet Land.

Description.

Produce.

Rate.

Class of land.

Highest.

Lowest.

Highest.

Lowest.

Quantity.

Value. Quantity

Value.

ist,Uttamam.

2nd, Madhya-
mam.

3rd, Kanish-
tam.

Yeremisra, — black,
and black mixed
with sand .

Bettabis, — high
and open red or
mixed

Varavindu, — dark
or hght sand with

Kh.indis.
30

22J

3
2

F.
0

5
7

a
0

0
8

Khandis.
26J

i8|

3l
17*

P.
2

F.
6

5
2

A.
0

0
8

F.
8

3
I

T?.

4th, Adha-Yatte, — hard, high

5th, Adhama- Urimalal, — hot

dhamam. sand, dry, anc

above level 0

Dry land, or hakkal, in the Gaddenad, was included in the gadde
shist. In the open country the following rates were fixed per khan-
daga : —

Class.

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

Descri^ition.

Yere, — black clay

Kari Masab, — dark loam with sand..

Kemman, — red ...

^lalal, — sandy

Imnian, — mixed ...

Gonikal, — gravelly

F. I A.

2' 8

o o

7 S

5 i o

o o

7 I 8

Under the Basvapatna chiefs, Bedar offered higher rents for some
villages than were paid by the old gaudas, who were Kurubar, which
were accepted, which ended in the ryots at length agreeing to pay an
addition to the kulavana of from two to six fanams in the pagoda.
This was the origin of I'irado, which is found in the east of the
Shimoga District.

UNDER HAIDAR ALI

595

Haidar AH. — Such was the system before Haidar Ali Khan ; when
he had subjugated the ancient Palegars, he again reinstated several of
them on condition of paying an annual tribute ; and he followed
generally the regulations formerly established, and the peculiar customs
and laws of the different provinces. But he was at all times accessible
to complaints, and never failed to pursue to its source the history of
an irregular demand, and to recover it with additional fines from the
exactor. It is true that the amount was never returned to the com-
plainant, but it frequently produced the dismission of the offender ;
the certainty of investigation tended to restrain oppression, and, as
Haidar was accustomed to say, rapacity in this case was nearly as good
for his subjects, and much better for himself, than a more scrupulous
distribution of justice. For though he left the fiscal institutions of
Chikka Deva Raja as he found them, he added to the established
revenue whatever had been secretly levied by a skilful or popular Amil
and afterwards detected : this produced a progressive and regular
increase, and the result of complaints gave occasional, but also toler-
ably regular, augmentations.

Two Brahmans, with the title of Harkaras, resided in each taluq.
Their duty was to hear all complaints, and to report these to the office
of the revenue department. They were also bound to report all waste
lands. This was found to be a considerable check to oppression and
to defalcations on the revenue.

Tipu Sultan. — But Tipu .Sultan, not approving of the old regulations,
introduced a new system through all his dominions. He divided the
whole into tiikadis of five thousand pagodas each, and established the
following officers in each tukadi : — One Amildar, one sheristedar, three
gumastas, one tarafdar to each taraf, six atlhavane peons, one golla (or
headman) to seal and keep money, one shroff and one munshi. To
twenty or thirty tukadis was attached an Asuf cutcherry : the official
establishment of each of them was — first and second Asufs, two
sherista, two gumastas willi five men each, forty peons, one shroff, one
munshi, one mashalchi to attend the office, one Persian sheristedar,
and some gumastas to keep the accounts in Persian. In this manner
an entire new system of management was introduced. Mir Sadak, the
president of the Asuf cutcherry, circulated such new orders as were
necessary, under the signature and seal of the Sultan, to the Head
Asufs of the Revenue Department, which they communicated to
Amildars under them, and these sent them to the Tarafdars with
directions to have them notified throughout their districts. He dis-
pensed with the Harkaras appointed by Haidar, and this measure of
economy contributed much to the oppression of the people.

Q Q 2

596 ADMINISTRATION

The accounts of revenues were made out in the Kannada character
by the tarafdars ; fair copies of which they communicated to the
Amildars, in whose office they were translated into Mahratti, and a
copy of each preserved by the sheristedars in the Kannada and
Mahratti languages. A third set was kept in Persian.

The following salaries were attached to offices : — In the Tukadi
Office the Amildar got lo pagodas ; sheristedar, 5 ; gumasta, 2 ;
munshi, 2 ; goUa, 8 fanams ; shroff, 8 ; attavane peons, 6 ; naiks, 8.
The sunkadars had no pay, being renters in several districts. In the
Asuf cutcherry, Asufs from 50 to 60 pagodas each ; sheristedars, from
25 to 30 ; gumastas, Persian 8, Kannada 6, Hindavi 7 ; munshi, 8 ;
goUa, 2 ; shroff, 2 ; kazi, 5 ; his duty was to administer justice to the
Musalmans, and all of that religion who neglected to come to perform
the iiamdz in the mosque on Friday were liable to be fined or punished
by the kazi.

From Wilks the following further details are extracted, regarding
what Tipu Sultan in his memoirs styles his " incomparable inventions
and regulations," some reference to which has been made in p. 409 : —
"The code of military regulatio?is contained elementary instructions
for the infantry, which were as well given as could be expected from a
person copying European systems, and unacquainted with the elements
of mathematical science ; the invention of new words of command
would have been a rational improvement, if the instructions had
thereby been rendered more intelligible ; but the substitution of obsolete
Persian for French or English gave no facility in the instruction of
officers and soldiers, who, speaking of them in mass, may be described
as utterly ignorant of the Persian language. The general tendency of
the changes, effected in the whole of his military establishment, was
to increase and improve his infantry and artillery at the expense of the
cavalry.

The Jleet was originally placed by Tipu under the Board of Trade.
The experience of two wars had shown that it would always be at the
mercy of a European enemy; and it seemed to have been chiefly con-
sidered as a protection to trade against the system of general piracy
then practised along the western shores of India, up to the Persian
Gulf The loss of a moiety of every resource in 1792, gave a new
scope and stimulus to invention ; and the absurdity was not perceived
of seeking to create a warlike fleet without a commercial navy, or of
hoping, literally without means, suddenly to rival England in that
department of war which was represented to be the main source of her
power by the vakils who accompanied the hostages, and had been
specially instructed to study the English institutions. This novel

UNDER TIPU SULTAN 597

source of liope was not finally organized on paper till 1796, and can
scarcely be deemed to have had a practical existence. He began in
1793 "ith ordering the construction of a hundred ships; but in 1796
he sunk to twenty ships of the line and twenty frigates ; eleven Com-
missioners, or Lords of the Admiralty {Mir-e-Yem), who were not
expected to embark ; thirty Mir Bahr, or Admirals, of whom twenty
were to be afloat, and ten at court for instruction — a school for sea-
manship which it is presumed a British Admiral would not entirely
approve. A 72-gun ship had thirty 24-pounders, thirty i8-pounders,
and i2-nines; a 46-gun frigate had twenty 12-pounders, as many nines,
and six 4-pounders ; the line-of-battle ships were 72's and 62's ; and
the men for the forty ships are stated at 10,520. To each ship were
appointed four principal officers : the first commanded the ship ;
the second had charge of the guns, gunners and ammunition ; the
third, of the marines and small arms ; the fourth, the working and
navigation of the ship, the provisions and stores ; and the regulations
descend to the most minute particulars, from the dockyard to the
running rigging ; from the scantlings of the timbers to the dinner of
the crew.

The commercial regulations were founded on the basis of making the
sovereign, if not the sole, the chief, merchant of his dominions ; but
they underwent the most extraordinary revolutions. On his accession
he seems to have considered all commerce with Europeans, and parti-
cularly with the P^nglish, as pregnant with danger in every direction.
Exports were prohibited or discouraged ; first, because they augmented
to his own subjects the price of the article; second, because they
would afford to his neighbours the means of secret intelligence ; and
third, because they would lift the veil of mystery which obscured the
dimensions of his power. Imports were prohibited, because they
would lessen the quantity of money, and thereby impoverish the
country ; propositions which may indicate the extent of his attain-
ments in political economy : and such was the mean adulation by
which he was surrounded, that domestic manufactures of every kind
were stated to be in consequence rapidly surpassing the foreign, and a
turban of Burhampoor would be exhibited and admired by the unani-
mous attestation of all around him as the manufacture of Shahar Ganjam.
It was under the influence of this utter darkness in commercial and
political economy, that in 1784 he ordered the eradication of all the
pepper vines of the maritime districts, and merely reserved those of
inland growth to trade with the true believers from Arabia. The
increase of this article of commerce l)ecame, some years afterwards,
an object of j)avticular solicitude, liul it is uncertain whether the

598 ADMINISTRATION

prohibition of growing red pepper or chilli, was to be considered as a
commercial regulation, to increase the growth of black pepper, or
as a medical regimen, or as a compound of both motives. It is a
general opinion in the south of India, that the free use of red pepper
has a tendency to generate cutaneous eruptions, and the Sultan
certainly prevented its entering his harem for six months ; whether in
that period he did not find the ladies improved in the smoothness of
their skin, or was influenced by other causes, he withdrew the pro-
hibition of culture about a year after it had been promulgated.

From the personal reports of the vakils who accompanied the
hostages to Madras, his attention was called to a proposition, however
strange, yet stated to be generally admitted among the most enlightened
persons at Madras, that the power not only of the English Company
but of the English King, was founded in a material degree on com-
mercial prosperity ; and the Sultan devised an extensive plan for a
similar increase of power ; still, however, pursuing the principles
which he conceived to be sanctioned by the example of the India
Company, of combining the characters of merchant and sovereign.
In a long and laborious code of eight sections, he established a royal
Board of nine Commissioners of Trade, with seventeen foreign and
thirty home factories in the several Districts ; furnished with extensive
instructions for a profitable system of exports and imports, by land
and by sea, and a strict theoretical control over the receipts and dis-
bursements ; the monopolies, however, continued to be numerous, and
those of tobacco, sandalwood, pepper and the precious metals were
the most lucrative.

One, however, of the sections of commercial regulation is so per-
fectly unique that it may afford entertainment. It professes to be
framed for the attractive purpose of " regulating commercial deposits,
or admitting the people at large to a participation in the benefits to
accrue from the trade of the country." Every individual depositing a
sum not exceeding five hundred rupees was declared entitled at the
end of the year to receive, with his principal, an increase of 50 per
cent. For a deposit of from five hundred to five thousand, 25 per
cent. Above five thousand, 12 per cent,, with liberty at all times and
in all classes, to receive, on demand, any part of the deposit together
w'ith the proportion of interest^ up to the day. These variations of
profit, in the inverse ratio of the deposit, were probably intended to
show his consideration for the small capitalist, but a project for
enticing his subjects into a swindling loan was too glaring to be mis-

' The word interest is not employed, usury being at variance with the precepts of
the Koran ; profit is the term used.

UNDER TIPU SULTAX 599

understood. At a very early period of his government, he had, in an
ebullition of anger, extinguished the business of banker, and monopo-
lized its dependent and most profitable trade of money-changer. He now-
issued an ordinance, converting the trade of money-changer and broker
into a monopoly for the benefit of Government, furnishing coin for the
purpose, from the treasury, to servants paid by regular salaries. It
was, however, reported that the dealers kept aloof from transactions
with the government shops, that the expenses far exceeded the profits,
and that it was necessary either to abandon the jilan, or to enlarge it
so as to embrace not only regular banking establishments but com-
mercial speculations necessary to their prosperity. A part of this plan
was therefore gradually introduced, and the funds in the hands of the
money-changers were employed in advantageous loans.

The regulations of revenue, professing like those for pecuniary
deposits to be founded on a tender regard for the benefit of the people,
contained little that was new, except that the nomenclature and the
institutions of Chikka Deva Raja and Haidar were promulgated as the
admirable inventions of Tipu Sultan. One improvement occurs, not
undeserving the modified consideration of Western statesmen who
value the health or the morals of the people. He began at an early
period to restrict the numbers and regulate the conduct of the shops
for the sale of spirituous liquors, and he finally and effectually
abolished the whole, together with the sale of all intoxicating substances,
and the destruction, as far as he could effect it, of the white poppy and
the hemp plant, even in private gardens. For the large sacrifice of
revenue involved in this prohibition, the extinction of Hindu worship
and the confiscated funds of the temples were intended to compensate,
and would, if well administered, in a degree have balanced the tax on
intoxicating substances : the measure commenced at an early period of
his reign, and the extinction was gradual, but in 1 799 the two temples
within the fort of Seringapatam alone remained open throughout the
extent of his dominions.

Of his system of police, the following extract from his official
instructions may suffice : — " You must place spies throughout the whole
fort and town, in the bazaars, and over the houses of the principal
officers, and thus gain intelligence of every person who goes to the
dwelling of another, and of what people say, «S:c., iS:c." All this
Haidar effectually did, and all this Tipu Sultan only attempted. No
human being was ever worse served or more easily deceived."

6oo ADMINISTRATION

The Regency of Pumaiya^ 1 799-1810.

Of the system of administration as established under the Divan
Purnaiya, an account is given in a report from the same pen, under
date 1804, from which the subjoined particulars are derived : —

Tipu Sultan attempted the subjugation of the whole of the Palegars,
and the annexation of their lands to those of the Sarkar ; but under the
complicated system of fraud and malversation of every kind which
prevailed, a large proportion of the palyams which continued to be
represented at the Presence as under Sarkar management, were, by a
mutual collusion of the Palegar and Amil, held by the former ; and the
degree of authority which should be exercised by the latter, came at
length to depend on the sufferance of the Palegar, who had often but
slender claims to that title. On the establishment of the present
government, there were, accordingly, few districts that did not furnish
at least one claimant, possessing or pretending to the hereditary juris-
diction. The mischief was not confined to the revival of former
pretensions ; in some cases the patels, and in others the officers of
police, emulating the Palegar character, and copying their history,
sought to obtain the independent rule of their respective villages and
the privilege of encroaching on their neighbours ; and the ryots who
could afford a bribe were generally successful in procuring a false entry
in the books of the District, of the quantity of land for which they paid
a rent. In some districts attempts were made by the newly-appointed
Asufs or Amils to reform these latter abuses ; but the frequent, and
latterly the systematic, assassination of such reformers terrified their
successors ; and these feeble and ineffectual efforts served only to
confirm the most base and abject reciprocation of licentiousness and
corruption.

With a view to compose and encourage the well-affected, and to
obviate unnecessary alarm in those of an opposite character, the new
Administration commenced its proceedings by proclaiming an un-
qualified remission of all balances of revenue, and the restoration of the
ancient Hindu rate of assessment, on the lands, and in the sayar.

For the maintenance of public authority, a small but select body of
cavalry, infantry and peons was collected from the ruins of the Sultan's
army ; and for the preservation of interior tranquillity, a plan was
adopted which deserves to be more particularly described. The
ancient military force of the country consisted of peons or irregular
foot, variously armed, but principally with matchlocks and pikes ; these
men, trained from their infancy according to their measure of discipline
to military exercises, were most of them also cultivators of the soil, but

UNDER PURNAIYA 60 1

the vacant part of the year had usually been allotted to military enter-
prise, and when the circumstances of their respective chiefs offered
nothing more important, these restless habits led them to private
depredation. It was necessary that men of these propensities should
either be constantly restrained by the presence of a large military force,
or be made by proper employment to feel an interest in the stability of
the government ; and there was no hesitation with regard to this
alternative if the latter should be found to be practicable. Haidar All
had employed large bodies of these men in his garrisons and armies.
Tipu Sultan had diminished their numbers for an increase of his
regular infantry ; but neither of those chieftains steadily pursued any
systematic plan on this important subject.

The system adopted by the Divan was, to engage in the service of
the State at least one individual from each family of the military ; to
respect the ancient usages of their several districts with regard to the
terms on which peons were bound to military service; in all practical
cases to assign waste lands in lieu of one-half of their pay, according to
the prevailing usage of ancient times. Their local duties were defined
to consist, in taking their easy tour of guard in the little forts or walled
villages to which they were attached ; and in being ready at all times
to obey the calls of the officers of police.

Their village pay, half in land and half in money, varied from 2 to 3 Rs.
per month, with a batta of 3^ if called out from their respective dis-
tricts ; when frecjuent reliefs, according to their domestic convenience,
were always allowed. One thousand of them were prevailed on to
enrol themselves for occasional service as dooly bearers, and 450 of
that number served with the Company's army ; and 817 of the number
perform the duty of runners to the post-office of the (lovernmcnt of
Mysore.

The number of peons thus enrolled, exclusively of those in constant
pay, amounted during the two first years to 20,027 persons ; and their
annual pay to 225,862 Kanthiraya pagodas. Better information and
improved arrangements enabled the Divan in the third year to reduce
the number to 17,726; and the expense to 184,718 Kanthiraya pagodas.
In the fourth and fifth years they were reduced to 15,247 persons, and
the expense to 148,478 Kanthiraya pagodas ; and this amount was
considered by the Divan to be nearly as low as it could with jirudenre
be reduced.

The lineal descendants and familiLS of several of the most powerful
Palcgars were destroyed in the general massacre of prisoners which was
ordered by Tipu Sultan subsecjuently to the defeat of his army by
Lord Cornwallis on the 15th May 1792. A few persons who preferred

6o 2 ADMINISTRA TION

the chance of future commotions to a suitable and respectable pro-
vision, retired from the country ; a still smaller number, of refractory
conduct, were imprisoned : but the greater proportion accepted
gratuitous pensions, civil offices, or military command, on the condition
of residing at Mysore, or accompanying the Divan when absent from
that place. The expedient of assassinating an Ami! was resorted to at
an early period ; but the police had even then assumed so efficient a
form that all the murderers were traced and executed, and this savage
experiment was not renewed.

The revolutions which had occurred at an earlier or more recent
period in every district of Mysore, do not seem to have altered the
tenures on which the lands were held by the actual cultivators of the
soil. With the exception of Bednur and Balam, the general tenure
of land may be described to be " the hereditary right of cultivation,"
or the right of a tenant and his heirs to occupy a certain ground so
long as they continue to pay the customary rent of the district ; but
as in the actual condition of the people the rent can only be paid while
the land is cultivated, it is apparently held that the right no longer
exists than while it is thus exercised : and when the tenant ceases to
cultivate, the right reverts to the Government, which is free to confer it
on another.

In the provinces of Bednur and Balam, the property of the soil is
vested in the landholder ; and the hereditary right of succession to that
property is held in as great respect as in any part of Europe. The
rents being paid in money, and the officers of Government having no
further interference with the ryots than to receive those rents, the
tenure of land in those provinces is highly respectable. This venerable
institution of hereditary property and fixed rents is attributed to
Sivappa Nayak, and the rent established by him is said to have con-
tinued without augmentation until the conquest by Haidar Ali ; there
is reason, however, to believe that under the form of contributions to
defray the expense of marriages and aids on extraordinary occasions,
the rent actually paid was considerably enhanced. JNIilitary service was
at all times a condition of the tenure.

On the conquest of Bednur by Haidar Ali in the year 1763, he at
first attempted to conciliate the principal landholders ; but having dis-
covered a conspiracy to assassinate him, supported by the landholders
and headed by the chief officers of the late government and some of
his own confidential servants, he proceeded, after the execution of not
less than 300 persons, to disarm landholders, and to commute their
military service for a money payment, holding the country in sub-
jection by means of an establishment of 25,000 foreign peons. This

UNDER FURXAIYA 603

assessment of the lands continued without alteration until the peace
of 1792, which deprived Tipu Sultan of one-half of his territories, and
suggested to him the singular expedient of compensating that loss by a
proportional assessment on his remaining possessions. This measure,
in Bednur as well as elsewhere, produced an effect exactly the converse
of what was intended; and, added to other abundant causes, terminated
in the absolute ruin of his finances.

On the establishment of the new government of Mysore, the land-
holders of Bednur attempted to stipulate for the restoration of the
ancient rates of land-tax of Sivappa Nayak, and the remission of the
pecuniary commutation of military ser\ice established by Haidar Ali.
It was ascertained in Bednur, and it is believed also in Canara, that
the commutation fixed by Haidar was fair and moderate : the rates
of 1764 were accordingly adopted as the fixed land-tax, and continue
apparently to give satisfaction.

The province of Balam was never effectually conquered until
military roads were opened through the forest towns by the Honourable
Major-General Wellesley in the year 180 1-2. The authority of Haidar
Ali, or of Tipu Sultan, over this province, was extremely precarious ;
and the presence of an army was always necessary to enforce the pay-
ment of the revenue. The rates of the land-tax had accordingly
fluctuated, but were fixed by the new government at a standard which
appeared to be acceptable to the landholders.

The Divan appeared to have an adequate conception of the advan-
tages, both to the ryots and the government, of a system of hereditary
landed property and fixed rents, over the more precarious tenures which
prevailed in other parts of Mysore. And throughout the country he
generally confirmed the property of the soil to the possessors of planta-
tions of areca, cocoanut, and other plants which were not annual. The
exceptions to this latter measure principally applied to gardens and
plantations which had gone to decay under the late government from
over-assessment ; and to those which had recently been formed and did
not yet admit of the adjustment of a fixed rent. He showed a general
disposition to accede to the proposals of individuals for fixing the rents
and securing the property on every description of land ; but he did not
press it as a measure of government, which the ryots habitually receive
with suspicion, and held the opinion that people must be made
gradually to understand and wish for such a measure before it could be
conferred and received as a benefit.

The whole of the revenue is under amani management. The culti-
vators of dry lands pay a fixed money rent, calculated to be equal to
about one-third of the crop ; and those of the wet or rice lands, a pay-

6o4 A DMINISTRA TION

ment, nominally in kind, of about one-half of the crop; but generally
discharged in money at the average rates of the district, which are
adjusted as soon as the state of the crop admits of an estimate being
made of its value. When the Amil and ryots cannot agree on the
money payment, it is received in kind. The precarious nature of the
rice cultivation in the central and eastern parts of Mysore makes it
difficult to remedy this very inconvenient practice ; and it has hitherto
been found impracticable to adjust any money rents for wet cultivation
in those parts of the country. In the western range some farmers have
made the experiment of a money rent for rice-ground, but the waram
or payment in kind is generally found so much more profitable, by the
facility it affords of defrauding the government, that the adjustment of
money rents for that description of land is not making much progress.

The civil government is divided into three departments : ist, Treasury
and Finance ; 2nd, Revenue ; 3rd, Miscellaneous, not included in the
two former. The conduct of the military establishment is entrusted to
two distinct departments, of Cavalry and Infantry. The Kandachar,
or establishment of peons already described, is under the direction of a
sixth separate department, partaking both of civil and military functions,
in its relation to the police, the post-office, and the army. The Divan
may be considered personally to preside over every department.

The operations of the financial department are extremely simple.
Each district has its chief goUa, who keeps the key of the treasury ; the
sheristedar has the account, the Amil affixes his seal ; and the treasury
cannot be opened except in the presence of these three persons. The
saraf examines the coins received on account of the revenue, affixes his
seal to the bags of treasure dispatched to the general treasury, and is
resi^onsible for all deficiencies in the quality of the coin. A similar
process, sanctioned by the sealed order of the Divan, attends the dis-
bursement of cash at the general treasury ; and the accounts are kept
in the same style of real accuracy, and apparent confusion, which is
usual in other parts of India.

The miscellaneous department, together with several indefinite
duties, comprises two principal heads, viz., first, the regulation of the
Raja's establishment of state, and of his household ; and secondly, the
custody of the judicial records.

In the administration of justice, as in every other branch of the
government, due regard has been given to the ancient institutions of
the country, and to the doctrines of the Hindu law. There is no
separate department for the administration of justice in Mysore, with
the exception of khazis in the principal towns, whose duties are limited
to the adjustment of ecclesiastical matters among the Muhammadan

UNDER PURXAIYA 605

inhabitants. Matters of the same nature among the Hindus are usually
determined according to mdmiil or ancient precedent, and where there
is no maniill by the doctrine of the shastras, if any can be found to
apply.

The Amil of each taluq superintends the department of police, and
determines in the minor cases of complaint for personal wrongs ; the
establishment of Kandachar peons gives great efficiency to this depart-
ment. Three Subadars, for the purposes of general superintendence,
have been established over the respective provinces of Bangalore,
Chitaldroog and Bednur; and these officers direct the proceedings in
all important cases, criminal and civil. On the ajjprehension of any
persons criminally accused, the Subadar or the Amil, if he sees cause
for public trial, orders a panchayat, or commission of five, to be
assembled in open cutcherry ; to which all inhabitants of respectability,
and unconnected with the party, have the right of becoming assessors.
The proceedings of this commission, in which are always included the
defence of the prisoner, and the testimony of such persons as he
chooses to summon, are forwarded to the Divan, accompanied by the
special re{)ort of the Subadar or Amil. In cases of no doubt, and
little importance, the Divan makes his decision on the inspection of
these proceedings. In matters of difficulty, or affecting the life or
liberty of the prisoner, the case is brought for final hearing before the
Divan, who pronounces his sentence, assisted by the judgment of the
Resident.

The administration of civil justice is conducted in a manner
analogous to that of the criminal. The proclamation which announced
a remission of all balances of revenue, among other benefits which it
conferred on the people of Mysore, shut up the most productive source
of litigation. The Amil has the power of hearing and determining, in
open cutcherry, and not otherwise, all cases of disputed property not
exceeding the value of five pagodas. Causes to a larger amount are
heard and determined by a panch:iyat compo.sed as al)ove described :
and as publicity is considered to afford an important security against
irregular or partial proceedings, the respectable inhabitants are
encouraged to attend as assessors, according to their leisure and con-
venience. In cases where both the parties arc Hindus, the panchdyat
is usually composed of Hindus ; where the parties are of different sects,
the panchayat is formed of two persons from the sect of each party, and
a fifth from the sect of the defendant. In plain cases, where no differ-
ence of opinion has occurred in the panchayat, the Amil confirms their
award, and forwards their proceedings to the Presence. In ca.ses of
difficulty, or variety of opinion, the proceedings are forwarded with the

GoG ADMINISTRATION

report (jf the Subadar or Amil, to the Divan, who pronounces a final
decision in communication with the Resident ; or, if he sees cause,
orders a re-hearing before himself. In all cases whatever, the parties
have the right of appeal to the Divan ; and his frccjuent tours through
the country facilitate the practice of this right.

The form of proceeding in civil cases differs materially from the
practice of English courts.

Before the trial commences, the plaintiff tirst, and then the defendant, are
each required to give a circumstantial narrative of the transaction which
involves the matter at issue ; this narrative is carefully committed to writing,
and twice read over to the party, who corrects what has not been properly
stated ; the document is then authenticated by the signature of the party, of
two witnesses, and of a public officer. The correct agreement of this narra-
tive with facts subsequently established, is considered to constitute strong
circumstantial evidence in favour of the party, and its disagreement with any
material fact to amount to the presumption of a fictitious claim or false
evidence. The Hindu law seems indirectly to enjoin this branch of the
proceeding. Testimony is received according to the religion of the witness,
first for the plaintiff, and then for the defendant ; and the members of the
panchdyat, or assessors, and the witnesses called for the purpose, depose to
matters of general notoriety. The panchdyat, in cases of difficulty, usually
prefix to their award a few distinct propositions, explaining the grounds of
their decision, which generally seem to be drawn with considerable sagacity.
But the object in which the principles of proceeding differ most essentially
from those of an English court is in the degree of credit which is given to
the testimony upon oath. It appears to be in the spirit of English juris-
prudence to receive as true the testimony of a competent witness until his
credibility is impeached. It is a fixed rule of evidence in Mysore to suspect
as false the testimony of every witness until its truth is otherwise supported.
It follows as a consequence of this principle, that the panchayats are anxious
for the examination of collateral facts, of matters of general notoriety, and
of all that enters into circumstantial evidence ; and that their decisions are
infinitely more influenced by that description of proof than is consistent
with the received rules of evidence to which we are accustomed, or could be
tolerated in the practice of an English court.

The administration of the revenue is committed, under the control
of three principal Subadars, to Amils presiding over taluqs sufficiently
limited in extent to admit a diligent personal inspection of the whole of
their charge ; the number of these taluqs has varied, as convenience
seemed to require, from ii6 to 120.

[Each taluq is divided into Hoblis, which pay from 4,000 to 9,000
pagodas. These are managed by a set of officers who are interposed
between the Amildars and Gaudas. The head person of a Hobli is
called a Parpatti, and by the Musalmans a Shekdar. He visits every

UNDER FURNAIYA 607

village to see the state of cultivation and of the tanks, and settles dis-
putes that are above the reach of the Gaucla's understanding. In this
he is always assisted by the advice of four old men. He ought not to
inflict any corporal punishment without the orders of the Amildar.
The Parpatti receives the rents from the Gaudas and transmits them to
the Amildars. Most of these officers are Brahmans ; very few are
Sudras. In each Hobli there arc two accountants, called Gadi
Shanbh6gs, but by the Musulmans named Sheristadars. Until Tipu's
tiine these officers were hereditary, and they ha\e always been Brah-
mans. In each Hobli, for every 1,000 pagodas rent that it pays, there
is also a Manigdr, or Tahsildar as he is called l)y Musalmans.
These are the deputies of the Parpatti to execute his orders. They also
an5 all Brahmans. The whole of the Hobli establishment is paid by
monthly wages.]

The Divan enters in a separate account ancient allotments of land
to the local institutions of the hamlets and villages (involving a detail
of 41,739 objects and persons, and an annual expense of 89,489
pagodas), and excludes the amount in the first instance from the
account of the gross revenue, as it can never become an available
source of supply.

The four distinct heads of revenue are — Land-tax, Sdyar, Toddy and
spirituous liquors, and Tobacco.

The head of land-tax comprises, besides the objects which it
describes, the house-tax and the plough-tax, being an impost, varying
in different districts according to ancient practice, of about the average
rate of one Kanthiraya fanam annually on each house and i>l<)ugh.
The province of Bednur, and the districts of Balam and Tayur, with all
plantations of trees not annual, pay a fixed money rent. The whole of
the dry ground of Mysore pays also a fixed money rent, with the dis-
tinction, however, regarding the tenures of the lands, which has been
noticed. The rent to be paid for dry land accordingly does not depend
on the quantity cultivated, and the Amil no further concerns himself
with that object than to observe whether the ryot sufficiently exerts his
industry to be able to pay the rent. All Amils are authorized to make
takdvi advances when necessary. The superior certainty of a dry com-
pared to a wet crop, is limited to wet ground under reservoirs ; and the
uncertainty of the quantity of water which may be collected, and of
course of the extent of land which can be watered, is among the
principal reasons which have hitherto prevented the adjustment of a
money rent for such lands ; and have continued the ancient practice of
the waram, or the payment to the government of a moiety of the actual
crop. The wet cultivation which depends on the embankments of the

6o8 A DMINISTRA TION

Kaveri and other rivers which have their source in the western hills, is
of a different description, and is usually considered the most certain of
all the crops ; for such lands the payment of a money rent has been
introduced, and is gradually gaining ground. In some few cases such
lands are held under an ancient fixed rent, much lower than the present
rates.

The original proclamation which pledged the Divan to the ancient
Hindu assessment, both of the land and of the sayar, has in both
instances been attended with its appropriate advantage and incon-
venience. Each district having at remote periods been governed by
distinct authorities, each has its peculiar rates of sayar, founded on no
principle of general application. On areca-nut, for instance, it has
been the ancient custom to levy a duty in money not ad valorem ; but
as the areca-nut of different districts differs materially in quality and
price, the duty, if it were uniform, would afford no means of computing
the correct value of the export ; and it is certain that the increase and
decrease in the duty is by no means in the rates of the value, but has
been fixed in each district on arbitrary considerations which cannot
now be traced. The sayar in some districts has been farmed ; and in
others it has been held in amani, a difierence which still further
increases the intricacy of the subject.

The revenue from toddy and spirituous liquors is generally farmed.

The fourth head of revenue, tobacco, is generally farmed, with
proper restrictions regarding the selling price. Betel-leaf produces a
revenue in one town only of Mysore, namely Chitaldroog, where the
tax existed previously to the annexation of that district to Mysore ; the
produce of this tax is included with that of tobacco.

Under the expenses of management, the first head is that of Jagirs
and Inams for religious purposes. The detail delivered by Purnaiya
to the Mysore Commissioners, as allowed by Haidar Ali Khan, amounts
to —

Kanthiraya Pagodas.
Devasthans and Agrahars . . . ... ... ... ... 1,93,959

Maths of Brahmans ... ... ... ... ... 20,000

Muhammadan establishments as allowed by Tipu Sultan 20,000

Total 2,33,959

The particular attention of the Resident was directed to the
diminution and check of these expenses, and chiefly to guard against
the alienation of land to Brahmans, an abuse which was considered to
be not improbable under a Hindu Government administered by
Brahmans. The Divan in the first instance assumed the possession of
the lands of all descriptions, principally with the view of revising the

UNDER PURNAIYA 609

grants and alienations of every kind, and this opcraticjn enabled him to
make many commutations of land for money payment, with the
consent of the parties.

The second head in the expenses of management is the repairs of
tanks. The ruin and neglect into which every public work of this kind
had fallen during the administration of Haidar AH and Tipu Sultan
caused the expenses in the two first years to be large.

The whole of the disbursements charged under the general head
"expenses of management," amounted in the fourth year (including the
expense of rebuilding the forts of Bangalore and Channapatna, which
certainly does not belong to such a head) to 510,000, which is 20 J per
cent, on the gross revenue ; but inams and jagirs (under whatever
head it may be customary to charge them) are not correctly an expense
of "managing the revenue," and the explanations which have been
already given, show that a very moderate portion of the Kandachar
ought to be considered as a revenue charge. If one-third should be
considered as the fair proportion, the expenses of management would
then be reduced to 342,736, and its relation to the gross revenues of
the same year would be 13^ per cent. In the fifth year these expenses
amounted (exclusively of the repair of forts) to 486,01 1, or 24,000 less
than in the fourth year.

These considerations belong principally to the question of the actual
expense of collecting the revenue, and the technical mode of reckoning
its net produce. If the sums discussed are not brought to account in
that manner, they will come to be inserted as a charge in the general
expenses of the government ; and as the principal part of the income
of the Divan is derived from his commission on the net revenue, it
is creditable to his moderation to observe that the account of the net
revenue is framed in a mode which is unfavourable to the amount of
his income.

It may be convenient in this place to state, that according to this
mode of reckoning, the net revenue, by deducting from the gross
amount the whole of the charges above discussed, amounted in the
first year to pagodas, 15,99,872; second year, 17,94,102; third year,
19,78,899; fourth year, 19,89,436; fifth year, 21,27,522. The gross
revenue for the same years, after deducting the balances not recovered
in the four first years, was: — first year, pagodas 21,53,607; second year,
24,10,521; third year, 25,47,096; fourth year, 25,01,572; fifth year,
25,81,550. The balances not recovered for the fifth year are not
ascertained, and the sum stated is the whole jamabandi.

In the general disbursements of the government, the first head of
subsidy to the Company, pagodas 8,42,592, is a fi.xed charge.

R R

6io ADMINISTRATION

There is but one other head of general disbursements, viz., the
military establishment. The outline presented by Purnaiya to the
Commissioners for the affairs of Mysore, estimates the number of
troops necessary to be kept in the Raja's service for the security and
tranquillity of the country, exclusively of the Company's troops main-
tained under the provisions of the subsidiary treaty, at " Five thousand
Horse ; from four to five thousand Barr, formed after the manner of
the Company's sepoys ; and two thousand peons." The number which
he considers to be necessary, after an experience of five years, is : —
Horse, 2,000 ; Barr, 4,000 ; peons in constant pay, 2,500 ; exclusively
of a garrison battalion of 1,000 men on inferior pay for Mysore, and
about an equal number of the same description for Manjarabad. The
2,000 Horse to be inclusive or exclusive of 500 stable Horse, according
to the circumstances.

At a later period, in 1805, Purnaiya is said to have represented the
necessity of establishing separate departments of justice at Mysore ;
and a Court of Adalat was accordingly constituted, consisting of: — two
Bakshis as Judges ; two Sheristadars and six persons of respectability
taken from the Mutfarkhat, and styled Cumtee Wallahs, Hakims or
Panchayatdars, who formed a standing Panchayat ; with one Khazi
and one Pandit.

There was no regular form of proceedings laid down for the
observance of this court. The standing panchayat, composed as
described, conducted the inquiry, viva voce, before the presiding judge
or judges. No muchchalike was demanded from the parties binding
them to abide by the verdict, nor was the latter presented by the
panchdyat to the judge in writing. The plaintiff" and defendant used
to attend in person, and an examination was made of such witnesses
and documents as they might have to produce ; the witnesses were not
examined upon oath, nor had the practice of receiving the written
statements and counter statements called plaint, answer, reply and
rejoinder, been then introduced.

The two judges first appointed were Vyasa Rao and Ahmed Khan.
The former was chief in rank, and possessed much of the confidence
of Purnaiya, to whom he was in the habit of referring frequently in the
course of the day such judicial questions as arose ; whilst Ahmed
Khan merely attended the minister in the evening to make his formal
report and receive instructions. Besides his functions of judge, Vyasa
Rao used to hear and determine, in the same court, all complaints
whatever preferred by ryots on revenue matters, and on these subjects
Ahmed Khan never exercised any control. In such disputes alone
were muchchalikes or bonds taken from the applicants, binding them

UNDER PURXAIYA 6ii

to abide by the decision which might be passed on their case. Vyasa
Rao was also Bakshi of the Shagird Pesha or household department
(in itself a very laborious office), as well as of the Sandal cutcherry.
Both judges sat at the same time, and the decrees were submitted to
their united judgment ; in forming which they were aided by the
personal representation of such of the panchayatdars as had heard the
case. In a simple matter the decision was usually confirmed and
sealed when presented to the judges for that purpose, and a report of
the decision was made at the close of the day to the prime minister,
whose final confirmation was in all cases necessary. But when any
difficulty occurred, the judges were accustomed to represent at once the
circumstances to Purnaiya, and take his directions.

In this court both civil and criminal cases were heard. Matters of
caste were referred for decision to the Khazi or Pandit, aided by a
panchayat of such individuals as were considered competent. There
was, however, little civil litigation in those days.

In the taluqs also, during Purnaiya's administration, a course of
proceeding similar to that already described under the ancient Hindu
rulers, obtained ; the parties either named a panchayat themselves,
and agreed to abide by their decision, or they made application to the
taluq authorities, who ordered a panchayat, usually composed of the
killedar and two or three of the principal yajmans and shettis, and the
matter was settled as they decided.

Thus was civil justice administered as long as Purnaiya continued in
office, during the course of which period Ahmed Khan, the second
judge, died, and Vyasa Rao continued to sit alone.

Government of Krishna Kaja W'oJeyar, 1S11-1S31.

At the time of the British assumption in 1831, Mysore consisted of
the following six Faujdaris, subdivided into 101 taluqs : —

Fattjdari. Taluqs

Bangalore "|^

Madgiri J

Chitaldroog ... 13

Faiijiiiiri. Talti,j<.

-Vshtagrain ... 25

Manjarabad .. 11

\agar .. 25

Some administrative details relative to the period of the Raja's
government during the preceding 21 years are subjoined, compiled
from Notes on Mysore, by Colonel Morison, written in 1S33.

Land Revenue. — Before the Bangalore and Madgiri districts were
brought under the government of Mysore, the villages of the Mahratta
parganas were rented by Deshmuks and Deshp;indcs, and in the
Palyams a kind of village rent was made with the inhabitants of each,

k K 2

(

6 1 2 ADMINISTRA TION

and the revenue paid sometimes in kind and sometimes in money.
There were certain rates of money assessment for wet lands, from 2 to
12 pagodas per khandi ; and on dry lands from 2\ to 30 pagodas for \
the same quantity ; while sugar-cane lands were taxed from 16 to 72
pagodas per khandi. The same mode was observed at the time of
Haidar AH and his successor Tipu Sultan. During the administration
of Purnaiya, the lands were measured, but a regular assessment had
not been accomplished. His government, however, was a strong one.
The lands were regularly cultivated, and all affairs conducted with
efficiency and decision.

In Chitaldroog, in the time of the Vijayanagar dynasty, it is said
that the government share of the land produce was no more than one-
third, but there was an additional tax of i| Durgi pagoda on each
plough. The Nayaks, who subsequently reigned in Chitaldroog,
established several new taxes, both in money and kind, on various
occasions ; for instance, at their festivals and religious ceremonies ; but
all these were consolidated by Haidar Ali and added to the kandayam
of the land. Tipu followed the same rule, but fixed an assessment of
from ID to 30 pagodas upon such lands as were cultivated from wells
from which water was drawn by bullocks. As a relief, however, to the
ryots, he granted rent free as much dry land as could be cultivated by
one plough. Purnaiya, during his administration, and after the lands
were measured, established the land-tax in Chitaldroog at various rates
per lubu, three of which are equal to one kudu, or -^-^ of the local
khandi. This was in conformity with the ancient usage of that part of
the country, but the assessment already introduced under the rule of
the Palegars, was still more rigid under the management of Purnaiya,
and the only reduction afterwards allowed by the Raja was in the tax
on sugar-cane lands.

In Ashtagram, in the time of Chikka Deva Raja, about the year
1673, a tax of two gold fanams per kudu, which is -j'^ of the present
khandi, was levied upon dry cultivation ; while the produce of wet and
garden lands, and of cocoa and areca-nut trees, was divided between
the ryots and the Sarkar. Again he appears to have fixed a kandayam
upon lands, and newly established several other taxes called Bajebab,
&c. Very few of the ryots are said to have acceded to this arrange-
ment. The produce of the land belonging to the ryots who did not
was divided between the Sarkar and the ryots. Haidar Ali Khan
appears to have introduced a grain rent in two of the Ashtagram taluqs,
namely, Sosile and Talkad, and in other parts of Ashtagram it remained"
as in former times. During the management of Tipu Sultan, a partial
survey took place in several taluqs and an assessment both in money

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 613

and in kind was levied. The grain from the taluqs of Mysore Ashta-
gram, Patna Ashtagram, Sosile and Talkad was stored at the capital.
During the administration of Purnaiya, the lands were regularly
measured, the productive powers of wet lands were fully ascertained,
and an adequate assessment fixed. Nothing new appears to have taken
place in the time of the Raja.

In INIanjarabad faujdari, Krishnarajkatte, Arkalgud, Harnhalli and
Garudangiri were the ancient possessions of the Mysore princes, in
whose time the tax for wet lands was at the rate of 5^ pagodas in
Krishnarajkatte, and 3 pagodas in .Vrkalgud ; a tax of from 2 to 5
pagodas per khandi on dry lands had been long established. There
was no tax upon wet lands in the other two taluqs, the produce having
been divided between the ryots and the government, and the tax upon
dry land was from to per khandi. In the palyam of Aigur,
■composed of the taluqs of Maharajandurga, Manjarabad, Sakkarepatna,
Belur, and Hassan, Sivappa Nayak, the chief of Nagar, established his
own assessment called shist, while it was in his possession ; and it still
existed, with some few alterations, even after the country reverted to
the palegar of Aigur. There appears to have been no measurement of
land in any part of this territory. The shist amounting to a certain
sum was fixed upon a given quantity of land, including a proportion
of dry, wet and garden land. During the management of Haidar AH
and Tipu, the village rent was irregular, being disposed of by
competition and collected accordingly. In the time of Purnaiya, the
public servants went so far as to ascertain the condition of each
individual, as in the ryotwar ; but during the management of the
Raja, the country reverted to the injurious system of renting the
villages to the highest bidder. The land-tax in Narsipur taluq, in the
time of the Palegar of that place, varied from 6 to 12 pagodas a
khandi for wet lands, and from i to 6 pagodas a khandi for dry lands ;
the produce of areca-nut trees and a part of that of cocoanut trees
was divided between the ryots and Sarkar, and part of the produce of
Ihe latter trees was assessed at i fanam per two or three trees. Haidar
Ali and Tipu continued the system of village rent ; but much improve-
ment was introduced by Purnaiya in having erected several dams on
-the river Hemavati, and dug about six water-courses, which proved
highly beneficial to cultivation, while the mode of collection was
revised as in other places, and affairs generally improved. Nothing
new was introduced by the Raja. Banavar formerly belonged to the
pdlegar of Tarikere, and in it the system of village rent appears to have
existed first and last.

In Nagar, Sivappa Nayak made an assessment in the year 1660,

6 1 4 ADMINISTRA TION

called .shisl, on the lands. This assessment was a most judicious one,!
consistent with the localities and general condition of the country.]
Several taxes called patti were afterwards levied by his several]
successors, which ultimately became equal to the shist originally fixed,]
so that the actual beriz of the country was in time nearly doubled.

The amount of revenue of all descriptions in Mysore for the year'
1831-32, was Kanthiraya pagodas 20,88,978, of which the land revenue
was said to be 16,18,831 ; the amount of sayar, including the
monopolies of the five articles, viz., tobacco, betel-leaves, ganja, toddy
and arrack, was 4,01,108, and that of the other taxes of various kinds,
under the head of Bajebab, was 69,039.

The amount of Kanthiraya pagodas 16,18,831, said to be the land
revenue, did not, however, wholly belong to it ; for it appears that
various taxes, both connected and unconnected with the land revenue,
were mixed up with that head. The land revenue properly so called
was known under two designations only, viz., kandayamand shist: the
first to be found in every part of Mysore, with the exception of Nagar,
and the second to be found in the Nagar district only. The inferior
taxes directly connected with the land revenue and mixed up with it
consisted of 83 different designations, under which these taxes were
levied. The inferior taxes unconnected with the land revenue, but
also mixed up with it like the foregoing, consisted of 198 different
designations, some of which prevailed all over Mysore, some less in
general, and some to be found only in one or two of the taluqs. In
endeavouring to classify these inferior taxes, some appear to belong to
the Mohatarfa, some to the Bajebab, and some to the Sayar.

The country was under the management of Purnaiya for eleven years,
that is from 1800 to 1810. The highest amount of the jamabandi
during that period was 31,79,000 Kanthiraya pagodas, which was in the
year 1809; the average during his management being no less than
27,84,327 pagodas. The country was managed by His Highness the
Rdja for twenty-one years, from 181 1 to 1831. The highest amount of
the jamabandi during that period was 30,26,594, and the average was
26,53,614 pagodas. The difference between these averages, 1,30,713
Kanthiraya pagodas, is therefore the amount of the annual decrease
during the administration of the Raja. It would be very desirable to
ascertain what quantity of land produced the revenues above men-
tioned, but unfortunately there were no accounts showing the necessary
information in any of the cutcherries of the Huzur. This must be
sought for in the village accounts and from the shanbh6gs.

It was an ancient rule in the country, and duly provided for in the
instructions to the district servants, that the shanbh6g or the village

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR

615

accountant, the patcl, and shckdar if present, should assemble in every
village before the commencement of the year, and then collect all the
inhabitants of the village for the puqjose of speaking to them upon the
subject of the rent, and concluding with them a revenue arrangement
for the year, duly recording the name of each person, the extent of land
to be cultivated by him, and the amount of revenue payable thereon ;
as also the extent of the land (if there were any) intended to be culti-
vated as waram, and issuing to each ryot of the kandayam land a
kandayam chit for the year. It was only indeed by means of these
preliminary arrangements that any satisfactory data could be obtained
as the foundation of the jamabandi, and it is fortunate that the custom
so far prevailed in procuring so useful a document preparatory to the
annual januibandi whereby the extent of land of every description in
every village could be easily known.

The whole extent of cultivated land in Mysore appears to have been
in the proportion of three-eighths wet to five-eighths of dry cultivation.
The lands not being classed, it is impossible to show their description,
but upon an estimate it appears that the land of red colour was five-
sixteenths, the land of the mixed sorts was one-fourth, black clay three-
sixteenths, and that mixed with chunam, stones, pebbles, including
rough land, was one-fourth.

The water-courses taken from rivers and mountain torrents were
rated at 1,832 in number ; the tanks, great and small, at 19,817 ; and
the wells at 16,371. The grain irrigated from these was chiefly paddy,
but garden articles were reared by the same means. All other crops
depended on the periodical rains, but for want of accounts at the Huzur,
it is not practicable to ascertain the quantities of land supplied with
water from each of these resources.

The crops being cut at the proper periods, the first deductions from
the grain were the rusums issued at the threshing-floor to the Baraba-
luti. The rates at which these diflerent persons were paid were various
in the several Faujdaris. The exact i)r()i)ortion of the [)roduce thus
appropriated is shown in the following table : —

Faujcl-'iris.

CenUge of the Rusums to the

gross produce when lands

were under Kandayam.

Centage of the Rusum» to the

gross produce when lands

were under W.4rain.

Bangalore and Madgiri

Chitaldroog

AslUagnim

Manjaraliad

Nagar

Si
6i

\i5

S
20

6i6

ADMINISTRA TION

If the produce were that of kandayain lands, it was taken by the
inhabitants to their houses on paying the rusunis at the above rates.
If tlie produce were that of the waram Lands, the; rusums were given in
hke manner to the Ijarabaliiti in the first instance ; the remainder being
then divided between the Sarkar and the ryots who had cultivated the
same.

The general average kandayam or government rent was usually about
one-third of the gross produce. This at least was the case in Bangalore,
Madgiri and Ashtagram. In Chitaldroog, however, the kandayam seems
to have been about i8 per cent, more than one-third; but as labour was
cheaper there than in other Divisions, the ryot was nearly as well off as
anywhere else. In Manjarabad, the assessment was 5 per cent., and
agricultural charges nearly 2 per cent, more, rendering the surplus to
the ryot nearly 7 per cent. less. In Nagar the agricultural charges are
higher than elsewhere, so that the kandayam falls off 3 per cent., and
the surplus to the ryot 9 per cent., below the proportionate rate of
Bangalore, Madgiri and Ashtagram.

In other countries there are ryots who pay a large sum in rent to
government, in some instances to the extent of 10,000 rupees a year.
It is not so in Mysore, and from many inquiries it appears that amongst
384,702 ryots, the highest, the medium, and the lowest kandayam rent
paid by one individual in the several Faujdaris were as shown in the
following table : —

Faujdaris.

Highest.

Medium.

Lowest.

Rs.

Bangalore
IVIadgiri ...

)

Chitaldroog

100

Ashtagram

200

ISO

Manjarabad

100

Nagar (including areca-niit)

300

150

There was seldom to be found more than one village in the possession
of one individual, nor did one person anywhere possess one description
of land only ; for each ryot having dry land, had generally a proportion
of wet and garden also, at all events one or other of the two last. The
condition of the people in Mysore seems to demand this arrangement,
which is everywhere of easy accomplishment in Mysore.'

The highest, medium, and the lowest extent of land,- including wet
and dry, held by one individual in each Faujdari, were ascertained, and
are exhibited in the following table : —

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR

617

Faujdaris.

Highest.

Medium.

Lowest.

Khandis.

Bangalore . . .
Madgiri ...

Chitaldroog

Ashtagram

Manjarabad

Nagar

The rates of kandayam were various throughout the country. The
following is a general abstract of the average amount of kandayam
assessed upon one khandi of land of all descriptions in Mysore in
Kanthiraya pagodas : —

Wet land.

Dry land.

Cocoa
garden.

Garden land.

Sugar-cane.

Faujdaris.

1-1

k4
0

^1 ^ 1^ ^1^

« W) w w I U)

1^
0

1-1

TT .C .w "^ |i3
^ — ' ! tfl C ' ^
"^1 "* 1" <^,'^

'if:

"5-

■^

Bangalore . . .

0 0

20 16 12

1 1 1
10 Oi 0 0 016

Madgiri

4 3

16 12

8 I30252016 0

Chitaldroog ...

9 7

2SI8

10 ]20 15 12 10 0' 0

Ashtagram ...

10 5

25 10

3 '503825 12 io| 8

Manjarabad...

10' 6

i4 25 15 10 0 0 0

Nagar

3-5

lOj 8

5 j2o 13 10 6, Oi 0

1 M 1 M

5-7-8

4-7-8

3-5

It is now necessary to advert to the tenures of the land.

1st. The ryots cultivating kanddyam lands, held them in some instances
from generation to generation, paying a fi.xed money rent ; this being now
the general meaning of the word kandayam, whatever it may have been
originally.

2nd. Ryots cultivating the lands under the ivaram or batayi system,
whether in the same or other villages, were nothing more than hired
labourers. They cultivated the land and received in return a share of the
produce. The people of any village in which these lands existed had the
Ijrcfcrence before others ; nor could they be refused the work, if they had
tilled the lands for a number of years ; that is, if they still chose to cultivate
the same. In some cases the ryots of the same village, and even those from
other villages, were forced to undertake the cultivation of the w;iram lands
which belonged to the Sarkar.

3rd. In certain places there were tanks called amdni talav not belonging
to any particular village. The lands under these reservoirs were cultivated
by ryots collected from several villages in their neighbourhood, who
received their due share of the produce, under the superintendence of the
public sei'vants.

6i8 ADMINISTRATION

4th. There were ryots who cultivated slwaya lands, that is, lands held by
those who engaged to pay a reduced kanddyam for three or four years, and
from the last year to pay the full amount.

5th. There were ryots who held entire villages for a fixed rent called
kdyamgittta, for which they received regular grants without any period being
specified. This tenure had its origin in the time of the Raja to favour certain
individuals.

6th. There were ryots C'^Wcdijddiddrs, or those who held lands under a
favourable rent, which lands or even villages were formerly indm enjoyed by
Brahmans and others rent free until the time of Tipu Sultan, who, from his
aversion towards the Hindu religion, sequestered the jodi lands, and levied
upon them the full assessment. The Brahmans, however, continued to hold
them, paying the full assessment rather than give them up, hoping for more
favourable times ; accordingly in the administration of Purnaiya their com-
plaints were heard, and they received the indulgence of a small remission
of the Sultan's assessment, and continued to hold the lands under the
denomination of jodi, though no longer indm. In a very few instances,
however, some lands continued in jodi, as given in ancient times, and were
as such still enjoyed.

Ryots possessing kanddyam lands and paying the full assessment could
only be dispossessed when they failed to pay their rent to the Sarkar.
Ryots possessing kandd,yam lands but paying less than the fixed assessment
or original kanddyam might be dispossessed in favour of ryots offering an
increase, if they did not choose to give the same. Suppose, for example,
that 12 pagodas was the original assessment, but that it had been reduced
to 8 pagodas in consequence of the death or desertion of the ryot, when it
was transferred to waram and cultiv^ated on the Sarkar account, occasioning
the revenue to be reduced to 8 pagodas as first mentioned. Supposing then
that 10 pagodas were offered and accepted ; but as this offer was still short
of the former kanddyam, though above what could be realized under the
waram management, offers would continue to be received from anyone
willing to give the full amount, though the actual incumbent had the prefer-
ence if he should choose to pay the full assessment. If not, he must make
way for the new tenant willing to pay in full.

The ryots who cultivated areca-nut gardens appear to have had the right
of hereditary possessors ; they were accordingly accustomed to sell or
mortgage their property. Supposing these proprietors to fail in pa>Tnent of
the Sarkar, and that the same should fall into arrear, the proprietor might
sell his lands and pay the dues of government, when the purchaser had the
same rights in the soil as were possessed by his predecessor.

There were ryots who possessed land which either themselves or their
ancestors had reclaimed from the jungle at great expense. These lands
were also held as hereditary possessions, with the right of disposing of them
by sale or otherwise.

There were also ryots who held their lands by long descent from genera-
tion to generation, who were in the habit of transferring the same to others,
either by sale, or mortgage, &c.

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 619

There were ryots who cuUivated lands called kodagi, on which an invari-
able rent was fixed, not liable to any change on account of the seasons or
otherwise. These lands were also saleable, and at the present day continue
to be disposed of at the will of the holders. These lands originally were
indms from the sovereigns or the villagers, but having been subsequently
assumed by the Sarkar, an unchangeable rent was fixed upon them.
Again, some ryots cultivated lands called kodagi lands, which were
originally indm granted by the Sarkar for the payment of a sum of money
as a nazar, but latterly subjected to the same fate as the lands described
above. Lands of both descriptions were also to be found in the Manjarabad
district.

There were ryots who cultivated land for an assessment called shist, and
•who had been subjected at different periods to additional imposts since the
shist was originally established by Sivappa Nayak ; they still had preten-
sions to a proprietary right in the soil.

There were ryots w^ho cultivated lands called rekanast, which under the
reign of the princes of Vijayanagar had an assessment called Rdyarcka, but
having subsequently been overrun with jungle, no Rdyareka or assessment
was levied thereon. They were then called rekanast, which means without
assessment; nor was any shist put upon them by Sivappa Xayak, because
they were not cultivated. When reclaimed, however, they became liable to
assessment at the average rate of the neighbouring lands, still retaining the
same names. These lands are accordingly described as a distinct variety
of tenure still known in the Nagar district.

There were ryots called jodi agrahardars, cultivating lands in some
villages of Nagar under an assessment called y^(//, which might be equal to
one-fifth, one-fourth, one-third, or even one-half of the shist of the neigh-
bouring villages. These lands were formerly indm or sarvamcinyam given
to Brahmans, who long enjoyed them as such, but being resumed by the
Sarkar, taxes were put upon them in the manner above mentioned. The
descendants of the original holders, or those who may have purchased the
lands from them, enjoyed them for the payment of the fixed shist ; and it
appears that the sale and mortgage of these lands was going on to the
present day, the transfer being fully recognized by the officers of government.

There were ryots who cultivated lands called gaddi battix, which signifies
lands paying rent in kind, which were only met with in the taluqi of Ikkeri,
Sagar, Mandagadde, Koppa, and Kavaledroog.

The ryots in possession of the lands held under the tenures above
described, appear in general to have paid their rents to the Sarkar, not
direct, but through the means of a renter, capable of managing so
intricate a business, from possessing a complete knowledge of all the
local customs. Sometimes the patel was a renter of the village, and
collected the revenue from the people without the intervention of the
Sarkar servants. This sort of village rent had as many varieties as are
indicated by the different modes now to be mentioned.

620 ADMINISTRATION

The ordinary mode was effected by the Amildar, Sheristadar, and some
other servants setting out together in the month of January or P^ebruary for
the purpose of inspecting the crop. During the tour of the Amildar at this
season, he prepared an estimate of the November crops (already in heaps)
in communication with the sheristadars, shekdars, shdnbhdgs and patels, as
also an estimate of the expected revenue from the May crop. In the same
manneran estimate was made of the sugar-cane and other produce now coming
forward, when the total being made out. the rent was given to the patel or
gauda of the village, and the usual rent jiiuchchalike taken from him for the
payment of the amount, including suvarndddyam. The patel being the
sole renter of the village, any suvarndddyam which may have been already
collected was credited to him. He considered himself answerable for the
rest, took charge of all the affairs of the rent, distributed the due shares of
the different crops to the ryots, disposed of the government share in the
manner he thought best for his own benefit, collected kandayam from the
inhabitants, and paid his rent to the Sarkar. In case of any part of the revenue
falling in arrears, either from the death, desertion, or poverty of the ryots,
or from any other causes, the amount, if large and irrecoverable, was
remitted after a full investigation of all the particulars of the case ; otherwise
the renter remained answerable for the payment of the whole of the rent.
This mode of village rent generally prevailed in the faujdaris of Bangalore,
Madgiri, Chitaldroog and Ashtagram.

In the villages of Manjarabad, the village rent was given for two years,
while the rent of one village might be taken by two or three individuals. If a
village were desolated, it was rented to any individual willing to take it.
No rent was payable the first year, but engagements must be entered into
to pay a small rent the second year, increasing the same gradually every
subsequent year, until it came up to the former fixed rent.

In Nagar, there was a permanent assessment called shist. A general
review was made of the lands at the beginning of the year to ascertain the
probability of their being cultivated. The Amildar, when he proceeded to
the village for this purpose in the month of January, ascertained the general
state of cultivation and concluded the rent with the patel of each village.
If, however, the whole land of any individual ryot was kept uncultivated
from poverty, the revenue of that land was remitted. If a part only of the
land of one individual was cultivated, no remission was allowed on account
of the part uncultivated, the whole being included in the jamabandi. The
waram system was but little known in Nagar, but when it did occur, the
usual course of taxing that produce was observed as in other parts of the
country.

The mode of village rent called wojtti gutta was when two, three, or four
individuals (whether of the same village or others) made an offer to rent a
village. After its circumstances were duly ascertained in the usual manner,
and the terms were agreed on, the Amildar granted the rent and took
security for its payment, and in such cases there were no remissions, the
renters being answerable for the amount settled. They were, however,
obliged to enter into fair agreements with the ryots, which were to be

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA JVODEYAR Gix

strictly kept, so that the ryots might not have to complain of any exaction
or oppression. If any arrears should be caused by the death, desertion, or
the poverty of the rj'ots after the rent was fixed, the loss must be borne by
the renter. When the ryots were averse to any particular renter or renters,
it was not unusual for them to take the rent themselves, declaring they
would otherwise leave the village. In such cases a preference was given to
their offers.

The mode of village rent called praja gntta may be described as
follows : — The Amildar proceeded to the village at the usual period of the
year (that is December or January), called for all the ryots, and desired
them to enter into engagements of the rent of praja gutta. The amount to
be rented was in most cases the same as in the preceding year. Any lands
which could not be cultivated, either from the death, desertion, or poverty
of certain ryots, was now struck off, and fresh lands, if there were any, added
to the rent ; when a general muchchalike was taken from the whole of the
rj'ots, or from such portion of the principal ones as might engage for the
rent : if the actual produce fell short, the loss was borne by the whole
village. If a higher offer were received, even after the conclusion of these
arrangements, the rent was cancelled and given up to the other, but the rent
in this case would be called wonti gutta. The rent once settled in one year
was allowed to continue for the next three or four years. This kind of rent
appears to have been a last resource, to which the public officers had
recourse when every other had failed ; but these rents, viz.^ wonti gutta
and praja gutta, were only very partially known, and in the faujddri of
Ashtagram.

The village rent called kulgar gutta was when it was managed by the
kulgars. Of these there might be six or eight in a village, together with
fifteen, twenty, or thirty common ryots. The Amildar proceeded to each
village in the month of December or January, investigated the real state of
the different sources of revenue with reference to the collections in the past
year and the condition of the ryots, fixed the amount of the rent, and gave
it up to one of the kulgars of the village, who sublet his rent to the other
kulgars, who again divided their respective allotments amongst the ryots
under them. The only way they made a profit in their rent was by exerting
themselves to extend the cultivation. The ryots of the village were answer-
able for their rent to the kulgars, these to the chief kulgar, who in his turn,
as the ostensible renter, was answerable to the Sarkar, which in the case of
this rent allowed no remissions. If any of the ryots had either died or
deserted, his lands, as well as claims against it, were divided among the
kulgars themselves. If there were no kulgar in the village to take the office
of renter, a shdnbhog might become so, when he was called the pattegar.

The village rent called chigar katle comes next to be mentioned. A pro-
portion of land including wet and dry, and requiring fifty seers of seed grain,
was called a chigar, of which there might be from sixteen to eighteen in a
village, each paying a fixed rent of from 3 to 5 pagodas ; each chigar was
usually held by several ryots, there being a principal ryot for every chigar of
land, and one of these annually rented the whole village, sub-letting the

62 2 A DMINISTRA TION

different chigars to the other principal ryots : such villages were generally
rented in the month of December or January, when the state of the crops
was ascertained, but this species of rent was only to be found in one taluq,
Hassan, in the faujddri of Manjarabad.

There was also a village rent called blah katlc in the same taluq, the blah
meaning a small portion of land differing in extent from the chigar, but
having the same mode of assessment ; and if any of the ryots died or deserted,
a portion of rent was remitted by the Sarkar, giving that land to others.

Sdyar. — There were certain stations called katks in every taluq,
where the sdyar duties were levied on all articles. The total number of
these stations was no less than 761, varying in number from one to
twenty-one in each taluq. The duties levied were of three kinds :—
I St. Transit duty upon such goods as passed on the high roads without
coming into towns. 2nd. Transit duties on articles passing out of the
towns. 3rd. Consumption duties upon goods used in towns. When-
ever goods arrived at a station, the place to which they were destined
was ascertained, when the duties were levied according to rates said to
be established for the purpose on the spot.

The rates of duties were various, those observed in one station being
different at another. The duties were not charged ad valorem, but
according to the kind of each article, neither was there any regularity
with respect to the quantities chargeable with duties; for example, a cart-
load, a bullock-load, an ass's-load, a man's-load, &:c., were charged with
so many fanams each. In some of the taluqs, goods charged with duties
at one station were liable to be charged again with a reduced but extra
duty at some other place, even in the same taluq ; the extra duty was
called amip and kottamugam. In some taluqs goods were liable to
duties at every station of the same taluq through which they had to
pass. In others, the duties levied on goods conveyed by a particular
class of merchants were different from those charged when conveyed by
others. In some taluqs the duty was at a fixed rate provided they
passed by a certain road. If goods chargeable with duty in one year
should be kept till the next year, and then sent away, they were again
chargeable with duty.

In several of the districts periodical markets were held, generally
once a week, when fixed taxes were levied upon the shops, ist. Every
shop paid a few cash, and this tax was called addi kasu. 2nd. Every
vegetable shop paid something in kind, under the name of fuski.
3rd. Every cloth shop paid a tax of from 2 to 6 cash, called wundige or
shop duty. 4th. There was a tax called fiaftadi, which in some places
was called karve and bidagi, levied on every cloth shop, grain, mutton,
and arrack shop, &c. There was likewise a certain tax upon every

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 623

loom ; also upon betel-leaf plantations, areca-nut gardens, sugar-cane
plantations, and upon every plough of the ryots, exclusive of the land
revenue. There was a tax on the cattle of merchants. The taxes on
the above were collected some annually, some monthly, and daily from
temporary sho[)s. In short, there was not a single article exempt from
custom duties.

It is true that tariff tal)les, called prahara fa/fis, exhiljiting the rate
of duty to be paid on each article, were at one time issued by the
Sarkar, and posted up in most of the kattes, but the Government itself
was the first to infringe the rules, by granting kaiils, of entire or partial
exemption, to certain favoured individuals ; and the same mischievous
system was further propagated by the granting of similar kauls by
successive izardars and sub-renters to their own particular friends during
their own period of incumbency, and which became confounded with
those granted by the Sarkar. The consequence was that in the course
of time the prahara pattis were looked upon as so much waste paper,
and each katte came to have a set of mdmul or local rates of its own,
which were seldom claimed without an attempt at imposition, or
admitted without a wrangle. The usual result was an appeal to the
Sayar Shanbh6g of the place, who became the standing referee in all
disi)uted cases, which he may be supposed to have decided in favour of
the party which made it most advantageous to himself.

It became necessary therefore for the trader to purchase the good
will of every sayar servant along the whole line of road by which he
travelled, or to submit to incessant inconvenience and detention. He
was thus subject to constant loss of time, or money, or both ; and the
merchants were unable to calculate either the time which their goods
would take to reach a particular spot, or the expenses wliich would
attend their carriage. I<2ven as to the kauls which certain merchants
enjoyed, there were perplexing differences in the way in which the
deductions were calculated. With some it was a fixed percentage to be
deducted from the proper rate to be levied ; while with others the full
rate was taken, but only on certain fixed proportion of the goods.
Another fertile source of confusion and corruption was that, to gratify
some particular izardars, certain merchants and certain productions
were confined to particular routes ; and, if they travelled or were carried
by another line of custom houses, the izardars of that line were made to
pay compensation for the loss presumed to have been sustained by the
renters of the prescribed line.

When it is considered that there was hardly a luxury, certainly not
a necessary of life, which was not subject to pay the duty to the
authorities of these 761 sayar chaukis, and that some of these duties

624 ADMINISTRATION

were payable daily, some monthly, and some annually ; while there were
others of items which involved the necessity of a prying scrutiny into
the most private and delicate domestic occurrences, it may be imagined
that the system was calculated to interfere constantly with the comfort
and the interests of every portion of the population. It is possible,
indeed, that it may have been framed originally with some such idea,
for a legend current in Mysore assigns the palm of wisdom among
monarchs to a prince who invented 365 taxes, each leviable on its own
particular day, so that no twenty-four hours could pass without the idea
of the prince's power having been brought home to each of his subjects
in the most unmistakable way.

Great as was the direct annoyance to the people, the indirect, by
the obstacles thrown in the way of trade, became still greater. In fact
stranger merchants were practically debarred from entering the country,
and the whole of the trade, such as it was, became monopolized by the
Sayar contractors or their servants, and a few practised traders who
were in close alliance with them or knew how to command powerful
interest at the Darbav.

The systems in force in the four different Divisions of Nagar, Ashta-
gram, Bangalore and Chitaldroog, were widely different. Under the
Raja's administration, the Sayar department in Nagar was divided into
three Ilakhas or branches, ist, The Kauledroog Sarsdyar, including
the Chikmagalur, Koppa, Kauledroog, Holehonnur, Lakvalli and
Shimoga taluqs, and the kasba town of Channagiri. 2nd. The Ikk'eri
Sarsdyar, comprising the Honnali, Sagar, Shikarpur and Sorab taluq.s,
together with the kasba of Bellandur in Nagar taluq. 3rd. The Phoof
Taluq Izdra, comprehending the Kadur, Harihar, Tarikere and Channa-
giri taluqs, with the exception of the kasba of the last, which was
included in the Kauledroog Sarsayar.

The Phoot Taluq Izara was rented by a Wot Izardar, who bound
himself by his muchchalike to realize a certain annual sum for the
Sarkar, and whatever he could scrape together or extort beyond that
sum was his own property. The two Sarsayar Ilakhas were made over
to the management of Sarsayar Amildars, nominated on the sharti system
of bestowing the appointment, without reference to qualification, on the
man who would bid highest for it. It was stipulated that they were not
to keep the executive in their own hands but were to sublet it to others,
over whom they were to exercise vigilant control, and in particular to
prevent all undue exactions and oppression. But these were mere words.
These Amildars almost invariably retained the collections in their own
hands, and knowing that they were liable to supersession at any moment,
their sole object was to feather their nests in the shortest possible period.

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 625

In cases where the agency of sub-renters was really employed, the
same description will apply, with the additional touches which must be
given to enable the reader to understand that the trader was even more
victimized than when his oppressor carried on his transactions on a
larger scale. These sub-renters themselves obtained their appointment
on the sharti system, and had to squeeze out a double profit to remune-
rate both themselves and their employer, while the permanency of their
appointment was more dubious than his, inasmuch as they not only
might be turned out at his pleasure, but were also removable along
with him when he was superseded from the Darbar. These sub-renters
therefore had to work double tides to make up a purse, and endless
were the devices resorted to. Some contented themselves with squeezing
more than was due from every trader who passed through their hands,
while others, with more enlightened views in the science of extortion,
attracted merchants to their own particular line of kattes, by entering
into private arrangements with them to let their goods pass through at
comparatively light rates.

The sayar collections in Nagar were classed under three heads.
I St. Hdlat, or the excise duties levied on areca-nut, cardamoms and
pepper, on removal from the place of their production. 2nd. Chardddya,
or transit and town dues. 3rd. Kdraka, which may be described as a
composition for sdyar, being a tax paid by certain classes for relief from
payment of sdyar duties. For carrying out the complicated sayar system
in this Division, there were sixty kattes established, of which thirty-one
were frontier, and twenty-nine internal. The establishments of such of
these as were situated in the two Sarsayar Ilakhas were paid by the
Government, the remainder by the Wot izardar. Of the former there
were fifty-two and of the latter eight.

The sayar of the Ashtagram Faujdari was put up to auction, and
rented, sometimes by single taluqs, sometimes in a number combined,
and sometimes the wliolc in one lump, to the highest bidder. The
renter had to find security, and both renter and security had to execute
muchchalikas. In general the security was the real renter, but some-
times both were merely agents of a third party who did not choose to
come forward. There were occasional but rare instances of particular
taluqs being kept under amani. When the muchchalika and security
bond were executed, orders were issued to place the renter in charge of
the various items of revenue which he had farmed. This being done,
he proceeded to sublet them in any manner he pleased, or to retain the
management in his own hands if he preferred it. The government
does not appear to have reserved to itself any right to interfere in the
arrangements of the renter, and as each of his sub-renters on appoint-

s s

626 ADMINISTRATION

ment became an acknowledged public servant and adopted a seal of
office, it may easily be supposed in how many ways they had it in their
power to interfere not only in the trade of the country but in the
private affairs of every individual.

The same confusion existed with regard to the items which constituted
sayar as in the Nagar Division. It was nominally divided into the
heads of mdrg and pattadi. Under the head of indrg, properly speak-
ing, came all the items which we should call land customs, with,
multifarious additions, varying in each taluq and in particular parts of
the same taluq. Among them may be mentioned the shddi kutike
rents, or taxes on marriage, concubinage, births, deaths, and other
domestic occurrences. Of more than one hundred items which came
under the head of pattadi, there was not a single one which ought
rightly to have been included in the sayar. They were all of them
money assessments, mostly personal in their nature, and levied direct
from the ryots. They consisted of taxes on individuals on account of
their castes or professions, and of fees levied from ryots for permission
to make earth salt, to fish in tanks and streams, to collect emery
stones, to gather honey, cardamoms and other jungle products, or in
some places to sell the produce of their own lands. The poor wretches
even who eked out a scanty livelihood by collecting white ants for food,
did not escape without a tax for so doing. One item of the pattadi
revenue deserves particular mention. It was an extra tax collected
from the ryots as a percentage upon, not out of, the land revenue they
paid to Government. It varied in particular taluqs from i to 5 fanams
in the pagoda, or from 10 to 50 per cent, exacted from the ryot in
excess of his original rent.

The seat of government being in the Ashtagram Division, the
prahara pattis or Sarkar tariff tables were nominally more regarded
than in the distant province of Nagar. There was no rule, however,
compelling the sayar renters to abide by the rates set down ; and even
if there had been, there would still have been more confusion than
enough, for the duty on some articles was to be calculated by weight,
on others by measurement, on others by number, and on others again
by cart, bullock, ass, or cooly load. These modes of computation too
were not uniform throughout the Division, but differed in every taluq,
and even in every katte. They were, in fact, left very much to the
caprice of the chaukidar of the katte, and were another fertile source
of extortion and delay. Other anomalies consisted in the levying of
different rates from different descriptions of merchants ; the lower
rates probably having grown into mamiil from having been originally
the result of a corrupt arrangement between the renter and the

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 627

merchant. For instance, salt passed free into the town of Mysore if
brought by one particular class of people; and in the Belur taluq, two
bullock loads of supari were passed as one load if carried by Kormars,
Lambanis or AVaddars. The collusive system by which traffic was
attracted to one particular line to the prejudice of others was in force
in the Ashtagram as much as in the Nagar Division.

If the Nagar Division suffered in some respects from its distance from
the Darbar, Ashtagram was in its turn victimized from its propinquity,
for the returns show that there were no fewer than 331 kattes in this
Division alone. It is said to have been no uncommon thing to reward
a favourite by the imposition of a new tax, or the institution of a new
katte, and the name of a mendicant called Mohant is remembered
from a privilege which was granted to him for a time of exacting a fee
from every person passing into Mysore from a particular direction. The
mendicant was soon deprived of this right, but the toll was continued
under the title of the Mohant rusum, and put up to auction along with
the other items of sdyar. In the immediate neighbourhood of Mysore
these kattes were so close together that there were few roads on which
the goods of a merchant were not stopped, and (unless he came to
terms) unloaded and ransacked, at least four times in the course of an
ordinary day's journey. Even more than this : a particular bridge is
mentioned, on which at one time there were three of these kattes —
one at each end and one over the centre arch !

In the Bangalore Division, probably owing to its containing the large
British Cantonment, abuses were much less rife than in Nagar and
Ashtagram, and the rules for levying the sayar duties which were in
force in the time of Purnaiya, were continued without change or
modification up to 1846-7, under izardars, to whom the sayar was
annually rented on competition.

Pdnch Iml)} — The tobacco monopoly existed in 38 taluqs only. In
Bangalore this rent existed only in the town and its dependencies,
called volagadis. The renter purchased the article from the cultivators
or imported it from Salem, at from 4 to 10 fanams per maund of 49
seers, and disposed of the same to the bazaar men at from 12 to 23
fanams per maund of 40 seers. The bazaar people retailed the article
at a small profit of one fanam per maund.

The monopoly of /v/t7-/c(j/ was not general, being found only in 15
districts. l\\ Bangalore the custom was to employ a renter ; he bought
at 20 bundles for one fanam, and sold to the public servants at 16
bundles the fanam, to the bazaar men at 8, and at 10 to the public

' In the old reports this name, which means tlio Five Items, appears iwuler the
ludicrous form oi Punch Bob.

.S S 2

628 ADMINISTRATION

servants in the Cantonment. The bazaar men sold in retail at i\
bundles the fanam, the remaining f of one bundle of the 8 received
from the renter being the profit of the bazaar men.

The monopoly o{ ga?ija existed only in a very few taluqs. It was
confined in Bangalore to the town. The renter purchased his supplies
at the rate of from 12 to 24 1 fanams the maund, and sold it to the
bazaar people at from 3 to 7 pagodas. The affairs of this rent were
carried on by the people of the tobacco depots.

The rent of arrack was taken by an individual in each taluq. The
renter either sublet portions of his rent to others or managed it in
amani. If he sublet it, the under farmers engaged to pay their rent
either for every shop or for each village. If kept in amani, the renter
established manufactories, where the arrack was prepared for distri-
bution, employed his own servants and caused the arrack to be sold by
retail at the usual rates. There was no uniform rule as to the extent of
the farms, as one man might be the renter of one taluq or twenty ;
while there were some taluqs rented to several. There were two
classes of persons, the one called Bedar and the other Kalala, who had
been accustomed from ancient times to manage the arrack trade and
to rent the sales from the Sarkar ; but in latter times the business seems
to have been open to all classes. There was a tax on adultery by
women of the Bedar and Kalala castes, and also on their marriages,
which was farmed with the arrack.

The rent of toddy, which was not general in all the taluqs, consisted
chiefly of what was obtained from the lands occupied by the wild date-
tree, and was levied annually. These were sometimes called se'ndi
trees. In some cases every sendi shop was taxed, but the tax was most
generally levied on the beast of burden which conveyed the sendi to the
shops ; or on the leathern bags which contained the liquor. The renter
realized the tax monthly. In some taluqs there were no trees from
which toddy could be extracted, but shops were still maintained by a
caste called Idigar, who acted under a renter and supplied themselves
from other taluqs. In several taluqs the person who rented this article
employed his own people both to extract toddy from the trees and to
sell it in retail, paying them hire for their labour. There were certain
taxes payable by these people on their marriages, on the fornication
and adultery of their women, and on other occurrences, all of which
made part of the rent. When the toddy or sendi was not rented, the
taxes were collected in amani, according to the usual rates, by the
shekdar, or by such an establishment as might be kept up for manage-
ment of the Bajebab taxes. The accounts of this revenue were not
kept distinct, but mixed up with that of arrack.

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 629

Civil Justice. — Of the system of judicature, civil and criminal, as it
existed during the Raja's government, a report of 1838, by the late Sir
Mark Cubbon, contains a full and lacid account, from which the
succeeding paragraphs are compiled.

When the Raja assumed the reins of government, considerable
alterations were, with the concurrence of the Resident, made in the
judicial department. A new Sadar Court was established at Mysore,
with two Bakshis at its head, and under it were three inferior courts,
each under two presidents called Hakims. Amongst these courts the
business was divided as follows : — The Sadar Court heard and decided
all civil causes above 500 rupees ; it received reports of the decisions
of the three inferior branches of the court, confirmed or revised them,
and inspected and sealed their decrees, without which no decision was
considered valid. The second court had jurisdiction in civil causes,
from 100 to 500 rupees. The third court had jurisdiction in suits not
exceeding 100 rupees. The fourth court undertook the magisterial
department, which will be more particularly adverted to hereafter.

Although these four courts sat in one place, and were all under the
control of the chief judges, yet each had its separate establishment of
public servants. The forms of their proceedings were adopted from
the judicial regulations in force in the Madras Presidency. They
examined witnesses upon oath. Two statements were taken from the
plaintiff — the plaifit and the answer, — and two counter-statements —
the reply and the rejoinder — from the defendant ; and institution fees
were levied upon suits. Two-thirds of the amount of these fees were,
when realized, credited to the Sarkar, and the remaining third was
paid to the authorized vakils employed in the cause. There was no
express provision for an appeal to the Raja from the decision of the
Sadar Court ; nevertheless, when parties complained to the Raja, he
used often to call on the judges for explanation.

The two first Bakshis who sat in the Sadar Court, thus newly
constituted, were Bakar Sahib, and Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri. For
the first year and a half after their appointment it would seem that
justice was equally and duly administered, and though the judges were
subject to the solicitations of the Rdja's courtiers, yet no real hindrance
was offered to the course of justice so long as they steadily resisted all
attempts made to influence their decisions. After this interval, the
orders of the court issued upon its ordinary business to the various
cutcherries began to be neglected by the public officers of the State ;
the minions of the Darbar increased their interference, and the chief
judge, Bakar Sahib, a man reputed for integrity and independence of
character, finding that they were encouraged rather than checked,

630 ADMINISTRAIUON

refused to exercise his judicial functions any longer, and retired to his
own house. After a lapse of four or five months, the Resident, by
earnest representations to His Highness the Raja, and persuasions to
Bakar Sdhib, prevailed on the latter to resume his duties. He accord-
ingly acted as chief judge for a year longer, during which period the
business of the court, so long as His Highness happened to be pleased
with the Resident, went on uninterruptedly ; but whenever this
harmony was disturbed, every sort of secret and indirect influence
was exercised to render the court contemptible, and its orders nugatory.
At last Bakar Sahib, unable to support the dignity of the court, and
wearied by the constant repetition of these insults, quitted office in
disgust, and never returned.

The second judge, Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri, then took the seals,
and being supported by Sidraj Aras (a relative of the Raja, who was
entrusted with much of the authority of the government, and enjoyed
likewise the confidence of the Resident) he was enabled in some
degree to maintain the character, and to enforce the authority of the
court. At the end of seven years, nine charges of corruption and
partiality were presented against this judge, but after two months'
investigation before the Resident nothing was proved against him.
He then besought the Raja to punish his accusers ; but failing in this,
he resigned his office.

The Khazi of the court, Sayad Ali, succeeded, but though acting as
Bakshi he did not keep the seals, the decrees being submitted for con-
firmation to Bale Aras, a maternal uncle of the Raja. One Srinivas
Rao was then associated with the Khazi for about ten months, when
the latter died, and Srinivas Rao conducted the affairs of the court
alone. He too was dismissed by the intrigues of the Raja's courtiers
after some months, and Chota Raja Khan was appointed in his place.
During the time of the latter judge, who remained in office about three
years, the court was in very bad repute. The suitors sought for and
obtained their ends by indirect means. The Raja often sent for this
judge, abused and called him names in open Darbar, dismissed him
from his presence, and summoned a mutsaddi of the court to give him
what information he wanted. It is currently believed that every
person about the Darbar at that time, however low, used to inter-
meddle in the suits, and attempt to influence the decisions of the
Adalat. At length one Krishna having obtained an unjust decree for
a large sum of money, through the influence, as it was supposed, of the
sheristadar of the Resident's cutcherry, the Raja, at the suggestion of
Dasappaji, a relative of his own, assembled a panchayat, inquired into
the charge, and dismissed the judge.

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 631

After which, at the instance of the Raja, Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri,
who had formerly resigned, again consented to act as Bakshi of the
Adalat, and remained at the head of the court until the assumption of
the country, when the functions of the Adalat were suspended. And
on the establishment of the newly-constituted Adalat, or Commis-
sioner's Court, in 1S34, he was ai)pointed one of the judges.

Thus, from its first institution by Purnaiya, until the appointment of
the Commission, the semblance of an Adalat Court was maintained ;
but it was no uncommon thing, after its decrees were j)assed, for the
Raja to issue a niri'ip dispensing with their observance. It has likewise
happened that, in the same suit, as many as four or five contradictory
decrees, in addition to the original decree of the court, were succes-
sively passed by the Raja himself, just as the influence of the one party
or the other predominated at the Darbar ; and other circumstances
might be adduced in proof of the fact that, at the time of the assump-
tion of the country, nothing remained which was fit to be called the
administration of justice.

Besides these irregularities connected with the Court of Adalat,
suits to the highest amount were sometimes decided in the Sar Amin's
choultry, and even by Raja Khan and Dasappaji when Bakshis of the
Barr or Infantry. Questions of property were also decided by the
Raja in person, without any record of the investigation, or any written
decree.

Criminal Justice. — Under the ancient Hindu rulers of Mysore, the
following classification of crimes and forms of procedure are said to
have prevailed : — theft; robbery; highway robbery ; murder.

Cattlestealcrs, and robbers of cloths, household furniture and
grain, &c., were tried by the shekdars, shanbhogs and gaudas of
villages, who were empowered to inflict, on conviction, corjjoral
punishment and imprisonment in the stocks. There was no limitation
either to the extent or duration of these punishments, and persons
confined on suspicion were seldom released, whether shown to be
implicated or not, until the stolen property was recovered. A report
of the circumstance was, however, made by the village authorities to
the Amil.

Primary investigations of highway and gang robberies, and murders,
were also made by the village officers, after which the prisoners and
witnesses were sent to the Amil, who, assisted by thekilledar, examined
them, and reported the result of the inquiry, with their opinion, to the
Huzur, by whose orders the prisoners were variously punished, by
death, imprisonment for life in hill forts, and by mutilation. But
records of these trials were never kept, nor does it clearly appear that

632 ADMINISTKA TION

panchayats were ever employed in criminal cases previous to the
government of Purnaiya.

Under the Muhammadan government, no particular alterations were
made in the customs which had previously prevailed in the districts.
There was a Sadar Court at the Huzur ; and Muhammadan law was
administered to those of that faith according to the Koran.

The forms of criminal procedure and the punishment of crimes
which obtained under the administration of Purnaiya have been
described in the last section, when an attempt was made to reduce into
practice some of the mild principles of jurisprudence advocated by
Beccaria. The experiment, however, failed.

Under the Raja, the fourth court at Mysore undertook the magis-
terial department, each hakim alternately presiding in it and receiving
petitions ; that is to say, each hakim was employed for fifteen days
successively in receiving complaints and preparing them for hearing,
and fifteen days in presiding at trials. This Court inquired into all
assaults, robberies and minor offences, and having presented its finding
to the Bakshi of the Sadar Court, sentence was passed by the latter.

The penalty awarded for theft of all descriptions, and serious
assaults, was for the most part corporal punishment, and but rarely
fines ; the former being always inflicted on low-caste prisoners, the
latter on those of the higher caste. The instrument used for corporal
punishment was the korda, a most formidable whip, forty strokes of
which, when severely administered, were sufficient to exhaust the frame
of the stoutest criminal ; nevertheless, instances were very common of
prisoners suspected of theft being flogged until they fell, being
remanded to prison, and again subjected to the same discipline until
they confessed the crime, or named a spot where the property was
hidden ; the former being necessarily the only resource of such as
were really innocent. To carry on these severities there were two
regular Jalebdars or floggers borne on the strength of the establishment
of the Sadar Court, at a monthly pay of six rupees each. Afterwards,
■when one was reduced, it being found that one individual was inade-
quate to fulfil the duty required of him, it frequently happened that
the floggers attached to the Anche, Shagird pesha and other cut-
cherries (all of which were similarly provided), were called in to assist
in the magistrate's department. It has been confidently stated by one
of the most respectable men employed in the judicial department under
the Raja's administration, that no day passed from the time His High-
ness ascended the throne in 181 2 until the appointment of the Com-
mission, on which, when magisterial inquiries into theft and serious
assaults took place, the sound of the korda was not heard in the Court

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 633

of Adalat.' In heinous cases the Bakshis were accustomed to report
to His Highness the Raja, and receive his orders on the subject. In
awarding the amount of punishment, the Mufti was consulted by the
Court, and he gave his futwah. But this mode of proceeding did not,
as will be afterwards explained, extend to the greater part of offences
committed in the taluqs ; and even with regard to those committed in
the town of Mysore, it must be considered rather as the rule than the
practice.

The preceding statements refer to the mode of procedure. \\'ith
regard to the punishment of criminals, there was, under all the rulers
of Mysore, from Haidar AH to the Raja, an utter absence of system, so
that it was impossible to say what kind of punishment would be inflicted
on any particular class of offenders.

For felony — death by hanging, throwing over precipices, and tread-
ing under foot by elephants, confinement for life in hill forts, amputa-
tion of hands, feet, noses and ears, flogging, imprisonment in the common
jails, confiscation of property, and fines, were indiscriminately resorted
to. In one respect, however, the preliminary proceedings were invari-
ably the same ; that is, persons suspected of murder or robbery were
beaten daily until they confessed the offence, or pointed out where the
stolen goods were deposited. Indeed, the recovery of the stolen pro-
perty was considered (and it is believed the current of native opinion
still runs in the same channel) of more importance than the punish-
ment of the offender, and when this was effected the culprit was as
commonly released as punished. The usual punishments for petty
thieves, revenue defaulters, and fraudulent debtors, were — flogging,
imprisonment, fines, exposure on the highway with a stone on the head,
thumb-screws, and pincers on the ears ; but these inflictions were
equally uncertain and variable with the preceding. Petty assaults and
abusive language were commonly punished with small fines of from
3 to 12 gold fanams.

To refer more especially to the time of Purnaiya, Major W'ilks
observes that sentence of death was never pronounced excepting in
cases of murder or [)luiKlcr on the frontier ; that theft and robbery were
punished with imprisonment and hard labour; that fines were dis-
couraged, as a dangerous instrument in the hands of subordinate
authorities ; and that corporal punishment was prohibited. 'I'his

' It was a favourilc inslrumciil with Ilaidar (,scc p. 396). Il was a common Irick
of his chief chohdar (says Wilks), when his master appeared displeased at some sup-
posed relaxation, — or as he chose to interpret, was in ill-temper, — to bring him into
good humour hy the sound of the corla at the gale, and the cries of an innocent
sufferer, seized casually in the street for the purpose.

634 ADMINISTRATION

statement is true only of a particular period. Previous to that time,
punishment by mutilation of hands, feet, noses and ears was occa-
sionally inflicted by order of Purnaiya, and in the latter years of his
government it is well known that he had recourse to all the severities
of former times. At the period of his administration last spoken of,
corporal punishment was not only permitted, but enjoined ; suspected
thieves were flogged by the village officers till they confessed, and if
obstinate (or innocent) they were sent to the taluq cutcherry, where
they were flogged again. Even the power of inflicting capital punish-
ment was not, as at the time described by Major Wilks, confined to
the Divan assisted by the Resident, but was exercised sometimes by
the Faujdars, by whom also the crime of murder, when committed by
persons of high caste, was either overlooked or not infrequently com-
muted for short imprisonment or a firie.

Murder, gang and torch robbery attended with violence, when com-
mitted by persons of low caste, were usually punished w'ith death.
Gang and highway robbery unattended with violence, were punished
sometimes with mutilation, but more commonly with imprisonment in
hill forts, or hard labour in chains. For thefts or other minor offences,
from lo to loo lashes, at the discretion of the Amil, were permitted to
be inflicted ; likewise thumb-screwing, fining, and imprisonment.
Revenue defaulters were subjected to these last, and various other
tortures, such as being made to stand on hot earth from which the fire
had just been removed.

During the Raja's administration, the punishment of offences was
much the same as in Purnaiya's time, perhaps rather increasing in
irregularity, until the state of disorder into which the country was at
length thrown led to its assumption.

Persons accused of serious offences, especially at the capital, were,
as has been already said, tried, according to rule, at the Huzur Adalat ;
but in practice, the Barr and other cutcherries were likewise not infre-
quently used as criminal courts. By all these tribunals, and also by
the Sar Amin, mutilation of the hands and feet, noses and ears, was
inflicted, even for ordinary theft ; while corporal punishment, thumb-
screws, and ear-pincers were commonly resorted to for minor offences ;
Avomen convicted of incontinency were sold as slaves, and, in an order
now before me (writes Sir Mark), a woman is sentenced to lose her
nose for that offence. Stripes were inflicted by the local officers without
limitation as to number, and were habitually resorted to in order to
recover balances of revenue.

The condition and treatment of females was most deplorable during
all former administrations, especially under Hindu rulers ; and if to

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 635

live in constant dread of degradation and exposure to the greatest
indignities, at the accusation of the meanest and most disreputable
informers, be considered a state of slavery — actual sale in the market,
which frequently followed, was but the climax of a long course of
previous suffering and servitude. It will hardly be credited that in the
large towns there were regular farmers of an item of Government
revenue called Samayachar, part of the profits of which arose either
from the sale of females accused of incontinency, or fines imposed on
them for the same reason. Thus the Government was placed in the
position of deriving direct support from the crimes of its subjects, or,
what is still worse, of sharing with common informers the fruits of their
nefarious extortion.

The rules of this system varied according to the caste of the accused.
Among Brahmans and Komtis females were not sold, but expelled
from their caste, and branded on the arm as prostitutes ; they then paid
to the ijardar an annual sum as long as they lived, and when they died
all their property became his. Females of other Hindu castes were
sold without any compunction by the ijardar, unless some relative
stepped forward to satisfy his demand. The wives and families of
thieves were also commonly taken up and imprisoned with their
husljands, notwithstanding that there was no pretence for including
them in the charge. These sales were not, as might be supposed, con-
ducted by stealth, nor confined to places remote from general observa-
tion, for in the large town of Bangalore itself, under the very eyes of
the European inhabitants, a large building was appropriated to the
accommodation and sale of these unfortunate women ; and so late as
the month of July 1833, a distinct proclamation of the Commissioners
was necessary to enforce the abolition of this detestable traffic.

The Amils were sometimes confined in irons for corruption or
neglect of duty ; or summoned to the Huzur and exposed before the
palace with their faces covered with mud, and with pincers on their
ears ; they were also occasionally flogged, to the extent of one hundred
lashes, or until they gave security for the balances against them ; yet
such men were not by any means looked upon as disgraced, but were
frequently reappointed to office, and some of the taluq servants now in
employ are said to have formerly suffered such inflictions. The natural
consequence of this was the extinction of all self-respect and honourable
feeling amongst the public servants.

Although no sentence of death could be carried into execution at
the town of Mysore without the sanction of the Raja, yet, at a distance
from the seat of government, reputed offenders were sometimes executed
even without the form of a trial. So late as the year 1825, a native

636 ADMINISTRATION

officer of infantry was sent out for the apprehension of some Kormars
(a class of people notorious for their predatory habits) accused of
robbing a treasure party, and putting to death two men who had been
employed to obtain intelligence of their movements. The orders he
received were to hang the guilty, and bring in the women and children.
Sixty-five men were accordingly hanged on the spot, and 200 prisoners
brought to Mysore. The same officer was again employed in 1827,
and brought in 100 prisoners, of whom three were hanged. Of the
whole 300 prisoners captured on the two occasions, about 200 were
sold in the public bazaar of Mysore as slaves, and the rest, without any
form of trial, were kept in jail. The native officer was rewarded for
his activity with a palankeen and an increase of salary.

Towards the end of the Raja's administration, almost all the powers
of government had passed into the hands of his principal ofificers or his
favourites, by whom they were often exercised for purposes of extortion
or revenge. It was well know^n that notorious criminals were constantly
liberated for a bribe, while the innocent were imprisoned ; and on the
appointment of the Commission, the jails were found to be crowded
with supposed offenders of every description, many of whom, it was
found on inquiry, had been confined on mere suspicion, or for no
assigned reason ; while others had been imprisoned for ten years and
upwards without ever having been brought to trial. ^

In short, both property and personal liberty, and sometimes life
itself, w^ere dependent on the mere v.'ill and caprice of a class of public
ofificers w'ho were not only quite incapable of executing their duties,
and indifferent to the fate of those under their control, but openly and
avowedly were subject to the orders of the debauched parasites and
prostitutes at court, who notoriously superintended and profited by the
sale of every situation under the government the emoluments of which
were worth their attention. Nay, more, these public ofificers were
themselves not infrequently in league with criminals ; and such was the
general and deep-rooted corruption, that men who could afford to
pay might commit all sorts of crimes with impunity. The capital
punishment of an opulent offender was a thing almost unheard of;
and it was thought to be an act of unparalleled disinterestedness on
the part of the Raja, when he was reported, in 1825 or 1826, to have
refused the offer of one lakh of rupees for the pardon of the supposed
leader of a gang which had committed some daring outrages. Com-
binations existed between public ofificers and gang robbers for purposes
of plunder, and there is too much reason to believe that, even after the

' The Raja requested to be allowed to liberate the prisoners in jail before deliver-
ing over the government in 1831.

UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 637

assumption of the country, depredations did not wholly cease to be
committed under the protection of the public servants.

With respect to the jails, little regard was had to accommodation or
management, and there was no classification of prisoners ; whether
convicted, accused, or only suspected, they were all confined in the
same place ; and a special order from the Commissioners was necessary
to abolish a practice, which had generally obtained, of working them on
the high roads before trial.

It has appeared necessary to enter into this long recital of the former
laws and usages of Mysore, because an impression generally prevails
that they were distinguished for extraordinary lenity ; whereas, with the
exception of a short period during Purnaiya's administration, nothing
could exceed the corruption and capricious severity which per\-aded
the department of justice, as well as all other branches of the
administration ; and thus it happened that the people, having lost all
feeling of self-respect, and accustomed to consider punishment more as
the sign of the anger and impatience of their rulers than a just and
certain consequence of crime, were left in a state of demoralization,
and callous indifference to shame.

Police. — Under the Hindu rulers of Mysore, the duties of the police
were conducted by village servants, under the following denominations,
and these denominations were continued with little variation under the
government of Haidar Ali, Tipu Sultan, and Purnaiya. These servants
were paid either in inam lands, shares of grain from the ryots, or direct
from the Sarkar. Talvars, totis, nirgantis, and kdvalgars, the usual
village servants so called : kattabidi peons, watchmen on public pay :
Hale Faiki, ancient or common peons : lanblidars, holders of inam
lands called umbli, it was their duty to provide a constant succession
of watchmen, and they were held responsible to protect all property
within their limits : amargars, holders of inams called amar, which
they held for the performance of police duties : hul-gdval, selected
from the thirteen castes, they were entrusted with the charge of public
treasure : ankamala, watchmen of the Bedar caste : kalla Kormar,
thieves by profession, and found useful in detecting thieves. Also the
patels and shanbhogs. In the time of the Palegars, these watchmen
were held responsible for all robberies committed, whether in fields or
houses ; they traced robbers by the footsteps, and if unsuccessful,
themselves became responsible for all lost public property of moderate
amount, but not for private property.

The first blow struck at the power of the patels was in the reign of
Kanthirava Narasa Raja in 1654. That prince, attributing the
opposition he met with from his subjects to the turbulence of the

638 ADMINISTRATION

patcls, reduced their inams, and confiscated to his own use a great
part of their property. Their allowances were partially restored by
Chikka Deva Raja, who ascended the musnud in 1672, and he at the
same time regulated the rusums of the other Barabalutis. His son and
successor, Kanthirava Raja, however, sequestered the shares of the
patels, leaving the inams of other village servants as they were.

Under Haidar the effective state of the police can be much more
readily credited, as, indeed, it can be more easily accounted for; there
was then no separation of interests, and no clashing of jurisdictions.
His administration was as extensive as it was vigorous, and besides the
terror of his name, and the real sagacity of his character, it must be
remembered that his immense levies effectually drained the country of
all turbulent spirits, or, what is much the same, gave them employment
congenial to their tastes and a sure means of livelihood. Haidar took
no steps to restore to the patels their sequestered allowances ; but, by
continuing to the other Barabalutis their emoluments and privileges,
he ensured their services. The village walls and boundary hedges were
kept in repair ; and tranquillity was preserved by the presence of his
troops, who were everywhere distributed, and by the severity of his
punishment whenever it was disturbed.

Under Tipu Sultan, the police, though impaired by the reduction of
many of the patels, umblidars and amargars, and by the assessment
levied upon their inam lands, was still kept from utter ruin by the
presence of his troops under the Asofs, and the dread of his sanguinary
disposition. The Sultan's reductions, however, extended only partially
to Nagar, and not at all to Manjarabad, where his authority was never
sufficiently established to render such measures practicable ; and at one
period of his reign he appears to have had some intention of restoring
to the patels the inams of which they had been deprived. They were
accordingly summoned to his presence, inquiries were instituted for
that purpose, and sannads were actually issued to the taluq cutcherries
for delivery to them, but for some reasons which are not known,
probably the confusion of the affairs of his kingdom, nothing further
was done to replace them in their old position.

Under the administration of Purnaiya, the Kandachars selected from
the remains of Tipu's army w-ere employed in the police, and as the
country was well guarded from disturbance, by the vigilance of the
ruler and the presence of British garrisons, little opportunity was
afforded for the perpetration of those crimes which in India are almost
an invariable consequence of public disorder. But the ruin of the
patels was completed by Purnaiya in the year iSoo. Until the period
of his government, the patels' inams, though sequestered, were still

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 639

entered as such in the accounts of the Sivayi jama, or extra revenue ;
thus kept separate, it was easy to restore them to their original
possessors, who probably still had hopes from the clemency of some
future sovereign. Purnaiya, however, at once destroyed such expecta-
tions, by including the whole of these allowances under the general
revenue of the country. But Purnaiya did more. He reduced many
of this class whom Tipu had spared ; and as this final spoliation of the
patels was immediately followed by the establishment of sixty-three
charitable feeding-houses, the two measures were inseparably connected
in the public opinion.

The same state of things continued for some years under the Raja.
In the capital the police authority was aided by the Barr or infantry, a
large body of which was constantly stationed in the town for that
purpose. The police, however, began to decline with the other
branches of the administration, and the general prosperity of the
country.

Under the Mysore Commission.

Noil- Regulation System, 1 831-1855.

On the British assumption, which took place on the 19th of October
1 83 1, the maintenance, as far as possible, of existing native institutions
was expressly enjoined. The task which lay before the Commission,
therefore, was not to inaugurate a new system of government, but to
reform flagrant abuses in the old, to liberate trade and commerce, to
secure the people, especially the agricultural classes, in their just rights
against the gross tyranny and shameful extortion of a host of un-
scrupulous officials in every department, to purify and regulate the
administration of justice, and to develope the resources of the countrj'.
But the treasury was saddled with heavy debts ; the subsidy and the
pay of troops and establishments were in arrears; hence fiscal regula-
tions and the emancipation of the land revenue were the most urgent
measures at first required.

The revenue system followed, as directed by Lord William Bentinck,
was the ryotwari, which appeared to be the only one adapted to the
wants and traditions of the people of Mysore. It was brought back as
far as possible to the state in which it was left by Purnaiya, but
liberalized in all its details and viligantly superintended in its working,
with higher views, however, than the mere swelling of a balance-sheet,
as was too much the case with that celebrated administrator. The
money rents were lowered in all cases where the authorities were
satisfied that they were fixed at too high a rate; and the payments were

r,4o ADMINISTRA TION

made as easy as possible to the ryots, by abandoning the system of
exacting the kist before the crops were gathered, and receiving it
instead in five instalments, payable at periods fixed in the first instance
by the ryots themselves with reference to the times of harvest. This
had the effect of saving them from the grasp of the village usurers,
and they were also freed from the harassing periodical inspection of
their crops, and other vexatious interferences with their cultivation.
These changes were highly appreciated by the ryots themselves, but
were distasteful in the extreme to the money-lenders and lower class of
public servants.

In cases where the batayi system, or that of an equal division of the
crop between the Government and the husbandman, was found to be in
force, every effort consistent with the prescriptive right of the cultivator
was made to convert it into a money payment, and where it still
prevailed it was purified of its most vexatious characteristics. All the
preliminary authorized pilferings of the village servants were put an end
to ; the grain was divided in the most public manner ; the choice of
shares was left with the ryot, and the whole of the straw — in a cattle-
breeding country a very valuable portion of the crop — became his own
property. The result of these arrangements was, that the revenue was
collected without the least difficulty ; that applications for takkavi
(money advances from Government) became less numerous every day ;
and outstanding balances were all but unknown.

The following are detailed accounts of the revenue and judicial
systems in force during this period, and of the reformation of the
sayar ; compiled from a General Memorandum on Mysore, written in
1854.

La-nd Revenue. — It does not appear that a revenue survey of the
lands in Mysore was ever made prior to the capture of Seringapatam,
but one of the first steps adopted after that event by the Divan
Purnaiya was a general Paimayish or measurement of fields. The
execution of this work, however, was incomplete and irregular, and the
records of the measurement were not forthcoming in many of the
taluqs. Under the new administration no attempt at a general sur\-ey
had as yet been made. Assuming, however. Colonel INIackenzie's
estimate of a superficial area of 27,000 square miles to be correct, the
number of khandagas or khandis would be 1,306,800 : of these,
937,254 were calculated to be covered by mountains, rivers, nullahs,
tanks, roads, and wastes, leaving 369,546 of cultivable land, of which
about 284,276 khandis were under the plough.^

' This estimate corresponds with a total area of 17,280,000 acres ; 12,186,567 being
unculturable, and 5,093,433 culturable, with 3,965,896 cultivated. The estimated

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 641

The lands in every village were classed as kushki or dry, tari or wet,
and bdgdyat or garden. They were divided into khandagas (or khandis),
kolagas (or kudus), ballas, seers and poilis ; these being the names for
the measures or weights of seed required to sow a given space. But,
as these measures varied in each different locality, they were set aside
by Purnaiya, and a uniform measure, called the Krishnaraj khandi,
established in their room. This khandi, which was fixed at 160 seers,
was the standard followed by the European Superintendents in their
revenue settlements.

Each village had its Beriz, its Chedsal Janidhandi, and the Sthal
shist or Rivaz. The beriz was the amount of revenue fixed in ancient
times to be drawn from the village. The chedsal jamabandi was the
maximum amount derivable at some former period from the village,
and the rivaz was the ancient rate of assessment on each particular
field. The number and extent of each field and each particular of its
assessment were registered in the accounts of the shanbh6gs, but these
books had been greatly tampered with at various periods, and had to
be looked upon with great suspicion where they did not stand the test
of actual measurement. Every field had its own particular name, and
its boundaries were carefully marked.

Each village in Mysore, as in other parts of India, had its own agri-
cultural corporation. This establishment, which was called Barabalilti
in Mahratti, and Ayangadi in the language of the country, was com-
posed as already described (p. 574).

The patel or gauda was the head nian of the village, and his office was
hereditary. He had police authority to a certain limited extent ; he settled
caste disputes among the ryots, sometimes with, but generally without, the
aid of a panchdyat, and he was the usual channel of communication between
the Government and the village community. In some villages there were
government lands assigned to the patcls for their support, and in others
there were none. So also in particular districts there were patcls of great
consideration and influence, while in others they could hardly be said to
rise above the mass of cultivators. The former was generally observable
in places remote from the .seat of government or difficult of access from
other causes.

The shanbhog was the registrar or accountant, and in some cases of more
villages than one. With hardly an exception, they were of the Brahman
caste, and the office was hereditary. In some places they were in the
possession of lands rent free, in others they enjoyed them on a jc5di or light
assessment, and in some few places they had a fixed money allowance. In all

figures in 1875 were, a total area of 27,077^ square miles or 17,329,600 acres, of
which it appears that 8,923,579 were unculturable and 8,406,021 culturable : 5,585,015
of the latter being given out for cultivation, and 4,231,826 actually cultivated.

T T

642 ADMINISTRATION

instances there were certain fixed fees payable to them in money or in kind

by the ryots.

The totis were the responsible watchmen of the village and its crops.
They were likewise required to act as guides to government officers and
travellers of any importance, and in the absence of the talAri had to perform
the duties of that official in addition to their own. They were remunerated
by lands held free of rent, or on a light assessment. In all disputes about
boundaries of villages or fields, the evidence of the toti was looked to as
most essential.

The taL-tri was the scout of the village. He traced robbers and thieves,
watched the movements of suspicious strangers, and was, in fact, the police
peon to the magistrate patel. He was remunerated by rent-free or j6di
lands. In certain villages there were no taldris, and in these cases his duties
were performed by the toti.

The nirganti regulated the supply of irrigating water to the wet lands of
the village, whether belonging to the ryots or to the Sarkar. He had to
economize the supply of water in every possible way, and in the season of
rains might be said to hold the safety-valves of the tanks and other
reservoirs in his hands. Many a day's supply of water was sometimes lost
by the timidity or apathy of an inefficient nirganti, and on the other hand
many a valuable dam was carried away by the rashness or ignorance of a
presumptuous one.

The remainder of the Bdrdbaluti, with a few rare exceptions, were
dependent for their support on the fees paid to them by the ryots for the
e.\ercise of their crafts, and on what they might earn from travellers.

There were many villages in which the full complement of the
Barabaluti was not to be found, the duties and functions of one member
being doubled up with those of another. In some others, again, the
number of the complement was much extended, and we find included
among them in the accounts — the schoolmaster who taught the children,
most likely in the exact same manner and on the selfsame spot that his
ancestor taught their ancestors twenty centuries ago ; the calendar
Brahman who calculated their innumerable festivals and anniversaries,
and the pujari who propitiated and worshipped the village idol. It was
very seldom that these individuals derived any support from Govern-
ment, but the ryots of course were glad to assist them in the same
way as they did the handicraftsmen.

Should any of these village servants who enjoyed government lands,
or were in the receipt of a money allowance, misconduct themselves
and be dismissed from their appointments, they were invariably
succeeded, unless the crime were flagrant, by some member of their
own family. In cases where there were two or more claimants for the
same ofifice, as, for instance, in an undivided Hindu family, they were
allowed to select from among themselves the individual whom they

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 643

considered fittest for the post, and it was his name alone that appeared
in the Sarkar accounts. In some instances they preferred to exercise
the duties in rotation, and where this was found to work harmoniously
the authorities never interfered. The civil courts could take no
cognizance of disputes for the right of succession to these offices, or for
shares in the lands and immunities attached to them. All such were
decided summarily by the Amildar, Superintendent, and Commissioner
in their Revenue capacities. The alienation, mortgage, or transfer in
any way of these lands was strictly prohibited.

In 1 850-1, it was calculated that there were 50,709 persons borne
on the accounts as Barabaliiti, who among them enjoyed land to the
annual value of K. pagodas 40,178 and received a money allowance of
10,531 ; being together K. pagodas 50,709 (Rs. 1,47,517).

The following is a description of the duties of the several Revenue
Officers, and of the principles observed in the Revenue Settle-
ments : —

The mungari or first rains commence about the middle of .Aj^ril, and
continue at intervals till the middle or end of June, by which time the
fields are ready to be sown. At this period the tanks should contain
two months, or even more, of the supply of water requisite for the
cultivation of the rice lands. Some time before the beginning of the
official year, which was the ist of July, the shanbh6g of the village
assembled the ryots, and inquired into the circumstances and plans of
each individual. After which he concluded the arrangement with them
for the kandayam and batayi lands they were to cultivate, and for the
revenue payable by each during the ensuing year.

It will thus be seen that the shanbhdg was the primary agent in
every arrangement between the ryot and the Sarkar. It was through
him that the revenue administration of his village was conducted, and
it was to him, and to his books, that the ryot and the Government
must alike look for the record of their respective rights. He kept a
register of all the cultivators in the village, and took an account of the
lands of such persons as had died, deserted, or become insolvent, and
used his best endeavours to induce others to cultivate in their room.
He had also to prepare a general annual account of all the kandayam
lands, setting forth both the cultivated and uncultivated portions, and
the reasons why the latter had not been tilled.

In the Chitaldroog and Ashtagram Divisions, the collections com-
menced in November; in Bangalore, in December; and in Nagar, in
January. Between these times and June, when the official year closed,
the ryot was required to pay to the shanbhog the five instalments into
which his kist had been divided. As each of these instalments was

T T 2

644 ADMINISTRATION

collected from the village, the shanbhog proceeded with it to the taluq
cutcherry, and paid over the money to the Amildar.

The shanbhog was also required to keep a detailed account of
demand, collection and balance of every individual in the village, and
when the crops of the lands cultivated under batayi tenure were reaped
and piled into heaps, he had to make arrangements for their security;
and, on receiving the orders of the Amildars, to see that they were
threshed, and the grain properly stored till the time arrived for its
division.

At the season of cultivation, the shekdar made a tour of the villages
in his circle, and advised and directed the shanbhogs in their arrange-
ments. In the case of lands under tanks, he ascertained the portions
which were to be under sugar-cane and under rice, and should the
supply of water be insufificient to bring the whole of the Sarkar lands
under full wet cultivation, he arranged for the production of the most
remunerative dry crop on the portion which would remain wholly or
partially unirrigated. When the Amildar visited the hobli, the shekdar
was his main assistant in settling the jamabandi. He had to rely
upon him for the information which would enable him to form a true
judgment of the state and resources of the hobli, to bring concealed
cultivation to light, and to expose collusive arrangements with the ryots
and other frauds of the shanbhogs. When the crops under amani or
Sarkar management were matured, the shekdar had to see that the
shanbhogs took the proper steps for reaping and threshing and storing
them, and was held responsible for keeping the shanbhogs and other
village authorities of his hobli up to the proper mark of vigilance and
honesty in all these respects. Whenever there was a public market
within the limits of the hobli, the shekdar was required to prepare
regular prices current of the rates fetched on each day, and forward
them to the Amildar. He had also to secure all unclaimed property
found m the villages, and send it up with full particulars to the same
authority.

What the shekdar was to the shanbhogs of his hobli, the Amildar
in his revenue capacity was to the shekdars of his taluq. Every dispute
was referred to him, and whenever they related to kandayam lands, he
had the power of deciding them summarily, subject of course to an
appeal to the Superintendent and the Commissioner, whom also he
addressed direct if any extraordinary occurrence took place in his
taluq.

The Amildar made a tour of the hoblis in the month of September,
to acsertain the condition of the inhabitants and the prospects of the
season, and to see that the shanbhogs and shekdars were exerting

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 645

themselves to bring the lands into cultivation. After having satisfied
himself on these points by personal observation, and looked narrowly
into all the other arrangements entered into by his subordinates, he
settled the kulvar jamdbandi, village by village, and furnished regular
ten days' , reports of the progress he had made. The whole of his
settlements were finished in November.

The Sarkar batayi lands of the Vaisakha fasal, or May crop, were
brought fully under cultivation in October and November, and by
February or March the Amildar was able to forward to the Super-
intendent an estimate of its probable out-turn. The crops were
threshed and heaped in May or June, and the Amildar had then to see
to the disposal of the Sarkar share. Sometimes they were put up to
public auction as they stood upon the fields uncut, but generally after
they were reaped and threshed. Should the sums bid be considered
inadequate, the grain was stored in the government granaries till prices
became more favourable. Exactly the same course was pursued with
the Kartik or November crop, which was planted in the mungdri or
first rains, and reaped in October or November.

One important duty of the Amildar was to inspect the bunds of the
tanks and the embankments of the water-courses in his taluq, and keep
the Superintendent constantly informed of their condition.

The duties of the Superintendent, who was at once Collector, Magis-
trate and Judge, were laborious in the extreme, and could only be
carried on by a man of a very clear head, active habits, and great
powers of mental and bodily endurance. The Superintendent generally
proceeded on his jamabandi circuit as soon after the month of Novem-
ber as was practicable : that is, as soon as the Amildars had concluded
their settlement of the taluqs. The pattas, which had been previously
prepared, of each cultivator's holding, according to the Amildar's
settlements, were then distributed to the ryots. The patta contained a
description of the land held by the ryot, and the amount of assessment
to be paid by him on each different plot of land, as well as any other
tax which he might have to pay. This was read over to each man as
he was called up to receive his patta, and he was asked if it was correct
Thus any discrepancy or false entry was instantly brought to notice,
and the matter was inquired into, the error being rectified, or the
doubts of the ryot satisfied, on the spot, and in the presence of all the
other ryots of the village. Thus each cultivator not only had an
account direct with the Sarkar, but he was brought face to face with the
European Superintendent for the purpose of assuring the latter that his
account was correct. In this patta were entered the kists or instal-
ments of the ryot as they were paid by him. Ordinarily, after the

646 ADMINISTRATION

pattas had been thus distributed by the Superintendent in person in
one year, the Amildars of those taluqs were instructed to distribute
them for one or two intervening years, and only such ryots as had
objections to make in regard to the assessment claims against them, or
who were applicants for remissions, were invited to assemble at the
Superintendent's circuit camp.

This system of distributing the pattas was a very salutary one ; it
brought every tax-payer, however trifling his amount might be, in
personal contact with the Superintendent, and as all were obliged to be
present to receive their pattas, an opportunity was thus offered to
everyone to seek redress for any grievance which he might not other-
wise have had inclination or courage to bring forward. This circum-
stance in itself was a check to oppression, and constituted perhaps the
chief advantage of the Ryotwar system, which strictly prevailed in
Mysore.

It was on these occasions of distributing the pattas that the subject
of remissions was taken up and inquired into, the Superintendent keep-
ing this entirely in his own hands. There was no strict principle laid
down upon which remissions were made ; each individual case was
taken up and decided on its own merits, the condition and means of
the applicant being the ruling causes. But, generally speaking, the
assessment was not levied on land which had not been turned up by
the plough, or purposely kept fallow for pasture, whenever it could be
shown that the ryot had not the means of cultivating it that year. The
truth or otherwise of such representations was readily ascertained, for
all the cultivators of the village were present to refer to, and the
applicants for such remissions were generally of the poorer classes.
The Superintendent decided upon the question at once, and everybody
saw that it was an act of his own, and not of any bribe-expecting
mediator. The consequences of such summary decision of remissions
were : first, a check upon unreasonable or false applications for such
remissions, because no corrupt trade was made in them ; and secondly,
that there were no outstanding balances (or very small ones) in the
collections at the end of the year, because those who could not possibly
pay up the full demand had been relieved of that difficulty.

On these jamabandi circuits, the Superintendent caused an examina-
tion to be made of the village accounts as kept by the shanbhogs,
which again were compared with those (and the abstracts made from
them) which were kept in the taluq cutcherries. The extent of batayi
lands cultivated was compared with that of former years, relatively also
to the current season and quantity of rain which had fallen. The
amount value of the produce of those lands was also compared with

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 647

that of former years relatively to the concurrent rates of prices. The
changes in the holdings of kanddyam lands were closely scrutinized, and
concealed cultivation sought out and brought to account.

The Superintendent confirmed or modified tenders made to the
Amildars for leases varying from one to five years, as well as the terms
upon which new land was taken up on kandayam. Leases for five years
were usually granted upon a fair advance, on the average of the previous
five years' produce being tendered. As a general rule, such leases of
villages were only given to respectable landholders of that same village.
New lands were granted upon the average rivaz or rate of the village, at
a progressive rate, generally of three years ; ^ for the first year, f for
the second, and the full rate for the third : if much expense and labour
were to be incurred in clearing, the progressive rate was extended to
four or even more years, nothing being charged for the first year.

On these circuits it was expected that all disputes, of whatever descrip-
tion, referable to the Superintendent would be finally decided ; and ten
days before the Superintendent arrived at a taluq, a proclamation was
published in that taluq informing the people that the Superintendent's
cutcherry would arrive there on such a day, and remain so many days ;
and inviting all persons having any complaints or representations to
make, to present themselves before him within that period; and
declaring that should they omit to do so their complaints would not be
attended to afterwards, unless good reason could be shown for their
default.

A very important part of his duty was to inspect the works of irriga-
tion in his Division ; to see if the new works had been efficiently con-
structed, and the repairs properly executed, and to devise remedies for
defective works. He had also to look after the roads in his Division ;
in short, he was expected to see with his own eyes as much of every-
thing as possible.

Nagar. — Of the institutions of the Nagar country, which were some-
what different from those of other parts, Mr. Stokes, under date 1834,
gives an interesting account, from which the following extracts are
taken : —

In the Malnad, villages were almost unknown. The owner of each
estate had a large house on some eligible part of it, and his tenants,
labourers and slaves resided on their respective allotments. Each
village in the open country had its community, composed of gauda ;
talwar or watchman ; madiga, baraki or kulavadi, whose ofiice seems to
be the same with that of the toti, a term not used here ; sh;inbh6g
or accountant, whose charge, however, in Nagar generally included
several villages, or a whole magani ; kaiwadadavaru or handicraftsmen,

648 ADMINISTRATION

including the badagi or carpenter, kammar or smith, agasa or washer-
man, and hajam or barber ; the ayya or Jangam priest, who performed
the requisite ceremonies for the l.ingavant ryots, and was sometimes
also a schoolmaster ; and the pujari who officiated in the village temple.
There was also in every village an influential and generally rather old
ryot, known by the title of Hiriya Rayta, " the chief ryot," or Buddhi-
vanta, " the wise man," who was consulted on all occasions, and was
usually the spokesman when any representation had to be made to the
superior authorities. In the Malnad, two or three leading ryots or
Heggades in each magani, acted in behalf of the ryots of their shime
or district, in all transactions of a common interest, such as arranging
sales of areca-nut with the merchants, and the details of the settlement
and collection with the Sarkar officers ; and engagements signed by them
were held to be binding on those ryots. There were also in every
taluq a few leading men called Mukhyastar, generally landholders, who
took an active share in public proceedings, and were nearly always with
the Amildar. They exercised an important influence on the manage-
ment of the taluq, which was frequently directed to their own private
profit, by combining with the Sarkar servants to defraud the Govern-
ment ; but was also sometimes beneficial in checking oppression, and
protecting the interest of the ryots.

The Gaudas of villages and the Pete Shettis had a great many rights
and privileges, called mdjia mariydde, of which they were exceedingly
tenacious ; one not the least valued by them was the right of prece-
dence, exercised chiefly in receiving tambula or betel in public
assemblies in the order established by custom, any deviation from
which would be stoutly resisted as a grievous insult. The Pete Shetti
or headman and the tradesmen {vartakani) of the trading towns, who
were generally Banajigar, were always treated with great respect. The
Shettaru, as he was called in the plural number, had commonly a manya
or privilege of passing one or more bullock-loads of goods, daily, free of
custom duties. He also levied pasigi, which was a small quantity taken
in kind from all produce brought for sale to his market. The Shetti
Vartakaru constituted a sort of court of arbitration, which was the
favourite tribunal of all the trading community and of many others.

Slavery, chiefly however in the agrarian form, existed from time
immemorial, and to a great extent, in the Malnad. It was unknown
in Kadur, Tarikere, Chennagiri, Plarihar and Honnali, and was rare in
the intermediate taluqs. The population return showed, in the five
Malnad taluqs, 4,169 houses, containing 9,973 persons of the Holeyar
caste ; and it is computed that the whole of these were properly slaves,
though many had now escaped from the authority of their original

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 649

masters. Slaves were of two descriptions — hofin-dl (from hon, gold)
and manfi-dl (from man, earth), of which the former might, and the
latter might not, be transferred from the soil to which they were
attached. The term by which slaves were designated, dl, did not in its
original signification imply any notion of servitude. It merely meant a
person (man or woman\ and was applied equally to hired servants or
daily labourers. Certain limits, termed meitu, steps, were fixed, which
the slave must not pass without permission, on pain of being considered
a fugitive. When a slave ran away, his master searched for him, and
if successful applied to the Amildar of the taluq to compel his return.
The Native Government professed to comply with such applications,
but the interference of the Amildars was now prohibited. Masters had
been considered to possess the right of punishing idle or refractory
slaves by beating ; no express order was given on this point, but the
power is supposed to have been abrogated by the police regulations.
The ]\Ialnad landholders frequently complained of this alleged depar-
ture from the custom of the country, but it is clear that slavery had
been generally losing the support of the Government from the beginning
of the present century, and it was generally found, on inquiry, that
slaves whose return it was requested should be compelled, had left their
masters fifteen or twenty years.

The usual maintenance {jpaddi) of slaves in the Malnad was one
kolaga or six siddi of batta or rice in the husk, equivalent to a pakka
seer of rice, for each man, and five siddis for each woman, per diem,
which was doubled on the new and full moons and sometimes at the
feasts. An annual supply of clothes, consisting of one kambli valued
at half a rupee, to each man and woman ; one dhoti or waistband
worth half a fanam, one panche or coarse cloth five cubits long, and
costing about two annas, and one rumal costing a quarter of a rupee,
for each man ; one shire or cloth ten cubits long and costing a rupee
for each woman. On the occasion of marriages, the master of the man
had to purchase a wife for him, usually for 3 or 4 B. pagodas, from her
owner ; unless, which was most commonly done, he could give the
daughter of one of his slaves in return. This practice was called sattai
or barter. The expenses of the marriage were borne by the master of the
husband, and commonly amounted to six rupees and three khandaga
or 150 seers of rice ; the children belonged to the owner of the man.
When a slave, with the permission of his master, worked for another
person, that person must supply him with food and clothing as above
stated, and must besides pay a small annual sum, generally half a H.
pagoda to the master — this was called hcgal f>d</ige, shoulder hire.
The ordinary price of a pair of slaves, man and woman, called gudi

650 ADMINISTRATION

saraku (gudi, a Holeyar's habitation ; saraku, goods or stock of any
kind) was 12 B. pagodas, and with a pair of bullocks they were sup-
posed to be sufficient for cultivating five khandaga of land.

These slaves, though degraded, are much better off (says Mr. Stokes)
than those in Malabar ; they are in general stout and healthy in appear-
ance, and show no signs of being either overworked or underfed. They
are rapidly approximating to the state of the better class of agricultural
labourers. The Ikkeri princes possessed a great many slaves, acquired
by conquest or otherwise, some of whom were employed in the palace
garden at Nagar, and others in keeping in repair the forts of Lakvalli,
Kavaledroog, &c. They were all retained by Haidar and his successors
until the end of 1834. The establishment was a source of great abuse,
but the slaves considered its abolition rather in the light of dismissal
than emancipation. Besides the Holeyar, there are a few slaves born
of women who have lost caste, or who in infancy have been sold by
their parents.

As regards the tenure of land in Nagar, the people were accustomed
to consider all land to belong to the Sarkar, unless specially alienated,
but admitted the right of sale or mortgage in gardens. In the Malnad
it is clear this right existed in rice-lands also. It appears from old
sannads that the price of the land, as well as a nazar, was paid to the
Sarkar by persons who founded agraharas. A ryot's land could not
without his written consent be permanently transferred to another.
Both rice-lands and gardens were cultivated by tenants of the pro-
prietor, on rent called gadi or guttige, generally in kind, with a small
payment in cash. The registered landholders paid the assessment
direct to the shekdar and shanbhog, and there was no umbali or village
establishment. Some ryots held the whole or parts of several villages.
The shanbhog in this case kept an account in the name of each ryot.
This was called kulavar grdfuvar, instead of keeping an account for
each village or gramvar kulavar.

In the Eastern taluqs no land was saleable but garden or umbali and
uttdra land. Gaudas sold their gaudike, but this merely included the
usufruct of the umbali, and other emoluments and privileges attached
to the office, but not the land of the village. The usual price in
Shimoga was three years' purchase of the umbali shist. In Chikmagalur
and Vastara were ryots called kulagars, who claimed peculiar rights,
amounting nearly to absolute property, in the land of their villages ;
and there were almost in all villages some ryots whose tenure seemed
to be of longer standing and more respected than others. In Haram-
katte, Ajimpur, and Yegati, there were traces of a tenure by shares,
called chigar va?itige, in which the whole village was parcelled out into

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 651

lots of equal value, containing a due proportion of rice, garden, and
dry land. There were also traces of a similar apportionment in the
farm of a ryot, of a black, red, and sandy soil, and near, distant and
middle fields, which he was not allowed to separate. In all these
taluqs the settlement had been made by villages. A\'here there was
land assigned to the office, the old gaudas generally retained the
management of their villages, elsewhere they were displaced by
temporary renters. They controlled all arrangements for cultivation,
and occasionally took land from a ryot against his consent, though they
had no recognized right to do so, unless he left it uncultivated, in
which case it was transferred without ceremony to a new occupant,
whose tenure was the same as his predecessors. Great impediments
were placed in the way of a ryot throwing up land, or migrating to a
new village. The settlement was now made with each ryot, and all
restrictions regarding the occupation of land abolished. In these
taluqs land was seldom cultivated by tenants, except on the terms of
an equal division of the crop, the tenant providing seed and stock.

On a few lands the old money assessment had been commuted since
1800 for a payment in grain, for the ostensible purpose of supplying
some fort or chatra. But the disposal of this grain was liable to great
abuse, and the original money payments were therefore restored. The
batayi settlement was now abolished everywhere except in Kadur, and
the beds of tanks occasionally cultivated.

The shist, with the additions of dasoha, pagudi and patti (described
pp. 593-4), was further increased 12 as. per pagoda by Haidar in the
year after he took Bednur, in lieu of the shanbhogs' percentage at half a
fanam per pagoda called variaiie, of a private fee paid to them called
kaifu as-cvari, and of service and supplies required from the ryots for
certain forts ; but the amount of this last item varied in different
places according to the usage.

Sivappa Nayak's re\ision seems to have extended to the five Malnad
taluqs, Sorab, Shikarpur and Shimoga, but not to Honnali and Tarikere,
though the distinction into shist and patti was made there. In the
Malnad, the above shist and patti had generally continued the limit
of the assessment till the present time. In the gauda guttige villages
from Sorab eastward, the gaudas paid generally the full shist and patti
on the whole village, but let some land to the ryots at the shist alone,
which was called kattugadi ; some at the shist and 50 per cent, patti ;
and some at double the shist. About the year 1805-6 the difference
on all fields let for more than the authorized patti was collected on
account of government and added to the beriz of the village. Till
1832-3 the shanbhogs registered the shist only of each field, and the

652 ADMINISTRATION

same field was s(jinclimcs let as kattugadi, sometimes at 5 fanams
patti, and sometimes at pagoda patti, according to the pleasure of the
gauda. They were now required to fix the patti as well as the shist on
each field, taking it at the highest rate recently paid on that field.

Alanjarabad. — For the Manjarabad country, part of the old jjrovince
of Balam, similar details are given by Major }vIontgomery, under date
1839.

The form of village government in the taluqs of Manjarabad, Belur
and Maharajdroog, was essentially the same as in other parts of the
country, but the constitution of society in the Malnad hoblis differed
from that of the plains, in the general absence of Brahmanical influence,
and a more marked difference between the upper and lower classes ;
the whole population being as it were divided into two distinct grades,
the Patrician and Plebeian ; it might perhaps be said, the freemen and
slaves. The former consisted of Patels and ryots of the Lingayit, Hale-
wakkal, Devar-makkal, Malari, &c., castes : the latter of the Dhers and
Bedars. But the patrician class may be again divided. There were
the patels of nads, who were exclusively of the Lingayit or the Hale-
wakkal jati ; the patels of the mandes, and grama patels, these were all
of the Devar-makkal jati, the Halepaika of Canara.

Uggihalli Devappa Gauda, a Lingayit, was the patel of Malavana nad,
consisting of five mandes, rated at 1,000 pagodas each. He was universally
acknowledged to be the senior patel of the Manjarabad taluq, and as such
was treated by the others with the greatest respect. He was called the Shime
Gauda. Nanja Gauda, however, the patel of the Kittal nad of Belur, was
descended from a senior branch of the family, and his ancestors, previous to
the dismemberment of the province of Balam, when Belur became a part of
IMysore, were admitted to be the Moktesar Patels. When therefore Man-
jarabad, as well as Belur, became a portion of Mysore, it was very difficult
to settle who should have precedence when these two met at the annual
jatres at Halebid and Devavrinda, and much jealousy existed. However,
sometime ago they wisely thought it better to compromise the matter. The
families intermarried ; Nanja Gauda agreed to refrain from appearing in
future at the jatre of Devavrinda, and Devappa Gauda, on his part, did not
appear at Halebid until after Nanja Gauda had paid his devotion. The
second in consequence amongst the patels was Manali "\'ire Gauda, also a
Lingayit, of Kibbat and Balam, which together form four mandes, rated
formerly at 1,000 pagodas each. The third was Hettur Dodde Gauda (of
the Hale-wakkal jati) of Hettege nad, consisting of three mandes, rated
formerly at 1,000 pagodas each. The fourth was Kalur \"ire Gauda (Hale-
wakkal) of Mokkun ndd, consisUng of three mandes rated as the last. The
fifth was Godena Komari Gauda (Hale-wakkal) of Bisale and Uchchangi,
consisting of the same number of mandes, and rated the same as the two
last. The sixth and last was Mudigere Sidde Gauda, a Lingayit of Mudigere

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 653

n.-id, which consists but of one mande, rated at 1,000 pagodas. The Xdd
Patels were also patels of the mandes in which they reside. To the other
mandes there were separate patels.

The whole of the duties of the internal government appear formerly
to have been conducted through the agency of these patels, and they
undoubtedly enjoyed very large inams. The patels seem in fact to have
been feudal chiefs ; they did not, it is .said, wage aggressive warfare
beyond their own boundaries, but an inspection of their habitations,
even now, shows that they cultivated the art of military defence. The
houses of all are fortifications, in some instances surrounded by a broad
and deep wet ditch, the only passage across which is defended by a
strong gateway, looped for musketry and matchlocks.

Of the power of the Patels in former days, it is of course impossible
to obtain an accurate account. But it may be supposed to ha\e varied
with the character of the reigning Palegars, and the Superior Govern-
ment. They are said, however, at times to have exercised a despotic
sway, extending over the lives of those under them. During a part of
the reign of the Raja even, and the more vigorous administration of
L'urnaiya, it was not, it is said, uncommon for them to assemble their
clansmen and servants, and openly resist the public authorities when
they appeared at their villages to ask for the Sarkar dues. Their resist-
ance on these occasions was frequently successful, and led to a com-
promise of the demand.

Their ostensible power was now confined to assembling the ryots for
the chase, to assisting the shekdars to carry into effect the orders of the
xVmildar relative to the cultivation, to arbitrating in petty disputes,
whether relative to land or otherwise, and the legitimate weight which
their advice and opinion must have in all matters relative to the internal
management of the taluq. It could not, however, be doubted that the
generality of the ryots would blindly obey their orders in almost all
cases, whether opposed to, or in accordance with, the wishes of the
Government. Their privileges were now confined to the collection of
a fee of one fanam, termed drati kdni/cc, paid to the village patel on
every occasion of marriage in his village, and to the precedence accorded
to them at all feasts, which is principally displayed in the distribution
of betel. The ndd patels are helped first according to their rank, and
then follows the distribution in succession to the others. In cases of
disputed precedence, the distributor crosses his arm.s, and offers to the
different claimants at once. The patels had now no acknowledged
umblis, the whole having been resumed by Purnaiya, but there is no
doubt that they possessed the best lands, and managed to keep them
assessed much under their real value. The ryots of the higher castes

654 ADMINISTRATION

who were not patois, and happened (which was very seldom) not to be
related to any of them, still acknowledged their superiority, and yielded
them obedience.

The Dhers, Bedars and others, who have been classed as the Plebeian
population, were almost universally the servants or slaves of the Patrician
classes, and but little difference existed between the free servant and
the slave. The latter were termed Hale-makkalu or old sons. They
were fed from their master's table. They were clothed by him.
They were married at his expense. They were feasted and received
presents at his festivals. They mourned as members of the family
when deaths occurred in it. They performed all menial offices,
whether domestic or agricultural. They were sometimes (but appar-
ently not necessarily) disposed of with the family estate. If purchased
separately, they were liable to be resold, but the sale of slaves
separately from the land was never, it appears, of very frequent
occurrence.

Slavery now ceased to exist, inasmuch as no interference on the part
of the Government servants to compel a slave to serve his master was
permitted, and any complaint of a slave against his master was investi-
gated and decided as if both parties were equally independent. But
at no period would it appear (as far as can be ascertained) that
slavery in Balam was invested with the more revolting features so
common to it in Africa and America. The sway of the master seems
generally to have partaken more of a paternal character than the terms
" owner and slave " would indicate, and frequently as it had been
inquired of those who still considered themselves bondsmen, whether
they would not wish to change their lot, never yet was met one who
acknowledged that he repined at it. Probably there had not for many
years been any very great difference in the condition of the slave and
free labourer ; the latter being generally paid with food and clothing of
nearly the same quality afforded to the former. Nor was it the custom
for the free labourer any more than the slave to employ his children with
any other than his own master, unless the master should have given his
consent, and in cases where the marriage expenses of the free labourer
had been defrayed by the master, he could not leave his service till the
amount was refunded.

The people considered a proprietary right in the land to have been
conveyed by the rulers of Vijayanagar to the dififerent families of emi-
o-rants w^ho located shortly after the subversion of the Halebid dynasty
in 1326. The existing gaudas and ryots who claimed to be paldars or
shareholders of the dififerent villages, professed to be the descendants
of these emigrants, and declared that their right to the land had never

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 655

been disputed, and was strictly respected, till the appointment of
Amildars by Purnaiya and the Raja, since which time many old pro-
prietors had been forcibly dispossessed of their lands, which had been
rented to others.

Sales of paluvantige land do not seem to have been frecjuent, but the
right to sell and mortgage it was universally admitted. The deeds of
sale assimilated with those used in Mysore, more than those existing in
Canara. The kraya patra, which included in the transfer house, land,
back-yard, dung-heap, and kulvadi,^ was the most perfect conveyance
that could be made, and it was considered to alienate all village rights
in perpetuity, as well as the land. A patel selling his land, but
retaining his house, back-yard and dung-heap, retained with them his
village rights and precedence. This land was generally considered
recoverable by his heirs, at however remote a period, on their repaying
its price ; provided always that they had retained possession of the
house and back-yard.

Sdyar. — At the time of the assumption of the country, the sayar was
found to be mostly farmed out, and it was ne.xt to impossible to ascer-
tain the extent of its resources, the number and the nature of the
strangely miscellaneous articles it included, or how far it was susceptible
of improvement. The accounts of the Sarkar gave the nominal, not the
real, settlements, and those furnished by the contractors themselves
were of course not to be relied on. As immediate reform thus became
impracticable without risk of serious error, the only thing to be done
was to w-atch the renters narrowly, and to set about collecting the
required information in every possible way. In addition to this, the
revenues of the State were in a most reduced condition, with a heavy
load of arrears of uncertain amount to be cleared off, and it was
considered better, therefore, in every branch of the administration, to
proceed gradually and with caution, grappling with the most glaring
grievances, and correcting the others one after another as the state of
the finances improved, and acquaintance with the real state of the
country advanced.

In this way many duties were allowed for a time to remain which
can be justified by no abstract principles of political economy, but
which the state of commerce and other local circumstances rendered it
advisable to retain, for a time, at least, if not permanently. The rules,
however, under which these were levied were purged of all ambiguity,
and being expressed in the simplest terms, were intelligible to the
meanest trader ; and the sayar may very early be said to have been

' It would appear liy this, tli.il the kulvadi was formerly considered the slave of the
proprietor of the land.

656 A DMINISTRA TJON

collected without a wrangle. But down to the year 1854 no less than
769 items of Sayar taxation were gradually swept away, amounting in
the aggregate to the annual value of 10^ lakhs of rupees.'

Bearing heavily as these taxes must have done, it may safely be
assumed that they were not so much detested by the people on account
of the money they took from their pockets, as on account of the
iniquitous use which was made by the izardars and their myrmidons of
the police powers with which it was a necessary part of the system to
invest them. What these police powers must have been, and of the
generally vexatious nature of the taxes, an idea may be best formed by
selection of a few specimens.

In certain places, and in particular castes, taxes were levied on marriage,
on taking a concubine, and on incontinency ; on a female of the family
attaining puberty ; on a child being born, on its being given a name, and on
its head being shaved ; on the death of a member of the household, and on
the subsequent purification ceremonies. Umbrellas were taxed, and so
were individuals who passed a particular spot in Nagar without keeping
their arms close to their sides. There was one village whose inhabitants
had to pay a tax because their ancestors had failed to find the stray horse
of an ancient pdlegar ; and there was a caste of Sudras who were mulcted
for the privilege of cutting off the first joint of one of their fingers in
sacrifice. Fees were levied from bankrupt Government contractors for
permission to beg (it is not stated what classes were likely to bestow alms
upon them) ; and taxes were demanded from individuals who went to live in
new houses, or who listened to the reading of the new year's calendar. To
this may be added the fact, that the daring climbers who robbed the nests
of the myriads of wild pigeons that build against the perpendicular sides of
the vast ravine into which the Gersoppa river precipitates itself, were made
to pay a percentage on the grain which they thus collected at the daily risk
of their necks.

Each of these items had its own particular name, under which it was
formally entered on the records of government as among the resources
of the State. In some places capable of producing certain articles to an
unlimited extent, the local rates became so exorbitant as literally to
prevent their production. An instance of the manner in which the
tobacco tax was levied in one taluq will suffice to show what oppor-
tunities existed for oppression and extortion, as well as the impediments
which existed to the facilities or freedom of trade.

Every ryot in Kadur who wished to sell his tobacco, had to send for the

' The following are the particulars : —

No. Head. Amount. | No. Head. Amount.

42 Revenue Rs. 1,57,758 187 ChiUar Bab Rs. 79,9SS

482 Sayar 8,24,625 I 18 Mohatarfii 4,166

39 Abkari 7*289 l Amrayi 78

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 657

Government gumasta, who first took a \ maund, called incile, on account of
Government ; then another \ maund, called kai male ; then the heap was
weighed ; then so much, called patninii, was charged on each maund ; then
another tax, called siaika ; and lastly another, called Diai pamiiiti, was levied ;
and then it had to be taken to the nearest katte, where it paid transit duty :
when it was free to start, and run the gauntlet of the kattes along the road
to the town or market for which it was intended.

As regards the Halat or H^sil on areca-nut, the three great contractors
for the Ilakhas of the Nagar Division and the principal merchants used to
meet annually at a place called Arga, and then fix, according to quality and
locality of production, the price to be given for areca-nut throughout the
Division ; and every ryot in the country was obliged to submit to the
arrangements then decided upon or have the produce of his garden left
upon his hands, for the whole system was so complicated, and all the
subordinates so thoroughly and entirely under the control and authority of
these confederates, that no man could export for himself ; the difficulties he
had to contend against being such as are now scarcely credible. All
producers, almost without exception, were obliged to sell to these great
monopolists, who exported at the minimum rate which they themselves
fixed, and who, profiting by their position, their knowledge of the rules in
force, and their power to act with impunity at a distance from all control,
made immense fortunes and allowed the ryot only the smallest possible
amount of profit or remuneration. Their advantages did not end here.
They had also the privilege of exporting their goods without paying down
the h^lat or transit dues, which they were permitted to adjust at a
subseciuent period, to allow, as it were, of their selling the article and
realizing the price previously to being called upon for the full demands of
the Sarkar. This gave rise to arrears to a most serious extent. They also
possessed another immense advantage over the outside trader, — having the
monopoly entirely in their hands, they never paid the ryots in cash. At
first only sufficient money was given to enable the cultivator to pay his kist
to Government, the rest remaining to be adjusted at a subsequent period,
when a portion only was paid in cash, the balance always to a great extent
being made good by cloths, valued at the maximum price, and brought l)ack
by the merchant or an agent from the great marts of Bangalore, Walla-
jabad, &c.

The number of articles upon which duties were remitted in the
Niigar Division was 2 48, and the total annual value of remissions made
since the assumption of the country was Rs. 2,04,925-10-2.

In 1832-3 and 1833-4 all duties on grain were abolished. In 1834-5 the
information collected was sufficient to justify the Commissioner in taking
the sdyar under amdni in all but four taluqs ; which were also taken under
the same management very shortly afterwards. In 1837-8 all internal
duties were taken off iron, steel and cattle ; and nine other items, oppres-
sive, but of little value, were likewise struck off. In 1842-3 all transit
duties were taken off iron, steel and cattle, and nine other items struck off.

u u

658 ADMINISTRATION

In the same year, all transit duties were taken off supari, pepper and
cardamoms ; and in 1843-4 the duty was taken off sheep's wool and coffee
in transit. In 1844-5 vexatious duties were taken off tobacco, and the con-
tract abolished.' At the same time all unequal privileges as to rates of payment
were done away with, and a uniform standard having been fixed instead of
the former interminable variations, the trade in supari, pepper and carda-
moms began to take its own natural course throughout the country. As a
substitute for the abolished tobacco contract, a hdlat of one rupee per
maund was fixed on all produced in Nagar, and an import duty of i| on
tobacco imported for consumption. A full drawback was given for all
imported tobacco on re-exportation. The above changes were followed in
1847-8 by the final abolition of all remaining transit duties, so that nothing
remained of the original system excepting some small dues on a few minor
articles, to be removed at the first convenient opportunity.

To make up for the considerable loss of revenue sustained by these
reductions, an additional halat was put upon cardamoms, and on the
first sort of supari, while a reduction was made on the second and third
sorts of that article, and on pepper. This step was not taken without
consultation wnth merchants concerned in the trade, and with their
full consent. These merchants expressed themselves fully sensible of
the weight of exaction and loss by detention from which they had been
relieved.

In the Ashtagram Division., from the period of the assumption,
the duties on 152 articles were struck off of the annual value of
3,09,863-4-7 rupees.

In 1832-3 and 1833-4 were struck off the whole of the duties on grain.
In 1835-6 the transit duty on horses was abolished. In 1836-7 duties
ceased to be levied on firewood, old timber, European articles, sandalwood oil,
and vegetables on entering the town of Mysore. Many minor duties of the
same kind were also struck off, among them the Mahant rusum {see p. 627).
And in 1837-S fruit, plantain leaves and straw were added to the articles
allowed to pass free. In 1838-9 and 1839-40 the tax on stalls erected for
the sale of parched grain, paddy, husked rice, and buttermilk was struck off.
An item called pasige, which was a fee in kind exacted by the renter on
almost all smaller articles offered for sale, was discontinued, as was also the

' As the effect of this the revenue under the head of tobacco rose immediately
30 per cent. The mere withdrawal of the contractors made the true state of affairs
at once fully apparent. On the trade becoming free, the producers found that they
were able to obtain for their whole stock Rs. 3J the maund, instead of R. \\, which
was all the contractors gave, and all that they could obtain under the previous system,
as they could sell to no one else. And the extortion of the contractors will be still
more fully appreciated when it is mentioned that the retail price at once fell from
Rs. 6 to Rs. 5. Thus it will appear that the consumer, the producer, and the
Government all gained by the abolition of the contract system, and that the profit of
a contractor was scarcely less than 300 per cent.

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 659

duty on butter. The tax on blacksmiths' forges was hkewise aboHshed.
This last only formed part of an extended measure of relief granted to the
manufacturers of iron throughout the country, the greater part of whose
heavy burthens were brought to account under the head of land revenue.
In 1 840- 1 was abolished a most vexatious transit duty on cattle, which
had been made to extend to cows and bullocks sent from the town to graze
on country pastures, and an item termed diikdn pasiira was struck off.
It consisted in a fee levied from certain poor people for the privilege of
sitting down in the street to sell parched grain and other things from their
baskets.

Up to this time no more had been done than has been here detailed,
except that the renters had been deprived of all police power, and their
proceedings in other respects been most narrowly watched. Sufficient
insight, however, had by this time been gained into the working of the
system to justify further steps. At the close of 1 841-2, therefore, the
accounts underwent a most searching scrutiny, and all items not properly
belonging to the land customs were transferred to their proper heads ; and
amongst them all those which constituted the Pattadi Sdyar were removed
from the books.

Even after this it was found that many abuses still existed in the system,
which it was impossible to arrive at from the falsified accounts of the
renters, and it was therefore resolved that the .Sdyar and Panch-bab of the
Mysore taluq for the year 1842-3 should be taken under amdni manage-
ment as an experiment. The above experiment having answered beyond
expectation, permission was granted to extend the amdni system in 1843-4
to ten more taluqs. Orders were also issued for the immediate abolition of
many kattes in those taluqs, and for sweeping away the remaining transit
duties in the taluq of Mysore, where their effects had been found to be
more pernicious to trade than elsewhere. In 1844-5, ^^ sayar and abkari
in all the remaining taluqs were brought under Sarkar management, and
transit duties were everywhere abolished. A most vexatious impost, called
daiundr, was also discontinued. It consisted in the exaction of a fee of one
Kanthiraya fanam on every cow or bullock sold, no matter whether by the
breeder to a lyot, or by one ryot to another. As the price of the small
cattle of the country was generally about ten or twelve fanams, this
apparently trifling fee, levied as it was on every transfer, became a really
heavy burthen.

In the Bani^a/orc Division, from the period of the assumption, the
duties on 312 articles were struck off, including grain, of the annual
value of Rs. 3,73,208-6-10.

It is of course needless to mention that in this Division the grain duties
had been swept away, and a vast number of items expunged from the tariff
as in the other Divisions. But notwithstanding that a total reform was
needed in the Bangalore Division only less than in the others, yet, as the
sdyar made up a very large item of the revenue, caution was required in
disturbing it. As a first step, the whole was taken out of the hands of the

U U 2

66o ADMINISTRATION

izardars or renters, and put, in the year 1846-7, under Sarkar management ,-
and the duties were levied avowedly on the old rules and system, the
better, by acquirinj^ a practical knowledg-e of those old rules, to reform and
improve them afterwards. The result of that year's arrangements was an'
increase of nearly 48-| per cent, in this item of revenue over that of former
years under the renters, and an assurance that a fair and equitable method
of collecting these duties might be devised without any very gi-eat loss to
the Sarkar.

The first modification of the old sdyar system in this Division was
commenced in July 1847. It was simply the levying an ad valorem duty
of 4 per cent, on all articles at the place of export or despatch : and at the
frontier kattes on all articles entering the Division. To this general rule
there were but three exceptions : ist, raw silk, on which an ad valorem
duty of 2 per cent, only was imposed ; 2nd, tobacco was rated in three
classes : — i. 12 Kanthiraya fanams per maund ; ii. choora or fibres, 9
fanams ; iii. kaddi or scraps, 6 fanams per maund ; and 3rdly, betel-leaf for
the consumption of the Bangalore town was charged \\ cash per bundle.
The above were the rates fixed upon the tobacco entering the Bangalore
taluq, but in all other parts of the Division it came under the general rulie
of 4 per cent, ad valorem. This arrangement obtained for five months, till
December 1847, when the rules were revised in order that they might be
adapted to act in concert with the sayar rules which were being simul-
taneously modified in the other Divisions, and the revision thus made was
as follows : — Articles merely passing through the Division, to or from other
parts of Mysore, to or from the Company's districts, or from one part of the
Company's territories to others, were exempt from duty. Articles imported
from the Company's territories, and consumed in this Division, were
charged 4 per cent, ad valorem ; also articles exported to the Company's
territories from the Division. An ad valorem duty of 2 per cent, only was
leviable on articles exported to, or imported from, the other Divisions of
Mysore. On certain articles produced and consumed in this Division, an
ad valorem duty of 2 per cent, was leviable at the place of production, and
the same at the place of consumption. The duty on raw silk, tobacco and
betel-leaf was the same as stated above. All sugar and saccharine produce
was exported free of duty ; but sugar, &c., consumed in this Division paid'
duty the same as other ai'ticles.

In Chitaldroog there was, as in other Divisions, no regular system or
fixed principle of taxation under the former administration ; but the
practice was to tax every article, whether of home or foreign produce >
the amount of each tax was undefined and arbitrary. The tables of
rates which were in the sdyar kattes were never acted on, either before
or subsequent to the assumption of the country. In practice ever7
village and every custom house had its own rates, and these varied so-
much that the classification of them was impracticable. All disputes
relative to these taxes were decided bv mamul or local usage. The

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 66 1

sayar duties were divided into bhara iiuirg and chillar mdrg (transit on
high and cross roads) ; sihal bharti (duties on exports or productions) ;
and karag padi (town duties), with other local taxes included under
the head of sayar. ^\'hile taxation was thus general as respects things,
there were privileged classes and persons who were altogether exempt
from duties. The sayar was generally rented by taluqs, but for somt
years the whole faujdari of Chitaldroog was rented to one individual
The renting system was continued till 1S45-6, and in the following
year the sayar was placed under the management of the public
servants.

Since the assumption of the country, however, many taxes levied on caste
and domestic customs and institutions of vexatious character were gradually
remitted. In 1832-3 and 1833-4 duty upon grain was abolished. In 1835-6
the duty was taken off china articles. In 1837-8 duty upon vegetables,
fruit, plantain and jungle leaves, and on horses, was discontinued. In
1838-9 duty upon firewood, grass, milk, sweetmeats, parched rice, butter-
milk, elephants, and fowls, was remitted. In 1841-2 an item termed bazar
pasgi, which was a collection in kind, from the renters of grain and other
articles, for erecting stalls on market days, was abolished. In 1845-6 the
duty upon cattle was abolished, and in 1847-8 duties on silk, on cotton, on
all saccharine produce, and all transit duties, were abolished.

The following rules for the collection of siiyar were established in this
Division. The sayar duties on all but thirty-eight articles were abolished.
■Of the above thirty-eight articles, six were made subject to an ad valorem
duty, as follows : — Sthal bharti or export duty of 6 per cent, was levied on
supari of inferior quality, produced in the Division and exported, besides
the karag, or town duty, on what was retained or consumed. Sthal bharti
duty of 20 per cent, was levied on dry cocoanut, besides the consumption
duty on it, which was also to be levied according to the existing miimul. A
bharti duty of 5 per cent, was levied on date jaggory, besides the karag, or
town duty, according to mdmul. A bharti of i a rupee per maund was
levied on all tobacco the produce of the Division, excepting in the taluqs
bordering on the Bellary District, where only two annas were to be levied,
the produce being inferior in quality. Half a rupee consumption duty on
tobacco imported into the Division. A bharti duty of one rupee pcrnuumd
was levied on silk manufactured in the Division, both the transit and con-
sumption duties being abolished. The silk of the other Divisions was
allowed to pass free from duty. But if such silk was retained in the Division
beyond a limited time, it was subject to duty.

The total annual value of the remissions made in this Division under
the head of sayar was Rs. 1,85,907-0-5.

Judicial System. — When the Governor-General of India resolved
that the territories of the Raja of Mysore should be governed until
further orders by a sole Commissioner and four I-2uropean Super-

66 2 ADMINISTRA TION

intendcnts in the ] )islricts, the system and establishments for the
administration of justice which then existed being considered
inadequate to the wants of the country, an order for the estabhshment
of Courts of Justice, with a draft of Rules for their guidance, was issued
on the 27th of October 1834. These Rules may be said to form the
basis of the system of Judicial administration existing up to 1854.

The Courts established during this period for the administration of
civil and criminal justice within the Mysore territory may be classed
under six heads or grades.

Taluq or Amils' Courts 85 Superintendents' Courts ... 4

Town Munsifts' Courts 2 I Huzar Adalat i

Principal Sadar Munsiffs' Courts 8 I Court of the Commissioner ... i

Of courts of original jurisdiction there were two classes : — ist, the
Amils' Courts; 2nd, the Town Munsiffs'.

The Amils had power to decide without record all claims not exceeding
Rs. 20 ; with a record of proceedings, suits not in excess of Rs. 100 ; and,
when assisted by a Panchdyat, all suits not exceeding Rs. 500. An appeal
might be filed in the Sadar Munsiffs' Court in the second and third descrip-
tion, but not in the first, unless when corruption or gross partiality was
alleged, or when the claim involved landed property, under which circum-
stances the higher Courts, and eventually the Commissioner, might be
appealed to.

The Mysore Town Munsiff had nearly identical power with that of an
Amil in all suits regarding real or personal property, which was connected
with, or may have originated within the limits of, the town of Mysore. The
Bangalore Town ]\Iunsiff, in addition to the powers of an Amildar, had
authority to decide, with a record of proceedings, all suits for real property
not exceeding Rs. 500, and for personal property not exceeding Rs. 1,000,
and an appeal from his decisions lay direct to the Superintendent of the
Division, whereas in the case of the two former the appeal lay only to the
Sadar Munsiff. A written decision had to be given in all cases, whether a
record of proceedings had been kept or not.

Of courts of original jurisdiction and of appeal, there may be said to
have been two classes : — ist, the Principal Sadar ^Munsiffs' Courts :
and 2nd, the Courts of the European Superintendents.

The Principal Sadar Munsiffs, of whom there were two in each Division,
decided all suits in appeal from the Amils, their decision in all such appeals
being final, unless in cases of landed property, or under circumstances of
corruption or gross partiality ; they also decided all original suits for real
property above Rs. 100 and not exceeding Rs. 1,000, and for personal
property above Rs. 100 and not exceeding Rs. 5,000.

All appeals from their decisions lay to the Superintendents of Divisions,
or to the Huzur Adalat, at the option of the suitor. The Munsiffs kept a
records of all proceedings, and sealed, signed, and delivered, to both

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 663

plaintiff and defendant in a suit, copies of the decree issued in the case.
The Sadar Munsiffs had, moreover, authority to try all cases referred to
them by the Superintendents of their respective Divisions.

The Superintendents had authority to investigate all appeals whatsoever
from the lower courts of their Divisions, as also all original suits involving
real property in value above Rs. i,t>oo, or personal property above
Rs. 5,000. Under the Commissioner's special instructions, the Super-
intendents exercised control over the Munsiffs and all subordinate judicial
authorities within the limits of their Divisions.

Of Courts of Appeal^ there were two : ist, the Huzur Adalat, a
Native Court attached to the Commissioner's Olifice, and having three
judges; 2nd, the Commissioner's Court.

The Huzur Addlat had power to take cognizance of, and to pass a decision
upon, all appeals from the subordinate Native Courts. This court was not
assisted by a panchdyat unless specially ordered by the Commissioner to
convene one, but the judges might be assembled by the Commissioner and
employed by him as his assessors whenever he deemed such a course
advisable. This court was not one of original jurisdiction, excepting when
suits were specially referred to it for investigation by the Commissioner.

The Commissioner received appeals from the decisions of the Super-
intendents and of the Huziir Addlat, either in appeal direct, or by simple
petition through the Firiyad Department of his office. No original suits
were filed in the Commissioner's Court ; it was, however, optional with him
to take notice, in any way he deemed fit, of any representation whatever
laid before him.

The subordinate Revenue officers, the Superintendents of Divisions,
and finally the Commissioner, decided all disputes or suits connected
with Sarkar or mirasi lands or other revenue matters. The Amils,
principal Munsiffs, and Superintendents, were authorized to take
cognizance of all suits regarding landed property when the land lay
within the limits of their prescribed taluqs, Districts and Divisions, and
of all other transactions whatsoever when the defendant permanently
resided, or the cause of action originally arose, within the said limits.
No suits regarding personal property were admitted when it was proved
that no effort for its recovery had been made for a period of sixteen
years.

On a plaintiff presenting himself at one of the Courts of original juris-
diction for the purpose of filing a suit, before a writ summoning the
defendant was issued, the plaintiff underwent a vivA 7<oce examination in
open court. If the judge, after hearing his statements, and inspecting his
documents, was of opinion that ihc claim was tenable, the suit was at once
filed, and numbered ; but, on the contrary, should the claim appear to the
judge to be vexatious or unfounded, he refused to grant a writ until the
plaintiff had deposited a sum sufficient to cover the probable amount of the

664 ADMINISTRATION

costs of the suit (including the fee), or until he gave good and substantial
security for the same. The plaintiff was permitted the option of undergoing
the examination or of making the deposit. Should the judge refuse to file
the suit, he must endorse his reasons for so doing on the back of the rejected
plaint.

The suitor with his plaint was obliged to state the number of his witnesses
and the nature of his documentary evidence ; and the defendant on being
summoned was obliged to do the same in his answer. The reply and
rejoinder were then filed, when the judge further questioned both parties,
and then proceeded to receive and record the evidence on both sides. The
judge was authorized to call for all such witnesses and documents in the
course of the inquiry as he deemed necessary to a right understanding of
the matter at issue, but should additional evidence be called for by either
plaintiff or defendant during the progress of the suit, the judge did not
comply with the requisition until he had ascertained by a viva voce
examination that their attendance was absolutely necessary. Should the
inquiry be intricate or connected with landed property, the Amil, Munsiff,
or Superintendent, might at his option convene a panchayat, which had,
under such circumstances, the power to adopt the same measures as the
convening authority, with a view to arriving at an equitable decision. Upon
the completion of the panchdyat's mahazar, the judge drew up a decree, in
which he recapitulated concisely the original statements, the evidence on
both sides, documentary and oral, the opinion of the panchayat (if one was
convened), his reasons for adopting or differing from the same, and lastly
his own opinion or decision, with the arguments upon which it was based.
The opinion of the Mufti or Pandit of the Court was also mentioned, should
the judge have considered it advisable to call for it in the course of the
inquiry.

Should the losing party in a suit be disposed to file an appeal in the
next superior court, the following conditions must be complied with : —

He must, within thirty days from the date on which he had the decree of
the lower court handed to him, forward to the judge of that court an appeal
arzi for transmission to the higher court, and he must procure an endorse-
ment on it by the judge to the effect that all costs, fees and fines levied in
his court had been duly paid, and that substantial and reliable security for
the amount decreed had also been lodged in his court. Non-compliance
with any of these conditions was held as a valid reason for refusing to
forward an appeal, or for its rejection in the appeal court, should the
appeal arzi he forwarded to the superior court direct. Special instructions
from the Commissioner alone warranted any deviation from this rule.
Should the grounds of appeal be corruption or gross partiality, proof of the
truth of the charges must be adduced previous to any re-investigation of
the case.

The appellant having complied with the established stipulations, and his
appeal having been filed in the superior court, the proceedings of the
original court were sent for, on receipt of which the respondent was called

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 665

upon for an answer (no reply or rejoinder were requisite in the appeal
court), and on receipt of this document, the proceedings of the original
court were carefully re-examined, and should it be deemed necessary for the
further elucidation of the matter to call for additional documentary or oral
evidence, the appeal court's power in this respect was unlimited. All
available evidence having in this manner been obtained, an appeal decree
was drawn up, confirming or reversing the decision of the lower court,
as the case might be.

Unless under circumstances of corruption, gross partiality, or extreme-
peculiarity, an appeal decision in cases of personal property was final.
In cases involving landed property, however, notwithstanding a con-
current opinion on the part of two courts, a special or extra special
appeal, the former to the Superintendent or the Adalat, and the latter
to the Commissioner, were admissible.

In all the subordinate Native Courts, there were summon peons, who
were employed in summoning defendants and witnesses, and who
received two annas batta per diem during the time they were engaged
on this duty. AVitnesses received, according to their rank and circum-
stances, an allowance varying from one anna to one rupee daily, besides
travelling batta at the same rate when the distance exceeded ten miles.
Should the person to be summoned reside beyond the limits of the
jurisdiction of the Amil, Munsiff, or Superintendent, an application
accompanied by a summons was forwarded from each or any of these
authorities respectively to his co-ordinate authority within whose juris-
diction the person resided, requesting him to serve the summons and
•direct the attendance of the individual in question. Should the
required individual belong to the household of the Raja, the applica-
tion for his attendance was forwarded through the Commissioner ; and
should he be a person of rank, or Government servant, he was
summoned by the Superintendent on his own account, or through him
on that of the Amil, or Munsiff, but not by the two latter authorities
themselves. When witnesses resided at a distance, to save them
trouble and expense, lists of interrogatories were occasionally forwarded
from one court to another, and to zillah courts in the Company's
country under Regulation VII of 1841. Should the list be handed in
by either plaintiff or defendant, it must meet the approval of the judge
prior to being forwarded, and he was at liberty to add any further
questions he considered it advisable to ask : the list furnished by the
one party being shown to the other in order that he might insert such
cross questions as appeared reasonable and proper. The answers were
invariably given and recorded in open court.

The money for the adjustment of expenditure on the above dilTercnt

666 A DMINISTRA TION

accounts was deposited in the first instance by the party requiring the
outlay, the whole sum paid for such purposes by the gaining party
being subsequently charged to whoever lost the suit ; the amount
expended in this way being specified in the decree under the head
of costs. In pauper suits, the amount of cost was adjusted by
Government.

A list of as large a number as possible of the most respectable and
intelligent inhabitants competent to perform the duties of panchayat-
dars, was kept in the Court of every Superintendent, Munsifif, and
i\mil. When the preliminary papers had been filed in a suit, from the
recorded list of panchayatdars five persons next in rotation were (if a
pancha3-at was necessary) nominated by the Court. No omission or
passing over was permitted, unless in cases where the next on the list
was sick, or engaged on another trial. The plaintiff or defendant
might challenge three out of the five persons named. The merits of
this challenge were summarily decided upon by the head of the court,
and his decision was final.' No panchayatdar could be changed after
the commencement of the investigation, unless in a case of urgent
necessity or sickness. Under such circumstances, four members were
permitted to continue the inquiry, an account of what had passed being
given to the absent member when he returned. Should only three
members remain to prosecute the inquiry, if it was nearly ended, and
all three were unanimous in opinion, it was optional with the head
of the court to direct them to conclude the matter or to take two
new members.

Every panchayat sat in open court, and free access to hear the
proceedings was permitted. No person of bad character, or who was
only a court hanger-on — i.e., not a permanent resident in the neigh-
bourhood— was permitted to sit on any panchayat whatever. Panchay-
atdars were permitted to retire to a separate room to consult upon and
draw up their mahazar. Undue influence to induce them to decide
against their judgment was most strictly prohibited, although the head
of the court, on receipt of the mahazar, was authorized to point out any
discrepancy which he perceived in it, and was at liberty also to suggest,
if requisite, that the panchayatdars should more fully explain the
reasons of their decisions, or reconsider their opinion. It was
optional with the panchayatdars to adopt or reject these suggestions,
and in the latter case it was necessary that the head of the court

' Should the plaintiff or defendant be a foreigner, he was permitted to place a list
of his own country people before the court, out of which the judge chose by lot two
additional persons to sit on the inquirj-. In such cases the panchayat was composed
of seven members.

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 667

should in his decree mention his reasons for differing from the
panchayat in opinion.

Unless in cases of glaring injustice, gross partiality, or corruption, it
was not deemed advisable to set aside the opinion of the majority of a
panchayat ; nor in any instance was the opinion of the minority to
form the basis of a decree. A new trial might be ordered, but only
under extraordinary circumstances.

Professional vakils were not recognized by the Courts, and were other-
wise discouraged. In cases of necessity, a plaintiff or defendant was at
liberty to appoint some other person to conduct his suit ; but such
individual should if possible be a relative or friend, as the employment
of persons who gained a livelihood solely by instituting and carrying on
suits for others in the courts was discouraged, their services being
deemed both prejudicial and superfluous under a system of simple
procedure. Should the head of a court be aware of any valid
objections to the employment of an individual deputed to conduct a
suit, he was at liberty to prevent him from pleading, and should any
person employed as a vakil behave in a tricky or dishonest manner, he
was prohibited from ever again practising in the courts of this Territory.
Foreigners were as a matter of necessity permitted to employ strangers
as vakils.

The declaration on oath was abolished in March 1S40, and a cir-
cular order was issued by the Commissioner substituting in lieu of
it the solemn affirmation authorized by the Government of India in
Act Y of 1840.

In the matter of fees and fines, several alterations took place since
the first establishment of the Commission, and there was scarcely any
subject connected with the civil procedure of the country which had
given rise to the same amount of discussion. Until 1834 the institu-
tion fee was enforced in all suits, and as a natural result they were not
very numerous, for only those who were well able to pay, or who by the
goodness of their cause were able to raise the money, applied to the
courts ; it was found, however, that it prevented false litigation or the
influx of professional vakils. But in consequence of the authorities
having come to look upon it as a tax upon justice, it was finally
abolished in 1834.

For some time, apparently, the abolition of the institution fee did
not cause any very great difference in the number of suits ; but as soon
as its discontinuance became generally known, the courts of justice
became crowded with needy impostors, who, by inciting the people to
litigate, and by the institution of false, vexatious and exaggerated suits,
carried on the most systematic extortion, and so swelled the files of the

668 ADMINISTRATION

courts that no increase of cither the Judicial cstahlishments or of activity
on the part of the judges could keep pace with the demand, or clear
the flies, which in December 1837 showed a balance of 8,000 suits
still pending ; and, as it appeared that out of those decided at that time
in the courts 45 per cent, of the claimants were non-suited, it Ix-came
necessary to provide some check to this system of vexatious and
unfounded litigation, and also to relieve, if possible, this great and use-
less pressure upon the valuable time of the judges. The consequence
was, that in 1839 a circular was issued ordering the realization of a fee,
equal in amount to the former institution fee, in all suits which were
ascertained to be vexatious or unfounded. But this arrangement not
being found sufficient, in March 1841 another set of rules was issued,
which may be said to form the existing system at the close of the
period under review, with but very slight modifications, and which
system, as the non-suits formed then only a small percentage, was
looked upon as working well.

In all suits, a fee leviable at its termination became an incidental
expense to the bringing of an action. This fee amounted to one anna
in the rupee on sums not exceeding Rs. 800, and on sums above that
amount, in a certain fixed proportion. This fee was leviable on all
sums claimed in excess of the amount justly due, and as a general rule
in all cases of nonsuit, or where the defendant was cast in the full
amount. In cases where the parties had applied to the courts more
with the view of ascertaining their respective rights than from a desire
to litigate, the fee was remitted by the judge. An appeal court had
power, on seeing grounds for the same, to remit the fees imposed in the
lower courts. A fine in addition, equal to the fee in amount, was levi-
able in all suits which were found to be false, vexatious, or unfounded.
The fee was leviable by process of execution, immediately upon the
judgment being passed. Should the property of the party liable not
be sufficient to realize the amount, it was held as a debt due by him
to the Government, and he was not permitted to file another suit in
any court until the amount was adjusted ; but in the case of a fine,
imprisonment not exceeding six months was given in cases of default of
payment.

At the close of a suit, should the defendant fail to attend for the
purpose of receiving the decree, a notice for his attendance within ten
days was forwarded to the Amildar, and if he was not to be found, the
notice was afifixed to the outside of his door. After a month had
elapsed from the date of the notice, should the defendant not appear,
the decree was carried into effect in the usual manner. All decrees
against individuals who lived within the jurisdictions of the Sadar

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 669

Munsiffs were carried into effect by the Amildars under their orders ;
the Amildars being invariably executive ofificers, excepting in the towns
of Bangalore and Mysore, where the Town Munsiffs had executive
powers. Sadar Munsiffs, when the defendant's property was beyond
the limits of their jurisdiction, forwarded the application for execution
of decree through the Superintendent. No decree was carried into
effect unless a special application to that effect was made by plaintiff.

When it became necessary to distrain the property of any individual,
the Amil, on being applied to, forwarded a statement of the defendant's
projicrty. This statement must be duly attested by two respectable
merchants of the place. The Amil was held responsible for its
accuracy, and it must contain mention of any Sarkar balances due by
the individual ; and then, should the amount not be paid within a
certain time specified, the property, on a requisition from the court,
was sold by public auction. The (Government claim having first been
made good, the balance was appropriated to the adjustment of the
decree. The only articles of property exempt from distraint were the
tools and implements of the individual's trade or calling, his wearing
apparel, his drinking lotah, and, if a ryot, grain for his subsistence until
the next season. Concealment of property rendered an individual
liable to short imprisonment and the property to seizure. Should it
be proved in the course of an inquiry that the defendant was disposing
of, or making away with, his property clandestinely, or that he was
about to remove himself beyond the jurisdiction of the court, the judge
could oblige him to give security for the amount claimed, or, if he
refused, place him in close custody until it was given. This course of
proceeding, however, was adopted only on most reliable proof Should
the defendant reside within the limits of the Company's Territory, the
decree was carried into execution under the provisions of Act XXXIII
of 1852.

All parties mutually consenting to adjust any ditTerences (unconnected
with indmti or mirasi privileges), were permitted, as in ancient times, to
do so through the arbitration of an lipas pancliayat of not less than five
members ; each party nominated two members, these four then jointly
appointed their own president. A muchchalika binding themselves
to abide by the decision of the panchdyat was registered by the parties
in the Amildar's cutcherry. The panchayatdars were authorized to
summon witnesses, &c., and their mahazar, on an application through
the Amil to the Superintendent, was looked upon by the latter in the
light of a legal decree and was acted upon accordingly. An apas
panchdyat was not empowered to levy fines, fees, or any penalty.

Razinamas, or bonds of mutual compact or agreement between

670 A DMINISTRA TION

parties, were, when properly attested, held to be binding and valid
documents in all the courts of the Territory, and it was only under
circumstances of fraud or collusion that they were ever rejected.

Should a defendant fail to appear within the prescribed time, and
after due notice had been given him should be unable to assign satis-
factory reasons for his absence, an ex parte decree was passed by the
court. .£'.v/flr/^ decrees were admitted by an appellate court within
the prescribed period, on the appellant proving to the satisfaction of
that court that his default or absence from the lower court was unavoid-
able, and not wilful ; and should such proof be accepted, the proceed-
ings were returned to the lower court for re-investigation ; should it
be rejected, a fine was levied not exceeding double the amount of fee
imposed in the lower court.

^^'ith the exception of orders limiting the rate of interest which a
decree could award to 12 per cent, in money dealings, and to 24 per
cent, in grain transactions, and also directing that a total of interest
greater in amount than the original loan should not under any circum-
stances be awarded, interest was a matter which had, to a great extent,
been left to self-adjustment in the Mysore Territory, until circumstances
induced the Commissioner to order, — that in all future transactions in
which the rate of interest was not distinctly laid down, the courts were
not to award a higher rate than 6 per cent. ; but that, where the rate
of interest was expressly noted in the bond, the judge was to draw up
his award in conformity with the agreement.

The language of all judicial proceedings and decisions was Canarese,
but, should the vernacular language of any officer who was head of a
court be other than Canarese, he was bound to write his decision, or
any particular points regarding which he had to call for proof, in his
own language, and these papers having been translated into Canarese,
a copy of both the original and the translation were placed on record.
Should any head of a court, however, be sufficiently conversant with
Canarese to use it instead of his own language he was at liberty to do so.

In the case of a minor, the amount to which he was heir was placed
in deposit in the treasury, the greater portion being, as a general rule,
invested in Company's paper until such time as he attained his
majority, which is fixed at 18 years of age in Mysore ; and during the
interim he was placed under a respectable relation or some trustworthy
person, and a suitable allowance made out of his property for his
education and subsistence. Should there be a large amount due to the
minor's estate, a curator was appointed, whose only duty it was to
recover the several sums due and remit them to the treasury. He
.received on all sums realized a commission of 5 per cent. In the case

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 671

of insolvents who had a large amount of debts to pay and receive, the
usual course was to assemble a panchayat in the Commissioner's Court,
which, under his special instructions, investigated the affairs of the
estate, and submitted a statement and opinion on the matter. In
some instances, the Adalat settled such matters under instructions from
the Commissioner. In the case of intestates also, a panchayat was
sometimes convened. Should there be no heir, and money have to be
paid and received, a curator was appointed ; should there be no heir,
and no creditors, the amount of which the intestate died actually
possessed, was transferred to the Sivayi Jama ; and should there be an
heir, as soon as he had proved his right to the satisfaction of the
Commissioner, the property was transferred to him ; if he was a minor,
the usual course was pursued.

No individual of the Barr and Sawar departments, which were under
the control of the Military Assistant, could be summoned to attend a
Civil Court unless through that officer, nor could any decree against
them be executed without a previous intimation to him.

The Police Superintendent had power to adjudicate in all suits
originating within the limits of the Cantonment of Bangalore which did
not exceed pagodas 500 or rupees 1,750. His decisions were summary,
and he was not obliged to keep a record of proceedings unless in cases
of landed or house property. He might assemble a panchayat in any
case in which he deemed it advisable. An appeal from his decision
lay direct to the Commissioner in cases of landed property, but he was
not required to transmit appeals in suits regarding personal property.
The Commissioner could, however, take cognizance of any case what-
ever in which he deemed it just and right to interfere.

Suits against His Highness the Raja were filed in the Addlat Court,
under the immediate sanction of the Commissioner.

It was required that in all transactions the bonds, bills of .sale,
agreements, transfers, deeds, and other documents, should be executed
on stamped paper of a fixed value. Any unstamped document
presented in a suit was received and filed, but only on payment of a
sum equal to ten times the amount of stamp duty originally leviable
upon it. No suits for the recovery of vakil fees were permitted to be
filed in the Mysore courts.

Criminal Justice. — The Courts for the administration of Civil and
Criminal justice were identical. The Amildar was head of the police
in his taluq, and to assist him in revenue and magisterial business he
had under his orders a Peshkar, a Killedar, Shekdars, Hoblidars,
Dafadars and Kandachar peons ; of these the Killedar and Hoblidar
only were exclusively police officers.

6 7 2 ADMINISTKA 170 N

In cases of personal wrong, or for petty offences, the Amildar had
power to confine an individual in the stocks for not more than 12
hours, or to confine a person not in the stocks or in irons, for not more
than 14 days. Unless in cases of open violence, however, the Amildar
was not authorized to interfere except at the instance of a complaint.
The Amildar could not keep any person in confinement pending
investigation for a longer period than seven days without a reference to
the Superintendent. The Shekdars and Hoblidars had authority to
confine, for not more than 24 hours, any persons suspected of heinous
crimes, such as murder, burglary, gang, torch, or highway robberies :
within that time they must make such inquiries as would enable them
to release the parties or report to the Amildar for orders, and they were
held strictly responsible for any abuse of this authority. Should a
longer detention appear necessary, they must either send the prisoner
and witnesses to the Amildar, or forward to that officer a statement of
the circumstances for his orders. All offences or unusual occurrences
were regularly reported by the talvars and totis of villages, as also by
the Killedars and Kandachar officers to the Amildar, and by him to
the Superintendent. It was the peculiar duty of the Killedar, and,
under his orders, of the subordinate police officers, to search for
information, and place it before the panchayat in all taluq inquiries.

The Principal Sadar Munsiffs had power to punish to the extent of
two years' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, in all cases
referred to them for investigation and decision by the Superintendent,
but they had no original jurisdiction in criminal matters. The
Superintendent had power to sentence to seven years' imprisonment,
with or without hard labour in irons ; he reviewed all cases inquired
into by Amildars or decided by Munsiffs, and commuted or confirmed
the decisions of the latter. In cases of murder, gang, or torch
robbery, or other offences which involved capital punishment, or a
term of imprisonment m excess of his powers, the Superintendent
referred the matter for the decision of the Commissioner. The Com-
missioner had power to pass sentence of death, transportation for
life, or imprisonment with or without hard labour, on parties convicted
of murder, or of gang or torch robbery, when the latter crimes were
attended with torture or other aggravated circumstances, or when from
the frequent occurrence of such crimes he considered an example
advisable. All sentences of death required to be submitted to the
Supreme Government for confirmation. In criminal matters, the
Adalat Court had no jurisdiction, unless when cases were referred to it
for investigation by the Commissioner.

Panchayats for civil and criminal investigations were summoned irr

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 673

the same manner, and a prisoner had the same permission to challenge
as a plaintiff or defendant. There was this difference, however, that
no criminal investigation was permitted to be carried on without a
panchayat, whereas in civil cases it was optional with the head of the
court to convene one or not as he thought desirable.

The Police Superintendent of the Bangalore Cantonment had
authority to punish, with or without hard labour, to the extent of seven
years, and to the extent of Rs. 50 by fine. The Commissioner, how-
ever, had power to commute or remit any punishment awarded by that
officer. In cases involving a punishment in excess of seven years'
imprisonment, the Police Superintendent referred the case to the
Commissioner.

Magistrates, and district police officers under the orders of the
Magistrate, were permitted to apprehend and place in confinement
persons of notoriously bad character, or whose habits of life were
suspicious, until they could give good and reliable security for their
future good conduct. To prevent undue oppression on the part of
subordinate police authorities under the pretence of carrying out
the provisions of this order, every individual apprehended under its
authority was forwarded to the Superintendent or his Assistant for
examination, and could only be confined or punished under the
express orders of the former, and no individual taken up under the
provisions of this regulation could be confined for a longer period than
three years.

Villagers were authorized and encouraged to use arms of every
description in defending themselves and their property whenever their
village was attacked by either gang or torch robbers, and valuable
bangles were bestowed by the Government on those who distinguished
themselves on those occasions.

The Naiks of the Lamljanies, and the head men of the Kormars
and W'addars — these three castes, but more particularly the two former,
being looked upon as the professional thieves of this part of India-
were obliged to furnish good and reliable security for the good conduct
of their tdndas in the case of the first, and of those under their
immediate control in the case of the others. The different classes
were considered to be permanently under the surveillance of the district
police, and all their movements or changes of abode were watched,
noted and reported. A register showing the name and dwelling-place
of each individual of the different tribes was kept up in each taluq
cutcherry, copies of which were forwarded regularly to the Superin-
tendents of the Divisions.

X X

674 ADMINISTRATION

Transit 10)1 Period, 1856- 1862.

The period of the (lovernor-General Lord Dalhousie's visit to
Mysore, or the year 1855-6, may be considered to mark the termina-
tion of the exclusively patriarchal and non-regulation system of govern-
ment, which, under the statesmanlike control of Sir Mark Cubbon,
and the exertions of his select body of able administrative officers, had
achieved results beyond all praise.

The administration up to this period, as set forth in the reports
drawn up at the time, from which the foregoing accounts have been
compiled, was reviewed by Lord Dalhousie in the following terms,
under date Fort William, the 7th February 1856 : —

" The Governor-General in Council has read with attention, and with very
great interest, the papers submitted. They present a record of administra-
tion highly honourable to the British name, and reflecting the utmost credit
upon the exertions of the valuable body of officers by whom the great
results shown therein have been accomplished.

" In the past autumn the Governor-General had the opportunity of
witnessing some portion of these results with his own eyes, during his
journey from the Neilgherries through Mysore to Madras. His journey
was necessarily a hasty one. Even the cursory examination of the country,
which alone was practicable during the course of a week's visit, enables
him to bear testimony to the extent to which works of public improvement
have been carried in Mysore, and to the favourable contrast which the
visible condition of that Territory and of its people presents to the usual
condition of the Territory of a Native Prince, and even to the state of
Districts of our own which may sometimes be seen.

" During the period of twenty-five years which has elapsed since Mysore
came under the administration of British Officers, every department has
felt the hand of reform. An enormous number of distinct taxes have been
abolished, relieving the people in direct payment to the extent of io| lakhs
■of rupees a year, and doubtless the indirect relief given by this measure
has exceeded even the direct relief. Excepting a low tax upon cotifee
(which is raised on public land free of rent or land-tax), no new tax appears
to have been imposed, and no old tax appears to have been increased.
Nevertheless the public revenue has risen from forty-four to eighty-two
lakhs of rupees per annum.

" In the administration of Civil and Criminal justice, vast improvements
have been accomplished : regularity, order and purity have been intro-
duced, where, under native rule, caprice, uncertainty and corruption pre-
vailed; substantial justice is promptly dispensed, and the people themselves
have been taught to aid in this branch of the administration, by means of
a system of Panchd.yats, which is in full and efficient operation. And in
the department of Police, the administration of British Officers has been
eminently successful. In short, the system of administration which has

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 675

been established, whether in the Fiscal or Judicial department, although it
may be, and no doubt is, capable of material improvement, is infinitely
superior to that which it superseded : and has, within itself, the elements
of constant progress.''

r>oni that time, the State debts having now been extinguished, com-
menced a period of transition, which continued till 1862, when Mr.
Eowring, on assuming the government, completed the introduction
into every department of the more or less regulation system which has
since been developed. From 1856-7 also began the publication of
Annual Administration Reports.

The earlier changes introduced during this period did not result
from a new policy adopted with regard to the State of Mysore individ-
ually, or from the personal views of I.ord Dalhousie. They operated
equally in all parts of India and arose out of the renewal of the E^st
India Company's Charter in 1854. The preamble of the celebrated
educational despatch of that year from the Court of Directors, which
runs as follows, testifies to this : —

" It appears to us that the present time, when by an Act of the Imperial
Legislature the responsible trust of the Government of India has again
been placed in our hands, is peculiarly suitable for the review of the pro-
gress which has already been made, the supply of existing deficiencies, and
the adoption of such improvements as may be best calculated to secure the
ultimate benefit of the people committed to our charge."

One of the first changes was the appointment, in 1856, of a Judicial
Commissioner, to relieve the Commissioner of a branch of work which
had grown to dimensions beyond his power to discharge in addition to
the various other duties devolving upon the Head of the Administra-
tion. The formation of a regular Department for Public Works, and
the institution of a Department for Education, both date from the
same period. In 1858, a Principal Sadar Munsiffs Court was estab-
lished in the Cantonment of Bangalore, to relieve the Superintendent
of Police of the trial of civil suits. In i860 the head-quarter estab-
lishments were revised, and additional European Assistants appointed.
The Bangalore Police force was reorganized in 1861, and the Head
Kotwal made Sar Amin, with magisterial powers equal to those of an
Amildar. Of other measures, steps were taken for the Conservancy
of Forests, and for the planting of topes and avenues ; Botanical
C.ardens were formed in the old Lai Bagh,' and a (lovernment Press
was established.

' An Agri-IIorlicullural Society was established at Hangalore in 1S39, under the
auspices of the Commissioner, wh<i made over to it the I^il Bagh, and afl'onled other
assistance in the way of convict labour, etc. In all other respects the Society was

X X 2

676 ADMINISTRATION

A measure of greater importance was the revision of the Mohatarfa-
in i860. This was levied in a manner analogous to that of the Sayar
and Halat, which had been dealt with during a series of years as pre-
viously related. It consisted of a vast number of items, and was
closely interwoven with the Chillar Bdb (miscellaneous items), which
formerly included many hundreds of trifling, partial, oppressive, and
in some instances indecent taxes. Year by year some of the most
oppressive and offensive had been struck out, until somewhat less than
one hundred remained. Even these included taxes so partial that
occasionally only one individual in a village was found to be liable to
the cess. Indeed so complicated was the whole system, that some-
times it was scarcely capable of explanation by those who were
supposed to be thoroughly initiated.

The Chillar Bab being completely swept away, the Mohatarfa was
modified. The house, shop, loom, mill and plough taxes, which
formed the principal items, were taken as the basis for the revision.
The discrepancies which obliged a man with a retail shop to pay thirty
or forty rupees annually, while his neighbour in the possession of a
large store paid only four annas ; and the system under which ryots of
the same village paid sometimes one rupee and a half, and sometimes
half an anna, on their ploughs, was finally and completely abolished.
All houses, shops, looms and mills were registered, and assessed under
four classes, with distinct rates for large and small towns and large and
small villages, the rates ranging from Rs. 60 a year on the largest
mercantile store in Bangalore or Mysore, to half a rupee on a village
hut or loom. All cultivating ryots were exempted from mohatarfa,
unless they kept a shop, loom or mill besides, but they paid a plough-
tax ranging from six to three annas', and the amount raised under this
head was formed into a Local Fund, devoted to the formation and
repairs of cross roads.

The subsequent radical changes introduced in 1862, and the
grounds for them, are thus described in the Annual Report for that
year. In pursuance of the principle that the elements of a Native
Administration should be maintained in their integrity, and no radical
changes permitted in the system inaugurated on our assumption of
the government of the country, and carried on with success for nearly

supported by private contributions ; but constant changes among subscribers led to its
dissolution in 1842, and the garden was then restored to the Commissioner. In 1856,
Dr. Cleghorn visited Bangalore with the object of conferring regarding the re-estab-
lishment of a Horticultural Garden, and a professional Superintendent was obtained
from the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew. This arrangement still continues, and
the Lai Bagh has become not only a most ornamental but from a botanical point of
view one of the most valuable gardens in India.

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 677

thirty years, every change in the Mysore Administration which seemed
to carry with it the spirit of innovation, had hitherto been introduced
tentatively, and with extreme care, the object being always to carry
the people with the Government in any reforms. The European
officers were few in number, great latitude of authority being exercised
by the Superintendents of Divisions, aided by one, or, at the most,
two Assistants, without any recognized or defined powers, and the
check over the details of administration being therefore necessarily
incomplete.

Under this system the true interests of the Province, as is well
known, materially advanced, but as years passed on, and population
and revenue increased, serious inconvenience arose, and it became
evident that the executive officers, already overburdened with multi-
farious duties, could not undertake the additional labour which would
be entailed on them by the necessity of a revision of the working of
the different departments, and the introduction of a more regular
system in every branch of the administration. In fact, it became
apparent that a Territory yielding an annual revenue of a crore of
rupees, could not be efficiently administered with the same agency as
that which was instituted when the revenue was not much more than
one-half, and hence the year 1862-3 was specially marked by a gradual
reorganization, and an extension, of the agency for conducting the
administration.

The former establishment of the Commissionership of Mysore con-
sisted of : — The Commissioner's staff at Head-quarters ; four Super-
intendents, one posted to each of the Divisions of the Mysore
Territory ; three Assistants and ten Junior Assistants to the Superin-
dents of Divisions ; the Court of the Huzur Addlat (consisting of
three Judges), originally intended as a superior court for the adjudica-
tion of cases in which either the Maharaja of Mysore personally or
his immediate retainers were concerned, but of late years disposing
only of appeals from the Principal Sadar Munsiffs and MunsifTs, of
whom there were ten in the different districts.

The Commission was now reorganized on the following plan : —
jSIysore was distributed into three Divisions, subdivided into eight
Districts. A Department of Audit and Account was newly instituted
at Headquarters. The Court of Huziir Adalat and the Munsiffs'
Courts were abolished ; a body of Native Assistants, analogous to
the class of Extra Assistants in Non-Regulation Provinces, was intro-
duced, and a Small Cause Court established in the Cantonment of
Bangalore. No material changes took place in the designation of
the Officers employed in the revised Commission, the names of

678

ADMINISTRA TION

Commissioner of Mysore, and Superintendents of Divisions being
retained, while the subordinates of the latter ofificers were entitled
Deputy Superintendents of Districts, or Assistants, as the case
might be.

The former vast Divisions, averaging 7,000 square miles, were thus
broken up into two, each with a Supervising Officer and an Assistant,
European or Native, according to circumstances, three such Districts
being placed under the superintendence of the Divisional officer in
two Divisions, and two in the third. The orders of Government
conferred upon the Superintendents the civil and criminal powers
exercised by a Commissioner and Superintendent in Non-Regulation
Provinces. The Deputy Superintendents were empowered to adjudi-
cate civil suits up to any amount, appeals lying to the courts of the
Superintendents, and in criminal matters were vested with the full
powers of a Magistrate, under the Code of Criminal Procedure. The
powers of the Assistants, European and Native, were dependent on
the standard of examination passed by them, under rules on the
subject prescribed by Government.

The necessary arrangements for giving effect to these orders having
been made, on the 25th November a proclamation was issued, notify-
ing the future executive Divisions of the Province, with the Districts
and Taluqs attached to each as shown below, and intimating the
abolition of the Huziir Adalat Court, as also those of the respective
Principal Sadar Munsiffs and Munsiffs.

Division.

District.

No. of Taluqs,

Nandidroog ...
Ashtagram ...
Nagar

( Bangalore
-| Kolar

I Tumkur

\ Mysore
1 Hassan

( Shimoga
\ Kadur

I Chitaldroog

13
II

The territorial transfers, and changes of jurisdiction involved in
them, coupled with the revision of subordinate establishments, the
introduction of the Penal and Criminal Procedure Codes, and the
modern financial system of Budget and Account, necessarily affected
every public department. In the Judicial Department, not only were
the number, constitution, and jurisdiction of the Courts altered, the
traditionary practice by which their operations were in a great measure

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 679

regulated, was abrogated or materially affected by the introduction of
the Codes, and the new system necessitated an immediate and com-
plete change in all judicial forms and returns.

Justice. — The number of Courts for the transaction of judical busi-
ness in Mysore amounted previously to 103, and were as follows : —
Judicial Commissioner, i ; Huzilr Adalat, i ; Superintendents, aided
by their Assistants, 4; Principal Sadar Munsiffs, 6 ; District Munsiffs,
4 ; Town Munsiffs, 2 ; Sar-Amins, 2 ; and Amildars, S3. The
criminal courts consisted of the above, with the addition of the court
of the Superintendent of Police, Bangalore.

The courts of original civil jurisdiction were presided over by officers too
underpaid to secure tolerable integrity. The bulk of the appeals lay to the
Munsiffs' Courts, and ultimately to that of the Huziir Addlat, the efficiency
of which depended on the character of the jutli^es for the time bein;^. The
procedure was cumbrous and dilatory, much devolving on unchecked petty
subordinates, and the judicial officers were entirely untrained. In criminal
matters, great irregularity prevailed in all preliminary inquiries, and offences
were so vaguely defined that no conclusions could be formed from the
returns, of the nature of offence committed. In both departments, officers
of all grades were hampered by the panchdyat system, under which the
finding of too o'ten a few illiterate or even corrupt individuals formed the
basis of the court's decision. The pressure of their multifarious duties
rarely admitted of the European officers trying even important cases them-
selves, and this, added to the circumstances above mentioned, rendered
their control over the proceedings of the courts very superlicial.

Under the revised constitution of the Mysore .Vdministration, the
following officers held courts, either of original or appellate jurisdiction,
in civil and criminal matters : — One Judicial Commissioner ; three Super-
intendents of Divisions; eight Deputy Superintendents of Districts;
two Judges of the Small Cause Court, one European and one Native ;
ten Assistant Superintendents, European, of whom one was employed
as Superintendent of Police in the Bangalore Cantonment and three
were probationary ; fifteen Assistant Superintendents, Native ; and
eighty-six Amildars of taluq.s. Of the above, however, the Judges of
the Small Cause Court took no part in the criminal, and the Superin-
tendent of Police, Bangalore Cantonment, took no part in the civil
work of the Province.

Tiic pay of the Amildars was raised, by wiiich the services of more
efficient and trustwortliy men were obtained. Tiie .Munsiffs and Judges of
the Huzur Adalat were represented by the class of Native .Assistants, on
liberal and progressive salaries, and whose promotion depended on depart-
mental examination tests. A complete but simple code of rules for the
guidance of Amildars in the decision of civil suits, compiled partly from

<'' So ADMINISTRA TION

llic Panj.ib rules and partly from the provisions of Act VIII of 1859, was
drawn up, carefully translated into Canarese, and printed for distribution to
the Taluq Courts. The Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure
defined offences, gave the measure of punishment, and regulated the pro-
cedure, without entirely excluding the co-operation of juries. The reduc-
tion in the size of Districts admitted of the European officers assuming
their legitimate duties of trying cases themselves as Magistrates and
Judges, and of their exercising a strict control over the proceedings of the
subordinate courts. The system of registers and returns was revised, so
as to ensure greater dispatch in the disposal of judicial business of every
description.

The system of fees was abolished from the ist of November 1862,
and with it also ceased, as a rule, its concomitant system of imposing
fines under certain circumstances in civil suits. In lieu of the former
system, entailing an ever-increasing balance of fees, which, imposed as
they were after the decision of suits both by the original and appellate
courts, were found very difficult to realize, and proved not unfrequently
perfectly irrecoverable, it was under the revised Stamp Rules made
incumbent upon litigants, except in the case of pauper suitors, to pay,
as in Her Majesty's Territories, an institution fee in the shape of a
stamp paper, on which the plaint was written, and which was of value
corresponding with the sum claimed.

The Superintendents of Divisions having been vested with the
powers of Sessions Judges under the provisions of the Penal Code and
Code of Criminal Procedure, the Judicial Commissioner was vested
with the powers of the Sadar Court. Sessions cases in which a
sentence of death was passed on the prisoners, were forwarded for
confirmation to his Court, which was one of final reference, of revision,
and of appeal, in all judicial proceedings.

Police. — Except in the Cantonment of Bangalore, a regularly organized
Police Force was unknown in Mysore. From the Amildar, the
recognized head of police in the taluq, down to the lowest taluq peon,
the officials were employed promiscuously, as police, in serving judicial
processes, in supplying the wants of travellers, and in revenue duties of
all kinds. The police, which was founded on the remains of the old
Kandachar or armed militia of the country, and closely identified with
the agricultural population, had always been strictly localised, and as
the men were rarely removed from the vicinity of their own village, and
were under mere nominal supervision, they were, as a necessary
consequence, entirely devoid of discipline and training. By effecting
reductions in their numbers, and increasing the rates of pay, the most
inefficient men were got rid of, the character of the force improved, and
it was now possible for the men to live on their pay, which was clearly

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 681

not the case when the average rate of a peon's pay was Rs. 3 per
month. The poHce generally were now confined to their legitimate
duties, a separation having been made between revenue and police
peons. The Bangalore Cantonment Police was improved, and special
police establishments formed for the Pettah or Town of liangalore, and
for Mysore, Tumkilr, and Shimoga, instead of the former system of
detaching men in rotation from the taluqs, or from a sejjarate cstal)lish-
ment attached to the Division head-quarters.

Jails. — The subject of jail management received much attention. A
new scale of jail dietary was framed. A system formerly prevailed in
the Mysore jails of supplementing each prisoner's daily allowance of
ragi grain with a money allowance of a few pie per diem, to enable
them to buy firewood, vegetables, tobacco and other lu.xuries. This
arrangement, as destructive of discipline, was entirely put a stop to.

Revenue. — All lands in Mysore were classified under the Budget
system, according to the tenure on which they were held, which is
shown below : —

Village Settkmeitls. Individual Settlements.

1. I'cniianenlly settled villages Govt. I. Kyotwar (kan^la>■am«>rassesse(lC■.()vcr^-

(kayam gutta). ment lands).

2. Villages on a progressive rental 2. ]5atayi, or division of produce.

(shraya). Inani. i. Ardhamanyani, uttar, <S:c., lands.

3. \'illages rented for one year 2. Judi, or lightly assessetl lantls granted

(kalavadi ijare). to village servants.

4. I(')di, or lightly assessed villages. Do. Brahmans, fakirs, and dev.isthans.

Do. private chatrams and topes.

They were subdivided, as is usual in the south of India, according
to the nature of the cultivation, into 7vet or irrigated, dr}\ and };ardfn,
the collections being shown in account as Money Payments and
Batayi, i.e., division of crop between the (lovernment and tenant.
Attention was steadily directed to reducing the extent of land under the
batdyi tenure, by substitution of money as.sessment where practicable,
■on account of the numerous objections to the former system. The
batayi system, however, could only be finally and satisfactorily
extinguished by a Revenue Survey, as there were no other means of
■equitably assessing the large area held on this tenure under tanks.

The direct manufacture of spirits, toddy, arrack, and ganja, by
<'.overnnient, was entirely discontinued, and the Abkari revenue
temporarily farmed, prior to the contemi)latcd introduction of the
Sadar Distillery system.

The Mohatarfa, which till a late period incltided a variety of
vexatious imposts founded on no uniform principles, had i)een revised

682 ADMINISTRATION

in i860, and comprised now the following : taxes on houses, on shops,
on looms, and on oil-mills. The only other direct tax in Mysore was
the Plough Tax, revised simultaneously with the mohatarfa, in substi-
tution of the former miscellaneous taxes on ploughs, castes, professions,
<;v:c., styled Chillar Bab.

The annual renewal of ryohvar pattas was as far as possible dis-
continued, and existing pattas confirmed for five years, pending the
introduction of a Revenue Survey, thus giving additional security to
the ryot against the fraud of the shanbhog, and a great saving of
unnecessary labour to the Government officials.

Encouragement was given to private individuals to undertake the
repairs of tanks the revenue return from which did not hold out the
prospect of the repairs being remunerative to Government, by pre-
scribing such low rates of assessment on dry land converted into wet,
as secured to the ryots a tangible profit ; and in the case of persons
constructing new works, such as tanks or wells, at their own expense,
the former dry land rate of assessment was continued, on .the equitable
principle, not hitherto generally recognized, that a man should reap the
profits of capital laid out by himself.

Finance. — A commencement w^as made towards introducing the
Budget system of Accounts. Formerly the accounts were all kept in
Canarese, and the pre-audit of expenditure was unknown. English
forms and figures were now ordered to be made use of. Currency
notes were gradually brought into use, and the confused and
miscellaneous copper coins in circulation it was arranged should be by
degrees withdrawn.

Military. — The Mysore Horse or Silahdars, on the assumption of the
country in 1831, were avowedly disorganized and comparatively useless,
but since they had been under European supervision they had greatly
improved, and were now probably as efficient as any other body of
Savars of the same class. The Barr or Infantry were very useful men,
and constantly employed in police duties. They guarded treasure
and prisoners at the kasba of every taluq, and escorted both to the
District head-quarters when necessary. The pay of a trooper in the
Mysore Horse was fixed in 1835 at Rs. 20. In those days this pay
was ample, but since then the prices in Mysore had risen considerably,
as in other parts of India, and Government this year sanctioned the
rate being raised to Rs. 22 and the gradual reduction of the existing
strength of the seven regiments from 2,500 to 2, 100, or 300 men for each.
No change in regard to the other grades was considered necessary.
The total strength of the four battalions of the Barr was also to be reduced
from 2,161 to 2,000, the pay of ist class Sepoys being raised from

UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 6S3

Rs. 6^ to 7, and 2nd class from 5^ to 6, with a corresponding increase
for non-commissioned officers.

In fixing the complement of the Mysore Local F'orce, the wants of
the whole Province were carefully considered, and the troops utilized
as much as possible by redistributing them according to the require-
ments of the newly-formed Districts. With this object, both Silahdars
and Earr, instead of being scattered over the country in small parties,
were concentrated, by being withdrawn from those outposts where their
presence was not necessary, and stationed at the head-quarters of
Districts, and on main lines of road.

Administration from 1863 to 1881.

Instead of attempting to record in chronological order the various
measures which have from time to time been introduced in pursuance
of the policy in operation since 1S63 in the Administration of Mysore,
it will be more convenient to describe the system and institutions of
Oovernment as they existed up to the time of the Rendition in 1881,
under the two major heads of Civil and Military, — subdividing the
former into Revenue and Finance, Judicature, Public Works, Public
Instruction, and Medical Departments, going back to review the
important steps l)y which each had attained to its then constitution
and practice.^

CIVIL DEPARTMENTS.

ReYenue and Finance. — The gross revenue of Mysore in 1791,
according to accounts furnished to Lord Cornwallis by Tipu Sultan,
was Kanthiraya pagodas 14,12,500, or in the present currency about
42 lakhs of rupees. Tipu Sultan was finally defeated and the authority
of the British Government established in 1799 and iSoo. The gross
revenue from that time is given as follows : —

Kanthiraya Pagodas or Governmenl Rupees.
1799-1S00 ... ... 21,53,000 ... 62,79,583

1800-1801 ... ... 24,20,000 ... 700^)333

I801-I802 ... ... 26,04,000 ... 75.95,000

1802-1803 ... ... 25,41,000 ... 74,11,250

' The information is taken from a variety of ofiicial papers too numerous to
mention : but much of it, to 1872, is l)ased on the Administration Report for that
year by Mr. Wellesley, which contained retrospective summaries relating to each
Department by their respective heads, such as Pul)lic Works by Colonel (afterwards
Sir Richard) Sankey, R.K., Chief I-!i\i;ineer ; l-inance by Mr. Hudson, Deputy
Accountanl-Ceneral, »Vc.

684 ADMINISTRATION

The revenue subsequently languished under the personal adminis-
tration of the late Mahardja, and we find that in the year after the
•country was placed under British Commissioners the receipts amounted
to Rs. 55 lakhs only, in the next to 58 lakhs, then to 67 lakhs, and to 76J
lakhs in the year 1835-6. It fluctuated between 68| and 8i| lakhs till
1853-4. The next year of increase was 1856-7, when the gross
receipts were 89 lakhs ; in 1859-60 they amounted to 99 lakhs, and in
1861-2 to ioo| lakhs. In 1865-6 they reached 109 lakhs, and in 1872-3
close upon no lakhs, since when the revenue stood at from 109-0- to
1094- lakhs.

In the year 1831, when the country was placed under British
management, misrule had disorganized the Native Administration and
brought the public exchequer to the verge of bankruptcy, and one of
the first subjects that demanded the attention of the British Com-
missioners was the State debt. The amount was approximately stated
in 1832 at about 65^^ lakhs of rupees, consisting of arrears of pay to the
local troops and civil establishments, and the personal liabilities of the
Maharaja, but the subsequent accounts show that they eventually cost
the country about 87! lakhs of rupees. The earliest efforts of the
Commission were directed towards the discharge of the arrears of pay
to public establishments, of which Rs. 8,82,000 were disbursed within
the first year, and 25 lacs during the next nine; but they do not appear
to have been finally extinguished till 1857-8, a period of twenty-six
years, during which the payments on this account amounted altogether
to Rs. 35,90,000.

The liabilities of the deposed Maharaja were eventually liquidated
after investigation by a special officer, Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. P. Grant,
who was expressly commissioned for the purpose by the Supreme
Government. The amount paid under the awards of his court,
between the years 1844 and 1850, amounted to Rs. 34,85,000; but
during the thirteen years preceding that settlement, while the country
was recovering from the effects of past misgovernment, large sums
continued to be paid to the Maharaja on account of his stipend of
Rs. 3-5 lakhs per year, and the fifth share of the net revenue secured to
him by treaty. Both payments averaged 1 1 lakhs annually. The fore-
going remarks refer to debts contracted before the British assumption
of the government, which were dealt with by Mr. Grant's court. In
1863, however, the condition of the Maharaja's finances again attracted
the attention of Government. Claims to the amount of 55I lakhs
of rupees were pressing for settlement, and two officers — Colonel
C. Elliot, C.B., and Dr. J. Campbell, the ^Maharaja's Darbar Surgeon —
were appointed to the task of inquiring into and effecting a commuta-

STATE REVENUE 685

tion of these liabilities. The amount paid in the years 1864-7 on this
account amounted to Rs. 26,90,000. Finally, after the death of the
Maharaja in March 1868 other debts incurred by His Highness since
the year 1864 were commuted by payments in the year 1868-70,
amounting to Rs. 12,76,000. Thus the gross amount paid from the
Mysore revenues under authority of the British Government in liquida-
tion of the Maharaja's personal debts between the years 1844 and 1870
was 74^ lakhs of rupees.

To return to the earlier accounts. In order to meet the liabilities
of the State, the condition of the finances was such that it became
necessary to obtain a loan from the British Government, in 183 1-2
Rs. 2,50,000; in 1832-3, Rs. 10,00,000; in 1833-4, Rs. 9,78,202 ;
and in 1834-5, Rs. 11,94,332; in all, Rs. 34,22,534. Owing to the
heavy demands on the revenue on account of arrears due to establish-
ments, it was not till 1837-8 that the first instalment of 3 lakhs was
repaid to the British (Government. The subsequent payments were,
5 lakhs in 1839-40, 3 lakhs in each year from 1842-3 to 1844-5, I2
lacs in 1845-6, and 2 lacs in 1846-7 ; making up Rs. 29,50,000.
There was no further payment till 1849-50, mainly owing to the
claims of the Maharaja's creditors, when the balance — Rs. 4,72,534 —
of the capital sum borrowed was liquidated. The interest account,
made up at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum to November 1851,
was, however, still unredeemed. It left Rs. 16,98,261 due by the
Mysore State, and that amount was paid by instalments between
the years 1852-3 and 1855-6. The total of the capital amount
borrowed from the British Government, with interest, was thus
Rs. 51,20,795.

All the debts of the State having been licjuidatcd, as well as those
of the Maharaja which came within the scope of Mr. Grant's adjudi-
cation, the financial difliculties bequeathed to the British Administra-
tion by the Native Rule may be said to have been surmounted in the
year 1856. The task involved an expenditure from the Mysore
revenues, of Rs. 87,73,261 — or ;^877,326 — during a period of
twenty-five years. The multitude of taxes abolished or reduced down
to the same period, aggregating \o\ lakhs of rupees annually, have
previously been mentioned. Trade was thus set free and the revenue
continued to rise.

State Revenue. — The State Revenue, as distinguished from Local
and Municipal Funds, was now composed of the following items,
under each of which the amount aniuuilly realized down to iSSi is
entered : —

686

ADMINISTRA TION

Year.

LandRevenue

Forests.

Abkari.

Sdyar.

Mohatarfa.

Salt.

1865-6 Rs.

77,25,767

3,42,959

10,01,944

8,88,699

3,78,304

15,850

1866-7

66,56,799

3,66,021

8,47,964

5,67,341

3,30,047

8,480

1867-8

80,92,251

4,10,012

9,69,189

7,07,125

3,89,397

18,025

1868-9

77,53,671

3,51,476

9,56,508

7,19,157

3,79,424

14,429

1869-70

61,31,402

2,95,218

9,79,838

7,56,069

2,82,673

10,611

1 870- 1

60,07,315

3,37,669

10,14,102

7,50,502

2,75,687

10,720

1871-2

73,25,280

4,07,112

10,68,754

7,23,154

3,42,771

14,844

1872-3

73,50,285

3,76,185

10,80,826

8,85,824

3,88,008

13,437

1873-4

71,77,284

5,13,661

11,50,298

8,68,633

3,73,827

18,492

1874-5

73,51,268

3,82,162

11,53,773

7,79,697

3,68,249

16,539

1875-6

73,78,225

4,45,688

12,29,646

3,67,728

5,97,060

11,485

1876-7

64,35,694

4,72,760

11,69,599

3,50,686

4,57,349

5,287

1877-8

72,70,654

4,79,283

10,25,596

3,03,662

3,66,231

6,114

1878-9

73,00,677

4,51,843

9,52,082

2,76,444

4,58,537

8,713

1879-80

69,75,406

5,29,136

8,64,621

2,40,707

4,27,437

11,359

1880- I

69,31,132

6,97,779

10,67,635

2,52,826

3,33,020

23,358

Year.

Stamps.

Post Office.

Law, Justice
and Police.

Public Works
Department.

Other items.

1865-6 ... Rs.

2,61,583

37,021

91,687

70,663

1,02,214

1866-7

2,78,381

36,308

91,406

42,590

91,762

1867-8

3,15,157

39,091

1,15,072

36,450

96,552

1868-9

3,71,946

37,620

91,077

74,726

1,28,238

1869-70

4,22,250

39,997

1,15,219

82,514

1,41,903

1870-1

2,92,975

41,720

2,64,199

65,597

1,36,556

1871-2

1,97,233

44,368

3,40,360

15,268

1,42.793

1872-3

1,88,243

44,876

4,14,397

11,077

2,43,534

1873-4

1,92,585

46,666

4,15,754

50,031

1,39,881

1874-5

2,02,384

49,749

4,24,265

48,901

1,70,456

1875-6

2,07,101

54,281

4,64,087

41,684

1,79,683

1876-7

5,07,246

59,749

1,15,899

40,843

1,45,113

1877-8

4,96,873

55,450

1,22,531

25,073

1,21,446

1878-9

5,29,685

50,347

1,32,633

60,235

2,31,657

1879-80

5,06,441

49,870

1,18,427

42,785

1,63,326

1880-1

4,67,882

51,821

1,15,603

12,085

1,40,705

The main source of revenue in Mysore is thus seen to be the land.
But before specifying the amounts reaHzcd from various sources under
this head, it is desirable to describe the then existing tenures, and the
system of land settlement.

The la7id tenures in the Province may be broadly divided into Sarkar
or Government lands, and Inam lands. Government lands are held
under the ryotwari tenure, either on kanddyam, i.e., a fixed money
assessment, or on hatayi. Except in the settled taluqs, where the term
of the settlement is fixed at thirty years, kandayam lands are held on
annual leases or pattas, but the assessment is seldom altered and hardly
■ever raised. By far the larger portion of the land in the Province is
held on this tenure. Under the batayi system, the land is held direct
from Government, but the share of Government is paid in grain. The

LAND TENURES 687

proportion generally claimed by Government is one-half, but it is
probable that in reality only one-third is received, the remaining two-
thirds being shared between the ryots and the village servants. The
batayi tenure, though still greatly prevalent in the Nandidroog Division,
will wholly cease and disappear with the completion of the Survey and
Settlement in each taluq. In the meantime the ryots can always con-
vert their occupation of batayi lands into that of the ordinary kan-
dayam tenure if they please, and every encouragement to their so doing
is afforded by the Government, which earnestly desires the entire
abolition of the batayi tenure.

In the case of private estates, such as inam and kayamgutta villages,
and large farms of Government lands cultivated by payakaris or under-
tenants, the land is held on the following tenures :—

1st. Vdraiii, under which an equal division of produce is made between
the landlord and the tenant, the former paying the assessment of the land
to the Government. 2nd. Miikkuppe, under which two-thirds of the produce
go to the cultivator, and one-third to the landlord, who pays the assessment
of the land. 3rd. Arakandaya or chaiurbhdga, under which the landlord
gets one-fourth of the produce and pays only a half of the Government
revenue, the remaining half being discharged by the cultivator, who enjoys
as his share three-fourths of the produce. 4th. Wolakanddya, in which the
tenant pays a fixed money rate to the landlord. This may either be equal
to or more than the assessment of the land.

An hereditary right of occupation is attached to all kanddyam lands.
As long as the pattedar pays the Government dues he has no fear of
displacement, and virtually possesses an absolute tenant right as
distinct from that of proprietorship. When the Government finds it
necessary to assume the land occupied by him for public purposes, he
is always paid compensation, fixed either by mutual consent or under
the Land Acquisition Act.

Varies. — In the Malnad or hilly taluqs of the Nagar Division, situated on
the plateaux of the Western Ghats, the holdings of the ryots are called
vargs. The varg consists of all the fields held by one vargdar or farmer,
and these are seldom located together, but are generally found scattered in
different villages, and sometimes in different taluqs. When closely
examined, the varg means nothing more than a patta or deed covering the
different lands held by one proprietor in one or more villages. The varg
system does not appear to be of old origin, and is said to have come into
existence on the assumption of the management of the country by British
officers in 1831, when the Superintendent, anxious to procure an accurate
record of each man's holding, directed a Pahani account to be framed, and
the holding of each man to be therein shown, with its reputed extent and
assessment. This precaution was necessary considering the topographical

688 ADMINISTRATION

peculiarities of this portion of tlic Province, consistin;^ of hill and dale
covered with jungle, and not unfrequently inaccessible. The rule now is
that no one is allowed to relinquish or apply for a portion of the varg
unless the whole of it is resigned or taken up, but the new Survey Depart-
ment is breaking down the old system, and in settled taluqs the extent and
assessment of each field forming the varg is defined, so as to afford the
usual facilities to the ryot for retaining and resigning as much as he cannot
cultivate, provided that whole fields or numbers only are relinquished.

Unnkahi and Hddya Lands. — Attached to each varg are tracts of land
called hankalu and hddya, for which no assessment is paid, but which are
said to be included in the varg to which they are attached. The hankalu,
like the bdnes in Coorg, are set apart for grazing purposes, but have of late
also been used for dry cultivation. The hddya are lands covered with low
brushwood and small trees, from which firewood and leaves, tSic, are taken
for manuring the fields of the varg.

Tatjina Hankalu. — In the Malnad to each gadde or wet field are
attached tracts of dry land, called tattina hankalu, for which no assess-
ment is paid, but which are said to be included in the assessment on the
wet field.

Kdns. — These are large tracts of forest, extending in one case over eight
miles in length, for which a cess called kan khist is paid. The kdns are
preserved for the sake of the wild pepper-vines, bagni palms, and certain
gum-trees that grow in them, and also to enable the vargdars to obtain
wood for agricultural and domestic purposes. The privilege of cutting
wood in them, formerly allowed to ryots, has, after much discussion, been
withdrawn, and the holders of kdns are allowed only to enjoy the produce
above mentioned, to clear the undergrowth and clip trees where
necessary for the growth of the pepper-vine and also for manuring
purposes. It is under contemplation whether the usufruct of kdns should
not be leased out as in Canara, the Government reserving all rights over
the live timber of all kinds.

Kiiinri. — This is a system of cultivation almost peculiar to the hill tribes.
Soon after the rains, they fell the trees on a forest site, a hill-side being
preferred. The trees are left lying till January and then set on fire. The
ground is afterwards partially cleared, dug up, and sown towards the end
of the rains with ragi, castor-oil nut, and other dry grains. In the first
year the return is prodigious, but it falls off by one-half in the second year,
and the place is then abandoned till the wood has again grown up. Strong
fences are made to keep off wild beasts, and for a month before han-est the
crop is watched at night by a person on a raised platform. No doubt
kumri cultivation thus carried on involves great waste of timber, but if it is
restricted to undergrowth it is not so wasteful.

Coffee Lands. — Grants of land for coffee cultivation are made out of the
Government jungles, chiefly in the Western Ghats, forming the Nagar and
Ashtagram Malnad. On receipt of applications for a plot of such land, its
area is ascertained by a rough survey, the boundaries defined, and then it is
sold by public auction. The successful bidder is granted a patta or title-

LAND TENURES 689

deed. The clauses of the coffee patta or title-deed transcribed below show
on what tenure land for coffee cultivation is now held by the planter.

" These lands are granted to you for the purpose of planting coffee, and
should you raise any other crop upon them, lands thus appropriated will be
liable to assessment according to the prevailing rates in the taluq. By this,
however, it is not intended that plaintains, castor-oil plants, or fruit-trees,
planted for the bo7id fide purposes of affording shelter or shade to the
coffee, should be liable to taxation. — On the coffee-trees coming into
bearing, you are to pay Government an excise duty or hdlat of four annas
on every maund which is produced. This is in substitution of the ancient
wdra. This taxation is subject to such revision as the Government of
Mysore may at any time deem expedient. — For every acre of land which
you take up under this patta, you must within a period of five years plant a
minimum average number to the whole holding of 500 coffee-trees to the
acre. The Government reserves to itself the right of summarily resuming
the whole of any uncultivated portion of the land mentioned in your patta
should you not conform to this condition. — You are exempt from the visits
of all jungle and petty Izardars, who will be prohibited from entering here-
after lands taken up for coffee cultivation, and you are empowered to fell
and clear away the jungle, but previous to doing so, you are bound to give
six months' notice to the Sarkar authorities, to enable them to remove or
dispose of all reserved trees which may exist on the holding. — Should you
wish to sell or alienate in any way the lands mentioned in this patta, you
must notify the same to the Commissioner of the Division, and this patta
must be forwarded for registration under the name of the new incumbent..
Any attempt at evading the hdlat will involve confiscation of the article
itself, together with a fine of twice the amount of hdlat leviable upon it.

Cai'danicDi Lands. — Lands for the cultivation of cardamom are granted
from the jungles on the east side of the Western Ghats, where this plant
grows spontaneously. In these jungles are also to be found lac, resin,
bees'-wax, gums, pepper, and similar other articles. The farms were
formerly leased out, the limits of the tract being annually defined ; but to
afford every facility to the planter, and to encourage the cultivation of the
cardamoms, rules have recently been framed, under which those planters
who are desirous of embarking on cardamom cultivation can obtain land
for the purpose on more liberal and advantageous terms. Under these
rules, grants of land not exceeding 200 acres, nor less than 10 acres, and
well defined by natural features, can, after being put up to auction, be
secured by planters on 20-year leases : the lessee binding himself to pay
the actual cost of survey and demarcation at once, and the auction price by
twenty instalments. At the expiration of the lease, should the lessee be
desirous of renewing it, he is allowed to do so on terms fixed by Govern-
ment, and in the event of his declining to renew, he is paid compensation
for improvements from any surplus on the resale of the land realized by
Government. The lessee pays a hdlat or excise duty of two rupees per
maund of 281bs. on the cardamoms produced by him, and as the land is
granted solely for the cultivation of cardamoms, the rules provide that if

V V

690 A DMINISTRA TION

any portion of it is cultivated with any other description of crop, such land
will be assessed at the prevailing rates. The lessee is, however, allowed to
make use of minor forest produce, and to fell trees (with the exception of
he ten reserved kinds) in order to facilitate the growth of his cardamoms.
On the other hand, he binds himself to plant not less than 500 cardamom
plants per acre on his land by the expiration of five years from the date of
his grant.

Kayamgutta. — This term, in its literal sense, describes a permanent
village settlement, and it probably owes its origin to a time when many
villages were depopulated and when the Government found it advantageous
to rent out such on a fixed but very moderate lease, the renter undertaking
to restore them to their former prosperous condition. These tenures were
also largely added to during the former Mahardja's direct administration of
the country, when in several cases flourishing villages were given to
favourites at Court. The kayamgutta lands comprise some of the most
valuable indm lands in the Province.

Shraya, or lands granted on progressive rent. — Waste lands, chiefly in
jungly districts, were granted free of assessment, at J rates for the first
year, and afterwards increasing yearly till the fourth or fifth year, when the
full assessment is attained. Under the advantages afforded by this tenure,
large tracts of land have been brought under cultivation and many villages
established.

Inam Tenures. — The following are the inam tenures in Mysore : —

. Sarvaiiidnya, villages or lands held free of all demands, including sdyar,
mohatarfa, &c.

Ardhamdiiya, Ardhayaswdsfi, or land assessed at half the usual rate. —
This proportion is not, however, maintained, the share of the Government
varying in some cases from iVth to ^ths.

Jodi villages, or lands granted and held on a light assessment, the pro-
portion of which to the full rates varies.

Jodi Agrahdfs. — These are ordinarily whole villages, held by Brahmans
only, on a favourable tenure ; but in some cases the agrahdrs merely
consist of selected streets in Government villages, to which patches of
cultivation, generally leased out by the Brahman agrahardars, are
attached.

Sthal or Mahal Jodi. — These indms appear to have come into existence
during the loose fiscal administration of the Mahardja's time. Their
holders claim to be in the position of holders of kayamgutta villages, but as
they derive their grants from incompetent local revenue ofiicers, they stand
on a different footing, and in this view the Inam Department has been
directed to confirm only those Mahal Jodi indms for which valid proofs of
alienation are adduced.

Bhatamdnya or Bralundddya. — These terms are used to designate
grants and endowments of land held by Brahmans for their support, which
are personal grants as distinguished from those held on conditions of
service.

IN AM TENURES 691

Dcvd'Mya and Dharmdddya are grants made for the support of

religious and charitable institutions, and persons rendering services therein.

Uinbli, f///rtr.— These terms are used, chiefly in the Nagar Division, to

signify lands held by village servants on condition of service, subject

generally to the payment of a jodi.

SMst and Kutiigadi Lands.— These are also held by village servants, and
descendants of the holders of the defunct service of Deshpande, Kulkarni
and Nadigar, on a jodi, which is in fact the old Sivappa Nayak's shist or
assessment without the patti or subsequent imposition.

Kodigi Indms represent land granted free of tax, or on a light
assessment, in consideration of services rendered in the construction or
restoration of tank^, or on condition of their being maintained in good
repair. But as the repair of such tanks was almost universally neglected
by the indmdars, they have been relieved of the duty, and the following
rules since adopted for enfranchisement of the inams, the quit-rent being
credited to the irrigation fund for up-keep of the tanks, i. Indms granted
to private individuals for the construction and up-keep of tanks, are
enfranchised on \ quit-rent if the conditions are certified by the chief
Revenue Officer of the District to have been fairly observed and the tanks
to be in use; otherwise at |- quit-rent. ii. Indms granted to private indi-
viduals for the up-keep of Government tanks, are enfranchised on \ quit-
rent if certified to as above ; otherwise they are confirmed to the present
holders on \ assessment for life, and afterwards brought under full
assessment, iii. Kodigi indms in rent-free villages, as also in jodi or quit-
rent villages, when their up-keep rests with the jodidars, are confirmed on
the existing conditions, subject to regulations for the proper maintenance of
the tanks.

Bdvadi Dasavanda Iw'uns are indms granted for the digging and up-keep

of wells, chiefly in some of the taluqs of the Kolar District. Formerly

th of the produce of the lands thereby irrigated was paid to the constructor

of a well, as well as his remuneration. But this proportion is not strictly

kept up in practice.

Kercbandi and Kerekulaga Inams. — These indms were granted for the
annual petty repairs of tanks. As, however, the system was found practically
useless, and the indmdars invariably neglected their obligations, such indms
are confirmed to the present holders on half assessment for life, and on
their death brought under full assessment.

Patiaoaddcs — These are patches of land held by the ryots of one village
in another, not as paya karis (foreign cultivators) but as a part and portion
of their own village. These pattagaddes are distinguished by separate
boundary-marks from the other lands of the village in which they are
situated. The origin of these tenures is traceable to certain mutual agree-
ments between the cultivators of adjoining villages, to allow those of one to
cultivate portions of wet lands under the tank of another constructed by the
joint labour of all. The tenure may also be in part due to an exchange of
land, by which ryots who had no wet land in their own village became
entitled to a portion of the wet land in another.

Y Y 2

692 ADMINISTRATION

Such are the principal land tenures in Mysore. By far the most
common of these is the ordinary kandayam, or ryotwari tenure. The
main distinction is between ryotwari and inam land. Each of these
descriptions of land is now being settled on a permanent basis, by the
Revenue Survey and Settlement Department, and the Inam Depart-
ment.

Revenue Survey and Settlement. — Immediately after the
conquest of the country, a general topographical survey was made by
Colonel Mackenzie, subsequently Surveyor-General of India. While
Purnaiya was Divan, a revenue survey was made, but it was necessarily
very imperfect at the time, and after the lapse of fifty years the records
had become extremely defective, advantage being taken of the insur-
rection to destroy the survey papers pretty generally. Though nothing
was subsequently done in the way of any general measure, a good deal
was effected by measurements of particular lands to check the
shanbhdgs in their attempts to falsify the records. Sir Mark Cubbon
was, however, fully alive to the value of a thoroughly scientific Revenue
Survey and Assessment, and expressed his intention, if the financial
state of the country continued to prosper, to propose its being carried
out. In July 1862 the more glaring defects apparent in the existing
revenue system were stated in some detail to the Government of India.
A brief inquiry had elicited proof of the existence of so much dis-
crepancy and fraud, that the Superintendents were called on to report
upon the classification of soils in their respective Districts, and on the
prevailing rates of assessment.

In one taluq of the late Bangalore Division, there were reported to be
596 rates of assessment on dry land per kudu, which is 3,200 square yards, or
about §rds of an acre, these rates being fixed on a progressive scale ranging
from I vis= i anna 9 pie, to 3 pagodas 2 fanams = Rs. 10 i anna per kudu,
or from })\d. to ^i 6i-. \od. per acre, distributed over 26 classes of land.
For wet and garden land, the results, though less striking, were also
remarkable, in one case the number of rates being 81, and in the other 451,
on the kudu of 500 square yards.— In Chitaldroog, the assessments were
nearly as complicated. The kudu is generally of the same extent as in
other parts of the Province, viz., 3,200 square yards on dry lands, and upon
it the rates were 465 in number, with a minimum of i anna and a maximum
of Rs. 9-4-1 1. — In parts of Ashtagram the assessment was theoretically based
on Purnaiya's survey, but, in fact, few traces were left of this, and its
principles were unknown, the practical consequence being that people paid
generally what their forefathers did, without much interference in time-
honoured abuses. In the Nagar Division, owing to the hilly nature of the
country, and to its having been ruled for centuries by quasi-independent
chiefs, the character of the landed tenure presented a notable contrast to
that which prevailed in the rest of the Province ; but scarcely more

REVENUE SURVEY AND SETTLEMENT 693

uniformity was to be found in the rates of the assessment, or in the
classification of the soil, than in the other Divisions, as in one hill taluq,
taken at random apparently, there were 147 rates on wet land, varying in
rentals of from nearly Rs. 34 to a little more than R. i per khandi, i.e.,
from about Rs. 165 to 75rds annas per acre. In the plain taluqs of the
District, less discrepancy existed in the rates of assessment, but some of
them were enormously high, and in numerous instances the returns showed
great deviations from the rates which formerly existed.

In consequence of this capricious and intricate system of assessment, all
real power had passed into the hands of the shdnbhdgs, or hereditary
village accountants, the recognized custodians of the records relating to the
measurement and assessment of lands ; and as no permanent boundary-
marks had ever been erected, it rested with them to regulate at will every
ryot's payments. On the better classes of land the rates in some cases
were so preposterously high, as to make it certain that unless a man so
assessed held considerably more land than was entered against him, he
could not possibly pay the Government demand ; while, on the other hand,
much land capable of being profitably cultivated under a moderate assess-
ment was thrown up, because the lighter rates had been fraudulently shifted
to superior lands held by public servants and others who could afford to
bribe the shdnbhogs.

In addition to the discrepancies in the rate of assessments, another fertile
source of embarrassment existed in the prevalence of the batdyi system,
and the unsatisfactory state of the indm holdings, regarding which it was
notorious that from the absence of any adequate check on unauthorized
occupancy extensive frauds had been practised.

The Supreme (jovernment fully recognized, as the only effectual
remedy for the evils pointed out, the advisability of introducing a
Revenue Survey and Settlement, accompanied pari passu by an equit-
able and low assessment, such as had given so beneficial an impetus to
some of the Districts of Madras and Bombay ; and it was subsequently
decided to adopt the Bombay Revenue Survey system, which had been
proved incontestably by figures, and by the well-known satisfaction of
the ryots, to be successful in the Districts of that Presidency bordering
on Mysore.

My reason, writes Mr. Bowring, for preferring the system of survey and
settlement pursued in Bombay may be summed up thus : — I found that in
Mysore, which borders both on that Presidency and on Madras, we had
ample opportunity of comparing the method pursued in either case. The
difference is as follows : — Under the Bombay system, the survey, classifica-
tion, and settlement are all continuous links of one chain, forged under the
directions of the same individual, whose interest it is to see that every
successive link fits closely into its predecessor, every step being also care-
fully taken with advertence to the next one. There is no such close con-
nection in the Madras system. The boundaries arc fi.xed by one person,

6u4 ADMINISTRATION

the survey laid down l)y another, and the settlement by a third, these
several agencies not being under one responsible head. The survey, so far
as I can judge, is excellent, but the surveyor had not the power of altering
boundaries if incorrect. On the completion of the survey, the work was
taken up by the Settlement Officer.

In introducing the survey and settlement into any taluq, the first
steps taken are the division of the village lands into fields, the defini-
tion of the limits of such fields by permanent marks, and the accurate
measurement of the area of each field in itself, by chain and cross-staff.
In the division of the lands into fields, the points kept in view are : —
ist. That the fields, or at least a majority of them, should not be
larger than may be cultivated by ryots of limited means. 2nd. That
they should not be made smaller than is necessary for the above object
without an adequate reason. The former of these points is determined
by the extent of land capable of being cultivated by a pair of bullocks,
which area varies according to climate, soil, description of cultivation
and methods of husbandry. In the second case, when a holding is of
small area, contiguous small holdings are clubbed to bring the area
within the limit. The marks used for defining the limits of fields, laid
out as above, are rectangular mounds of earth (popularly known as
hdndhs) at the four corners and at intervals along the side. The pro-
traction on paper of the survey made of the village lands by cross-staff,
theodolite, and chain, constitute the village maps, which afford the
most minute information as to the position, size, and limits of fields,
roads, water-courses, &:c., comprised within each village, while they
possess a degree of accuracy sufficient to admit of their being united
so as to form a general map of a taluq or District, exhibiting the relative
positions and extent of villages, topographical features of the country,
and a variety of other information of use to the local revenue and
judicial officers.

The next step towards the settlement of the taluq is the classification
of the land, with the object of determining the relative values of the
fields into which the land is divided. For this purpose, every variety
of soil is referred to one of nine classes, such classes having a relative
value in annas or sixteenths of a rupee, and this division of classes
experience has proved to afford a sufficiently minute classification for
all practical purposes. All land is divided into dry-crop, wet and
garden-land, but in the two latter, in addition to soil classification, the
water-supply is taken into consideration, and its permanency or other-
wise regulates the class to which it is referred ; the soil and water class
conjointly afford an index to the value of the field. In the case of
gardens which are irrigated by wells, in addition to the classification of

REVENUE SURVEY AND SETTLEMENT 695

soil, the su[)[)ly, depth, and quantity of water in the wells, the area oi
land under each, and the distance of the garden from the village, as
affecting the cost of manuring, &c., is carefully ascertained. The whole
of the fields into which each village has been broken up being thus
classified, the taluq is ready for settlement.

In this last proceeding, the first question taken into consideration is
the extent of territory for which a uniform standard of assessment
should be fixed. Among the most important influences admitted into
the considerai.ion of this point are, climate, position with respect to
markets, communications, and the agricultural skill and actual condi-
tion of the cultivators. The villages of the taluq having been divided
into groups, according to their respective advantages of climate,
markets, (Sec, and the relative values of the fields of each village having
been determined from the classification of the soils, command of water
for irrigation, or other extrinsic circumstances, it only remains to com-
plete the settlement by fixing the maximum rate to be levied on each
description of cultivation, together with the absolute amount of assess-
ment to be levied from the whole.

The determination of this point, involving the exercise of great
judgment and discrimination, is arrived at by a clear understanding of
the nature and effects of the past management of the taluq for twenty
years, and by examination and comparison of the annual settlements
of previous years. The maximum rates having been fixed, the inferior
rates are at once deducible from the relative values laid down in the
classification scales, and the rates so determined are applied to all
descriptions of land. When the calculation of the assessment from
these is completed, field registers, embodying the results of the survey,
are prepared for each village separately, for the use of the revenue
authorities. The registers and the village maps form a complete
record of the survey operations ; as long as these and the field
boundaries exist, all important data resulting from the survey will be
preserved.

The survey rules, and the guarantee which has been formally notified,
while securing the just rights of the State in clear and unequivocal
terms, also define those possessed by the ryot in the land. The benefits
of the improvements he makes to the land are left to him exclusively
during the present lease, which extends over a period of thirty years ;
and it has been announced that at the next revision the assessment
will not be revised with reference to the improvements made at the
ryot's cost, but acccording to the progress of natural events, the
benefits of which the Government have a right to share equally
with the ryot.

696

ADMINISTRA TION

'J'he Survey and Sctllenient Department in Mysore is further
entrusted with the important and arduous duty of revising and settling
the village service emoluments. It assumes great importance owing to
the necessity of providing sufficient remuneration for the patels in
connection with the organization of the Village I'olice. At present the
remuneration of all classes of village servants is very uneven. Under
the Survey Settlement the dya payments, that is to say the fees
realized by patels and shanbh6gs in the shape of grain paid to them
direct by the ryots, have been abolished, and a scale of remuneration
has been fixed in the shape of money payments in the surveyed taluqs.
The aya payments, from which the ryot has thus been relieved, are
included in the land assessment he has to pay to Government.

The progress of the operations of the Survey Department, up to the
close of the working season of 1880-1, that is, the 31st October 1880,
shows that out of the 69 taluqs comprised in the Province, only 10 had
been wholly untouched. The remaining 59 had been measured or
were in course of measurement, while in 42 classification was completed
or in course of completion.

The survey commenced in 1863 in the north, in Chitaldroog District,
and worked westwards and southwards. The Department was
controlled by a Commissioner, under whom were a Superintendent, a
Deputy Superintendent, and 14 Assistant-Superintendents, but during
the famine most of these were transferred for famine duty and the
number was subsequently reduced. The total area measured and
classed, from the commencement of the survey operations up to the
end of March 1881, was 13,915,826 acres measured, and 11,292,928
acres classed. The total cost to the 31st October 1880 amounted to
Rs. 34,04,826. The following is the annual statement of work
done : —

Year.

Acres
measured.

Acres
classed.

1 Cost per
'acre of both
operations.

Year.

Acres 1
measured.

Acres
classed.

Cost per
acre of both
operations.

As. P.

1863-4

291,595 200,176

1872-3

943>655'

1,051,076

4 3-8

1864-5

507,288 248,244

9-,S

1873-4

831,191

696,933

5 3-5

1865-6

817,304 454>620

4-0

1874-5

933,893

762,653

5 13

1866-7

743,041! 473 > 996

1S75-6

1,017,015

899,268

4 8-5

1867-8

789,780 669,521

9-9

1876-7

596,266

508,794

5 4-6

1868-9

995,428 680,645

2-6

1877-8

677,691

568,320

5 4-6

1869-70

1,015,756 526,567

9-6

1878-9

545>io9:

574,896

5 5-8

1870-I

972,819' 998,142

6-5

1S79-S0

550,214

723,176

6 5

1871-2

1,081,163 658,005
1 ^

IO-5

! 1880-1

652,423

555,860

6 37

Itidm Departmejit. — The inams in the Province may all be referred
to one of three epochs, and the statement below shows the value of the
land inams which had sprung up during each of these periods.

IN AM SETTLEMENT

697

Period of Inams.

Whole Villages.

Minor Inams.

Valuation. 'J"^*^' ""^ ''8^'
assessment.

Valuation, j J"**' °" "^!"
" 1 assessment.

To the termination of Divan Pur-
naiya's administration in 1810.

•Granted during the Maharaja's ad-
ministration, 181 1 to 1S31

Granted by the Chief Commissioner
of Mysore

Sthal or unauthorized inams

2,86,038
3,19,167

1,32,150 1 4.99,528 1,48,134

62,435 35,025

! 18,500 8,000
63,616 17,946

Total Rs.

6,05,205 1 1,94,585 6,16,669 1,74,080

After the fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the British Commissioners
directed Purnaiya plainly that no alienation of land should be made
without the Resident's approbation. This salutary advice was fairly
acted on by the Divan during his long and successful administration.
The alienations between 1799 and 181 1 (when the Raja assumed the
government of the country) were in reality few and unfrequent, and the
inams which are entered as having been created during Purnaiya's
administration, are (with the exception of his own jagir) chiefly those
which had been sequestrated during the Muhammadan usurpation, and
Avhich on the re-establishment of Hindu rule it was thought proper to
restore. But this measure being accompanied with an increase of the
jodi on such inams, the alienation of revenue in the fresh grants was
■counterbalanced. From 18 10 to 1831, when the British Government
interfered to save the country from ruin, the Raja recklessly alienated
lands, some of them forming the best villages in the country, besides
confirming others on permanent or kayamgutta tenure, while his loose
system of administration afforded his subordinate officers opportunities
for alienating land without proper authority. The third epoch dates
from the commencement of the British administration in 1831. The
grants made during this period are comparatively of small value, and
are held on condition of service, consisting in the upkeep of chatrams,
maintenance of groves, tanks and avenue trees. In addition to the
above, the statement shows a considerable number of sthal inams, or, as
they are sometimes termed, chor inams. Under this head are comprised
all such inams as, although enjoyed for some time, have not been
properly registered as granted by competent authority.

The necessity of a searching investigation into the inam tenures of
the Province, with the view of securing those inams which had been
granted by competent authority to their possessors on a permanent
basis, very early attracted the attention of the British Government ; but

698 ADMINISTRATION

it was not unlil J 863 that any dcfinilc scheme for this purpose was
mooted. It was then found that the operations of the Revenue Survey
and Settlement Department created alarm and evoked opposition among
the inamdars, and it was thought advisable that rules for the confirma-
tion of inams on a liberal princi[)lc; should be drawn up. After much
discussion, it was decided to adoi)t the principles which had after long
deliberation been decided on in the Madras Presidency. In one
important respect, however, these principles were departed from. The
Inam Commissioner was constituted the final judicial authority, and his
decision was not, as in Madras, made liable to be reversed by a Civil
Court. But after the transfer of the Inam Commissioner's duties to the
Survey and Settlement Commissioner, this provision was altered, and
the Madras system, with one exception, which will be noticed below,
prevailed in its integrity. The Inam Rules for Mysore were sanctioned
by the Government of India in April 1868. These rules, based on the
theory of the reversionary right of Government, were so framed as to
meet the several descriptions of inam lands existing in the Province,
testing their validity — ist, by the competency of the grantor, irre-
spectively of the duration of the inam, whether 50 or less than 50 years
old ; 2nd, by the duration of the inam for 50 or more than 50 years,
irrespectively of the competence or otherwise of the grantor.

The following are the principles on which the settlement was
conducted : —

i. When sannads had been granted by the Maharaja or by his pre-
decessors, and when they conveyed full powers of alienation and were
hereditary, the indms were treated as heritable and alienable property.

ii. When sannads emanating as above did not convey full powers of
alienation, the ind,ms might be enfranchised by payment of a quit-rent equal
to one-eighth of the assessment of the tenure, except in the case of indms
granted for the performance of religious, charitable, and village service,
which are still required to be rendered.

iii. When sannads have been granted by incompetent persons, and when
they are less than 50 years old, a compulsory quit-rent, equal to one-halt of
the assessment, was imposed. But in doubtful cases, and where there was
a probability that the indm had been enjoyed for fully 50 years, the quit-rent
to be imposed was one-fourth of the assessment.

At the time of its first organization in 1866, the Inam Commission
was composed of an Inam Commissioner, one Special Assistant, and
three Assistants. These officers were at first invested with judicial
powers. But at the commencement of the year 1872-73, the De^jart-
ment was reorganized. The control of its proceedings was then
transferred to the Survey Commissioner, while the settlement was.

INAM SETTLEMENT

699

carried on, under his direction, by an officer styled Superintendent of
Inam Settlements, aided by three Assistants, on whom devolved the
preliminary work of registering the inams, taluq by taluq, and of
collecting all the material for settlements. Under this scheme, the
judicial powers hitherto exercised by Inam officers were withdrawn, and
claims inter partes were referred to the regularly constituted Civil
Courts. In other respects the rules of settlement remained the same
as before, except in the case of whole inam villages. Up to 1872, the
determination of the extent and value of inam villages for purposes of
enfranchisement was based upon the Madras system of procedure,
which is very liberal. Under this system, the Inam Department does
not profess to estimate the acreage of inams. Unless the terms of the
sannad make it perfectly clear that the Government only intended to
assign a certain number of acres, and was deceived as to the extent of
the village, the mere fact that the number of acres enjoyed by an inam-
dar exceeded the number entered in his sannad, was not allowed to
operate prejudicially to him. As regards valuation, the old assessment
recorded in Purnaiya's Jari Indmti accounts was adopted, with such
additions as were deemed suitable or equitable on account of the right
of the State to prospective cultivation of waste lands ; and Purnaiya's
old valuation was adopted when the accounts of present rental furnished
by the inamdars fell short of it or could not be relied upon.

But in 1872, upon a representation of the Survey and Settlement
Commissioner that the course above described, based upon imperfect
data, would be too liberal to the inamdars, and injurious to the Govern-
ment in not securing the full amount of quit rent and local fund cesses,
a survey of whole inam villages, with a view to ascertain their correct
valuation, was sanctioned by the Chief Commissioner for purposes of
the inam settlement. And as the survey could not keep pace with the
inam inquiry, which had already out-stepped the survey, a system of
charging ad ifiterim quit-rent, upon the best data forthcoming, was
devised, on the understanding that this settlement was to be merely
temporary, and to last only until the land was valued by the Survey
and Settlement Department.

The following statement shows the value of minor inams of different
descriptions, payable in cash, at the time that their investigation and
registration were commenced by the Inam Department in 1868 : —

1 Up to Divan Pur-
Granted ' naiyas resigna-
tion, 1810.

By tlie M.-iharija.

By the Chief ^otal.
(Jommissioner.

NagadMuzrayi. Rs.' i ,42, 1 1 5

1,40,234

19,678

7 3,02,027

700 ADMINISTRATION

The operations of ihc Inam Department were brought to a close in
1881. The total number of land inums confirmed was 57,888, of which
57,726 were enfranchised and 162 unenfranchised. There were
besides 11,302 indms resumed for invalidity of tenure. In 4,658 cases
the land could neither be identified nor was it in enjoyment : they
were therefore struck off the list. Cash grants or muzrayi payments
were confirmed to the number of 1,942, amounting in value to
Rs. 2,68,940: in 415 cases the payments were resumed, and in 982
struck off as having been formerly resumed.

The total cost of the Commissicjn amounted to Rs. ■9,53,581, and
89 per cent, of this was added to the revenue through its operations,
though conducted on principles most liberal to the inamdars. Its
necessity therefore was evident.

Muzrayi Department. — A question of almost equal importance to
that of inam holdings in land, is the settlement of the money grants
made at various periods to numerous institutions and individuals for
services or otherwise. After the assumption of the country in 1831,
the management of these funds and the up-keep of the institutions were
vested in the Superintendents and their subordinate District ofificers. In
1852 Sir Mark Cubbon, the then Commissioner, took the administra-
tion of the Muzrayi Department into his own hands, and on his
departure in 1861 it again devolved on the Superintendents. In 1866
the Government of India observed, that although the peculiar circum-
stances under which Mysore was administered might render it necessary
that certain classes of acts should be performed which would not be
thought of in a purely British Province, yet where such acts were
connected with idolatrous buildings and practices, there seemed no
reason why any Christian officer of the Government, or indeed any
Government officer as such, should be called on to perform them.
Accordingly in 1867 the Muzrayi Department was finally placed in
•charge of a Native Assistant in each District, he being styled the
District Muzrayi Officer.

The orders passed by the INIuzrayi Officer were subject to appeal to
the Deputy Commissioner and Commissioner, and finally to the Chief
Commissioner. The accounts, &:c., were submitted to the Chief
Commissioner's Huzur Daftar Department, \vhere they were checked
and examined.^

' The total income of the Muzrayi Department for 1880-1, including balance of
previous years, amounted to Rs. 4,78,287, and the total expenditure to Rs. 3,30,134,
leaving a balance of Rs. 1,48,153.

The fixed annual grant to Muzrayi institutions stood at Rs. 2,92,986 3 a. 7 p. in
1880 as follows : —

LAND REVENUE

7or

Land Revenue. — The land revenue, as already stated, was
realized either from a direct money assessment or from a division of the
crop under the batayi system, which was being gradually converted into
the former. In 1870, with the view of affording relief to the ryots by
enabling them to bring the bulk of their produce to market before
meeting the Government demand, the instalments were made payable
at the subjoined rates and periods : —

Districts.

Bangalore, Kolar, and Chitaldroog. Annas.
Tumki'ir ...
Mysore ...
Hassan ...

Shimoga and Kadur, Maidan...
,, Malnad...

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

5
2
2

But it was found that the indulgence was abused by the improvi-
dence of the cultivators, and the collection of revenue was attended
with great difficulty after they had disposed of their crops. The kists
were therefore in 1874 reduced to four, and the collection period or

Temples

Chattrams

Dargas

Masjids

Malts ...

Miscellaneous

R. a.

1,12,654 14

54,620 12

4,181 3

3,190 14

52,708 5

15,922 2

Rs. 2,43,278 3 7

Under the management of the officer in
charge of the Palace at Mysore.

R. a. p.

Temples 34,577 o o

Chattrams ... ... 6,604 o o

Other institutions ... 8,527 o o

Rs. 49,708 o o

The actual income of the institutions was : —

Money allowances from Government ..
Receipts from lands
Private contributions

R. a p.

2,50,021 2 5

69,657 15 8

35,840 14 5

l<s. 3,55,520 o 6

Besides these the Puduvat funds of Dcvasthanams amounted to Rs. 1,10,319. They
are classed under four heads :— I. Sums deposited by private individuals, in trust
with the temple manager or guardian, on condition of the interest being devoted to a
special oliject or service, the disposal of the principal being left to the discretion of
the manager. 2. Sums lent by one individual to another with the stipulation that
the interest shall be paid to a temple. 3. Voluntary agreements entered into by
private individuals to pay to a temple the interest accruing on certain sums assigned
for the purpose, but retained in their own hands. 4. Savings from the Government
allowances or Tasdik, lent out on interest by the temple managers for the benefit of
the institution.

"jo:

A DMINISTRA TION

revenue year made conterminous with the official year, which ends
31st March. Under this arrangement the payments were : —
Dec. 2 annas, Jan. 6 annas, Feb. 6 annas, Mar. 2 annas,

except in Mysore District, where the rates first given were retained.

The following figures show the amounts obtained from direct assess-
ment and from batayi for ten years to 1881 : —

Year.

Money
Assessment.

Batayi.

, Year.

Money
Assessment.

BatSyL

1871-2
1872-3
1873-4
1874-5
1875-6

Rs.

70,50,091

70,41,633
70,90,151
72,04,720
73,19,641

1,13,942
1,67,820

87,133
1,46,548

58,584

i 1876-7 ...
1877-8 ...
1878-9 ...
1879-80 ...
1880-I ...

Rs.
64,08,876
72,33,658
71,69,502
69,64,657
69,34,262

26,818
36,996

1,46,499
30,217
24,196

The various sources of land revenue, with the proportion ordinarily
contril)uted by each towards the sum of the collections under this head
were as follows, but the figures were nmch affected in the famine years,
and the coffee halat also fell : — Dry land, 30 to 31 lakhs of rupees ; wet
land, 23 to 23I lakhs; garden land, 10 to lof lakhs; sugar-cane, i^ lakhs;
mulberry, \ a lakh ; coffee halat, -| lakh ; pasture lands, i to i^ lakh ;
kayamgutta villages, 62,000 ; j6di and whole inam villages, nearly
\\ lakh ; inam j6di and minor inams, 2 to if lakhs; sale proceeds of
Government land, 4,000 to 7,000; miscellaneous, i to \\ lakh.

Of the wet land, before the famine, fields irrigated with river-water
yielded 3 to 3^ lakhs of rupees ; with tank-water, 12 to i3;j lakhs ; with
rain-water, 5^ to 5f lakhs ; by means of bucket, 62,000 ; by lever, 3,500 ;
by wells, 60 ; from jungle streams, 32,500 to 33,250 ; from talpargi or
springheads, 12,000; from katte hole or dams across small streams,
6,600 ; marshy lands, nearly 32,000.

The following were the productions of garden lands, and the revenue
obtained from each for the same period : — Areca nut, 2f lakhs of rupees ;
cocoanut, i \ lakh ; areca and cocoanut mixed, almost 4 lakhs ; tari fasal,
consisting of ragi, &c., 89,000 ; plantain, 9,000 ; betel-leaf, 28,000 ;
vegetables, i^ lakh.

Cojfce halat. — It is known that very early in the present century
Mysore-grown coffee was offered for sale in the bazaars, and the culti-
vation was general to a small extent in many portions of the Western
Districts. In accordance with the invariable custom of the country, the
right of the State to half the produce was always acknowledged by the
cultivators, and enforced by the Native Government. In 1823, the
.Maharaja rented the Government half-share to a Madras firm (Messrs.

COFFEE HALAT. 703

Parry &: Co.) for ten years, for the annual sum of Rs. 4,270, and the
contract was renewed at the end of this period for a further term of
five years, at an annual payment of Rs. 7,472. After the assumption
of the Government by the British, the question of encouraging the culti-
vation of coffee, by commuting the varam or half-share for either a
moderate excise duty or a light assessment on the land itself, formed the
subject of correspondence. Eventually, in 1838-9, Sir Mark Cubbon,
regarding the question of an increased revenue as quite subordinate to
the extension of coffee cultivation, sanctioned the adoption of a halat or
excise tax of R. i per maund (Rs. 4 per cwt.) on all coffee grown in
Mysore : a duty which at the then price of coffee, Rs. 4 per maund, was
equivalent to 25 per cent, in lieu of the old varam or Government half-
share of the produce. In 1843-4, in consideration of the disadvantages
under which Mysore coffee entered the general market, the rate was
reduced to 8 annas a maund. In 1849-50, in consequence of the heavy
fall in the price of the article which had taken place during the previous
ten years (coffee being then reported to be selling at little over R. i
a maund, though it had been sold at upwards of Rs. 4 a maund in
1839-40, and as high as Rs. 6 or 7 five years earlier), the halat was
still further reduced to 4 annas a maund. At this rate it has remained
ever since. Taking a fair average crop of coffee at 4 cwts. per acre,
and putting the price at Rs. 5 per cwt, the tax of 4 annas a maund, at
the time of its imposition, represented a land-rate of Rs. 4 per acre, or
an excise tax of 20 per cent, of the produce in lieu of the old Govern-
ment share of 50 per cent. In 1864, the Mysore Planters' Association
presented a memorial for a reduction of the halat, stating that the tax
amounted to Rs. 6 per acre on their coffee lands. Mr. Bowring
estimated that at the then price of coffee (Rs. 5 per maund), the halat
of 4 annas a maund or 5 per cent, was neither oppressive nor repressive,
but was willing to reduce it to 3 annas a maund. The Government
of India agreed to this if an acreage of 8 annas were paid in addition.
But as a survey of the lands could not then be made for the purpose,
the halat remained unchanged. The Association next memorialised the
Secretary of State, who declined to interfere.

The relative merits of the halat or of an acreage were constant
subjects of discussion for twenty years. In 1S54 it was found that
owing to the halat system placing the tax upon the crop instead of
upon the land, large tracts of forest were taken up nominally for coffee
cultivation by people who had neither the intention nor the means to
cultivate it properly, and that owing to the inferior system of manage-
ment on native estates the yield was often not more than 5 maunds or
I \ cwt. per acre. As a remedy for these abuses, a land-rate was pro-

7 04 ADMINISTRA TION

posed, which Sir Mark Cubbon considered should be fixed at the
equivalent of one-third of the gross produce, but he was averse to the
change. In i860, however, he issued rules for the more close super-
vision of coffee cultivation, as, though the area of estates was largely
increasing, the halat or excise collections remained stationary. He, at
the same time, prescribed the present form of coffee patta, and retained
the clause providing for resumption unless a certain proportion of
every estate was planted up within a reasonable time, as he considered
it " the only measure for checking the tendency which exists, especially
in the case of European planters, to obtain a vast extent of land
which they have not the slightest intention nor indeed the means of
cultivating, but which they wish to occupy, either with the view of
keeping other parties out, or from a desire to retain it until it rises in
value and the opportunity offers of selling it piece-meal to other
individuals." In 1862 Mr. Bowring recommended that the halat
should be abolished and that the land should be held free for four
years, that a rental should be imposed of R. i per acre from the
fifth to the ninth year, and Rs. 2 per acre in the tenth and thereafter.
These views were carried into effect in Coorg, but not in Mysore, out
of consideration for objections on the part of Native planters who held
three-fourths of the coffee lands. Speaking from their point of view,
Mr. Bowring remarks, " The cultivation of coffee in the jungles where
it is grown being optional, no loss comparatively is entailed on the
proprietor if his crop fails, for his outlay is exceedingly small, and the
land so cultivated forms but a portion of his farm ; whereas if he paid
an acreage on the land, that land not being suitable for other crops, the
failure of his coffee would fall heavily upon him and would perhaps lead
to his abandoning the cultivation altogether. Large quantities of coffee
are grown too on the slopes of the Baba Budan range, which being
mostly jagir land, would probably be considered not amenable to land-
rent."

The radical defect of the halat system, as stated by Mr. Dalyell, is
that it is practically a tax upon industry, or even a positive premium
on slovenly cultivation, inasmuch as the tax is raised in exact propor-
tion to the quantity of produce obtained from the land. An acreage
system, he considered, would prevent smuggling, and as no land would
be retained by a planter which he had not sufficient means to cultivate,
all the tracts suitable for coffee cultivation would become available to
capitalists, to the manifest advantage of the revenue as well as of the
general interests of the Province.

The following statistics show the extension of coffee cultivation, and
the revenue yielded by the halat thereon, from the year 1831 : —

COFFEE HALAT

705

0 '■n ino ON ■-'
0 ri_ ■^ •>*; 0 —

m ri- T^- j-~ r^vo

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a VO t^OO ON 0 "

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►^ 1 M ro rn in rn "^

>•

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■-■ N rn r}- in
in in in in in

CO CO CO C/3 CO

0 Cn On 0 0
ti N in n- 0 0
;S m 0 r<l "^ rn

■ri J i-i; 0' rn i-^ n"

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t^OO OMn I-"

>: > 1 1 1 1

J" 'i- 'J- Tj- -^ 1/1

^ CO CO CO X)CO

in 0 ^y-^^o ^o
0 M t^ m 0

M t^ I^ tN 0

in •-T c\ rn rn

■1 N «-< N N

M rn •* mvo
1 1 1 1 1
►- M m Tt m

Tl- Tj- '^ 1- ^a-

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•"3 •* M 0 00^ cr»

M « N

r^OO On ■* "-■

1 1 1 1 1
vo r^oo 0^ 0
rn rn ro rn ■<1-

CO >D CO CO 00

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0 M N >0 NO

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t^inO l^"^fl OnO>nOC/0 O m— ■-!
ro O rf o" in 0> r^ o' pT cnT "-^ >- — "1
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mM r^mONN n t^r^i-i n q O O

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00 ■* O « «^30 oomi-iN'i-ON'-ifO
m On ^t onoo m rn tj-oo rnvo •-i t^ •*

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m" rnvo NO oo" On "-^ ■-<" ^r rf m rn 'n •^

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m — O ►- NO — ^no O rf '■n O i^ r^
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\f\\riO r-."- M u^rn-i O OnOn'^N
00 -i t^ O On N r^NO On rn u-1 O NO •^
N OnF^no —no P) in— rot^TfmON

c>r cT NO NO 00 Ov — " — ' (nT rT pT i-n fn rn

— — — — — — M M M Cl r) f< M N

t^O 000 N mN i^Qin — 00

— rn — NO t1- m rnNO — r^ fn "i

— ONfO'^O mN CI rn — NONO

r^NO Tj-co NO rn r^oo m on on O O O

Tj-CO rn n Tj-OO On On N O Q On On NO

C) ^ in M moo — ONOOOONmin

<> t-C Tt On 'ONO nOCO — no pToO r-»0

m O NO t^NO o 'n in moo n O 1^ t~~.
inM M O — — CO rnr) ri m'^'^'^n

•"i^inONcT— ^M'cTi-nTf'^-^f-'t'^'f
M M «N) mrnrnr^mmrnmmmm

m 0\ O 'l-NO NOrONONmOF^'-'
m t^ r^oo On- NOOOONOO — 00

m Tj- wiNO r^oo On t^ — N m •* mvo

I I I ! I ! I I 1 I 1 I I I

r< rn ^ in NO 1^00 OnO — n "^Tj-m
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0000000000000000000000000000

rt
«

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NO ro

m CO

i
<

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rONO
r^ —

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00 00

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Rs. 52,816
38, 108
33,45. >

•*oo m'

— ro Cn
PO-'fNO

inoo^ t^

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r^oo On

1 t T

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00 00 00

z z

7o6

ADMINISTRA TION

In 1872 the Planters' Association raised a question in regard to the
vaHdity of their title-deeds, and were informed by the Government of
India, that " in the event of the transfer of the administration of the
State of Mysore to Native authority, a guarantee will previously be
obtained from tlie Native Government that all leases of land for the
purpose of coffee cultivation to British subjects, whether European or
Native, granted under British Administration, will be scrupulously
respected as far as the terms of the lease provide, and that no regula-
tion shall be introduced prejudicial to the interests of parties holding
leases at the period of the transfer."

Under miscellaneous land revenue, the principal item was Village
Amrayi or fruit-trees, which generally yielded from | to over i lakh of
rupees.

Forests. — The great source of revenue under Forests is the sale ot
sandal-wood, for which Mysore has long been celebrated, and which
appears from a very early period to have been, as now, a State
monopoly ; next to this, the sale of timber yields the largest amount.
Sandal-wood does not appear as a separate source of revenue in the
accounts till the year 1833-4, when it realized Rs. 30,000, and in
1835-6 the unprecedented sum of Rs. 3,16,000. The annual realiza-
tions show considerable fluctuations, varying probably with the supply
and the demand. During the first ten years, up to 184 1-2, the receipts
aggregated 13I lakhs, during the next ten years i6| lakhs, and in the
next, 17 lakhs, up to the year 186 1-2. The sale of timber is not shown
in the accounts until the year 185 7-8.

In 1863-4 the Forest Conservancy Department was introduced, and
its control was gradually extended over tracts which until 1872 were
under the management of the ordinary Revenue establishments. The
financial results attained before and since the introduction of the new
system of Forest Conservancy into Mysore were as follows : —

Decade.

Receipts, annual Charges, | Surplus,
average. annual average. 1 annual average.

1833-4 to 1842-3 Rs.
1S43-4 to 1852-3
1853-4 to 1862-3
1863-4 to 1872-3
1873-4 to 1880-1

1,46,795
1,67,456
2,08,520
3,42,403
4,96,539

18,905

21,773

32,635

1,10,930

2,02,703

1,27,890
1,45,683
1,75,885

2,31,473
2,92,129

The maximum was reached in 18S0-1, when the gross receipts
nearly touched 7 lakhs, and the surplus exceeded 4^ lakhs. These
results were principally due to the sales of sandal-wood, which realized

FORESTS 707

Rs. 5,18,000, the largest sum ever attained in one year. The quantity
sold was 1,443 tons, at an average price of Rs. 387 per ton.

Some arrangements for the Conservancy of Forests seem to have
been made in 1857, but before the formation of the Forest Department
in 1863, the forests of the three Divisions were worked by the Commis-
sioners on various systems. The only general rule was, one permitting
a ryot requiring any wood but teak or sandal to fell it on payment
of a seigniorage of R. i per cart-load. In Ashtagram, though a wood-
yard had been established, traders were allowed to remove teak
from the forests on a stump fee of 8 annas per tree, a most ruinous
system.

The first operation of the Department, after examining the forests,
was to prepare two lists of reserved trees. The first included fifteen
kinds, declared to be absolutely the property of Government, to fell
wliich, wherever growing, either ryot or trader had to obtain a license
on payment of certain fixed rates. The second list contained twenty-
seven kinds of trees, reserved from the trader but free to the ryot for
his own use, provided they grew within his own taluq. All kinds of
trees not named in these two lists were free to ryots, and might be
felled by traders, on payment of R. i a cart-load.

In 1869 new rules were brought into operation providing for the
formation of State and District Forests. The first were placed under
the sole management of the Forest Department, while the last were left
under the Revenue authorities, with the proviso that all reserved trees
— the number of which was now reduced to nine — growing on Govern-
ment land, could be sold only by the Forest Department. Ryots were
allowed unreserved wood and bamboos free of duty, for agricultural
purposes, but paid a duty of R. i per cart-load for wood for house-
building purposes. Traders were required to pay for trees of all kinds.

Subsequently it was found that the District authorities had not
sufficient establishment to protect the Forests under their nominal
charge, and that great waste had resulted from empowering shekdars to
grant licenses. During 187 1-2, therefore, this power was withdrawn
from both Amildars and shekdars preparatory to the introduction of
the District Forest scheme, by 1875-6 everywhere established, the
main feature of which was the abolition of the license system and the
supply of wood from depots to all comers. Ryots paying land-rent
were granted an absolute right over all trees growing on their holdings,
provided the trees were planted by their ancestors or by themselves,
or by former holders of the land from whom the right of occupation
had been bought by the present incumbent.

In relation to the new Revenue Settlement, it was decided that the

z z 2

7 o8 A DMINISTRA TION

Forest Depcartnient should be allowed one year in which to fell alt
reserved trees on holdings made over on assessment to private
individuals. After the lapse of a year, all such trees left unremoved by
the Department, to fall, with the exception of sandal-wood, to the land-
holder. The whole tendency, in short, of Forest legislation was to-
confer wider privileges on the holders of land and inamdars, and to
define and enforce the rights of Government in all forests and over all
trees not belonging, under certain fixed rules, to private individuals.

In 1878-9 the Forest Department was abolished as a separate
Department, and the Conservator was transferred elsewhere. With
three trained Forest officers for the great forests in the West, and for
plantations, the control of the forests was made over to the District
Revenue officers.

There were thirty-three State or reserved, and twenty-two District or
unreserved forests in 1881, covering areas respectively of about 454
and 189 square miles, or altogether 643 square miles. Plantations to-
the number of thirty, for the growth of teak, timber, sandal, and fuel,
were formed in different parts, occupying an aggregate of 4,708 acres.
Village topes numbered 16,293, standing on 14,376 acres, and con-
taining 811,306 trees ; while 3,750 miles of public road had been planted
with trees on both sides, at distances varying from 1 2 to 60 feet.

Abkari. — This branch of revenue was formerly known in Mysore-
under the name of Panch Bab, or " the five items," namely, toddy,
arrack, ganja, betel-leaf and tobacco. The two last were transferred,,
the former in 1838-9, and the latter in 1850-1, to the head of Sayar.
Up to 1862 the manufacture of toddy, arrack, and ganja was under the-
direct management of Government. In that year the Abkari revenue,,
including these three items, was temporarily farmed to contractors,
prior to the introduction of the Sadar Distillery system, which came-
into operation in 1863-4; but it was not till 1865-6 that steps could
be taken to carry its principles fully into effect in the removal of all
obstructions to open competition in the manufacture of spirits.

The system referred to provides for the erection of a large enclosure,
styled a Sadar Distillery, at the head-quarlers of each District (and in.
other places, if the consumption requires it), in which all country
spirits consumed in the District must be manufactured. Any person,
duly licensed may erect a still, at his own expense, within the enclosure,,
and distil as much liquor as he pleases, removing it himself, or selling,
it to the licensed vendors, on the sole condition that before removal
the excise duty must be paid, and the liquor reduced to the authorized-
strength, the officers of Government confining themselves to taking-
such precautions as will insure no liquor being passed out of the:

ABKARI

709

distillery except on these conditions, and having nothing to do with
the manufacture, or the price at which the produce is sold.

The object was to secure for the consumer a superior quality of
spirit, of standard strength, tested at the Government distilleries within
the precincts of which it is manufactured, and to which it pays a still-
head duty before removal. A restricted system of licenses for the
sale of the liquor, combined with regulations for the supervision of
the vendors, also tended to check the promiscuous establishment of
shops. The sale of fermented toddy, the liquor commonly used by
the lower classes, was also subject to the license regulations. But only
the arrack portion of the Abkari revenue was worked under the Sadar
Distillery system. The items of toddy and ganja were farmed out to
■contractors.'

In 1874 a general revision was made of the rates of still-head duty,
which varied in different parts from 14 annas to Rs. 3, and they were
raised to Rs. 2 per gallon throughout the Province, excepting in the
towns of Bangalore and Mysore, in which the rates were fixed at Rs. 3
and 2 1 respectively. The strength of the liquor to be issued from the
distilleries was fixed at 19° below proof. But in 1875 a special arrange-
ment for 3 years was made for the Mysore District with the Ashtagram
Sugar Works at Palhalli, by which the Company contracted to manu-
facture liquor at 20° under proof and sell it to Government at 13 annas
per gallon. The liquor was sold to vendors on the spot at Rs. 4 per
gallon when intended for consumption in the town of Mysore, and at
Rs. 3^ for consumption elsewhere within the District. The retail
■vendors were bound to sell to the public within the town of Mysore at
Rs. 5 per gallon, and beyond the town at Rs. 4^.

The following figures will show the immediate operation of the new
rules on the sale and consumption of arrack : in the following years the
famine greatly reduced all Abkari revenue :■ —

No. of shops.

Year.

No. of

stills.

Gallons
distilled.

Amount of
still-head duty.

Amount

Whole-
sale.

Retail.

licenses.

Rs.

1872-3

252,194

Ks. 4,35,755

135

1,484

90,414

• License fees in

1873-4

271,572

4,68,521

1,442

57,517*

Kangalore transferred
lo Municiiiaiily.

1S74-5

219,800

4,56,601

1,369

60,654

t System of putting

1875-6

188,425

4,77,628

«S

1,149

5o,362t

up retail shops lo

auction discontinued.

^ Inamdars whose sanads included the right, received the revenue from arrack
licenses in their inam villages.

7IO ADMINISTRATION

In 1878-9 the Sadar Distillery system was discontinued in the
Nandidroog Division, the exclusive right of manufacturing and selling
arrack being given out on contract for 3 years.

The brewing of beer, at 3 breweries in operation in Bangalore,
rapidly increased. A still-head duty of 2 annas a gallon was imposed
on it in 1873-4, and the number of gallons brewed rose from 58,000 in
that year to 140,000 in 1875-6, but the production afterwards fell off
considerably. From April 1876 the still-head duty was raised to
4 annas per gallon, but from March 1879 it was again reduced to_
2 annas. ■

Toddy in this Province is extracted from date-trees, which grow
wild throughout the country, and in a few places from cocoanut and
sago-palm trees. All date-trees growing on Government or ryotwari
lands, whether occupied or unoccupied, are regarded as at the disposal
of Government for Abkari purposes ; but trees growing on occupied
Government lands in the surveyed taluqs, and those in inam and
kayamgutta villages the toddy revenue of which is granted to the
holders by their sanads, are regarded as the property of the land-
holder, and are therefore excluded from the contractor's lease. The
exclusive right of drawing and vending the toddy was rented out to the
contractors for a term, which varied in the different Divisions. The
area over which such right might be exercised varied from one taluq to a
District, according to the circumstances of the District and means of
the contractor. Till 1872 the farming of the toddy was leased out
annually in Nandidroog and Ashtagram, and for five years in Nagar,
but owing to the inconvenience of frequently changing contractors, the
latter period was adopted in all. Date reserves are being formed
in each District on waste or unoccupied lands, demarcated for the
purpose as the survey progresses. This measure is necessary to guard
against the possible inconvenience of a general destruction of date-trees
on their kandayam lands by the ryots. No grant of land for cultivation
is made within the limits of such reserves.

The revenue derived from a tax on spirituous liquors, ganja and
toddy, appears from the accounts of 1 799-1800, to have produced
Kanthiraya pagodas 28,800, or Rs. 84,000 in that year, and Kanthiraya
pagodas 44,290, or Rs. 1,29,179 in 1802-3. The receipts are not
distinctly shown in the earlier years of British Administration, but in
the accounts of 1836-7, the Abkari revenue is entered at 2^ lakhs of
rupees, and it gradually rose, producing lof lakhs in 1872-3. The
next two years it was \\\ lakhs, and in 1875-6 reached i2§ lakhs.
Owing to the famine it then diminished every year till in 1879-80 it was
only 8.64 lakhs. In 1S80-1 it began to revive and stood at 10.67 lakhs.

SAYAR 711

Sdyar or Cusioms. — The Sayar system in Mysore under the former
Governments has already been fully described, and the mode in which
it was dealt with by the British Administration down to 1854.

In the year i860 only 24 articles were made subject lo sayar taxes,
the former rates of duty as prescribed in the old prahar patti being
entirely altered. In 1864 the number was further reduced, and the
export and import duties on all articles, except areca-nut, coffee, and
tobacco, between the Province of Mysore and the surrounding districts
of Her Majesty's Territory were entirely and absolutely relinquished,
with a view to stimulate industry and to foster the trade of the country;
Sayar being levied only on the following articles, produced within the
Province and intended for home consumption : — •

(i) Areca-nut, 6 annas to R. i.| per maund of aSlbs. ; (2) Tobacco, R. i
to 3I per maund of 24lbs. ; (3) Cocoanut, dry, 7 ^ annas per maund ; (4)
Cocoanut, fresh, 8 annas per 100 ; (5) Cardamoms, Rs. 2 per maund ; (6)
Pepper, 4 annas per maund ; (7) Betel-leaves, i to 2 pie per bundle of 100
leaves ; (8) Piece-goods, 5 per cent, ad valorem ; (9) Opium, 20 per cent, ad
valorem. Of these, areca-nut, tobacco, pepper, cardamoms and opium were
liable to the duty both when imported and when exported.

In 1875 the duty on piece-goods of local manufacture was abolished
permanently, and that on pepper temporarily. The excise duty on
areca-nut and on tobacco, assorted with or without stalks, was fixed
at a uniform rate of 12 annas per maund, and the duty on tobacco
stalks abolished. The rate for betel-leaves was fixed at i pie per
bundle.

Sayar duties appeared in the accounts of 1 799-1800 at the respect-
able sum of Kanthiraya pagodas 2,26,000 or Rs. 6,59,166, and in
those of 1802-3 Kanthiraya pagodas 2,57,000 or Rs. 7,49,583. They
rose to a sum of Rs. 10,45,000 in the year 1846-7. The bulk of the
numerous petty taxes which were either abolished or modified
between the years 1831 and 1854 were classed in the accounts as
Sayar. It has been seen that the gross annual amount thus remitted
was I of lakhs. But we still find that the Sayar collections, which had
never exceeded \o\ lakhs in any one year during the existence of
those taxes, were not seriously diminished after their removal. On the
contrary, the Sayar receipts amounted to 9^ lakhs annually in the
years 1856-7 and 1S59-60, to iotj lakhs in the next year, and to \\\
in 1861-2. In 1862-3 they produced Rs. 10,46,000 only, owing to an
unfavourable season for the supari and tobacco crops. In the following
year they again reached Rs. 11,33,000. With the customs duties
abrogated in 1864, a vast horde of petty customs establishments,
numbering 1,800 men on trifling stipends, were dis[)ensed with,

7 1 2 ADMINISTRA TION

reducing the cost of collection from i lakh to about Ks. 40,000
annually. Consequent on these measures, Sayar being levied as an
excise on only eight articles of home produce, the Sayar revenue, as
may have been expected, fell to Rs. 8,88,000 in 1865-6, and to
7 lakhs in 1867-8. It, however, gradually revived, and amounted to
7 J lakhs in 187 1-2, and to more than 9^ in 1872-3. Owing to
unfavourable seasons, it fell a little below this in the next year, and in
1874-5 to 8 J lakhs. The abolition and reduction of duties in that
year still further reduced the Sayar collections, which for 1875-6 stood
at a little below 6| lakhs. To this total areca-nut contributed 4-2 lakhs
and tobacco nearly a lakh.

After this the collections fell every year, till in 1880-1 they amounted
to less than 3I lakhs. This was due to the policy of Government in
gradually abolishing the duties with a view to benefiting the people.
Those on piece-goods and pepper were taken off in 1875-6 and that
on opium transferred to Abkari. In 1879-80 the Sayar duties were
virtually abolished as a State tax. In their stead octroi collections
were authorized in municipal towns, a moiety being credited to the
State and the other moiety being retained by the municipalities which
made the collections.

Mohatarfa or Assessed Taxes. — Under the former Governments of
Mysore, various taxes were levied on castes and professions, besides
taxes on houses, looms, shops, and oil-mills, and included under the
general head of Mohatarfa. In the year i860 a general revision of the
Mohatarfa taxes took place, when most of them were abolished, and
five were retained, viz., a tax on houses, on loom.s, on shops, on oil-
mills, and on ploughs. A tax on carts was introduced in 1870. In the
year 187 1 the plough-tax was abolished, being superseded by the local
cess, Mohatarfa was then levied only on the remaining items. These
taxes did not now directly touch the ryot, but were confined to other
classes. Special exemptions from house-tax were, however, accorded
to Brahmans, Musalmans and certain officials, in accordance with
ancient usage.

From 1S40 up to the year 1854-5 the receipts amounted to 6|
lakhs per annum, but during that period they included some items
afterwards classed under other heads of accounts, and several taxes
which no longer exist. After the abolition of these, the collections
fluctuated between 4 and 5 lakhs from the year 1856-7 to 1861-2,
■when they amounted to Rs. 4,79,000. In 1S62-3 they declined still
further, to Rs. 3,52,000. In 1 87 2-3 they were Rs. 3,22,000, exclusive
of the cart-tax, which was levied in 1870. The decline was partly
attributable to the alienation, for municipal purposes, of the Mohatarfa

SALT 713

taxes levied in the towns. The receipts, which stood at over 2i\ lakhs,
fell in 1878-9 to 2 J, and in 1S80-1 were 2\ lakhs. The famine
caused a general desertion of houses and looms, and even the
dismantling of many to obtain food. But in 1879-80 the items were
revised in Municipal towns in order to reduce to one item the separate
levy made for Government and for municipal purposes. The rates vary
from As. 8 to Rs. 12 per annum on each house, Rs. 2 to Rs. 30 per
shop, Rs. I to Rs. 8 per loom, Rs. 3 to Rs. 20 per oil-mill, Rs. 2 per
cart owned by the non-agricultural classes.

The following are details of the amounts realized in 1 880-1 : —

In Villages.

Houses

92,856

Shops

49,868

Looms

37,550

Oil-mills

8,534

Carts

19,528

Miscellaneous

262

Total Rs.

2,08,598

Moiety from

Total.

Municipal towns.

21,860

1,14,716

14,648

64,516

3,475

41,025

1,579

10,113

2666

22,194

—

262

44,228 2,52,826

Certain classes, who from time immemorial have enjoyed immunity
from taxation, were exempted from payment of the house-tax, except in
municipal towns, where they were required to pay the municipal tax
like other people. The number of houses before the famine was
1,027,268, of which the number claiming exemption was 890,000. Of
these 640,000 belonged to the agricultural classes, 150,000 to Brah-
mans, Musalmans and Rajbindes, 46,000 to headmen of towns and
villages, and the remainder were houses which paid the shop, loom, or
oil-mill tax. There were 28,379 shops, 39,014 looms, 3,300 oil-mills,
and 14,679 carts. Of the taxable houses only 17 were terraced,
15,000 were tiled, 25,000 mud-roofed, and the rest thatched.

Salt. — The revenue under this head was derived from fees levied on
pans for the manufacture of earth-salt. This article was consumed by
some of the poorer classes of inhabitants throughout Mysore, and by
most of the people in Chitaldroog District. It is also given to cattle.
But the bulk of the people consume the marine salt imported from
the sea-coast of the Madras Presidency. In 1873-4 the manufacture
of earth-salt within five miles of the frontier, and the exportation of the
article to Her Majesty's territories, were prohibited. The number of
pans in 1880-1 was 2,812. In this year the farming-out of the manu-
facture was abandoned in favour of the issue of licenses for each pan
worked, at rates varying from one anna to Rs. 5 per pan, according to
locality.

7 1 4 ADMINISTRA TION

Slaiiips. — Stamp duties existed in Mysore on the assumption of the
government in 183 1-2, but tliey were levied on a primitive system,
moderate in its rates and limited in its incidence. Between the years
183 1 and 1861 the annual yield was between Rs. 6,000 and 9,000, in
two years only it reached Rs. 10,000, and in another Rs. 15,000. In
1 86 1-2 the old system produced its maximum revenue, which was but
Rs. 19,900. During these years court fees were paid chiefly in coin,
and were mixed in the accounts with other receipts. In 1862-3 there
was a revision of the local regulations, which raised the stamp revenue
to Rs. 71,628 in that year, to Rs. 1,57,000 in the next, and to
Rs. 2,41,000 in 1864-5. I^"* ^865 the Indian Stamp Act was intro-
duced, and the revenue has since made rapid progress, reaching \\
lakhs in 1869-70. After that year the amount realized from court-fee
stamps was credited to the head Law and Justice, but in 1875-6 the
former practice was restored.

Post Office. — For many years the Anche or Local Post appears to
have been almost wholly devoted to the conveyance of official despatches.
The growth of the postal receipts was slow, but steady. During
1S33 to 1843 they rose from Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 6,000, in 1853 to
Rs. 12,000, in 1863 to Rs. 30,000. In 1872-3, notwithstanding a
reduction of postal rates in accordance with the British India scale, the
revenue was Rs. 44,000. The cost of the Department, which had
always exceeded its receipts — public despatches being carried free of
postage in any shape — was enhanced from year to year, but did not
grow so rapidly as the income from private correspondence. The
establishment cost Rs. 33,000 in the year 1833 ; Rs. 44,000 in 1843 ;
Rs. 49,000 in 1853 ; Rs. 95,000 in 1863 ; and Rs. 1,51,000 in 1873.

In 1875-6 the number of receiving houses was 152, the postal lines
traversed by runners aggregated 2,312 miles. No postage-stamps were
in use, but Rs. 50,000 was realized from payments on private letters.
The correspondence passed through the Anche rose from i^ million
in 1861-2 to 2f millions. In 1875-6 postage was paid on \\ millions
of letters, 50,000 newspapers, and 9,601 parcels. The official corre-
spondence, carried free of charge, consisted of i|^ million of letters,
30,000 packets, and 26,000 gazettes. From 1872-3 an arrangement
was entered into with the Imperial Post Office to distribute by Anche
all unpaid letters addressed to Mysore, the latter retaining half the
amount of postage due on all except overland letters from Europe, for
which latter the full charge was repaid.

Local Funds. — By 1871-2 an important change was effected in the
mode of raising an income for local purposes, by the abolition of the
ancient Plough-tax and the introduction of a Local Cess. The Mysore

LOCAL FUNDS 715

Local Funds consisted of a cess levied at the rate of one anna in the
rupee of the land assessment in settled taluqs, and half an anna in
unsettled taluqs, as well as of half an anna upon the collections realized
from Sayar, Abkari, forest produce, coffee halat, and salt pans. In
towns where there were no municipalities, the revenue derived under
the operation of the Cattle Trespass Act, the rent from ferry contracts,
and certain other miscellaneous items, were also exhibited under the
head of local funds. In 1879-80 one anna in the rupee on the assess-
ment was levied in unsurveyed taluqs, instead of half an anna as
before.

Out of the total collections of the Local Fund cess, 24 per cent, were
appropriated to education, for the support of village schools, and (with
the exception noted below) 76 per cent, were credited to the local fund
account of the District in which they were raised, under the name of
District Local Funds, to be applied to the maintenance of roads, &c.
Out of the collections levied on abkari, supari (except in Shimoga and
Kadur Districts), and miscellaneous items, the 76 per cent, were shown
in a separate account, and were held in deposit in the Huzur Treasury
under the name of Local Funds CJeneral, which were at the disposal of
the Chief Commissioner for expenditure where he deemed that a special
grant was called for.

An irrigation cess, at one anna in the rupee of the assessment upon
wet lands, Sarkar or inam, was also levied in the surveyed taluqs and
credited to the local fund revenues to meet the cost of up-keep of irri-
gation works. But in 1873-4 the separate levy of this cess was abolished,
the amount being merged in the ordinary assessment on wet land ;
and at the settlement of each taluq an equivalent lump sum is set apart
out of the annual revenue of the taluq to form a District Irrigation
Fund.

The revenue credited to Local Funds since 1871-2 was as
follows : —

I87I-2

... Rs. 3,47,205

1876-7 ...

... Rs. 4,85,451

1872-3 ...

4,36,845

1877-8 ...

4,94,574

1873-4

4,59>979

1878-9

5,49,520

1874-5

4,75.207

1879-80

6,86,724

1875-6

5,12,063

1880-1

6,90,082

Mttnici/yal Finids. — Municipal Committees were first experimentally
formed in 1862, at l^angnlore and Mysore. The experiment proved a
success, and by 1864-5 '^^^^'^ of the eight District head-quarter stations
possessed a Municipal Committee. The measure was next extended
to Taluq kasbas, and eventually to other large trading towns and
villages. The District head-tjuarter municipalities were the most

7 1 6 ADMINISTRA TION

important, the municipal proceedings in minor towns being at first
limited to conservancy operations, in which, however, material improve-
ment was visible.

In Bangalore, where the municipal operations were conducted on a
large scale, and their control and direction required special attention
and involved much labour, the President was paid Rs. 700 per mensem,
which was defrayed by the municipalities of the Cantonment and Town
of Bangalore, in the proportion of two-thirds and one-third respectively.
In the other District head-quarter municipalities, no salary was attached
to the ofifice of the President, a selected (government official of the
station undertaking the charge in addition to his other duties. In all
of these municipalities, regularly organized Boards were formed, con-
sisting of the most influential European and Native members of the
community. In the smaller towns, where it was found difficult
to constitute regular Boards, municipal regulations were with great
advantage introduced and enforced through the agency of the revenue
officers.

On the I St April 187 1 a new Code of INIunicipal Regulations for the
Cantonment and Town of Bangalore was introduced. These regula-
tions provided for the appointment of Commissioners, for making
better provision for the police, conservancy and improvement of the
Cantonment and Town, and for enabling the Commissioners to levy
taxes, tolls, town dues and rates therein. Under the operation of these
regulations, a material change was effected in the composition of the
Board. In substitution of the previous arrangements for the selection
of members, the Cantonment was divided into six divisions or wards,
and the Town into three, from each of which two persons residing
therein were nominated by Government to be Municipal Commis-
sioners. In addition to these ihe Board was further composed of six
ex-officio members, specially selected to represent all branches of the
official community, the number being restricted to a third of the total
number of the Commissioners.

In the year 1872-3 the revenue derived from the sale of licenses for
retail vend of arrack in Bangalore was transferred to the INIunicipality,
with a view to increase its revenues, and to prevent the number of shops
multiplying indiscriminately beyond the actual requirements of the
place. For a better administration of the abkari retail vend within the
Town and Cantonment municipal limits, a Bench of Magistrates, com-
posed of the Deputy Commissioner, the Cantonment Magistrate and
the President of the Municipality, was constituted, the last of the above-
mentioned officers being vested with the powers of a Justice of the
Peace. The decree of the Bench of Magistrates was considered final in

MUNICIPAL FUNDS 717

matters relating to the allotment and renewal of licenses and disposal of
comi)]aints.

The following- were the taxes authorized to be levied by the Municipali-
ties : — I. An octroi or tax on articles brought within municipal limits for
consumption and use therein. 2. Tax on houses, buildings and lands.
3. Tax on professions and trades. 4. Tax on carriages, carts, &c. 5. Tolls
on carriages, carts, &c. 6. Ferries. 7. Tax on licenses. 8. Tax on bricks
and tiles. The octroi was the most productive of all the taxes. Next in
order stood the house-tax and tax on professions and trades. In the
Nandidroog Division (except the Town and Cantonment of Bangalore), the
house-tax was levied in substitution for the octroi in all the municipalities
of the Bangalore and Kolar Districts, and in four places in the Tiimkur
District, viz.: Tiptur, Bellavi, Gubbi and Tumkur, in the first two of which
great marts are held weekly, while the third is the most important entrepot
for the Malnad areca-nut produce, and the fourth is the head-quarters of
the District. Octroi was still levied in the other towns of the Tumkur
District, but the house-tax was regarded as furnishing a more certain source
of income, not being subject to the fluctuations of trade like the octroi, or
liable to misappropriation by the collectors. In the Ashtagram Division, to
avoid pressure upon the poorer classes, grain, the staple food of the people,,
was exempted from the tax. The number of taxable articles under octroi
amounted to 20 in Mysore, and 15 in Seringapatam and Hiinsiir ; at Hassan
the chief article taxed was tobacco. There was also an ad valorem duty at
5 per cent, on the sale, at these places, of country cloth manufactured else-
where than in Mysore. The ad valorem duty on piece-goods formed an
appreciable portion of the octroi duty generally, but especially in Shimoga
and Tarikere. But as the pressure of this tax told more on the poorer
classes than on the rich, its levy was under inquiry.

In the town of Mysore, all sdyar collections were trnnsfcrrcd to the
municipality so far back as 1863. The mohatarfa collections were
surrendered to the municipality of Seringapatam on condition of their
maintaining their own Police ; and were afterwards surrendered on the
same conditions to the municipalities of Bangalore, Kolar, Shimoga,
Chitaldroog and Chikmagalur, the latter also defraying the cost of the
Government schools in the town. This tax had been carefully revised, and
extended to the privileged classes who had hitherto been exempt, in
accordance with the annexed schedule ; the last three rates being specially
sanctioned for the town of Mysore.

Rs. Rs. Rs. I Rs. Rs. l\s.

House valued below

Do. from 50 to 100 i \ Do.

Do. ,, 100 to 200 2 Do

Do.
Do.
Do.

—

50 to

100

100 to

200

200 to

300

300 to

500

500 to

700

700 to

[,000

Do.
Do.
Do.

Do. ,, 700 to 1,000 6 I above —

1,000

to 1,500

1,500

to 3,000

3,000

to 5,000

5,000

to 6,000

6,000

to 10,000

0,000

to 20,000

—

20,000

120

7i8

ADMINISTRA TION

The total amount of municipal revenue in 1 880-1 was 4*2 1 lakhs
of rupees. Of this sum Rs. 1,63,070 were obtained from octroi,
Rs. 1,05,100 from house-tax, Rs. 42,712 from licenses on trades,
Rs. 44,948 from mohatarfa, Rs. 18,374 from rents, Rs. 1,557 from
fines, Rs. 33,525 from miscellaneous items, and Rs. 11,870 from
grants-in-aid.

There were at this time 84 Municipalities, distributed in the Districts

as stated in the margin. There were 341
members composing the various Munici-
pal Boards, 89 of whom were ex-qfficio,
and 252 nominated members.

The following figures exhibit the growth
of municipal institutions and funds since their first establishment :
during the famine years the details are not given : —

Bangalore .

Hassan ... 11

Kolar

Shimoga . 10

Tumkur ...

Kadur ... 7

Mysore ...

Chilaldroog 6

Bangalore.

Mysore.

District Head- j Qther Towns,
quarters. 1

Total

Expendi-

Year.

Canton-
ment.

Receipts. | ture.

Town.

No.

Amount. | No.

Amount.

1862-3

37,509

21,681

23,369

82,559

1863-4

35>ooo

20,350

28,713

84,063

39,302

1864-5

58,793

19,585

33,992

1,12,370

93,900

1S65-6

71,688

26,322

35,190

16,087

1,49,287 1,44,976

1866-7

58,034

23,330

31,387

12,078

1,24,829 1,35,150

1867-8

60,090

26,451

41,612

13,761

10,672

1,52,586 1,41,818

1868-9

62,561

48,751

30,422

16,297

17,128

1,75,159 1,49,061

1869-70

69,969

43,010

28,106

20,286

21,352

1,82,723 ,1,97,030

1870-I

56,776

52,867

47,217

21,520

28,737

2,07,117 2,08,927

1871-2

92,617

59,332

71,168

28,189

37,835

2,89,141 2,59,186

1872-3

1,18,535

61,084

76,115

32,930

51,600

3,40,264 3,01,567

1S73-4

1,19,179

61,930

80,250

34,398

57,432

3,53,189 3,39,134

1874-5

1,18,257

63,440

85,076

41,366

56,729

3,64,868 3,70.448

1875-6

1,22,737

64,769

82,775

45,218

60,019

3,75,518 3,67,370

1876-7

3,65,109 4,06,049

1877-8

3,36,606 3,52,381

1878-9

1,25,758

61,627

67 !

3,61,499 3,48,851

1879-80

...

2,05,383

3,92,768 3,52,285

I 880- I

1,44,670

59,993

2,16,473

4,21,136 3,82,158

State Expenditure. — ^^l^ile the ISIysore revenues expanded under
British management, as described in the preceding pages, the
expenditure rose rapidly with the reforms introduced in all departments
of the Administration, more especially since 1862. Notwithstanding
the exceptional demands during the first 25 years on account of the
debts of the State and its ruler, the accounts show that from 183 1 to
the close of the year 186 1-2, there was a surplus of receipts amounting
to Rs. 1,00,91,000, or, excluding the receipts and payments on account

EXPENDITURE

719

of the loan from the British Government and the Maharaja's debts,
Rs. 152I lakhs. The average annual revenues and charges, without
those exceptional items, were as follows during the respective decades
from 1832-3 to 1 86 1 -2 : —

Decade.

1832-3 to 1841-2
1842-3 to 1851-2
1852-3 to 1 86 1 -2

Average Annual
Receipts.

Average Annual
Expenditure.

Average Annual
Surplus.

Rs. 70,08,000

69,21,000

87,000

76,61,000

68,91,000

7,70,000

86,54,000

79,92,000

6,62,000

The increase of expenditure since 1852-3 will he made intelligible
by the following comparison of the charges for that year and 186 1-2,
which was the last year of the former regime; next 1863-4, when the
administration had been fully reorganized; 1872-3, completing the
second decade ; and 1875-6, the last year before the famine.

The figures of the immediately succeeding years are of no use for
comparison, from their being so seriously affected, first, by abnormal
expenditure on account of the famine, and next, even when reductions
had been carried out in all departments, by the large sums paid on
account of compensation, pensions, and gratuities. But the approxi-
mate figures for 1 880-1 are given, from which it will be seen that,
excluding the special Railway and Pension charges (i5"65 and 271
lakhs respectively), the expenditure had gone down to 10 1 lakhs, and
even this included 4 lakhs for interest on debt, and other exceptional
items, such as the Maharaja's installation, census, etc.

Head of Charge.

Civil chargesof Ad-
ministration ...

Local Force

Religious and char-
ital)le Institu-
tions

Sul)si(ly to British
Government ...

Maharaja's stipend
and share of
Revenue

Ruhlic Works E.\-
penditure

Total Administra-
tion Charges ...

1852-3.

18,56,000 25,99,000
10,04,000 10,46,000

2,99,000 3,02,000
24,50,00024,50,000

14,98,000 15,11,000

1863-4.

1872-3.

1875-6.

32,78,000 40,34,000 I 47,44,000! 45,85,000
10,80,000! 10,86,000 8,60,000' 7,54,000

2,61,000 2,83,000 2,83,000 2,75,000
24,50,000 24,50,000 I 24,50,000 24,50,000

14,03,000 8,54,000* 8,80,000 10,00,000

4,64,00011,64,00013,59,000' 14,24,000

2i,97,ooo| 10,75,000

75,71,00090,72,00098,31,000 1,01,31,000 1,14,14,000 1,01,39,000

Palace charges after the Maharaja's death.

720

ADMINISTRA TION

The anal)-.sis of Civil charges, as under, will show the departments
under which increase mainly arose and the subsequent reductions : —

Head.

1852-3.

1861-2.

1863-4.

1872-3.

187S-6.

1880-t.

General charges. Rs.

2,34,000

3,50,000

3.3S.OOO

3,25,000

3,65,000

24,62,000

Revenue and Judicial 8,19,000

11,81,000

15,38,000

16,20,000

17,37.000/

Revenue Survey ...

38,000

2,47,000

2,89,000

245,000

Inam Commission ...

...

85,000

75.000

41,000

Sayar and Abkari . . .

2,08,000

2,60,000

97,000

59,000

72,000

14,000

Forests

18,000

53>ooo

32,000

1,86,000

2,35,000

83,600

Stamps

43,000

13,000

1 3,600

Post Office

48,000

95,000

1,51,000

1,60,000

1,07,400

Jails... _

16,000

25,000

1,06,000

1,10,000

1,23,000

1,66,600

Registration

17,000

20,000

24,000

Police

3,25,000

3,94,000

4,97,000

4,45,000

5,70,000

4,85,000

Political Pensions ...

82,000

73,000

58,000

66,000

64,000 1
i,79,ooo'J

Service Pensions and

3,13,800

Gratuities

1,000

14,000

86,000

1,14,000

Medical Department

35.000

64,000

86,000

1,30,000

1,49,000

1,58,000

Education ...

6,000

43,000

73,000

2,45,000

I,62,OCK>

Miscellaneous

64,000

47,000

1,90,000

1,81,000

3,51,000

1,46,00a

Refunds of Revenue.

4,000

40,000

97,000

From the review now given of the finances of Mysore, it will be
apparent that during the first 45 years of British rule, a period of
profound peace, the country having been spared the convulsions of
1857, the revenues doubled from 55 lakhs to no lakhs, and the
administrative charges, which were about 55 lakhs in the earlier years,
rose to over double that. When the British assumed the government in
1 83 1, they found the State encumbered with debts, the liquidation of
which cost 87 f lakhs during the first 25 years, and the revenues had to
bear a further charge of 39^ lakhs between 1864 and 1869, on account
of fresh debts contracted by the Maharaja. The State was now free
from such liabilities, with a steadily improving income, an ample cash
balance, and an invested surplus in 1875-6 of ^t^ lakhs. But the
famine which ensued completely reversed the financial prospects for the
time, and though in 1878-9 the revenue reached the abnormal sum of
121 lakhs, much of this was due to collection of arrears, and the
regular revenue did not exceed 104 lakhs at the highest. The invested
surplus had disappeared, and in its place a debt of 80 lakhs had been
incurred. The outlook therefore, which had recently been o fair, was
far from encouraging on the eve of the Rendition.

LEGISLATION

721

LAW AND JUSTICE

Legislation. — Mysore being a Native State, the Legislative enact-
ments of the Government of India do not necessarily apply to it as
they do in British India. When, therefore, the extension to Mysore of
any Legislative enactment of the Government of India, or of the
Governments of Madras, Bengal or Bombay, is considered necessary, it
is usual to make a special ai)plication to the Governor-General in
Council vvith this object.

The following is a list of the Acts of the (iovernment of India which
had been extended to Mysore either in whole or in part up to 1 880-1.

No. and Year of Act.

XX of

1847

IX of

i8so

XIX of

iSso

XVIII of

I8S4

XXI of

i8s6

VI of

I8S7

VIII of

i8sQ

XIV of

i8sq

XIII of

i8sq

XXVII of

i860

XXXI of

i860

XLV of

i860

V of

1 861

XXIII of

1 861

XXV of

1 861

XXIX of

1861

Xof

1862

VI of

1864

XIII of

1864

V of

1 86s

Xof

i86s

XI of

186S

Vof

1866

VI of

1866

Xof

1866

XIV of

1866

XX of

1866

III of

1867

VII of

1867

XXIV of

1867

XXV of

1867

XXXII of

1867

I of

1868

XXVII of

1868

II of

1869

VIII of

i86q

XVIII of

1869

XXI of

1869

XX of

1869

Name or subject of Act.

Small Cause Courts

Binding of Apprentices

Railway Act

Abkari Revenue

Acquisition of Land for public purposes ..

Civil Procedure Code

Limitation of Suits, Section 15 ...

Breach of Contract

Collection of Debts on Succession

Sale of Arms and Ammunition ...

Indian I'enal Code

Regulation of I'olice

To amend the Civil Procedure Code

Criminal Procedure Code ...

Articles of War

Indian Stamp Act ...

Whipping Act

Emigration Act

Marriages of Christians ...

Lulian Succession Act

Mofussil Small Cause Courts ... ...

Bills of Exchange ...

Arms and Ammunition, <S;c.

Trading Companies

Post Offices

Registration of Assurances

Public gambling

Purchase of Soldiers' Articles

Administrator-General's Act

Regulation of Printing Presses, &c.

Conferring on Chief Commissioner powers

Local Government
Cleneral Clauses Act

Limitation of Indian Registration Act ...
Justices of the Peace
Criminal Procedure Code amended
General Stamp Act

Rules for the Eorest Department of Mysore
European \'agrancy
Indian \'olunteer Act

Date of Exten-
sion to Mysore.

of a

1867
1863
1875
1864
1864
1867
1869
1875
1864
1868
1868
1862
1866
1869
1862
1868
1865
1864
1865
1865
1 868
1866
1868
1868
1868
1867
1866
1867
1871

1867

1867
1878
1868

1869
1870
1869
1871
1870

3 A

722

ADMINISTRA TION

No. and ^'ear of Act.

Name or subject of Act.

Date of Exten-
sion to Mysore.

VII of

1870

Xof

1870

XXIII of

1870

XXVI of

1870

XXVII of

1870

I of

187 1

VIII of

1 87 1

IX of

1871

Xof

1871

XXIII of

1871

XXV of

1871

XXVI of

1871

I of

1872

IX of

1872

Xof

1872

XI of

1872

XV of

1872

XVIII of

1872

XIX of

1872

Vof

1873

Xof

1873

XI of

1874

XXI of

1876

I of

1877

III of

1877

Xof

1877

XV of

1877

I of

1878

XI of

1878

I of

1879

IV of

1879

XII of

1879

XIV of

1880

Court Fees ... ... ... ... ., ... 1870

Land Acquisition ... ... ... ... ..,1 1 870

Indian Coinage ... ... ... ... ... j 1870

Prisons' Act ... ... ... ... ... 1 1879

To amend the Indian Penal Code ... ... 1 187 1

Code of Municipal Regulations ... ... ... \ 1871

Cattle Tres])ass ... ... ... ... ... 1872

Custody and duardianshi]! of Minors, Idiots, &c. 1872

Indian Registration Act ... ... ... ... 1871

Indian Limitation Act ... ... ... ... ; 187 1

Rules under the Contagious Diseases Act ... , 1871

Excise Act ... ... ... ... ... ... , 1879

Pensions ... ... ... ... ... ... i 1873

To amend the Railway Act ... ... ... i 1871

Land Improvement Act ... ... ... ... ' 1878

Indian Evidence Act ... ... ... ... ! 1872

Indian Contract Act ... ... ... ... 1 1878

Code of Criminal Procedure ... ... ... 1872

Foreign Jurisdiction and Extradition Act ... ! 1872

Indian Christian Marriages ... ... ... j 1876

Indian Evidence Act amended ... ... ... ! 1872

To amend the Definition of Coin in Indian Penal

Code ... ... ... ... ... ... 1872

Government Savings Bank ... ... ... 1873

The Oaths Act 1876

Criminal Procedure Code Amendment Act ... 1 1874

To amend Land Improvement Act ... ... ■ 1878

Specific Relief Act... ... ... ... ... ] 1878

Indian Registration Act ... ... ... ... t 1877

Civil Procedure Code ... ... ... ... ! 1878

Indian Limitation Act ... ... ... ... ' 1877

Opium Act ... ... ... ... ... ... ' 1879

Indian Arms Act ... ... ... ... ... 1879

General Stamp Act ... ... ... ... [ 1879

Indian Railway Act ... ... ... ... I 1879

Amending Civil IVocedure Code, Registration I

and Limitation Acts ... ... ... ... 1879

Indian Census Act ... ... ... ... ... 1880

The following Acts of the Madras, Bombay, and Bengal Legislatures
have also been extended to Mysore : —

No. and Year of Act.

Name or Subject of Act.

Date of Exten-
sion to Mysore.

Madras.

I of 1863

III of 1869

I of 1873

VIII of 1878

Madras Local Act

To empower Revenue Officers to summon

Wild Elephants

Coffee Stealing Prevention Act ...

1865
1S69
1874
1879

I of 1865
IV of 1868

Boiitbay.
Survey, Demarcation, Assessment and Adminis-
tration of Lands
Amended Bombay Act I. of 1865

Bengal.

1869
1869

I of 1869

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

1877

LAW COUNTS

Courts. — The following statement exhibits the gradation and lunnbers
of the Courts of Justice as existing in 1876, with the magisterial powers
and limits of jurisdiction of the several judicial officers : —

Courts.

Peshkars

Sheristadars..

Amildars ...

Munsiffs

Sar-Amin

Town and
Cantonment
Magistrates

JiKlicial As-
sistants ...

Small Cause
Court, Ban-
<,'al()re.

jagirdar of
Velandur.

Assistant
C o m m i s -
sioners.
Do. ...

Judicial Powers.

Magistrates of the 3rd class

Do.

except Chamrajnagar and Ban-
galore Amildars, who are Magis-
trates of the 2nd class.

Dispose of Civil suits up to
Rs. 300 in value ; also have
SmallCau.se powers uptoRs. 20,
but My.sore Munsiffup to Rs. 50.

Magistrate of the 2nd class...

Magistrates of the ist Class.
Bangalore Town and Canton-
ment Magistrate hears api^-als
from decisions of the Sar Amin
and the Magistrate of the I'ete
in Criminal cases

Dispo.se of original Civil suits
from Rs. 300 to Rs. 5,000, with
appellate ]«)wcrs in cases trans-
ferred to them by the Deputy
Commissioners. Also Small
Cause powers up to Rs. 300 in
addition in Headquarters

Small Cause jurisdiction up
to Rs. 1 ,000. The Registrar up
to Us. 20

Magistrate of the Ist class ...

Magistrates of the 2nd cla.ss .

Magistrates of the 1st class.
Dispose of ajijieals from deci-
sions of 3rd class Magistrates in
Criminal cases ...

Original. I Appeal.

Executive or other

functions of .••ame

Officers.

All duties entrusted
to them by the Amil-
dars, and in their
absence all duties
connected witii their
office. Huliyurdroog
Peshkar was also a
Sub- Registrar.

Revenue and min-
isterial functions.

General super-
vision of Revenue,
Muzrayi, Registra-
tion, Municipalities,
&c., within their
respective taluqs.

Turvekere Munsiff
was also a Sub-
Registrar.

Sub- Registrar for
Bangalore Canton-
ment and Executive
Officer of the Muni-
cipal Board.

^lysoreTown Mag-
istrate superintended
the Mysore Town
Police and was Presi-
dent of the Muni-
cipal Board.

In charge of District
Jail and Treasury.

The Jagirdar was
then an Assistant
Commissioner.

Generally assisting
the Dejiuty Commis-
sioners in all branches
of duties excepting
Civil.

3 A 2

724

ADMINISTRA TION

Courts.

Deputy Com-
missioners..

Commission-
ers...

Judicial Com-
missioner..

Judicial Powers.

Original.

'l-i

Powers of a Magistrate of a
District with enhanced powers
under Section 36 of Act X of
1872. Dispose of original Civil
suits from Rs. 5,000 to
Rs. 10,000 in value. Hear ap-
peals from decisions of Munsiffs
in Civil cases, and of 2nd and
3rd class Magistrates in Criminal
cases

Powers of a Sessions Judge.
Dispose of Civil suits above
Rs. 10,000 in value. Hear
appeals from the decisions of
the Judicial Assistants in Civil
cases, and of the ist class and
District Magistrates in Criminal
cases

Powers of a High Court, and
original jurisdiction in granting
probates and letters of adminis-
tration ...

Appeal.

Executive or other

functions of same

Officers.

3 3

General supervision
of Revenue, Muzrayi,
Registration, Munici-
palities, Pulilic
Works and Police.

General supervision
in the Division. The
Commissioner of
Ashtagram was also
Sessions Judge of
Coorg.

Also Inspector
General of Jails and
Police in Mysore and
Coorg, and Judicial
Commissioner of

Coorg.

The system of Judicature was based upon the administrative
regulations introduced in 1862-3, as previously described. But in
1869 revised Rules of Civil Procedure were introduced, and in 1872
the new Criminal Procedure Code ; and on these the practice, functions
and powers of the existing tribunals, as above set forth, were more
immediately founded. In 1866 appeals from the decisions of Assistant
Commissioners to the Deputy Commissioners were abolished, such
appeals lying to the Commissioners of Divisions. In 1867 rules were
enforced for oral hearing and written judgments in appeal cases, and
for the enrolment of pleaders. The following remarks on these
changes are by Mr. J. R. Kindersley, officiating at that time as Judicial
Commissioner : —

"The most important alteration which has been lately made in the Civil
Procedure in Mysore has been the strict enforcement from the commence-
ment of 1867 of these two rules : ist, that no decree should ever be passed
on appeal without giving the parties an opportunity of appearing on an
appointed day ; 2nd, that the decision should invariably be written by the
judge. Formerly, parties to appeal were sometimes heard and sometimes
not. The courts were not generally built so as to be very accessible ; no
great regularity was observed in hearing appeals on fixed days ; and it was
the interest of the subordinate officials to discourage the personal attendance

LAIV COURTS 725

of suitors ; while pleaders were admitted only by permission of the judges.
The demoralizing effects of a system which placed it in the power of
subordinate officials to make representations behind the backs of the parties
need not be fully described. It became tlie practice in several of the
superior courts for the facts of a case to be stated by a subordinate public
servant, and occasionally I have found the decision written by such a
person, and only signed by the judge."

In 1873 was commenced, as a step towards the separation of judicial
and executive functions, the formation of Munsiffs' Courts in the
Nandidroog Division, which relieved the Amildars of jurisdiction in
civil cases and enabled them to devote more attention to their revenue
duties, now becoming increasingly heavy. The measure was e.xtended
to Ashtagram and Nagar in 1875, the expense of the new establish-
ments being met by reducing the number of taluqs.

The civil powers oi Deputy Commissioners had been gradually
contracted, when in 1879 the entire separation of judicial and executive
functions was completed. Commissioners of Divisions ceased to
exercise any revenue powers, and in their place, as Civil Judges, were
constituted the Courts of the District Judges, who had unlimited
original pecuniary jurisdiction and heard appeals from Subordinate
Judges. The latter took the place of Judicial Assistant Commissioners,
and formed the next Court in grade below the District Judges, the
intermediate Civil Court of the Deputy Commissioner being abolished.
The limit of the original pecuniary jurisdiction of the Subordinate
Judge was Rs. 5,000, as was the case before with the Judicial Assistant,
but the Munsiff's having been raised from Rs. 300 to 500, that of the
Subordinate Judge began at the latter figure. Where they had Small
Cause powers too, the limit thereof was now Rs. 500 in place of
Rs. 300, and these Judges now heard appeals from Munsiffs direct instead
of upon reference by the Deputy Commissioner. \\'here the Munsiffs
had Small Cause powers, the limit was Rs. 50 in place of Rs. 20. The
only other change was in reducing the jurisdiction of the l^angalore
Small Cause Court, the Judge of which was Town and Cantonment
Magistrate for Bangalore as well, from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 500.

But as it was in the Courts of the taluq magistrates that dismissals
and acquittals, including withdrawals of the complaint, were so
numerous, and a large number of petty cases which can be legally
compromised and withdrawn were entertained which should never
have been brought on the file, the I'eshkars and Sheristadars, wherever
possible, were having their powers withdrawn, leaving the Munsiff and
the Amildar to do the magisterial work in the taluqs.

In iSSo the final step was taken of making the Munsiffs the only

726 ADMINISTRATION

taluq magistrates. The Amildar still retained his magisterial powers,
but as he also had charge of the Police it would not be fitting that he
should inquire magisterially into cases the Police had already
investigated. Nor could his subordinates, the Peshkars and Sheris-
tadars, well take these cases. On this account Munsiffs were
invested with powers, and those of Sheristadars were withdrawn,
while in the reorganization of establishments the office of Peshkar was
abolished.

Rules were framed for regulating the qualification and admission of
advocates and pleaders. Instructions were issued for opening the
work of the courts at 1 1 o'clock in the forenoon, and for apportioning
the business to different days of the week, so as to ensure, as far as
rule can do, punctuality and regularity in the proceedings of the
courts. The sums to be entered in the decrees of the courts on
advocates' and pleaders' fees were determined, and attention was
paid to a more effectual check of accounts of money paid into and out
of court.

CiYil Justice. — -The following is the number and value of civil suits
instituted for a series of years : —

No. of Suits.

Value of Suits.

No. of Suits.

Value of Suits.

1865

17,012

Rs. 23,31,666

1873

21,414

Rs,

■ 23,45,380

1866

12,342

i3>95,o23

1874

22,652

23,13,082

1867

13,455

22,69,350

1875

25,052

25,02,152

1868

14,702

17,03,488

1876

25,051

21,03,785

1869

16,835

15,90,499

1877

17,341

19,93,023

1870

20,201

20,98,986

1878

21,509

25,06,341

I87I

20,764

29,06,407

1879

21,475

24,82,516

IS72

21,407

23,13,785

1880

17,203

22,45,104

From the returns for 1880 it is found that 96 per cent, of the total
number of suits were for sums under Rs. 500. Nearly 30 per cent, of
the suits which were disposed of were contested : 53 per cent, were
uncontested, and the rest were either disposed of without trial or
referred to arbitration. Of the contested suits, about three-fourths were
decided for the plaintiff, and one-fourth for the defendant. Of the
uncontested cases in 1880, 33 per cent, were decreed ex pafte or in
default. Only a small proportion of suits were left undecided for more
than 3 months.

Registratioji. — The Registration Act X^T of 1864 came into
operation in Mysore on the ist January 1866, and the amended
Act XX of 1866 on the ist January 1867. By a new Act, introduced
in September 187 1, a large class of documents previously subject to
compulsory registration was exempted, namely, coffee-land grants.

CIVIL JUSTICE

727

inani title-deeds, and various assignments of land made by Government.
Other provisions of that enactment — such as the admission of un-
registered documents in evidence of contracts even where they relate
to immovable property, and the withdrawal of the special advantages
conferred on registered instruments by the old Act, by removing the
obligation in some cases and the incentive in others — tended to reduce
the work of the 1 )epartmcnt. A revised scale of fees was introduced
from the ist September 187S. Whilst the fees on immovable property
of the higher values, subject to the compulsory clauses of the Act,
were somewhat enhanced, the minimum fee of one rupee which
formerly apj; ied to all below Rs. 100 was reduced to 8 annas in the
case of documents not exceeding Rs. 50. So also for documents of
value above Rs. 1 00 relating to movable property, which are registrable
at the option of the parties, the fees were reduced to one-half of
documents of like value for which registration is prescribed, the object
being to encourage optional registration of all kinds.

The following statistics will show the progress of registration year by
year : —

Immovable Property.

Movable Property.

Year.

Compulsory
Registrations.

Voluntary
Registrations.

Total Value.
Rs.

Registrations.

1865-6

695

414

423

1866-7

3,107

1,352

1,392

1867-8

4,408

1,364

513

1868-9

4,672

1,221

1869-70

5,513

. 1,463

23,59,915

47S

I 870- I

6,086

1,619

32,65,531

462

1871-2

5,239

1,612

30,99,706

417

1872-3

6,026

1,700

33,22,641

415

1873-4

6,566

1,591

33,68,590

44S

1874-5

7,332

2,155

35,33,219

463

1875-6

8,121

2,721

41,28,556

512

1876-7

8,780

3,297

41,96,361

379

1877-8

10,635

6,413

47,30,243

1878-9

10,013

6,013

47,22,671

1879 80

10,072

4,504

42,33,465

I 880- I

9,959

5,110

68,98,960

The unusually high value of the registered property in the last year
is owing to registration of certain gold-mining companies.

Criminal Justice. — The following figures exhibit the statistics of
crime for ten years to 1880, and show a decided diminution in serious
offences. The increase in crimes against property in 1S77 and 1S7S
was due to the famine.

728

ADMINISTRA TION

Crimes against

1871.

1872.

1,043
8,239
4,997
1,736

1873.

1874.

1875-

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

1880.

TheState, pub-
lic and justice
Person
Property
Special Laws .

813

10,385
7,256
1,858

2,265

6,405
4,186
1,308

1,918
6,750
3,606
1,591

1,775
6,114

3,337
1,792

1,931

7,285
5,170
1,610

1,146

5,393
16,409

1,875

989
4,386
8,927
1,826

774
4,605
3,906
2,007

681

4,820

4,077
2,078

Total...

20,3i2'i6,oi5

14,164

13,865

13,018

15,996

24,823

16,128

11,292

1 1 ,656

The results of criminal trials are shown in the subjoined table. The
average duration of cases disposed of in 1880 was 3 days. Of 346
appeals from the 96 magistrates of the 2nd and 3rd clas.s, in 41 per
cent, the conviction was upset. Of 156 appeals to the Sessions Courts
from the 29 Courts of the ist class, 22-4 per cent, were reversed. Of
159 appeals to the Court of the Judicial Commissioner only 1 2 per cent,
were reversed.

Head.

1871.

1872. 1 1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877. 1878.

1879.

1880.

P e r s 0 n Sj

brought to
trial
Persons ac-

40,015 30,810 27,858 27,098

27,041

35,294

50,16430,132 20,67918,989

quitted ...
Persons dis-

17,179 9,200 8,258' 9,018

10,06514,05711,760 8,888 1

i-10,164 9,618

charged...
Persons con-

10,233 5,467 3,4^7 3,482

2,852 4,491

6,272 3,975 J

victed . . .

12,474

15,926

16,058

14,465

13,419

16,259

30,789 16,995

10,043

9,242

Prisons.- — The present system of jail management may be described
as dating from the construction in 1863 of the Bangalore Central Jail,
an institution which not only serves as a model to the other prisons
of the Province, but is widely known as second to none in India.
The accommodation is intended for i,coo prisoners.

Previous to the period spoken of, the able-bodied convicts were employed
in making roads, and lod^-^ed in what were called Koad or Camp Jails.
These consisted of nothing more than temporary sheds, the materials of
which were pulled down, carried on, and re-erected as the place of encamp-
ment was changed. In the Chitaldroog District, convicts of the artisan
class were employed in a workshop to make up the iron and wood work for
travellers' bungalows and other public buildings. At Bangalore and Mysore
were jails of a more permanent character. In the former was the Town
Jail, consisting of separate wards for felons, debtors, and insane ; and the
Fort Jail. The Town Jail was removed in 1853 from a low and crowded
part of the Petta to a more airy site near the northern gate, obtained by

CRIMINAL JUSTICE

729

clearing the old boundary hedge. The building was entirely of stone,
on the native principle of construction, and was capable of holding 400
prisoners. The Fort Jail was originally a temporary thatched building,
situated near the Mysore gate of the Fort. This was also rebuilt on the
same principle as the Town Jail, with accommodation for 292 inmates. It
was specially used for the confinement of Thugs sentenced to long periods
of imprisonment.

The prison diet was \\ seer of ragi and | anna in cash for each working
day, and i seer of rice, with the same money allowance, for Sunday. Out
of the money, the prisoners were allowed to purchase for themselves salt,
pepper, chillies, and other condiments to savour their food with, but care
was taken to prevent their having access to drugs, opium, or spirits. The
working hours were from sunrise till 3, with an hour's rest at noon. There
was no labour on Sunday, when oil and soap-nut were served out to each
man for ablution.

During the famine years the jails were overcrowded. In Mysore it
was found, on this account, necessary to form a branch jail at
Kukarhalli, and the convicts were employed on the construction of the
reservoir for the waterworks. This is the Camp Jail below referred to.
It was given up at the end of 1880. The other jails were so far
emptied after the famine that all danger of overcrowding was removed.
The mark system was introduced in 1879, by which convicts of good
conduct could earn appointments as warders and work-overseers, with
.some remission of sentence and small gratuities.

At the close of 1880 there were 8 jails, with one camp jail, and 81
lock-ups, containing altogether 2,899 prisoners (2,783 male and 116
female), distributed in the following manner : —

Prisons.

Convicts.

Under Trial, j Civil.

Total.

Central Jail
District Jails
Taluq Lock-ups

1,044
1,711

4
60
40

1,049
1,789

The total cost of the jails for that year was nearly 2 lakhs, the
average annual charge per head being Rs. 80-4-3.

All the prison labour is intramural, consisting of manufactures,
gardening, and public works. The convict labour at Kukarhalli was
valued at Rs. 23,717 in 1879 and Rs. 22,642 in 1880. The total profit
on the employment of the remaining convicts in jails was about half as
much. The value of manufactures in the Central Jail for 1880 showed
a profit of Rs. i3"34 per head of effectives. Education has for some
years been introduced with good effect. In 18S0 there was a daily
average of 921 prisoners under instruction. Of the 1,281 prisoners

7 30 AD. MIA 7STl'A TION

relcasi'd duriiiii; the year wIkj liad Ijccn under instrurtion in the jail,
1,007 were unable to read and write when they entered, but when they
left, the number so unable was only 587.

Police. — -The necessity for an improved organization of the Police
long attracted attention. The prevailing system was simply the old
Kandachar improved upon by better supervision. 'I'he first step
towards reform was the introduction, in 1866, of the Police Act V
of 1861 into the Bangalore District, and the appointment of an officer
of the Madras Police to the charge of the District. It was at that
time contemplated to introduce the Madras system throughout the
Province. Ikit the new system, although favourably reported on after
the lapse of a year, was found to entail a considerable increase of
expenditure. It moreover possessed the radical defect of overlooking
in great measure the existence of the A'illage Police, a class which, if
properly organized and remunerated, was capable of performing useful
service to the State.

The Government therefore resolved, in lieu of adopting the Madras-
system of organization, to begin the task of reconstruction by re-
modelling the village police, whose decayed condition called in the first
instance for remedy. The patels and talaris had not sufficient
remuneration ; in some cases inams granted for the maintenance of
village police had been alienated or diverted from that object : thus the
village system had not been sufficiendy cared for, and the superior
advantages which the village officers possessed, with their local know-
ledge, over the regular police, in detecting or giving information
regarding dacoits, etc., were not utilized. It was therefore considered
necessary that the village institutions should be duly recognized in any
comprehensive police system for the whole Province, with the view of
securing economy and efficiency, especially as the number of persons
registered as holding service lands from Government amounted at the
time to 14,000.

Accordingly, the following principles were laid down as the basis of
the scheme proposed for the whole Province : —

1st. The Village Police should be restored to a condition of reasonable
vigour and efficiency. Their duties should be carried on under the guidance
of a few simple rules. Their remuneration should be at once provided for
throughout the Province by rent-free assignments from imassessed lands,
all questions connected therewith being left to be settled by the Revenue
Survey Department in their due course of operations ; an essential feature
in this measure being the concession of magisterial powers in petty cases
to competent heads of villages.

2nd. The Kandachar police should be superseded by a constabulary

POLICE 731

similar to that already introduced into Bangalore, but having the village
ixjlice for its basis. The functions of the latter should be to act as
tuxiliaries to the former; and on it (working as it ought under the village
licadmen) should devolve the responsibility as well of reporting a crime as
of discovering the criminal. No additional expenditure should be incurred,
as the regular force need not, under the circumstances, be numerous, but
the members should be well paid, and specially selected with the view of
lilting them to assist the \'illage Police in detection. The relations of the
village police with the regular police should be clearly defined, so as to
utilize the former to the fullest extent ; and so adjusted, that, while the due
performance of their duties is secured, unnecessary interference on the part
of the regular police in ordinary village affairs is eschewed.

3rd. The regular police need not be armed and drilled, as the local Barr
Force (which is otherwise useful in guarding District and local treasuries,
and thus largely relieves the police of some of its work) would well suffice
for repressive purposes.

Rules drawn up in accordance with the foregoing principles were
sanctioned at the end of 1872. During the following year the system
was introduced throughout the Chitaldroog District, the only one
completely surveyed and settled. But it was soon found that the re-
constitution of the Village Police, which had but a nominal existence,
would require time, as the men available for employment in the new-
constabulary being necessarily taken from those belonging to the old
Kandachar force, required training for their new duties, and the village
patels being generally illiterate were incapable of performing in a trust-
worthy manner the functions prescribed for them.

An fl'^ /«/m;« measure was therefore introduced, in 1874, for the
improvement of the existing force in the other Districts by the discharge
of incompetent men and the introduction of an improved class on
better pay, accompanied by a numerical reduction of the force.
Provision was made for instructing all grades in police duties, and
requiring the officers to pass an examination. I3y these special rules
the District Police was governed, while the Police Force of the Town
and Cantonment of Bangalore was administered under Act \' of 1861.

The Police Department was controlled by a Deputy Inspector-
(ieneral of Police, acting under the Judicial Commissioner, who was
the Inspector-General. In the Districts, the Deputy Commissioner
was ex officio Head of the Police, and was aided by one of the Assistant
Commissioners, who was designated the Police-Assistant. This officer,
while primarily responsible to the Deputy Commissioner for the dis-
cipline and general working of the Police, was available for other general
duties (excepting magisterial duties in connection with jiolice cases),
whenever such could t)e i)erformed without prejudice to his own duties.

7 3 2 AD MINIS TRA TION

Kvcry effort was used to make the service popular. Station-houses
were huilt wherever shelter was not available, and huts constructed
where accommodation was not easily procurable, liatta was also given
at hilly and ghat stations, and suitable clothing i.ssued to the men of
the Force.

The ordinary weapon of the "Rural Police was a stout bamboo cudgel,
about I \ inch thick and 40 inches long, fitted with brass ferules at the
ends, on one end of which the name of the peon and his number were
engraved. A few fusils with sword bayonets were issued, but the want
of training to the use of firearms on the part of the men, and the
inadequate accommodation for their careful storage, proved obstacles to
the Force being more generally supplied with these weapons; but
arrangements were made to issue them to men stationed in isolated
localities where they were specially needed.

In August 1879, the Chief Commissioner assumed direct control of
the Police through his Secretary in the General Department, while the
Military Assistant supervised the discipline, clothing and equipment of
the Force. In December 1880, a further organization was introduced,
rendered necessary by the changes made in the Mysore Commission
and the abolition of Police Assistant Commissionerships. The general
management of the Police duties of the District was placed directly in
the hands of the Deputy Commissioner, with liberty to employ a
General Assistant Commissioner on any particular duty. Amildars were
put in executive charge of the Police of their taluqs and the Inspectors
were made their assistants in the Police branch. The number of
officers was considerably reduced, being regulated by the number of
taluqs and stations. At the same time the number of constables was
increased in some instances, and the Police Force maintained by the
Seringapatam and Ganjam municipalities was absorbed into the District
Force.

With regard to distribution, 365 officers and 3,454 men were
employed on patrol beat and other duties, and 51 officers and 318 men
in guarding lock-ups, treasuries, and on escort duty, while 596 were on
duty in towns. The total sanctioned strength, including those
maintained by Municipalities, was 510 officers and 4,061 men, or a
total of 4,571- The cost of the Force was Rs. 5,99,976, of which
Rs. 5,24,942 was payable from State revenues and the remaining
^s. 75,034 from other sources.

Nothing much was done in regard to resuscitating the \'illage Police,
but its status was improving, and great care was exercised in selecting
influential and intelligent men for Patelships. Since the Amildars
had been invested with Police functions more interest was taken in

PUBLIC WORKS

/JO

the working of the Village Police. In the famine many villages were
defended by these with great courage against the attacks of dacoits,
and the criminals pursued and ap[)rehended.

Of the officers, 28 were Christians, 171 Muhammadans, 2S7 Hindus
and others. Of the men, 30 were Christians, 1,495 Muhammadans,
2,701 Hindus and others.

In 1880 there were 6,881 cases of cognizable criuK; in which the
Police were engaged, and convictions were obtained in 84-62 per cent.
The Police arrested 7,015 persons, of whom 65 "9 1 per cent, were
convicted. In non-cognizable crime, the Police arrested 692 persons,
of whom 472 were convicted.

PUBLIC WORKS

Under the previous Native Governments there was no Engineering
staff as we now understand it, and the Administration which succeeded
in 1 83 1 made no immediate change in this respect. The Super-
intendents of Divisions and the Amildars of Taluqs carried out all
descriptions of work through Native Mestris and Mutsaddis attached
to the taluqs, and the maintenance of tanks and channels was always
regarded as specially appertaining to Revenue officials. But the
want of professional assistance in the matter of roads and bridges
early pressed itself on the Administration, and the post of a
Superintendent of Maramat was created in 1834. The attention of
this officer was almost exclusively devoted to designing and executing
original works.

In July 1854, the Court of Directors, in consideration of the pro-
sperous condition of the finances of Mysore, desired that opportunity
should be taken to execute " such works of unusual magnitude and
importance as might appear calculated to promote in the largest degree
the development of the resources of the country." Sir Mark Cubbon,
in reply, proposed to construct the Mari Kanave reservoir, as the only
large irrigation work coming within the scope of the Court's require-
ments ; but as the Superintendents were " overwhelmed with the
revenue and judicial business of their Divisions," and as the Commis-
sioner had " daily and hourly forced on him the conviction of the utter
breakdown of the attempt to maintain the roads by native agency
without the necessary minute supervision of P^uropean Officers," he
suggested that a Superintendent of Roads should be appointed, with a
proper staff. After further correspondence, the Department of Public
Works was constituted in June 1856, and consisted of a Chief Engineer
and an Assistant Chief I'jigineer for the direction, and of five Executive

734 ADMINIS TRA TION

ICnginccrs, fcnir Assistant ILnginecrs, and eleven Upper and nineteen
Lower Subordinates for construction.

The charge of the roads was completely handed over to the new
I )cpartment. Not so, however, the tanks and cliannels, which were still
left under the charge of Revenue officers. It was only by a species of
lapse that the Executive Engineers found themselves in charge of such
special works as appeared necessary from their own personal inspection,
or as were brought to their notice by Revenue officers. 'I"he anomalies
which thus sprung up were in a great measure put an end to in 1863,
by a Committee which assigned the charge of tanks definitely to the
Revenue officers, with specific powers of sanction, reserving for the
Department of Public Works such works as called for professional
supervision. This arrangement gradually gave place to a better
system of tank management, which had been shown to be necessitated
by the tank-system peculiar to Mysore, involving as it does the solution
of hydraulic questions of no ordinary difficulty, and demanding the
services of a highly-trained professional department.

After prolonged discussion, the Secretary of State for India approved
of the formation of an Irrigation Department for carrying out the objects
in view. By this arrangement, the Revenue officers remained as before
charged with the up-keep of such tanks as were not immediately being
dealt with by the Irrigation Department. These latter selected specific
series for immediate work, and brought the tanks composing them up
to standard, to be afterwards made over to cultivators for perpetual
maintenance, with the exception of works like waste weirs, sluices, &€.,
which required departmental management, and for which provision was
made partly by annual grants and partly from the irrigation cess of
two annas per rupee of wet land assessment. The avowed object of
this plan was that while the whole of the tanks in the country should be
brought up to a standard of safety, and their future up-keep thrown
upon the most interested parties — the ryots — under stringent regula-
tions, nothing but simple conservancy would of necessity be imposed on
the succeeding Native Government, who would be thus enabled
effectually to control the whole without the aid of a highly-trained
engineering staff.

So also for the irrigation channels under the Kaveri, Hemavati,
Lakshmantirtha and Shimsha rivers, a separate Channel Conservancy
establishment was formed in 1S64 under the supervision of Revenue
Officers ; and the Public ^^'orks Department only carried out such
original works as necessarily required their supervision. But in 1870
the charge of the channels and the direction of the Conservancy estab-
lishment were made over to the Superintending Engineer for Irrigation.

PUBLIC WORKS 735

In 1873 the Public Works Department was separated into two distinct
branches, one for Roads and Buildings, and the other for Irrigation.

In the matter of labour, Mysore had always presented serious diffi-
culties, owing partly to the sparseness of the population (chiefly on the
west and south), and partly to the fact that the great bulk of the people
were cultivators, whose presence on their own fields was generally
called for at the very season when public works required to be pushed
on with vigour. The attractions offered by the tea and coffee estates
on the Nilgiris, in Wainad, Coorg, Manjarabad and Nagar, the advent
of the Railway, together with the great extension of public works, both
imperial and local, and the impetus given to private undertakings of
all kinds, combined to raise the price of labour very high. As nearly
as could be ascertained from an analysis of the rates for labour at each
decade during the previous 40 years, it would appear that the price of
unskilled labour had doubled since 1850, and that of skilled labour
risen threefold.

At all times the labour needed for the repairs of tanks and channels
had i)resented special difficulties, and under native rule was no doubt
met by expedients not now available. In addition to the forced labour
then resorted to, there was in many instances a tank establishment
{kere baiides) who, in return for certain lands held rent-free, were
required to maintain buffaloes for bringing earth to the tank embank-
ments. Whatever remained of this old institution was being put an end
to, by the members being released from service and allowed to retain
their inam lands on payment of a small quit-rent.

There were also bodies of men called Kamatis, who, in return for
certain privileges, were liable to be called on for effecting repairs within
their respective taluqs ; as also a corps called Khalihats, who were
organized for general service in all parts of the Province on road or
irrigation works as might be required. The origin of this corps, which,
among other privileges, enjoyed freedom frcjm house-tax, was, however,
of comparatively recent date. 'J'hey were originally palanquin bearers,
maintained by the State on the main road from Palmanair to My.sore
via Bangalore, their services to travellers being, it is understood,
rendered gratis. With the increase of travellers, and tlic introduction
of other means of locomotion than palanquins, the specific employment
for this corps ceased, and the men were as a body turned over to the
ISIaramat in 1841, and afterwards to the new Department of Public
Works. In i860 the Kdmatis and Khalihdts were fused into a single
corps of 10 companies, 100 strong each, with an establishment of
Jamedars, Dafedars, Mutsaddis, <S:c. 'J'he annual cost of this corps
amounted to Rs. 67,000. In this form, the corps, though rather

736 A D MINIS TRA TION

reduced in numbers, was usefully employed on works to the west
and north-west of the Province, where it was almost impossible to raise
indigenous labour.

Cooly companies had at times been raised for specific purposes and
short periods ; but they had been found more troublesome than useful,
and the work turned out by them expensive. Moplas and other coast
men were frequently found ready to undertake the construction of
rough stone revetments on the ghat roads ; but in all other parts of the
country indigenous labour had to be relied on.

Since 1862 the system of executing work by contract had been more
largely resorted to than before. The practice of making advances,
which had led to most unsatisfactory results, was done away with, and
contractors were encouraged by payments made at short intervals on
past and approved work. While it must be conceded that in many
cases bad work may have been passed and paid for, there is no doubt
that advantageous results were nevertheless attained. The system
enabled the Department to extend its operations more than would
otherwise have been possible with its restricted establishment.

There are no means of ascertaining the sums expended on Public
^^'orks before the present century. There is, however, no doubt that
considerable local expenditure was incurred in the construction of
temples, palaces, and works for religious purposes, or for the shelter or
convenience of travellers. Moreover, in the days of the old Palegars,
much of the means and labour of the people were devoted to the
construction of those hill fortresses called droogs, which are scattered
all over the Province, and form one of its distinguishing features.

Narrow and tortuous village tracks, passing through dense forests,
and over the mountains of the A\'estern Ghats, served the purpose of
roads. Over these, pack bullocks, bearing the little that had to be
carried from one place to another in those days, pushed their way with
considerable difficulty towards the coast. The only wheeled vehicles
used in the plains were either the small ivaddar cart, or the great halhi
bandi of the Malnad, both alike suited only to the small local require-
ments of the ryot, bringing in his supply of firewood or carting manure
to his fields.

There are a few bridges of singular construction which belong to this
period, such as those over the two arms of the Kaveri river as divided
by the island of Sivasamudra,' and those over the minor branches of

* Supposed to have been built 700 years ago, and repaired in 1S30 by Ramaswami
Modaliar, who received for his work the title of Lokopakarartham Karta, or " per-
former for the public good," from the British Government, and jagirs worth
Rs. 17,000 per annum in British and Mysore Territories.

PUBLIC WORKS 737

the Kaveri at Seringapatam/ the bridge over the Kabbani river at
Nanjangud,- that at Betmangala on the old Kolar road, and five other
small works of the same class within the fortifications of the ancient city
of Nagar or Bednur. But these, though doubtless of local value,
formed no portion of a system of provincial communications.

The only works of this period which can be classed as having any
extensive public utility are the tanks (which stud the whole surface of
the maidan taluqs), and river channels, in the construction of which,
through many hundreds and possibly even thousands of years, an
incredible amount of patient industry has been devoted.

At what particular period the tank system attained its full develop-
ment it is now quite impossible to say ; but judging from the necessary
conditions of its growth, the progress could not fail to have been
extremely slow, and most probably it expanded with the natural
increase of population. It may be conjectured that the first civilized
inhabitants, taking possession of the higher grounds, constructed the small
tanks or kattes on the minor rivulets, and then step by step followed
these down to the larger streams, arresting and impounding the water
at every convenient site by throwing earthen bunds across the valley.

As, according to the plan followed, it was possible to advance only
steadily downwards from the watersheds of the various streams to their
extremities, it may be conceived how vast a time would be expended
in creating a single series as we now find of several hundred, and in
some cases over a thousand reservoirs, linked together in this fashion,
and forming such continued chains of works that not a single drop of
water falling on the catchment is lost in seasons of drought, and but
little in ordinary seasons. To such an extent, moreover, was this
system carried, that in many parts of the Province it would now be
quite impossible to construct a new tank without interfering pre-
judicially with the rights of other older w^orks on the same line of
drainage. This vast series of works, individually varying in size
according to local circumstances (from the great Sulekerc tank in the
Nagar Division, extending over 14 square miles, down to small kattes
or village reservoirs), grew into existence necessarily without reference
to scientific principles, and was purely experimental.

As belonging to the same period, the channels drawn by means of
anicuts from the Kaveri, Hemavati, Lakshmantirtha, and other streams
must here be noticed. The designs of these works are attributed to
Rajas of old, and even to certain beneficent deities, and precise dates
are assigned for the construction of several of them. ]'>ut whatever the

' .Supposed to have been erected in 1656.
^ Supposed to have been constructed in 1727.

3 '^

738 ADMimSTRA TION

facts, it is at least clear that they are extremely ancient, and that
however defective as tested by our modern ideas in these matters, their
original construction exhibits a boldness and an appreciation of the
conditions of structure, which, under the circumstances of the times,
excite the greatest admiration. In addition to the anicuts now in
use, the remains of probaVjly more than three times as many others are
still visible when the rivers arc low. From some of these the original
excavations made for the old channels are still apparent, while from
others channels do not appear to have been excavated. It is therefore
clear that the success that resulted from the construction of the works
that are still in use was not obtained without a very large proportion
of failures, and the perseverance displayed by the constructors in spite
of these failures is none the less remarkable, and shows the high value
placed in former ages on irrigation works.

During the regency of Divan Purnaiya, 77;^ lakhs were expended on
public works, of which 315 were devoted to irrigation works, but only
67,000 to roads, and this not till he had been five years in power. The
former sum was to a great extent absorbed in the repair of old tanks
and channels, the majority of which had fallen into a ruinous condition
during the reigns of Haidar and Tipu. A further expenditure of
\']\ lakhs was incurred on the project of a canal, now known as
Purnaiya's Nala, whose object was to bring the holy waters of the
Kaveri into Mysore and also Nanjangud, but which entirely failed in
its intention. The other items of expenditure were: — Near 15 lakhs
on construction and repair of forts, those of Bangalore and Channa-
patna being the principal works ; 55 lakhs on the Wellesley Bridge
over the Kaveri at Seringapatam ; above 3^ lakhs on travellers'
bungalows, (S:c. ; near 2 lakhs on maths, chatrams and other religious
buildings; li lakh on taluq cutcherries and other civil buildings;
1 1 lakh on Webbe's monument near the French Rocks.

For the period of the Maharaja's direct government, information can
be gathered only from the condition in which public works were found
at the time of the British assumption. From Colonel Green's report, it
appears that there existed in 1831 only three roads in any way entitled
to the appellation — viz , the road from Naikneri to Mysore via Banga-
lore ; the road from Seringapatam to Sira and Bellary ; and the road
from Bangalore to Harihar : and all of these were very indifferent,
having portions running through swamps, the passage of which would
detain the baggage of a regiment an entire day ; other places bore the
appearance of watercourses with beds of river sand, the soil having
been washed away far below the level of the surrounding country.
The better order in which some few portions were preserved was in a

PUBLIC WORKS 739

great measure neutralized by the almost total absence of bridges, which
in a country like Mysore, situated between the two monsoons, was a
most serious inconvenience, and throughout the year kept the progress
of the merchant, or the traveller, perpetually liable to interruption. It
was no uncommon thing for a regiment, or even the tappal runners, to
be detained for several days at a nullah not i6 miles from Bangalore,
and there were several other such impediments in different places on
the three roads, where lives were annually lost to a considerable
extent.

There was not, at the time of the assumption of the country in 183 1,
a single pass through the Western Ghats practicable for cattle with
loads. At the Agumbi Pass, in the Nagar country, which was the
most frequented, it was usual to carry everything of value on coolies,
the hire for which was \ a rupee per bullock load. Thus, when the
bales exceeded the number of porters, who were a peculiar caste of
men of a limited number, or when the latter were away at festivals, it
was not an extraordinary thing for a merchant to be detained at the
ghat ten days or a fortnight, before his turn came or there were means
available by which his goods might pass the ghat. The approach to
the head of the pass was marked by lame cattle, bleeding and bruised,
with horns broken off in scrambling about the stones on the pass,
while the atmosphere was tainted with the effluvia of the carcases
of bullocks which, taxed beyond their strength, had perished by the
way.

As regards irrigation works, in some cases where the Raja's Govern-
ment had attempted to arrest the decay accruing to a tank, the
measures adopted had an opposite effect to that which was intended ;
the remedy was worse than the disease, in reality accelerating the failure
of the biwd it was desired to preserve. This arose from the intentional
mismanagement of the parties employed to carry the earth repairs into
effect, whose object, if paid for their labour, was to secure, by the
breaching of the bund they had been engaged to strengthen, another
and more advantageous contract the following year ; or when, as
appears to have been the more usual mode of executing Sarkar work,
they were not paid at all, to get through their forced labour as easily as
they could.

From 1831-1856 the sum of 30] lakhs was spent on irrigation
works, 284 lakhs on roads, and 6 lakhs on buildings. As regards the
first, individual works were much improved, and many almost wholly
reconstructed from the ruinous condition into which the Maharaja's
Government had allowed them to drift ; yet little advance was made
on the native method of maintenance, because the interdependence

3 B 2

74°

A DMINISTRA TION

of the tanks, and the necessity for dcahng with them in series, was
not suf¥icicntly recognized and acted upon. So also with river
channels, although some improvements were introduced, such as the
construction of brick facings to some of the anicuts when under
repair, yet most of the radical defects in these works were left
without remedy.

With regard to roads and bridges the case however was different.
The roads constructed at this period not only connected all head-
quarter stations with Bangalore, but some of them were great through
lines, extending on all sides to the frontiers of the Province. Altogether
1,597 miles of road, with 309 bridges, and 1,998 drains were constructed
in the Province after the transfer of Government and before a regular
Department of Public Works was organized.

Among the miscellaneous works executed was the commencement in
1853, and in great part completion, of flying and permanent electric
telegraph lines, — one from Attibele near Oossoor to Rampur on the
Bellary frontier, being a length of 191 miles ; the other from Bangalore
to Kankan-halla on the Nilgiri road, length 143 miles — at a cost of
Rs. 1,03,639 for the lines, and Rs. 8,253 fo'" offices at Bangalore and
Mysore.

Since the formation of the Department Public Works in 1856, the
expenditure for 20 years under the several heads, exclusive of establish-
ment, may be thus stated : —

Class Of Work.

Original Works.

Repairs.

Total.

Military

Civil Buildings

Agricultural and Irrigation
Communications ...
Miscellaneous Public Improve-
ments

1,77,233
25,96,501

18,73,975
45,63,658

7,48,722

37,563

3,23,450

34,06,202

51,11,255

70,712

2,14,796

29,19,951
52,80,177

96,74,913
8,19,434

Total Rs....

99,60,089

89,49,182

1,89,09,271

Under military^ the chief expenditure was due to the construction in
1865-6 of a new Cantonment for a Native Infantry Regiment at Mysore,
which, however, had subsequently to be abandoned owing to the
unhealthiness of the situation.

Of civil buildings the largest works were the Public Offices at
Bangalore, built between 1S64 and 1868, at a cost of Rs. 4,27,980
including site ; with the Central Jail and the Bowring Civil Hospital,
built in 1867, at a cost for the former of Rs. 46,047 and for the latter
of Rs. 2,16,454. More recently, at Bangalore, the Raja's Castle,

PUBLIC WORKS 741

Government House, the Division Cutcherry, and the Central College
{late High School) are prominent buildings which were in great measure
(especially the first) rebuilt according to ornamental designs, costing
altogether about 2^ lakhs. With these may be mentioned the Museum,
the Post Ofifice, and the Government Press, costing together nearly
I lakh. Cutcherries at head-quarters of Districts for Deputy Commis-
sioners, at Sub-division head-quarters for Assistant Commissioners,
Courts for Judicial Assistants, Taluq cutcherries. District Jails (that at
Shimoga costing over i lakh). School-houses, Civil Hospitals and
Dispensaries, offices for Executive Engineers at District head-quarters,
— were various classes of structure which provided throughout the
country suitable accommodation for the several branches of i)ublic
business involved.

In the category of civil buildings falls also work done to public
monuments and religious buildings. The chief work here was the repair
and re-painting of Tipu's Summer Palace, known as the Dariya Daulat,
at Seringapatam, under orders issued by the Marquis of Dalhousie in
November 1855. The work, which was almost entirely of an artistic
character — viz., repainting the picture of Baillie's defeat, renewal of the
interior enrichments, c\:c., was well completed in a little over three years
at an outlay of Rs. 37,000. Under the same authority Rs. 2,000 were
expended in 1859 in replacing the inlaid doors and executing other work
to the tombs of Haidar and Tipu at Seringapatam. Rs. 5,491 were
spent in restoring the roof and otherwise preserving the celebrated
temple of Halebid.

Of works of irrigation, included under the head Agricultural, the
following are some of the principal that were executed : —

Cost Rs.
Kcbuilding the Sriramdevar anient on the Hemavati, and imjiroving

channel below ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,78,504

Rebuilding the Maddur anient on tiie Shimsha, and improving channel

below ^5,365

Rebuilding the Maichalli anient on the Lakshmantirtha, and improving

channel below ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 29,339

Aqueduct over the Lokapavani on the Chikdevarayi-scigar channel ... 22,265

Rebuilding the Lakshmanpnra anient on the Nugu 12,878

Do. llalhalli anient on the Gundal ... ... ... ... 10,424

A very iniporlanl priii<:i[)le was introduced in these works — viz., the
substitution of solid watertight anicuts for that under the old native
construction, which consisted entirely of packed stone, without the
rc(iuisitc coherence, and carried with it the elements of destruction,
while it allowed nearly all sununer water to escape through unutilized.
The application of sound methods of construction to these works, and

742

ADMINISTRA TION

to the regulation of channels below them, as also the distribution of
water for irrigation, may be said to have created quite a new era in
the channel system of Mysore.

In 1872-3, a grant of 108 lakhs, inclusive of establishment, was
assigned for expenditure on irrigation in the next 12 years, namely, 72
lakhs for tanks and 36 for channels.

Under coDimunicaiiotis the expenditure was laid out either in the
construction of new roads or in rectifying and improving old ones, as
well as in the construction of large bridges. In 1875-6 there were
1,552 miles of road maintained by the Department at an expenditure of
about 3 lakhs, and at the rate on the average of Rs. 193 per mile,
including the travellers' bungalows and inspection lodges. The two
new ghats — viz., the Bund and Haidarghar, were most important
additions to the provincial communications, and completed six outlets
for cart traffic between Mysore and the western coast. The last was
laid out at easier gradients than any other, and promises to be of
special importance, as it stands in direct connection with a w'ell-studied
network of roads designed to open out the whole of the Nagar Malnad,
This tract of country, so rich and fertile in its supari gardens, was
most difficult of access, and presented a serious barrier to all
communications with the coast. Opened by these Hnes, the whole
Province to its remotest corner is in communication with the western
coast.

The construction of numerous bridges also devolved on the Depart-
ment Public Works, in connection with both the old and the new
lines. These are so numerous that only the very largest need here be
noticed, from among those which have been constructed since 1856.
Subjoined are particulars concerning four such works : —

Name of Work.

Over what
River.

On what Road.

Materials of
Construction.

Number and Di- Dateof
mensions of | corn-
Spans, pletion

Cost Rs.

Harihar bridge

Tun£:abhadra.

Bangalore to

Stone and

14 elliptical

Dharwar .

Brick ...

spans, 60' 1
each ...|i868

3,48,096

Saklespur do. Hemavati ...

Bangalore to
Mangalore

Iron

4 spans, lat-i
tice girders,
i2o'each,on
cylinders...; 1870

1,94,620

Shimoga do. Tunga

Bangalore to
Honnore .

Brick ...

16 arches of
50 feet span
each ... 1859

1,07,538

Benkipur do. Bhadra

Do.

13 arches of
50 feet span j
each ...11860

74,997

Under miscellaneous public improvements^ the works have as a rule

PUBLIC WORKS 743

ceased since the introduction of municipal institutions, and are confined
to exceptional cases in which the assistance of Government is given in
the shape of a grant-in-aid. All the large towns have benefited more
or less, but Bangalore above others, as being the seat of Government
and the most important town in the Province. Nearly 2k lakhs were
spent on the central channel of the Cantonment Bazar, and in
the construction of a self-regulating main sewer which runs alongside
and transfers all sewage to a considerable distance from the town.
The largest works undertaken were the \\\iter Supply projects
for Bangalore and Mysore, the estimates being about 5 lakhs for
each.

The increasing revenue derived from District Local Funds enabled
the transfer to that head of the maintenance of subordinate lines of
road, besides providing the means of extending crossroads. Including
the transferred lines of road, there were, at the end of 1875-6, an
aggregate of 2,243 milt^s for which maintenance allowances were
provided out of District Funds. J Xiring the first few years, while there
existed inadequate means for laying out roads of this class, framing the
estimates and subsequently executing the work, the results were in
many respects unsatisfactory ; but arrangements were made for entrust-
ing the designs and setting out of the work to Executive officers,
while the work was carried into execution by local agency, under the
Revenue officers. The Public Works Department, moreover, construct
all bridges over 20 feet span on District Fund roads.

In 1876, in order to meet the necessity of increased supervision
consequent on a largely increased grant, a re-organization of the estab-
lishment and a partial re-distribution of the Divisional charges were
sanctioned. But the great famine which ensued upset every forecast.
All ordinary budget rules for sanctions and appropriations had to be set
aside under the severe pressure. Sanctioned works had to be abandoned
altogether, or postponed till better times ; unsanctioned works had to be
taken in hand without much regard to their ultimate usefulness, and
the whole energies of the 1 )epartment and all means available were
concentrated to find suitable and, as far as possible, remunerative
employment for the starving population. The principal new works
thus put in hand were the embankments and cuttings of the Mysore
Railway, Agrahara tank, Halsur tank road, and road from Railway
Station to Native Infantry Hospital. Works previously sanctioned and
already commenced were the Bangalore and Mysore \\'ater Supply
projects, with extensive collection of materials for, and repairs to roads
in Bangalore, Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts. A number of
engineers from other provinces were deputed to Mysore temporarily for

744 ADMINISTRATION

supervision, and thus much useful, though costly work, was carried out
by the famine coolies.

In 1879 the system was given up by which only Imperial works, or
those paid for from State revenues, were executed by the Tublic
Works Department, while all works paid for from District and Local
funds were carried out by the Deputy Commissioners, under whom in
two Districts were Local Fund Engineers. For the first time all works,
of whatever nature, thenceforward devolved on the Public Works
Department, the establishment charges being rateably distributed over
the several different funds.

The total grants for Public Works in 1878-9 was 1576 lakhs, and
in the two following years 17-68 and 17-10 lakhs respectively, but
the latter figures included Local as well as State funds.

Railway. — Though not connected with the Mysore Department of
Public Works, the Bangalore Branch Railway, opened on the ist August
1864, claims to be here mentioned as a most important means of
communication, which had a great effect in stimulating traffic and
awakening enterprise. The line is 84^ miles long, of which 53 are
within the limits of Mysore. It joins the Madras main south-west line
at Jalarpet.

A survey for an extension of the line to Tiimkur, a distance of 43
miles, was made in 1863-4. It was calculated that only 2 large
bridges would be required for this portion, that the worst gradient
would be I in 80, and the entire cost for a first-class railroad, including
stations, permanent way and rolling stock, would be Rs. 70,000 a mile.
The question continued to be discussed till 1867. But a preliminary
point for determination was, whether the line should be extended from
Bangalore so as to form a junction with the north-west line from
Madras to Bombay, or should be confined to a railway system within
the limits of the Province. The former would be the most costly, as
involving the retention of the existing gauge. The project which most
commended itself at the time, was the prolongation of the line to the
central trade emporium of Tiptur, 80 miles west-north-west of
Bangalore. For this trunk line, on the standard gauge, the cost, it
was estimated, would be about 40 lakhs of rupees. From Tiptur it
was proposed to construct a series of narrow gauge lines, reaching to
various points from the A\'ynad frontier in the south-west to the Canara
and Dharwar frontier in the north-west, and embracing the whole
province in a network comprising nearly 500 miles of railway, the
outlay on which was estimated at 26 lakhs of rupees.

In 1 870-1, after careful deliberation, a system of light railways, to
connect Bangalore, Tiimkur, Tiptur, Hassan and Mysore, was

RAIL WA Y 745

determined on as the most suitable to meet the requirements of the
country. In accordance with this scheme, the project of the metre
gauge State Railway, from Bangalore to Mysore direct, as one link, of
the chain, was at once proceeded with, but the following year
postponed. The preliminary survey and arrangements had, however,
all been completed, . and mucli of the material collected along the
course of the line.

In 1877-8 the earthwork between Bangalore and Channapatna was
commenced as a relief work. The first section of three miles, between
the Bangalore Cantonment and Petta, was for the broad gauge. In
June 1879 the complete project was sanctioned by the Government
of India, at an estimated cost of 38-82 lakhs, and a railway establish-
ment was organized to carry it out as an ordinary public work. In
October 1880 the Petta extension was, by agreement, transferred to
the Madras Railway Company, who took it over up to formation level
free of cost, to complete and work it as a portion of their system.
The section from Bangalore to Channapatna, 35 miles, was opened to
traffic on the ist February 1881, and by the date of the Rendition,
the 25th March, a farther length of 23 miles was opened, as far as
Mandya. In these two months 20,749 passengers travelled by the
line and the total earnings were Rs. 13,219.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

The acquisition of learning and the imparting of knowledge have

always been held in the highest esteem by the Hindus. But

instruction seems never to have been regarded as a duty of the State ;

it was left to the voluntary principle. That it was not neglected there

is abundance of evidence, and Nripatunga, writing in the ninth century,

says expressly of the Kannacja people that they knew how to teach

wisdom to young children, and even words to the deaf. In the note to

p. 575 above, also, it will be seen that a schoolmaster was sometimes

provided among the members of the \'illage Twelve. Endowments

were freely given for teaching, and among the Jains, to whom belongs

the credit of first using the vernacular languages for literary purposes,

and who in their formula specially reverence the upadhyayas or

teachers, the highest merit was attached to gifts for three objects- -

shelter, medicine and learning. Under the Hoysala kings we find the

minister Perumala, in the thirteenth century, endowing a college, in

which, besides professors to impart instruction in the Rig-veda, there

were to be masters for teaching boys to read Nagara, Kannada, Tiguja

and Arya.^

' Ep. Cam., Mysore I., T.N. 27.

746 ADMINISTRATION

The higher branches of learning were entirely in the hands of the
clergy. In the fifth century we find a Kadamba travelling all the way
to Kanchi in order to pursue his studies in advanced subjects {see
p. 298). In the same manner, Akalanka, in the eighth century, went to
the Bauddha college at Ponataga (near Trivatur in North Arcot).
The Lingayits followed the Jains in making provision for the
instruction of youth, but with more of sectarian purpose ; so also the
Muhammadans, in the maktabs attached to mosques.

Female education, in the modern sense of the word, was non-
existent. But girls of learned families were not left wholly without
instruction. Thus we find Nagavarma addressing the verses of his
Chhandombudhi, or work on prosody, to his wife. An ancient
inscription in the Kolar District records the death of the learned
Savinemma, daughter of Nagarjunayya. Then we have the instance of
Honnamma at the court of Mysore in the seventeenth century {see p.
501). But such cases were exceptional, like that of the celebrated
Pandita Ramabai of the present day, who was taught Sanskrit by her
father in the wilds of Gangamula in the Kadur District.

The instruction in indigenous schools did not aim at anything
beyond the elements of reading, writing and arithmetic, and generally
resulted in a marvellous cultivation of the memory. Reading was
from manuscripts on palm leaf The first lessons in writing were on
the sand, with the finger : after some progress had been made,
blackened boards were used, written on with potstone. Arithmetic
consisted principally of the memoriter repetition in chorus, led by the
head boy, of endless tables of fractional and integral numbers, useful
for mental calculation in ordinary petty business transactions. The
three days before new and full moon are unlucky for study, and the
schools are then closed : ' also on numerous festival days. Discipline
is maintained by a number of cruel and often grotesque punishments,
which are now being given up. But the cane remains, and is the
symbol of the schoolmaster's office. The masters are generally
supported by small payments and perquisities in kind, or by a
contract for a certain period ^Yith some influential resident. It was

* The thirteenth-day ceremony, before closing the school for the three days, will
serve to illustrate the style of these schools. It consists of the boys, after offering
flowers and repeating verses in honour of the goddess of learning, prostrating them-
selves before the piled-up school apparatus, surmounted by the master's cane. This
they do successively in the following manner : holding the left ear between the right
thumb and forefinger, and the right ear between the left thumb and forefinger, each
boy stoops down and taps the floor with his elbows. Parched rice is then distributed^
purchased out of the pice the boys have brought, and fruit w'x'Ca. pan siiparizxt. pre-
sented to the master.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 747

always the custom for the schoohnaster at the Maharnavami festival to
perambulate the streets with his pupils gaily dressed, who performed
the stick dance and recited humorous verses or dialogues, in all of
which they had been trained for some time before. In return for
these entertainments the masters used to pocket considerable sums
as presents from the parents and friends of the boys. But the practice
is falling out of vogue.

The course of education for advanced students begins with
literature, comprising the study and committal to memory of certain
standard poetical works. This is followed by a course of science,
either logic or grammar. Eventually philosophy and the vedas may
be made the subject of study. The training of students in the
monasteries is specially designed to prepare them for public dis-
cussion of sectarian or philosophical doctrines.

The formation of Educational Departments in the different
provinces of India had its origin in the celebrated despatch from the
Court of Directors of the East India Company, dated the 19th of
July 1854. Correspondence on the subject passed between the
(iovernment of India and Mysore during 1855, and towards the close
of the following year a scheme of education was drawn up by the
Honourable Mr. Devereux, Judicial Commissioner, which received
sanction on the 6th of Eebruary 1857.

The previous steps taken by the Mysore Administration towards
promoting education had been to supply funds to the Wesleyan
Mission for the establishment of schools at the principal District head-
quarter stations and for the erection of premises. The oldest was a
Canarese school at Tiimkiir, established in 1842. One was opened at
Shimoga in 1846. In 185 1 was established the Native Educational
Institution in Bangalore, for instruction in English, with a Government
grant of Rs. 800 a month; and English schools in 1852 at Tiimkiir
and Hassan, and in 1854 at Shimoga, these three together receiving
about Rs, 500 a month. Besides these, were two schools at l>anga-
lore of a special character, supported by Government, the Mutucheri
School for children of pensioned European soldiers (now St. John's
District Schools), and the Tamil Hindu Female School. At Mysore
the Maharaja maintained an English Free School. The entire
Government expenditure on education in 1855 was about Rs. 16,500 a
year.

"On the whole"- — observes Sir Mark Cubbon of this period — " it must
be admitted that the Administration of Mysore makes no particular
show under the head of education. In an abstract point of view this is
of course to be regretted, but subject nations are not kept in older and

748 ADMINISTRATION

good humour on abstract principles, and it has long been the opinion
of some, and is rapidly becoming the opinion of many, that the
efforts which have been made by Government to extend the blessings
of education, and by tests and examinations to secure the services
of enlightened men even in the lowest posts, are not calculated
to be so fully appreciated as they ought by any class of the
community."'

The new scheme contemplated the establishment of 80 Vernacular
schools, one in each taluq, of 4 Anglo-Vernacular schools, one in each
Division, and eventually of a Central College. For the training of
teachers, 2 Vernacular Normal Schools were provided, and rules framed
for grants-in-aid to private institutions. For examination of the schools,
there were to be 2 Inspectors, 4 Deputy Inspectors, and 20 Sub-
Deputy Inspectors. An assignment of i;|- lakh per annum was made
for the Department, of which 5 per cent, was allotted for grants-in-aid.
In pursuance of these arrangements, a Director and an Inspector were
first appointed. In 1858, a High School affiliated to the Madras
University was established at Bangalore, the sum paid to the Native
Educational Institution being withdrawn ; while the Tiimkur, Shimoga
and Hassan Schools were taken over by Government, forming the
basis of Divisional Schools, the Maharaja's School at Mysore occupying
the place of a fourth.

In the matter of establishing Vernacular schools, it was designed
to leave the initiative in the first instance with the people. Schools
were to be established only in places from which applications for them
were received, and an undertaking entered into that the prescribed fees
would be paid. Should no such application be forthcoming, the State
Avas to move in the matter, by setting up a few schools experimentally
in those towns which appeared the most favourable for the purpose, in
order that the public might be familiarized with the scheme. Should
even this fail to draw sufficient attention to the subject of popular
education, an official notice was to be published that no candidate
would be eligible for any Government employment of which the salary
was Rs. 6 a month or upwards, who could not read and w'rite his own
vernacular. A powerful incentive, it was considered, would thus be
provided for obliging the people to send their children to school. But
although for two years not a single school was applied for, matters
never went to this length. During 1859-60 fifteen applications came
in from different taluqs. The end aimed at in the system of Govern-
ment education at the period referred to was expressed by Sir Mark
Cubbon in the following weighty words : " While the higher and more
' These views, it is just to add, bear date in the time of the Mutiny.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 749

ornamental parts of education are by no means neglected, the greatest
care is taken to store the pupil's mind with the knowledge which will
prove most advantageous to him in his passage through life, and above
all which will tend to reconcile him to his condition, and teach him to
act uprightly and speak the truth."

In 1 86 1 a Normal School was established at Bangalore, with English
and Canarese branches, and in 1S62 an Engineering School, for the
purpose of training subordinates for the Department of Public Works.
In 1S63 the Educational Department, which was at first under the
Judicial Commissioner, became separate. In this year the first candi-
date from Mysore matriculated from the High School : but it was not
till 1865 that the University course of .study was formally adopted. In
1866 the growing number of schools made it necessary to appoint an
Inspector, an office which had been vacant for five years, and this
resulted in a proper graduation of the various schools, the introduction
of prescribed courses of study (which in the higher class of schools
were designed to lead to matriculation), and the institution of an
examination for teachers' certificates in the Normal School, thereby
considerably raising the character and standard of teaching throughout
the country.

Thus far, higher and secondary education had principally received
attention, when, in 1868, the H6bli School system, providing a com-
prehensive scheme of primary education for the masses, was introduced,
marking an era in the development of the Department. A general
estimate showed, that allowing for schools of all kinds, 200,000 boys
alone of an age to attend school, not counting girls, were without
ostensible means of instruction. For the numerous classes of traders,
ryots and minor officials who lived out of the principal towns, all the
instruction available was that imparted in the indigenous schools,
scattered over the country in more or less abundance. The teachers
were, with few exceptions, illiterate, and possessed very slender claims,
if any, for their office other than that acquired by hereditary succession
to it. Ignorant as they often were, however, and incompetent, they
were regarded with respect by the people among whom they and their
forefathers had lived ; and it was certain that any popular scheme of
education in which these men should have been set aside or supplanted
would have encountered a formidable resistance which would have been
fatal to its success. On the other hand, by recognizing and making
use of them, the sympathy of the people was enlisted in favour of the
new project.

The system proposed was to establish a school for boys and girls in
each h6bli or taluq sub-division, the estimated number of hdblis being

750 ADMINISTRATJON

645, wilh an average area of 41 scjuarc miles, and a population of
6,040 persons. The masters were to he men selected from among the
teachers of existing indigenous schools, and trained for their work in
normal schools, of which one was provided for each of the three
Divisions. While under training every man was to receive a main-
tenance allowance of Rs. 5 a month, and on appointment to the charge
of a school his salary was to be Rs. 7, with prospect of promotion.
Care was taken to nominate the men as far as po-ssible to the localities
in which they were known and thus had influence. The schools were
to be examined three times a year by Sub-Deputy Inspectors, of whom
one was designated for each of the eight Districts, and Local
Committees of influential residents in each h6bli were further to exercise
a general supervision. No fees were to be levied in the schools, but
the education would be paid for by a cess. The people, however, were
expected to build or provide premises as an earnest of their desire for
the schools. Night classes were to be formed for the benefit of those
who were unable to attend school during the ordinary hours of
labour, students in these classes paying a fee to defray the expense
of lights.

To meet the cost of the scheme, a cess of i per cent, was intended
to be levied as the land settlement in each District was completed by
the Survey Department. But subsequently the Local Funds being con-
stituted on the basis previously described, in 1S72-3 the proportion of
24 per cent, from the entire Local Fund cess was allotted for H6bli and
Village schools. This admitted of the expansion of the scheme, which
had all along enjoyed marked popularity and success, and an aggregate
of 750 such schools was thus provided for, with an examining staff of
15 Sub-Deputy Lispectors.

In 1875 the upper department of the Bangalore High School was
formed into a Central College, and in connection with it a School of
Engineering and Natural Science was established on an entirely new
footing, for the purpose of training selected Natives for both the
officers' and subordinate grades of the Public Works, Forest and
Revenue Survey Departments.

Meanwhile education by private bodies had been encouraged by a
liberal system of grants-in-aid, subject to Government inspection. The
number of private schools thus aided by the State continued greatly to
multiply, and the character of their instruction, influenced by the
general elevation of that imparted in Government institutions, was
vastly improved. The Department in this manner succeeded in
bringing within the scope of its operations and enlisting the sympathy
of all the educational agencies at work in the country, whether

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

European or native, together with the co-operation of the learned
-classes.

The following figures will serve to illustrate the growth and expense
■ of the Department in two decades, and before and after the allotments
made from Local Funds : —

Yenr.

No. of
Schools.

No. of
Pupils.

Charges to
Government.

Receipts from

fees and other

sources.

Net cost to Govern-
ment.

Total. Per Pupil.

1855-6 ...

Before the formation of the Educational Department.

Rs. ;rs. a. r.

1,108 16,580 ; 2,566 16,580 I 14 15 5

Government
Schools.

1862-3

1865-6

1872-3

1875-6

Aided Schools.

1862-3

1865-6

1872-3

1875-6

After the formation of the Educational Department.

990

2,408 ,

659

19,497

730

27,711

1,383

3,234

6,900

114

8,598

29,729
49,188

1,37,855
1,84,533

7,940
25,561
41,109
46,721

3,517
12,677

1,10,785

1,31,387

6,268

29,418

77,225
78,769

26,212

36,511
27,070
53,156

7,940
25,561

41,109

46,721

26 7 7

15 2 7

I 6 2

I 14 8

7 14 5
5 5 10
5 6 II

In addition to the above there were reckoned to be at this latter
date 1,350 private unaided schools, with 17,882 pupils.

A scheme for Industrial training for Europeans and Eurasians was
introduced in connection with the Anglo-Indian Aid Association. A
grant of Rs. 200 a month was made to it from the ist January 1876,
on condition that 40 youths should be on the rolls, of whom at least
two-thirds must be under definite engagement as apprentices. Under
this scheme 22 boys were under training in an Industrial school at
Bangalore, and i 7 others apprenticed to local firms. The Apprentice
Act was also introduced into Mysore in connection with the movement.
Besides the above, 11 junior boys and 21 girls were under subordinate
training. The scheme, however, did not outlive the famine.

The Educational Department was controlled by a Director of Public
Instruction. There were three principal circles of inspection, two in
charge of Inspectors, and the third in charge of a Deputy Inspector.
Subordinate to these were 2 Sub-Deputy Inspectors for Hindustani
Schools, and 15 for H6bli and Village Schools.

But the famine affected the Educational in common with all other

752 A DMTNISTRA TION

Departments. In April 1878 the H6bli Normal Schools were closed.
In April 1879 the two European Inspectors were transferred to other
parts of India, and their places were supplied by four native Deputy
Inspectors, on much lower pay, one for each District. The previously
existing Deputy Inspector was also made Assistant in the
Directors' Office and had charge of the Town and Cantonment of
Bangalore. As another measure of economy, all charges for vernacular
education were thrown upon Local funds, thus relieving the State
revenues of all expenditure except what was incurred for English
instruction.

Under new rules of affiliation the Central College and Bishop
Cotton's Schools and College in Bangalore had been affiliated to the
Madras University up to the B.A. Examination ; and the Maharaja's
High School, Mysore, and the Shimoga High School up to the First in
Arts Examination. The School of Engineering and Natural Science in
Bangalore was at the same time affiliated in Civil Engineering. Its
abolition on the plea of economy had been proposed, but the
Government of India did not approve of this step. The uncertain
demands, however, of the public service in view of impending changes,
made it necessary to give it up on a collegiate scale in 1880. Scholar-
ships were in lieu granted to advanced students to enable them to
complete their Engineering course in the large Colleges at Madras or
Poona. The lower students continued to be trained as Overseers in
the Public Works Department and for subordinate appointments in the
Topographical and Revenue Survey Departments. Botanical classes
were also opened to prepare subordinates for the Forest Department ;
and a Medical School was formed in connection with the Bangalore
Petta Hospital, providing a three years' course of study in preparation
for Hospital Assistants.

The returns for 18S0-1 illustrate the progress of the Department up
to the time of the Rendition. There were then 899 Government
Schools, with 33,287 pupils; and 188 Aided Schools, with 9,370
pupils : or a total of 1,087 schools, containing 42,657 pupils, of whom
38,713 were boys and 3,944 girls. ^ According to race, 1,142 were
Europeans or Eurasians, 1,051 Native Christians, 35,757 Hindus,
4,330 Muhammadans, and 377 others. The total expenditure was
Rs. 3,91,028, of which only Rs. 1,58,423 was met from State Revenues,

' The unaided indigenous schools may be put down at 1,000, with 15,000 pupils.
In addition to these were the Regimental schools, under the military authorities, which
were 7 in number, containing 970 pupils. These being added, which, seeing that the
military are included in the census of the population, is but just, we obtain a grand
total of 58,627 pupils (54,480 boys and 4,147 girls) under instruction, or i in 71-4 of
the population.

MEDICAL 753

the remainder, or Rs. 2,32,605, being defrayed — Rs. 1,40,976 from
Local and Municipal funds, Rs. 57,250 from school fees, and the rest
from private sources.

The following are further details relating to the several grades of
instruction : —

Grade.

Schools.

Pupils.

University Education

132

Secondary ,,

166

3.084

Primary ,,

907

38,296

Special ,,

1,145

f.overnment

Other

expcndituie.

expenditure.

22,720

1,160

63,137

40,461

145,237

48,758

7,328

1,250

The results of examinations in that year show that 6 students passed
the B.A. examination, 16 the First in Arts examination, 126 the
Matriculation examination, and 186 the Middle School examination.

^rEDICAL

The medical institutions maintained by the Mysore Government in
1 88 1 were the following : —

General Hospitals, with dispensaries attached :— Bowring Civil Hospital,
Bangalore ; Raja's Hospital, Mysore ; Civil Hospital, Hassan.

Dispensaries, with wards for in-patients : — Kolar, Hassan, Chitaldroog,
Chikmagalur, Tiimkur ; for out-patients only : — Bangalore Petta, and
eleven taltiq headquarter stations. One at Shathalli, belonging to the
Roman Catholic Mission, was aided by a Government grant.

Special Hospitals : — Lunatic Asylum, Leper Hospital, both at Bangalore.
Maternity Hospitals at Bangalore and Mysore, newly established.

Temporary special Famine Hospitals were opened in 1877.

The Surgeon to the Mysore Commission was stationed at Bangalore,
and had charge of the Bowring Civil Hospital and the two Asylums, as
well as the general control of vaccination, while another medical officer
was Superintendent of the Central Jail and had the supervision of the
Petta Dispensary. There was a Civil Surgeon at the headquarters of
each of the other two Divisions, who was also Superintendent of the
local Jail and Inspector of all medical institutions within the limits of
the Division. The Deputy Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Depart-
ment, for Mysore and the Ceded Districts, personally inspected the
institutions at headquarters at Bangalore, and others which hajjpened
to lie in the routes of his official tours. He also acted as Sanitary
Commissioner and Registrar of Vital Statistics.

During the period of the Maharaja's government there was a Darbar
Surgeon attached to the Court, who superintended His Highness'
Hospital at Mysore. After the assumption of the government by the
British, a dispensary was established in 1833 in a room in the Com-

3 c

754 ^i DAf/NISTRA TION

missioner's Office in the Fort of Bangalore, and in 1834 one in the
Cantonment. In 1839 a Hospital and dispensary were commenced in
the Petta on a small scale, but proved so popular and useful that a
suitable building, with accommodation for 50 patients, was erected in
1847. In 1849 the Fort Dispensary was also provided with a proper
building. In 1850 a Hospital was opened at Shimoga. In 1852 a
Hospital for 70 in-patients was established in the Cantonment Bazaar,
and the Petta Hospital was enlarged. A further addition to the latter
was made in 1856, and in that year the Yelwal Dispensary, established
in connection with the Residency, was transferred to Hassan. In
1866 the Petta Hospital was further enlarged, but meanwhile the
Bowring Civil Hospital was under erection in the Cantonment, on the
plan of La Riboisiere in Paris, which admits of the segregation of the
several castes of people and of different classes of disease. It was
occupied in 1868, and in 1872 the Petta Hospital was converted into a
Dispensar}', in-patients being transferred to the Bowring Hospital.

The numbers under treatment by the jMedical establishment steadily
increased every year, the totals for two decades being as given below,
fis well as those for 1 880-1 : —

Bangalore. Outstations. Total.

In-patients. Out-patients. In-patients. Out-patients.

11,243 3S1 6,198 19,518
18,711 _ _ _

47,604 1,863 68,044 118,993

46,040 1,827 151,647 156,989

The diseases for which treatment was chiefly sought at the medical
institutions of Government were skin diseases, fevers, diseases of the eye,
injuries, dysentery and diarrhoea, respiratory and venereal diseases.
Among skin diseases, scabies was the most common ; among fevers,
the paroxysmal type ; among affections of the eye, simple and catarrhal
ophthalmia ; among affections of the respiratory system, bronchitis was
perhaps the most prevalent.

Fevers were the chief cause of mortality in the Province, not less
than 30,000 deaths occurring from this cause alone annually, which,
considering that this is not ordinarily a directly fatal class of disease,
will convey some idea of the extent to which it prevailed. Dengue
was a peculiar type that appeared in 1873 and reached its height in
March. It was most severe in ^Mysore and Seringapatam, proving
fatal in some instances.

Cholera carried off the greatest number of victims in 1866-7, ^vhen
18,504 deaths were reported from this cause. The cholera years since
have been 187 1-2, with 4,297 deaths, and 1875-6, with 3,139. The
minimum of deaths from this disease was in 1874-5, when there were

IS55-6

1,696

1865-6

1,800

1875-6

1,482

1880-1

1,688

MEDICAL 755

only 2, 5 in 186S-9, 12 in 1873-4, and 51 in 1872-3. The outbreak
of 1866 was attributed to the scarcity or famine, and was general. Of
the course of the disease in 1870-1, the following remarks are taken
from the Deputy Surgeon-General's report : —

The first cases of cholera were reported in April, and were supposed to
have been imported from the Salem District, where, and in Southern India
generally, the disease prevailed at the close of 1869 and commencement of
1870. The disease during 1870 fell with the greatest intensity upon the
eastern Districts of the Province, and notably upon the Cantonment of
Bangalore itself, a few ripples only of the storm-wave reaching the western
Districts. There was an apparent lull altogether at the close of the year.
The months of June, July and August were those in which the disease
prevailed to the greatest extent. But at the close of January 1871, cases
were reported from the western Districts, the disease having, it is alleged,
been re-imported from the Western Coast, where it prevailed with some
intensity at the close of the year 1870. From this period the disease
extended its ravages. It invaded the Districts of Mysore and Hassan ; and
the mortality was heavy. It was not till the 15th February that undoubted
evidence was obtained of the disease having appeared at Hunsur in an
epidemic form, and it was reported to have been introduced by travellers
from Cannanore. From Hunsur it spread to Fraserpet, being introduced,
it is alleged, by cartmen frequenting the distillery there. About the time of
its appearance at Hunsur, reports came in of deaths in different taluqs of
the Ashtagram Division. The first death in the town of Mysore occurred
on the 22nd February, and the disease speedily spread and expanded itself
very much in the Ashtagram Division. A few deaths occurred in towns on
the high road to Bangalore, on dates subsequent to the first death at
Hunsur. The disease, in fact, occupied principally, indeed almost entirely,
the Districts which were spared in 1870, while those which experienced the
main incidence of the disease in that year escaped in 1871. The Districts
of Mysore and Hassan suffered to the greatest extent. The deaths in the
former amounted to 2,156, or in the ratio of 2*9 per mille of population.
But the Yelandur JAgir suffered far more than any taluq under the
direct administration of the Mysore Government. The deaths therein were
708 out of a population of 25,765 souls, or in the ratio of 27 per mille.

In regard to the question of invasion and propagation, whether by human
intercourse or by prevailing currents of wind, every medical report received
speaks of introduction from infected localities by travellers. At the close
of 1870 the disease was known to prevail on the Western Coast, and at the
time the first warning notes of its possible invasion by one or other of the
main lines of intercommunication were sounded, the prevailing winds were
easterly ; north of east in January, east veering to south-east in February
and March. Now in these months the disease certainly advanced in an
easterly direction, against the prevailing currents of wind. But later in the
year, when the disease attained its acme of intensity in the months of June
and July, strong south-west winds prevailed. We do not notice as coin-

3 C 2

756 A DAflNISTRA TION

cidcnt with the setting in of the south-west monsoon any extension of the
epidemic to the eastward. On the contrary, the eastern Districts which
had felt the weight of the pestilence in 1870, almost entirely escaped. In
the Nundidroog Division, for instance, the deaths were only in the ratio of
0*46 per millc of population.

An interesting fact may be noted in connection with the extensive
prevalence of the disease in Mysore, Seringapatam, Ganjam and surround-
ing villages. On the fact becoming known to the Officer commanding the
30th Regiment at the French Rocks, that small station was as far as
possible put under quarantine. A cordon of sentries was thrown out round
the station, travellers were diverted, and communication between the
inhabitants of the bazaars and neighbouring infected villages as far as
possible prevented. The station entirely escaped, while villagers within a
few miles were suffering heavily. Had the extension of the pestilence been
due to aerial currents, the French Rocks could scarcely have escaped,
while the measures taken were precisely those calculated to prevent its
introduction by human intercourse.

In this year the special sanitary regulations now in force were
brought into operation at all fairs, religious festivals and other large
gatherings of people.

The spread of cholera in 1875 is thus described. Two sporadic cases
occurred in May in the Hassan District, and on the 14th July the disease,
imported from Coimbatore, appeared at Gundlupet, 70 miles south of the
town of Mysore. Subsequently the Province was invaded by cholera
imported from the Bellary and Kadapa Districts. In September the
violence of the epidemic reached its acme. In this month all the Districts
excepting three, in October all but one, and in November one and all, were
affected. In December there was a marked reduction in the aggregate of
mortality. Cholera attacked Bangalore in September, and in November
the mortality amounted to 225, and December to 95. Only 13 casualties
occurred in the Town of Bangalore. The ratios of death per mille in the
Cantonment and Town of Bangalore were 3"89 and •21 respectively. In
the town of Mysore the mortality was 534, equal to 9*24 per mille of the
population. Shimoga lost 11 "69 per mille from the epidemic. The total
mortality registered amounted to 3,139, of which 1,828 were males and
1,311 females. The largest mortality occurred in the Mysore District.

The deaths from small-pox, which had ranged from 350 to 400 in
the three years previous, rose to 1,494 in 187 1-2, and to 4,532 in
1872-3, when the epidemic reached its height. The numbers pro-
gressively declined each year since, bei«g 3,052 in 1873-4, 1,535 in
1874-5^ and 544 in 1875-6.

Vaccitiation. — Private inoculators are stated to have been formerly
pretty numerous, but by 1855 they had been completely deprived of
their occupation by the preference given to the Government vacci-

MEDICAL 757

nators. These were 54 in number, and were transferred from taluq to
taluci as necessary. There were three grades, on the respective pay of
8, 10 and 12 rupees a month. Each vaccinator was expected to
vaccinate 10 persons for each rupee of his pay, or suffer a proportionate
fine. A small money reward was given at the end of the year to
the most active vaccinator of each division. Under this system the
number of operations increased with suspicious rapidity. The total of
62,257 in 1855-6, rose to 91,404 in 1857-8, and was little below a
lakh in 1862-3. It became notorious that, with the connivance of the
village officials, the verification lists sent in by the vaccinators were
frequently fictitious. The project was then formed, in 1865-6, of making
them work in a more systematic manner through their ranges, proceeding
from village to village in regular succession ; and as by this mode of
proceeding some difficulty might be found in making up the required
complement, the stipulation as to the number of operations to be
performed monthly was withdrawn. The total, which had fallen in
that year to 88,054, went down in 1866-7 to 73,793- Since that time
it steadily rose, until in 1875-6 it again touched a lakh, and has, with
some variations in the famine years, remained at near that figure. In
1872-3 a system of inspection, by the apothecaries attached to the
camps of Deputy Commissioners, was introduced as a check, which
appears to have worked well. There were 84 Taluq vaccinators in
:88o-i, and four in the Bangalore Municipality. The medical
subordinates in Hospitals and Dispensaries also vaccinated.

Special Hospitals. — The Leper House was opened in the Petta in
1845 ; the building, however, was small and badly situated; a large one
was therefore built in a better spot in 1857. The Lunatic Asylum was
opened near the Petta Hospital in 1850, the inmates being removed
from a smaller place of custody which had existed two years previously
in the Cantonment, and a few years after the old Petta Jail was added
to the accommodation.

Li the Leper Asylum there were 26 inmates at the close of 1S74 ; in
1875, 19 were admitted. Of these 7 died, 3 absconded, and 3 were
discharged at their own request. The population of the asylum
constituted about one-fourth of the total number of lepers known to
have resided in the Town and Cantonment of Pangalore. The gurjun
oil treatment was fairly carried out during the year, and the Deputy
Surgeon-General remarked that "as a therapeutic agent, it had been
found to improve the state of the skin, to assist in healing up
leprous sores, to corroborate somewhat the general health, and in some
cases to recall sensation to anaesthetic spots, but it had failed to
produce any permanent amelioration or to change for the better the

758 A DMINISTRA TION

true leprous cachexia. Most of the i)atients were, however, averse to
the external use of the oil."

In the Lunatic Asylum no restraint was practised, further than
confining a patient to his own room when he became violent or
excited; and as it is believed to be an important point in the treatment
of the insane to find for them both mental and bodil}^ occupation,
those whose health would admit of it were regularly employed in some
sort of out-door labour, consisting chiefly of gardening, rope-making,
&c. For the latter two years, the males and females were allowed to
mix together freely in the garden without any bad results ; on the
contrary, it was found that they took scarcely any notice of each other.
Nearly half the cases of mental derangement were attributed to the
abuse of bangh, opium and intoxicating drugs.

MILITARY DEPARTMENTS

The Subsidiary Treaty of Seringapatam concluded in 1799, provided
in its Second xVrticle for the maintenance, within the Territory bestowed
upon the Raja of Mysore, of a British force for the defence and
security of His Highness' dominions, on account of which the Mysore
State was to pay a subsidy of 7 lakhs of star pagodas (equal to 24^
lakhs of rupees) annually, the disposal of this sum, together with the
arrangement and employment of the troops to be maintained by it,
being left entirely to the East India Company. The Third Article
provided, that in the event of hostile operations becoming necessary
for the protection of either the Company's or the Mysore territories,
the Raja should contribute towards the increased charges a reasonable
amount, as determined by the Governor-General with reference to the
net revenues of the State.

British Subsidiary Force. — Under the first of these provisions,
Mysore was garrisoned by troops of the Madras Army. The ]\Iysore
(Military) Division in 1881 included Coorg and the Nilagiri Hills.
The headquarters were at Seringapatam till 1809, since when they
have been established at Bangalore. The only other military station
occupied in Mysore in 1881 was that of the French Rocks, 4 miles
north of Seringapatam ; Harihar (Hurryhur), on the Tungabhadra, the
last post given up, was abandoned in 1865.

Her Majesty's forces at Bangalore consisted in iSSi of the following
troops :— Headquarters and a battery of Royal Horse Artillery, and
two field batteries of Royal xYrtillery ; a regiment of European Cavalry ;
ci regiment of European Infantry ; headquarters of Royal Engineers,

MILITARY 759

and 4 companit'S of Sappers and Miners ; a regiment of Native Cavalry ;
and 3 regiments of Native Infantry. At the TVench Rocks was
stationed a regiment of Native Infantry, with a detachment at Mysore.
The total number of fighting officers and men in March iSSi (not
counting the Native Cavalry, which came on the strength later in the
year), was 4,377 of all arms, 1,548 belonging to the European Force,
and 2,829 to the Native Force. The total cost during 1 880-1,
including contingencies, was Rs. 1,871,781.

Commencing with Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the illustrious Duke of
Wellington, the Mysore Division has been commanded by a dis-
tinguished line of Generals. The most disastrous event in its annals
was the short-lived mutiny of British Ofificers in 1809. This arose out
of certain obnoxious orders of the INIadras Government, which were
considered to entrench upon the privileges of the army, in consequence
of which the military in many stations of Southern India refused to
obey the Government. Prominent among the malcontents was the
officer commanding at Seringapatam, who took military possession of
the fortress on the 29th July, and stopped parties escorting treasure.
The force at Chitaldroog seized the treasure there and marched for
Seringapatam, but was dispersed^ by troops from Bangalore. But the
mutiny had lasted less than a month, when the officers returned to
their allegiance on the 22nd August. In 1857 it was the British
regiment withdrawn from I'angalore — the ist Madras Fusiliers — which,
under the since well-known designation of Neill's Blue Caps," saved
Allahabad, avenged Cawnpore, and took a [irominent part in the relief
of Lucknow, the gallant Neill falling in the assault. In 1879 a large
proportion of the Force was engaged on service in Afghanistan, and
in 1 88 1 the i4lh Hussars went on service to the Transvaal in South
Africa.

Mysore Local Force. — The Mysore Contingent consisted of
Cavalry and Infantry, or Savar and Barr as they were termed. They
were commanded by Native Officers, and the whole force was under
the control of the Military A.ssistant to the Chief Commissioner. The
disposal made of the Sultan's army on the capture of Seringapatam in
1799, and the military arrangements of the new Government, have
already been described (p. 601). During the Mahratta War, a body
of the Mysore Silahdar Horse operated in 1802 and 1803 with General
^\'ellesley's army. The levies had been increased for this purpose, and
on the return of the troops, the sudden disbandment of the extra levies

' (3n tlic loth of August, near Wehlic's Monument, since then called ihc rana
kainbha, or war pillar.

^ From the colour of the pa^ri worn by the men round ihcir helmets.

7 6o ylDMINISTRA TION

being no less impracticable than impolitic, it was gradually effected.
Including the cost of this, the whole expenditure incurred by the
Mysore State in connection with the Mahratta A\'ar amounted to a
little less than 5 lakhs of star pagodas.

In consideration of this auxiliary, a Supplementary Treaty was
entered into in January 1807, whereby all pecuniary claims under the
third article of the treaty of 1799 were remitted, with retrospective
effect ; the Raja being required in future to maintain a body of 4,000
effective Horse (numbering about 500 Bargeer and the rest Silahdars),
ready to serve with the British Army whenever required, the British
Government bearing the charge of batta for service in the field out of
the country. It was also agreed that the force should be increased
when required by the British Government, the latter paying a fixed
sum, with batta, for each extra horseman.

Silahdars. — The Savar or Silahdar Horse formed the body of
irregular cavalry kept up under the above treaty. They several times
served beyond the frontiers of Mysore as auxiliaries in the campaigns
of the British Army in Southern India, as also in assisting to maintain
order.

In 1802, 800 Silahdars accompanied Colonel Stevenson in the expedition
to Manantoddy. In 1802-3, 2,000 Silahdars accompanied General Wellesley
through the Deccan towards Poona. In 1809-10, 2,000 Silahdars marched
with Colonel Barry Close against Bavoo. In 181 5, 500 Silahdars accom-
panied the expedition to Karnul. In 181 5, the number of regiments
inaintained was eleven, and for a period of nearly four years a force of
4,500 Silahdars were employed under General Hyslop, &c., against the
Peshwa. In 1824-5, 2,000 Silahdars accompanied the force against Kittore,
and in 1826, 1,500 marched into the Dharwar country.

Subsequent to the assumption of the country, they were also frequently
employed. In the Canara insurrection of 1838 they were required to cross
the frontier and afford assistance. In 1845-6, 1,000 horse were sent to
Vizagapatam ; and subsequently on several occasions considerable detach-
ments were employed in the Bellary and other adjoining Districts. In 1S57
the Government of India directed that a body of 2,000 should at once
proceed to Hindustan. This order was subsequently countermanded, but a
similar number were employed in the districts to the northward of Mysore
as far as Sholapur, and took part in the minor affairs which arose during
1S57-S in those parts of India. Medals for service in the Mutiny were
obtained by 37S men of the Silahdars.

As there were no circumstances calling for the continued mainte-
nance of the full complement, the number of Silahdars from time to
time varied from 2,000 to 4,000, accordingly as required for field
service or not. The number and efficiency of the Force, however,

SILAHDARS "M

gradually declined, owing to low pay, bad horses and arms, and the
corrupt practices of the Bakshis (as their commanders were called).
No proficiency in horsemanship or in the use of arms was insisted
upon, while the office of Silahdar was almost regarded as hereditary.
This state of things drew attention, and a good deal was done to
improve it, such as the adoption of a uniform, the arming of the men
with a serviceable lance, providing lines for each regiment, which did
not previously exist, the establishment of a Chanda Remount Fund,
which freed the service from its former precarious character, the raising
of the pay of each man from 20 to 26 Rs. per montli (one regiment of
the service then maintained being reduced to provide funds for this
most necessary measure), and lastly, the introduction of a new and
better system of accounts and payment. Nevertheless much remained
tp be accomplished to render the Silahdars even passably efficient as
an arm of the local militia.

In 1873, detailed arrangements were ordered for rendering the
Silahdars a compact body of efficient horsemen. In the first place it
was considered that the numerical strength of the Force was much
more than was called for by the requirements of the Province, and
that 1,000 well-disciplined and efficient men would serve all purposes
during the times of peace. Orders were accordingly issued for the
gradual reduction of the Force, to consist in future of three regiments,
the strength of each regiment

being as noted in the margin. ' l^egimcndar. i Kolllc Drummer.

_, , . rr 1 1 o Risalilars.

1 he reduction was effected by ^ jamadars.

offering inducements to retire, in i Sarzaffardar.

the shape of pensions. At the 36 Dafedars.

same time a carefully graduated ' >;i^hanl.ardar.

. I Trumpet Major,

.scale of invalid pensions was (3 Trumpeters.

made applicable to the Silahdars

for the future, thereby giving greater stability to the service. The

Force was properly drilled, under the supervision of a specially appointed

European Adjutant, aided by drill instructors from the Madras 1-iglU

Cavalry. They were supplied with saddles of English jiattern, and

equipped with an improved style of sabre. Boat cloaks were supplied

to both cavalry and infantry. In 1 880-1 the strength of the Force was

1,224, including 42 commissioned and 116 non-commissioned officers.

About ?ths of the Silahdars were Muhammadans, and the remainder

chieliy Mahrattas, with ,'^th Brahmans and Rajputs. The three

regiments were stationed respectively at Jiangalore, Mysore, ami

Shimoga, with detachments in certain talutis.

The Chanda Fund system was first introduced in 1S69. Its princi[)al

330 Savars.

I Farrier Major.

6 Farriers.

I Foot Mahaldar.

I SarjK'shkar.

6 I'eshkars.

4 Jhandavals.

762 // DMimSTRA TION

features were, that each Silahdar was to pay \\ R. monthly towards
the Fund, in consideration of receiving from it Rs. 200 towards the
purchase of a remount, on the death or rejection of his horse. These
were afterwards altered in favour of the system in force in the Bengal
Cavalry, with Stable and Stallion funds in addition. Each Silahdar
then paid Rs. 2 a month towards the Fund, from which fresh horses
were maintained, and on the death or rejection of his horse, a Silahdar
contributed but a month's pay, without reference to the value of the
horse which he received. Precautions were, of course, adopted to
prevent an undue advantage being taken of this benefit, and the
working of the system was satisfactory, and popular among the
Silahdars. The horses for the force were procured from Candahar and
Persian dealers, or were the produce of the mares in the force by
Government stallions, of which there were 19.

Barr. — The Barr, or Infantry, was also a relic of Tipu's army. The
strength of the force was 2,270 at the beginning of 1800; it was raised
., ... ,. . to 8, 000 during the war of

I Havihlar Major. °

70 Havildars. 1803-4, when the force was dis-

20 Drummers and ciplined after the English pattern,
Infers. ^j^^j y,^^ 4,000 in 1817. On the

5 nva es. transfer of the country to British

rule, it was reduced to four regiments of 500 each. The strength of
each regiment, omitting servants, was as given in the margin. In 1879
the 4th regiment was disbanded, as a measure of economy. The total
strength in iSSo-i was 1,831, which included 67 commissioned and
213 non-commissioned otificers. The duties of the Barr were confined
to guarding the District and taluq treasuries, jails, &:c. All four
regiments, till 1870, were armed with old flint muskets. These were
gradually exchanged for percussion muskets. In 1879, owing to the
absence of most of the British force in Afghanistan, the Barr furnished
guards for the Remount Depot at Hosur.

Bangalore Rifle Volunteers. — A Volunteer Force was raised at
Bangalore in 186S, and was popular with the young men of the large
Anglo-Indian community of this station. Three companies were here
formed, in 1873 an additional company was raised in Mysore, and ia
1875 a cadet company in Bangalore. The strength of the force in.
1880-1 was 415, including 59 cadets. There were 55 extra eflScients
and 122 efficients. The corps was up to this time maintained at the
cost of the INIysore revenues, but it was determined, on the Rendition,
to keep it up in future as a charge on Imperial Funds.

I Commandant

I Risaldar.

I Adjutant.
10 Sulmdars.
10 Jamadarp.

763

Since the Rendition

After the Rendition, in March 1881, the issue of Annual Adminis-
tration Reports was discontinued. But two Quinquennial Reports
have been published, bringing down the information to 1891. And
the Dewan's Annual Addresses, delivered before the Representative
.Assembly, though principally concerned with the revenues, contain brief
references to the more salient changes and proceedings of the year.

The form of Administration continued to be virtually the same as
previously under British rule, but with a preponderance of Native
officers. At the head of the executive administration was the Dewan,
under whom, as President, was the Council, composed of three
members, whose duties have already been described (p. 442). In 1889
it was decided that two members should sit regularly to hear and
dispose of all revenue matters coming before Government in appeal or
revision, which by the new Land Revenue Code were excluded from
the jurisdiction of the Civil Courts. In 1895, under the Regency, a
list was issued of additional subjects referred to the Council, giving it a
more effective share in executive control. Certain departments were
placed under each member ; the Council was ordered to meet
regularly once a week, and specific rules of business were laid down.
The constitution and functions of the Representative Assembly have
been sufficiently explained on pp. 442-3.^

In pursuance of measures of retrenchment, the 8 Districts, containing
69 taluqs, which existed at the time of the Rendition, were in 1882
reduced to 6 Districts with 60 taluqs. At the same time, as a
compensation, 3 SubT)ivisions under Assistant Commissioners, and 17
sub-taluqs under Deputy Amildars, were formed. But these changes
proved to be of great inconvenience. In 1886, therefore, the 8
Districts, with somewhat altered limits, were restored, with 66 taluqs ;
and in consequence of this step only i Sub-Division (French Rocks)
and 10 sub-taluqs remained. In 1891 three more Sub-Divisions (Sagar,
Closepet, and Chik Ballapur) were formed.

The various Departments were at first directly controlled by the
Dewan, but as the finances improved, and the work of the Departments
expanded, several Heads of Departments were appointed, such as for
Forests and Police in 1885, for Excise in 1889, for Muzrai in iS9i,<S:c.,
though different appointments were often doubled up under one head.

' Thai tlie meniljcrs appreciate llicir position is cviileiU from tlicir voluntarily
relincjuishing, since 1S90, the travellini; allowances they iiseil to receive for attending
at Mysore.

764 ADMINISTRATION

In describing the details of Administration since the Rendition, it
will be convenient to follow the classification prescribed since 1871 for
Government Annual Reports, namely. Administration of the Land,
Protection, Production and Distribution, Revenue and Finance, Vital
Statistics and Medical Services, Instruction, Archseology and
Miscellaneous.^

ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND

The various land tenures having already been described, under the
first head come the Topographical and Revenue Surveys and Inam
Settlement.

The Topographical Survey commenced in April 1886, and was
carried out by ofificers of the Survey of India under the orders of the
Surveyor-General. Triangulation was completed in 1884-5, ^•'^'^ the
detailed topographical survey in September 1886. The total cost of
the operations was 8J lakhs. The survey was on the scale of one inch
to the mile, except in the case of the State forests, which were on the
four-inch scale. The whole extended to 70 standard sheets of maps.
Unfortunately the different redistributions of Districts and taluqs
interfered with much of their utility.

Revenue Survey and Settlement. — The system of Revenue Survey
and Settlement has previously been explained. The appointment of
Survey and Settlement Commissioner was abolished, and the further
operations were conducted by the Superintendent of the Revenue
Survey, who also had charge of Inam Settlement. With this exception
all the European officers were gradually retired or transferred else-
where, their places being taken by Native ofificers on a reduced scale,
selected chiefly from among Amildars of suitable attainments. These
have proved to be efficient xVssistants. The re-survey of coffee lands
under the new system of settlement was carried out in 1883 and 18S4.
The entire work of measurement was completed in 1890, and the
strength of the Department reduced. In 1895 there remained 2 taluqs
for classification and 3 for settlement. The cost of the survey for the
ten years, 1881 to 1890, was Rs. 21,57,683.

Inam Settlement. — -The valuation of inam and kayamgutta villages
for the purpose of calculating the quit-rent and local fund cess chargeable
on them, was ordered in 1881 to be based on a survey. The Survey
Department, however, valued the villages at the full assessment of the

^ In 1892 a change was made in reckoning the official year, which was ordered to
begin in future on the 1st of July, instead of the ist of April as before ; hence
statistics for 1891-2 relate to 15 months.

LEGISLATION 765

whole culturable area, with an addition of 2 to 5 annas per acre
for the unculturable. This was complained of by the inanidars, and
orders were issued to value them at the survey assessment on lands
under cultivation, with 25 per cent, of the assessment on arable
waste. Pending the revaluation the old rates were levied. There are
reckoned to be 2,095 such villages, and 1,010 had been settled up to
1895. The question of excesses in Minor Inams in Government
villages of settled Maidan taluqs was finally disposed of in 1886, and
17,413 title-deeds for such inams had been issued up to 1895. Of
quit-rent registers 53,756 were compared with the original inam
registers and issued, out of 61,928 in the Province. The vexed question
of the enfranchisement of Kodigi inams at ^ or |- quit-rent was sati.s-
factorily settled in 1888, on the general rule that such inams were
granted for construction and upkeep of tanks, and not for mere
upkeep only. These and some other miscellaneous settlements were
carried out at a cost, from 1891 to 1895, of R^. 1,21,744, the additional
permanent revenue derived from the operations of the Department
being Rs. 18,948.

PROTECTION

Legislation. — The change of Government rendered it necessary to
revise the Acts already in force in Mysore (a schedule of which was
appended to the Instrument of Transfer) word by word, to render
them applicable to the altered state of affairs. The following Regula-
tions have also, after consultation with local officers and publication in
the official Gazette for public information, been, with the approval of
the Government of India, passed into law : —

Regulation

I of 18S3 >rysore Civil Courts Regulation.
I of 1884 Mysore Chief Court Regulation.
II of 18S4 To apply to Mysore the Code of Civil Procedure, Act XI\' of 1SS2,
in supersession of Act X of 1877, as amended by Act XII of

1879-
III of 1884 Mysore Legal Practitioners Regulation.
I of 1885 Velandur Jagir Regulation.
II of 1S85 To apply to Mysore, Act XVI of 1863, for levying duty on Sjiirits
used exclusively in arts and manufactures, or in chemistry.
Ill of 1885 To amend the law relating to Excise Revenue.

I of 1886 To introduce the Code of Criminal Procedure, Act X of 1882, in
supersession of Act X of 1872.

A separate Legislative Department was organized in January 1886,
under an officer designated the Legislative Secretary. Since then*
the following Regulations have been passed : —

766 AD MINIS 7 'RA TION

Regulation
I of 1887 Hackney Carriages Act for the City of Bangalore.
II of 1887 To amend Regulation II of 1884.
I of 1888 To amend Regulation I of 1886.
II of 1888 To regulate the manufacture, possession, use, sale, transport and

importation of Explosives.
Ill of 1 888 To apply to the City of Mysore the Municipal Regulations of the

City of Bangalore.
IV of 1 888 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Revenue Officers and
the Land Revenue.
I of 1890 To amend the Municipal Regulations of 1871 in force in the Cities

of Mysore and Bangalore.
II of 1890 To amend Regulation I of 1884.

III of 1890 To declare the Imperial Standard Yard for the United Kingdom to

be the legal standard measure of length in Mysore.

IV of 1890 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Loans of money by

Government for Agricultural Improvements.

V of 1890 To provide for matters connected with the Census.

VI of 1S90 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Arms, ammunition
and military stores.
I of 1 89 1 To amend the Mysore Land Revenue Code of 1888.
I of 1892 To amend the law relating to Fraudulent Marks on merchandise.
II of 1892 To provide Compensation to families for loss occasioned by the
death of a person caused by actionable wrong.

III of 1892 To further amend Regulation IV of 1888.

IV of 1892 To regulate Labour in Factories.

V of 1892 To amend Regulation I of 1883.

VI of 1892 To amend Section 265 of the Indian Contract Act of 1872.

VII of 1S92 To amend the Code of Civil Procedure.

VIII of 1892 To amend the Cattle Trespass Act of 1 87 1.

I of 1893 For avoiding loss by the default of Public Accountants.

I of 1894 To amend Act XXV of 1S67 for the regulation of Presses, &c.

II of 1894 To amend the Indian Penal Code.

III of 1894 To provide for the trial of oftences against the Post Office Law.

IV of 1894 To amend the law relating to Railways.

V of 1894 To provide facilities for obtaining the evidence and appearance of

Prisoners, and for service of process upon them.
VI of 1S94 To further amend Regulation I of 1883.
VII of 1S94 To further amend the law for the Acquisition of Land for public
purposes and companies.
VIII of 1894 To amend the Indian Registration Act, III of 1S77.
IX of 1894 Government Securities Regulation.
X of 1894 To prevent Infant Marriages.
XI of 1894 Relating to the Protection of Inventions and Designs.

I of 1895 For the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
II of 1895 To assimilate the laws relating to Post Offices.
Ill of 1895 Mysore Companies Regulation.

Police. — The direction of the Pohce was at first in the hands of the
Dewan and the District officers. A PoHce Secretary was afterwards
appointed, and in 18S3 this position was filled by the officer who was
also Education Secretary. In 1SS5 an Inspector-General of Police

POLICE 767

was appointed, the same officer being also Inspector-General of Forests
and Plantations, and Director of Agriculture and Statistics. The
office of Police-Assistant Commissioners was at the same time revived,
and these, one in each District, with the Superintendent of Police in
Bangalore, acted under the general supervision of the Deputy Com.
missioners. Amildars and Deputy Amildars continued at the head of
the Taluq and Sub-Taluq Police, aided by Inspectors and Jamadars.
At the end of 1891 the Police Department was reorganized. A Native
officer was appointed as separate Inspector-Ceneral of Police, and
Police-Assistant Commissioners were graded instead as Superintendents
and Assistant-Superintendents of Police.

The Police force is composed of the Regular Police and the Village
Police. The former includes District Police, City Police (of Bangalore
and Mysore), Special Reserve Police, Gold Mines Police and Railway
Police. The District Police, 4,522 strong in 1895, consists of the
Taluq Police and the District Reserve force, the former occupying the
various thd?tas for ordinary police duty, and the latter attached to the
District Police office for special duties. The City Police numbered
533 in 1895, ^"d form a separate body under different rules from the
rest. The Special Reserve consists (in 1895) of 136 officers and men,
selected for good physique and better paid, equipped and drilled than
the others. They also go through a course of musketry. They were
first enrolled in 1890. They are held ready for emergencies in any
part of the country, and are employed in putting down organized
dacoitics and serious disturbances of the public peace. There are
three detachments, located respectively at Bangalore, Mysore and
Shimoga. The Gold-Mines Police are employed in Kolar and Has.san
Districts in maintaining order at the mines. They numbered 70 in
1895. The Railway Police, 179 strong in 1895, forms a separate
body directly under the Inspector-General, but except on the State
Railway from Bangalore to Nanjangud, the Railway Police has now
passed under British jurisdiction.

The actual strength of the Police force in 1895 was 507 officers and
4,670 men, or 5,177 altogether. Of these, 490 officers and 2,090 men
were educated. A Police School is maintained at Bangalore, where
the men are drafted for instruction in Codes and in police duties of all
kinds. The cost of the Department was Rs. 7,35,000 in 1895.

Some desperate gangs of dacoits, from districts beyond the northern
frontier, who had been for years committing serious depredations in
this Province, were broken up in 1884 and the majority of their
members brought to justice. The entrance of similar gangs into Mysore
has to a great extent been barred by establishing Police outposts for

768 ADMINISTRATION

the protection of ghats and passes, and for watching the movements of
foreign and local predatory gangs. Registers are kept up of all
suspicious characters, known depredators and receivers of stolen pro-
perty, and gangs are escorted by the Police when they move from place
to place.

The Village Police is under the Patel, who is assisted by the minor
village officials. They report crime and help the Regular Police in
prevention and detection of crime. The Patel is held responsible for
the enforcement of night watches in villages, for the upkeep of boundary
hedges and village choultries, and for the general safety of the villagers.

Criminal Justice. — The administration of Justice was presided over
by the Chief Judge, a European, exercising the powers of a High
Court. In 1884 a Chief Court was formed of three Judges, the Chief
Judge being a European (a retired Judge of the Madras High Court),
and the two Puisne Judges being Natives. From 1891 the Chief Judge
was also a Native, but in 1895 a European was again appointed.

The Chief Court exercised original jurisdiction in criminal
cases in Bangalore, Kolar and Tumkur Districts from May 1884, when
the Court of the Sessions Judge of the Nundydroog Division was
abolished, until September 1890, when the latter Court was re-estab-
lished, holding periodical sessions in the three Districts. In 1887 the
system of trial by jury was introduced in Sessions cases. In 1888 the
holding of periodical sessions at Hassan was revived. For Appellate
jurisdiction in Criminal cases, no separate Benches were formed ; the
Benches that sat for Civil Appellate work also disposing of Criminal
appeals. As a rule appeals against the decisions of the Chief Court
on the original side are disposed of by a Full Bench, and other appeals
by a Divisional Bench of two Judges. The Chief Court also acts as a
Court of Reference and a Court of Revision.

In i8go there were 131 Courts subordinate to the Chief Court,
presided over by the following classes of magistrates : —

Magistrates of the 3rd class ... ... ... ... ... 76

2nd ,, 24

,, ,, 1st ,, 20

District Magistrates 8

Courts of Sessions ... ... ... ... ... ... 3

In 1892 a European Magistrate's Court was established at the Kolar
Gold-mines, and in 1895 a temporary Sub- Judge's Court at Shimoga.
The receipts of the Criminal Courts in that year were Rs. 76,257, and
the charges Rs. 2,32,948.

The subjoined statement exhibits the nature of the punishments
awarded by the various tribunals for five years : —

PRISONS

769

Numbers

Sentenced to

Imprisonment.

Fine.

Whipping.

■

punished

Death.

Trans-
porta-

c -
c 3

^''- ?° ' Above

10 stripes Above

t/l V

Rigorous

Simple.

and 1 n

and 10

a >

under.

under, stripes.

1886 1 7,770

1,282

183

6,121

1887 8,886

1,150

169

7>393

1888 8,768

1,112

222

7,256

1889 1 8,784

1,287

172

7,057

I2S

1890 7,615

1,250

206

5,963 \ 69

Prisons. — The Chief Judge is ex-officio Inspector-General of Prisons.
The temporary jail at Kukarhalli was given up in Jtuie 1881, and on
the revision of Districts and Taluqs in 1882-3 only three Jails, the
Central Jail at Bangalore and the District Jails at Mysore and Shimoga,
were kept up, with the Lock-ups at Taluq and Sub-Taluq headquarters.
Rules were at the same time framed specifying the Jails to which
persons sentenced by the different Courts should be sent for incarcera-
tion. In 1882 it was decided not to transport any more life-convicts
from Mysore to the Andaman Islands, owing to the cost involved in
maintaining them there. The Mysore convicts already there were
brought back (except a few dangerous characters whom it was thought
well to leave) and Rs. 103,252 paid for their past upkeep. They have
since then been confined in the Central Jail, Bangalore, and this course
is now pursued with all life-convicts. In 1887 the Lock-up at Bangalore
and in 1890 the Lock-ups at Mysore and Shimoga were absorbed in the
respective Jails at those places. There thus remained three Jails and
78 Lock-ups. In 1889 the ticket-of-leave sy.stem was introduced among
life-convicts, on the basis of the rules in force in the Punjab. Some
changes in improving the scales of diet were also made about this time.

The number of convicts in Jail, which was 1,689 in 1881, was 819 in
1890. Of the latter, 254 were under sentence for less than one year,
108 for above one and less than two years, 114 for above two and
below five years, 128 for above five and below ten years, 9 for above
ten years. There were also under sentence of transportation, 200 for
life and 6 for a term. The total included 762 male and 57 female
prisoners. There were 7 under sixteen years of age, 619 between six-
teen and forty, 169 between forty and sixty, and 24 above sixty.

The convicts are employed in cleaning and grinding ragi, on jirison
duties, such as, prison warders, servants and gardeners, on the prepara-
tion of articles for use or consumption in the jails, on jail buildings,
manufactures and i)ul)lic works. The chief industries arc printing,

\ i>

770 ADMINISTRATION

carpet, tent and blanket making, cloth-weaving, gunny and coir work,
carpenters' and ijlacksmiths' work in the Central Jail at Bangalore ;
carpenters' and smiths' work in the Shimoga Jail, and weaving and
spinning, basket and mat making, and pottery in the Mysore Jail.

There is a paid teacher in tlie Bangalore Central Jail to give instruc-
tion to convicts. A large number are taught Kannada : a few
Hindustani and English.

The cost of the jails fell from Rs. 158,507 in 1881 to Rs. 88,517 in
1890. The net cost per head of average strength in the latter year,
after deducting the value of jail industries, was Rs. 94.3.6.

Civil Justice. — There are four classes of Civil Courts, namely : —
Courts of Munsiffs, of Subordinate Judges, District Courts, and the
Chief Court. Munsiffs exercise original jurisdiction in cases up to
Rs. 1,000 in value, and Small Cause powers up to Rs. 50 ; Subordinate
Judges have jurisdiction in cases from above Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 5,000,
and Small Cause powers from above Rs. 50 to Rs. 100, and hear
appeals from decisions of Munsiffs if referred by the District Judge ;
District Courts have unlimited jurisdiction, hear appeals from
decisions of Munsiffs, and from those of Subordinate Judges within the
limit of Rs. 3,000. The Chief Court, by one of its Judges sitting for
the purpose, acted for some time as the District Court for Bangalore,
Kolar and Tumkur \ sitting as a Full Bench it hears appeals from the
decrees of a single Judge as above, and sitting as a Bench of not less
than two Judges disposes of all other appeals brought before it. In
1890 its original civil jurisdiction over the three Districts named was
withdrawn and transferred to the new District and Sessions Court
established at Bangalore. An Additional Munsiff's Court was also
formed to relieve such of the Munsiffs as had heavy files. In July
1893, the Special Magistrate of the Kolar Gold-fields was appointed as
Munsiff also, with jurisdiction up to Rs. 100 in ordinary suits and
Rs. 50 in small causes. In August 1894, a Subordinate Judge's Court
was temporarily opened at Shimoga for relief of judicial work, and
closed in June 1895.

There were thus in 1895 three District Courts, at Bangalore, Mysore
and Shimoga ; two Courts of Subordinate Judges, at Bangalore and
Mysore, which also take up all the Small Cause cases there ; nineteen
INIunsiffs' Courts in various parts, including the Additional Munsiff:
altogether twenty-four, besides the Chief Court. The number of suits
instituted gradually increased from 15,788 in 18S6 to 19,861 in 1895,
nearly one-half of them belonging to the class of Small Causes. The
receipts in all the Courts in the latter year were Rs. 345,008, and the
charges Rs. 341,103.

M UN I C IP A LI TIES 7 7 1

Registration. — Till 1S86 the Inspector-General of Registration was
an officer who was at the same time Comptroller, and also Super-
intendent of the Government Press. The office was subsequently held
by the Legislative Secretary.

The Deputy Commissioners were ex-officio District Registrars, and
the Taluq Amildars were Sub-Registrars. Wherever the work has
increased to a certain amount, special Sub-Registrars have been
appointed. In 1892 Deputy Commissioners were relieved of Regis-
tration work, the Treasury Assistant Commissioners being appointed to
do it. Likewise the Sheristadars relieved the Amildars in taluqs. In
1S95 Deputy Commissioners were again made District Registrars. In
that year the Department consisted, besides them, of fifteen special
Sub-Registrars and sixty-four Sheristadars as ex-officio Sub-Registrars.
The number of documents registered was 42,974, affecting property
valued at Rs. 11,360,893. Of these, 26,626 were documents whose
registration was compulsory, and 14,882 those whose registration was
optional. The receipts of the department were Rs. 95,652 and the
expenditure was Rs. 50,003.

Municipal Administration. — Excluding that of the Civil and .Military
Station of Bangalore, which remained under British Administration,
there were 83 Municipalities in 1881. By 1895 the number had
risen to 112. They are established in all District and Taluq head-
quarter towns and in other large places that are suitable. But those of
Bangalore and Mysore cities are the only ones of important magnitude.
The Municipal Boards are composed of official and non-official
members nominated by Government, with the Deputy Commissioner
or Taluq Amildar as President. The ex-officio members do not as a
rule exceed one-third of the total number. In 1892 the privilege of
election was granted to Bangalore and Mysore, with specific rules for
the qualifications of candidates and of voters, and the former has now
a separate paid President. In Bangalore there are 22 Municipal
Commissioners, 1 1 elected, 5 ex offiicio, and 6 nominated by Govern-
ment ; in Mysore the total is 20, composed of 10, 5 and 5 respectively.
The income of the former amounted to i^ lakhs in 1893-4, and of the
latter to i^ lakhs. These funds are derived from octroi, taxes on
buildings, mohatarfa, license fees, &c. ; and are expended on con-
servancy, lighting, roads, drains, water supply, charitable institutions, &c.
The income of the remaining no Municipalities came to Rs. 2,79,652
in 1893-4, and in many suffices for little more than sanitary operations
to keep the places clean, but various local improvements are carried
out wherever funds are available. Out of the total municipal
income in 1894-5 of Rs. 5,63,000, the amount spent was Rs. 4,89,000,

3 D 2

772 ADMINISTRATION

dislribulLd as follows: — 23'22 per cent, on conservancy and sanitation,
6*22 on lighting, 37'65 on public works, 6-8o on education, and 7*29
on medical aid.

Military. — The Military Department is under the Military Secretary,
who also has charge of the Amrit Mahal. Cavalry. — In August 1883,
a Cavalry Officer of the British service was appointed as Staff Officer,
for the purpose of drilling the Silahdars and bringing them up to
a higher standard of efficiency. In 1885 the three regiments of
Silahdars, stationed at Bangalore, Mysore and Shimoga, with detach-
ments at other District headquarters, w^ere reduced to two, with a total
strength of 1,171, and stationed at Bangalore and Mysore, for greater
convenience of management, furnishing detachments where required as
before. In 1892 the two regiments were broken up and two fresh
corps formed, as finally sanctioned in July 1893, one, called the
Imperial Service Lancers, with headquarters at Bangalore, for imperial
service, and the other, with headquarters at Mysore, for local service.
The former consists of picked men, better paid, mounted and equipped,
and on the same footing as Native Cavalry of the British service.
They are commanded by a member of the Mysore Royal family, are
brigaded with the British troops at reviews, and are periodically
inspected by the British Staff Officer appointed for that purpose, and
by the Inspector-General of Imperial Service Cavalry with the Govern-
ment of India. A Transport Service, to be made up to 300 ponies,
and suitable camp equipment are maintained in connection with it in
readiness for service. The actual strength of the two regiments in 1895
was : Imperial Service Regiment, 645 ; Local Service Regiment, 549 ; or
1,194 altogether. Infantry. — -The three battalions of Barr Sepoys were
somewhat reduced in 1888 by allowing only eight companies to each
instead of ten. Their actual strength in 1895 was 1,890. The head-
quarters were at Bangalore, Mysore and Shimoga respectively, and
detachments were furnished to other Districts for Treasury guards and
similar duties.

The uniforms and armament of both Cavalry and Infantry have
undergone several changes and improvements, and are now generally
assimilated to those of the Native troops in the British service. The
military expenditure in 1894-5 amounted to Rs. 9,19,264, of which
Rs. 46,557 was for headquarters establishment, Rs. 5,51,707 for
cavalry, Rs. 3,14,097 for infantry, and Rs. 6,902 for military stores.
The cost of the Imperial Service Regiment, included in the above, was
Rs. 3,23,010.

773

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION

Agriculture. — A Director of Agriculture and Statistics was appointed
in 1886, the office being held along with those of Inspector-General of
Police and of Forests and Plantations. The duties were the collection
of statistics of rainfall, cultivation, cattle, trade and manufacture, with
promotion of experiments in agriculture and in the breeding of live
stock. These subjects have been already treated of Agricultural
Inspectors, trained in the Agricultural College at Saidapet, were
appointed to each District. An Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition
was held at Mysore in October 1888, at the close of the Dasara, and
was well attended. The number of exhibits exceeded 30,000, and a
]arge number of medals and prizes were distributed.

Weather and Crops. — Meteorological observatories, fully equipped,
were established, in 1892-3, at Bangalore, under the Principal of the
Central College, and at Mysore, Hassan and Chitaldroog under the
Science Assistant of the College or High School. The observations
recorded, of temperature, wind, clouds and rain, are daily telegraphed to
the ^Meteorological Reporter with the ( iovernment of India. Rain gauges
of a uniform pattern are maintained at 151 stations, and the registered
rainfall is reported to headquarters. The results are made use of in
Vol. II. under each District. Crops have already been fully dealt with.

Forests. — An Inspector-General of Forests and Plantations, who also
held other offices, as above stated, was appointed in 1885. In 1895
the department was placed under a separate Conservator of Forests ;
nearly all the Assistants are Natives, several of w^hom have passed
through a course of training in the Forest School at Dehra Dun.

The area of State Forests, or those which are reserved, was 643
square miles in 1881, and 1,654 square miles in 1895. The un-
reserved or District forests are under the management of the Revenue
authorities, and it has been found necessary, while providing for local
needs, to place restrictions on the indiscriminate felling of wood in
these tracts, in order to stop the reckless \asle that was going on in
several parts. I'uel reserves are also formed out of them when
suitable. The area of regular plantations slocked was 9 square miles
in 1885 and 34 square miles in 1895. This includes both forest
plantations and revenue plantaiions. In ihe former, a regular system
of nurseries, pitting and planting out of valuable kinds of trees, with
subsequent pruning and thinning, is pursued. In the latter, managed
by the Amildars, the land is merely ploughed, and in the rains seeds

7 7 4 ADMINISTRA TION

arc sown in drills, of indigenous trees that will admit of coppicing
afterwards. l>y 1895 there were 1,520 square miles of forests and
plantations brought under fire conservancy measures, and 1,416 square
miles were successfully protected from fire in that year. Grazing is
permitted to a certain extent on a system of licenses.

The number of reserved kinds of trees was increased from 9 in
1881 to II, and in 1890 to 12. The following are their names : —

Sandalwood SaiitahiDi album.

Teak Tectoiia grandis.

Poon Calophylhim e latum.

Blackwood Dalbergia latifolia.

Honne Pterocarpus marsiipium.

Lac, Jalari Vatica laccifera.

Nandi Lagerstrcemia inicrocarpa.

Wild Jack, Hesswa,

Ileb-Halasu Ariocarpiis hirsiita.

Karachi, Kammar,

Arsina Hardwickia binata.

Bill Matti Terjiiinalia arjuna.

Kari Matti Terminaliatomentosa

Ebony, Bale, Ma-

lali Diospyros ebeniiin.

Special attention has been given to promoting the natural repro-
duction as well as the artificial propagation of sandalwood, teak and
other profitable trees.

The sales of large-sized timber are made at the regular Timber
Depots, and of the smaller sized at temporary depots opened in con-
venient places. The latter practice was introduced in 1883 in place of
the license system. But licenses are still granted for cutting bamboos.
Sandalwood, which is a State monopoly and contributes the greater
proportion of forest revenue, is sold at the various Sandalwood Kotis,
and improvements have been made in the preparation of billets and
roots, as such prepared wood fetches a higher price. Sleepers and
fuel for the railways were supplied from the forests in large quantities
for several years. Attention has of late been paid to improving the
revenue from minor forest products, such as myrobalans, lac, and
fangadi bark used for tanning. The elephant keddahs, already
described (p. 179) are also attached to the Forest department.

The surplus receipts from Forests have been steadily rising from
4*82 lakhs in 18S1-2, to 6"56 lakhs in 1885-6, to 8*49 lakhs in 1889-90^
to 9"3i lakhs in 1890-1, and lo'io lakhs in 1893-4. The total
receipts in the latter year were Rs. 14,21,770, of which sandalwood
produced Rs. 9,29,340, and the charges were Rs. 4,11,348.

Alines and Quarries. — A Geological Department was formed in
1894-5, under Mr. Bruce Foote, F.G.S., retired from the Geological
Survey of India. Its duties involve an investigation of the geology and
mineralogy of the country, and the inspection of mines. A number of
apprentice geologists are being trained for the work, most of them natives
of Mysore. An account has been given above of the gold-mines.

Manufacture and Trade. — Already treated of in detail.

PUBLIC WORKS

lis

Public Works. — This Department has always been under a Royal
Engineer officer as Chief Engineer. The majority of the executive
staff consists of Native engineers of Mysore origin, trained in the
Engineering Colleges at Madras and Poona. There has been great
activity in public works of all classes, especially since 1886, when the
transfer of the State railway to foreign capitalists allowed of larger
sums being placed at disposal for this purpose. The annual grant,
which averaged 15 lakhs before, was raised to 18^ lakhs in 1885-6
rose every following year to 29^ lakhs in 1 890-1, and was between
■^o\ and 32 lakhs in the four years to 1894-5. A special Sanitary
Department was also formed in 1892, the grants for whicli were \\ lakhs
in the first two years, and nearly 2\ lakhs in 1894-5.

The grant for Public Works made from Provincial Funds is supple-
mented by grants from District Inmds and Local Funds General,
Irrigation Cess Fund, and Palace Fund. The following are the
proportions for the past five years : —

Fund.

1890-1.

1891-2.

1892-3.

1893-4.

1894-5.

Provincial Fund
District Fund
Irrigation Fund
I'alace Fund

11,30,000

5,57,789

12,40,940

17,000

21,25,000

5,80,000

3,71,000

7,000

24,00,000

5,57,623

2,13,000

34,000

24,50,000

4,23,065

1,50,000

28,000

25,00,000

4,13,499
2,84,000

I2,CXX)

Total Rs.

29,45,729

30,83,000

32,04,623

30,51,065

32,09,499

The works executed are classed as Original or Repairs, under the
heads Military, Civil Buildings, Communications, Miscellaneous Public
Imj)rovements, and Tanks and Channels. Some additional works, for
which funds are provided from the departments concerned, are also
carried out for Forests, Education, Medical, Muzrai and Municipalities.
But petty repairs were in 1886 entrusted to the several departments
themselves.

The Military works were new Rifle Butts at Hebbal, and im[)rovcd
lines for the Silahdar and Barr forces at the various headquarters.
Civil buildings included a variety of cutcherries, courts, offices, schools,
dispensaries, police-stations, is:c. throughout the country. Some of the
more important major works were extensions of the Palace at l^anga-
lore, erection of the i'ublic Offices at Mysore, the \'ictoria Jubilee
Institute, the new Maharaja's College, the Exhibition building in the
]-al Bagh, the Laboratory and Observatory at the Central College,
the Maternity Hospital at liangalore, the Law Courts at Mysore, the
restoration of the Darya Daulat at Seringapatam, the Couri)alais
Chatram at Shimoga, the I-ansdowne Bazaars at Mysore, &c.

776 ADMINISTRA TION

Under Communications, in 1X94 5 there were 1,747 miles of main
or trunk roads, maintained from Provincial J-'unds, and 3,344 miles of
branch roads maintained from District Funds. The former include
the Madras Cannanorc road, 502 miles ; Salem-Bellary road, 454 miles ;
Eangalore-Honnavar road, 559 miles ; and Bangalore-Mangalore road,
by the Manjarabad (ihat, 196 miles. A number of Ghat roads to the
west have been opened out or improved, and many new roads made as
feeders to the railways. But among the works of greatest magnitude
are the bridges that have been constructed over several rivers, such as
over the Tunga at Hariharpur, over the Bhadra at Bale Honnur, over
the Yagache at Belur, over the Kaveri at Yedatore, and others.

Among Miscellaneous improvements the most important have been
the water-supply of Bangalore and Mysore. The former, the subject
of conflicting schemes and discussions for a great number of years,
has found solution in the project for water from the Hesarghatta tank
on the Arkavati river. The Mysore scheme is in two parts, one of
which includes the filling up of Purnaiya's Nala within municipal limits,
and the other, the conveyance of water from the Kaveri to Mysore by
pumping up with water power and the aid of turbines. Works of this
nature carried out by the separate Sanitary Department were, diversion
of the drainage and sewage of the Mysore fort, the drainage of
Shimoga, water-supply of Chikmagalur, Closepet, Nanjangud, Yeda-
tore, Hunsur, and other towns, together with the drainage and exten-
sion of overcrowded localities.

The annual grant for Irrigation Tanks and Channels was from 3 to
3'63 lakhs from 1881 to 1884, 4'64 lakhs in 1885-6, 6'ii in 1S86-7,
7*29 in 1887-8, 973 in 1888-9, ^^\ lakhs in the next two years, i6"3
in 1891-2 (15 months), 12 '63, 14^ and 134 lakhs in the three years to
1894-5. The serial restoration of tanks had advanced sufificiently by
the time of the Rendition to allow of an abatement of the expenditure
on it in favour of railway extension. In 1886 it was resolved to make
over the minor tanks, or those yielding a revenue not exceeding
Rs. 300, to the Revenue authorities, the ryots doing the earthwork
themselves and Government paying for masonry works where necessary.
The scheme was at first introduced tentatively into one taluq in each
District, and after trial was extended to all parts. A Tank Inspector
was appointed to each taluq to assist the Amildar in the work, and a
trained Sub Overseer to each District to instruct and supervise the Tank
Inspectors. A large amount of useful work has been carried out under
this system. In 1887-8 the management of the river channels in the
irrigation season was transferred to the Amildars of the taluqs through
which they run. This, it was considered, would allow of more speedy

RAILWAYS 777

attention to complaints of unequal distribution of water. In the following
year it was further arranged that the hot weather supply of water to sugar-
cane and garden tracts dependent on channels should be given at fixed
periods, in consultation with the Deputy Commissioners concerned.

The sums spent on Original irrigation works were, on Tanks, 4 "30
lakhs in the five years from 1881, 2578 lakhs in the next five, and
28-20 lakhs in the four years to 1895 : on Channels, 2'i8, 10-56, and
1033 lakhs in the same periods. For Repairs were spent 9-06, 5-41,
and 3-43 lakhs on Tanks, and 2-66, 2-35, and 2-81 lakhs on Channels,
in the same periods. It is impossible in this place to give any full list
of the numerous works, though of the highest utility, that have been
carried out under these heads. It may suffice to state that the river
•channels in Mysore and Hassan Districts had, in 1895, attained to a
length of 869 miles, and to mention the following as among a few of
the more considerable works carried out: — Improving and extending
Rampur channel, Nanjangud taluq ; constructing Borankanve reser-
voir, Chiknayakanhalli taluq ; restoring the Rekalgere tank, Chellakere
taluq ; restoring Sulekere tank, Malavalli taluq ; improving Hesar-
ghatta tank, Nelamangala taluq ; constructing Srinivasa Sagara tank
across the North Pennar, Chik Ballapur taluq ; constructing Ramasa-
mudram tank across the Chitravati, Sidlaghatta taluq ; improving and
extending Hulhalli channel, Nanjangud taluq ; improving and extend-
ing north channel from the Sriramdevar dam, Chanraypatna taluq.

Railways. — At the time of the Rendition, in March 1881, in
addition to the Bangalore branch of the Madras Railway from Jalarpet
to Bangalore, 55 miles within Mysore limits, on the broad gauge,' there
■was the Mysore State Railway, from Bangalore to Mysore, completed
as far as Mandya, 58 miles on the metre gauge. The latter was
opened to Mysore in February 1882, and was constructed almost
entirely out of current revenues. In October 1882, the line from
Bangalore to Tumkur, 43 miles of metre gauge, was commenced, a
loan of 20 lakhs at 5 per cent, interest having been raised for the pur-
pose, and was opened for traffic in August 1S84. A further portion
to Gubbi, II miles, was opened in December 1884. Surveys and
estimates for extending the line to the frontier at Harihar were pre-
pared, and it was decided to hand over the construction to the
Southern Mahratta Railway Company, to whuni the open line of 140
lines was hypothecated for the amount of its cost, to be worked by
them on terms similar to those in force with regard to the Deccan
railways. The transfer was effected on the ist of July 1886,

' The connecting link of two miles between Banj^alore Cantonment and City was
really opened in July 18S2.

7 7 8 ADMINISTRA TION

The contract thus concluded by the Secretary of Stute, acting on
behalf of Mysore, was to be in force for 46 years. The Company,
under his guarantee of interest at 4 per cent., payable by Mysore,
raised a loan of ^1,200,000, which, at a premium of 2 per cent.,
realized ;^i, 224,000. Out of Rs. 16,382,801, the equivalent in Indian
currency, the sum of Rs. 6,860,508 was paid to Mysore for the actual
outlay on the Mysore Gubbi line, and the balance, or such portion as
was necessary, not to exceed 80 lakhs, was to be devoted to the exten-
sion of the line to Harihar, 156 miles. The whole line from Mysore
to Harihar, 296 miles, was to be worked by the Company as a separate
system, distinct from their railways in British India, the cost of manage-
ment being apportioned according to their respective gross earnings. Out
of the net earnings of the Mysore line the Company were to retain one-
fourth, and pay three-fourths to Mysore. In February 1889 the line was
opened from Harihar to Birur, 795 miles, and in August 1889 it was
opened throughout, establishing direct communication between Mysore
and Poona, and thus with Bombay. In December 189 1 an exten-
sion of the line from Mysore to Nanjangud, 15^ miles, was completed
from State funds.

In December 1890 a line from Yesvantpur Junction to Hindupur,
5i| miles within Mysore, was undertaken by the State engineers. The
first section to Dod Ballapur was opened in December 1892, and the
remainder in September 1893, forming through connection with
Guntakal on the Madras-Bombay line. The Kolar Gold-Fields Rail-
way, ten miles on the broad gauge, from Bowingpet Junction to the
Mysore Mine, was completed by the State in June 1894. These are
all the lines at work up to 1895. The further projects surveyed are a
line from Arsikere, via Hassan and the Manjarabad ghat, to Mangalore ;
lines from Nanjangud to Gudalur, and from Nanjangud to Erode ;
lines from Birur to Shimoga, from Dod Ballapur to Chik Ballapur, and
from Mudgere to Sivasamudram ; a line from Mysore through Yedatore
and Coorg to Tellicherry or Cannanore. The first and fourth are in
course of execution.

The metre gauge lines, additional to that from Mysore to Harihar,.
are worked for the State by the Southern Mahratta Railway Company,
and the Kolar Gold-Fields line by the Madras Railway Company, on
triennial agreements, the net earnings, after deducting working expenses,,
going to Mysore.

The total capital outlay on Railways has been Rs. 20,363,427,
including Rs. 1,707,793 unexpended in the hands of the British
Government from the proceeds of the English loan. This outlay has
been met from the English and Local railway loans mentioned above,.

P0S2' OFFICE 11^

and from Rs. 1,980,626 provided by the State from current revenues.
There is a deficit on the working of the Mysore-Harihar line of about
3^ lakhs a year. But of the remaining railways, the Mysore-Nanjangud
and Bangalore-Hindupur lines earned 2 "3 and 2-5 percent, respectively,
and the Kolar Gold-Fields line as much as S'l per cent, on the capital
outlay.

Post Oj//ce.- -The Anche, as the Local Post was called, was an old
institution, dating from the time of Chikka Dera Raja in the
seventeenth century. It continued to meet the wants of the public,
and many improvements in working were introduced from time to time
l)y the Anche Bakshi, the head of the department. The number of
rural post-offices was greatly increased after 1882 by entrusting them
to the Hobli schoolmasters, who received for the work a small allowance
in addition to their pay. But the system of levying all postage in cash,
granting receipts for the same, and keeping detailed registers of
letters received and delivered, though safe, was behind the times.
Difficulties, however, arose in regard to the proposal to introduce
postage stamps. Eventually, after much discussion, the Anche was
amalgamated with the British Postal Service in April 1889, and the
management transferred to that department. The terms of the
transfer were, that the whole of the postal expenditure should be borne
by the British Government, and that the whole of the official
correspondence of the State should be carried within the limits of
Mysore free of any cost to the Durbar. The result has been a saving
of Rs. 60,000 a year to Mysore, with additional postal facilities.

REVENUE AND FINANCE

The designation of the Deputy Accountant-General, who had lieen in
charge for twenty years, was altered in 1882 to that of Comptroller,
and he was also placed in charge of Registration and of the Govern-
ment Press. Since 18S6 the office of Comptroller has been separately
held by Native officers.

Provincial Funds. — The revenue under all heads, excluding railways,
rose from 106^ laklis in 1881-2, with a fall in 1884-5 to loof lakhs
(due to an unfavourable season and the loss of the C. & M. Station of
Bangalore), to 174I lakhs in 1894-5. During the same period, the
expenditure, also excluding railways, was 103^ in 188 1-2, fell to
995 lakhs in 1884-5, ^^'^^ ^^en increased every year to 149 lakhs in
1894-5. After allowing for railway charges, there was a net surplus at
the latter period of 127} lakhs.

The following is a detailed statement of the revenue year by year : —

78o

ADMINISTRA TION

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REVENUE 781

The increase in Land Revenue is principally due to extended
cultivation. In 189 1-2 it was made payable in four equal instalments,
in February, March, April, and May in the western districts, and in
March, April, May, and June in the eastern districts. Under the
previous system, l)y which the collections were from December to
March, the revenue having to be paid before the proceeds of the
harvest were fully realized, agriculturists were often driven either to sell
their crops at a disadvantage, or to raise loans and mortgage their crops.
In consequence of the change thus made, it became necessary that the
official year should thenceforward commence on the ist of July instead
of the I St of April.

The increase under Forests from 1885-6 was chiefly due to a revivaF
in the market for sandalwood from previous depression, and to a
greater supply of sleepers for the railway. Subsequently the returns
fell, owing partly to the war between China and Japan having
temporarily crippled one of the principal sandalwood markets, and
also to the fact that while, on one hand, the supply of railway sleepers
came to a close with the completion of the lines, on the other hand,
the Southern Mahratta Railway substituted Singareni coal for wood-fuel
for their engines.

The great increase under Abkari or Excise is due mainly to an
improved system of control, but also to a larger consumption arising
from higher wages and the influx at the gold-flelds, and for work on
railways, public works, and coffee plantations, of classes habituated to
drinking. A separate Excise Commissioner was appointed in 1889.

The following extracts, compiled from the Dewan's addresses in 1892
to 1894, explain the policy in regard to this subject : —

Our revenue from Excise is derived from two principal sources, toddy and
arrack. Toddy, the milder and comparatively innocent drink, is the
immemorial beverage of the aj^ricultural classes, while arrack, which is f;xr
stronger and more harmful, is chiefly consumed by the industrial labourer.
The average alcoholic strength of toddy is 2| per cent., while that of arrack
is 39^ per cent. The former is used by the prudent conservative agricul-
turist with a settled course of life and regular work, while the latter is
consumed mostly by the labourer and the artisan attracted to new places by
the prospect of profitable employment. There is every reason to believe
that the consumption of toddy is fairly stationary, while tliat of arrack has a
decided tendency to increase year after year.

The old system in regard to Toddy was one of eight large District Farms
for the entire Province. These farms were given out for terms of three
years for an annual rent, the amount of which was the highest tendered by
a limited number of persons whose standing in the business practically
excluded all outside competition. Under this system, owing to the existence

782 A DMTNIS TRA TION

of a scries of middlemen between the (Government and the contractor, the
State did not derive its proper sliare of the revenue. And owing to the want
of sufficient control, the date groves were themselves deteriorating to such an
extent as in some places to imperil the toddy revenue of the future, while in
many instances the quality of toddy supplied to the public was so bad as to
drive many persons accustomed to this comparatively innocent drink to
resort to the more harmful arrack. In order to remedy these defects, the
Government issued orders for dividing each taluq into a number of
convenient farms. Attempts to introduce a similar system had failed on
previous occasions, and it is therefore particularly gratifying that we have
now succeeded in placing it on a satisfactory and workable basis. In the
place of the eight District Farms which before existed, we have now 1,236
farms distributed over the whole Province. The increase of revenue is due
not to any increase in the number of shops for the sale of toddy — for their
number remains the same as before— but entirely to the abolition of
needless intermediaries between the Government which owns the date
o-roves and the small farmer who supplies a certain number of shops from
a particular grove or part of a grove. This arrangement, in addition to the
increased revenue it secures to the State, is expected to lead to several
indirect benefits, such as the better preservation of our date groves,^ and
the improvement of the condition of the Idigar or toddy-drawing class, who
have suffered much under the contract system hitherto in force.

As regards Arrack, our policy has been essentially one of gradual enhance-
ment of the duty upon the article. In 1S81 there existed differential rates
of duty. The general rate was Rs. 2.3 and Rs. 2.4 throughout the Province,
with Rs. 2.7 for the outlying district of Chitaldroog and special rates of
Rs. 3.3 and Rs. 3.4 for the cities of Bangalore and Mysore. By a process
of o-radual assimilation and enhancement we have now arrived at the high
uniform rate of Rs. 4 per gallon 20° under proof, equivalent to one of Rs. 5
for proof. The selling price under our system is fixed as high as Rs.5.5
for 20° under proof, equivalent to Rs. 6.10.3 for proof. These rates are as
hio-h as they can be pitched consistently with the sound policy of preventing
illicit distillation or contraband importation. The causes which, in addition
to the enhanced duty, have tended to secure the increased arrack revenue,
j^re— the abolition in 1884 of all outlying distilleries and the introduction of a
system of manufacture and distribution under centralized control ;- the
separation in 1892 of the business of manufacture from that of distribution ;
and the system adopted in the same year for the sale of the privilege of
retail vend. The increase due to the last-named cause represents an

' Eft'orts are being made by planting to form date groves in those Districts where
the uumber is small, and also to replenish the groves where ihey are in danger of
being overworked.

" Only two distilleries were retained, one near Bangalore, which supplied all the
Districts, including the C. & M. Station of Bangalore, except Shimoga and Kadur,
which were supplied by a distillery at Shimoga. From ist April 1S88 the distillery
at Shimoga was abolished and the Central Distillery at Bangalore supplied the whole
State.

EXCISE 783

addition of Rs. 0.8.8 to the Rs. 4 duty. By separating the manufacture
from the sale of arrack, we were able to attract to the business of manu-
facture the capital, resources and technical knowledge of a large Madras
firm (Messrs. Parry & Co.), and thereby to reduce the price of the manu-
factured article to \o\ annas per gallon. This very moderate price has
enabled us (while retaining the old rate of retail price, namely, Rs. 5.5 per
gallon) to enhance the rate of duty correspondingly, from Rs. 3.5 to Rs. 4.
The right to vend the liquor has been sold throughout the Province ; in the
case of the Bangalore and Mysore cities and the Kolar Gold-fields, individual
shops have been sold under what is called " the separate shop system " ;
elsewhere the right to vend has been sold by circles of villages, and in a
few special cases by entire taluqs, under the " vend rent system." The
work of vending is thus placed in the hands of a large number of persons
possessing local knowledge and influence, whose watchfulness in their own
interest will be a most useful check upon illicit distillation in their respective
tracts. The increase of duty, which involved no increase of price to the
consumer, and the sale of the right of vend, had the effect of securing to
Government money which hitherto formed the profits of middlemen.
Satisfactory arrangements have been made through a Government agent
for the carriage of liquor to the various localities outside the Bangalore
District.

The number of toddy shops was 2,892 in 1 890-1 and 3,052 in
1894-5. The consumption of date toddy in the latter year was
15,884,269 gallons. The arrack shops numbered 943 in 1 890-1, 894
in 1891-2, and 925 in 1894-5. The consumption of arrack was
424,511 gallons in 1891-2, and 527,683 in 1894-5. These figures all
include the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore.

The other items of Excise revenue are receipts for licenses to sell
country beer, foreign liquors, and local double-distilled liquors, ganja
and opium. Beer in 1 895 was sold at four taverns in Bangalore,
supplied from a brewery on the Nilgiris. The tavern formerly existing
at the Kolar Gold-fields seems not to be kept up. Ganja and opium
are entirely supplied by importation, the cultivation being prohibited.
There were in 1894-5, for the sale of ganja, 64 wholesale and 145
retail shops ; and the consumption was 58,935 seers of ganja and 1,033
of majum. For the sale of opium there were 87 shops, and the
consunij)tion was 3,429 seers.

Sayar, or land customs, also managed by the Excise dejiartment,
arc now levied only on supari or areca-nut, the bulk of which produce
is from Kadur and Shimoga Districts. The duties on tobacco, carda-
moms, cocoanuts and betel-leaves were resigned to Municipalities, who
collected them, but only within municipal limits, as octroi, and paid
half the proceeds to Government. In 1S93-4 the whole was re-
linquished in their favour.

7 84 ADMINISTRA TION

Mohatarfa, or assessed taxes, were in a similar manner made over to
the Municipalities, who paid half the proceeds to Oovernment. In
1892-3 the claim to a moiety was relinquished in the case of those
Municipalities which agreed to bear the cost of Police. But next year
Police charges were debited to State funds, and all the Municipalities
were allowed to retain the whole of the Mohatarfa.

Interest represents, besides that accruing on investments, what is
earned by current deposits in the Bangalore Branch of the Madras
Bank, with which an agreement was entered into in 1887 to receive the
surplus available cash balances, and pay 2 per cent, interest thereon.
In 1894 the agreement was modified by the adoption of a variable
scale of interest, rising, with the Bank's published minimum rate for
loans against Government paper, up to 6 per cent.

The annual statement of expenditure is given on the following page.

The entries under the first head include the Famine loan of 80 lakhs
due to the Government of India. Annual payments of 4 lakhs were
made from current revenue towards interest and reduction of principal
down to 1888-9, when the loan was discharged in full by applying for
this purpose the refund of Rs. 6,860,508 on account of the capital
outlay on the Mysore-Harihar Railway. The annual payments of
4 lakhs have since then been put into a fund for the redemption of the
Railway loan.

The Palace charges consist of H.H. the Maharaja's Civil list, fixed
by the Instrument of Transfer, paid in full from 1886-7, ^'""d with an
increase of i lakh from the ist June 1891. Some of the charge.?
previously met from it were also transferred to the Muzrai and Military
Departments.

Of Assignments under Treaties, the first is the Subsidy to the British
Government, which remained at 24^ lakhs per annum, as before, the
addition of io| provided by the Instrument of Transfer being post-
poned, first for 5 years, and then for 10 years more, till the 31st March
1896. On the other hand, the British Government from 1884-5
retained the net revenue of the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore,
Under Allowances, on account of the higher cost of living, the pensions
of Pallegars were increased 50 per cent, in 1893-4, the charge on this
account being thus raised from Rs. 37,724 to Rs. 56,586.^

The State Accounts, in addition to the usual local audits, have been
examined at various times by special Auditors deputed from the
Government of India; in 1872 by Mr. Taylor, in 1S78 by INIr.
Westland, and in 1896 by Mr. Biddulph.

• The pensions had been increased 50 per cent, by Sir Mark Cubbon in 1S60, and
again 25 percent, by Mr. Bowring in 1S64-5.

FINANCE

785

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786

.1 /JA//AVST/^A riON

Local Funds. — The l.ocal Funds consist of a cess of one anna in the
rupee on the land assessment and on the collections from Excise, Sdyar,
and some other items, and of an Irrigation cess at the same rate levied
separately in some taluqs and included in the net land assessment in
others. Out of the total raised on the land assessment, 76 per cent, is
credited as District Funds, to the District in which it is collected, and
administered by the Local Fund Boards. The same proportion of
collections under other heads is credited to Local Funds General, held
at disposal of the Government for expenditure on local projects. The
remaining 24 per cent, under both the above is credited to Education
as the Village School Fund. The Irrigation Cess Fund is administered
by the Public Works Department and the Revenue Officers.

The Local Fund Boards are one for each of the eight Districts and
one for the French Rocks Sub-Division. The Boards are under the
Deputy Commissioner or Sub-Division Officer, and are each composed
of certain ex-officio members, including all the Amildars of the District,
and of seven non-official members, namel)', six landed proprietors and
one inamdar, who is elected by the other inamdars of the circle. It is
proposed to raise the number of non-official members to 12. Grants
from Local Funds General are made to the District Funds for the
execution of works which are beyond their means.

The following is a statement of income and expenditure of District
Funds for two periods of five years : —

18S1-2

I 886-7

1881-2

1886-7

Receipts.

E.\penditure.

1885-6.

1890-1.

1885-6.

1890-1.

Opening balance. . .

69,425

402,604

Public Works —

76 per cent, of Local

Original

420,525

899,607

Cess

1,922,761

2,345,67s

Repairs

1,041,096

1,190,790

Cattle Pounds

130,296

160,320

Establishment

Ferries

—

47,391

and tools ...

407,483

481,325

Grants from Local

Dispensaries

40,745

100,130

Funds General...

144,000

341,712

Travellers' Bunga-

Grants from Public

lows and Musa-

Works

68,961

11,500

firkhanas

30,956

38,190

Miscellaneous

40,929

4,603

^Miscellaneous ...

32,963

39,786

Loan recovered

from Municipali-

ties

2,376,372

14,649
3,328,457

Total Rs.

1,973,768

2,749,828

In 1893-4 the Local Funds realized Rs. 11,56,047; namely,
Rs. 8,35,349 from the one anna cess on land revenue, excise and sayar,
Rs. 2,37,960 from the irrigation cess, and Rs. 82,738 from cattle
pounds, ferries, ^:c. The income of the District Fund Boards was

FINANCE 787

Rs. 5,82,082, and the expenditure Rs. 5,67,194. Of this, 76 per cent.
was spent on roads and bridges, 8 per cent, on medical aid, 4 per cent.
on new wells for drinking-water, and 3 per cent, on village sanitation.
Their income in 1894-5 was Rs. 6,24,175, and expenditure
Rs. 5,91,247 ; namely, 79-4 per cent, on communications and
buildings, 8-8 per cent, on medical aid, 3-25 on wells for drinking-
water, and 2-55 on village sanitation. Besides this a sum of
Rs. 1,06,000 from Local Funds General was spent, chiefly through the
Boards, on roads, drinking-water wells, musafirkhanas, village chavadis,
bathing ghats, cS:c.

Agricultural Banks. — In 1894 a scheme for the establishment of
Agricultural Banks was introduced, in order to relieve the ryots from
the necessity of borrowing at the ruinous rates of interest on which
alone they could obtain any credit. The essential principle was that
the Bank should be an association of agriculturists themselves, and
strictly co-operative, thus doing away with the profits of middlemen.

The association was to consist of land-holders enlisted on the basis of
mutual confidence arising from mutual information of each others' character
and resources. The object to be the common benefit of cheap credit and
not the earning of divisible profits. There was to be no share capital, funds
being obtained by means of loans raised or deposits received. The members
to contribute their liability only, which they could limit by prescribing a
maximum for each individual loan or for the sum total of loans ; or they
could resign at any time and escape further liability. The Bank funds to be
lent only to its members, at such moderate rates of interest which would
leave a small margm for expenses and the formation of a Reserve Fund.
The management to be in the hands of a body elected from among the
members themselves and serving gratuitously. No loan to be made except
for an approved purpose, such as an agricultural operation which, with
ordinary care, might be expected to yield enough to repay the loan and to
leave some profit for the borrower.

Under this scheme two Agricultural Banks were established in
Seringapatam talu(] in 1894, and ten applications from other parts had
been received in 1895.

Savings Banks. — The deposits in Savings Banks rose from 4 lakhs
in 1 88 1 to upwards of 28 lakhs in 1894. The rate of interest, which
had been 3^' per cent., was then fixed at 3} per cent. The number of
depositors at this rate was 10,849. 'i'he amount deposited in the
year was nearly 17 lakhs, and the amount withdrawn 15', lakhs.

State Life /nsuranee,~The scheme for this purpose came into force
on the 1st December 1891, and a strong Committee of officers was
appointed to conduct the business connected with it. The following
were the main provisions of the scheme : —

3 1- ^

788

ADMINISTRA TION

Insurance was compulsory on all who entered the service after its intro-
duction, but optional with those already in the service. No one over 45 or
under 2 1 was eligible. The premium was 10 per cent, of pay, recoverable
monthly, the maximum premium for which a policy would be issued being
limited to Rs. 50 a month. The insurer became entitled to a bonus,
calculated according to a table prescribed by Government and varying with
his age at time of insurance, payable on his attaining the age of 55, or at
death if earlier. Proposals to be accepted only after due medical
examination.

The results so far are thus returned : —

No. or

No.

Montlily

Bonus

applications.

accepied.

premium.

payable.

I89I-2

379

203

Rs. 1,354

Rs. 303,635

1892-3

343

260

1,2581

309,954

1893-4

434

260

694*

186,485

1894-5

541

494

1, 699 J

458,880

There were 11 casualties, on account of which a total bonus of
Rs. 13,567 became payable. There were 1,214 effective policies
running in 1895, paying a monthly premium of Rs. 5,066 and assuring
in the aggregate Rs. 12,65,746 The surplus funds are placed in the
Savings Bank.

VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES

Births and Deaths. — Provision is made by all INIunicipalities for
registration of births and deaths within their respective limits. In the
villages it is the duty of the Shanbhog, who reports to the Taluq
ofificer. The following are the figures registered from 1881 to 1894,
with the ratio per mille of population, and proportion of males to
females : —

Year.

. Births

Deaths.

No.

Rate per mille

Males to
roo females.

103-92

No.

Rate per mille

Males to loo
females.

1881 ...

99,223

2370

71,240

17-02

105-80

1882 ...

100,756

24-06

106-06

70,892

16-93

105-25

18S3 ...

100,903

24-10

10475

63,243

15-II

104-90

1884 ...

97,089

23-20

104-75

62,531

14-93

105-94

1885 ...

90,591

22-14

104-89

65,112

15-91

102-76

1886 ...

90,708

18-7

105-18

70,324

14-5

108-34

1887 ...

93,120

19-2

103-24

76,074

15-7

1 1 1 -40

1888 ...

97,982

20-2

105-76

70,791

14-8

IoS-55

1889 ...

86,864

17-9

103-57

74,6iS

15-4

106-33

1890 ...

82,524

17-0

105-05

85,007

17-7

108-48

189I ...

95,922

1 9 -So

104-14

67,982

14-03

1 06 -38

1892 ...

86,603

17-88

104-98

80,149

16-55

110-76

1893 ...

85,858

17-72

104-60

76,594

15-79

1 1 1 -48

1894 ...

93,928

19-39

I06-S1

59,847

12-36

110-25

VITAL STATISTICS

789

The first four years include the C. and M. Station of Bangalore ; the
rest are exclusive of that. The diminution of births in 1890 is
attributed to the prevalence of influenza, which also accounts for the
increase of the death-rate in that year. As regards the low death-rate
of 1894 the Senior Surgeon writes : " I am inclined to question the
value of the registration statistics, as this is a lower death-rate than
exists in England." The death-rate is higher amongst males than
amongst females at all ages, except between the years 1 2 and 30, and
60 and upwards.

The different causes of death are thus stated year by year : —

Head.

1881.

1882.

1883.

1884.

1S85.

1886. 1 1887.

1888.

1889. 1 1890.

I89I.

1892-3

1893-4

Cholera

893

124

330

2,677

10 832 1,015

1,590; 1,326

1.204

668

856

Smallpox ...

2.566

7,940

4.84c

3.241

3.264

4,175 6,6o8J 5654

! 1
5,242! 4,233' 5.099

7,229! 3.211

Fevers

43,842 36,950

33.139 33.207

33.28c

39.891

42,668'37,6o9

41 65655,10238,307

44.293 37.85^

Bowel com-
plaints ...

4.844 5.032

4.781

4.970

5.425

5.844

5.448

5.861

5.765 5,361 4.935

5.153

4.218

Injuries

ij094 1,024

1,024

1,079

1.045

961

987

i,c6o

1.013 977I I.OOI

977

1,15a

.\11 other
causes ...

i8,869'i9,o73

19.335

'9.704

■9.417

'9.443

'9.531

19.592

19, 35218.008 17,436

20,189

18,155

The greatest mortality is under the head Fevers, but this includes
many diseases other than fever which are accompanied by febrile
symptoms. Cholera is usually introduced by pilgrims returning from
Tirupati or other sacred places beyond the limits of Mysore. Rest-
houses for them have been provided at important points on the usual
routes. For the resident population efforts are being everywhere made
to ensure a good and pure water supply, which is the first requisite
towards the abatement of cholera. To adequately cope with small-pox
and stamp it out, the Senior Surgeon strongly recommends the making
of vaccination compulsory.

There are about 100 vaccinators (including 2 or 3 women), super-
vised since 1886-7 by a Deputy-Inspector for each District ; all the
dispensaries also vaccinate. Vaccination from the calf was introduced
in 1884-5, but it was found difficult to keep up the stock. Since 1891
there has been a Vaccine Institute, where lanoline paste is manu-
factured direct from calf lymph according to Surgeon-Major King's
method. There were 97,646 primary vaccinations in 1894-5 and

1,271 re-vaccinations.
Medical Relief. — The Senior Surgeon is also Sanitary Commissioner.

Tlie Durbar Surgeon at Mysore is also Chemical l-Lxaminer. The
Medical department was re-organized in 1884, when a local service of

7 9o ADMINISTRA TION

well-qualified Surgeons and Assistant-Surgeons was formed, the sub-
ordinates from Madras previously employed reverting to their own
province. A Medical School was established in 1881 for the purpose
of training Hospital Assistants, but was closed in 1886, and scholar-
ships were given to students to go through a course in the Madras or
Bombay Medical Colleges.

On the Bowring Civil Hospital being made over to the administration
of the C. and M. Station of Bangalore in 1884, there remained only two
first-class institutions, namely, the Maharaja's Hospital at Mysore and
the Civil Hospital at Shimoga. But St. Martha's Hospital, opened by
the Roman Catholic Mission in 1886, supplied the want of a hospital
for the Bangalore City until 1893, when Government connection with
it ceased. A temporary hospital has since been opened in the Fort,
pending the completion of the new City Hospital which is in course of
erection. The six second-class institutions are the hospitals at the
remaining District headquarters. Dispensaries in taluq head-quarter
and other large towns have been generally established, and in 1895
numbered 97, including 5 for women and children under female
hospital assistants. The special hospitals previously existing are also
kept up, namely, the Lunatic Asylum, the Leper Asylum, and the
Maternity Hospital at Bangalore, the latter now under the Municipality,
and H.H. the Maharani's Hospital at Mysore. There are also three
Jail hospitals and a dispensary for the Silahdars.

Qualified native midwives are being supplied to all the taluqs as fast
as they can be procured, after receiving a training in the Madras
Lying-in Hospital, with support either from the State or from the
Countess of Dufiferin's Fund. In 1895 there were 63 in employ, who
attended 3,104 cases. Aid is also given to a private hospital at
Mysore in which, under adequate supervision, diseases are treated
according to native methods, both Hindu and Yunani.

The following statement shows the number of patients treated in
hospitals and dispensaries for fourteen years : —

In-patients.

Out-patients.

Total.

In-patients.

Out-patients.

Total.

I88I .

•■ 3-"4

iSo,355

183,469

1888 .

.. 2,766

371,289

374,05s

1882 .

.. 3,298

192,774

196,072

1889 .

.. 3,768

461,835

485,603

1883 .

■• 3,463

208,244

211,707

1890 .

•• 4,143

491,250

495,393

1884 .

.. 3,284

201,538

234,822

189I .

—

537,787

1885 .

.. 1,976

236,398

238,574

1892 .

.. 4,920

551,711

556,631

1886 .

• • 1,930

282,075

284,005

1893 •

.. 6,264

600,540

606,804

1887 .

.. 2,629

316,572

319,201

1894

.. 8,729

698,186

706,915

The transfer of the Bowring Hospital accounts for the fall in the
number of in-patients immediately after 1SS4.

791

INSTRUCTION

The Director of Public Instruction, who had held that office for
many years, was relieved of the charge of Coorg in Feljruary 1882,
and of the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore in December 1888.
In Mysore his designation was changed in July 1883 to Education
Secretary, and he was also appointed Police Secretary and to report on
the Census. In August 1884 Police duty was exchanged for Archae-
ology, and in April 1890 Education also. The Head Master of the
Maharaja's College, a Parsi, was then appointed Education Secretary,
and in July 1895 was called Inspector-General of Education. The
headquarters were removed from Bangalore to Mysore in May 1894.
Inspection was for some years carried on with the aid of four native
Deputy-Inspectors, and eleven Sub-Deputy Inspectors, the latter
specially for Hobli schools, except one for Hindustani schools. A
European Deputy-Inspector, who was retained for Bangalore, was
also Assistant in the Director's office. In September 1891 the
number of native Deputy-Inspectors was doubled, and three Assistant
Deputy-Inspectors were appointed, the grade of Sub-Deputy Inspectors
being abolished. The European Deputy-Inspector died in August
1892.

The cost of vernacular education had been entirely transferred to
Local Funds after the famine, and continued to be so borne until
1889. Ei'om that time a more liberal grant from Provincial Funds
became possible, and the i"35 lakhs of 1 881-2 rose to 175 lakhs in
1886-7, to 2'6i in 1889-90, to 3"02 lakhs in 1890- i, and has since
increased to 4^84 lakhs in 1894-5. At the same time Local Funds
have, in addition, provided for an expenditure of from somewhat less
than I ,\ lakhs frcjm the years after 1881 to i"95 lakhs in 1894-5. The
total State expenditure on education from all sources, including small
sums from Municipal funds, has thus risen from 274 lakhs in 188 1-2
to 6-82 lakhs in 1894-5. Together with this must be taken into
account expenditure from private sources in ^Vided schools, amounting
in 1894 5 to about Rs. 82,000.'

The numbers under instruction have steadily increased, as the
following figures for ten years past testify : — ■

* These and oilier figures in ihis section do not include the C. and M. Station of
Bangalore.

79:

ADMINISTKA TION

Pupils in

Total.

Year.

Pupils in

Year.

Pu-slic
Institu-
tions.

Private
Insiitu-

lions.

Public Piivate
Ins'itu- Institu-
tions, tions.

Total.

1885-6 ...
1886-7 ...
1887-8 ...
1888-9 ■■•
1889-90 ...

43,240
48,859

54,373
59,840
66,501

14,290

14,459
(15,000)

16,378
16,196

57,530
63,318

69,373
76,118
82,697

1890-I ..
189I-2 ..
1892-3 ..
1893-4 ••
1894-5 ••

. 72,970 23,457

. 76,288 25,041

76,963 26,586

79,496 26,003

■ 83,398 27,662

96,427
101,329

103,549
105,499
111,020

Public institutions are those managed, aided or inspected by Govern-
ment. Private institutions are those that do not conform to Govern-
ment rules or standards, generally called indigenous schools. From
the foregoing statistics it appears that public and private institutions
have exactly kept pace with one another, each showing an increased
attendance of 51 '8 per cent. During the same period the Government
expenditure from State funds has increased nearly 35 per cent., and
that from both State and Local funds together nearly 46 per cent. The
vitality of the indigenous schools is thus apparent, and their equal
growth alongside of the public institutions indicates that the desire for
education is very general. Grants in aid amounted to Rs. 34,184 in
1885-6, and to Rs. 51,319 in 1894-5.

Distinguishing between boys and girls under instruction, the
following are the figures for six years ; beyond that complete statistics
are not available : —

1889-90

1890-1

1891-2

Boys.
74,640
86,402
89,967

Girls. I

8,057 I 1892-3

10,025 I 1893-4

11,362 1894-5

Boys.

Girls.

91,904 .

• 11,645

93,312 .

. 12,187

98,260 ..

. 12,760

The numbers of Government and Aided schools, with scholars in
each, at two intervals of ten years, were as follows : — •

a/ernment

Aided

Schools.

Scholars.

Schools.

Scholars.

I88I-2 ...

923

36,800

.. 114

6,326

1884-5 •••

... 1,007

... 35,001

.. 130

7,970

I89I-2 ...

... 1,460

63,041

.. 166

11,834

1894-5 ■••

... 1,576

69,480

.. 191

12,872

If the figures for the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore were
added they would considerably swell the totals under Aided schools.
A slight drop in the numbers in Government schools between the first
and second periods, with a rise in those in Aided schools, was due to
the direct action of Government in giving up the junior classes in the
two principal colleges and transferring the pupils. This proceeding

INSTR UCTION 7 93

accorded with recommendations of the Education Commission con-
vened at Calcutta by the Government of India in 1882-3.

In 1884 the teaching staff of the Colleges and High schools was
revised, and the position of the masters much improved by grading
them in classes, with provision for regular increments of pay. In 1890
a superior grade was formed of European professors with University
distinctions for the first-grade colleges. The regular grading of all
other classes of masters has since been carried out, and their service has
been declared as superior with regard to pension, whatever the pay.

The standards of instruction have been re-arranged, and passing the
second vernacular standard made a necessary preliminary to the study
of English. Three years of purely vernacular instruction, followed by
eight years of Anglo-vernacular instruction, are intended to form the
course leading to matriculation. A Text-book Committee has charge
since 1892 of the selection and preparation of suitable school books.
A museum of educational apparatus and books was also then formed
in the Victoria Jubilee Institute. Local Committees have been
entrusted with the management of Ciirls' schools, and the Committees
for Hobli schools have been formed afresh, with definition of their
duties. The Karnataka Bhashojjivini Pathas'ala, founded for pro-
moting the study of Kannada, was in 1894 converted into a Normal
school.

In 1887 the Mysore Local Examination, for pupils and teachers in
vernacular schools, was instituted, under the management of a Com-
mittee. This gave a definite aim to vernacular studies, similar in effect
to what was provided for English by the University and Middle School
examinations, and proved a great stimulus to the Taluq and Hobli
schools. It was modified in 1891 by substituting a Lower Secondary
examination in English, Sanskrit and the vernaculars, with a Vernacu-
lar Upper Secondary and a Teachers' Certificate examination. A
Sanskrit Pandits' examination is held every year before the Da.sara at
the Maharaja's Sanskrit College, Mysore ; and an examination for
Kannacja Pandits was established in 1893.

The three English colleges are the Central College, Bangalore, and
the Maharaja's College, Mysore, both of the first grade, and the
Shimoga College, which is of the second grade. The Central
College specially instructs in >Lithematics and Physical Science as the
optional subjects for the B.A. degree, while the ^L1haraja's College
takes Mathematics and History. The Oriental Colleges are the
Maharaja's Sanskrit College and the Kannada Pandits' classes at
Mysore, and the Sanskrit College, Bangalore. Students' Homes have
been established in connection with some of the colleges.

794

A DMINISTRA TION

Tlic following is a dulailcd classification of all educational institutions
borne on the returns as they stood on the 30th of June 1895 :—

Government.

Aided.

Unaided.

Total.

No.

Pupis.

No.

Pupils.

Nj.

Pupils.

No.

Pupils.

I'UBLic Institutions.

University Education.

Collenjes, English

,, Oriental ...

3
2

410
39

—

150

1,438
129

533

School Education,
General.

Secondary Schools —

High Schools,
English (for Boys)..'.

1,733

1,691

3,424

Middle Schools,
English (for Boys)...
Vernacular (for
Boys)

7,998
8,191

15
II

1,248
1,360

18,841

Middle Schools,
English (for Girls)...
Vernacular (for
Girls)

1,006

5
5

475
579

2,097

Primary Schools — •

For Boys

,, Girls

1,356
70

46,155
3,390

62
54

2,686
3,595

754
166

49,595
7,151

School Education,
Special.

Training Schools for
Masters

Training Schools for
Mistresses

Industrial Schools ...

Sanskrit Schools

Jail Schools

I
2
I
3

106

245

65
1,089

' 3

i
I

106

23
158

1,725
245

Total ...

t
1,576 ' 69,480

191

12,872

21
i 2,079

1,046

497
27,125

28,668

1,797

S3.39S

Private Institi'-

TIONS.

Advanced

Elementary

—

2,100

27,622

Grand Total

1,576 69,480

191

12,872

2,130

3,897

1 1 1 ,020

The High Schools are the Anglo-vernacular schools at the head-
quarters of each District and at Chile Ballapur and Channapatna, with

INSTjR UCTION 7 9 5

the London and Wesleyan Mission High Schools at Bangalore, and
Wesleyan High School at Mysore. They work up to the matriculation
standard of the Madras University. All the Government High
Schools, except two, are under native Head-masters. The Middle
Schools are mostly Taluq schools, preparing for the Local examina-
tions, with a proportion of Aided Mission and other schools. The
prevailing languages taught are Kannada or Hindustani, with a little
English in some. Fees for Muhamniadans have been reduced to a
half. The Primary schools are Hdbli or Village schools. In addition
to Kannada schools, which form the bulk, there are Hindustani and
Telugu, with a few Tamil and Mahratti schools where needed ; also
Night schools for adults.

Female education has made considerable progress. Though Mission
schools had long held the field and done much good, and some
Government schools had also been at work for a considerable time, a
special impulse was given to the movement by the establishment of
the Maharani's Caste Girls' School at Mysore in 1881. It commended
itself by combining a partially Hindu course of study with Western
methods of instruction ; and, backed by the patronage and influence
of the Palace, set a fashion since followed in other schools. All along
liberally aided, it was taken over entirely by Government in 1891, but
is conducted on the same lines as before, under the management of a
Committee ; and a similar course has been adopted with the remaining
Girls' schools. The present superintendent is a lady from Girton
College, who has taken Honours in the Mathematical tripos at Cam-
bridge. Home education classes have been formed for girls obliged to
leave school.

The Normal School for masters was opened in 1894, and contains
94 Hindus and 23 Muhammadans. The Training School for mistresses
is held in the Maharani's School, and some young widows are also
under preparation there for the same calling.

The Government Industrial schools are at Mysore and Hassan. The
pupils are of all castes and are mostly supported by scholarships.
They learn carpentry, rattan work, blacksmiths' and other mechanical
work, with drawing and modelling. Of the Aided Industrial schools,
two are ^\'esleyan, at Hassan and Tumkur ; the former for orphan
girls, who learn to knit woollen caps and stockings ; the latter for
orphan boys, who learn carpentry, roi)e-making, bricklaying, cVx. The
other school is Roman Catholic, at Mysore, where carpentry and
gardening arc taught, as well as the violin, with a view to providing
bandsmen.

796 A DMINISTRA TION

ARCH/EOLOGY

Arch.4-:olo(;y had for many years received informal attention. A
number of inscriptions photographed by Colonel Dixon in 1865, under
the orders of Mr. Bowring, were translated by the Director of Public
Instruction, and published in 1879, with additions, under the name of
Mysore Inscriptions. In August 1884 he was relieved of Police
work in order to give more time to antiquities, and in January 1885'
was appointed Director of Archaeological Researches in addition to his
office as Education Secretary. The Coorg Inscriptions were published
by him in 1886. In March 1888 a regular Archaeological department
was formed under him, and in April 1890 he was relieved of other
duty for the time, but later on was appointed also to compile the present
work.

Epigraphy. — The entire country has been surveyed and copies of
all inscriptions taken i)i situ. The number discovered is nearly 9,000,
and they are in course of translation and publication under the
designation of Epigraphia Carnatica. A volume of 144 Jain inscrip-
tions at S'ravana Belgola was published in 1889 ; another, containing
803 inscriptions in the Mysore District, was published in 1894 ; and a
further volume, with 880, completing that District, is approaching'
completion. Volumes relating to the other seven Districts are also
going through the press.

The results obtained by the Survey have exceeded expectation. The
most notable discovery was that of Edicts of A'soka in the Molkal-
muru taluq in 1892, an event which has been described by one of the
highest authorities as forming "an epoch in Indian archseology." The
Jain inscriptions relating to Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta, the
Satakarni inscription in Shikarpur taluq, the Kadamba inscription at
Talgunda in the same, and one at Anaji in Davangere taluq,
have brought to light ancient records of the highest value
for the history of the first centuries. The Vokkaleri inscrip-
tion opened the eyes of scholars to the true significance of the
Pallavas. The clean forgotten dynasties of the Mahavalis or Banas,
and of the Gangas who ruled Mysore for so long, have been restored
to history. The chronology of the Cholas has been for the first time
definitely fixed. The birthplace of the Hoysalas has been discovered,
and their history worked out in detail. Great additions have been
made to information relating to the Chdlukyas, the Rashtrakiitas, the
Nolambas, the Vijayanagar kings, and other more modern dynasties.

ARCH.-EOLOGY 797

Ahtmisniaiics. — An important find, the first in Mysore of this kind,
was that of Roman coins in 1892 near Yesvantpur, in making the
cutting for the Hindupur raihvay. There were 163 silver coins, denarii
of the early emperors — Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius,
with one of Antonia — ranging in date from 21 r.c. to 51 a.d. The
find of Buddhist leaden coins near Chitaldroog has been referred to
above, p. 293. That of old Indian coins at Xagar is mentioned in
the appendix. Cold coins of the Hoysalas, before unknown, have
been identified and the legends deciphered.

Architecture and Scii/J>ti/rc. — Information under these heads will be
found on pp. 509ff. Steps have been taken for conserving ancient
monuments of importance, such as the A'soka inscriptions, the
IJhadrabahu inscription and facade of the Chandra Cupta basti at
S'ravana Belgola, the Halebid, Sonniathpur, Arsikere, and other
temples.

Ancient Ma>iuscripts. — The search for these has extended over many
years. The results obtained are already summarised in the chapter on
Literature, pp. 495 ff.

MISCELLANEOUS

Mi/zrai. — ^This department administers the revenues of endowed
religious and charitable institutions, that is, temples, mosques, and
chattrams. There are 1,8 [4 within Mysore, and 29 in British terri-
tory. The revenues consist of large grants of land and money
payments by former rulers, and of deposits of money funded by
votaries for the fulfilment of certain vows and ceremonies. A separate
Muzrai Superintendent was appointed in 1892 to more effectually
control these institutions and to rectify the abuses which had crept in.
A regular system of budgets and sanctions has Ijeen introduced. The
power of sanction vested in the ruler to nominations of gurus of
maths has been re-asscrted. Provision for more light and air is being
gradually made in the temples as they come under repair, and the
appearance and surroundings are being improved so as to be more in
keeping with their character as places of worship, bunds and endow-
ments alienated or misapplied by the priests are being restored to
their original purpose. Committees of local residents of influence as
Dharmadarsis are being apjjointed to maintain a proper supervision.
The priests are required to be men of some learning in regard to their
duties, and qualified to command respect. Dancing girls are being

798 ADMINISTRAr/OiV

gradually eliminated from the temples. Over;,^ro\vn establishments
of ill-paid menials are being reduced and only a sufficient staff
retained, more adequately paid. The abuses in distribution of food
at chattrams are being checked, and arrangements made to carry
out their legitimate functions of affording shelter to travellers and
f)ilgrims.

APPENDIX

COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Owing to the number of Principalities into which the Mysore country
was broken up on the subversion of the \'ijayanagar empire, each of
which arrogated to itself the sovereign right of coining its own money ; and
to tlie subsequent conquests in succession by various rival powers, each of
whom introduced a separate coinage, which passed into circulation along
with the divers kinds previously current ; nothing could be more confused
or perplexing than the whole monetary and metric system down to the time
of the British assumption.' But a measure of uniformity may now be said
to prevail, though calculations continue to be made on the former system of
each locality. The introduction of English figures into all the Government
accounts since 1863, and the increase of European officers and settlers,
have led to increasing regularity ; while the system of arithmetic taught
throughout the Government schools, though recognizing to some extent the
methods of the country, is calculated to bring in a conformity with the
practice observed throughout British India.

Coins

Among the oldest Indian coins that have been found in Mysore are
those of lead {see p. 293), of the time of the A'ndhra or S'dtavuhana kings."''
Sir Walter Elliot remarks that " the characteristic of their coinage was the
employment of lead with but a small proportion of copper. General
Pearse called attention to a passage in Pliny to the effect that India has
neither brass nor lead, receiving them in exchange for precious stones and

' The value of the different coins, says Buchanan, was frequently changed by Tipu
Sultan ill a very arbitrary and oppressive manner. When he was about to pay his
tr()0]-)s, the nominal value of each coin was raised very high, and kept at that
standard for about ten days ; during which time the sf)ldiery were allowed to jiay off
their debts at the high valuation. After this the standard was reduceil to the jirojier
value.

After the conquest of the countr)-, the itirak, or rate of exchange by which all the
different coins could be offered as a legal tender of payment, was periodically fixed,
generally once or twice a month, at the various centres of trade, by the Amildar,
who first consulted the principal merchants. In Bangalore, the nirak was fixed by
the European Officer connnanding in the Fort.

' The illustration given from this find is from a coin kindly lent hy Dr. Hultzsch.
The ol)verse shows a bull standing, with the legend round it . . J^i/iiniiiyi nia/idnija
.... On the reverse is a fir-tree and the chaitya symbol.

8oo APPENDIX

pearls, wliicli may afford some explanation of this peculiarity. The lead is
generally very pure, a careful analysis detecting only a trace of copper.
One class of coins was found to consist of a kind of speculum of an alloy
of lead and tin, and another of an impure lead ore, which gave them the
appearance of a coarse alloy. They are stamped with symbols of a
Buddhist character. The reverse has figures of a lion or horse [or bull]
with the name of the sovereign, but his effigy, never . . . The pieces vary
greatly in size ; they are generally round, sometimes scjuare."

The same writer says, — "In all the countries with which we are best
acquainted, the metal first used for monetary purposes was silver, to which
India (except in the case of the A'ndhras) forms no exception. The pro-
portion of bullion to be given as a medium of exchange was adjusted by
weight. In course of time, to obviate constant recourse to the scales, the
use of uniform pieces, certified by an authoritative mark, suggested itself.
Such pieces, taken from a bar or plate, trimmed and cut to the required
standard weight, received the impress of a symbol, guaranteeing their
acceptance.

At what time and by what people they were first employed is unknown.
They were regarded as prehistoric by the older Indian writers, and may
therefore be presumed to have been found in circulation when the Aryans
entered Hindustan. They have no recognised name in any of the
vernacular dialects. They appear, however, to have been known to the
earlier Sanskrit writers under the designation of ptirdua, a term which
itself signifies ancient.

The oldest Indian examples are of all shapes, oblong, angular, square,
or nearly round, with punch marks on one or both sides, the older signs
often worn away by attrition ; in almost all cases the earlier ones partially
or wholly effaced by others subsequently super-impressed upon them.
Other specimens, which are more circular and thicker, with sharper
attestations, are probably of later date. All weigh about 50 grains troy.
A parcel of forty-three very old-looking pieces, part of a large find in Nagar
or Bednur, weighed 2,025"5 grains, giving an average of 47-1, but the
heaviest was 50 grains, the lightest only 3775-

Before quitting the subject it may be asked where the supply of silver
was obtained to meet the circulation of so great an extent of country.
Gold; iron, and copper were found in many parts of India, but no silver
so far as I know. It must therefore have been imported from abroad.""'

The later coins of the country were either of gold, silver, or copper.
Gold coins, at first so numerous, are now rarely seen, and the silver and
copper coins in general use at the present time are those of the British
Indian currency. According to Ferishta, there was no silver coinage in
the Carnatic countries at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and even
three centuries later we find only gold and copper coins in existence. In
fact, it was not till the jMuhammadans were permanently established in the
South, that their preference for the rupee led to the introduction of a silver
currency, without, however, displacing the gold previously in circulation.
' Coins of Southern India, 22, 45, 49fi".

GOLD COINS So I

Gold Coins. — These arc known to Europeans as pagodas, fan tins and
viohurs. The pagoda is an original Hindu coin, called varaha, from the
symbol on it of the vardha or boar, one of the incarnations of Vishnu,
which formed the crest of the Chc^lukyas and of the \'ijayanagar kings.
In some parts it seems also to have been called chakra. Before the rise
of the Chalukyas the pagoda was probably called jwtvj;-//^? or «/i-///vj:. It
also had in Kannada and Telugu the wvim^ i^adydna. In Hindustani the
coin is known as hiin. There were various pagodas,' named from the
States in which they were severally coined. A half pagoda was called
p07i or hon, and at a later period, under Vijayanagar, aXso prahipa. The
fanam is properly hana or pana (a word used also for money in general),
and is doubtless a corruption of the neuter form panam. As with the
pagodas, so there is a variety of fanams issued from different mints. The
mohur is a Muhammadan coin, bearing the impression {inohur) of a seal
or stamp. Mohurs came into circulation with the Bijapur and Mughal
conquests, and some were coined in Mysore by Tipu.^

The oldest gold coins (to further cite Sir Walter) are spherules, quite
plain and smooth, save for a single very minute puncli-mark, too small to be
identified, by the impress of which they have been slightly flattened. In
Old Kannada they are called guligc, a globule or little ball, whence the
sign gti with a numeral is employed in old accounts as the sign for express-
ing pagodas. These were succeeded by flat round thicker pieces of
superior v/orkmanship, which have received the name of padnia-tankas,
from having what is called a lotus in the centre. The use of the punch
gradually gave way to the employment of a matrix or die. This was at
first of the simplest form, and the coins appear to have been struck upon
the single symbol placed below, the additional symbols being added by the
old-fashioned process around the central device. The force of the blows
in many instances gave the upper side a concave surHice, and this, though
accidental, may have led to the use at a later period of cup-shaped dies, as
in the Raina-fankas. The adoption of the double die led eventually to tiie
final and complete disuse of the punch.

The gold coins of the principal Mysore dynasties may here be described,
much of the information being from the same source. Those of the

1 Pagoda is a word of Portuguese origin, commonly applied by Europeans to a
Hindu temple, and given to this coin perhaps from the representation that ajipcars
on it, in some parts, of a temple.

^ This Appendix had been already compiled before chance brought into my
hands a valuable little pamphlet on the Coins of Mysore ami Soiitiicrn India, by
Captain II. P. Ilawkes, Assistant Commissary-General, prepared for the Madras
Exhil^ition of 1857. Some additional information thence derived has been incor-
porated. I also at the same time met with Assay Tables of Indian Coins, I)y
Dr. Shekleton, Assay Master of II.M.'s Mint, Calcutta, which furnislieil several
particulars.

In this revised edition some particulars and illustrations have been added from Sir
Walter Elliot's Coins of Sotit/icrn India in the Nnmismala Oricntalia, Mr. Edgar
Thurston's Catalogue of Mysore Coins in the Madras Museum, and Captain K. II.
Campl^ell Tufnell's Catalogue of those in the Bangalore Museum.

8o2 APPENDIX

Gangas have an clcpliant on the obverse and a floral design on the reverse.
Weight of the specimens, 52'3 and 58'5 grains. The characteristic device
of the Kadambas is a Hon looking backwards. One coin has on the obverse
a padma in the centre, with four punch-struck retrospectant lions round it.
On the reverse are a scroll ornament and two indented marks. Weight,
58'52 grains. Another has on the obverse a lion looking backwards, with the
legend (?) Ballaha in Kannada below. On the reverse is an indistinct object,
surrounded with a circle of dots and an ornamental outer circle beyond.
Examples of R^shtrakuta coins have so far been found only in silver, and
that recently. They resemble the GrKCO-Parthian coins which circulated
in Gujarat more than those of Southern India. On the obverse of those
found is the head of the king, and on the reverse the legend parama
mahcs'vara imitdpitripadamidhydta S'ri Krislma Raja. Weight, about 33
grains.

The Chalukya coins had the boar on the obverse and the padma or
chakra on the reverse. Weight, 58 grains. But some interesting coins of
the Eastern Chdlukyas, belonging to the eleventh century, which have been
found only in an island off the coast of Burma and in Siam,' are large thin
plates, having on the obverse a boar in the centre under an umbrella with a
chata-i on each side ; in front of the boar and behind it a lamp-stand ;
under the snout of the boar the Old-Kannada letter ra. Round these
emblems is the legend S'ri Chdhikya-Chandrasya on some, and S'ri
Rdjardjasya on others, both in Old-Kannada letters, impressed by separate
punch-marks. The reverse is plain. Weight, 65-9 to 66*6 grains.^ The
Kalachuri coins have on the obverse a human figure with a garuda or
bird's head, advancing to the right. On the reverse, in three lines of Old
Kannada, one has .... Mio'dri . . . , and another, Rdja Sova bhata . . .
Weight, 54*5 and 52-2 grains.

The Hoysala coins (which were unknown until the publication of the
first edition of this work, and of which only a few specimens have been
found) have on the obverse a s'drdula or mythical tiger, facing the right,
with a smaller one above, which is between the sun and moon : in front of
the larger tiger is (?) an elephant goad or lamp-stand. On the reverse is a
legend in three lines of Old-Kannada letters. One coin has S'ri Talakddu
gofjda, another has S'ri Nonambavddi goitda, and a third has S'ri
Malaparol ganda. The two first, weight 6175 and 63 grains, must be of
the time of Vishnuvardhana, and perhaps the third also.

The Vijayauagar coins hav'e on the obverse, some, S'iva and Parvati
seated, others the ganda bhcnuuja, a fabulous two-headed bird, either alone
or holding elephants in beaks and claws, and others again have some
different device.'* On the reverse is the king's name in three lines of
N^garf or Kannada letters, such as, S'ripratdpa Harihara, or S'ri pratdpa
Achyiita Rdya, or S'ri pratdpa Sadds'iva Rdya, and so on. Weight, 52'6
ojrains. One of Tirumala-Rdya has Rdma and Sita on the obverse, seated,

' Since the above was written some have been found near the Godavari.
"^ See Dr. Fleet's account, Ittd. Aut. , xix, 79.
3 See Dr. Hultzsch in Ind. Ant., xx, 301.

el.

LEAD AND GOLD COINS

Andhra

G G

'^rW^

Padma taiika ChalukTa

'/^* ':^

'^^->

v?^

'^ ■•■,

Kadamba

/'r^:i

W^-

<-- w-

Ganga

E . Ghalukya

W. Chalukya

Kadamba

Kalachun

Hoysala

\ 1 I t_l V cl i 1 rx

gar

GOLD COINS 803

with Lakshmana standing. On the reverse is S'ri- Tiruvtala-Rdyulu in Ndgari
letters. One of Venkatapati has on the obverse Vishnu, standing under an
arch ; and on the reverse, in Ndgari letters, S'ri Venkatcs'vardya namah.

Of the Mysore Rdjas the first to establish a mint w^s Kanthirava Narasa
Raja, who ruled from 1638 to 1659. He coined fanams only {Kanthiraya
hana), but ten of these were taken to be equal to a varaha or pagoda, which
had, however, no actual existence, but was a nominal coin used in accounts
only. And even after the coins struck by him had become obsolete, the
accounts continued to be kept in Kanthirdya varaha and hana, the Canteroy
pagodas and fanams of the English treaties with Mysore and of the official
accounts down to the time of the British assumption. The Mysore R.ljas
arc said not to have coined varahas, but specimens exist of a Chikka Deva
Raja varaha which must have been coined by that celebrated king, who
reigned from 1672 to 1704. On the obverse is Bdla Krishna trampling
on the serpent Kdliya, and on the reverse, in Nilgari characters, S'r{ Chika
Deva Rdya. This king adopted the monogram De, which continued to be
the Mysore Government mark down to quite modern times. It is used on
many of his coins, but not (I think) on the gold coins ; it appears only on
the obverse of the copper coinage, along with the elephant.

The pagodas or varahas in general circulation were those coined by the
Ikkeri rulers of Bednur. The Ikkeri varaha followed the Vijayanagar
coinage in having S'iva and Pdrvati on the obverse, while on the reverse
was S'ri Saddsfiva, or simply S'ri, in Ndgari letters. Weight, 53 grains.
After his conquest of Bednur, Haidar Ali issued the same coin under the
name of Bahdduri hun, retaining the old obverse of S'iva and lYirvati, but
putting on the reverse his own Persian monogram or initial surrounded
with a circle of dots. A coinage of it at Bangalore was known as the
Dodda-tale Bengaluri, or big-headed Bangalore pagoda. Under Tipu
Sultan it was issued as the SultAni hun. The obverse bore the legend hun
al-Stiltdn iil-ddil san (pagoda of the just king) in Persian characters. On
the reverse, besides Haidar's monogram, the number of Tipu's regnal year,
and often below it in Persian the name of the city in which the coin was
struck {Nagar, Patan for Seringapatam, Dharwar, and so on) were
included within the circle of dots. Some were called Fdrukhi hun from
the word Fdri'ikhi (after the name of the second Khdlif) appearing on them
as well as the name of the mint town and Haidar's initial. On the obverse
WAS Muhaiumad wohii ul-wohid iil-Sitltan //■/•</</// (Muhammad. He alone
is the just king), with the year.

When recoined by Purnaiya at Mysore and Nagar as the new or Hosa
Ikkdri varaha, the original device of S'iva and Pdrvati was restored on the
obverse, and S'ri in Nagari on the reverse, Krishna Rdja Wodeyar, on
assuming the government in 181 1, issued it as the Krishna R;lja varaha,
retaining the same obverse, but putting S'ri Krishna Rdja in N.-igari
characters on the reverse. It was also called (according to Buchanan)
Kartar Ikkeri varaha.'

' Kartar means the ruler or ruling king, as distinguished from the Dalav.-iyi, wlio is
the head of another branch of the royal Aimily.

3 F 2

8o4

APPENDIX

Of other pagodas coined by local rulers may be mentioned the Durgi
varaha, coined at Chitaldroog, probably by Barma Ndyak, in 1691. It bore
on the obverse a bull-headed figure representing Durgi, and on the reverse,
in Ndgari characters . . . Ndyaka Rdya.

Half-pagodas generally followed the type of the corresponding pagodas.
But some quarter-pagodas of Pratdpa Dcva-Raya II of Vijayanagar, who
was specially distinguished as i^aja-beniekdra, or elephant-hunter, have the
device of an elephant on the obverse.

The following list contains particulars regarding the various gold fanams
and mohurs : —

Symbols or Legends.

Name.

By whom coined.

Obverse.

Reverse.

Fanams.

Kanthiraya hana'

Kanthirava Narasa

FigureofNarasimha

Sun and moon, or

Raja

Sri Kanthirava
(in Nagari)

Chikka Deva Raja

,, Chamundi

Chikka Deva Raja

hana

(Kan)

Ikkeri hana

See pagodas of same
name

—

Bahaduri , ,

)> j>

—

Kalikat (Calicut)

Haidar Ali

—

Haidar's monogram.

hana

in circle of dots

Adda Kalikat hana

—

)5 5)

Sultani- ,, ,,

Tipu Sultan

Kalikat, san 1166

,, hana [avalf

Zarb e Patau, san,
in circle of dots

„

,, ,, [diiya/n)

))

?» J5

)) ))

Nagar Sale hana

Zarb e Nagar, san
1200

Dhoti ,,

Farhi 12 18

,, ,,

Sayad Sale ,,

Khalekhabad^ zarb
1217

Ballapur ,,

Abbas Khuli Khan

Balcipiir^ (Hind.)

^fl[lapur](Hind.)

Badshahi

Haidar Ali (?)

nishdn Haidar

(Hind.)

[Ba]/a///[r]

Chik Ballapur hana

(?)

^rt74pur](Hind.)

? Mahratti characters

Devanhalli ,,

1 Commonly written Canteroy fanam. This was afterwards called the agala
Kajtthiraya hana or broad Canteroy fanam, to distinguish it from a re-issue made by
Purnaiya, which was called \.\\e gidda Kanthiraya /^a«a or small thick Canteroy fanam.

* This coin was re-issued more than once by Tipu.

•* The words aval (first) and duyam (second) relate to the difference in size : the
latter is also called gidda hana.

^ Khalekhabad was the name given by Tipu to Chandgal near Seringapatam.

* It is singular how two or three letters only of the name Balapur, apparently
taken at random, are stamped on these coins (figured by Captain Hawkes) as shown
out of the brackets. It would seem as if a strip of metal had been stamped with
the name, and then cut up into coins, whence a few letters only appeared on each.

SILVER COINS

805

Symbols or Legends.

X'nmf

By whom coined.

Obverse.

Reverse.

Nandi hana

Sirpi ,,

—

Mamur Khan ,,

—

Aval Muhammad

Mtthamniad Shah zarb Kolar

Shahi

Hoskota hana

—

Kunigal ,,

Kempe Gauda

? Coat of chain mail

Two faint circles

Moh

iirs.

Sultani ashrafi, or

Tipu Sultan

din A hilt ad dar

wohii til wohid al

Ahmadi'

jahdii roshan se \ Sitlltin ill adil
fattch Haidar ast-? sty urn Bahdri^ sal

zarb Patait, sdl^ Azal san zjiiltis

Azal 1 197 Hijri |

Siddiki (half mohur)

Siddiki, zarb e sal Jiiltis
Sard 1

Silver Coins. — These came in, as already stated, with the Muhammadans,
and were first coined in Mysore by Tipu Sultan. The coins were ri'ipayi, or
rupees (so called from a word meaning silver), Vir\Afafia>iis. The following
is a table of silver coins : —

By whom coined.

Symbols or Legends.

Obverse.

Reverse.

Rupees.

Nokara (double ru-
pee), or Haidari

Tipu Sultan

din Ahmad dar
jaltdn roslian se
fatleii Haidarast.
zarb Patan sdl
Azal san 1 198
Hijri

J> 5>
>> >»

Alia Mtthaiiimad
htm al Sultan ul
ddil san 1 218.*

wohu-til-wohid al
Stiltdn ul ddil,
siyum Bahari sdl
Azal sail zjuliis.

Sultani riipdyi, or

Imami
Sultani adha rupayi

(^ r.), or A'bidi
Bakhiri [\ r.)

hull Stiltdn wohid
iilddilicc. asabovc
>» »»

Bakhiri, san 7 Patan

* The Ahmadi was so named from Ahmad, a designation of the Trophcl ; the
Siddiki from Abu Bakr Siddiq, the first Khalif. (See Ind. Ant., xviii, 314.)

* The religion of Muhammad is made illustrious in the world through the victory
of Haidar.

* Siyum Bahdri, or the third day of Bahiiri, was the date of his accession to the
throne, and of his assuming the title of Sultan, corresponding with the 4th of May.
But it was fated also to be the date of his overthrow and death.

* Slight differences occur in the inscriptions, but they are all to the same efi'ect.

8o6

APPENDIX

Symbols or Legends.

Name.

By whom coined.

Obverse.

Reverse.

Jdfari (ir.)

Tipu Sultan

Miikamjiiad sati
1226 zarb Patau

Jdfari, san 12 J tiliis

Kazimi ^''jj ,,)

Kdzimi, ,,

Khizri (./^ ,,)

Zarb dar ttl Saltanal

Khi-.ri, 12

Raja rupayi

Krishna Raja Wode-

Sikka zad bar haft

zarb Mahisiir san

yar

kashiir say a fazl

47 juliis niayi-

at khdmi din Mil-

vianat mdmis^

haiiwiad Shah

Alain bddshdh

,, ardha rupayi (ir.)

j> ))

)> ) J

J» 99

„ pavali (|„)

)) ))

Figure of Krishna,

Kisheii Raj Wodeyar

surrounded with

san 12.^^ j it Ills,

dots.

zarb Mahisiir (in
Hind.) surrounded
with dots-

Silver 1

'^aiiaj/ts.

Adda (i fanam)

Krishna RajaWode-
yar

Figure of Krishna

Mayili haiia? (Kan. )

Haga(i „ )

)) f)

)) )>

99 99

The rupee or Imami of Tipu Sultan was named after the twelve Imams,
and the other silver coins after individual Imdms. Thus the Haidari was
named after Haidar, a surname of 'Ali, the first Imam ; the A'bidi, after
Zainu'l-abidfn or A'bid Bimar, the fourth ; the Bdkhiri, after Muhammad
Bdkhir, the fifth ; the Jafari, after Jafar SAdikh, the sixth ; and the Kazimi,
after Musa Kdzim, the seventh. The Khizri was named after Khvvdja
Khizr, a prophet who is said to have drunk of the water of life. (See
l7td. Ant., xviii, 314.)

Persian having become established as the official language, the coins at
first struck by Krishna Raja Wodeyar bear inscriptions in Persian. The
Rdja rupee was issued in the name of the Mughal emperor. Shah 'Alam,
following the type of the rupees issued by the East India Company at
Arcot and elsewhere; but the dates and regnal years given are irreconcileable.
The legend on the obverse signifies — " The defender of the religion of
jMuhammad, the reflection of divine excellence, the emperor Shah 'Alam
struck this coin, to be current throughout the seven chmates." As regards
the latter. Moor says : — " When Timur, establishing his throne in India,

* Only a portion of the inscription occurs on each coin. Some of these may have
been coined first under Purnaiya.

^ Some are dated according to the Kali yuga.

^ Called the viayili fanam. The meaning of mayili is not very clear. It may
mean may Hi, reduced body, or thin. Another possible, hut not very probable,
explanation is Mayi, contraction for Mayisiir, and li, the locative suffix. This
would mean " in Mysore," indicating the mint town. The only other meanings of
mayili in Kannada are — dirty, and small-pox, neither of which is of any use here.

GGLD.oILVER and COPPER UOINB

'^ Hoysala

tof^a

Ikkeri Varaha

KanthiraycL hana

Old Mysore

Siddiki ( ^4 TTiohur

■■>^>. ^>

# «'

Krishna Raja p avail

■^oldmoliur

Imami ( rupee

COPPER COINS 807

overcame the kings of Cashmere, Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Lahore, Pooriib
and Paishoor, he united the kingdoms, and called himself conqueror and
sovereign of the seven climates or countries ; which title has been retained
by his successors." The inscription on the reverse means — " coined at
Mysore in the 47th (or other) year of the auspicious reign."

Copper Coins. — The copper coins were duddit, or dubs (Hindustani
paisa), and kdsii or cash. They as a general rule, from the earliest times
to which they have been traced, bore on the obverse the figure of an
elephant, due, whence the name dne or anna, though the latter term is
perhaps a compromise between ha?ja and dne. Above the elephant
was afterwards introduced the moon, and later on the sun also. The
reverse consisted of crossed lines. There was also a half paisa, with a
tiger on one side and a battle-axe on the other, which may have been a
Hoysala coin, though it has been suggested that it was a type tried but
abandoned by Tipu. But, besides these, there was an old series bearing
on the obverse a Kannada numeral, from i up to 31, in a ring of dots, with
the crossed lines reverse. They are attributed to the Mysore Rdjas who
immediately preceded Haidar Ali. Tipu brought in a new copper coinage
with fresh names of his own invention. The old device of the elephant,
with sun and moon, was retained on the obverse, the Arabic letter for the
number of the regnal year being inserted above. On the reverse, in
Persian, were the name of the mint town, the date, and the name of the
coin. His double paisa had at first been called Usm;ini by Tipu, after
Usmdn, the third Khalif. But subsequently he adopted the names of stars
for his copper coins. The Usmdni thus became the Mushtari, after Jupiter ;
the paisa was called Zuhra, after Venus ; the half paisa, Bahram, after
Mars ; the quarter paisa, Akhtar, meaning star ; and the one-eighth /(Z/j<?,
Khutb, after the Pole-star (see Jfid. Ant., I. c).

Under Krishna Rdja Wodeyar a kdsu or dne kdsu was first coined
bearing the elephant, with sun and moon on one side, and on the other
S'ri Kris/ma RdJa, in Ndgari letters. Later on were issued the niayili
kdsii.^ To the same obverse as above was added S'7i in Kannada, over the
elephant ; but the reverse bore the inscription V cash in English (or X or
XX as the case might be), with niayili kdsu 5 (or 10 or 20), in Kannada.
Afterwards the English was put below the Kannada, and C/id (for
Chdmundi) in Kannada added at top. At a later period 5V/ C//<f /«//«<//, i n
Kannada, was inserted above the elephant on the obverse, and Krishna, in
Kannada, put at the top of the reverse.

Eventually the tiger (or lion) of Chamundi was substituted for the
elephant on the obverse, and the reverse had Krishna (Kan.) in the centre,
surrounded by a circle containing the words XXV cash- (Eng.), sarb
Mahisur (Pers.), and Mayili kdsu 25 (Kan.). The smaller coins had only
Krishtia (Kan.) zarb Mahisur (Pers.), and the numeral 5 or 10.

The mint was removed from Mysore to Bangalore in 1S33 and abolished
in 1843. The last coin struck has the tiger (or lion) of Chamundi on
' Mayili is spell in English on st)me coins MciUic and nn others Mailay.
' So badly printed in some specimens that it reads as UAUH.

8o8

dPFENBIX

the obverse, with S'rl (in Kan.) and sun and moon above, and 1843 (in
English) below. On the reverse is Krishna (in Kan.), Mahisur zarb (in
Hind.).

The following coins now in circulation are those of Britisli India, together
with a few native copper coins, which however since 1863 are being with-
drawn and sold, broken up, as old copper.

Copper. Kd.su

Duggani
Miir kasu
Duddu
Ardhane

I'ic or cash
\ duddu, 2 i^ie
^ anna
^ anna
J anna

Silver. Dodd anc 2 annas

I'avali \ rupee

Ardha rupayi \ rupee

Rupayi Rupee

Accounts. — In order to explain the way in which accounts were written,
it is necessary to describe the system of fractions and signs. The following
are the names of the fractional parts : —

111

Mukkalu

Murvlsa

1 iT

111

Mukkani

Are

Bele

Arevisa

Kalu

—

\'isa

Kani

The fractional parts of a pagoda, rupee, or fanam were expressed by the
marks above exhibited, but the terms varied with the coin. Pagodas were
marked by prefixing ao gu, rupees by prefixing "do ru., and fanams were dis-
tinguished by prefixing the mark ^ , called viakdra, the tail of which was
extended over the lower denominations to the right.

Names of fractional pat'ts of coins and niode of writing tJievi.

Value.

Pagoda.

Rupee.

Fanam.

AO 0

varaha

TJO 0

rupayi

G 0 opphana

AO III

muddharana

■do III

muppavali

Golll niuppaga

AO II

honnu,pratapa

7^0 II

adheli

tell adda

1
4

AJ 1

dharana

•do 1

pavali

G ol haga

ns"

AO —
AO III
AJ II
AO 1

muddugula

chavala

dugula

muru bottu

eradubottu

bottu

7J0 =

^0-

murane
eradane

ane

G ooE mura visa

T"o

(occ= bele

(ooo— visa

■Oi

'o ocelli mukkani

_2-
0 1

GcGoll are visa

(o coo 1 kani

In the west, the mode of writing the accounts was somewhat different.
Pagodas w^re expressed as above by prefixing ao to the integers, and then
the sign G was placed to mark the fanams, which were 10 to the pagoda.
In filling up the places of fanams, the integers from i to 4 were used, but if
the number were 5, the fractional mark || for half was placed instead of it,
denoting ^ a pagoda. If the number of fanams were greater than 5 and

WEIGHTS

809

less than 10, figures denoting fanams were placed after the fractional parts
of the pagoda, and the sign (o omitted. If there were no fanams, a cipher
was placed after G to show that there were none. Ciphers were also used
to denote the relative value of the fractions.'

__ p. f.

Thus AO o (3 r> was I I

A^ silo 4 6

P-f-

A J o(dco-| was I -iV-S^ts'f

AO ^(3 coo I 3 ^

AO ilGoooo- 4 ^

AJ ^(ociol- 3 i, _L.&^

AO f GTIimi 4 .U\: ^

Weights.-

The seer iser) is the standard of weiglit and measure. The kachcha sir
(cucha seer) is equal to the weight of 24 rupees or '6067 lb. avoirdupois.
40 seers = i mana (maund), and 20 mana = i khandi (candy). By this
weight are sold areca-nut, sugar, drugs, cotton, silk, &c.

Oil and ghee are frequently sold by measure ; a seer weight of oil being
put into a cylindrical brass vessel that exactly contains it, which serves
afterwards as a standard.

The /rt/'/vi j-tV (pucka seer) is formed by mixing equal quantities of the
juiva dhdnya or nine kinds of grain (rice, uddu, hcsaru, hurah, togari, avare,

' The following items (lo which 1 have added the equivalents) taken from a hill for
work done, i^resented to me while this sheet is going through the jiress, will serve as
an example of the way in which the .system is applied to British Indian money.

orlv R. 19

4 0

^1!

R- 3

8 0

olIE

R. I

«tlllo«r 4

12 S

olllo

12 0

i;ll =

kG = 0 4

3 I

olll =

14 0

111=

* Chikka Deva Raja is saitl to have called in the seals useil in the eighty-four gadis
or taluqs, and finding that they varied greatly, he had a common seal made, hearing
the monogram De in the middle, with the sun and moon, surrounded by a circle con-
taining the name of the gadi. A gold ring with this seal engraved on it was given to
each Amildar. Silver ones, with only De on them, were given to the hobli and
village officials, and the customs and tax collectors. Wooden stamps {mudrekil)
with the same monogram, hetween the sun and moon, were provided, lo he kept in
each chav;i(li and used hy the totis, talavdrs and nirgantis, as directeil by the heads
of villages, to be affixed to houses of criminals or defaulters, and on the heaps of
grain divided between the Government and the cultivators.

The same stamp was engraved on standard weights and measures ordered to be
used in shops and markets. The weight of 3 Kanthiraya hana being taken as cqua
lo 1 (ludflu, the following was the scale of weights fixed : —

I duddu = I ti'ila

24 ,, = 1 kachcha s^r

10 kachcha ser = i dhadiya

4 dhadiya = 1 chikka mana

44-46 cer =• 1 doclila mana.

8io

APPENDIX

kadale, cllu and wheat), and then by taking of the mixture 84 Rs. weighty
which is put into a vessel that will exactly contain it when heaped. This
serves for a standard, and measures 74*8125 cubical inches or "3592 gallons.

This is the dry measure, of which 20 kolagas or ki'idu everywhere make
I khandaga or khandi, but the number of seers to the kolaga is different in
different parts. The Sultdni ko|aga, established by Tipu Sultan, contained
16 seers. One of S seers is called the Krishna Rdja kulaga, being '},-, of the \
Krishna Raja khandi established by Purnaiya. The kolaga of 10 seers is |
called khararu kolaga. »

Measures.

Before the introduction of the English land measures, the land measures
in Mysore corresponded with the measures of capacity, and depended on
the area of land which can be sown with a given quantity of seed. This .
varied greatly on dry and on wet land, and for every variety of grain and of
soil. It is almost needless to observe that this mode of measurement
afforded incompetent or dishonest revenue officials plausible excuses for
laxity of practice and fraud. But in order to introduce uniformity, the
following measures have been determined. On dry land it was estimated
that one khandi or khandaga of seed would suffice to sow 64,000 square
yards, and accordingly this area represents a khandi of dry land, whereas,,
on wet or garden land, a khandi would only sow 10,000 square yards, which,
area denotes a khandi of wet land.

The following- therefore are the estabhshed standards : —

Gram Pleasure.

4 Chattaks

I Pavu

2 Pavus

I Payili or Padi

2 Padi or Payili

I Seer

2 Seers

I Balla

4 Ballas

I Kolaga or Kudu

20 Kolagas or Kudus

I Khandaga or Khancli

Land Measure.

Equivalent area

3f land.

CJuantity of seed sown.

Square

yaids.

Acres.'

Guntas.

Sq. yards.

Dry Land —

I Payili or Padi ...

200

—

2 ,, =1 Seer...

400

—

2 Seers =1 I Balla

800

4 Ballas = I Kudu

3,200

20 Kudus= Khandaga or Khandi

64,000

112

]Vct and Garden Land —

I Payili or Padi

3ii

—

31I

2 ,, =1 Seer

62^

—

62i

2 Seers := i Balla

125

4 Ballas = I Kudu

500

20 Kudus = I Khandaga or Khand'

10,000

' Acres consist of 40 Guntas, each Gunta being 121 square yards.

CALENDAR 8ii

Measures of Time.

Eras. — By the Hindus in Mysore the Saka era, afterwards called (see
p. 293) the S'dlivdhana S'aka, or era of S'ahvdhana (a corruption of S'dtavd-
hana),' dating (with sometimes a variation of two or three years) from
78 A.D., has always been and still is universally employed. Occasionally
the era of Kali Yuga, 3101 B.C., is used.

An attempt was made by Vikramdditya, the most powerful of the
Ch^lukya kings, to introduce a new era, dating from his accession to the
throne, and called the Chalukya Vikrama s'aka. The near coincidence of
the end of the first millennium of SVilivahana with the commencement of
his reign, and the correspondence of his name with that of the era reckoned
from 57 B.c , in universal use in the north of India, doubtless suggested
the innovation, in conjunction with the usual motives of ambition. The
Chalukya Vikrama era dates from 1076 A.D., and continued in use in
inscriptions throughout their dominions as long as the power of the
Chdlukyas was in the ascendant, though several of Vikramaditya's succes-
sors copied his example and sometimes dated from their own eras.-

By the Aluhammadans the era of the Hijra, or Flight, of Muhammad
from Mecca to Medina, is universally employed. It dates from 622 .A.D.,
reckoning by lunar years.^

Tipu Sultan, with that love of innovation which characterised his rule,
and from his ambition to establish a new order of things originating with
himself, made a reformation of the calendar ; in this also, as in so many
other particulars, the transactions of the French Revolution finding an echo
or parody in Mysore. Tipu's new system, which ended with his life, was
introduced with the 1200th year of the Hijra, or 1784 a.d., but was revised
four years afterwards. The new era, in opposition to the practice of the
whole Muhammadan world, dated from the Maulud, or Birth, i.e. as sup-
posed, of Muhammad. But the difference between Tipu's new Mauludi era
and that of the Hijra was only about twelve years, whereas Muhammad
was fifty-one years of age at the time of the Hijra. The Maulud may
therefore perhaps be supposed to have some possible reference to the origin
of Islam, counting it from the period when Muhammad first formed the
conception of his prophetic mission, which is said to have been at forty
years of age. Thus much is necessary to state on the subject in order to
e.xplain the apparent discrepancy of the dates on his coins, &c. Another

? I have actually found an inscription, of ilic time of I5ukk:i Raya of \'ijayanagar,
dated in the S' atavdhana s'aka.

- From confounding the Chalukya Vikrama era with the northern era of \'ikra-
maditya, the Administration Report for 1869-70 contains the announcement that
inscriptions had been deciphered and translated bearing date as far back as the year
one!

^ The following formula given by Sir H. Nicolas will be found useful in converting
Hijra into Anno -Domini dates. Multiply the years elapsed by 97D203 ; cut o(T six
decimals; add 622'S4, and the sum will he the year of the Christian era. — Chroii. of
Hist., 17.

5i2 APPENDIX i

feature of the new scheme was that the numbers were written from right to
left, instead of in the usual manner of left to right according to the decimal
system.

Years. — The Bnhaspali Chakra or Cycle of Jupiter, of 60 years, is the
common and general mode of reckoning. Each year has a special name
{see below), which alone it is usual to mention, without its number according
to any era.

The year commences with new moon in Chaitra, which falls in March. J
It is divided into 12 lunar months (for names see p. 10 1), of 30 and 29 daysl
alternately, making altogether 354 days. As this is eleven days less thanl
the solar year, the Chandramd,na or luni-solar calendar was invented to
reconcile the difference. For this purpose a cycle of 19 solar years was
adopted as being equal, or nearly so, to 235 lunations, and in each cycle of
19 years there are added seven intercalary months, namely, in the 3rd, 5th,
8th, nth, 14th, i6th, and 19th years. The name and position of the
intercalary month are determined in the following manner : — When two
new moons fall within the same solar month, the corresponding lunar
month is repeated. The extra month is placed before the ordinary one and
called by the same name, but distinguished as adhika, or added, the normal
month being called the nija or true one.'

Each month is divided into iwo paks/ia—ih.& s'ukla paksha, or s'ltdda, the
bright fortnight from new moon to full moon ; and the krishna paksha or
bahula, the dark fortnight from full moon to new moon. Each paksha
contains 15 tithi or lunar days, which are reckoned from amdvdse (new
moon), or purnanii (full moon), as the case may be. The dajs of the
week are named from the planets, on the usual system. The day of 24
English hours is divided into 60 ghalige or Indian hours, each equal to 24
minutes : 7^ ghalige or 3 English hours make one Jama or watch.

As Marsden has said {N'nm. Or.), many Eastern nations, as well as the
Greeks and Romans, have been in the practice of expressing numbers, and
dates in particular, by means of letters of the alphabet, to each of which a
certain value is assigned. These may be either employed simply like other
ciphers, or, being distributed among the words of a sentence, may form
what is called a chronogram. In carrying out the system the Arabs did
not adhere to the direct order of the letters in their own alphabet as it now
exists, but followed the old order of the Hebrew alphabet. They thus
formed the scheme called abjad from the first four letters, a, b,J, d. Tipu
Sultan at first followed this system, which is universally employed by the
Muhammadans, but four years afterwards introduced one based on the
order of the letters in the modern Arabic alphabet, which was therefore, on
a similar principle, called abtas, but named by himself zar. Recognising,
at the same time, some advantage in the Hindu cycle of sixty years, he
invented names for them, formed at first according to the abjad, and four
years afterwards according to the abtas, the addition of the numerical value
of the letters in which (except for the first and second years) gave the
number of the cycle year.

' Sec Cunningham's Boo/: of Indian Eras.

CYCLE OF YEARS

813

For convenience of reference the following list is inserted of the Hindu
names, together with Tipu's names for the same.' The cycle now current
began in March 1867 A.D.

Names of Years.

Sultdni

Suliiini

No.

Hindu.

No.

Hindu

by abjad.

by abtas.

by abjad.

by abtas.

Prabhava

ahad

Hevilambi

kiya

zdr

Vibhava

ahniad

ah mad

^'ilamb^

kaln'id

buzar

S'ukla

ab^

\'ikari

aljal

zar.-il)

I'ramoduta

alxi

aba

' 34

S'arvari

dil

said

Prajoti^atti

baba

bah

Plava

dal

zandb

A'ngirasa

baja

tab

S'ul)hakrit

jabal

rabtar

S'rimukha

abad

taba

S'olihakrit

zaki

sakh

Bhava

abad

baja

Krodhi

azal

sakha

Vuva

jah

taj

^'is'vavasu

jalu

dardz

Dhatu

auj

tabat

Paral)hava

dalu

da.sad

I 's' vara

haj

aliad

Plavanga

sha

Bahudhanya

jaliad

adal)

Kilaka

kabak

sdra

Pramathi

jahad

bar

Saumya

jam

sardl}

Vikrama

vajah

hajib

Sadharana

jam

shitd

Vishu

yad

jar^

\'ir()dhikrit

adam

zaljarjad

Chitral)hanu

zahad

rija

Paridhavi

vali

sahar

Svaljhdnu

jauzah

har

Praniadicha

vali

sdhar

Tarana

haiy

dar

A'nanda

kaukab

rdsikh

Parthiva

viihid

dar

Raksha.sa

kavakab

shdd

Vyaya

Iniduh

rahat

Nala

yam

hard.sal

Sarvajit

tayab

Ijarid

Pingala

davam

sdz

Sarvadhari

tayab

charkh

Kalayukti

hamd

shdddb

Virodhi

yauz

khirai

Siddharthi

hamid

barish

Vikriti

kad

tdz

Raudri

jan

rasldr

Khara

havi

khirad

Durmali

odan

bushtar

Nandana

kaljad

badarlab

Dundubhi

hamayi

bashdrat

Vijaya

dgah

dartaj

Rudhirodgari

majid

sharah

Jaya

vahid

dadar

Raktakshi

kohal

rashad

Manmatha

yahi

zad '

Krodhana

jahan

saliah

Durmukhi

kaiy

zar

Kshaya

majiz

irshdd

Tipii Sultan s Names for the Months.

(By abjad) ahniadi lialidri j'dfari ddrdi hdshami vas'di zabarjadi liaidari tului yusufi
yczidi baydsi.

(By abtas) ahmadi balidri takhi sliumii j'dfari haidari khusravi diiii zakiri rahnidiii
rdzi rubdni.

I But as his system did not ovitiast him, and he reigned for only seventeen years,
the names actually used are only the four from zaki to dalu of the abjad and the
thirteen years .f//rt to (^rtr/.f/i of the ablas. The former are 119710 1200 Hijri, and
the latter 121 5 to 1227 Mauludi.

ADDENDA et CORRIGENDA

Page
I

line
17

65 15

66 Note '

104
180

194
205

14
14

After " scale " add, " The exact area by Revenue survey is 18,795,075
acres, or 29,367 square miles 195 acres."

With reference to "general dryness," add (as foot-note), '"The relative
mean annual humidity of the Mysore State is given as 66 by Mr.
Blanford."

Add, "After all the other factors have been considered, the jxDsition
of the year in the sun-spot cycle may be taken as an index of the
steadiness or variability of its general characteristics. Thus, in years
of maximum sun-spot the monsoon is distributed more evenly, and
local anomalies are less exaggerated. The years about the epoch t f
minimum are characterised by greater local contrasts and irregulari-
ties."— Douglas Archibald, in Nature, 1896.

After "31 Dec. 1881," add, "at about 7 A.M. There was also an
earthquake at Bangalore on the 13th April 1882, at 9.30 I'.M.

With reference to " nakshatras," add (as foot-note), "•'The leading
stars {yoga) of the nakshatras correspond with the following stars in
European catalogues : —

Rcgulus
;3 Leonis
Denib

13. 5 Corvi

14. Spica
Arcturus
24 Libri
j8 Scorpii
Anlares.

206. Also sec IV, 150, and XIV, 43

1. jS Arietis.

2. 35 Arietis

3. 7j Tauri

4. Aldel)aran

5. 1 16 Tauri

6. 133 Tauri

7. Pollux

8. 5 Cancri

9. 49 Cancri

K. L. Chatre, in Ind. Ant.

10.
II.
12.

15-
16.

17-
18.

III.

19.

34 Scorpii

20.

5 Sagittarii

21.

(f) Sagittarii

22.

Altair

23-

0 Dclphini

24.

X Aquarii

25-

Markab

26.

Alpherab

27-

f I'iscium

15 Add, " 1892 . . . 5-01 ; 1S93 • • • 5"39-"
Note ' Add, " And at the end of 1895, his successor, the Earl of Elgin, visited
the keddahs."
13 After " the lasar silkworm," add, ^'(anthema paphia)."
38 To "river Krishna," add (as foot-note), "^Thc llullu is also called
Gauli ; and the Chokatu or Chakati is also called Choli and Chuli."

208 15 To " Australia," a<ld (as foot-note), "Professor Huxley observed, in
his paper on ' The Geographical Distribution of the Chief Motlilica-
lions of Mankind' {four. Ethuol. Soc), that 'the intligcnous popu-
lation of Australia jircsents one of the liest marked of all the tyjies or
princi|)al forms of the human race' ; a description of which he gives,
founded on their jihysical characters alone, and goes on to state that
the group to which he gives the name of Australoid is not confined
to that continent only, but includes the 'so-called hill tril)es who
inhaljit the interior of the Dekhan in Hindustan.' To these he adds
the Ancient Eg)i)tians and their modern descendants."

208 21 To " South of Europe," add (as foot-note), " As our knowledge of the
Ilamitic aborigines increases, it becomes more and more evident that
the North African and European i>eoples belong fundamentally to
the same jirimitive stock, which had its origin nmre probably in the
south than on the north si<le of the Mediterranean. I-"r<>m this
cradlelanil of the highest division of mankind the race sj^read itself
eastwards through Egypt to Asia . . . and northwards across then
continuous land to Europe in com]xiny with the late pliocene and
early pleistocene African fauna. — .\. H. Kcane, in Academy, 7 Mar.
1896.''

Page

line

209
212
218

Note -
Note*
Note '

223

236
240
287
292

19
39

17
7

293

294

294
300

26
6

816 ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA

Alter authority to " Beames, Comp. Gram., Intro, xi."

Add, " Hale paiki might also, perhaps, mean ' the old lot.' "

For " the number" (I. l), read "the increase from 1801 to 1804."

To " luxury," add (as foot-note), " The origin of the Panchalas, or five

castes of skilled artificers, should he considered as an escape of Jaina ,

artificers from destruction ])y assuming a seml>lance to their Saivitej

persecutors. — Sir Walter Elliot, S. I. Coins, 38."

For " from Madhva," read " from Madhva."

For " Sriangam," read " Srirangam."

I'^or " Chanda Gupta," read " Chandra Gupta."

To " Godavari," add (as foot-note), "The two branches of the Goda-I
vari, where the river divides to form the Delta, are still distinguished]
by the names of the two great queens, the northern as the Gautami,
and the southern as the \'as'ishthi. — Elliot, S. I. Coins, 21."
To " coronation," add (as foot-note), " Later discoveries throw doubt

on this, Dr. Biihler thinks.^ — See Academy, 2 May 1896."
For "S'ungakam," read " rajjukam," and omit the sentence which

follows.
For "name defaced," read "named S'iva . . . varma."
For "he gave up his life," ike, read " a prince named S'ivananda-
varma, whose territory had been laid waste, retired from the
world."

302 20 To " Vijayaditya II." add (as foot-note), " He was also called Pugul-

vippavar-Ganda, His son Lataraja Vira-Chola was ruling in 992. —
Ep. Ind., IV,' 138."

303 2 For "Vajrahastu," read "Vajrahasta."

312 Note® After " Kitthipura," add "(which I have now identified with Kittur

in Haggadadevankote taluq). "
215 4 To " Rachamalla," add (as foot-note), "According to an inscription

found in North Arcot, he was the son of a Rana Vikrama. — Ep.

hid., IV, 140."

316 20 To " Kalinga-nagara," add (as foot-note), "Identified wiih Mukha-

lingam, about 20 miles from Parlakimedi, on the left bank of the
Vams'adhara. — See j5/>. Ind., IV, 188."

317 12 To ''Jantavura," add (as foot-note), " Probably Jayantapuram, another
name for Kalinganagara. /.c."

For "Chalukyas," read " Chalukyas " throughout this section.

For "Rajendra, Rajadhiraja, 1016-1064," read " Rajendra-Chola ion,

Rajadhiraja 1045, Rajendra-Deva 105 1."
For "east" (1. 3) read "west" ; and for "west" (1. 4) read "east."
After " Kenchengod," add "or Chikkanhalli."
For "Schwartz," read "Swartz."
For " W. Schwartz," read " F. C. Swartz."
For " fastened in," read "fastened on."
After " Mahrattas," read "whom he finally crushed by defeating-

Holkar in the decisive battle of Mehidpur, and afterwards received

the surrender of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao."
Casamaijor, also spelled Casamajor.
After "1805," add (as foot-note), "The founder of the family in

Mysore was Bistappa Pandit from Satara, who was the father of

Rama Rao."
429 23 To "Divan," add (as foot-note), " This was Venkatramanaiya to the

14th May 1832, and then Babu Rao till the 19th April, 1834. The

Commissioners, it appears, had originally intended to leave in the

Divan's hands almost as much power as he had under the Raja,

but the Governor-General did not concur in this view of their

duties."

444 16 After "Sept. 1895." read "to Dec. 1S96. Colonel Donald Robert-

son . . . Dec. 1896."

445 15 After "appointed," read "In Dec. 1896, he was nominated Lieutenant-

Governor of the Punjab, and Colonel Donald Robertson, Resident at
Gwalior, succeeded him in Mysore."

327

Zll

336

Note

363

392

396

416

423

426

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 817

Page line

445 17 After "experience," add (as foot-note), "Colonel Henderson was
created C.S.I, in 1876; Mr. Lee-Warner in 1S92, and Mr. Mack-
worth Voiing in 1890."

449 Note' Add at the end, " Tutor and Governor."

458 Note^ After " Thibaut," insert "and Professor Whitney," add at the end
"361."

504 31 for "about the same time " read " in 1838."

505 Note- Add"iniS47."

524 24 After "other parts" add, "The total output for I S95 in India was
248,885 ounces, of which Mysore ]>roduced 246,758."

527 4, 10 Add {as foot-note), "The highest prices quoted for Mysore and Cham-
]Mon Reef were 8J and 8| in 1S96."

527 tal)le Add a column for 1896 —

Mysore ... ... ... ... ... 104,934

Urigam ... ... ... 65,5So

Nundydroog ... .. ... ... 44,925

Champion Reef ... ... ... ... 85,928

Others '4.373

590

593

691

745

747

Total ozs. ... 315,740

52S table Add amount jiaid in dividends in 1896, ^"499, 625.
539 21 After " years," add (as foot-note), " In Feb. 1894 it was formed into a
new Company, called the Mysore .Spinning and Manufacturing
Company, and paid dividends of 4^ per cent, in 1895 ^.nd 6 per cent.
in 1896."
After '■'■ Ekkada chiiTadi" add (or more probably Lekkada chilvadi)."
For " 1648 to 1670" read " 1645 ^" 1660."
Insert ^ at beginning of line.
After "also" insert "and at p. 642."

After " 1854," add (as foot-note), " Dr. Duff and Mr. Marshman
worked out the educational portion of their statements before the
(Parliamentary) Committee in a form which Lord Xorthbrook, then
the President's private secretary, embodied in a Slate ]iaper. That
was sent out to the Marquis of Dalhousie in the memorable Desixitch
of July 1854, signed by the Directors of the Fast India Company.
Dr. DufFs handiwork can be traced not only in the definite orders,
but in the very style of what has ever since been pronounced the
great educational charter of the people of India." — Geo. Smith's Life
of Dr. Duff, II, 245.
750 22 After "Survey Department," add (as foot-note), " What John Knox
and his associates did for Scotland in 1560. He ( ? Dr. DufT) urges
(in 1841) that the same means which the Scottish Parliament then
decreed, be a<lopted by the Indian Government, in levying a scho<iI
cess on the land tax, as a road cess had even then begun to l)e levied.
. . . Such a cess was raised first in Hi)ml)ay. and then by the late
Earl of KcUie in a district in Central India, till now it is exacted all
over India." — ih. I, 437.

INDEX

Adbas Khi'i.i Kuan, 372
Abbasi-Persian, 538
Ablje Dubois, 483
Abdalis, 379
Alxlul P'azI, 290
Abdul Hakim Khan, 383
Abdul Rasul Khan, 372
Abilur Razzak, 350
Abc'icronil))-, General, 405,

406, 407
Abhinianyu, 285
Abhinava Ketala Devi,

Abhinava IMangaraja, 500
Abhinava Panipa, 499
Abhinava S'arvavarma, 499
Achyugi Dcva, 330
Achyuta Kaya, 353
Adam, Right Hon. W. P.,

Adil Shahi Kings, List of,

Adityanagara, 278
A'dityavarnia, 323, 333
Adoni, 357, 358, 381, 489
Adrisai^i^a, 501
^'^sculapian rod, 454
Afghanistan, 759
Agastya, 272
Aggala, 499
Agiii, 280, 469
Agnimilra, 291
Agund)i ghat, 5, 739
A'havamalla, 307, 328, 329
Ahichchatra, 216, 298, 464
Ahichchatrapura, 309
Ahmadnagar, 350, 479
Alinied Khan, 610
,, Shah, 350
Ahobala, 474
Ahvali Ilaidar Naik. 397
Aigur, 36S, 419
Aindra-dhvaja-puja, 309
Ainslie, 17
Ajanta, 319, 323
Ajatasatru, 466
iVjini|Hir, 8
Aiijialli, 43
Ajmere, 445

Akalanka, 461, 465, 471,

746
Akalavarsha, 312, 326, 498
Akl)ar, 290

Akhxmenian Period, 491
Akkadian fasii, 209
Alasingarya, 501
A'lattur, 313

Ala-ud-Din, 341, 343, 479
Alberuni, 489
Alinujuerque, 482
Alexander the (Ireat, 277,

287, 293, 519
Alexandria, 353
Alfred the C.reat, 481
Ali Adil Shah, 354

,, Barid Shah, 354

,, Rrija, 383
Allahabad, 281, 759
A'luvas, A'lu]xis, 319, 323
A'iva, 336
A'lvakheda, 336
Amaiii Konda, 32
^Vniara Prabhu, 27S
Aniaravali, 465
Amaru, 471
Ambaji durga, 1 1
Ambav.-idi, 317
Ambera, 323
Ainbikadevi, 328
Ambur, 385, 403
•\nierica. North, 488

Vmir Khusru, 344, 348
Aniitrachades, 288
Aniitraghata, 288
Animanavaru 456
Amnianga, 334
Anioghavarsha, 313, 315,

326, 497
Aniritapura, 471
Anuirath, 388
Anaji, 796
Anamalai, 9

Ananga Hhinia Deva, 317
Ananlapur, 2, 38, 399, 489
Anantavarma, 317
Ananlesvara. 477
Andaman Islands, 769
Andhari, 313

A'ndhra, 4SS, 799
Andhrabhritya, 292, 303
Andhraka, 278
A'ndhras, 291
Anegundi, 277, 345, 355
Anekal, 4, 5
Anekatte, 6
Anekonda, 60
Anemale, 369
Anga, 325
Angadi, 335
Angas, 463
Anhalvara, 527
Anicuts, 741
Aniruddha, 301
Ankanhalli, 4S, 49
Annapjja, 427
Anniga, 307
Annigeri, 331
Antarasante, 70
Antonia, 797
Anyadcs'ya, 494
Apabhrams'a, 494
Apapajniri, 465
Apelles, 519
Appaji Ram, 384
Appaya Dikshiia. 353
Arabia, 345, 410, 479
Arabian Sea, 4
A'radhya, 332

,, Hrahman, 476
A'raga, 347
Aramaic, 491
A'rali Kanike, 653
Arava, 4S8
Arcot. North, 2
Ardashir, 304
Arddha-.Magadhi, 463
Ardhamansa, 690
Ardha Nemi, 499
Ardhayaswasti, 690
Arga, 657

Ariakc (.Maharashtra), 292
Arikcri, 405
Arikesari, 498
Ari rayavibhaila, 346
AriU<'> Ncini, 509
.Xriya-l'illai, 341
.\rjuna, 280, 281. 49S
;? G 2

820

INDEX

Aikali,nul, 70
Arkavati, 4, 273
Arkotar, 363
Armenia, 6
Arsacidre, 304, 320
Arsacidan I'artliians, 303
Arsakes, 293, 303
Arsikere, 57, 486, 797
Artabanus, 293
Artaxerxes, 304
Arthur, Captain, 17
Aryans, 209
Asanivega, 278
Asnaper, 538
As'oka, 210, 458, 459, 466,

491
As'oka-vardhana, 289
Assam, 445
Assyria, 6
Asiiras, 271
As'va sena, 464
Asvattha, 455
Atharvani, 299
Athens, 515
Atthavane, 579, 582
Attikuppa, 17
Auckland, Lord, 430
Augustus, 797
Aurangzel, 295, 358, 520
Auvergne, 29
Avadhuta, 478
Avamukta, 281
Avanashi, 376
Avani, 32, 479
Avinita, 312
A'yagar, 579
Ayakota, 402
Ayangadi, 575, 641
Ayaputa, 572
Ayodhya, 276, 319, 330,

471
Ayyana, 324, 327
Ayyankere, 7
Ayyapa Deva, 307

Baba Budan Hills, 8, 10
Babhruvahana, 280, 282
Babylon, 6, 538
Babylonia, 51 1
Badagas, 211,213, 508
Badami, 273, 319, 321, 400
Badarikasrama, 477
Baddega, 315
Baddiga, 326
Bagepalli, 16, 21
Baghdad, 445
Baginad Seventy, 315
Bahmani Sultans, List of,

347
Bahrein, 209
Baillie, Colonel, 393
Bail shime, 3
Bama-Devi, 464

Bairandurga, 1 1
Baird, General, 414
Bajcbal), 612
15akar Sahib, 630
Bakasura, 273
Baktria, 287, 293
Bakr-id, 480
BaLiditya, 317
Balagami, 454, 465, 513
Balam, 218. 602
Bale aras, 630
Balehalli, 476
Balery, 37
Balharas, 325
Bali, 475
Balldla, 337
Ballalrayan-durga, 4, 9, 10,

382
Ballenahalli, 50
Bana, Banas, 298, 333, 796
,, Kings, List of, 302,

311
Banadhiraja, 302
Banasura, 301
Banat marl betta, 1 1
Banavar, 20, 34, 357, 55 1
Banavase, Banavasi, 23,

277, 295, 315, 330,

331-338.459,490,574
Bandelkhand, 331
Bandhuvarma, 500
Bandipur, 69
Bangalore, 5, 21, 24, 34,

37,38
BaniVisaji Bandit, 218
Bankapura, 338, 339, 349
Bankot, 358
Bannerghatta, II, 16
Bannur, 413

Barabaluti, 575, 579, 616
Baragyza, 209
Baramahal, 218, 357, 368
Barkalur, 357
Barmagiri, 1 1
Baroda, 438, 445
Barth, A., 468, 481
Basalat Jang, 381, 388
Basava, 332, 476
Basavanka, 500
Basavapatna. 8
Basavappa Nayak, 594
,, Sastri, 502
Basavaraj-durga, 279, 382,

385
Bassora, 401
Bauddhalaya, 465
Baudhayana, 210
Bayalnad, 336
Bazodeo, 293
Beccaria, 632
Beder, 489

Bednur, 295, 382, 602
Beejanuggur, 348

Begur, 16, 285

Bchar, 287, 465

Behistun, 493

Belagami, 281

Belavadi, 36

Belgaum, 476

Belgumba, 57

Belladaira, 33

Bellary, 2, 21

Belli betta, 17, 54, 55
I Belligudda, 50
I Bellur, 33

j Belur, 5, 470, 514, 518
j Belvola, 315

Benares, 465

Benkipur, 39, 40

Bentinck, Lord Wm. , 428,
I 639

Berar, 350
i Beresford, General, 43, 525

Berki Venkata Rao, 373

Bernard, Sir Charles, 445

Betarayan hills, 4
' Betmangala, 32, 33, 34

Betrayan-Konda, 11

Bettada Chama-Raja, 364

Bettadakote, 336, 337, 363

Bettadpur, 365

Bettadpura hill, 10

Betur, 342

Bhadra, 4, 60

Bhadrabahu, 287, 796, 797

Bhagadatta, 309

Bhagala-devi, 328
; Bhagiratha, 299

Bhairava, 469

Bhanuvarma, 299

Bharadvaja, 303
\ Bharata, 210

Bharata-varsha, 210

Bharavi, 313, 496, 497

Bhargavapuri, 276
j Bharhut, 291
I Bhasha Bhushana, 499
I Bhaskara-Kavi, 500^]

Bhattacharya, 471 " '

Bhattakalanka, 462, 496,

^?\
Bhavani, 360, 469

Bhelupura, 464

Bhillama, 342

Bhilsa, 291

Bhima, 26, 281, 324, 327,

332, 358

,, Danayak, 336

,, Kavi, 500
Bhiman katte, 281
Bhoja Raja, 327
Bhujaga, 312
Bhulokamalla, 330
Bhuvanaikamalla,'329
Bhuvikrama, 3o6,''3i3
Bibi-betta, 11

INDEX

821

Bidar, 350, 354

liijanaj^ar, 345

Bijapur, 295, 319, 350,

357, 399. 479
Bijeyilta Banarasa, 302
Bijjala, 331, 332, 459
,, Devi, 340, 341
Biligirirangan hills, 3, II
Bindusara, 289
Bira Mahendra, 307
,, Nolamba, 307
Birdwood, Sir (ieorge, 537
Bisale (Ihat, n, 337
Bisnagar, 345
Bitti Deya, 337
Bula Chama Raja, 365
Bombay, 46, 78, 319, 555
Bommarasa, 500
Bontha-devi, 327
Boiitta, 288
Bowling, Mr. L. B. , 434,

675, 796
Bowringpet, 4, 37, 43
Brachmanes, 288
Brahma, 469
Brahmagiri, 1 1
Brahmanemidalta, 471
Brahnianism, 458
Brahmi lipi, 491
Brailhwaile, Colonel, 394,

415
Brihadratha, 289, 291
Broach, 209
Buchanan, Dr., 5, 191,

419, 505, 520
Ikiddha, 321, 458
Budi Basavap[)a, 426
Budikole, 32, 372
Biihler, Dr., 329, 458,491,

572
Bukka, 344, 346
Bukkapalna, 76
Bukka Rriya, 347
Buonajiarle, 41 1
Burma, 445
Ikirnell, Dr., 481
Bussy, M., 374, 398
Butarasa, 315
Ikituga, 315, 326, m
Butugahalli, 526

C>ESAR, FrEDERIKE, 355
Caldwell, Dr., 488
Caligula, 797
Campl)ell, Dr., 433, 624
Canara, i, 2, 32
Canarijs, 488
Candachar, 428
Candahar, 762
Cannanore, 755
Canning, Lady, 433
Carnatic I

Carnatic Bijapur I'ayan-

ghat, 359
Carwar, 489
Casamaijor, Mr. J. A., 423,

504
Castes, list of, 266
Cawnpore, 759
Celtic, 493
Ceylon, 274, 318, 382, 465,

515
Chaitanya, 243, 318, 460,

478
Chaki Raja, 314, 325
Chakra, 508
Chakragolta, 337
Chakrantikam, 243
Chalas'eravi, 340
Chaldean, 213
Challakeri, 508
Chalukya, 281, 295, 332
Chalukyahharana, 320
Chalukyas, 316, 319, 796

,, Eastern, List of,
321

,, Western, List of,
320, 324, 327
Chama Riijendra, 435
Chiimarasa, 500
Chamhal, 489
Champakanagara, 281
Chanunula Ra)a, 316,461,

498
Chamundi, i, 456

,, hill, II, 47
Chanakya, 287
Chandadanda, 300, 305
Chandagal, 413
Chandala-devi, 330
Chandanavati, 284
Chanda Sahib, 480
Chandika, 307
Chandra, 497
Chandrabhalta, 497
Chandraditya, 323
Chamlradona, 339
Chandra-giri, 287, 355,356,

460, 511
Chandra (aipta, 287, 289,

458, 510, 797
Chandragulti, 10, 18, 276,

346, 428
Chandrahasa, 283
Chandralekha, 330
Chandramanam, 102
Chandramauli, 499
C-handrangada, 29S
Chandrapur, 280
Chandrar.-ija, 499
Chandrasena, 298
Chandravali, 293
Chandravarma, 296
Changama, 403
Channarayan durga, 1 1

Channarayapalna, '■^l

Chajiuis, 41 1

Charmanvali, 489

Charukirti Pandilacharya,
461

Charu I'unnera, 307

Chashtana, 292

Chaturapana, 292

Chaturbhaga, 687

Chaundardja, 500

Chedi,'326, 330, 331

Chensabaras, 304

Chensuars, 304

Chikka-Deva Raja, 365,
366
,, Kampana, 347
,, Krishna arasu, 435
„ Raya, 357

„ Odeyar, 347
,, Somala-devi, 341
,, Somasekhara, 593

Chikk6]iadhyaya, 501

Chiknriyakanhalli, 15, 38,
47, 62, 317

China, 78, 353

Chingalpat, 356

Chinkurali, 387, 405

Chinnammaji, 593

Chintamani, 303

Chiranhalli, 59

Chitaldroog, 11, 18, 36

Chiirakantha, 323

Chitrakot, 464

Chitraki'ita, 325

Chitrangada, 280, 283

Chitravati, 4

Choda, 333

Chokalu, 204

Chola, 20S, 217, 287, 323,
333, 460, 796

Chola-danga, 317

Chola Kings, List of, },})},

Chota Raja Khan, 630

Chotnare Maradi, 58

Chi'idamani, 496

Chulaka, 320

Chuluka, 320

Chunchanakatte, 479

Chunchangiri, S, 1 1

Churchuvaytla, 312

Chutia Nagpur, 215

Claudius, 797

Cleghorn, Dr., 676

Clive, 373

Close, Colonel Barry. 417.
760

Coancancul I'cak, 3S

Cochin, 401

Coimbatore, 2, 402, 4S2,
489

Cole, Hon. Arthur IL, 423

Colossus of Rhodes, 509

Comorin, Cai>c, 1,318

822

INDEX

Conjcs-cram, 442, 474
Ciinsla-ntiiiople, 401
Coorg, 2, 34, 35, 316,484,

735
Coote, Sir Eyre, 393
Cornwallis, Lord, 403, 601
Corracle, 6
Corraigh, 6

Cosmos Indicopleustes, 481
Cranhorne, Lord, 435
Cranganore, 402, 471, 481
Cul)bon, Sir Mark, 199,

428, 550
Cuddalore, 4
Cumtee Wallahs, 610
Cunningham, General, 291
Curliiis, 308
Cust, Mr., 491
Cuttack, 353, 478

DaDHIMUKHA - PARVATA,
279

Dadiga, 309

Dahala, 331

Daksha, 469

Dalavayi, 319

Dalhousie, Lord, 430, 521,

674
Dalyell, Mr. R. A., 439, 704
Damodara, 299
Danaikankote, 365
Danarnava, 317
Danayaks, 336
Dandaka, 276
Dandakaranya, 271
Dandanayaka, 573
Dankanachari, 513
Dannayaka, 573
Dantiga, 307, 325
Dantidurga, 324, 325
Dariya Daulat, 378, 521,

741
Dartmoor, 18
Dasanapura, 303, 305
Dasappaji, 630
Das'aratha, 276, 289, 291
Dasarhosahalli, 32
Das'avarma, 328
Dasoji, 510
Dattatreya, 273, 275
Daulatabad, 342, 344, 358
Daulat Bagh, 413
Davangere, 60, 342, 539
Davasi-betta, 337
Day, Captain, 523
de Kritto, 482
De Havilland, 522
Dehra Dun, 773
Deimachos, 288
Dekhan, 319, 324
Delhi, 345, 439
Deniiimbika, 347
Depa, 501

Der Mokh, 212
Deshayis, 575

,, of Nargund, 399

Deshkulkarni, 588
Deshmuki, 589, 61 1
Deshpande, 588, 61 1
Des'ya, 494

Devagiri,33l, 342,343,479
Devaiya, 387

Devala-mahadevi, 340, 341
Devambika, 307
Devanam I'iye, 290, 291
Devapjm (iauda, 652
Devar Makkalu, 212, 652
Deva Raja, 348
Devara])uri, t,2>^
Deva Raya, 479
Devarayadurga, 11, 45
Devar betta, 10
Devarddhiganin, 463
Devas, 271
Devavarma, 299
Devavrinda, 652
Devendra, 316
Devereux, Hon. Mr., 747
Deviramnianagudda, 10
Devoja, 514, 515
Dewul Roy, 349
Dhanakataka, 292
Dhananjaya, 308
Dhara, 337
Dharana, 464
Dharanidhara, 464
Dharanikotta, 292
Dharapuram, 365
Dharavarsha, 314, 325
Dharmamrita, 499
Dharwad, 331
Dharwar, 2, 36, 320, 460
Dhavala Kirtti, 278
Dhora, 325
Dhruva, 325
Dhundia Wahag, 419
Dibgiri, 11
Digambara, 244, 462
Dilavar Khan, 520
Dilipayya, 307
Di4mun, 209
Dindigal, 375
Divabbarasi, 307
Dobbs, General, 432
Dod Ballapur, 317
Dodbele, 5
Dodda betta, 1 1
Dodda Deva Raja, 365
Doddaiya, 368
Doddiganahalli, 38
Dodrampur, 50, 62
Dokkal konda, 1 1
Doni, 6

Dorapayya, 315
Dorasamudra, 331, 336,

341. 479 I

t Doshe, no
Dost AH Khan, 371
Doveton, Major, 411
Draupadi, 280, 281
Dravida, 488
Dravidian, 209, 492
Dridha|)rahara, 342
Druhyu, 210
Dubois, A])be, 483
Duljuc, 41 1
Dufferin, Karl of, 448
Duggamara, 314
Di'ipa, 70
Durga, 456

Durvinita, 305, 313, 496
Dushta buddhi, 283
Dushyanla, 209, 210
Dvajjara, 286
Dvaraka, 209, 301, 361
Dvarapuri, 336
Dvarasamudra, 336
Dvaravati, 336, 342
Dviparadana, 279

Echala-Devi, y:,-j, 339
Edessa, 481

Edicts of Asoka, 333, 796
Edoardo Barbessa, 353
Egypt, 293, 411,491, 509
Elgin, Lord, 434, 449
Elles'a Vijaya, 223
Elliot, Sir Charles, 440

,, Walter, 488,

510, 799
Ellora, 344, 511, 512
EUore, 320

Elphinstone, Lord, 424
Elura, 325

Enniskillen, Earls of, 423
Epiphanius, 481
Erambarige, 299
Ereyanga, 337
Ereyappa, 307, 315
P>idu, 209
Erode, 365
Esarhaddon, 538
Ethiopian, 213
Euphrates, 209, 210, 320,

401
Eusebius, 481
Ezra, Book of, 538

FaTTEH MUHA.MMAI), 37I

Fattepet, 428
Faujdar Divan, 361
Fazal-ulla-Khan, 379, 385
Fergusson, Dr., 322, 454,

475. 509. 510, 514
Ferishta, 347, 355, 800
Finnish, 492, 493
Firoz Shah, 348, 479
Fitzpatrick, Mr., 445
Floyd, Colonel, 402, 415

INDEX

Foote, Mr. R. Bruce, 17,

36, 526, 774
Foulkes, Rev. T. , 301
France, 78
Fraser, Colonel J. S., 429

,, Mr. S. M., 449
Fraserpet, 755
French Rocks, 1 1
Fuzzul Oollah, 350

Gada-vuddha, 498
Gaja-bentikara, 351
Gajalhatti, 27, 311, 375,

402, 489
Gajapatis, 317
Gajas'astra, 314
Gajashtaka, 314
Gama, 482, 524
Gamut, 524
Ganapali, 342
Gandhara, 289
Gandhari-devi, 308
Ganes'a, 469
Ganga, 217, 316, 325

,, Kings, List of, 311
Ganga dhvaja, 323
Gangadikara, 217
Gangaikonda Chola, 333
Gangaikondasolapuram,

329
Gangakunda, 329
Ganga Malava, 315
Ganganuila, 746
Ganga-pani, 81
Ganga Raja, 316, 318, 337
Gangaridic, 308
Gangas, 308, 323, 796
Gangavadi, 217, 316, m,

574
Ganges, 209
Gangeya, 309, 316
Gangu, 347
Ganjam, 316
Ganjikota, 372
Gargita, 4

Garrett, Rev. J., 486
(Jaruda, 475
Garudangiri, lO
Gauj, 285
Gaujri, 204
(jaula, 281
Gauraml)ika, 347
Gautama, 273, 465
(jaya, 471
George IV., 504
tlermany, 78
Gersappe, 502
(iersoppa, 279

Falls, 4, 35
Ghulam Ali, 410
Giijayanvaddargudi, 53
(lirdlestone, Mr., 444

Giridurgamalla, 331, 340

(iirigudda, 48

Goa, 300, 329, 337, 355,

476, 482
Godavari, 277, 320
Gokarna, 279 I

,, Svanii, 316
Golkonda, 350, 354
Gollarhalli, 15, 33, 57 |

Gomanta-guhe, 298 ]

Gomata, 316, 461, 498
Gomatesvara, 509
Gondophares, 293
Gopaka, 300
Gopal Hari. 376

,, Rao Hari, 218
Gopalswami Hill, 8, 11,

336
Gordon, Sir James. 440
Goribidnur, 323, 551
Gorresio, 469
Gotami, 304
Gotamiputra, 222, 292
Govardhanagiri, 10
Govinda, 307, 314, 324,

325

Govinda \ ogi, 471

Grama, 482, 524

Ciramya, 494

(Jrant, Sir J. 1'., 684

Gray, Mr. ,'392

Greece, 6

Green, Colonel, 738

Grishma rilu, 63

Grilsamada, 469

(iroves and Co. , 55'

GuddaRangavvanahalli, 50

Gudiljanda, 8, 1 1

(u'ldigar, 522

Guhasura, 273, 475

Guhesvara hetta, II

Guido d'Arez/.o, 524

(Aijarat, 315, 343,. 460

Gulam-Mohi-ud-iiin Mekrr,
I 630

I Gumhaz, 521

Gumiuanur, 52

Gunat)hadra, 497

Gunarnava, 317
j Ciunavarma, 499, 500
; Clundal, 4

Gundert, Dr., 488

Gundlupct, 8, 69

(luptas, 323

Guramkonila, 385, 406,

, 417

I Gurjaras, 325

Gurjjara, 315, 330
' Gulti, 370, 417, 489

Guzrati, 222

Gwalior, 43S

Hadi-naI', 361
Hagalvadi, 5, 201

Hills, 8, II
Hagari, 4
Haggari, 3S4
Ilaidar Ali, 5, 20, 295, 363,

377, 381, 417
Haidarabad, 179,319. 324>

489
Haidarghar, 398
Haidar-nagar, 382
Haiga, 276, 295
Haihaya, 323
Haihayas, 274, 295, 303
Haines, Colonel, 433, 437
Hainu, loi
Hakims, 610
Hakka, 344
Haja-Gannada, 490
Haiat, 625
Halebid, 5, 59. y:>(>> 5 '4.

797

Halekal, 51

Halekalgudda, 51

Halemakkal, 652

Hale I'aika, 212

Hallu-bandi, 736

Halsur belta, il

Ilaltibetta, 48

Hampe, 274, 277

Hamsa Dhvaja, 2S0
,, dvipa, 279
I Hanagal, 277, 281
I Hands, Rev. J., 4J^5

Hangal, 277
I Hangala, 366
' Ilankahi, 688

Hanumiin, 279

,, durga, 10

llanumappa Nayak, 520

Hanuruha dvii)a, 279

1 lanuvara, 279

Hara, 460

Hardanhalli, 373

Hardinge, l.ord, 43!

Hari, 460
' HarigoUi, 6

I Harihara, 345- 346, 422,
I 460, 475, 499. 553

Hariharesvar belta, 1 1
I Haripala, 344

Hari I'ant, 389

,, ,, I'urkia, 21S

Haris'chandra; 308

Hari Singh, 375
I Hariti, 293, 299, 320
I Harivams'a, 499
I Harivarma, 299, 31 1
I Harnhalli, 5, 526
I Har]xinahalli, 329, 400
I Harris, Cieneral, 417

] Harshavardhana, 321, 322
Has.in. 347

824

INDEX

Hassan, 56
Ilaslimalla, 301, 314
Ilastinapura, 345
Ilaslinavati, 345
Ilastivaniia, 281, 305
Haug, Dr., 481
Hawker, Major - General,

428
Hawkes, Captain H. P.,

801
Hazar Dinari, 343
Hel)bal, 775
Hebl)ar, 574
Hcblie betta, 10
Hedatala, 337
Heggadadevankote, 8, 69
Heggades, 648
Hejjaji, 317
Heleyabbe, 307
Hemakuta, 345
Hemanta ritu, (yT,
Hemasitala, 307, 461, 465
Hemavati, 33, 286, 470,

734
Henderson, Colonel, 445,

449
Henjeru, 286, 307
Heraiis, 293
Hermann, 509
Herodotus, 6
Hettege-nad, 652
Heyne, Dr., 66, 530
Hidimbasura, 273
Himalayas, 472
Hindu, I, 220
Hinduism, 468
Hire Chama Raja, 363
Hiremugalur, 276, 285, 454
Hiriya Madhava, 311
Hiriyur, 7
Hittu, no

Hiuen Tsiang, 306, 322
Hoblidars, 671
Hodson, Rev. T., 485, 486
Holalur, 460
Holgere, 47, 62, 526
Hole Honnur, 357, 406
Honavar, i ^ „

Honore, (279,347, 3S2
Honnali, 8, 36, 41, 42, 325
Honnamma, 501, 746
Honnamaradi, 51
Honnebagi, 49
Honnebetta, 48
Honnehatti, 61
Honnehattimaradi, 61
Honnu Hole, 4
Hornblende schist, 14, 15
Hosa-Gannada, 490
Hosakote,Kenchamman,33
Hosapattana, 346, 347
Hosdurga, 11
Hosur, 346, 365, 484, 486

Hoysala Kingdom, 338
,, Kings, List (jf, 336
,, Mahadevi, 336

Hoysalas, 295, 316, 331,
332, 335, 796

Hoysales'vara, 337, 514

Hubasiga, 298

Hudson, Mr., 683

Hugel, M., 380

Huggisiddankatte, 59

Hughes, Sir Edward, 393

Huliyar, 328

Hulyurdurga, 11, 365, 406

Ilumberstone, Colonel, 395

Humcha, 5, 308, 454, 455,
460

Hummel, 77

Hungarian, 493

Hunsur, 16, 345, 455, 544

554
Hunter, Sir W. W., 444,

505
Hus, 210

Husen Nizam Shah, 354
Hutri durga, 11, 18, 2,t,
Huvishka, 293
Hyslop, General, 760

Ibrahim adil Shah, 354
,, Kutb ,, 354
Ikhaku, 294
Ikkeri, 5, 279, 593
Ikshvaku, 308, 464
Ila, 334
Ilavala, 273
Iliad, 538
Ilvala, 273
Immadi Raja, 364
India, i, 521

,, Central, 31 1, 460

,, South, 46
Indore, 438
Indra, 278, 320, 324, 325,

327,
Indrabhuta, 465
Indra-giri, 461, 509
Indrayudha, 278
Indukanta, 319
Indus, 210
Inquisition, 482
Irattapadi, 328, 334
Ireland, 6

Iriva Nolamba, 307, 328
Isila, 290
Ispahan, 521
I'svara, 352
I'svarakavi, 500
I'svarapotaraja, 306
I'svara-vamsa, 307
Italy, 6
Itikal durga, 1 1

Ja(;ai)Ekamai.i.a, 328, 330 /
Jagadeva Raya, 356, 364

Rayal, 319
Jagalnr, 46

Jagannath, 318, 471, 478
Jagat Guru, 345, 475
Jagattunga, 326
Jaggay3a])eta, 294
Jaiiiiini liharata, 281, 501
Jaitugi, 340
JakaJjbe, 328
Jakanachari, 513
Jalal-ud-Din-Khilji, 343
Jalarpet, 36, 37
Jalebdars, 632
Jalgaranhalli, 56
Jamadagni, 275
Jamaica, 550
Jamali, 464
Jamljudvipa, 290
Janamejaya, 285, 454
Jangamkote, 4
Janivara, 241
Janna, 499
Jantavura, 317
Jatayu, 279
Jatinga Ramesvarahill, 1 1,

279
Java, 491
Jayabandhu, 497
Jayabbe, 307
Jayadaman, 292
Jayakes'i, 329
Jayanta, 296
Jayantipura, 295
Jayasimha, 320, 324, 327,

328, 330
Jenkal betta, 10
Jerome, 481
Jerusalem, 282
Jetti, 257
Jigani, 404
Jimuta-ketu, 278

,, -vahana, 27S
Jina, 458

Jinadatta, 454, 462
Jinasenacharya, 326
Jinendra, 310
Jinnagara, 37
Jug Deo Raj, 369
Junagadh, 304
Jupp, Stanley, 167

Kabhal-durga, ii, 371,

388
kabbani, 4, 5, 737
Kabir, 478

„ Beg, 379
Kabul, 293, 410
Kadaba, 49, 281
Kadale, 109, 128
Kadamba, 216, 277, 294,
796

INDEX

825

Kadamlm Raya, 576
Kadaml)as, 295, 321, 329
Kadanur Seventy, 317
Kadapa, 2, 370
Kadata, 503
Kadava, 340
Kadekalgudda, 49
Jvadiir, 39

Kaduvetli, 305, 306, 313
Kapur, 341
Kaikoya, 299
Kailancha, 371
KaiLisa, 325, 512
Kailasanalha, 305
Kai male, 657
Kakka, Kakkala, 327
Kakkaragond, 328
Kakustha, 299
Kalabhra, 323
Kakahhuris, 331
Kakihhuryas, 323
Kalachuii Kings, List of,

Kalachuris, 331
Kalachurya, 295, 319, 321,

323

Kalale Diddi, 414

Kalanjara, 331

Kalasoka, 466

Kakavar durga, 1 1

Kalhappira, 287

Kalhappu, 2S7

Kaklroog, 427

Kaklurga, 10

Kalliatti giri, 10

Kali, 456

Kalidasa, 210, 497

Kaligaiiahalli, 48

Kalinga, 290, 318
,, Gangas, 316
,, Nagara, 316

Kalinjara, 330

Kalleha, 347

Kalles'vara, 294

Kalliir (aidda, 308

J\alur \"ire Cjauda, 652

Kalvarangan hill, 10

Kalyana, 320, 328, 330,
331. 332, 476, 481

Kama, 499

Kamalahliava, 500

Kamaki-devi, 341

Kamamhika, 346

Kamandroog, 427

Kamarnava, 317

KaniMia, 314

Kambhaiya, 325

Kamhharasa, 325

Kamhoja, 338

Kdnihoias, 274

Kanimara, 222

Kamniar-iid-Din, 406, 413

Kammasandra, 273

j Kampa, 309, 346

Kamjiili, 328, 329
I Kamyaka, 281
' Kanaka, 501

Kanakavali, 298

Kanara, 460

Kanave, 163

Kanchi, 281, 303, 323, 340,
461
,, Meke, 207

Kanchipura, 338

Kandachar, 579, 604, 671

Kandahar, 445

Kandarpa Bhi'ishana, 298

Kandhara, 340, 342

Kandy, 307, 465

Kanerki, 293

Kangavarma, 299

Kangundi, 328

Kanha, 292

Kanishka, 299, 466

Kankanhalli, 8, 405

Kankankole, 179

Kankupi)a, 8

KankuiJ})a hill, 1 1

Kanna, 273

Kannamhadi, 405

Kannanur, 340

Kannara, 315, 326, 498

Kanlaka, 317

Kanlhirava Narasa Raja,
364. 637
Raja, 369

Kaiuinga, 589

Kani'ir-gana, 309

Kanva)ana, 310

Kanyakuhja, 308, 321, 330

Kapardi, 326

Kapi-dhvaja, 277

Kai>i Ketu, 278

Kapila-vaslii, 465

Kapile, 7

Kapputgodc, 36

Karachuri, 371

Kaiadi lielta, 10

Karadi giidda, 10

Karadihalli, 57, 62

Karag padi, 661

Karahata, 278

Karaka, C25

Karata, 276

Kargudari, 300

Karhad, 278

Karhata, 330

Karidurga, 34

KarigaHa, 1 1, 62

Karikala Chola, 474

Karimaddanhalli, 53

Karnajiarya, 499

Karna-suvarna, 210

Karnatas, 307

Karniii, 4, 347, 370, 760

Kartaviryarjuna, 275

Karungahalli, 361
Kashmir, 290
Kasmira, 289
Kasyapa, 275
Katarghalta, 54
Katavapra, 287
Kathari-saluva, 352
Kalhiawar, 209
Katmandu, 318
Kalti (jopalraj arasu, 435
Kaula Devi, 343
Kaurava, 31 1
Kaiisamhhi, 465
Kautilya, 287
Kavalediirga, 5, lo, 28 1,

399. 650
Kavera, 323
Kaveri, 2, 4, 734
Kaveripalam, 32, 403
Kavi Homma, 500
Kaviparimeshthi, 496
Kavirajamarga, 326, 496,

497
Kavisvara, 496
Kavyavalokana, 499
Kayamgiilta, 690
Kedara, 471
Keckiresvara, 513, 514
Kedarnath, 472
Keleyahhe, 337
Keleyala-Devi, 337
Kempe (iaiida, 370
Kemjiinkote, 55
Kemi>eiifelt, Admiral, 395
KemiHikal River, 15
Kenchengod, 363
Kengeri, 403
Kere I'admarasa, 499
Kerala, 209, 276, 281, 283,

323. ill
Keralas, 325
Kesimuja, 515
Kesirrija, 500
Khaharatas, 292
Khalihats, 735
Khande Rao, 374
Khanesluimari, 217
Kharavela, 292
Kharoshthi, 491, 572
Khasim Khan, 361,369,480
Khilji, 341
Khi/r Klian, 344
Khokhand. 293
Khorsidiad, 538
Khosru II, 322
Khushhash, 583
Kibhanhalli, 8
Kielhorn, Professor, 331
Kilimale, 31S
Killedar, 671
Kin-rhi-jni-l", 306
Kinilersley, Mr. J. R., 724
Kirata, 307

826

INDEX

Kiralarjuniyti, 313, 496
Kiii)a Maclliava, 311
Kirkpalrick, Ll.-Col., 417
Kirtivarma, 306, 319, 321,

323, 324, 327
Kishkindha, 274, 277, 278,

344. 345
KisukricI Seventy, 315
Kisuvulal, 497
Kittal-nad, 652
Kittel, Rev. !•"., 494, 504
Kitthipura, 312
Kittore, 760
Kittur, 400
Kodachaclri, 5, 10
Ivodikonda, 381
Kodu, loi
Kokanur, 322
Kola, 7
Kolahala, 316
Kolahalamnia, 276
Kolala, 209
Kolalapuia, 338
Kolar, 34, y]

,, Gold-field, 43, 44

,, Hills, II

,, Mines, 45
Kollegal, 484
Kolhapur, 332
Kols, 209
Konanur, 380
Kondada betta, 10
Kondapur, 5
Kongas, 217
Kongu, 337

Kongimivarma, 311, 328
Konkan, 326
Konkana, 276, 281, 336
Konkanas, 276
Konkanapura, 322
Kopal, 403
Kopana, 322, 497
Koppa, 69, 328
,, betta, II
,, durga, 10
Koparakesarivarma, 333,

334
Kortagiri, 5, 11
Kosala, 466
Kotas, 211
Kotemaradi, 50, 52
Kottayam, 481
Koula, 538

Kovirajakesarivarma, 334
Koyatur, 337
Koyundjik, 538
Krishna, i, 2, 4, 26, 315,

320, 324, 325, 340,

361, 478
Krishna II, 326

„ HI, 326, 327

giri, 44
Krishnamachari, 504

Krishnarajnct, 54
Krishna RajaVVodeyar, 449

,, Rao, 403

,, Rava, 352

Raya, 318, 352,

353
Krishnavarnia, 299
Kritavirya, 275
Kshatrapa Senas, 292
Kshatrapas, 292
Kshetravarma, 298
Kubattur, 283, 513
Kubja, 321
Kudalur, 475
Kudrikonda, 61
Kudumi, 274
Kudure Mukha, 10
Kukarhalli, 729, 769
Kulaipa, 304
Kulaketana, 303
Kulburga, 347
Kulinda, 284

Kulottunga Chola, 334, 335
Kumaraiya, 368
Kumarila Khatta, 459, 471
Kumara Valmiki, 501

,, Padmarasa, 500

,, Paika, 212

,, Vyasa, 501
Kumbhakona, 347
Kumri, 163, 688
Kumsi, 382
Kumudendu, 500
Kundagrama, 464
Kundapur, 398
Kundava, 333
Kunigal, 48, 365
Kuntala, 283
Kuntra, 42
Kupatur, 308
Kuppagadde, 285
Kuppam, 328
Kurgod, 331
Kurnagal, 70
Kurudu-iiiale, 11, 32, 274
Kuruva, 325
Kushana, 293
Kuvalala, 310, 334

Lakke parvata, 10
Lakshmana, 309, 327
Lakshmammanni, 435
Lakshmanlirtha, 4, 34, 734
Lakshmes'vara, 320, 328,

497.
Lakshmi, 469

,, Devi, 339
Lakshmis'a, 501
Lakvalli, 70, 283
Lalliya, 315
Lally, 377
Lanka, 274, 333

Lansdowne, Marcjuess of,

448. .^
La Riboisiere, 754
Lassen, 4, 273, 311
Lata, 325
Latf AH Beg, 376
Lavelle, Mr. M. F., 3O,

38, 47, 51, 524, 525
Lawrence, Major, 373
Layartl, 538
Lee Warner, Mr., 445
Lilavati, 499
Linga, 209, 500
Lingayit, 331, 476
Lokadilya, 298, 314
Lokambika, 340
Loka-mahadevi, 306, 323.
Lokapala, 497
Lokapavani, 4
Lokkigundi, 340
London, 525, 550
Louis XVI, 403
Loyola, Ignatius, 482
Lucknow, 759
Lyall, Mr., 444, 445
Lytton, Lord, 440

Mac HA, 499
Machiavelli, 287
Mackenzie MSS., 336

,, Captain, 506

,, Col. Colin, 460, 640
Macleod, Mr. J. M., 428
Macqueen, Col., 433
Madaga-kere, 7
Madakeri Nayak, 4S0
Madaksira, 381
Madana, 284

,, tilaka, 499

Madarkale, 310
Maddur, 318, 412
Madesvaran Betta, 204
Madgiri, 8

,, durga, II
Madhari, 294
Madhava, 300, 309, 344,

345. 346, 496
Madhava varma, 303
Madhukes'vara, 296
Madhuparvata, 278
Madhura, 500
Madhurantaka, 334, 335
Madhu Rao, 218
Madhva, 236
Madhvacharya, 236, 460,

471. 477
Madhyatala, 477
Madiraikonda, 333
Madoji Bhonsla, 394
Madras, 474, 555
Madura, ^^3, 365
Magadha, 287, 325, 466
Mahseer, 189

INDEX

827

Maha Bali, 300
Mahabalipur, 301, 512
Mahabharala, 210
Mahdljhashya, 501
Mahabhoji, 294
Mahadeva, 342
Mahamalla, 301
Mahamatras, 290
Maha Pradhana, 573
Maharajan durj^a, 10
Maharashlri, 463
Maharnavami, 378, 747
Maha Samantddhipali, 573
Maha-sati-kalhi, 508
Mahavalabham, 294
Mahavali Kings, 311
Mahavalis, 294, 300, 796
Mahavira, 458, 463
Mahawanso, 223, 289
Mahendra, 276

,, mountain, 316

Mahendrantaka, 315
Mahendra parvata, 279
Mahindo, 291
Mahipala, 309
Mahisa-niandala, I, 459
Mahishasura, i, 273, 475

,, -mardani, i

Mahishmati, 211, 274, 280
Mahishiir, i
Mahudadhi, 278
Mailala-devi, 328
Mailapur, 480
Maisurnad Seventy, 312
Majjhanlika, 289
Makara, 340
Makbara, 521
Makhdum Ali, 378, 395
Makutes'vara, 321
Malabar, 2, 32, 332, 337,

481
Malai)an bctta, 44
Malari, 652
Malartic, 411
Malaparoj-ganda, 336
Malapas, 336

Malava, 323, 325, 330, 337
Malavalli, 293, 294, 376,

487, 522
Malavana-nad, 652
Malavas, 325
Malavikagnimitra, 291
Malay alani, 488
Malcolm, Major, 422
Male, 163, 337, 657

,, Bennur, 8, 59, 318

,, rajya, 347
Maleyas, 214
Maleyur, 460, 462
Malik Krifur, 343, 479
Malkhed, 324
Mallana Odeyar, 347
Mallanarya, 501

■ Mallayanne, 347
Mallenahalli, 56
Malleson, Colonel CI B.,

439
Mallikarjuna, 352, 500
Mallinatha, 296, 347
Malnad, 2, 3
Malprabhd, 332
Mahir, 37, 273
Malurpatna, 334
Malyavant, 278
Mamallapura, 301, 305,

465,510
Manaji I'ankria, 3S9
Manali'ir, 334
Manasollasa, 330
Manantoddy, 760
Mana\-ya, 299

,, gotra, 320
Mancha Danayaka, 337
Mandali, 311
Mandana-misra, 471
Mandara Mali, 278
Mandhatrivarnia, 299
Mandya, 16
Manes, 507
Mangalesa, 319, 321
Mangalore, 319, 382, 489
Mangarasa, 500
Manipura, 280, 282
Manjarabad, 4, 69, 335,

4i9> 456, 735
Manjista, 296
Mankir, 325
Mankunda, 313
xManne, 314, 325
Mansahra, 289
Manu, 209

Manyakheta, 324, 325
Manyapura, 314
Mara, 456

,, Kona, 456
Mara])pa, 346
Marasimha, 307, 314, 315,

317

Marco I'olo, 480

Mariamma, 456

Mariapura, 484

Mari Kanave, 733

Markanda, 273

Markuiipam, 32

Marochelti, Baron, 433

Marsden, 812

Marshall, Colonel, 213,
456

Maruhalli, 421

Marula Deva, 315

Marvad, 325

Masana, 515
j Masarur, 5

Mastamma, 214
! Maslikal, 506

Mdsli-kallu, 508

Masulipatam, 45, 66, 423,

53S
Masur, 427

Masur-Madaga-Kere, 7
Mdtangas, 321
Mathura, 478
Matpod hill, !I
Malsya, 297
Mattakere, 325
Matiapatti. 294
Maithews, General, 39S
Mattod, 544
Mauritius, 392, 410
Mauryas, 217, 287, 319,

321, 50S
Maxwell, Colonel, 403
Mayakonda, 480
Mdyana, 500, 515
Maya Sugriva, 279
Mayi'irakhandi, 324
Mayurasarma, 296, 29S
Mayi'iravarma, 29S, 471
McKerrell, 504
Meda, 255

Meade, Sir Richard, 438
Mead(j\ss, General , 402
Metlini-misara ganda, 352
Medo- Persians, 493
Meer Soodoor, 417
Megasthenes, 287
Megha-vdhana, 277
Meke. 207
Meld Devi, 347
Melukote, 474. 479
Mercara, 521
Mercury, 449
Merti gudda, 10
Metcalfe, Sir Charles, 430
Midagesi durga, 1 1
Miles, Colonel W., 504
Mill, John Stuart, 435
Mimdmsa, 471
Mirdj, 497
Mir Ibrahim, 376

,, Sadak, 391, 404, 521

,, Sahib, 384
Mitakshara, 330
Mithridates II, 293
Mitli, 168
Mochi, 254

Moegling, Rev. Dr., 504
Molkalnuiru, 7. 76, 279,

507. 508
Mongolian, 493
Morison, Colonel W., 42S,

611
Morkhand, 324
Morari Rao, 374, 381
Mornington, l,ord, 411
.Morya Dinne, 508
Mane, 50S
Moryas, 508
Moti Talah, 7, 371

828

INDEX

Moyar, 27
Mrigcsavarma, 299
Mubarak, 344
Muchikar, 553
Muddapa, 346
Mi'ides, 112
MudikondaChoki-niandala,

334 '
Mudiniadagu, 1 1
Mutliyanur, 301
Mudkal, 348, 349
Mudra-rakshasa, 287
Mudvadi durga, 1 1
Mufti, 633
Mughals, 295, 361
Mugli, 403
Muhammad, 480

in, 341

Ali, 372
,, Bhek>l, 372
,, the Great, 358
Toghlak, 344
Wali, 372

Mukanna, 298, 459

Mi'ik-arasu, 369

Mukkuppe, 687

Mukunda, 313

Mukunti, 459

,, I'allava, 303

Mulainagiri, 9, 10

Mula Raja, 327

Mulbagal, 32

Miiller, Max, 493

Muluvagil, 347

Munro, Captain Thomas,
422

Munro, Sir Thomas, 424,

504
Munro, Sir Hector, 392
Murigi, 477
Murkangudda, 10
Murugundur, 314
Mus'angi, 328, 334
Muscat, 410
Mushkara, 313, 319
Mutfarkhat, 610
Muttarasa, 314

,, Tirumalai, 302
Mysore, i, 34, 36, y], 40,

46, 47, 460, 474, 484,

796
Mysore Rajas, List of, 362

Nadapanhalli, 53, 61
Nadiya, 478
Nagachandra, 499
Nagadatta, 312
NagamangaUi, 8, 47, 357
Nagaki Devi, 352
Nagamba, 352
Nagar, 69, 735
Nagarakere, 318

Nagarapura, 337
Nagarjuna, 497
Ncigarjuni, 291
Nagarjunayya, 746
Nagas, 274, 454
Nagavarma, 490, 494, 498,

746
Naghakhandaka, 308
Nagini, 454
Nagiyalilje, 307
Nagiyaka, 465
Naglapura, 513
Nahapana, 292
Nahusha, 209
Naikneri, 738
Nairs, 280, 401
Nakshatras, loi
Nalas, 2, 231
Nalkote, 315
Nalkundi, 49
Namburi, 280
Nana Farnavis, 394
Nanaghat, 292
Nandagiri, 310
Nandas, 287
Nandi, 69, 479
Nandidurga, 4, 11, 18, 34,

406
Nandi Raja, 318
Nandipotavarma, 323
Nandivarma, 325
Nandyal, 358
Nangali, 338
Nanjangud, 46, 337
Nanjunda, 500
Nanni Nolamba, 307
Nanniga, 307
Nanya Deva, 318
Napoleon Buonaparte, 423
Narasimha, 339, 340

„ 11, 475

„. Ill, 341
Narasimhapotavarma II,

3p6, 313
Narasimhaswami, 49
Narasimhavarma I, 305
Narasingha, 352
Narayandurga, II
Narmada, 274, 330
Nasik, 222, 292, 304, 342
Nasir Jang, 371
Nataputta, 464
Nava Danayak, 336
Navakoti Narayana, 369,

591"
Navane, 116
Nayakanhatti, 479, 521
Nayaputa, 464
Nayasena, 490, 499
Nayinda, 223, 249
Nazaraljad, 400
Nazarana, 389
Nejef, 401

Nela haga, 216
Nemichandra, 499
Nepal, 318, 444, 465
Nerbudda, 319
Nestorians, 481
Netravati, 4
Nevayet, 372
Newbold, Captain, 12, 33
Nicene Council, 481
Nidugal, 8, II, 38
Nijagal, 11

Nijagali Kataka Raya, 346 J
NikariliChola-man(lala,334 t
pura, 334 I
Nilachala, 478 '

Nila Dhuaja, 280
Niladri, 337
Nilagiris, 1,2, 11, 735
Nilakantna, 303
Nila Raja, 280
Nile, 412
Nineveh, 538
Nira, 358
Nirgranthas, 463
Nirgunda, 307
Nirupama, 306, 314, 325
Nitimarga, 307, 315
Nityavarsha, 326, 327
Nolamba, 286, 303
Nolambadhiraja, 315
Nolambakulantaka, 315,

326
Nolambalige, 307
Nolambas, 295, 796
Nolambavadi, ^217, 329,
Nonambavadi, / 574
Norali, 214
Northcote, Sir Stafford,

435
Nripalunga, 326, 490, 497,

7.45
Nuggihalli, 56
Nunke Bhairava hill, 1 1
Nurmadi Taila, 330

Obambika, 353
Odu-rayindra, 317
Odyssey, 538
Oldham, R. D., 9
Oldenberg, Dr., 293
Ole, 503
Ongole, 66
Onkunda, 497
Ooerki, 293
Ootacamund, 449
Orangal, 344, 346, 353
Orekod, 31 i
Orissa, 316
Ormazd, 475
Ostiak, 492
Ottoman Porte, 410

INDEX

829

I'ADAVIDU, 302

I'adi-nad, 312
I'admala Devi, 340
Padmanahha, 309
Padniaprahha, 309
Padmasale, 223
Padmavati, 309, y^,!, 455
Paduvipuri, 302
Pahlavas, 274, 303, 304
T'ahlavi, 4S1
Paiyanihhar, 400
Paima)i.sh, 640
Paniani, 398
Paisachika, 494
I'ailhan, 292
Palachi, 489
I'ala-CIannada, 490
Paiakka, 303
Palakkad, 305
Palakkada, 303
Palal, 212
Palar, 4, 311, 328
Palasil<a, 299
Palavanhalli, 41, 42, 61
Palt^hat, 9, 402, 489
Palhalli, 550
Palkiirike Soma, 500
I'ali dhvaja, 323
I'allava, 323
Pallavadhinija, 326
Pal lava Kings, List of, 304
Pallavas, 217, 303, 320,

321
Palni,9, 369
Palya, 70
Pamhabhe, 315
I'ampa, 345, 498
I 'anas, 222
Panchavati, 277
Panchdyatdars, 610
Pdndava-kula, 285
Pandavas, 279, 455
Pandila Raniabai, 746
Pandii Kolis, 507
I'andus, 345
Pandya, 208,287,323,333,

460
Panini, 524
Panipat, 379
I'antivnus, 481
Papaghni, 4
I'dpajniri, 465
I'aradas, 274
Parakalaswanii, 474
i'arama-bhattaraka, 320
Paramcs'vara, 320, 321

,, -varnia, 306

Parantaka, 303, 333
I'arasika, 323
Parasikas, 303
Parasu Rama, 275, 334
Parasiuam lihao, 2 1 9, 3S9,

405

Pariksliii, 285

Paris, 401, 754

Parojiamisus, 303

I'ars'va, 464

Parsvanatha, 458, 463, 464

I'arthenon, 515

Parthia, 293

Parthian, 320

Parvati, 296, 360

Patala, 210

,, Lanka, 278
Pataliputra, 287, 319, 463
Patandorc, 37
I'alanjali, 501
I'atna, 287
Pattadi, 626

Pattadkal, 306, 327, 497
Pavana, 464
Pavanjaya, 279
Pavugada, 4, 5, 11
Payanghat, 369
Peacock, Colonel, 445
Pearse, General, 799
Peddore, 340
I'egu, 353

Peile, Mr. J. IL, 422
Penjeru, 307
Pennagara, 313
Pennar, 4
Penugonda, 347, 352, 355,

381
Penukonda, 8
I'eriplus, 6

Periyapatna, 3, 35, 357
Permacoil, 393, 403
Permadi (langa, 328
I'ermanadi, 306, 314
Persia, 350, 388, 410, 445,

521
Perumala, 745
Perumal Danayak, 336
Perundurai, 341
Perur, 309
I'eshkar, 671
Phallus, 209
Phoenicia, 538
l'h<enician, 491
Phr^gia, 538
Pisachis, 63
Piya<lasi, 291
Pliny, 308, 799
Plummer, Captain K. I).,

526
Po, 6

Pope, Dr., 493
Polal Chora Nolamba, 307
Polalu, 338
PoUilva, 475
Pollilore, 394
Ponataga, 746
i'ondicherry, 382, 403
I'oni-ar, I'onn-ar, 4
Ponna, 49S

Ponnambala-mahddevi, 341

Ponnata, 313

Porter, Mr. W. A., 441

Poridare, 313

Poms, 277

Posa-tlannada, 490

Pot a, 305

Poysala, 335

Prahhavali, 464

Prabhulingahle, 500

Prabhutavarsha, 314, 325,

326
Praharapattis, 623
I 'raja gutta, 621
i'rasenajit, 275, 464
Prasii, 308
Pratajw, 801

,, Deva Raya, 347

,, Rudra, 318
Pratibindu, 278
Pratisthana, 303
I'raudha Deva, 352
Prcmara, 299
I'rendergast, Sir Harry,

445
Prithuvipati, 313, 317
Prithuyas'as, 313
Priyabandhuvarma, 309
Priyadarsana, 464
Ptolemies, 293, 313
Pujyapada, 313, 496
Puligere, 320, 497
Pulikara-nagara, 328
Pulikesi,305, 319, 321,322,

324
Puliydr-pattana, 32S
Pidumayi, 292
I'unajur hill, 1 1
PuMganur, 32
I'unjal), 491, 572, 769
Pimnad, 312, 574

,, Rajas, 312
Pura, 55
Piiragadi, 363
Purale, 308
I'urana, 800
Purandara, 296, 501
Puri, 478
Purigere, 315
l'uris;i(latta, 294
Purnaiya, 392, 402, 521
Purniiah, Dewan, 55
Push pa vat i, 297
Pusiiyamitra, 291
I'uru, 210, 277
Purukutsji, 274
Purvishottama Deva, 318
I'l'irvas, 463

(,)l'KTr.\, 445

830

Raciiamai.i.a, 307, 315,

316
Radha, 478
Raghavanka, 499
Raghunalha Narayan, 360

,, Rao, 218

Raghujiai-lhiva, 299
Rahman (jhar, il
Rajadhiraja, 328
Rajaditya, 315, 333
Rajagriha, 465
Rajah Khan, 415
Rajaniaheiidri, 320, 321
Rajanialla, 301
Rajaraja, 316, 317, 328, 334
Rajarajapura, 334
Rajas'ekhara Vilasa, 501
Rajasimha, 304, 305, 321,

333
Rajasimhes'vara, 305, 323,

Rajasundari, 317
Rajasuya, 280
Raja-tarangini, 290
,, Vallabha, 298
Rajendra Chola, 316,' 317,

328, 333> 334
Rajendraname, 504

l^aj'ga, 330
Rajigundi, 32
Rajpora, 395
Rajputana, 460
Rajput Rathors, 324
Rakkasa, 316
Rakkhita,'289
Rakshasas, 271
Rama, 81, 309, 401
Ramachandra, 276, 342
Rama Deva, 343, 344, 347
Ramanand, 243, 460, 477
Ramanalha, 341
Ramanna, 341
Ramanuja, 477
Ramanujacharya, 236, 338,

460, 474
Rama Rao, 426
Ramasagara, 7
Ramasamudra, 32
Ranies'vara, 277, 325
Ramgiri, II, 405
Ranaraga, 305
Ranarasika, 305
Ranavaloka, 314, 325
Rana \'ikramay)a, 315
Ran-dulha Khan, 358, 365,

479, 520, 528
Ranga, 353

Rangacharhi, Mr. C, 442
Rangapataka, 305
Ranna, 498
Raravi, 389
Rashtrakuta, 306

,, Kings, List of,
324

INDEX

Rash tiak alas, 294, 319, 796
Rashtravarma, 312
Rataninir, 274, 280
Ratlianupura - chakravala-

pura, 274
Ratnagiri, 359
Ratnakararya, 500
Ratnapura, 283
Ratna puri, 337
Ratnasrava, 278
Rattas, 295
Rattavadi, 324
Rattihalli, 383
Ravana",'8i, 275, 276, 278
Ravidalta, 312
Ravikirti, 497
Ravivaima, 299, 305
Rawlinson, Sir H., 435
Rayakota, 412
Rayals, 588
Rayamurari Sovi, 332
Recha, 499
Red Sea, 411
Rees, Mr., 179, 521
Reeve, Rev. W., 485, 504
Renuka, 275
Revati-dvipa, 321
Reza Ali Khan, 382
Rice, Rev. B., 485
Rikshaja, 278
Ripaud, 410
Rishya Sringa, 277
Rochfort, Lieut., 427
Rohilkhand, 216
Rohini-devi, 308
Rome, 29
Rudra, 469
Rudrabhatta, 499
Rudradaman, 292, 304
Rudragiri, 10
Rudraksha, 241
Rudrasena, 292
Rudrasimha, 292
Rukmanga, 469, 470
Rumbold, Sir Thomas, 482

Sabar.-e, 210
Sabdanusasanam, 501
Sabdamanidarpana, 500,

504 '
Sabda-smriti, 499
Sadar Malla, 426
Sadasiva, 353

,, Yogi, 501
Sadat-ulla Khan, 369
Sadras, 4
Sagar, 69
Sagara, 21 1
Sahadeva, 280
Sahasrara, 278
Sahyadri, 280

,, Khanda, 233

Saidapet, 773

SaigoUa, 314
St. Helena, 423
St. John, Sir Oliver, 445
St. Thomas, 480
Saka, 293

Sakas, 274, 303, 304
Sakkada, 490, 498
Sakrcljail, 69
Sakrepatna, 8, 356, 470
Sakuntala, 210, 502
Sala, 335, 336, 509
Salabat Jang, 374
' Salamis, 481
Salankayana, 305
Salem, 2, 337
S'alis'uka, 289
S'alivahana, 292, 303
Salsette, 353
Saluvanakuppa, 305
Saluva Tikkama, 343
Salva, 500
Samantalihadra, 496
Samara Vira, 464
Sambayya, 302
Samet S'ikhara, 464
Sampige, 281
Samprati, 588
Samudra, 279

,, Gupta, 281, 303
Sanderson, Mr., 179

,, Rev. Dr., 4S6,

504
Sandrakoptus, 287
Sandrakottos, 287
Sangama, 345, 346
Sangames'vara, 332
Sangata, 289
Sanghamitta, 291
Sangola, 6
S'ankaracharya, 345, 459,

471
S'ankara Deva, 343, 344
Sankaragana, 321
S'ankara Narayana, 475
Sankey, Sir Richard, 522,

683
S'ankha, 508
Sannyasi, 242
S'anlala Devi, 339
Sante Bennur, 520
S'anti Purana, 498
S'antappa, 502
S'antas, 325
Santes, 555
Santigudda, 11
S'antivarma, 299
San Tome, 4S0
S'arada, 346
S'arad-amma, 471
S'arad ritu, 63
Sarandip, 351
Sarasvati, 346, 469
Sardanapalus, 538

INDEX

831

Sargon, 538
Sarmancs, 288
Sar-Nad-Gaud, 588
Sarvadhikari, 573, 582
Sarvajna, 330
S'as'adharman, 289
Sasakapura, 335
Sasanika, 465
S'as'ankamudre, 298
Sasipral)he, 298
Sasive, 128
Sassanidre, 304
S'a'strasaia, 499
Satakani, 292
Satakanni, 293
S'atakarni, 292, 294, 299,

_ 304>459> 572, 796
Satanana, 478
Satavahana, 292, 490, 799
Satavahanas, 292, 293,

303, 310, 465
Salhalli, 483
Satyagala, 318
Satyaniangala, 311, 337,

375
Satyasraya, 321, 322, 323,

328, 498
Saukars, 210
Saundara Piirana, 500
Saunders, Mr. C. B. , 434,

439
Saunsi, 389
Saiiras, 327
Sau-rashtra, 2IO
Sauvira, 338
Sauviras, 210
Savandroog, 11, 17, 18,

19, 370, 406
Savanur, 336, 370
Savimale, 336
Silvincnima, 746
Sayad Ali, 630
Sayyid Gaft'ur, 415

,, Ilnahim, 399

,, Sahib, 415
Sayana, 345, 346
Scotland, i
ScoU, Sir Waller, 505
Scythian, 492
Seleucidi^, 303, 320
Seleukeia, 320
Seleukida.', 293 «
Seleiikos Nikalor, 2S7
Semitic, 491
S'enji, 360

,, P.dja, 341
Sennacherib, 538
Seringapatani, S, 16, 20
Seringhani, 403
Selu, 340

Seuna, Sevuna, 342
Seven Malavas, 315
Sevuna, 340

Sewell, Mrs., 485
Shabaz, 372
Shadakshara Deva, 501
Shadi Kutike, 626
Shahar Ganjam, 406
Shahbazgarhi, 289
Shagird I'esha, 61 1
Shahji, 359
Shamaiya, 391
Sharavati, 4, 279
Shatpada, 495
Shekh Ayaz, 398
Shekleton, Dr., 801
Shcrvegars, 201
Sheshadri Iyer, Sir K., 444
Shevaroy, 9
Shikarpur, 3, 544
Shimoga, 5
Shimsha, 4, 49
Shiraz, 388
Sholapur, 476, 760
Sholingur, 394
Shus or Sus, 210
.Shushan, 210
Sidda, 572
Siddapura, 572
Siddarhalli, 539
Siddes'vara hill, 412
Siddhartha, 297, 464
Sidraj Aras, 630
Sige Chidda, 5
Sikandar Jah, 406
S'iladitya," 321, 322
Silahara, 330, 332
Silahdars, 760
Silaharas, 278, 326
Silara, 278
S'ila-sanipadane, 500
Siluvepura, 484
Slma-nnilam, 579
Simhala, 278, 323
Simhanandi, 309, 310, 31 1,

496
Simhapota, 307
Sinihavarnia, 299, 305
Siniuka, 292
Sinai, 345
Sindas, 300
Sinilh, 489
.Sindhia, 394
Sindhu-suvarna, 210
Singararya, 501
Singhana, 342
Singiraja, 500
Sira, 23, 76
Siri Polemaios, 292
,, I'ulumaya, 292
Sirisena, 292
Siriyana Satakani, 292
S'isira-ritu, 63
Siskal belta, 10
Sila, 81, 276
Silakal, 535

Siva, I, 455, 458
Sivabhakta, 476
Sivaganga, 9, 11, 17, 18,

i . .476

' Sivaji, 60

I S'ivamara, 307, 313, 314,

! . 325.

\ Sivangiri, li, 405

I S'ivannugiri, 290

Sivappa Nayak, 279, 356

Sivaratha, 299

Sivasamudra, 736

Sivasamudram, 318, 405,

' . 521

Sivaskandavarnia, 305

Skandapura, 31 1

Skandavarma, 312
I Smarta, 235, 236
I Sobagina Sone, 501
, Suda or Seda, 317

Soligas, 213

Solomon, 282

Somala Devi, 340

Somanatha, 514

Somaraja, 500

Somas'arman, 289

Soma-vamsa, 285, 320

Somes'vara, 328, 329, 330,

331. 340
Somma, 21

Somnath]iur, 514, 797
Sondur hills, 25
Sonnahalli, 52, 53
Sora, 333
Sorab, 69, 522
Soratur, 340
Sosevur, 335
Sosile, 379, 413. 477
Sramanas, 291
S'ravaka, 247

Sravana Belgf)la, 55, 287,
316, 325, 458, 460,
i 498, 522

Sravanas, 288
Srenika, 465
S'ridatla, 309
Srikantha Kumara, 278
Sringa-giri, 472
S'ringcri, 273, 345, 459, 479
S'ri - Nonamba\adig()nda,

Sriparvata, 298
Sri I'ermatur, 474
Sri I'urambiyam, 314
S'riinirusha, 306, 314

, Sri Kanga, 356, 474

J „ „ Kaya, 319, 365
„ ,, Rayal, 356

j S'ri-rajya, 314
S'risaila, 4, 360, 471

I S'ri-Talakadu-gonda, 33S

I S'rivaishnava, 236

: S'rivallabha, 313

832

INDEX

S'livarddha, 496, 497
S'rivijaya, 497
S'ri'vikrania, 313
Srivilliputtur, 302
S'rulaki'rti, 500
Slambhodadhi, 273
Stc\cnson, Col., 760
Slhavira, 241
Sthanagundur, 298, 459
Stokes, Mr. II., 576

,, Major R. I)., 430
Strabo, 523
Stuart, General, 412
Suari, 210
Suhahu, 342
Svd)hadra, 2S5
Suhrahmanya, 477, 478
Sudhanva, 281
Sudhyumna, 280
Sudugadu Sidda, 216
Sugatur, 357
Sugriva, 277, 278
Sujanottamsa, 499
Sukesha, 278
Suladamaradi, 60
Sulekere, 7, 10, 737
Sullivan, Mr. John, 399
Sumali, 278
Sumanobana, 499
Sumerian, 210
Sumuka, 291
Sunda, 382
Sundara Tol, 302
S'unga, 291
S'ungabhrityas, 291
Sunka, 657
Sunnakal, 4, 5) ' ^
Surabhi, 274
Surappa, 483
Surashtra, 292
Sural, 389

Suresvaracharya, 471, 473
Surparaka, 209
Surya, 469
Suryaja, 278
Surya-vamsa, 333
Sus'arman, 291
Sushena, 280
Sutari, 278
Su-varna, 210
Suvarnavarsha, 326
Suvela. 279
Suvelachala, 279
Suvisakha, 304
Suyas'as, 289
Svetambara, 244, 462
Swartz, Rev. F. C, 392,396
Svadvadins, 463
Sylhet, 478
Syria, 293

Tachchaxmt.iri, 290
Tadangdla Madhava, 312

Tadbhava, 494

Tagara, 342

Tagadur-l)etta, 56

Tahir Khan, 371

Taila, 327

Tailapa, 324, 327, 498

Takkola, 315, 333

Talavanapura, 310

Talcose schist, 15

Talgunda, 294, 522

Talgupjja, 5

Talikota, 354

Talkad, 6, 32, 311, 312,

316, 333> 334, ll(y
Tamil, 488
Tanjapuri, 315
Tanjore, 333. 360
Tantia Topee, 438
Taranatha, 471
Tarikere, 359
Tavarekere, 34
Taylor, Col. Meadows, 505

,, Mr. John, 525, 526

,, Mr., 784
Telingana, 345
Tellicherry, 399
Telunga, 342
Temple, Sir Richard, 440
Ten-nad country, 312
Teutonic, 493
Thurston, Mr. Edgar, 801
Tiastenes, 292
Tiberius, 797
Tiele, Dr., 457
Tigris, 320
Timmanna, 501

,, dannayaka, 352

Timma Raja, 353
Tippaji, 352
Tippakshi, 352
Tippamba, 352
Tippa Rudra, 479
Tiptur, 56
Tipu Sultan, 295, 363, 505

555
Tirthahalli, 69
Tirthankaras, 462, 464
Tirumala, 356
Tirumalaiyangar, 367, 369
Tirumalarya, 501
Tirumal Raja, 354

,, Rao, 399, 418, 479
Tirupati, 474, 478
Tiru Purambiyam, 314
Tiruvannamalai, 342
Tochari, 293
Todas, 211, 456
Tohavar Jang, 400
Tonda-mandala, 323
Tonda-nad, 310
Tondanur, 341
Tonnur, 341, 371
Tontadarya, 500

Tour-sha, 209
Tovari, 109, 112
Toyada Vahana, 277
Trailokyamalla, 328, 330,

336
Trairajya Pallava, 306, 323
Transvaal, 759
Travancore, 9, 402, 471,

481
Trevelyan, Sir Charles, 431
Tricalorc, 395
Trichinopoly, 279, 311,

333. 373
Trikalinga, 317
Trilochana Kadamba, 296
Triloka-s'ataka, 500
Trimurti, 468
Trinayana, 307
Trinetra, 459

,, Kadamba, 296
Trinomalai, 385, 403
Tripassore, 394
Tripati, 112
Tripatur, 384
Tripitaka, 466
Tripura, 274
Tripura-dahana, 500
Tripurasura, 470
Trisala, 464
Trivadi, 360
Trivatur, 746
Tryambak Mama, 387

,, Rao, 218
Tudas, 211
Tuduve, 197

Tulava, 276, 295, 319, 352
Tulu, 338
Tuluva, 212, 477
Tumbalur-A'charya, 496
Tumkur, 38, 39
Tundaka, 306, 323
Tunga, 4

Tungabhadra, 26, 325, 345
Turanian, 209, 212, 492
Turkish, 493
Tur-sene, 209
Turushka, 293
Turuvekere, 20
Turvasu, 209, 309, 316
Tyagar, 378, 379, 403
Tyakal, 37

,, hills, II
Tyrrhenians, 209

Ubrani hills, 8, 10
Uchchangi, 33, 338, 642

„ -droog, 51
Uchchas'ringi, 299
Udaya, 497
Udayaditya, 329, in
Udipi, 477, 481
Uduve, 163
Uggihalii, 652

INDEX

833

Ugradanda, 305
Ugras, 297
Ugrasena, 305
Ugrian, 492
Ujari, 109
Ujjayini, 286
Ulavi, 476
Ulive, 332
Ulupi, 283
Unnamale, 341
Upades'a, 242
Upangas, 463
Upasaka, 290
Uppara, 223, 252
Uraiyur, 333
Urigani, 45, 525, 527
Ushak, 538
Utkala, 317
Uttara, 285

\'adiraja, 497
Vaidumba, 303, 317, 333
\'aijayantipura, 295
\'aira Mudi, 479
\'ajraliasta, 303, 317
Vajrakantha, 278
\'akkaleri, 37
\'akkunda, 497
\'alal3hi, 296, 463
\'alerius P^laccus, 308
\'ali, 278
\'allabha, 324
\'allal)haraja, 305
Valmiki, 277
Valse, 219
\'ama, 464
\'anavasi, 289
\'anga, 325
\ anianibadi, 385
\'aiml)alguli, 313
\'arada, 295
\'araguna, 313
^"arahamihira, 4S9
\'araha-parvala, 10
\'arddhamana, 458, 464
^'arna, 221
\'arsha rilii, 63
\'asanla ritii, 63
\'asaiUika, 335, 336
\'asi.shlha, 210, 274
Vasilhi, 292

\'asilhi[)utra ruliima)i, 292
\aslara, 70, 212, 368
\'astukos'a, 499
\'a.sii(leva, 293
Xiisuki, 283

Vauipi, 273, 303, 319, 320
Xatajiipura, 273
\'atsa.s, 325
\'cdavali, 4, 64
\'elandha-pura, 279
\'clavura, 340
\cllore, 356, 393

V'engalaniba, 356

Vengi, 281, 305, 317, 320,

321, 325
Vengin, 338
Venkatadri, 354
Venkatapati, 371

,, Kaya, 356
\'enkat arasu, 371
\'enkatsubbaiya, 424
\'enkayya, 333
Venkoji, 360
\'e.suvian, 21
\'il)han(laka, 273
\'i(iliarbha, 297
Vidisa, 291
Vidura, 455
\'idhyadharas, 274, 278
\'idyanagara, 344
\'idyaranya, 344
Vijaya, 361

^'ijaya-bhattarika, 323
Vijaydditya," 314, 317, 323
,, Narendraniri-

garaja, 325
Vijayakuniari-kathe, 500
Vijayalaya, 333
Vijaya-Mahadevi, 308, 323
Vijayanagar, 277, 295, 344

., Kings, List of,

3,46
\'ijayaratha, 278
\'ijaya Simha, 278
Vijnanes'vara, 330
Vikrama, 328, 329, 330

Chola, 335
Vikrama Chola - mandala,

334 .
\ ikramaditya, 293, 301,

323. 327
\ ikraniarka, 330
Vikramapiira, 340
Vila, 323
\'ilanda, 313
\illavas, 335
Viniala, 497
Vimaladitya, 333
Viniana, 512
Vinayadilya, 306, 323, 336.

337, 514
\ inaya-mahack'\i, 317
V'iiulhya-giri, 461
\'inguvalli, 326
\'inhukaddavulii, 294
Vira Hallaia, 339
\'iral)hadra, 318
Vira ( ".anga, 337
Vira Narasiniha, 352
\"ira X.-irayana, 301
\'ira Raja Arasu, 426
\'irarajendra]K'l, 35
Virasarnia, 298
Virasimha, 317
Virata, 276, 2S1, 33S

Virgil, 308

\'irochana, 316

\'irupaksha, 345, 346, 347
,, Ballala, 341

,, pandita, 501

Viru])akshipur, 56

Visaji Pandit. 37S

Vis'akha, 287

Vishalaksha Pandit, 366

Vishaya, 284

Vishnu, 275, 316, 455, 458

Vishnugopa, 281, 305, 312,

459

Vishnu-Gupta, 287
Vishnus'arnia, 339
Vishnu Somayaji, 304
Vishnuvarddhana,32i, 338,

339. 459, 474, 5 '4,
Vishnuvarddhana \'ijayadi-

tya, 329
\ ishnuvarnia, 299
Vis'vakamnia, 294
' \'is'vakarma, 522
I \'is'vaniitra, 210, 275
1 Vithala, 501

I Vizaga]ialani, 212, 316, 760
I Vokkaleri, 796
I Vrishabhapura, 332
j Vrishasena, 280
I Vyasa Rao, 610
,, Sanuidra, 7

; Wainad, S, 484, 735

Wales, South, 6

Wandiwash, 393

Warren, Lieut., 32

Warth, 16

Waterloo, 413
i Walt, Mr , 4S6
I Wcbbe, Mr. Josiah, 41 8,
1 .422,738

Weigle, Rev., 504

Wellesley, Colonel Arthur,

413, 417, 759
,, Ilon'ble Henry,

417
Mr., 683
I ., Sir .Vrlhur, 509

Wellington, Duke of, 509,

521
Welsh, Colonel, 420, 424
I Weslland, Mr., 7S4
' Whitefield, 37
Whiteley, Mr. J. J., 449
Whitney, Professor, 493
Wilks, .Major, 7, 505
Wilson, 345, 465
j Williams, Monier, 456

,, Captain, 1". A.,

! 44'

Woddin gudda, lo

Wodeyars, 575
I Wolakandaya, 687
3 H

834

Wurralkonda, 15
Wynatl,'36, 38

XA\IKR, I'KANCIS, 482

Vai>ava Kings, Lisl of,

342, 347
Vadavas, 295, 331, 335,

341
Yadvi, 209
Yadugiri, 11
Yagachi, 4
Yamuna, 325

,, dhvaja, 323

Yarkand, 293

INDEX

\'as6da, 464
Vasodhara, 465
Yasovarma, 325
Vavanas, 209, 2io,' 274,

303. 304
Yayali, 209, 210, 309
Vayavati, 316
Yediyur, 49
\'elaga, 205
Yelandur, 366
Yelburga, 299
Yellavari, 57
Yelle kallu, 508
Yehisavirashime, 574
Yelwal, 273
Yenur, 509

\'erra Konda, 1 1
V'esvantpur, 797
Y(jnas, 210
Young, Mr. Mackworth,

445
Yudhishthira, 280, 281
\unani, 790
Yusufahad, 410
Yusuf Adil Shah, 25S
Yusufzai, 289
Yuvardja, 337

Zain-L'l-Abidin, 408
Zamorin, 383, 401
Zend Turanians, 209
Zulfikar Khan, 368

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