Mysticism : its true nature and value : with a translation of the "Mystical theology" of Dionysius, and of the letters to Caius and Dorotheus (1, 2 and 5)

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LIBRARY OF
WELLESLEY COLLEGE

FROM THE FUND OF
EBEN NORTON HORSFORD

MYSTICISM: ITS TRUE NATURE

AND VALUE

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CONTENTS

-♦-♦-

INTRODUCTION

PAGES

Different uses of the word " mystical " — Confusion due
to a congenital tendency — Primitive man seeks
knowledge for a practical purpose — Infers an im-
material element in nature, from his consciousness
of a similar element in himself — Attempts to make
use of spiritual powers external to himself— Hence
arises magic, a confusion of science, theology and
mysticism — The education of the human race, a
progress from confused to distinct thought — Incon-
gruity of rt:j2^rz^rzassumptions with scientific method,
perceived by Bacon — Stages of progress : lambli-
chus, Paracelsus, Cardan — Christian Revelation
— Precipitation of effete ideas, hence surviving
superstitions — The vaguely mystical habit of mind
latent in everyone — Appears in sudden emer-
gencies ; symbolic, or nature mysticism and
spiritualism — Idealistic Pantheism as applied to
mysticism — Its difficulties, logical and moral-
Progress always attended by struggles between
the old and the new — Element of truth in the
primitive view not to be lost sight of — The new
not always true — Christian mysticism still en-
tangled with alien ideas xiii.-xliii.

V

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM

PAGES

Knowledge is either experimental or theoretical, but is
limited by sense-experience — Natural knowledge
of God, through reason or revelation, is theo-
retical ; it cannot be experimental — Experimental
knowledge of God always desired — Mystical the-
ology— Two points of view, the natural and the
supernatural — They are not mutually opposed, but
complementary — Natural mysticism is the attempt
eithe?' to transcend the limitations of sense or to
find transcendental knowledge within them —
Fundamental difference between these two methods
— Neither is more than a mental attitude — Super-
natural mysticism implies the transcendence of
God, on the one hand ; and on the other hand, the
inability of the natural powers alone to attain to
immediate knowledge of Him — Catholic idea of
mysticism — True mysticism rightly said to be
empirical — Compared with sensation — The in-
tellectual principles of mystical knowledge not
essentially different from those of ordinary know-
. ledge — What is to be understood by the super-
natural — The Via Remotio7iis — Supernatural
illumination not contrary to nature — Its method —
Natural theories to account for supernatural
mysticism — Reasons for rejecting them — Theo-
logical and evidential value of the subject . . 1-49

CHAPTER II

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM

Origin of the term — Mysticism in the Church— In
Greek philosophy — Dionysius — Social conditions
which bring mysticism into prominence — Spurious
mysticism 50-60

CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER III

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE

PAGES

Mystical experience essentially supernatural — Three
modes of relation 'of creatures to the Crealor —
" Natural " contemplation — Passivity — Mystical
cognition and sensation — ^Mystical and ordinary
religious experience — Mystical certitude — Mystical
experience indescribable — Necessity of prepara-
tion— Gerson — Eckhart, Tauler — Three stages —
St Teresa— Visions and locutions — Self-delusion . 61-87

CHAPTER IV

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE

Mystical " vision," how to be understood — How the
soul can see God — The Beatific Vision— Doctrine
of St Thomas — St Paul's visions— Transiency of
mystical state — Spiritual marriage — The lumen
gloricE — St Augustine's classification — Uncertainty
of sensible and imaginary impressions as com-
pared with intellectual vision — All three truly
supernatural 88-104

CHAPTER V

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM

The object of mystical contemplation perceived by a
natural process, and therefore capable of analysis
— No theory on the subject formulated by mystical
writers — Three different views (i) existence of a
special mystical faculty. This theory is superfluous,
(2) that all apparently mystical states are merely
automatic, and generally of pathological origin.
This implies the presupposition that genuine
mysticism is impossible. (3) that mystical com-
munications really take place, but are apprehended
by the same psychical process which transmits
automatic suggestion. This practically coincides
with the view of ecclesiastical authority — Difficulty
of distinguishing, how caused .... 105-121

viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER \T

EVIL

PAGES

Affinity of the problem with mysticism— The solution
of mystics often appears unsatisfactory to others —
Evil due to created freewill — Independence of the
Divine Will — Evil negative — Practical character
of mystical solution compared with the philo-
sophical or theoretical — Schopenhauer, Hartmann
and "Ethical" religions — Benefits of mysticism in
this respect not restricted to mystics . . . 122-135

CHAPTER VII

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE

Terms explained — Spinoza, Hegel and Mysticism —
The "ground" — Immanence and Transcendence
not ontologically distinct 136-145

CHAPTER VIII

PLOTINUS

Philosophy and mysticism of Plotinus — Two possible

views of his relation to Christian mysticism . . 146-158

CHAPTER IX

HERETICAL MYSTICS

Distinction clear between true and spurious mysti-
cism— "Pragmatic" test, twofold application —
Mysticism, theosophy and theology — Intrinsic dis-
tinction between mystical experience and deduc-
tions from it — Doctrines not to be guaranteed by
mystical origin — Necessary features of genuine
mysticism — The Beghards — Boehme — Sweden-
borg — Quietism — DistiiKtion between doctrines
and mystical experiences equally applied to
orthodox mystics— St Teresa— St John of the
Cross — Margaret Mary Alacoque. . . . 159-176

^

CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER X

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

PAGES
Obstacles to philosophical treatment of mysticism in
its transcendental aspect — Experimental evidence
of mysticism in support of natural theology —
The object of mysticism beyond the reach of
explanation per causas — Mysticism a form of
religious experience, but not one guaranteed to
Christians — Its relation to " institutional" religion,
and to ordinary religious experience as continuous
with and interpenetrated by it — The Lnitation
of Christ — Mystical experience perhaps occasion-
ally granted to non-mystics 177-192

CHAPTER XI

DIONYSIUS

History of the Dionysian writings— Authorship and
character — Can they be considered forgeries —
Modern theories, etc 193-206

CHAPTER XII

THE "mystical THEOLOGY" OF DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE
CHAP. PAGES

I. — What the Divine Darkness is.
y II. — How to be united with, and to give praise
to Him who is the cause of all things
and above all.
III. — What is affirmed of God, and what is
denied of Him.

IV. — That He who is the supreme cause of all
sensible things is Himself no part of
those things.
V. — That He who is the supreme cause of all
intelligible things is Himself no part of
those things ...... 207-223

X CONTENTS

Letter pages

I. — To Caius the Monk — The ignorance by
means of which God is known is above
sense-knowledge, not below it.

II. — To the Same — In what sense God is above

the principle of divinity.
V. — To Dorotheus the Deacon — The divine

darkness further explained . . 224-229

APPENDIX I

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE

The occurrence of " imageless thought " demonstrated
by the most recent psychological experiments —
Application of this discovery to mysticism — Ex-
planation of the relations between image and
concept — Thought deals primarily with concepts —
Hence all difficulty is removed from the theory
that the soul, while still united with the body,
can have a direct intuition of an immaterial
object — Further, the place and function of sense
— imagery in thought is now seen to be precisely
those which are assigned by mystics to visions,
locutions, &c. in mystical experience — It follows
that the reality of such imagery corresponds to
the reality of the concepts w-ith which it is con-
nected — Thus, also, the distinction between
natural and supernatural states which have
features of mutual resemblance is experimentally
confirmed and elucidated — Professor James's
view, that a mystical or " cosmic " consciousness
is aroused by natural stimuli — No cause can be
found for supernatural states, but that to which
the mystics themselves attribute them — Professor
James's instances — The abnormal state in each
case connected with a sense-image — Thus there is
no specifically cosmic form of consciousness, but
only an aptitude, common to mankind, for con-
templating ideas apart from images — Conscious-

CONTENTS xi

PAGES
ness is not cosmic, but conceptual — Argument

recapitulated — If the contemplation of religious

ideas is held to have a natural tendency to bring

on mystical states of consciousness, the point

is really conceded 230-256

APPENDIX II
Notes 257, 258

" Cosi la mente mia tutta sospesa
Mirava fissa immobile ed attenta,
E sempre di mirar faceasi accesa.

A quella luce cotal si diventa,

Che volgersi da lei, per altro aspetto,
E impossibil che mai si consenta ;

Perocche '1 ben, ch'e del volere obbietto
Tutto s'accoglie in lei ; e fuor di quella
E difettivo cio ch' e li perfetto."

Dante, Paradiso^ cxxxiii..

INTRODUCTION

Most people have only a very vague notion of

what is to be understood by mysticism. The

word is generally applied to anything beyond

the range of ordinary sense-experience, or to

any occurrence which sense-experience does not

immediately seem to explain. The way in

which this common use of the word is connected

with its original meaning will be pointed out

later. But it is of some importance to notice

what the things or occurrences are that in the

popular language of the present day are called

mystical. These are very various, but they

may be classified somewhat as follows. First,

there is magic, in all its forms, ancient,

mediseval and modern. Next there comes

what is now called spiritualism, or the attempt

to communicate with immaterial but rational

beings, who are believed to have some power

b

xiv MYSTICISM

of influencing the visible world. Thirdly, there
are the various emotions, of a more or less
obscure kind, which are excited in the mind by
associations connected with natural objects,
familiar sights and sounds, or strange and
sudden events ; these are experienced in
greater or less degree by everyone, but their
origin and development are not always readily
traceable. Fourthly, there is a derivative sense
of the word in which it is applied to modes of
speech or action, apparently directed to some
hidden or obscure object, which do not directly
indicate, but rather seem to suggest something
in itself impalpable or transcendental.^

Thus the rites of savage religions, the
incantations which found a place in the
prescriptions of mediaeval physicians, the
pretensions of astrology and of alchemy and
of sorcery and witchcraft, share the title with
the feats of clairvoyants and '' mediums," with
the claims of faith-healing and of thought-
reading ; and again with the vague emotions

1 See e.£:, Disraeli's Endymioti^ ch. xxvi., " There is a mystic
bond between us, originating perhaps in the circumstance of
our birth ; for we are twins," and ch. xxxv., " She asked ques-
tions in a hushed mystical voice."

INTRODUCTION xv

aroused by a brilliant sunset or by mountain
scenery, by music, or by the memories
associated with a well-known place. So even
a whispered word, a solemn tone of voice, and
even a conjuring trick, is often, by the
derivative (though doubtfully legitimate) use of
the word, described as mystical.

In quite another direction, again, mysticism
has been brought into connection with a certain
school of metaphysics, as a kind of direct
intuition by means of which the absolute
reality underlying the phenomenal world may
be perceived and contemplated ; and this
intuition is held by some to be the true
essence of mysticism, as the common and only
reality belonging to all kinds of mystical
experience.

Lastly, the mysticism recognised by the
Catholic Church as genuine is the direct
intellectual communication of God with the
soul. This is due not to any natural
endowment or effort of the mystic, but to the
favour of God alone ; though this favour is
granted, ordinarily, only to those who have
prepared themselves to receive it, and who

xvi MYSTICISM

may therefore be said in a certain sense to be
specially qualified for it.

It seems well to indicate, by way of intro-
duction, the real significance of the confusion in
which the subject is still commonly involved ;
a confusion which is due, unquestionably, to
certain congenital tendencies of the human
mind in its perpetual contact with an environ-
ment of which its understanding, though
always imperfect, grows constantly deeper and
wider.

It is certain that all human beings have a
natural desire or tendency to seek for some
explanation of the various objects which
surround them, both animate and inanimate.
This desire arises, no doubt, primarily from
man's dependence on his surroundings, and his
want, at least for practical purposes, of those
primitive instincts by means of which other
animals are enabled to make provision for their
needs, and to avoid the dangers that constantly
threaten them. For these purposes man has
to rely mainly on the reasoning power which-
distinguishes him from the lower animals. He
has, therefore, from the first, set himself to

INTRODUCTION xvii

discover the various uses to which natural
objects may be put, and the means that may-
enable him to avoid premature destruction by
hostile powers. The desire of knowledge for
its own sake is a less potent and far less
universal cause of enquiry ; it may probably,
indeed, have no independent source, but be
merely an aspect or outcome of the practical
need. However that may be, the chronic
desire of the human race for an understanding
of its environment, and its increasing efforts in
pursuit of such an understanding, are un-
questionable. Now the method by which
knowledge is sought is always the explanation
of the unknown by the known : no other
method is, indeed, available. Therefore un-
cultivated and uncivilised man has necessarily
to use his very small stock of knowledge as his
instrument for reducing the vast proportions of
his ignorance. The first thing of which all
men acquire a clear conception is themselves.
Self is the first thing that stands out clear-cut
against the confused background of the not-
self ; and the self is almost immediately per-
ceived to be something more than the mere

xviii MYSTICISM

body, since it is endowed with the powers of
thinking, of feeling and of willing — powers in
which the bodily organism seems to have no
direct share, but to which it appears to be in
some way subject. A man's invisible and
intangible thoughts, desires, and intentions are,
or appear to be, the causes of the movements
of his body ; and when he sets out to interpret
to himself the impressions he receives from
surrounding objects of all kinds, he naturally
applies to them the only criterion he possesses,
namely, his experience of himself. Thus he is
led to attribute the movements of objects over
which he has no control to a cause like that
which he has already been led by experience to
assign for the bodily movements which depend
on the invisible controlling power within
himself As, then, man finds by experience
that the motive power of his own body is
supplied by the immaterial co-efficient of his
nature which we call soul or spirit, so by an
inevitable inference he attributes the movements
and actions of persons and things other than
himself to a similar invisible and intangible
power within or behind them. The inference

INTRODUCTION xix

is like that which he makes about other human
beings, and which he knows they make about
himself; it is very far from an unreasonable
one, and in its main features is perfectly correct.
We need not, indeed, suppose that the precise
idea of an immaterial soul as it is now conceived,
or of immaterial as distinct from corporeal exist-
ence, is distinctly present to the mind of primitive
man. It would seem that, in some instances at
least, he has only a general and vague notion of
all-pervading power, manifested in material
things by various means, and in various
degrees.^ But even so, the mere notion of
power as something real, though beyond the
purview of the senses, has in it at least the
rudimentary concept of spirit. The primitive
mind does not seek to analyse its confused
ideas, and does not, at first, attempt to associate
its notion of the power exhibited in material
things with any particular kind of vehicle, such
as the individual soul. Nevertheless, the
essential idea is there, and we may safely
conclude that the primitive or savage con-
ception of the universe is in a wide sense

^ See A. Lang, Origins of Religion.

XX MYSTICISM.

animistic, i.e., it attributes to all things alike,
in different degrees, the possession of an
invisible and intangible power, closely re-
sembling that of which human beings are
conscious in themselves.

It is then but a short step from the belief
in the existence of spiritual, or quasi-spiritual,
power to the attempt to make use of it. It
would seem in fact, as we have remarked, that
the general animistic notion of the world is
obtained in the course of a quest for knowledge
which may be turned to practical use. As
therefore uncivilised man makes use of his
material surroundings to obtain food, warmth
and shelter, so he inevitably endeavours to
make use, in their own sphere, of the spiritual
powers by which he thinks the world is animated.
Hence arises the primitive notion of magic, or
the art and science of dealing directly with the
hidden and spiritual qualities of things, apart
from the mechanical methods by which the
things, in their external aspects, are converted
to human uses. This is the fundamental notion
of magic in all the numberless forms it has
assumed in the history of mankind. It contains

INTRODUCTION xxi

in germ and In confusion all the different
sciences in which the whole experience of the
race has since been formulated. Magic is in
fact rudimentary science, theology and mysticism
all in one.

The savage doctor drives out the occult
quality, or invisible spirit of disease, from his
patient by means of charms and incantations,
which are not supposed to have any direct or
mechanical effect on the disordered parts.
They are intended to drive out the hidden cause
or agent to which the sickness is attributed.
The treatment is, in principle, thoroughly
scientific ; it declines to deal with symptoms,
and attacks the supposed origin of the trouble.
The only mistake about it is that it is founded
on a diagnosis which goes rather too far ; but
the medicine-man's procedure is quite reason-
able in view of his limited knowledge. Or
again, primitive man at a certain stage of
development believes that the whole world is
worked by supernatural agents, acting on
motives like his own, and liable, like himself,
to be moved by appeals to their fears, their
pity and their hopes. Through them, there-

xxii MYSTICISM

fore, he supposes that he possesses unlimited
powers of influencing the course of nature to
his own advantage. Prayers, promises or
threats may secure for him sunshine or rain,
abundant crops and success in hunting or
in war.^ Hence the system of taboos, by which
the anger of the god is averted, and his good-
will secured. Here we have, jumbled to-
gether, the scientific principle which aims at
the control of nature through a knowledge of
its processes ; the theological concept of the
government of the world by a spiritual being
or beings ; and the rudiments of the mystical
notion of some kind of direct communication
with the unseen, the prime condition of which
is already perceived to be the removal of
obstacles, even though the nature of the real
obstacles to be removed is far from beingf
rightly understood.

The process of scientific, moral and religious
education through which mankind has passed,
and is still passing, is thus evidently one of
differentiation. It seem improbable, however,
that the process is chronologically continuous

^ Frazer, Golden Bought vol. i. p. 8.

INTRODUCTION xxiii

for the whole race ; degeneration has probably
quite as much to do with the present state of
savage races as imperfect development ; and
there is no evidence to negative the supposition
that the animism of the savage is ultimately
due to a primitive revelation now well-nigh
forgotten. But the educational process is
clearly traceable within specific limits of
place and time ; and in its main features it
consists in the disentanglement and conse-
quent advance of departments of knowledge
which first appear in a single confused mass.
Development is from confusion to distinction
of thought.^

This process of development has been a
very gradual one ; it is still far from complete
in itself, and it has by no means uniformly
affected the whole of mankind either socially
or individually. It was long before either
theology or science could be fully emancipated
from the presuppositions of magic. The
chemist, the astronomer, the physician and
the mathematician were for many centuries
regarded, and indeed regarded themselves, as

^ Marett, Anthropology^ p. 239.

xxiv MYSTICISM

occultists or magicians, on one side, at least, of
their researches ; though on another side they
were true experimentalists. The two points of
view were curiously intermingled and combined
in ancient and medieval science and philosophy,
the a priori assumptions of earlier times being
brought in to fill the gaps in the fragmentary
and tentative scientific theories of the time.
The first to be conscious of this incongruity
was Bacon, who supposed that nature would
yield up her secrets only to a system of
unprejudiced ''interrogation," thereby over-
stepping the mark in one direction almost
by as much as his predecessors had in the
other. Mere interrogation of nature is, of
course, impossible ; what the Novum Organon
left out of account was the necessity of some
kind of creative imagination for the direction of
experiment. But Bacon was the first to state
clearly the distinction between the construction
of verifiable hypotheses and the a priori
assumption of unverifiable theories as facts —
a distinction which has never since been wholly
lost sight of.

A clearly marked stage in the advance from

INTRODUCTION xxv

confusion to distinction of thought appears in
the theology of lamblichus.^ He held that
there were two sorts of gods — the higher, or
purely spiritual, who were the proper object of
the spiritual contemplation that only a select
few are capable of; and the lower gods and
demons, whose nature was something between
the purely spiritual and the wholly material —
removed on the one hand by their spirituality
from the direct knowledge of mankind, and on
the other hand, separated from that of the
higher gods by its admixture of the nature of
earthly things. Material sacrifices were due to
the lower gods, and all men were free to
propitiate them by this means ; they were not,
like the higher gods, the patrons of an exclusive
class. Here we see the primitive conception of
animism divided, and then somewhat curiously
cross-divided.

With Paracelsus again, and the later
mediaeval physicists, the animistic assumption
takes a different and less transcendental form.
Paracelsus conceived all material existence as
a hierarchy, rising in successive degrees of

^ Egyptian Mysteries^ v. 14.

xxvi MYSTICISM

refinement to the immediate presence of God.
The highest degree is reached in the "quint-
essence" of things, which is a "moist fire,"
servine as a kind of mask or screen to the
divine presence. Lower down in the scale are
the " essences " of things, in which are highly
sublimated elements called ''virtues," capable
of being extracted and of entering into com-
bination with one another. Certain of them
possess a dominating power, in virtue of which
they are ** magisteries " and attract others of
the same kind to themselves, as the virtue of
vinegar attracts and dominates the virtue of
wine. This is the way in which drugs were
supposed to act on the human body, and
anticipates the homoeopathic principle of in-
finitesimal doscs.^ Paracelsus's directions for
producing the desired results contain an odd
mixture of chemical formulae and magical
incantations. We may see in this cosmic
theory a further advance towards distinctness
of thought. Quintessence, essence and virtue
are not either wholly or partially spiritual ; yet
they are not strictly material or organic ; they

Paracelsus, Theophrastia (Archidoxies vi.).

INTRODUCTION xxvii

are mere names, concealing a wide ignorance of
natural processes since discovered, and con-
fusing those processes with the all pervading
energy of nature to which they are due, and
which is still as far as ever from being
understood.

Another striking instance of the confusion,
as yet only partially resolved, of man's outlook
on the universe is to be found in the relation long
supposed to exist between the "microcosm"
of the human body, and the " macrocosm " of
the solar system. The heavenly bodies were
believed to be in natural sympathy with the
human organism, and to exert special influences
upon it. The sun acted on the heart, the
moon on the '' animal humours." Hence a
considerable part of mediaeval therapeutics
was concerned with the movements of the
planets, with the object of transmitting their
virtue to the patient at the most favourable
moment.^ Animism had receded to a very
great extent from the earth, but still lingered
among the stars.

The process of distinction goes on with con-

^ V. Cardan, De varietate rerum^ &'c.

xxviii MYSTICISM

stantly increasing momentum. Our own days
have witnessed the birth of several new
sciences, each the legitimate offspring of a
parent science, and each, no doubt, to be in
turn the mother of more. Mysticism is the
final step, in one direction, of the differentiating
process. As God, the personal and tran-
scendent Creator, is the ultimate term of
metaphysics, so the mystical or immediate
knowledge of God is the ultimate of that
relation of the human soul to Him, as its
source, object and end, which constitutes
religion. This finality, however, implies more
than a natural process of development. Side
by side with the growth of natural knowledge,
and intermingled with it, has always stood a
divinely imparted revelation. Its influence is
to be traced, not only in the spiritual ex-
periences of the descendants of Abraham, and
in the fuller light of the Catholic Church, but
also in sidelights, off-shoots and reactionary
movements, often alien and sometimes directly
hostile to it. But when God had once made
Himself known to man, the way to personal
and direct intercourse was open ; knowledge

INTRODUCTION xxix

could be translated into experience. St. Paul's
mystical experience was as complete and final
as the faith that he taught.

It hardly needs to be pointed out that all
mankind have not reached the same stage in
their progress from confusion to distinction of
thought ; nor is the progress continuous. Re-
actions and reversions, as well as cases of
arrested development, occur in this as in other
phases of human history. In the advance of
human knowledge and experience from the
pre-sclentific to the scientific stage, or from
confusion to distinction in the apprehension of
facts, there has occurred, as was to be expected,
a kind of precipitation of superfluous or effete
ideas. These have continued to exist, and to
exert an influence, more or less recognisable,
upon the minds alike of the civilised and the
uncivilised, the wise and the foolish, the learned
and the unlearned. Human nature is always
fundamentally the same, and the primeval
tendency to envisage our surroundings as a
confused medley of material and spiritual
elements, reasserts itself sometimes in the most

unexpected places. A sudden shock to the

c

XXX MYSTICISM

feelings will often throw the most cultivated
persons back to the savage state of mind In
which the unexpected or the unexplained
excites emotions of confused wonder or terror,
with an undercurrent of hardly realised
suggestion of supernatural agency. Many
people who have no belief In ghosts are
terribly afraid of them, and are quite capable,
under appropriate circumstances, of imagining
that they see them. The civilised habits of
reflection and analysis generally prevail, after
the first moment, over the sudden emotion.
But more often than not, at the Instant of
receiving a sudden blow, or witnessing a
sudden catastrophe, or receiving important or
unexpected news, either painful or pleasurable,
we get a momentary glimpse of ourselves in
the mental condition of primitive man. Again,
the practice of magic and witchcraft Is still far
from unknown even in the centres of European
civilisation ; and many persons who feel them-
selves superior to any form of religious belief,
still associate o^ood or bad luck with certain
trivial actions and events. Many people still
feel uncomfortable If they happen to tread on

INTRODUCTION xxxi

the joint of two paving stones, or if they have
to pass under a ladder; the ''envy of the
gods " is still averted by ejaculating '' unberufen
und unbeschrieen," or some such phrase ; and
belief in the power of the evil eye is as
seriously and almost as widely entertained now
as it was in the days of St. Thomas Aquinas.

In fact the vaguely mystical attitude of
mind in which primitive man views everything
around him lies dormant in all of us, and on
occasion will come uppermost ; just as the
savage passions which have been trained and
disciplined into the manners and customs of
civilised life will on occasion break out in all
their primitive crudity. But the undeveloped
and untaught mystical tendency is no more
true mysticism than the primitive savage
emotions are habits of virtue or ofood manners.
To this primitive source we must trace the
common tendency to apply the title of mystical
to almost anything that seems unusual or
difficult of explanation. More especially, the
surviving confusion of the primitive mind is to
be recognised in the emotional apprehension of
objects of beauty or interest, as symbolising

n/

xxxii MYSTICISM

something beyond themselves which is their
cause and which gives them their deeper mean-
ing. So to appreciate nature, history or art is to
follow the mystical tendency which is inherent
in human nature, and without which the
existence of actual mysticism could scarcely be
conceived as possible. But the mystical
tendency is not mysticism ; just as the rudi-
mentary elements of science contained in
primitive conceptions of nature were not yet
actually scientific.

Spiritualism, even if its claims to be con-
sidered a genuine science are admitted, falls far
short of the position of true mysticism. The
beings with whom it deals (if, indeed, they have
any real existence) are not supposed to represent
the supreme controlling power of the universe,
nor is the alleo"ed communication with them
direct ; it takes place, if at all, through
"materialisations," the body of a '' medium," or
the instrumentality of domestic furniture.
Spiritualism may be considered as a stage,
possibly a retrogressive one, in the evolution
of the mystical tendency ; it has certainly
nothing in common with true mysticism.

INTRODUCTION xxxiii

But the attempted connection of Christian
mysticism with ideaHstic pantheism raises
special difficuhies of its own. On this theory,
which has recently found some favour with an
undiscerning public, it appears to be held that
there is a transcendental sphere into which
exceptionally gifted minds have been able to
penetrate, but which is not — as, of course, in
the pantheistic view it could not be — that
immediate presence of a personal God which
Christian mystics believed that they enjoyed.
Their belief in the divine Trinity and the
Incarnate Son was, it is thought, merely a part
of the subjective medium through which their
consciousness of the transcendental reality had
to pass, and which gave its own form and colour
to their mystical experience. The *'dry light "
of the Absolute is, in this view, stained by the
preconceptions of the mind which contemplates
it. We may, therefore, abstract all such pre-
conceptions of whatever kind — whether founded
on revelation, philosophic speculation or theo-
sophic insight — and consider the residuum as
the one essential and all-pervading element of
mystical vision.

xxxiv MYSTICISM

This residuum is held to be the inner reality
of nature, the stable foundation on which the
kaleidoscopic changes of the universe take
place, and in which the changing elements
themselves are substantially comprehended.
The phenomenal experience of mankind in
general is fragmentary ; but the mystic con-
templates all things in their totality ; he
envisages the greatest common measure of the
universe as a single luminous point, from which
the various elements of the cosmos, ideal or
material, perpetually radiate, and in which they
are all at the same time concentrated. Thus it
is supposed that the mystic enters into a kind
of impersonal union with the essence of things,
or rather realises that union in a sphere higher
than that of personality. It matters nothing,
accordingly, what the subjective medium may
be through which the transcendental vision
passes — that is merely the soul-language in
terms of which the true object is expressed ;
and the actual object of mystical contemplation
is for Catholic, Protestant, Buddhist and
Mohammedan precisely one and the same. So
stated, it is not to be denied that the theory

INTRODUCTION xxxv

has a certain plausibility. But here are the
difficulties.

First, we have, and can have, no direct
evidence in the matter but the accounts given
by the mystics themselves of their own experi-
ence. But if we are to accept one part of this
account, on what ground may we reject another
part, when our authorities agree in regarding
both as equally certain.^ If. for instance, we
may refuse credit to St. Teresa's explicit state-
ment that she had a direct intuition of the Moly
Trinity, have we any right to believe that she
had any intuition at all ? We have only her
bare word, in any case, to go by. If it is
replied that we are justified in accepting the
statements in which all so-called mystics agree,
while we are bound to reject those in which
they mutually differ ; we must inquire what,
after all, it is that they agree in ? What is the
common ground in St. Paul's vision of the
seventh heaven ; Schopenhauer's contempla-
tion of the *' kernel " of the universe ; Julian
of Norwich's inexplicable explanation of the
divine justice, the abstraction of the Hesychast
or the Buddhist monk, the trances of

xxxvi MYSTICISM

Mohammed, the ecstasy of Plotinus, and
all the endless other varieties of abnormal
religious or quasi-religious experience ? The
most we can say is that they all saw, or thought
they saw, something. But their accounts of it
are so various as to be mutually destructive ;
they cannot, logically, be supposed to have seen
the same thing. But if they did not all see the
same thing, two conclusions only are possible- —
either each saw what he thought he saw, or no
one saw anything. The two conclusions are,
of course, easily reconcileable by supposing that
the vision in every case was produced by the
imagination of the visionary, and had no
external reality — each saw what he supposed
himself to see, but there was nothing there but
himself. This is very far from being our own
conclusion ; but we submit that it is the only
one to which any attempt to synthesize the
endless variety of experience claimed by
visionaries of all kinds and times can logically
lead. What we think can be conclusively
shown by a patient investigation of the evidence
is that Christian mystics have common
characteristics quite apart froiu the doctrines

INTRODUCTION xxxvii

they are bound to hold in common, which are
pecuh'ar to themselves, and which afford firm
ground for accepting their experiences as
genuine.

It may, however, be contended that in the
Absolute the disharmonies of the phenomenal
world are adjusted ; that it is the fragmentary
character of error that makes it erroneous, and
that consequently in the Absolute error is seen
in relation to the whole, and therefore as a
mode of truth. But if Christian doctrines are
seen in the Absolute to be in themselves errors,
however adjustable, then certainly they are not
seen in the light in which Christian mystics
professed to see them. The Christian mystics
were convinced that in their peculiar experiences
they had a perfect assurance of the truth of the
doctrines they believed, and if we are asked to
suppose that those experiences really presented
the doctrines in any other light, we are merely
thrown back upon our question as to what the
mystics really did see. If, on the other hand,
the doctrines were perceived as simply true, then
the mystical vision was precisely what the
mystics declared it to be, and there is no room

xxxviii MYSTICISM

in it for the Absolute. Otherwise we must
imagine that the Absolute can alter his aspect
to suit the preconceptions of those who contem-
plate him — in which case he is not the Absolute
but the Relative, and so passes out of even
imaginary existence. To those who, like Mr.
Schiller,^ are convinced for independent reasons
that the Absolute has no real existence, this
interpretation of mysticism can only appear as
a reversion, on a colossal scale, to the primitive
confusion of mind.

The second difficulty is rather moral
than logical. On this Absolutist theory it
is not easy to see how the mystics' expendi-
ture of time and energy is to be justified
—much less how they can be entitled, as the
Absolutists hold them to be, to our respect and
admiration.

The Christian mystics believed that they
contemplated the triune God who condescended
to enter into the closest personal communica-
tion with them ; and that such contemplation of
God was the true end of man's existence. In
these transcendental experiences they held that

* F. Schiller, Humanism.

INTRODUCTION xxxix

they tasted in some degree the joys reserved in
full for a future beyond the grave ; and it was
this belief that in their view justified the
devotion of their lives to the main purpose of
contemplation, and explained the exalted happi-
ness they derived from it. But if they were
mistaken in this belief it is not so easy to justify
their proceedings. To anticipate in this life by
supernatural divine aid the occupation and
delight of the next life can, from the Christian
point of view, be nothing but right and
admirable. But it is not held by anyone to be
certain that the contemplation of the Absolute
is the one true and sufficient end of man, either
in this life or in the next ; nor is the Absolutist
at all sure that there is any personal future life
to serve as the pattern or ideal for the present
one. The theory we are considering, therefore,
leaves it at least open to doubt whether the
mystic acts rightly in neglecting the social
duties and interests of a normal human being
for the sake of pursuing his favourite occupation.
The pantheistic theory of mysticism may thus
be no less retrogressive morally than it is logi-
cally, from the point of view of its supporters

xl MYSTICISM

themselves. The natural contemplation, or
emotional and symbolical outlook on life which
has already been mentioned, holds a position
quite distinct from this psychophysical tran-
scendentalism. The former is not, indeed, true
mysticism ; it deals with the transcendental not
as actualised, but as Inferred from the pheno-
menal ; it depends not on any special enlighten-
ment by supernatural aid, but on the natural
powers of soul and body, assisted or not,
according to circumstances, by the ordinary
operations of grace. But so far as it goes, it Is
a genuine thing, and the guiding principle of
much that is gracious and noble In practical life.
But the theory which would reduce all forms
of transcendentalism to a common denominator
and so deal with them en bloc, cannot, as we
have seen, stand upright by itself, and falls to
pieces by Its own weight.

It only remains to point out that progress
from a confused and imaofinative view of the
cosmos to an orderly and scientific one has
been marked, in its various stages, by a series
of struggles of a more or less violent character.
The Ariclan priest ''who slew the slayer and

INTRODUCTION xli

shall himself be slain " Is typical of every suc-
cessive phase of thought which has prevailed
for Its appointed time among civilised or un-
civilised communities. Prejudice dies hard, and
has the support of great names and venerable
traditions. Moreover, there is in the confused
outlook of the primitive mind an element of
truth which endears it to many. The world is
not the exclusive possession of the scientist, the
philosopher or even the mystic, but for all alike
and together.^ All science and all philosophy
must deal with things not as they really are,
but as dissociated from their place in nature for
the purpose of separate investigation ; and so
to abstract is necessarily to some extent to
falsify. Neither force nor matter nor number
really exists in the shape in which it has to be
dealt with by the chemist, the mechanist or the
mathematician : nature combines, the intelli-
gence of man distinguishes : neither point of
view can afford to forget or neglect the other.
It is no wonder, then, that the distinguishing
process should at first sight seem to be a
ruthless mutilation of the truth, that men's

^ See Munsterberg, Psychology and Life,

xlii MYSTICISM

natural Impulses should be constantly forcing
them back upon the old and easy ways, or that
the pioneers of knowledge should be treated as
traitors and deceivers. Moreover, it is by no
means always that the newest ideas are the
true ones ; error as well as truth has its martyrs.
The Christian revelation has never ceased to
be clear in itself, nor has its divinely appointed
guardian ever failed to hold it before the world
in all its purity and authority ; but again and
again both its friends and foes have failed to
distinguish between revelation itself and their
own crude deductions from it, just as their
remote ancestors failed to distinguish the facts
of their surroundings from the Imaginary causes
to which those facts were referred. Mysticism,
as the personal revelation of God to the
individual soul, and as a special, and in some
respects the highest manifestation of divine
grace, has always held a place in the faith and
life of the Church ; but It has often been con-
fused with the Imaginations of non-Christian
philosophies, with fanatical excitement, and with
mere superstition.

Christian mysticism has not yet got wholly

INTRODUCTION xliii

free from its entanglement with alien ideas.
Perhaps it never will ; for human progress is
subject to frequent reactions, and the primitive
confusion seems perpetually to reappear in ever
changing forms. Perhaps, too, it is as well
that the ** inner way," since it never can be an
easy one, should not be quite obvious. One
can hardly desire or even imagine that the
pursuit of mystical knowledge should ever
become widely popular. It came near to being
so, for a short time and within a narrow circle,
at the court of Louis XIV., with consequences
that cannot be thought satisfactory. But those
who accept the Christian revelation in its
completeness need find no difficulty in re-
cognising mysticism as at once the highest
achievement of the human soul, and a testimony
to the reality of the divine assistance on which
that achievement depends.

MYSTICISM: ITS TRUE NATURE

AND VALUE

CHAPTER I

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM

Mysticism, in the wide and somewhat loose
sense in which the term is commonly used,
may be considered as the final outcome of a
congenital desire for knowledge which appears
in all animate creatures. In children and
savages, as also in the lower animals, it takes
the rudimentary form of sensitive curiosity ;
in more fully developed rational natures it
becomes the desire to understand the inner
nature of things, and finally extends itself to
that obscure region, dimly recognised by all
men, which lies beyond the sphere of things,
and of the senses by which things are per-
ceived. But knowledge is of two kinds —

2 MYSTICISM

abstract and concrete, or experimental and
theoretical. We know for certain in one way
that there are coins in the Bank of England,
but we know that there are similar coins in
our own pockets in quite another way : in
the one we have the direct evidence of our
senses, and in the other the senses indeed
have their necessary part, but not by way of
direct contact with the object of our know-
ledge. It is scarcely necessary to remark
that these two kinds of knowledge go hand
in hand : the theoretical in the last resort
depends on the experimental ; and certain as
we may be of the correctness of our theoreti-
cal knowledge, we are seldom content without
putting it in practice, when it is in our power
to do so, and thus proving it by experiment.
There is, however, a point at which the experi-
mental test ceases to be possible, and that
point is fixed by the limits of our senses : we
cannot know anything experimentally which
is not sensible, or capable of being embodied
in sensible things, as a mechanical or chemical
principle is embodied in the substances with
which experiments are made. But our senses

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 3

take us only a very short distance into the
nature of things — what things are ''in them-
selves " — on what principle they are what they
are — what is the inward nature of the perpetual
changes they undergo ; on such questions as
these we can theorise freely, and can no
doubt reach some conclusions which we are
able to regard as absolutely certain. But we
must be content with theoretical certainty at
most, since experiment in these matters is out
of our power. But theory itself — founded as
it necessarily is on experimental knowledge —
must also have a limit, which it reaches when
it has exhausted the implications of sense
experience — when it has, so to speak, used up
the raw material of thought supplied by sensa-
tion. We can make no theory about a thing
we have never seen or with which we have
never been brought into contact by any of
the organs of sense. Such a thing is merely
x\ we must know what x stands for, before
we can say anything at all about it. Our
imagination may make it stand for anything
we please, but what we make it represent
can only be some sense impression that we

4 MYSTICISM

recall from the past, or some idea that we
have at some time abstracted from our sense
knowledge.

Now we obviously reach the limit of
theoretical knowledge when we come to the
end (which from another point of view is
the beginning) of everything. Here we are
indeed far beyond the bounds of sense : but
we can go no farther. There may be a great
deal beyond the end, or before the beginning,
of what we understand by everything ; but
we can find out nothing about it — for we
have no means of doing so. We cannot,
properly speaking, even imagine anything
about it ; for imagination can only repeat for
us what we already know ; and that can have
no place beyond the beginning of all know-
able things. When we see a stream of water,
we can be quite certain that it has a source,
and we may be able to perceive indications of
the source's nature and immediate surroundings:
but the stream can tell us nothing of what
lies beyond its source — of the geography of the
country, the character of the inhabitants, their
political organisation and the like. All these

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 5

are beyond the beginning of the stream ; we
can find out what they are only by going there
and seeing for ourselves, or by getting some
one who has been there to tell us about them.
Now the limit of our theoretical knowledge
in this world is reached when we attain to
the concept of a First Cause, or the necessary
being which produces, underlies and upholds
the contingent and changeable universe ; and
that cause and necessary being, needless to
say, is God. We have an absolute theoretical
certainty of the existence of God, depending
ultimately on facts of experience ; and we
have, or may have, many practical evidences
of His power, wisdom and goodness. More-
over, He has by various means told us things
about Himself which we could not otherwise
have known. But direct experimental know-
ledge of Him we have and can have none,
in the ordinary course of things. We cannot
see Him, or touch Him, or hear Him. Yet
the more certain men are of His existence,
the more conscious they are of His love and
goodness, and the more deeply their minds
are penetrated by the idea of His perfection,

6 MYSTICISM

the more they inevitably long for some such
experimental knowledge of Him as, within
our earthly experience, the senses alone can
obtain for us. But this, from the nature of
the case, is impossible ; God is no more to
be directly apprehended by our senses than
an idea, a thought or an emotion.

Is there then no third way by which we may
not only know but feel the presence of God —
by which all that He is to us may become not
merely theoretical certainty, but a fact of direct
experience? Is there, that is to say, any
means by which, though we cannot bring Him
down to the world of sense, we may ourselves,
in virtue of our partially spiritual nature, ascend
to the spiritual world and there behold Him ?

It is the desire and the search for such a
means of approach to God that has produced
Mysticism or *' Mystical Theology," which in
its general aspect is the experience, real or
supposed, of actual quasi-physical contact with
God — an experience undoubtedly known in
reality by many, though by many more it
has beyond question been merely imagined.

" Speculative " or Dogmatic Theology is

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 7

like the theory of optics, which tells us what
the eye is, and how it sees ; mystical theology
is the sight itself, with all that it involves of
exercise and training. Speculative theology
is a science ; mystical theology is an art.

There are two points of view from which
this art may be regarded, the natural and
the supernatural. They do not by any
means necessarily exclude one another ; each,
indeed, in point of fact, implies the other.
But neglect of the supernatural side of
mysticism has led to an altogether mistaken
notion of what mysticism has always, until
very recently, been held to mean ; and it
must be admitted that forgetfulness of the
natural side, consisting of the limitations,
necessities and obligations of humanity, has
too often been the cause of degenerate and
extravagant superstition, with its many attend-
ant evils.

Viewed simply on its natural side, mysti-
cism appears as an attempt, more or less
successful, to pass through or overleap the
barrier of material things, and so to enter
the presence from the sight of which we are

8 MYSTICISM

ordinarily excluded by our subjection to the
senses. There are two ways in which this
attempt may be and has been made. One
is by an endeavour to pass beyond the finite
and sensible world by the concentration upon
one point of those mental or spiritual forces
which in every individual man appear to
belong more to the world of permanent
reality than to that of transient appearance
in which our bodily life is spent. The mind
resolutely casts out all figures and ideas of
sensible things ; it empties itself, by a power-
ful effort, of all its acquired furniture, and
strives in its own original nakedness to behold
the naked reality that exists behind the many-
coloured vesture of sense. Plotinus, Proclus
and their disciples, travelling by this difficult
road, found, or seemed to find, the springs
of being in the abstract and absolute unity
which lies behind the ever-expanding variety
of the created world. But whether in that
remote and desolate region to which they
penetrated they found anything which they
had not brought with them from the world
of light, colour and warmth which they

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 9

sought to abandon, may be considered doubt-
ful. That they did not is at any rate the
view of those whose object is the same, but
who adopt a method the reverse of theirs.
That method, by some considered the only
true one, is to look for mystical knowledge
not beyond, but in the material, intellectual
and emotional life in which our lot is cast.
It regards this world as but a small frag-
ment of a much larger whole, and as made
up of many elements, all of which are not
discoverable, so at least as to be clearly
distinguished by either our bodily or our
intellectual faculties. But every part of it
is, in this view, connected with and symbolic
of something infinitely greater than itself. It
embodies and illustrates the operation of vast
cosmic laws ; it gives evidence of a divine
benevolence which reaches further than our
utmost vision can follow ; it is lit by a ray
from the sun of perfect beauty that lies
below the horizon of earthly existence. Thus
"a man's reach must exceed his grasp" as
he goes through life ; his mind constructs
from the ''broken arc" of natural experience

lo MYSTICISM

the ** perfect round " of heavenly beatitude ;
in the discords of earth his ear catches
echoes of celestial harmonies, and the darkest
places of this world are invested with ''clouds
of glory" for those who thus *'see into the
life of things."

Thus mysticism has been called **the
attempt to realise the presence of the living
God in the soul and in nature, or, more
generally, the attempt to realise in thought
and feeling the immanence of the temporal
in the eternal, and of the eternal in the
temporal."^

No one can dispute the universal right of
defining terms according to taste and fancy ;
and those who define or describe mysticism
in this way have a perfect right to do so.
But if this is mysticism, then surely we
ought to have another name for the other
method — the ''tremendous journey towards
the mysterious Isles of Fire, the Icelands of
abstraction and of love " undertaken by Philo,
Plotinus or Proclus.^

^ W. R. Inge, "Christian Mysticism," Bampion Lectures^
Lect. I.
^ M.2it\.tx]\nQ\i, Ruysbroeck and the Mystics. Introd.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM ii

There would seem to be little in common
between the suggestive and symbolic aspect
of things in which the world appears as the
true manifestation of God, and that in which
the same world is felt to be the one great
obstacle which conceals the eternal reality
from the sight.

But whichever method may be considered
the right one, mysticism, considered as a
purely natural phenomenon [z.e.y as consisting
in a peculiar exercise of the natural powers),
is necessarily limited to the interaction of
human reason and emotion and those natural
objects with which reason and emotion are
concerned ; and in which suggestions of
something supernatural may be more or less
clearly perceived. Mysticism so understood is
merely a certain attitude of the mind towards
its surroundings ; and what it perceives is
proved, it is thought, to be thereby really
there. Its outlook may be partial, and its
ideas consequently one-sided, and the expres-
sion of them may need correction. But it is
all true, whether as fact or as symbol — which
may, though itself literally untrue, yet be

12 MYSTICISM

more true than the literal truth. ''The true
is, for us, the good."^ All that can be dis-
cerned in the nature which half conceals and
half reveals the Deity, so far as it is beautiful,
attractive and ennobling, is in some sense
true, and in some degree a vision of God.
Such visions, therefore, as seen by different
minds and by whatever method, need only
to be compared, correlated and mutually
adjusted, in order to form all that from this
point of view can be rightly called a body
of Mystical Theology.

The second view which may be taken of
the subject as a whole is that of Dionysius,
and of the long succession of mystics who
have consciously or unconsciously adopted
the principles laid down in his Mystical
Theology. Its basis is a profound con-
viction of the uniqueness and incommuni-
cability of the Divine nature. However
exalted creatures may be in nature, and
however perfect in relation to their place
and function, there is a chasm between them
and their Divine Creator which cannot be

^ Inge, op, cit.^ Lect. VII.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 13

closed or bridged even in thought. How-
ever sharply any one form of existence may
be distinguished from all others, this dis-
tinction cannot even approach the funda-
mental character of the distinction between
all creatures on the one side and their
Creator on the other. There cannot even,
properly speaking, be so near a rapproche-
ment of the two as to make a real distinction
possible — God can be related, in His essence,
to creatures only by a fiction of the mind :
they are to His absolute independence and
self-sufficiency as nothing. But on the other
hand, God is not separated from Creation by
time or space — by which His being is, indeed,
not affected in any way.

All creatures are in a state of immediate de-
pendence upon Him, and it is only in virtue of
this dependence that they exist. In a certain
sense, therefore, God is immediately present
among and in creatures : they are the continual
offspring of His power and wisdom ; and where
these are at work, there God in His uncreated
essence must also be. Consequently, God is
in a true sense immanent in creation ; He is

14 MYSTICISM

not indeed mixed with it, and it is and must
be the one thing that in His uncreated being
He cannot resemble ; yet all creation has the
distant likeness to Him which mere being
imparts ; and in all its parts reflects, however
dimly. His wisdom and beauty. Therefore
that God is may be clearly known from the
'* visible things*' of creation. But what God is
in Himself, no man can know, unless God Him-
self reveals it to him. To see the reflection
of Divine beauty is one thing : to see God
is another. For all man's natural knowledge
comes from creatures, and by way of sensa-
tion : and God is the one being that is not
a creature, and of whom sensation can directly
tell us nothing.

This being so, the only direct, immediate or
experimental knowledge of God that man can
attain to must be supernaturally bestowed upon
him. Naturally, man is enclosed within the
iron walls of sense and sensible things, through
which no sound or ray of light can penetrate ;
their solid metal vibrates, so to speak, and the
warmth from without is felt in the air they
enclose. But all is silence and darkness,

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 15

unless the solid barrier is removed by some
power greater than man's. To supernatural
mysticism it seems that such power is from
time to time exerted for man's benefit ; the
walls of his prison are parted, for a moment
at least, and he sees something of what lies
outside. And if any true vision of God has
ever been obtained by those who have sought
it through the exertion of their natural powers
— whether negatively, as the Neoplatonist
ascetics, or positively, as the nature mystics
and symbolists — it has come directly, not from
the exertion of those powers, but from His
spontaneous bounty alone.

Such is the theory of mysticism which
obtains in the Catholic Church. It does not
dispute the genuineness or the attractiveness
of the symbolical view of life, nor does it deny
the necessity of personal effort as a condition
(though not the cause) of the supernatural
vision ; but it holds that merely natural con-
templation is based on association and feeling,
and is incapable of leading the soul beyond
the confines of the material world. Natural
symbolism will make known much of God's

i6 MYSTICISM

action and of His nature ; but it cannot bring
man face to face with Him. The supernatural
conception of mysticism, moreover, admits fully
the existence of a constant need and desire in
mankind for God, even far beyond the Christian
pale ; it is also ready to admit, where sufficient
evidence can be shown, that this desire has
in any given case received some degree of
satisfaction in the only way in which such
satisfaction is possible. God's condescension
is not to be confined within any narrower
limits than those He has Himself imposed ;
and there is nothing contrary to possibility in
the Alexandrian opinion that such a mystical
knowledge of God had been attained by some
Neoplatonists as many Christians had failed to
reach. The one point insisted on is that such
knowledge is and must be essentially super-
natural ; that is, that it cannot be obtained by
means of any created thing, or by any effort
of the human powers, since the thing known
is itself, in Dionysius' words, eVemi/a Trdvroov —
beyond all that man can of himself see or know.
The first thing that strikes one about these
two general views of the subject would seem

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 17

to be their quite obvious incompatibility.
More than one praiseworthy attempt has been
made to treat them together, as two varieties
of the same thing. But the only way in which
this can possibly be done is by taking one
as the genuine theory of Mysticism, and the
other as spurious.

Mysticism might conceivably be either natural
or supernatural ; it cannot possibly be both.
If God can be seen or known in and by
nature, then the supernatural contemplation of
Him as essentially apart from and above all
creatures can only be a delusion. For the
two methods are directly opposed to one
another ; and two opposite processes cannot
possibly have an identical result. If, on the
other hand, the Dionysian method of abstrac-
tion can, by the aid of Divine Grace, enable
man to transcend created nature and to behold
the absolute uncreated existence, then the
method which looks for an intuition of God
in nature may indeed have a high value as
poetry or romance, or as a way of appreciating
the evidence for God's existence ; but it
cannot, in that case, be mysticism. However

B

i8 MYSTICISM

Strongly based on experience, or however
deeply emotional in its mental reactions, it
is in the last analysis merely a process of
inference ; and any appearance it may give
rise to of intuitive knowledge must be capable
of analysis into the component parts of an in-
ductive syllogism. **The mystic," it has been
said, *4s the only thorough-going empiricist;"^
and indeed, in regard to his transcendental
intuitions he can be nothing else. In the
vision claimed by supernatural mysticism —
and there alone — the ''that" and the ''what"
are identical ; essence and existence are one
in God, and experimental knowledge of His
existence must necessarily preclude all dis-
cursive reasoning as to His essence. Hence
both the certitude of mystics as to the reality
of their knowledge, and their total incapacity
to explain it. Thorough empiricism is really
possible only at the two ends of the scale
of human experience — in mystical contempla-
tion and in sensation. In sensation, as in
mysticism, empiricism is the only possible
attitude ; sensations in themselves, and as

^ Royce, The World and the Individual^ vol. i. ch. i.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 19

they appear grouped in consciousness, are
complete and immediate ; they cannot be
explained, idealised or analysed. But the
moment sensations become the subject of
thought, pure empiricism is no longer possible;
sense-experience must depend for its continuity
upon some kind of ideal constructions ; and
the poetry and romance of life and nature,
and even the *'Ascensio mentis in Deum per
scalam rerum creatarum," are no more than
modes of the mind's perpetual wrestling with
its environment. It is only when **the wheel
has come full circle " in the intuition of mysti-
cism that the unquestionable immediacy, finality
and certainty of sensation are brought back in
the higher sphere of the intelligence.

Such, at least, is the contention on behalf
of supernatural mysticism ; and the only real
alternative to it is complete surrender of all
that mysticism has been held to connote.
For a confused consciousness of the divine or
the supernatural, as symbolised or suggested
by certain fragmentary aspects of nature, or
art, or social existence, is at bottom a per-
fectly different thing from the direct vision of

20 MYSTICISM

and intercourse with a divine person. ** I talk
not with thy dreams," supernatural mysticism
replies to the imaginative outpourings of the
nature mystic, the philanthropist or the lover.^
Beautiful or pathetic or true as those dreams
may be, they have no other origin than that
of dreams which are none of those things ;
and if supernatural mysticism is only another
kind of dream — if its origin can be traced
to the same turbid stream of mingled experi-
ence and thought — well then, there is no such
thing as true mysticism ; we must revert to
the opinion of those to whom mysticism was

^ St John of the Cross brings the two methods into sharp
contrast. "While created things furnish to the soul traces
of the Beloved, and exhibit the impress of His beauty and
magnificence, the love of the soul increases, and consequently
the pain of His absence ; for the greater the soul's knowledge of
God, the greater is the desire to see Him, and its pain when it
cannot ; and while there is no remedy for this pain except in
the presence of the Beloved, the soul, distrustful of every
other remedy, prays for the fruition of His presence." It says,
in effect : " Entertain me no more with any knowledge of Thee or
with Thy communications or impressions of Thy grandeur, for
these do but increase my longing and the pain of Thy absence ;
for Thy presence alone can satisfy my will and desire.'' The
will cannot be satisfied with anything less than the vision of
God, and therefore the soul prays that He may be pleased to
give Himself to it perfectly in truth, in the consolation of love."
— Spiritual Canticle^ Explanation of Stanza VI.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 21

only a name for an ignoble kind of self-delu-
sion, and relegate both name and thing to
the secular lumber - room which has already
received such outworn mental furniture as
astrology, alchemy and necromancy. Roman-
ticism will doubtless always hold a certain
place in human thought and feeling ; for
whatever new aspects nature and life may
have in store, there can hardly fail at any
time to be numbers of men and women
whose sensibility is more readily awakened
by the contact of their surroundings than by
interior reflection. But mysticism is, as we
have seen, either supernatural or nothing.
Our enquiry must therefore be directed to
the conditions which supernatural mysticism
claims for itself, with the view of deter-
mining whether or not its pretensions have a
sufficient basis in observable facts to entitle
to credence those transcendental experiences
for which we can have no evidence beyond
the bare word of the mystic himself We
shall have therefore to consider whether and
how far the Dionysian principles are identi-
cal with those which are discernible in the

22 MYSTICISM

ordinary course of nature ; whether mystical
states, as described by those who have ex-
perienced them, are compatible with the
nature and normal action of the human
faculties ; and whether those states — if we
find them to rest on a solid theory, and to
be in harmony with the verified results of
psychological investigation — may or may not
be adequately accounted for by merely natural
agency.

As to these three questions, which will be
discussed in some detail further on, it will
be sufficient to note here first, that ordinary
cognition and reflection require as their
starting - point some contact with external
matter (what such contact, externality and
matter may be in themselves we need not,
for our present purpose, enquire) by means
of which the mind may form ideas, to be
subsequently dealt with by way of reflection.
Consequently, ideas or thoughts which are
not related in this manner and degree to
external material things are simply incon-
ceivable in the natural order : and if it is
granted that the mind may by any means so

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM ^3

abstract itself from the external world that
it has no image of any external thing before
it, either directly as a ''phantasm," or in-
directly as an abstract idea formed on a basis
of sense-experience, then, naturally speaking,
it has nothing before it but an absolute blank.
But this is precisely the condition in which
the mind is conceived by supernatural mystics
to be during the time — generally a very
brief one — of contemplation. So far as the
natural world and all images derived from it
are concerned, there is nothing but a blank.
But the void is filled by the divine presence,
and by supernatural agency. We are not,
however, led to suppose by anything mystical
writers tell us that the state of mere negative
abstraction ever actually exists.^ One may
well doubt whether it is possible that it should ;

^ Cf. Schopenhauer. " If something is none of all the things
we know, it is certainly for us, speaking generally, nothing.
But it does not follow from this that it is absolutely nothing,
that from every possible point of view and in every possible
sense it must be nothing, but only that we are limited to a
completely negative knowledge of it, which may very well lie
in the limitations of our point of view. Now it is just here that
mysticism proceeds positively, and therefore it is just from this
point that nothing but mysticism remains." — World as Will
and Idea^ iv. 48.

24 MYSTICISM

and certainly the mystic does not suppose
himself to create a mental blank, which, after
being so created, is supernaturally filled. On
the contrary, the fundamental notion of the
mystical state is '* Rapture " — the mind does
not extricate itself, but is taken out of its
normal relations with the external world by
that very presence and influence which supplies
their place. The mystical knowledge of God
is, in regard to all natural knowledge and
light, merely ** Ignorance" and ''Darkness";
and this is the only condition under which
such knowledge could conceivably be imparted.
The soul, as it were, looks over the extreme
edge of the phenomenal world, and has no
use whatever for anything belonging to that
world : if it had any, it could not really be
at the edge, but would be the subject of a
delusion. Mystical knowledge, therefore, in
no way contradicts the principles which appear
necessarily to govern the ordinary cognition
of human beings ; it does not even imply
emancipation from them, it merely transfers
them to another sphere.

But a word must be said as to the nature

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 25

of this sphere. It is, of course, what is
commonly called the supernatural : and the
supernatural sphere is conceived unquestion-
ably by the mystic as distinct from and ex-
cluding the natural. The supernatural begins
where the natural ends. If this is denied,
then of course there is an end of super-
natural mysticism as a genuine thing — and,
by consequence, as we have seen, of any-
thing whatever that can be clearly connoted
by the term. Mr. Inge, indeed, in his other-
wise admirable Bampton Lectures, strongly
opposes this theory ; on what grounds it is
not easy to see. He, with other modern
upholders of mysticism, in the sense in which
it is understood by them, regards the pheno-
menal world interpreted by reason as a true
manifestation of the divine ideas and nature ;
it is the imperfection of human reason, caused
by sin and ignorance, that prevents men in
general from ''seeing the world as God sees
it" — as, in fact, it really exists in the mind of
God — and as being spiritual in its nature, by
reason of its creation by His thought and will.
We may pass over the latent Spinozism of

26 MYSTICISM

these and similar phrases, which, taken Hterally,
would seem to identify spirit and matter, the
created universe and God. The point where
this theory manifestly falls short of true
mysticism is that it takes something created,
no matter what, for its final object. Super-
natural mysticism, as we have said already,
has no objection to offer to the notion that
something of the nature and will of God can
be discerned in all created things, that He
is truly reflected in them, and that this
reflection can be distinguished with increasing
clearness as we draw near to the perfect
human state.^ All this is as true from the
point of view of supernatural myticism as
from that of its rival.

But ** realisation in thought and feeling" is
not experimental knowledge of God : thought
and feeling may perceive quod est — that
He exists, in the plenitude of the divine
attributes ; but they cannot see qnid est —
what He is in His own absolute being. At
most, natural mysticism is a true vision of
creation : what supernatural mysticism claims

^ Cf. Sumnia^ i. 2. i. i. and 2. c. : also i. 12. 6. c.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 27

to be is the vision of the Creator. The two
views, so far from being mutually exclusive,
are mutually complementary : the error lies
in denial of the possibility of the supernatural
knowledge, not in assertion of the natural.
Moreover, there is really no difference of
principle or method between the two ; the
difference is in the object at which each, in
point of fact, aims. For there is, after all,
only one way in which the being of God
can be inferred from visible things ; and that
is the Via Remotionis — the negative road
which ''nature mystics" depreciate as at most
insufficient for its assumed purpose. What-
ever is known by the senses can, indeed, or
perhaps even must suggest a train of reason-
ing, conscious or subconscious, which ends in
the concept of a spiritual and personal reality
underlying the manifestations of nature. But
this can only be attained by abstracting from
the impressions which furnish the suggestion ;
the concept itself is formed by the reason,
though it is more or less confused, and reaches
up to a sphere which neither reason nor sense
can enter. But it is not intuitive or empirical ;

28 MYSTICISM

it is an idea evolved or constructed by a
rational process which in no way differs from
other rational processes : it is not an illumi-
nation from without. In other words, it is
no more mystical than our thoughts about any
matter of ordinary business or domestic economy,
from which it differs only in its subject-matter.

Take, for example, the elevated emotions
produced by the contemplation of the magni-
ficent panorama of sunset. What we see is
a shifting arrangement of colours — blue, red,
purple and green. What we extract from it
is a particular sense of beauty, and thence, by
association of ideas, a confused concept of all
the beautiful things in the world.

From this it is easy and natural to pass to
thoughts of the mysteriously elusive principle
of beauty, of the source of that principle and
of the creation in which it is embodied, and,
lastly, of the nature of that source, and of the
absolute moral and spiritual beauty to which
its works testify. But this train of thought is
in reality a train of negations. We practically
consider that beauty is not essentially of any
colour — it is a principle not embodied in any

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 29

one form — it cannot be self-caused, but must
have a source outside itself. This source
indeed is God ; but He is not beautiful in the
same way as the sunset — He is not blue or
red or green, nor is His beauty dependent on
any material constitution. But He is that
incomprehensible reality which gives beauty
to the colours of the sunset, and to all the
good and beautiful things, of whatever kind,
in the universe : He is not any one of those
things, nor yet all of them together, but He
contains in Himself the principle of them all :
they are all, as scholastics say, eminenter in
Him.

When we have reached this point we have
got rid of everything that our senses tell us
of, and have erected for our contemplation a
purely abstract conception, upon which the
lights of sunset still seem to play, and which
therefore retains something of their charm so
long as the impression lasts, but in itself is
stripped of every image that in this world
we know as beautiful.^ The solemn and pious
or romantic feelings which a brilliant sunset

^ Cf. lUingworth, Divine Immanence^ ch. iii.

30 MYSTICISM

calls into being are based on an inference
of a nature in no respect differing from that
of Paley's inference of a watchmaker from a
watch. Natural mysticism is concerned with
ideas and theories, not with actual experi-
ences. Its method is identical with the Via
Remotio7tis of speculative theology, of which
the mystical or practical parallel is the with-
drawal of the intelligence, under divine guid-
ance, from the contemplation of any sensible
image whatever, and its illumination, not by
an abstract idea, but by an actual presence.

Secondly, it should be observed that the
mode in which this illumination takes place is
not to be considered abnormal in itself, though
it obviously depends on abnormal conditions.

The mental faculties act, or may act, in the
ordinary way. The difference between the
mystical and the merely natural states lies, as
we have seen, in the object of the faculties,
not, so far as can be judged, in their mode
of action. The reason and intelligence under
ordinary circumstances work upon a basis of
sensation ; the reactions of the mind depend
ultimately upon the cumulative reactions of

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 31

the body ; or, in other words, the mind can
only act upon material furnished originally by
the senses. In mystical states this material
groundwork is, of course, absent, and in that
fact lies their supernatural character. The
place of the material is supplied by the presence
and action of supernatural divine agency, but
the mental and bodily reactions certainly need
not differ essentially in character from those
ordinarily set up by sensation. It would be
perfectly true to say that the mind, or soul,
can only act in one way ; and that consequently
any theory which requires that it should act
in a different way is thereby made absolutely
incredible. For such a theory would imply a
self-contradiction, which is the one absolutely
incredible thing. It would be like saying that
one sees a sound, or hears an odour. If the
soul were to act as a mere passive receptacle,
and yet be conscious of that which it received,
it would be an unmeaning contradiction of
itself, such as could not possibly exist or be
conceived. Consciousness is active ; the mind
can no more be a mere unresponsive receptacle
than the body can experience sensation with-

32 MYSTICISM

out being itself alive and active. The fact of
consciousness necessarily implies the normal
mental activity of the subject, with all the
physical concomitants necessary to it. But
the connection between consciousness and
sensation — the mode in which one is trans-
ferred to the other — is still very obscure and
the subject of many divergent theories : at any
rate, there appears to be nothing impossible,
or even irregular, in the idea that conscious-
ness and intelligence may follow their normal
course on a basis of supersensible ideas, pre-
sented to them, not by means of sense, but by
supernatural and divine interposition.

If we can be conscious of the presence of
a spiritual being by means of an inference from
the sensations excited by his bodily presence,
as we are conscious in our friend's presence
of a spiritual personality inferred from sensible
evidences, then it is at least quite conceivable
that God may cause Himself to be apprehended
as immediately present merely by stimulating
the consciousness in the same way in which it
is ordinarily stimulated by the idea (the species
intelligibilis) abstracted from sense-impressions.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 33

which in this case may be given ready made
instead of being constructed by the intellect.^
There is equally, of course, no a priori impossi-
bility in such communications being made by
agencies other than divine, and it is difficult to
see why any one who believes in the existence
of created spiritual personalities other than
human should regard them as being incapable
I under any circumstances of exercising direct
i influence upon mankind. All stories of angelic
visitations, or of diabolical possession, may not
be true ; and writers such as Gorres, Schram
and Ribet may be over-systematic and over-
minute in dealing with this subject. But there
can be no a priori reason for dismissing it as
merely superstitious.

Of the visions and locutions, "imaginary"
or ''intellectual," by means of which mystical
communications have not infrequently been
conveyed, there is no need to speak here.

^ Cf. Bergson, Mature et Memoire^ p. 33 : " Que la
matiere puisse etre pergu sans le concours d'un systeme
nerveux, sans organes de sens, cela n'est pas theoriquement
inconcevable." If this abstract direct perceptibility of matter
by the soul be conceded, it would seem to follow a fortiori that
the soul may perceive that which is immaterial, like the soul
itself, without any intermediate sensation.

34 MYSTICISM

They are not essential to mystical experi-
ence, and are held by mystical authorities
to be of quite secondary importance at best.
It is plain that the mode of communication
we have been considering is quite capable of
strongly affecting the imagination, and may do
so either by creating fresh imaginary figures,
or by recalling past impressions derived from
such things as pictures and statues. Some
of the visions of St Teresa, Julian of Norwich,
Anne Catherine Emmerich and many others
are frankly admitted to be of the latter
kind.

Thirdly, the phenomena of mystical con-
templation cannot be considered capable of
explanation by any theory which excludes the
supernatural. Two such theories have been
suggested. The apparently infused super-
natural object of contemplation has been
thought to be merely an image drawn by
the normal process of the understanding from
past conscious experience ; the supposed divine
illumination is held to be, in fact, the result
of self-delusion. Again, there are certain
resemblances between mystical states and

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 35

those induced by diseased conditions or drugs,
which have suggested the theory that mystical
states are really pathological, and are only
abnormal in that sense. But in spite of such
obvious resemblances as might naturally be
expected to occur in all abnormal conditions
of individual organisms of the same species,
there are marked differences which absolutely
preclude the possibility of explaining mystical
conditions in any of these ways.

First, there is in these states (apart from
the occurrence of visions) no figure or image
whatever, such as necessarily occurs in any
natural process of reasoning or imagination.
Recorded mystical experiences, various as
they are in type, uniformly fail to connect
themselves with any preceding thought or
experience of a natural kind. The assertion,
frequently made, that they must be so con-
nected is nothing but an arbitrary assumption ;
the evidence is all the other way. Then the
visions or hallucinations proceeding from a
drugged or otherwise pathological condition
are characterised, as it seems, invariably, by
monstrous or grotesque visual appearances, or

36 MYSTICISM

by strange physical sensations which, though
in some persons they have apparently exer-
cised some power of spiritual suggestion,
belong distinctly to the order of natural
dreams : their physical origin is manifest,
though its precise locality is, naturally, not
always ascertainable/ Moreover, mystics have
always been remarkable for sanity and placidity
even when invalids ; the neurotic temperament
which belongs to pathological states of con-
sciousness is conspicuously rare, even if not
entirely absent among them. Such a tempera-
ment can hardly be thought compatible with
the *' straightforwardness, simplicity and daunt-
less courage " of St Teresa, or the ** tremendous
moral force " of St John of the Cross,^ or with
the energetic activity and the tender human
sympathy of St Catherine of Siena. More-
over, it is worth noticing in this connection
that for the practical purposes of canonisation
and beatification a clearly recognisable dis-
tinction is and has always been perceived
by ecclesiastical authority — depending more

^ See the instances given by James, Varieties of Religious
Experience {Mysticism).
^ Inge, " Christian Mysticism," Lect. VI.

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 37

on common sense than on any psychological
theory — between experiences which may be
classed as pathological, and those which must
be considered supernatural.^

On the whole, therefore, it seems hardly too
much to say that none of the proposed explana-
tions would have any weight whatever, apart
from the reluctance to admit the existence and
possibility of supernatural experience which,
by a natural swing of the pendulum, has
superseded in our day the former too great
readiness to seek a supernatural cause for
any uncommon event.

But, it may be said, what does all this
matter ? The subject can be of direct interest
only to those who have, or believe themselves
to have, mystical experience of the supernatural
kind : and they are very few in number even
if any of them are still extant. Moreover,
mysticism, in that sense, is not part of the
Christian religion ; it is quite possible to be
not merely a good Christian, but even a saint,
without so much as knowing anything about
the matter. Why not leave it to those, if

^ See Benedict XIV. De Canonis.

38 MYSTICISM

any there are, who are the subjects of these
abnormal experiences, and whose conviction
as to the nature of them is ah'eady unshake-
able, and to those experts who from time to
time may have to form a judgment about
them ? For the ordinary run of people there
can be no use in considering a subject which
in no way concerns either their faith or their
duty. Now it is quite true that comparatively
few are called to supernatural contemplation ;
it is equally true that neither the faith nor the
practical duty of Christians in general can in
any way depend on "private revelations" or
on mystical knowledge of any kind. Never-
theless, the subject has a distinct interest and
importance of its own for all who desire to
form a clear and correct judgment as to
the true attitude of the Catholic Church in
regard to human life in general, or who
wish to appreciate fully the whole range of
the evidence to be adduced in favour of her
claims. For on the one hand, since mysticism
is a constant feature — though not equally
prominent at all times — of Christian life, it
cannot rightly be neglected by any who

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 39

wish to form a just estimate of the character
of that life as a whole ; and on the other
hand, mysticism has a distinct evidential value
whether considered in itself or in its relation
to other factors of the Catholic system, which
is by no means confined to those who have
experimental knowledge of it. I will try to
establish these two points.

I. Christianity, as fully represented and
embodied in the Catholic Church, appeals to
human nature as a whole, not to any part or
aspect of it. That is to say, the Church
deals with human nature in its completeness,
apart from all individual, national or racial
characteristics. It is therefore necessary that
every factor in that nature should find itself
recognised, and a place provided for it, with
appropriate guidance and discipline, in due
relation and harmony with all else that goes
to make up humanity, in the system of
the Church. In this sense the Church has
affinities with all forms of religion and philo-
sophy ; for in each of them some modicum
at least of truth is to be found, which, if the
Church is truly what she represents herself

40 MYSTICISM

to be, will be acknowledged and co-ordinated
with other truths in the complete body of
her doctrine. Error, even in its extremest
forms, is not *'a lie that is all a lie" — it is
truth torn from its natural place in the scheme
of things, and so seen in false perspective ;
truth is only true when seen in its due relation
to the whole. Men are misled, not by that
which does not exist — a thing we may well
believe to be impossible — but by following
that which is true without regard to its com-
plementary truths. This fact is nowhere so
evident as in the case of mysticism, which,
like liberty, has given the shelter of its name
to almost every conceivable aberration of
moral conduct. The desire for God, pursued
often by the most extravagant methods and
disguised under the most unlikely pretexts, is
the real motive-power of all human activity
whatsoever. Mysticism, on its purely human
side, is one road by which men seek for the
heart's rest which all, even in spite of them-
selves, desire. Whether within or without the
Church men will strive to see God, because
they must ; the methods they adopt may be

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 41

determined by varying temperaments or cir-
cumstances, but among them has always been
and must always be the '' inner way " — the
way of abstraction and contemplation, the
effort to pass beyond the many-coloured dome
of life into the ''white radiance" of true reality
beyond it.

Now if the Church had nothing to say to
this deeply rooted and constantly manifest
human desire, she would surely fall far short
of the place that she claims, and has held
successfully from the first. Still more, if, like
some, she had condemned, as merely pre-
sumptuous and delusive, the efforts of mankind
to realise in some faint degree now the very
life which she promises hereafter, she would
have come perilously near to denying her own
authority and commission. She would have
said in effect to mankind. You are made for
God ; you are to look forward to the super-
natural enjoyment of Him in Eternity, and
there is no limit to the favours which He can
and may bestow on you here and now. But
one thing you may not have, one thing He
shall not do for you — and that the one which

42 MYSTICISM

you most desire — you shall not have the
briefest or slightest foretaste here of the
blessedness that is to be yours hereafter ; God
Himself, though He may do miracles of all
sorts but this, shall not pierce the crust of
material things which hides Him from you, or
show you the faintest spark of the radiance
that lies beyond it — '* defense a Dieu de
faire miracles en ce lieu." But the Church has
never done anything of the kind. Mystical
knowledge has always been fully recognised by
her as possible, and as existing — whether in
the Hebrew prophets, the Apostles of Christ,
or the contemplatives of successive ages since
their day. Even for mystics, as such, with-
out her pale she has had no condemnation ;
she has condemned their misbelief, but has
kept silence about their mysticism ; and in
her theology and philosophy the phenomena of
mysticism have been dealt with and explained
in accordance with the methods which were
applied to all other phases of human experi-
ence. Not only a professed mystic like
Dionysius, but a Clement, an Augustine, a
Thomas Aquinas, has each had his word to

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 43

say and his ray, more or less brilliant, of light
to contribute to the sum total of the Church's
wisdom, ever growing with the increasing ex-
perience of the human race. The aspirations
of man tow^ards immediate knowledge of God
and union with Him are therefore recognised
and adopted by the Church as a true part of
that multifarious human energy w^hich it is
her function to direct, regulate and enlighten.
Such aspirations are to find full satisfaction
hereafter for those who are willing to be
guided in their exercise ; they are partially to
be satisfied here, in a certain degree by the
''natural" contemplation which is the common
right of all Christians, and in a fuller measure,
and after a higher and more perfect manner,
in the supernatural contemplation which is the
privilege of comparatively few. Thus the
truth that underlies in different ways and
degrees the mystical theories and ascetic
practices of Neoplatonist, Gnostic or Buddhist,
Parsee or Mohammedan, is cleared from its
surroundings of mythological or theosophical
imagination and set in its place in the harmony
of truths which are made known by nature and

44 MYSTICISM

by revelation, and preserved in the dogmatic
structure of the Church's faith.

What scholastic philosophy has done for
mysticism is to make clear the distinction
between its natural and supernatural parts.
St Augustine, no less than Dionysius, did
indeed call attention to the necessarily super-
natural character of any direct contemplation
of the divine nature, but it was St Thomas
whose analysis of the nature of the intellectual
faculties in man made clear the reason why
this must be so. Man's way of knowledge is
inextricably involved with his bodily organism,
since body and soul are not two substances
but one. Consequently, immediate knowledge
of that which is purely spiritual or immaterial
cannot come to him by any exercise of his
natural powers, but only by a ** rapture " or
'* ecstasy" in which he is made to transcend
his own present nature, and for a moment to
enjoy the beatitude habitual to those who have
attained the goal of their desires in the eternal
vision of God. No instance of the way in
which the magisterhim of the Church has dealt
with the impulses and feelings of humanity is

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 45

clearer or more illuminating than this : or
more plainly illustrates the co-ordination and
mutual support of the truths of nature and
grace in that comprehensive view of man's
nature which is possible only to an organisa-
tion which, as being both fully human and at
the same time truly divine, is able to maintain
a perfect balance between the natural and the
supernatural.

It is therefore plain that mystical theology is
not the least precious of the Church's treasures.
It resembles the way of life technically called
religious in its relation to the general life of
the faithful : it belongs not indeed to the
esse, but to the bene esse of the Church —
it is necessary not to its existence, but to its
integrity. The mere existence of the religious
life, in its various forms, is undoubtedly a
source of joy and consolation and a moral
support to countless persons who are very
far from having a '' vocation " themselves. In
the same way, the recognition of the life of
mystical contemplation is an encouragement
and happiness to many who (like the present
writer) know nothing of it by personal experi-

46 MYSTICISM

ence : and it can hardly be doubted that its
value in this respect would be more widely
and deeply appreciated if its nature were
better understood than it is. It completes the
circle of the Church's adaptation to human
needs, and brings together in the unity of a
divinely human institution every temperament,
as well as every class, occupation and moral
character ; and is in this aspect an important
factor in that kind of moral evidence of the
justice of the Church's claims which is supplied
by the practical services she has rendered, and
is daily rendering, to humanity in general.

2. The direct evidential value, as distinct
from this indirect testimony of the Church's
mystical theology, arises from its experimental
character, as contrasted with the theoretical
nature of " speculative " theology. The
symmetry and completeness of the body of
Catholic doctrine is admitted on all hands ; it
is even said by some to be too complete and
perfect to have any real bearing on a state
of things so fragmentary and unsystematic as
that of the world in which we have to live.

The question is, Is it really true .^ And to

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 47

this question the answer is often given that
nobody knows, because it cannot be sub-
mitted to any practical test. The complaint
is, indeed, an unjust one, even on its own
grounds. For the consistency of Catholic
doctrine not merely with itself (though even
that is something), but with other depart-
ments of knowledge, in which fresh forms of
truth are continually emerging, really con-
stitutes a practical test of the most stringent
kind, and one which has been constantly
repeated under ever - varying conditions from
the first. But this is not a test of the kind
which leaps to the eyes ; it does not impress
by any external signs, or arrest the attention
of the careless and uninterested. It needs to
be pondered and considered in the light of a
degree of knowledge which is not universally
possessed before its full significance can be
appreciated. But the experience of the mystic
is of quite a different character ; though its
testimony is perhaps less weighty in reality
than that of the failure of twenty centuries of
discovery to shake the credibility of revelation,
it is more easily recognised and appeals to a

48 MYSTICISM

different and less purely rational order of in-
telligence. Mystics are, in fact, to the religion
of the multitude very much what the pioneers
of natural science are to the popular interest in
that subject. The mystics are the experi-
mentalists of religion. We cannot all be
Newtons or Faradays or Huxleys ; but our
outlook on life is wider, and our apprecia-
tion of the wonders of nature is deeper for
researches, of the nature and truth of which
our knowledge may be somewhat vague and
imperfect. So, though few indeed may have
the gift or the merits of the great mystics,
what they have seen is an assurance for all
of the reality of the invisible universe, and
of the truth of those experiences by which
all, whether mystics or not, are enabled in
some degree to share with them the know-
ledge and the enjoyment of divine things.
For this purpose it is necessary indeed that
the accounts given by mystics of their ex-
periences should be as credible, at least, as
those which scientific experts give of their
researches. But that this is really the case
no one who will give unprejudiced considera-

TWO IDEAS OF MYSTICISM 49

tion to the question can seriously doubt. It is
most unfortunate that the only two English
authors who have dealt specifically with this
aspect of the subject should have written under
the influence of a parti pris which, notwith-
standing the erudition and acumen displayed
by them, has deprived their judgment of all
value.

CHAPTER II

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM

Mysticism has often been described, but seldom
defined ; and the definitions have not always
been satisfactory. Yet in order to have any
clear understanding of what is meant by a
word used in so many different senses, it is
very necessary to begin with a definition of
the precise idea which it originally connoted,
and which underlies and forms the connecting
link among its various applications. Etymo-
logically, mystics are those who have been
initiated into the mysteries or esoteric rites
of Greek religion ; the yWuVraf, /uLejuLv/j/uLevoi, or
fully instructed persons who were privileged
to take part in the ceremonies periodically
performed in honour of a god, from par-
ticipation in which the general public was
excluded. Any one or anything belonging

50

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM 51

to the celebration of these sacred rites was
*' Mystic" — even to the *' Mystica vannus
lacchi " of Virgil ; and the two prominent
ideas connected with the word were conse-
quently— first, special knowledge obtained by
instruction (fiveco), and secondly, an obliga-
tion or other necessity of secrecy in regard
to it (nMvco)} The mystics are, in fact, the
inner circle of the devotees of any cult ; they
are possessed of knowledge which partakes
of the nature of revelation rather than of
acquired science, and which is imparted in
consideration of some special aptitude, natural
or acquired, such as is not found in the general
run of mankind. It is further implied that the
knowledge is of a transcendental kind, such
as may be supposed to be necessary for the
devout worship of a divine being ; this, how-
ever, though obviously part of the original
meaning of the term, is not always signified
in its later uses. But the one idea common
to all uses is that of special knowledge con-
fined to a cor/>s d' dlite of persons with a peculiar

^ "Mysticum interpretatur absconditum,''' Gerson, Myst.
Theol.i I.

52 MYSTICISM

aptitude for its acquisition. Thus the early
Christian Church conceived itself to hold the
position of a body of mystics with regard to
mankind in general : its members were the
depositaries of a revelation (Arcanum) not,
at least in all points, accessible to the outside
world; they were initiated by the "illumin-
ating " rite of baptism, and thereby admitted
to participation in the other sacraments, or
mysteries, of the Christian religion. Thus
St Paul (Phil. iv. 12) speaks of himself as
fj^€/uiV)]iuL€i'0£ ; and in the Greek liturgies the
priest is directed to say the ''secret" prayers
jULva-TiKMg — in silence. Hence, in later times,
any art or handicraft which made use of
traditional methods came to be known as a
"Mystery." Its secrets were imparted to the
novice at or after his initiation into the guild
or company by which it was carried on, and
under which he had served an apprenticeship :
such ''arts and mysteries" are still professed,
though not always practised, by the guilds
which have survived to the present day.

But in the Church there has always been
a circle within a circle ; within the body of

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM 53

the initiated a body of those who have under-
gone a further initiation ; among the instructed
some favoured ones who have received fuller
instruction.^ And whereas initiation into the
Christian community has been entrusted by
divine authority to the Church itself, the
further illumination of the selected is received
directly from God. Hence has arisen by a
natural transference the popular application
of the term to any view or conception of the
transcendental or the unseen, to anything
'' vague, vast and sentimental " ; and hence
again the note of condemnation or contempt
which was attached in England to the idea
of mysticism, as it was to its distant rela-
tion "enthusiasm," during the century ended
some fifty years ago — a ''mystic" during that
period being considered much the same thing
as a visionary or a sentimentalist. The word
has since then recovered from its temporary

^ Cf. Harnack, Mission and Expa7ision of Christianity^ vol. i.
p. 237. Christianity gained special weight from the fact that,
in the first place, it had mysterious secrets of its own, which it
sought to fathom only to adore them once'again in silence ; and
secondly, that it preached to the perfect in another and a deeper
sense than it did to simple folk.

54 MYSTICISM

degradation ; and though it is still used some-
what loosely, it no longer carries any burden
of offensiveness. The laxity of use from which
it still suffers consists in the emphasising of
one part of its full connotation to the practical
exclusion of the other : any knowledge or
experience, real or imaginary, which is beyond
the scope of ordinary sense-experience, is apt
to be called mystical. But such knowledge
is not mystical in the proper or strict sense,
unless it is held also to be imparted, and not
acquired by the independent exercise of the
natural powers. It would, of course, be absurd
to contend that the conventional meaning of
a word, in many cases an enrichment rather
than a perversion, has not at least as good
a claim to acceptance as its etymological one.
But where, as in this case, the conventional
uses of the word have obscured the nature
of the thing for which it originally stood, it
is necessary to determine the sense in which
the word is to be used in the discussion of
the thing.

The name was first applied in the sense in
which we have now defined it by Dionysius

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM 55

— whoever the author known under that name
may have been. The thing, however, was
undoubtedly known and recognised in the
Church from the beginning. The apostles
were certainly mystics in the fullest sense ;
and the mystical tendencies of sub-apostolic
times are evidenced and fairly represented by
the ** Shepherd " of Hermas, and the writings
and authentic acts of many of the early
martyrs. The self-chosen title of St Ignatius,
Oeo^opog, the God-bearer, implies a claim to
the possession of mystical experience of the
most far-reaching kind. But mysticism — or
at least the temperament which seeks know-
ledge by means of illumination rather than
discursive reasoning — belongs essentially to
human nature, and appears, under one form
or another, wherever thought is free.

Thus, to leave the Eastern theosophy out of
account, a mystical element appears, in greater
or less degree, in all Greek philosophy, if the
mere negations of Pyrrhonism may be excepted.
Before Socrates, Greek philosophers were
seers rather than reasoners : the apophtheg-
matic character of their utterances affects to

56 MYSTICISM

be the result rather of intuition than of reason-
ing : and the dialectic of Plato, and even the
logical precision of Aristotle, led in the end,
theoretically at least, to that pure contem-
plation in which alone Aristotle conceived
that beatitude consists. In the later Platonic
schools mysticism tended more and more to
replace discursive reasoning ; contemplation
rather than reasoned knowledge became more
and more definitely the object of philosophy,
and ascetic self-discipline appeared a surer way
than argument to attain this end. Plotinus
(whom M. Maeterlinck calls *'the one analyti-
cal mystic "), and Proclus after him, present
the doctrines of later Neoplatonism in a sys-
tematic form, and are free from the magical
and theurgic extravagances into which it
degenerated in other hands.

The two streams of Christian and Platonic
mysticism flowed together at Alexandria,
where Philo had already grafted the flower
of Neoplatonic mysticism upon the stock of
Judaic theism. Together they produced a
school of religious philosophy in which
Christian faith sought, with more or less

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM 57

success, to ally itself with the dialectic of
Platonism, on the one hand, and on the
other with the quest for direct illumination
that characterised the later development of
the Platonic schools. The mystical theology
of Dionysius represents, on the whole, the
permanent results of this combination. In
this treatise we have a kind of grammar
of mysticism in which principles alone are
formulated, disengaged alike from the experi-
ence and argumentation through which they
had been evolved, and awaiting the fuller
clothing of concrete personal experience subse-
quently imparted to them by later mystical
writers. Though received at first with sus-
picion, the writings of Dionysius soon attained
a position of authority not less commanding
in its day than that of St Thomas in later
times. We could scarcely have had either
the Sentences or the Summa without them ;
and their echoes may be heard, even when,
as is not often the case, their direct influence
may not be detected, in every mystical writer
since the time of their appearance.

It is probably a mistake to look for any

58 MYSTICISM

direct filiation, or continuity of historical suc-
cession, among the mystical writers of suc-
cessive ages and periods. Here, as elsewhere,
it can scarcely be doubted that the most
important part of history is that which has
never been written. Mystical teachers and
writers were forced into prominence by circum-
stances; but it is more than probable that
circumstances had no influence on the general
craving for knowledge of the unseen and
abiding reality which underlies the endless
vicissitudes of human life, as they could
have none upon the sources from which that
need is supplied. Such circumstances were
the ceaseless wars which "made Europe one
vast camp " in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and the intellectual and moral
upheavals of the age of the Renaissance
and the Reformation ; and in our own day
the breaking up of old traditions and institu-
tions, and the birth of new principles, ideas
and customs — the forerunners, as it would
seem, of a new order of things the character
of which no man can yet forecast. In such
\ times, when the instability of human things.

SUPERNATURAL MYSTICISM 59

or the feebleness of human reason, is forced |
with special insistence upon men's notice,
the teaching of the mystic has an attractive
force which in quieter periods it seems to
lack ; and it is at such times that a Gerson,
a Tauler, a Ruysbroeck or a Teresa is
moved to tell of the ''inner way" in which
true peace of mind may be found amid
the illusion, instability and restlessness of
outward life. But it can hardly be doubted
that in all times alike there are countless
elect souls to whom mystical knowledge is
as the air they breathe, but who are more
than content to be *'mute and inglorious"
to the end of their days.

It would have been strange if such an
abiding demand of humanity in general had
never been met with a counterfeit supply.
Parallel with the current of true mysticism
there has been a nearly continuous succes-
sion of the spurious kind in which, though
conscious imposture is perhaps hardly to be
found or suspected, a greater or less degree
of illusion is easily discernible. It would
indeed scarcely be possible to say how far

6o MYSTICISM

the Pythagorean contemplatives or the Neo-
platonist ecstatics come under this head ; ^
the latter, at least, have nothing in common
' with the theosophic extravagances of Gnostics,
i Montanists and later sects, whose militant
propagandism seems strangely at variance
with their professed principles. The initial
inconsistency of the supposition that the
deposihim of revelation needs to be super-
seded, amplified or modified by mystical com-
munications imparted to a single irresponsible
person — a Priscilla, a Mohammed, a Joachim,
a Boehme or an Irving — of itself goes far
to discredit the doctrines professedly so
received. We shall consider later the criteria
by which the true is to be distinguished
from the false or doubtful mysticism ; it is
enough for the present to remark that
mysticism forms no exception to the rule,
that the value of precious things is attested
by the abundance of their imitators.

^ Tauler credits " Proclus and Plato" with a true mystical
knowledge of God {Sermoji o?i St John Baptist).

CHAPTER III

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE

The characteristic by which mystical states
or experiences of every kind are distinguished
from other states and experiences which have
points of resemblance to them is that they
are directly and immediately supernatural.
Mystical contemplation is the highest and
closest of those human relations with God of
which the opposite extreme is represented by
the condition of simple dependence, necessarily
involved in mere created existence. Im-
mediately above this comes the recognition
by self-conscious beings of this dependence ;
and after that, as a necessary consequence, the
rational deduction of the personal, infinite and
simple nature of God. Above this again
comes the sense of indirect personal relations

with God, through the medium of our created

6i

62 MYSTICISM

environment, and most completely and perfectly
through the operation of grace. With this
consciousness comes also inevitably the desire
to cultivate these relations and maintain them
at their highest point of efficacy ; and thus
both reason and free-will are drawn into the
universal accord in which each element, from
the lowest to the highest, fills its allotted place
and discharges its most congenial function.
Rational beings who, by failing to recognise
these relations, choose to hold the position of
the irrational and inanimate part of creation
are, as rational beings, out of accord with the
general scheme : yet the loss is theirs only ;
the scheme is not affected by their failure to
occupy the place which they might hold.
They cannot but suffer individually from the
consequences of their choice — which is to
assimilate the rational to the irrational, the
spiritual to the material ; but the scheme holds
good for them as for the irrational beings
whose place they have elected to share.

But the crown and summit of the whole
system is that direct intercourse of the soul
with God, which, ordinarily at least, pre-

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 63

supposes the sacramental life of grace, but
is itself something more than that.

It is a state in which the natural and
ordinary action of the soul is modified, and
in which even the organic functions of the
body are to a certain extent in abeyance.

We may therefore distinguish the three
conditions thus. First, the mere subjection,
unconscious or involuntary, to the divine
will, which no created being can escape.
Next, the conscious realisation of this general
dependence, which includes all that is meant
by natural religion, and is enriched and
amplified by the knowledge which revelation
imparts, and the elevation of the natural
faculties which is the effect of divine grace.
To this state belongs the kind of contempla-
tion known as natural or acquired (in the
sense that it is obtained by the exercise of
the natural powers). This state is sometimes
called mystical. But it is not truly so ; for
it implies the exercise of natural powers on
natural objects, though under supernatural
guidance, but not the supersession of their
natural objects by special and supernatural

64 MYSTICISM

influence. The mind in this state, illumin-
ated by faith, but by the exercise of its own
reasoning power, conceives an idea — say of
the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Sacramental
presence of Christ, or the wonders of divine
providence — and contemplates it with satisfac-
tion, and even with delight and enthusiasm.
The practice of ordinary meditation will lead,
if not uniformly, at least occasionally to con-
templation of this kind. Its object is not
immediately supernatural, though the action
of the mind takes place with supernatural
assistance ; and it does not differ in kind, nor
indeed always in degree, from such pleasurable
contemplation as is induced by mastering a
scientific problem, following out a logical argu-
ment, or even reading a poem or a novel. In
all these instances alike there are the same
elements — intellectual study, the development
of a concept or idea, and the "affective" con-
templation of it.^ Such meditation and con-

1 St Teresa, Castle, 4. i. 4. "Sweetness in devotion . . .
is natural, although ultimately it comes from the grace of God.
We shall find that many temporal matters give us the same
pleasure, such as unexpectedly coming into a large fortune,
meeting v^ith a friend, or succeeding in any important affair."

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 65

templation, when their object is divine truth,
are indeed the highest exercise of the natural
powers. And the special supernatural impulse
and support under which it takes place must
be clearly distinguished from the mere divine
concursus, which is common to all human acts.

But the object of this contemplation is not
in itself directly supernatural ; it is produced
according to the general laws which can be
observed in all human thought and feeling.
That is, such contemplation is not in the true
sense mystical.

The essentially supernatural character of
the truly mystical state is perhaps best illus-
trated by the passivity which all writers on
the subject hold to be its most characteristic
feature. God is not discovered by the mystic ;
indeed this special manifestation of Him may
not, strictly speaking, be even sought. He
makes Himself known ''experimentally"; and
the person so favoured contributes nothing, at
least directly, to this result.^ In all natural

1 Such criticism as that of Mr Inge (" Christian Mysticism,"
pp. Ill, 112) would be perfectly just if mystical contemplation
were held to be a merely natural process. All the human mind
can do towards attaining it is merely negative, and in the

E

66 MYSTICISM

cognition — i.e., in the acquisition of anything
that may rightly be called knowledge, however
complex, recondite or elementary — there must
always be a preponderating element of mental
activity. There must be not merely sensa-
tion and intelligent consciousness, but ''apper-
ception " — the active direction of the mind to
the object before it, together with the complex
process of analysis, abstraction, distinction and
comparison which underlies the simplest act of
cognition. Such activity is involved in the
perception of a tree, a house or a flower, in
the reproduction by the help of imagination or
memory of an idea ; or in the recognition of
an acquaintance. But in all mystical states
this process is absent. God takes possession
of the mental powers and focusses them upon
Himself, and those which from their nature
cannot be so focussed are left idle. Memory,
imagination, or will may or may not be in
use, according to the nature of the experi-
ence, but the discursive reason is necessarily in

natural order the result of such mere negation or abstraction is
zero. But it is just because of this that true mysticism is per-
ceived to be supernatural. The blank can really be filled only
by divine agency, not by human "hypostatisation."

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 67

abeyance. In point of fact, mystical cognition
is to the soul precisely what sensation is to
the body.

We do not reason in order to ascertain
whether we feel heat or cold, pain or pleasure ;
we are simply aware of the fact. Sensation
cannot be defined, or even described, other-
wise than in terms of other sensations ; and
its occurrence is not susceptible of proof, other-
wise than by very inconclusive circumstantial
evidence. One cannot prove directly that
one has a toothache, or that the subject in a
hypnotic trance has no sensation of the pins
thrust into his flesh by the operator ; we have
only his word for it. In the same way,
mystical experience is a matter of direct con-
tact between God and the soul ; its conditions
may possibly be ascertainable up to a certain
point, as those of sensation are, but it cannot
be precisely either defined, explained or
proved.^ It follows that the mystical experi-

^ " Une ame recueillie sous le regard de Dieu peut, i I'aide de
rimagination, se representer Dieu present en elle. . . . Mais
cette image de Dieu, dont nous sommes les auteurs, ne
ressemble en rien a la r^alit^ que la contemplation mystique
nous fait sentir. C^est Dieu lui-meme, et non plus son image
que nous apergevons." — Lejeune, Vie Mystique^ p. 10.

68 MYSTICISM

ence is not to be obtained by any means
within the power of the person who desires
it. It is, obviously, no more possible to ensure
experience of this kind by any deliberate
course of action than it is to obtain a particular
kind of weather by the exercise of one's own
powers. Here lies, in fact, the great practical
difference between mystical states and those
which belong to the ordinary economy of
divine grace, a difference which hardly seems
to have been always clearly present to the
minds of some writers on the subject.

By the fulfilment of certain conditions the
devout Christian can attain with certainty to
the enjoyment of an abundant measure of
grace, sufficient or more than sufficient for all
his needs. The effects of prayer and of the
sacraments are certain, and are within the reach
of all who choose to make use of these means
of spiritual advancement. Moreover, the
rational appreciation of the mysteries of the
Christian faith is open to all, independently
of natural ability or acquired skill ; they
offer an abundantly sufficient field to the
reason and imagination of all men, whether

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 69

lettered or unlettered, whether intellectually
acute or dull ; they adapt themselves, like
the objects of universal desire in the life of
the senses, to the capacity and character of
each separate individual. The joys and con-
flicts and anxiety of the life of grace are
equally real to the refined and learned and
to the rude and ignorant, and, fundamentally,
they are the same for all ; but there can be
no doubt that they are apprehended under
somewhat different forms by persons of
different character and education — as the
satisfaction of the desire for food conveys an
identical pleasure to the epicure and the
ploughman alike, but the kind of food pre-
ferred (as distinct from its chemical qualities)
is different in each case.

But there are no conditions by the fulfil-
ment of which mystical experience may be
ensured ; and its character, unlike that of
ordinary religious experience, in no way
depends on either the efforts or the natural
endowments of the person who undergoes
it. The mystic is the mere recipient of the
favours bestowed on him ; he can do nothing

70 MYSTICISM

towards either procuring them or determining
their special character. Mysticism is there-
fore to be conceived as the raptus or
ecstasis of St Paul and St Thomas : ^ it
is outside the natural sphere of human life,
and in respect of all natural experience it
has consequently no place or function ; for it
all natural objects of perception are involved
in "darkness" and ** ignorance," and the
ordinary functions of sense and intellect are
for the time being directed by the " new
supernatural aptitude " of which St John of
the Cross speaks. *'Our Lord," says St
Teresa, ''does not require the faculties or
senses to open the door of the heart to Him ;
they are all asleep." "We can do nothing,"
she adds, "on our part."

"Simple unity with God," says Ruysbroeck,
"can be felt and possessed by none, save by
those who stand before the immense bright-
ness, without reason and without restraint."^

* 2 Cor. vii. ; Summa, 2. 2. 175 i. c, and cf. St Bernard (De

Inter. Domo). " Necesse est ad cor altum ascendere et mentis

excessu per divinam revelationam addiscere, quid sit illud ad

quod adspirare vel studere oporteat, et ad qualem sublimitatis

habitum animum suum componere et assuescere debeat."

2 Ruysbroeck, De Calculo,

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 71

Thus the consciousness of free rational beings
returns to that simplicity of divine relations
which, at the other end of the scale of
creation, appears as the perfect mechanical
fulfilment by inanimate and irrational creatures
of their divinely appointed destiny. The
human intellect has, in some sense, arrived
at the goal of its desires when it can say
'*ut jumentum factus sum apud Te."

Another obviously necessary consequence of
the passive condition of the soul which marks
all truly mystical states is the certainty as
to the real character of those states which
accompanies them. Here, again, there is an
exact parallel in sense - experience. Sensation
is, as we have remarked, incapable of being
defined or proved ; the one thing that we
know about it is that it occurs. Whatever
the conditions may be, and whether there is
an adequate cause present or not, the one
indubitable fact in sensation is the certainty
of the experience. A person may feel cold
in circumstances which cause others to feel
hot ; or he may not feel anything under
conditions which cause most people to feel

72 MYSTICISM

a great deal — or again in some peculiar
affections of the nerves he may feel intense
pain without any apparent cause. Yet his
sensations are in every case undeniably facts.
This is precisely the case of the mystic : he
is certain of the divine communication, though
he cannot prove it ; and his conviction that
it is divine is unshakeable.^

It must, however, be clearly understood that
this subjective certitude is not to be taken
for a proof that the experience so certified is
a genuinely mystical one. Benedict XIV.,
in his treatise De Canonisatione^ gives a long
list of natural conditions which may give rise
to apparently mystical experiences — such as
nervous excitement, hysteria, memory associa-
tion and disease.^ Professor James gives a
nearly identical list of such causes. Certainty
is a conditio sine qua non — without it, no mysti-
cal experience can be considered genuine,^ but
it is not therefore inconsistent with decep-
tion. Precisely the same thing, of course, may

^ James, Varieties^ loc. cit.

^ Heroic Virtue (Oratorian translation), vol. iii. ch. x.
^ St Teresa, Castle, 5. i. 9 : "A soul which does not feel this
assurance has not been united to God entirely."

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 73

be said about sensation. A sensation is a
fact of experience, and differs altogether from
the most vivid imaginary presentment of the
same fact ; we can never mistake one for the
other. But we may be widely mistaken as
to the cause of our sensations ; and we may,
on the other hand, be deluded by memory or
imagination as to the actual occurrence of sensa-
tions in the past. We may so vividly imagine
certain sensations as to think that we must
have actually experienced them at some time ;
as some people are said to have told a fictitious
story so often that they have come to believe
it. But in such cases the clear realisation of
a definite and particular sensation is certainly
absent. In the same way delusions as to
past supposed mystical experiences are by no
means unknown. But in such cases there
is a complete absence of the circumstantiality
which is characteristic of all accounts of genuine
experiences ; and on the other hand, there is
generally a definiteness and descriptive plausi-
bility in accounts of the memory-created ex-
periences themselves which is invariably absent
from the genuine ones.

74 MYSTICISM

The reason of this is to be found in another
feature of genuine mysticism, namely, the
impossibility of describing the experiences
of mystical states in anything like detail. In
the case of visions it is true that certain
salient features of the appearances are dis-
tinctly remembered and described ; and in
''locutions" the phrases heard or understood
can be repeated from memory. But these,
as will be more fully explained later, are the
** accidents" of mysticism.^ Its essence is
direct contact with a transcendental reality ;
and this, from its nature, is incapable of
being described in the terms of ordinary
sense-experience to which human language
is necessarily limited.^ Mysticism can make

^ "These (corporeal) visions, inasmuch as they are visions
of created things, between which and God there is no congruity
or proportion, cannot subserve the understanding as proximate
means of divine union." — Asc. of Carmel, ii. xxiv. "These super-
natural visitations are nothing else but the motes of the Spirit." —
lb. ii. xix.

St Teresa only knows such visions from hearsay. " Of bodily
apparitions I can say nothing ; for the person I mentioned
(herself) never experienced anything of this kind herself, and
therefore could not speak about it with certainty." — Castle,
6. 9. 3.

^ Cf. Bossuet's Instr. sur les j^tats d'Oraison. " Elev^s \
une oraison dont ils ne pouvaient expliquer les sublimites par le

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 75

no use of the terms of sense - experience
to describe what is supersensible ; and its
opportunities are far too limited to enable
it to construct a descriptive terminology of
its own. The consciousness of the actual
divine presence admits of no description ;
only the bare fact can be stated, apart
from its effect on the person who experi-
ences it.

But though the mystical vision of God is
a thing which cannot be obtained by natural

langage commun, ils ont 6t6 obliges d'enfler leur style pour nous
donner quelque idee de leurs transports." And St Teresa
(Castle, 7. I. 9): "By some mysterious manifestation of the
truth, the three Persons of the most Blessed Trinity reveal
themselves, etc. Thus that which we hold as a doctrine of faith
the soul now, so to speak, understands by sight, although it
beholds the Blessed Trinity by neither bodily nor spiritual eyes."
And again (Castle, 6. 5. 9) : " These visions, and many other
things impossible to describe, are revealed by some wonderful
intuition that I cannot explain.'^ "On returning to itself, the
mind can recall what has been seen, but is unable to describe
it." B. Angela of Foligno : " Divine operations went on in my
soul which were so ineffable that neither angel nor saint could
relate or explain them."

St John of the Cross {Asc. ii. 28) : " Moses was unable to
describe what he learned of God in that particular knowledge
and so gave utterance to ordinary words. Though, at times,
when this knowledge is vouchsafed to the soul, words are
uttered, yet the soul knows full well that it has in no wise
expressed what it felt because it is conscious that there are no
words of adequate signification."

76 MYSTICISM

means, being God's free gift, and altogether
beyond the sphere of nature, it is neverthe-
less not only possible but, ordinarily speaking,
necessary to prepare for it — to make the
soul fit, so far as that is possible, for the
guest whom it hopes to receive.^ Though
no amount of preparation can ensure His
coming, it is nevertheless not to be hoped
for unless the soul has been made ready for
Him. This preparation is merely negative
in regard to the supernatural state to which
it is preliminary, consisting as it does in the
purification of the soul from actual sin, from
worldly desires and negligent habits. But
in itself it is, of course, positive enough, and
its benefits are definite and substantial. It
is, indeed, nothing less than the fullest
Christian life, the fulfilment of all the con-
ditions of salvation, and even of eminent
sanctity. Mystical states, as we may see
more clearly later on, are not by any means
necessary to holiness, and it is at least ideally

1 Gerson, MysL Theol.^ Cons. xxx. " Mystica theologia
acquiritur per scholam affectus et per exercitium vehemens
moralium virtutum, disponentium animam ad purgationem."

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 77

possible to attain the highest sanctity with-
out any mystical experience whatever, in the
true or Dionysian sense/ The first four of
St Teresa's ** mansions " are mainly occupied
by this preparation for the favours to be
received in the last three. The '' Fourth
Mansion " consists of a blending of the
natural and supernatural in the ''prayer of
recollection" and the "prayer of quiet"; the
subsequent "prayer of union" and "spiritual
marriage " are wholly supernatural.
u The precise nature of mystical contempla-
tion as distinguished from other spiritual or
intellectual functions more or less connected
with and resembling it is defined in practi-
cally the same way, though with a varying
amount of detail, by all mystical writers. It
is perhaps most clearly and briefly expressed
by Gerson, who follows substantially Hugo
of St Victor, and the more elaborately sub-
divided but essentially identical method of
Richard, his successor. The powers of the'
soul, Gerson says, are divisible into cognitive
and affective ; mystical theology is the object

1 See Poulain, Des Graces d^Oraison, and Asc. ii. v. 8.

78 MYSTICISM

of the latter, as speculative theology is of the
former. The cognitive powers are those of
intelligence, reason and sense-perception ; the
affective appetite, will and synderesis, or the
natural perception and consequent desire of
good. St Thomas considered this last to
be not a power, but a natural intellectual
habit ; and though Gerson, like other mysti-
cal writers, speaks of it as a potentia animae,
he expressly guards himself against the sup-
position that he is constructing a system of
real psychological distinctions. The powers
are distinct, he says, not in reality but in
name ; for his immediate purpose, however,
he finds it convenient to treat them as if
they were really distinct in nature.^

The two sets of faculties work together.
Their first or last function is mere coo^itation
— the discursive consideration of the objects
of sense : then comes meditation, or the con-
centrated application of the reason to these
objects, and the production by it of abstract
ideas ; these, again, can be contemplated by
the simple intelligence apart from sense-

^ My St. Theol.^ Cons. ix. ; cf. Summa TheoL^ i. 79. 12.

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 79

perception. So far all is natural ; the cogni-
tive and affective faculties act mutually on one
another, and on the objects presented to them.
But above all natural objects is the divine
presence, which is known — by special divine
favour — not as an abstract idea resulting from
meditation,^ but as the immediate object of
love, in the rapture or exaltation of the soul
above itself which is the effect of love whether
natural or supernatural. Thus **he that is
joined to the Lord is one spirit."

It is plain that according to this analysis
the experimental knowledge, vision, or con-
templation of God takes place through the
agency of the natural powers of the soul ; the
supernatural factor is the gratuitous divine
communication which the soul receives. Some
obscurity, however, has been caused by the
language of some of the more speculative
mystics on this point. Eckhart, and after him

1 Myst. Theol.^ Cons, xliii. " In anima contemplativa amor, et
mystica theologia et oratio perfecta aut idem sunt, aut se
invicem praesupponunt. Nam, ut patet ex praedictis, mystica
theologia est cognitio experimentalis habita de Deo per
conjunctionem affectus spiritualis cum eodem — quae nimirum
adhaesio fit per extaticum amorem, teste beato Dionysio."

8o MYSTICISM

Tauler, speak of the "ground" of the soul —
its core or essence, to which the correspond-
ing ** ground " or nature of the Godhead com-
municates itself in virtue of a certain natural
affinity which exists between the two. This
''ground" of the soul is also called the
"spark" (scintilla, fiinkelehi) or "apex" — -
as the purest or highest part, and the fittest
therefore to be the medium of the divine
self - communication. Eckhart's pantheistic
tendencies seem to have led him to assimilate
the "spark" to the divine nature, as homo-
geneous if not in some sense identical with
it. Tauler keeps clear of this mistake ; and
with Gerson the scintilla or apex mentis is
merely a name for the intellect, which is the
contemplative faculty.^ With Ruysbroeck the
"ground" is the mirror in which the Divine
Being is reflected ; St John of the Cross calls
it the "substance of the soul," or again the
"eye of the soul, which is the understanding,"
and the recipient of the divine illumination.
But the light may be so excessive as to
cause darkness ; and so we come back to the

^ See Inge, "Christian Mysticism," Appendix C.

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 8i

Dionysian phraseology, in which darkness and
ignorance are the means of seeing and know-
ing. But all this is evidently the language
of practical devotion, and not (except perhaps
in the case of Eckhart) of speculative theology,
still less of analytical psychology. What it
amounts to is no more than the doctrine that
the soul has a faculty by means of which it
can, when God so pleases, contemplate Him
directly and even become united to Him. We
shall consider in the next chapter what the
nature of the process on its human side may
be supposed to be.

It is somewhat strange that such writers as
Hugo and Richard of St Victor, St Bona-
venture and Gerson should be spoken of as
having attempted to '* reconcile" mysticism with
scholasticism. They were never at variance,
and no reconciliation was either necessary
or possible, unless in the sense in which
all theory may be considered as attempting
to reconcile fact with itself. Scholasticism set
itself to give a reasoned account of man's
nature and total environment ; mysticism was
one of the great facts which it was bound

82 MYSTICISM

to take into consideration ; and the Platonic
elements in the earlier mysticism came into
it in no other way than this. But mysticism
is not itself either Platonic or Aristotelian ;
on its natural side it is simply human, and
falls into its inevitable place in the order of
things which all systems of philosophy seek
to analyse and explain.^ Mysticism is always
recognisably the same thing, whether we meet
it in a Platonic or a scholastic dress.

What, then, may be called the normal
course of mysticism proceeds first by way of
devout preparation in the discharge of ordi-
nary Christian duties and the use of ordinary
means of grace ; next, it leads the soul into
the immediate presence of God, as an experi-
enced reality, and not merely as a concept or
imagination ; and the third stage, described
in various terms by various writers, consists
of a progressive union with God — a union

^ Eckhart is said to have drawn his philosophy mainly from
St Thomas. Of Dionysius, who is too often treated as a mere
Platonist, Corderius says : " Observatu dignissimum, quomodo
S. Dionysius primus Scholasticae Theologiae jecerit funda-
menta, quibus ceteri deinceps theologi eam quae de Deo
rebusque divinis in Scholis traditur doctrinam omnem in-
aedificarunt." — Observationes Generales in Dion,^ 12.

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 83

which is not merely a matter of conviction,
the mere union of will which is the privilege
of all devout persons, but a fact of experience
consciously realised. *' In it," says St John
of the Cross, ''the soul seems to be God
rather than itself, and indeed is God by
participation, though in reality preserving its
own natural substance as distinct from God
as it did before, although transformed in Him."
St Teresa's well-known subdivision of this
last or supernatural stage is threefold — the
prayer of quiet or recollection in its higher
form, in which the sense of the divine
presence is communicated -to the soul and
contemplated passively by it ; the prayer of
union, which is "a foretaste of heaven," and
in which the soul " seems to have left its
mortal covering (though this is not really the
case) to abide more entirely in God " ; and
lastly, the "spiritual marriage," in which the
soul is no longer absorbed or lost in God,
but recovers the exercise of its powers, though
in an exalted and supernatural way, and
"sees and understands somewhat of the grace
received in a strange and wonderful manner

84 MYSTICISM

by means of intellectual vision." Thus **the
three persons of the most Blessed Trinity-
reveal themselves ; the doctrine which we hold
by faith, the soul now, so to speak, understands
by sight." It is remarkable that St Teresa,
like all other mystics, in spite of the minuteness
and particularity of her classification, is able to
tell us little or nothing of the actual content
of these blissful experiences. She exhausts
herself in passionate insistence on the delight
they impart to the soul ; but as to the precise
cause and nature of it she has nothing to say ;
and as little can she convey what is to be
understood by the ** intellectual vision," which
is neither of the bodily nor of the spiritual
eyes. The reason is, as we have already seen,
that these things are indescribable, for want
of existing words in which to describe them
or of natural experience with which to compare
them. Each fragment of mystical knowledge
is like a dirai XeyojuLevov in the language of
human understanding.

Visions and locutions, or voices, may or may
not occur in the states of union ; they do not
occur in any other. Visions are imaginary —

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 85

i.e.y quasi - sensible figures pictured to the
imagination without causing actual sensation —
or spiritual ; the latter are of two kinds, one
of corporeal substances perceived, according
to St John of the Cross, '*in a certain light
emanating from God," in which the distant
things of heaven and earth may be seen ;
and the other kind consists of incorporeal
existences, perceived after the same super-
natural manner.

Locutions in like manner may be either
mentally formed phrases representing thoughts
or impressions produced by divine grace in
the soul while in a state of recollection, or they
may be formed in the mind by direct super-
natural agency.

But visions and locutions are, it must be
repeated, not necessarily a part of mystical
experience ; and all mystical writers agree in
asserting that they are, in any case, the least
important part. In practice all authorities
teach that they are to be entirely disregarded.
It is true that the experience of such mystics
as B. Margaret Mary Alacoque, Blessed Julian
of Norwich or Anne Catherine Emmerich

86 MYSTICISM

appears to consist entirely of visions and
voices. But in these three cases, and in
countless others, it will be found that the
mode in which thoughts were conveyed to,
and emotions excited in the person is of quite
secondary importance. In these cases, the
communications come through visions of our
Lord seen under various aspects, and declaring
His will and desires in formally understood
words. But it was not the mere vision or
quasi-vocal communication in itself that gave
value to the experience, or constituted its
title to acceptance as genuine, either in the
mind of the actual recipient or in the opinion
of those who afterwards had to pronounce
judgment on the nature of the case. It was
always the manifestation of the love and
patience of the divine humanity that was both
the source of consolation and the guarantee
of reality.

The possibility of self-delusion in such a
matter (without considering the possibility of
diabolical deception) is, of course, almost in-
exhaustible, and no mystical writer fails to
warn his readers against this danger ; which,

THE NATURE OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 87

it may be well to remark, in the processes of
beatification and canonisation is kept constantly
in view, and, as has been already noticed, is
strongly insisted on by Benedict XIV. in his
treatise on the subject.

CHAPTER IV

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE

Mystical contemplation is the sight of God.
It cannot be called anything else, though obvi-
ously sight or vision is not quite an appro-
priate word to describe a process essentially
different from any of those to which the term
is commonly applied. We speak of ''seeing"
indeed, not only when we mean the exercise
of a bodily organ of sense, but also, by a
metaphor, when we mean the intellectual per-
ception of an idea, or a truth presented to
us from without. But mystical sight is neither
of these. It is not bodily sight, because God
is invisible ; and it is not intellectual percep-
tion, because in mystical contemplation it is
not an idea that is seen, but a living reality.
In meditation the thoughts or ideas abstracted

from the subject under consideration are con-

88

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 89

templated ; but In mystical or supernatural
contemplation it is God Himself that is the
object perceived, not any idea of Him or any
thoughts about Him. It is a unique mode
of perception, corresponding to the unicity of
that which is perceived. Nevertheless, it has
this point of similarity to bodily sight, that the
object is directly and immediately perceived ;
it is analogously to the soul what sight is to
the body. All language in which such vision
may be described suffers from the difficulty
and liability to misapprehension which besets
it whenever it deals with transcendental
realities. Thus the persons of the Blessed
Trinity can only be spoken of in metaphorical
or analogous terms ; paternity, filiation, pro-
cession, have in this connection meanings
very different from those which belong to the
words in their ordinary use. The mystical
sight of God, then, is not sight of the bodily
kind, nor is it in any way like ordinary in-
tellectual perception : it is something entirely
separate and different from all normal experi-
ences of body and soul. The soul, indeed,
still exercises its natural powers, or some of

90 MYSTICISM

them ; but it exercises them under entirely
abnormal conditions, created by the character
of the object with which it has to deal

This object is God : but we naturally ask
how the soul can see God — how we can
suppose God so to present Himself to the
soul as to be directly perceived by it. For
the proper function of the soul is to think,
understand and will : and those functions pre-
suppose abstract ideas, singly or combined, as
their objects. But ex hypothesi it is not an
abstract idea that the mystic contemplates :
God does not present Himself in the shape
of a concept or a proposition, for if He did
so. He would not be directly present ; the
object of contemplation would not be God,
but only the contemplative's idea or thought
about Him, But then what else but an idea
or proposition can it conceivably be that the
soul perceives in the "intellectual vision"?
It appears to be the difficulty of determin-
ing this point that has led many to suppose
that the immediate and external character of
mystical vision is a delusion ; that it is really
no more than the contemplation of an idea

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE gi

or an image drawn from the recesses of past
experience and thought, by some unconscious
or subconscious process. Certainly there
would be much to be said for this view if
we were really unable to detect any possible
affinity between the soul and the mystical
object of its intellectual perception ; though,
even so, the persistent testimony of genera-
tions of mystics to the fact might well cause
one to hesitate before accepting an explanation
which explains it away.

The difficulty, it should be noticed in the
first place, is not confined to mystical theology.
It is just as urgent if we ask how any rational
creature can see God at any time and under
any conditions. How can the blessed see
Him eternally in Heaven ? They are still
rational beings ; they undergo, intellectually
at least, no radical change when they pass
from time to eternity ; and yet the whole of
their beatitude consists in the vision of God,
not by any means in merely thinking about
Him. If then we are to reject the mystics'
account of their contemplative vision on this
ground, we must equally reject the doctrine

92 MYSTICISM

of the Church and the statements of Scripture
as to the beatific vision hereafter — which
practically amounts to rejection of Christianity
altogether.^

But it need hardly be said that there is
no such obvious lacuna in the account which
Christianity gives of itself as would entitle
any one to reject it as inadequate. The
modus of the beatific vision can be explained
quite sufficiently to show its entire consistency
with what we know of the necessary relations
between the human intelligence and its natural
object ; and the same explanation removes the
difficulty — which at first sight seems insur-
mountable — of attributing to the object of
mystical knowledge any higher degree of
external reality than belongs to the ordinary
** Universal."

This difficulty, we have seen, consists in

^ Corderius points out that since the soul is capable of
exercising certain functions without the direct co-operation of
the senses, and is able to exist in a disembodied state, a purely
spiritual vision is not contrary to its nature. He adds that
the mystical vision is not so precisely "quidditative" as the
beatific — /.<?., the divine essence (which no creature can fully
comprehend) is much less clearly known in the one than in the
other. (" Quaestio Mystica,'" in Dion. Myst. Theol.^ c. v.)

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 93

the disparity between the human intellect and
the divine personality. What we want to
understand is the principle on which it may
be supposed that the intellect becomes directly
conscious of the divine presence without
reasoning or abstraction, when its natural
function is simply to reason or abstract, and
not to perceive by immediate intuition.

St Thomas Aquinas considers the question
at great length, and his conclusion is sub-
stantially this. The vision of God by the
blessed in Heaven is not mere vision, but
union ; they see God as He is in Himself,
not from a distance as sensible objects are
seen, nor by a discursive intellectual process
as intelligible ideas are perceived, but, so to
speak, from within. They are not, it is need-
less to say, pantheistically merged in God,
but united to Him by His supernatural action,
so that the consciousness in the soul of the
divine presence is akin to, and in some
sense bound up with, its consciousness of
itself. Therefore as our self - consciousness
is intellectual and yet immediate, so also the

94 MYSTICISM

beatific vision of God is both immediate
and intellectual.

In scholastic language, the species hitelligi-
bilis or abstract idea on which the mind works
is practically the " form " of the mind, the mind
itself (considered apart from its action, as m
potentid), standing in the place of "matter"; this
is the normal method of the intellect's opera-
tion. But for those who see God, He becomes
Himself the ''form" to the soul's "matter," so
that He is known directly, as the soul knows
its own natural ideas.^ Even so, however,
though the action of the intellect is normal
in kind, it is in degree far above the ordinary
and natural sphere of the intellect. It there-
fore requires a special divine assistance to
enable it to work in this lofty atmosphere ;
and this assistance (which St Thomas calls
the lumen gloriae and considers a created
"quality," of the nature of grace) is imparted
by the fact of the mystical union.

^ Cf. Blosius, Spiritual Mirror, xi. i. " This mystical denuded
union takes place when a soul is carried above itself by the
grace of God, and through the brilliancy of the divine light
shining on the mind is united to God without any medium^ and
is transformed and changed into Him."

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 95

The difference between the visio beatificans
of heaven, and the mystical vision of persons
still living on earth, is merely that the one
is habitual and permanent, and the other
transient and exceptional ; and whereas the
union of the blessed extends to the risen body
by a kind of reaction, so that the body takes
part in the vision with the soul with which it
is substantially united, the divine vision for the
''viator" is restricted to the soul, and involves
as a pre-requisite the temporary abstraction of
the soul from the processes of the body.

Thus St Paul " knew not " whether his
mystical vision was ''in the body or out of
the body " — i,e.^ the body had no part in the
union, though it could not but be affected
by the psychical state (probably in the direc-
tion of quiescence rather than of any special
activity). The Apostle was not conscious for
the time of anything that took place in the
body. It was a transient visitation of the
lumen gloriae.

There is no need, for our present purpose,
to take this explanation (which perhaps will
scarcely be intelligible to any one who is

96 MYSTICISM

unacquainted with the terminology of scholas-
ticism) as a true account. The reader may,
if he will, consider it as a mere hypothesis.
What it does, whether true or not, is to show
that an analysis of intellectual processes can be
constructed which is perfectly consistent with
the admission of direct and objective intellectual
intuition of a transcendental reality ; and this
is all that is required to remove the apparent
disparity between the intellect and its mystical
object.

It is worth while, however, to notice how
entirely St Thomas's theoretical account corre-
sponds with the descriptions given by mystics
of their actual experiences.

First, the state of actual vision is always
transient. St Teresa says it lasts not more
than half an hour at most : St John of the
Cross that the ''actual" union of the faculties
of the soul with God must in this life be
transient of necessity ; though there is an
" habitual " vision, which is also supernatural,
but permanent, and may be considered as the
consequence of the actual union, and of the
nature of an exalted faith in the permanent

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 97

(or •'immanent") divine presence in the soul.^

This element of permanence we shall consider

later.

Next, It is a state of union, or ** spiritual

marriage" — at least in its complete or most

fully conscious form ; and it is evident that

the union of quasi-matter and quasi-form

described by St Thomas (compared by him,

after Albertus, to the union between soul and

body) is happily expressed by this figure, so

constantly made use of by mystics. St

Teresa could not distinguish between herself

and God while in the state of rapture ; and

St John of the Cross says that *'the soul

seems to be God rather than itself, and indeed

is God by participation."^

i"Dopo questa visione sente sempre I'anima Iddio nel suo
interno, mai non si separa da quella divina compagnia, ne mai
piu perda una certa unione abituale con essolei — questo pero
non si intende, che sia in quel modo, che accade la prima volta
e altre volte che Iddio le vuole rinovare il predetto favore ;
perche se fosse cosi, non sarebbe possibile trattare con gli
uomini, anzi ne pure vivere. Ma sebene non vide sempre
Iddio con tanta luce e tanto gaudio, lo spirito pero si trova
sempre in sua compagnia." (Scaramelli. Dottrina di S. G. della
Croce. Tratt. iii. Art. 2) and cf. St Paul's reference to
habitual union, i Cor. vi. 10 ; Gal. ii. 20.

^ Cf. St Augustine, Conf vii. x. "Tu assumpsisti me, ut
viderer esse quod viderem, et nondum me esse qui viderem."

6

98 MYSTICISM

It is only In regard to this highest mystical
state of intellectual vision that the difficulty
we have been considering arises. Intellectual
impressions or states of consciousness, and
images or figures of any kind are not strictly
manifestations of the divine essence ; they
are indeed supernatural manifestations of the
presence of God, and as such differ in kind
from the impressions or ideas produced sub-
jectively by natural means/ but they are not
the " face to face " visions. We shall consider
in the next chapter the psychological problem
involved in supernatural manifestations of this
kind ; at present we are only concerned with
the actual content of the objects of mystical
perception.

Thirdly, the ''lumen gloriae'' has a very
distinct place in the experience of mystics.
St Augustine speaks of the ''changeless light"
seen only by the eye of the soul, and different
in kind, not merely in degree, from that which

1 Cf. St John of the Cross, Asc. ii. 5. "The fitting dis-
position for that union is, not that the soul should understand,
taste, feel or imagine anything on the subject of the nature of
God, or any other thing whatever, but only that pureness and
love which is perfect resignation, and complete detachment
from all things for God alone."

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 99

all men see.^ According to St John of the
Cross, it is (Hke natural light) not itself the
object of vision, but the means through which
divine things are seen, and is the super-
natural consequence of the " darkness " of faith
in regard to all merely natural objects. St
Teresa says that it ''hardly shines at all in
the first mansions " ; but in the later ones it is
a light ''so unearthly that if during his whole
lifetime any one had been trying to picture this
and the wonders seen, he could not have
succeeded"; and in the "spiritual marriage"
the revelation of the Blessed Trinity is "pre-
ceded by an illumination which shines on the
spirit like a most dazzling cloud of light."
Ruysbroeck says "this light is not God,
but is a mediator between the seeing thought
and God. It is a light-ray from God — in it
God shows Himself immediately, not accord-
ing to the mode of His persons, but in the
simplicity of His nature and essence." (The
contrast between the unity of a common
principle and the variety of individual experi-

^ " Non banc vulgarem et conspicuam omni carni, nee quasi
eodem genere grandior erat, etc." (i. c.)

loo MYSTICISM

ence is here remarkably significant.) Julian
of Norwich speaks of the ''gracious light of
Himself," by which God wills that we should
have understanding.

St Augustine^ distinguishes three kinds of
vision — corporal, "spiritual," which is here the
same as ''imaginary," and intellectual. Of the
first kind was the vision of Balthasar in the
Book of Daniel ; the second is exemplified in
the vision of St Peter at Joppa ; the third kind
was experienced by St Paul in his vision of the
"third heaven." But Balthasar was certainly
not a mystic, and the revelation to St Peter,
though of a higher kind, was of the nature of
a grace gratis data — it was not for St Peter's
benefit, but for those to whom he was to be
sent. Such visions therefore are not essentially
mystical, though certainly supernatural, and
though manifestations of both kinds (especially
the second) frequently accompany mystical ex-
periences. Julian of Norwich says that her
visions were of all three kinds : of the purely
intellectual she can say only "the number of
the words passed my understanding, and all

^ De Gen ad Hit. ^ xii, vii. seq.

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE loi

my might ; for they were in the highest, as
to my sight. For therein is comprehended
I cannot tell what, but the joy that I saw
passeth all that heart can think, or soul desire."
This threefold classification is the generally
accepted one among mystical writers. It
represents clearly enough the whole range
of the objects of mystical vision. These are,
first, as we have seen, the actual conscious-
ness of God in virtue of a formal union of
the intellect with Him, which is the highest
and perfect form of contemplation ; secondly,
the stimulation of the intellect in a super-
natural manner, in such a way as to produce
the direct consciousness of the divine presence
— whether by means of an imaginary figure
or sound of some sort, or by the production
of a direct intellectual impression without
any medium whatever, either in the senses
or in the imagination ; ^ and thirdly, by the

^ Cf. Poulain, Des Grdces d^Oniison. " Dieu a deux fagons
possibles de se faire connaitre, Tune a la mani^re des creatures,
par une esp^ce creee, Tautre sans esp^ce ; il peut en jouer le role.
Or, disent les theologiens, ce dernier mode constitue la vision
intuitive, celle du ciel ; Tautre est le propre de la contemplation
mystique." (It must be understood that this "species," or
impression, need not be anything visual, auditory, or otherwise
sensible ; it cannot be anything merely natural.)

102 MYSTICISM

supernatural but real manifestation of a
sensible image of some kind — such as was
seen not only by Balthasar but by Abraham
when in the theophany in which he "saw
three and adored one," the Blessed Trinity
was mystically exhibited to him under sensible
quasi - human forms. It is obvious, as St
John of the Cross points out at great length,
that certainty as to the divine character of
these experiences varies inversely with the
degree of sensibility or quasi-sensibility which
belongs to them. Sensible and imaginary
impressions can arise from several kinds of
natural causes ; and it is consequently seldom,
if ever, safe to say that they are certainly
supernatural or divine in origin. The direct
impression of the divine presence conveys,
St Teresa says, as its chief characteristic
an irrefragable feeling of certitude ; and the
highest state of union is no more to be mis-
understood or evaded than the self-conscious-
ness which is the underlying condition and
guarantee of all human experience, natural
as well as supernatural.

Lastly, it must be noticed that however

THE OBJECT OF MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE 103

closely what may be called the lower kind
of mystical experience may approach the
ordinary experience of the senses in character,
it must always be considered as entirely dis-
tinct from naturally caused sensations or ideas.
The ''knowledo^e of invisible thino^s " from
visible and created things is true knowledge,
legitimately obtained ; but it is not mystical.
Nor is the .moral union of the heart with
God, or "union of conformity" of which
spiritual writers speak, at all the same thing
as the mystical union. The former must
certainly exist before the latter can take
place, but the two are not identical in any
way. Knowledge obtained through philosophy,
natural science, historical research or social
or practical experience may and should deepen
and strengthen, and may even be the means
of creating an apprehension of God's reality
and presence in the world and beyond it ;
and in proportion as men conform their actions
and affections to the divine model and law, their
devotion to the service of God and their
happiness in it doubtless increase. But such
knowledge and devotion and affection are

I04 MYSTICISM

natural in themselves, though brought about
by the supernatural influence of grace : they
are not of the same kind (however high
they may be in degree) as the supernatural
knowledge and consequent affection which
are properly called mystical. No service can
be done to either by confusing them together.

CHAPTER V

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM

Next in order after the object of mystical
contemplation we have to consider the mode
in which that contemplation takes place. We
have seen that the presence of God may be
made known to the mystical consciousness in
three ways — by formal union, by an intel-
lectual impression, or species, with or with-
out an imaginative representation or figure,
and thirdly, by means of a representation of
a sensible kind. The object of contemplation
is unquestionably supernatural ; but of what
sort is the process, whether intellectual or
physiological, by which the object is per-
ceived? Is it also supernatural — i.e., do the
faculties of mind or body act in any other
way or by any other principle than that in

105

io6 MYSTICISM

which or by which they are accustomed to
act?

The subject is necessarily a somewhat
obscure one, comparatively little being certainly
known as to the nature of the mind's action,
and of its relation to that of the senses. But
some quite overwhelming evidence, such as
does not seem to be either forthcoming or
even conceivable, would be necessary to prove
that either the mind or the body or both
together can, under any circumstances in this
world, act otherwise than according to the
accustomed methods and principles, which in
their general plan at least are well enough
ascertained. We have already seen strong
reason for considering the supernatural ele-
ment of mysticism to consist mainly in its
object ; that element in the perceiving sub-
ject being no more than the illumination and
assistance of the natural faculties by divine
grace, and not their supersession by any new
power or faculty, or by the addition of any
otherwise unknown function to those already
possessed by them. As in the ordinary
operation of divine grace so in its exceptional

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 107

operation, the natural faculties are indeed
assisted and guided ; but they continue to act
according to the laws which they follow in
the absence of any supernatural aid. The
actions, both physical and intellectual, of a
person under the influence of grace do not
differ in kind from those of one who is out-
side that influence, and are open to precisely
the same kind of investigation. Faith, for
example, is not a sixth sense, or an extra
intellectual faculty ; it is merely the action of
the intellect and will directed towards a par-
ticular subject, and dealing with a particular
set of evidences, and is in itself no more
mysterious than other modes of voluntary and
intellectual activity. On Christian principles,
indeed, faith is held to be due to supernatural
assistance by means of a divinely infused
virtue ; but the modtis operandi is obviously
by no means changed by that infusion ; the
force of motiva credibilitatis and the weight
of divine authority are estimated by faith in
the same way as similar evidence is estimated
in purely secular matters.

The supernatural character of mysticism is,

io8 MYSTICISM

therefore, at least no bar to the investigation
in a purely natural sense of the mental pro-
cesses it may involve. Such enquiries as that
of M. Delacroix, or of Professor W. James,
whatever may be thought of their conclusions,
are in no way excluded or discountenanced by
acceptance of the supernatural explanation.

Dionysius, and later mystical writers, have
not troubled themselves with any psycho-
logical theory in explanation of their experi-
ences ; they were, indeed, hardly in a position
to do so. All that they were concerned with
was to relate facts ; though, naturally, they
tended to relate them with so much attention
to sequence and classification as to produce
what is in effect a kind of theory, or systeme
psychologique privilegid. But their accounts,
though in some cases (of which St Teresa and
St John of the Cross are the chief examples)
they are perfectly systematic so far as they
go,^ do not address themselves to any con-
sideration of the mode, whether partially

1 Mr Inge remarks the general tendency among mystical
writers of the supernatural kind to schematism. 1 1 may perhaps
be explained as a natural attempt to minimise the insuperable
difficulty of describing such experiences as theirs.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 109

natural or wholly supernatural, in which the
supernatural effects are produced. So far as
they are concerned, the divine 7nodus operandi
may be considered an open question.

Three different views have been held on this
point.

I. It has been supposed that man is en-
dowed with some kind of special faculty by
which he is enabled both to know God as
existing, and in the higher stages of spirituality
to enter into direct personal relation with Him.
This faculty has often been supposed to be a
distinct element in human nature. The vovq
or spiritual part, which is designed exclusively
for intercourse with the divine, is distinct
from the 'i^vxn or intellect, which is concerned
with created things — both being distinct again
from the animal nature in mankind.-^ This
view, sometimes called trichotomy, has been
condemned by the Church as put forward by
the Apollinarian heretics, and again in recent
times as held by Gunther ; it was held in
a professedly modified form by Occam, with-

1 The Pauline division into body, soul and spirit (i Thess.
V.) must be understood to refer to the twofold function of the
rational soul, not to two distinct substances.

no MYSTICISM

out explicit and authoritative condemnation,
though with much opposition. Again, the
supposed faculty is held to be an endowment
or power of the one soul, co-ordinate with
but distinguishable from its faculties of reason
and will.

In both forms, however, this theory seems to
be gratuitous; since on the one hand no powers
are attributed to the supposed special faculty
which are not in one way or another exercised
by the intellect under ordinary circumstances ;
and on the other hand, there can be no reason
for supposing that God is unable, if He so
desires, to communicate directly with man
through his natural intellect, without having
to create a special faculty for the reception
of divine communications.

2. Directly opposed to this view is another,
which holds the supposed mystical communi-
cations to have no external source, but to
be wholly subjective experiences, due to the
automatic working of the subconscious or
"subliminal" self.^ Much apparently uncon-

' \V. James, Varieties of Religious Experience ; Delacroix,
Mysticisme. Cf. Vaughan, Hours tvith the Mystics^ i. 158.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM in

trovertible evidence has been adduced to
show that the field of psychical experience
extends far beyond that of actual conscious-
ness ; and that from time to time an auto-
matic transference takes place from one to
the other. Ideas appear to arise in the
conscious intelligence without giving any
indication of their origin, in sense or reason ;
they are evidently not consciously made by
the intelligence, nor are they attributable to
any external source which can be recognised
by means of sense - perception. Thus they
have all the appearance of purely spiritual
communications proceeding from an external
and transcendental region. The theory we
are now considering holds that, on the
principle that e^itia non sunt mtcltiplicanda
pr(2ter necessitatem, we are not justified in
investing these experiences with any tran-
scendental character, if, as is thought to be
the case, they can be sufficiently accounted
for by other means.

The question is, therefore, whether the
theory of automatism does really provide a
sufficient explanation of the facts.

112 MYSTICISM

It seems hardly possible to deny that most
of the characteristic features of the states
recorded by Catholic mystical writers as ex-
perienced by themselves, have been at various
times produced in the experience of others
who are neither Catholics nor mystics. The
essential features of passivity, of incommuni-
cableness, and of manifest reality are evident
in many of the cases cited by James, some
of which are the result of alcoholic stimulation,
others of the influence of anaesthetics, and others
again of pathological states ; while some are
apparently spontaneous.^ Moreover, numbers
of heretical and even immoral systems of
religion or theosophy have depended for their
authority on experiences which seem to exhibit
characteristically mystical qualities, but which
cannot, from the point of view of Catholic
orthodoxy, be held to be genuine, and either
must be considered purely natural, or else
must be attributed to diabolical influence.
This latter was the opinion of Gorres, who
made out a complete system of diabolical
mysticism parallel in some sort with the divine.

^ James, op. cit.^ Lectures XVI. and XVII.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 113

But in the case of Catholic mystics— and
it may probably be admitted, in other cases
exhibiting nearly similar features — there is no
question of any such stimulus as that given
by alcohol or drugs. Nor can their state be
properly called pathological, unless in the very
wide and somewhat fanciful sense in which
the so-called inspirations of genius have been
supposed to be so. Abnormal it certainly is ;
and there is no direct evidence to show that
this abnormal state is not, as in some of
the cases quoted by James, the spontaneous
result of some obscure and possibly congenital
abnormality of nervous constitution.^ At the
same time it must be noted that, as has
already been pointed out, the great mystics
show no signs of such abnormality, but are,
on the contrary, rather remarkable for their
mental and physical sanity in the ordinary
affairs of life. Such mystics as St Bernard,
St Catherine of Siena, St Teresa and St John
of the Cross seem to be distinguished from
the ordinary run of people in busines matters,
only by their superior acumen. If indeed it

1 See Benedict XIV., Heroic Sanctity^ and see ch. i. pp. 35, 36.

H

114 MYSTICISM

is to be assumed that no personal God exists ;
or that God cannot communicate directly with
the soul ; or that man has no soul which can
receive such communications — then, no doubt,
the hypothesis, at present certainly unverifi-
able, of automatism may fairly be held to be
the most probable explanation of the problem.
But if no such presupposition is entertained ;
and still more if it is held, on independent
grounds, that a God exists who is able, if
He so chooses, to influence the soul of man
directly and immediately, there seems to be
no reason to deny that those cases of tran-
scendental illumination, for which no physical
cause can be assigned, may, with a degree
of probability which approaches certainty, be
attributed to divine agency. For here the
question ceases to be a matter merely of
psychological investigation : the moral proba-
bility of deception has also to be considered
— that is to say, the probability that God
would permit those who must be considered
most deserving of His consideration to be
the victims of a delusion as humiliating as
the reality simulated by it would be ennobling.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 115

If we start with the Christian presupposition
of the nature of God it is impossible to believe
the conviction universally entertained by the
mystics of their immediate intercourse with
God to be ill-founded : at the same time the
theory of automatism seems to furnish at
least a highly probable explanation of many
quasi - mystical states to which this moral
argument does not appear to be applicable.
Those, on the other hand, who start with a
contrary presupposition, or with none, are
obviously free to apply the theory impartially
to all cases alike.

3. The third view is a conciliation of
the subjective and objective theories, first put
forward definitely by Maine de Biran,^ and
adopted in a general way by Gorres. In this

^ Vie de V Esprit : sub fin. Cf. Delacroix, p. 406. "Comme
il est difficile de meconnaitre I'identite psychologique des
phenomenes de subconscience, qu'ils se presentent dans le
Christianisme ou dans d'autres religions ; ou bien sans d'autres
formes que la forme religieuse, beaucoup d'esprits desireux de
concilier le fait et la doctrine tendent ^ faire droit aux exigences
de la psychologie, en expliquant psychologiquement la passivite
religieuse, et k celles de la theologie, en maintenant que ce jeu
de lois psychologiques represente le plan d'action divine sur les
ames ; de sorte que le subconscient serait le vehicule de la grace
divine."

ii6 MYSTICISM

view the experience of the mystic is real, and
consists, as he rightly believes, in immediate
intuition of and communication with the divine
being. But the manner in which the soul
becomes conscious of the supernatural experi-
ence is natural, and from a certain point is
the same as that in which it becomes conscious
of the impressions automatically derived from
the " transmarginal " sphere. That is to say,
the soul undergoes a certain unconscious modi-
fication^ (in the one case by means of a sense-
impression, in the other by means of a
purely spiritual communication), of which it
subsequently becomes conscious by the very
obscure process to which the title of automatism
has been given in order to express its essentially
non-volitional character. The way, whatever
it may be, in which we become conscious of
ideas derived from unnoticed sense-impressions
may be identical with that in which the mystic
becomes conscious of the immediate divine
presence. He can give no account of the
coming of this presence ; suddenly he knows
that it is there and he can say no more. In

^ Cf. Maher, Psychology^ p. 357.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 117

the same way the mind becomes suddenly
conscious of the solution of a difficult problem,
of an artistic effect and the manner of its pro-
duction, or of an overmastering moral impulse,
without being able to explain or account for
its origin. There is certainly a strong apparent
similarity between the flashes of inspiration
which are held to constitute or indicate genius
and the mystical intuition of an objective divine
presence and of communications proceeding
from a divine person ; and the view which
regards the rise of the ideas into consciousness
as identical in method in every case seems
to have much in its favour. The absence
of any genuine (as distinct from imaginary)
sensible impressions in the one case as com-
pared with the fundamental importance of
sense-impressions in the other need present
no difficulty, so long as we admit the sub-
stantial reality of the soul, and refrain from
identifying physiological with psychological
conditions. It is not more difficult — and it may
even appear less so — to conceive of a psychical
state produced, whether consciously or un-
consciously, by direct spiritual agency, than to

ii8 MYSTICISM

conceive of a psychical state resulting from
a sense-impression. In the view now before
us, the only difference between the two classes
of experience is that a true mystical state is
originated in the psychical sphere ; pseudo-
mystical or merely natural states have their
origin in sense - impression, like all merely
natural psychical states ; but the psychical
machinery by which a conscious state is
produced we may consider to be the same in
both cases.

It may be added that this distinction
coincides practically with that which has been
constantly made by ecclesiastical authority
in dealing with the various types of apparently
abnormal spiritual experience on which it has
had to pronounce an opinion from time to
time.^ The possibility, or rather the strong
probability, of deception of one kind or
another has always been kept prominently in
view ; and it is only after much hesitation that
any such case has been pronounced genuine.
Each has been, as a rul^, the subject of pro-
longed investigation and consideration ; cases

^ See Benedict XIV., De Canon, passim.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 119

eventually found to be spurious have had their
orthodox defenders, and genuine ones their
equally orthodox antagonists. St Catherine
of Siena, St John of the Cross, St Teresa,
B. Margaret Mary Alacoque, and a host of
others have had to undergo a more or less
prolonged period of doubt, suspicion and even
reprobation, before their experiences were
accepted as genuine ; and on the other hand,
neither Molinos nor Madame Guyon lacked
patronage in high places. It is enough, how-
ever, for practical purposes (and no other
purpose can here be entertained) to distinguish
genuine experiences from delusions. It is of
little importance to know the nature of the
delusion, which it is admitted might be
either natural or directly diabolical in origin.
Psychological considerations need not enter
into the investigation ; until very recently,
indeed, it was scarcely possible that they
should ; but the fact of self-deception has
always been familiar enough, however little
may have been known about its nature.

Abnormal experiences may, therefore, be
either genuine or cases of delusion, whether

120 MYSTICISM

natural or supernatural, and the theory last
mentioned supplies a rational basis for this
classification to which it seems difficult to
take exception. At the same time, it must
be remembered that the criterion which has
mainly been made use of by Ecclesiastical
authority is, and probably will always be, the
external or ** pragmatic" one of orthodoxy and
morality. But mysticism which is orthodox
and moral need not necessarily be genuine,
though that which is heretical and immoral
must necessarily be spurious ; and in the large
number of cases of the former kind no
authoritative pronouncement has been made
or appears to be possible. But in such cases
there is little practical need for authority ; a
doubtfully genuine mystic may be accepted or
rejected by individual opinion, and so long
as his faith and morals are beyond question,
neither acceptance nor rejection can do any
harm. It may also be suggested that the
difficulty of a decision may be considerably
increased by the occurrence of abnormal states
of different kinds in the experience of the same
individual. The passage from real mystical

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MYSTICISM 121

experiences to spurious ones seems to be far
from an improbable occurrence — and the con-
verse process, though doubtless less probable,
can hardly be considered impossible, though
nothing could well be more difficult than to
trace such a transition. But the opinion ex-
pressed of the Methodists by William Law is
applicable to a large class of mystical preten-
sions — "I think that they have the Spirit
of God, but they have greatly mingled their
own spirit with it." ^

^ The probable function of the "subliminal" consciousness
and the nature of the union involved in the lume7t gloirae are
well though briefly described by Dr Chandler (Anglican Bishop
of Bloemfontein) ; though it is, of course, incorrect to speak, as
he does, of the " spark of the divine nature which is present in
us from the beginning, and which makes us spiritual creatures
with an organ of spiritual intuition" — Ara Cceli^ pp. 11 5- 119.

CHAPTER VI

EVIL

The question, often felt to be a very dis-
tressing one, of the cause and inner nature of
evil and of its place in the universal scheme
of things, has a special affinity with the
principle of mysticism. It would seem only
natural to suppose that those who are admitted
to the special divine intimacy which is the
privilege of mystics should have something to
say about the way in which the unsatisfactory
condition of this world is to be reconciled
with the existence of an omnipotent and
benevolent Creator, of whose nature they have
a deeper knowledge than others, and of whose
relation to a suffering creation they may there-
fore be expected to have a fuller comprehen-
sion than the rest of mankind.

122

EVIL 123

This expectation is one that is often con-
sidered to be unfulfilled ; though mystical
writers do as a rule deal more or less fully
with the subject, their account is often thought
to be inadequate, and even unmeaning. They
are agreed that evil — whether considered as
sin or as the suffering consequent upon it-
has no substantive existence ; it is the nega-
tion of good and no more. There can be
no Summum Malum, St Thomas declares, for
this reason. As to how evil comes into being,
and what is its place and meaning in a uni-
verse that must be considered wholly good,
they are by no means explicit. They know
— but they cannot explain how they know —
that evil has no permanence and no substantial
reality : that it neither mars the perfect good-
ness and omnipotence of God, nor troubles
the peace of those who are united with Him
— that in the end all will somehow be perfectly
well.^ This no doubt is quite satisfactory to

^ Cf. Blessed Angela of Foligno. " I felt myself in such
fulness of charity, and I understood with such joy in that power
and will and justice of God, that I understood not only those
things about which I had asked, but I was satisfied as to the
salvation offered to every creature, and about the devil and the

124 MYSTICISM

the mystic who receives the supernatural
assurance ; but it is hardly applicable by way
of argument or explanation to the perplexities
of others in this matter.

Nevertheless, it is quite possible to con-
struct a theodicy, or vindication of the divine
justice, upon the basis of the principle which
lies at the root of supernatural mysticism.
Indeed it is scarcely possible to do so in any
other way. That principle, as we have seen,
is the absoluteness, or the infinite perfection
and independence, of the divine nature. All

damned and all things. But all this I cannot explain in words."
(In Catholic Mysticism^ by A. Thorold.)

Cf. also Julian of Norwich, ch. xxxii. " One point of our
Faith is, that many creatures shall be damned as the angels
which be now fiends, and many in earth that died out of
the faith of Holy Church, and also many that hath received
Christendom, and liveth unchristian lives, and so die out of
charity. All these shall be damned to Hell without end, as
Holy Church teacheth me to believe ; and standing all this,
methought it was impossible that all manner of thing should
be well, as our Lord shewed in this time. And as to this, I
had no other answer but this: 'That, that is impossible to
thee, is not impossible to me ; I shall save my word in all
things and I shall make all things well — for this is the great
deed that our Lord God shall do ; in which deed He shall
save His word in all things, and He shall make well all that
is not well. But what the deed shall be and how it shall be
done, there is no creature beneath Christ that knoweth it, nor
shall know it till it be done.' "

EVIL 125

depends on God, but He Himself on nothing
but Himself. Consequently, His motive in
creating is in Himself— His own ** glory" or
"pleasure"; and this is the only absolutely
good motive which can be conceived for any
action on the part of either the Creator or the
creature. But if God is '' glorified " by the
creation of this world ; if His power and
justice are manifested in the reward of the
good and the punishment of the wicked ; then
certainly the act of creation is good, its
motive is fulfilled. Evil is the work of the
creature, not of the Creator, whose justice and
mercy alike it is the means of exhibiting.

Further, the goodness of the act of creation
is not vitiated by the fact that it involves the
self-caused misery, temporal or eternal, of the
human race. At first sight this does appear
to be a grave difficulty, in the way of re-
conciling omnipotence with perfect goodness ;
for, it is asked, if God could create a world
in which no evil could exist, or could even
abstain from creating this one, why did He
not do so ? Or if He could not do either,
how can He be omnipotent ? But evil is the

126 MYSTICISM

work of created free-will, not of God : if, there-
fore, God had abstained from the creation of
this world (or what is the same thing, had
made it different) because of man's actions
foreseen either as possible or as certain, then
God would not have acted as God, but in
contravention of His very nature. There
would have been a corner of the possible
universe from which He would have been ex-
cluded, a good act which He might not do :
He would have been limited by and dependent
on the free actions of His possible creatures.
But such an idea is absolutely inconceivable :
God cannot at the same time be perfect and
limited, or dependent and independent, or
supreme and subject to the will of His
creatures ; and if He could act in subordina-
tion to anything external to Himself, He would
no longer exist — He would have destroyed
Himself. To remove the centre of a circle
is to destroy both centre and circle, and if
God were not the centre of the circle of the
universe, neither He nor it could exist.

Thus the difficulty of reconciling the exist-
ence of evil with the omnipotence and good-

EVIL 127

ness of a divine creator disappears as soon
as the essential nature of God is realised in
respect of its independence and supremacy.
Hence also appears the negative character of
evil, which is recognised by all systems of
thought that admit a supreme being — by the
Stoic Cleanthes and the Neoplatonist Plotinus
no less than by St Augustine and St Thomas.
Evil is the absence of certain possible or
ideal elements in certain parts of creation,
not the existence in them of something hostile
or extraneous. Sin is the perversion of the
free-will, not its inhibition ; pain is the dis-
order of the organism or the faculties, not
a fresh element in their constitution ; suffer-
ing, whether mental or bodily, is a mode of
natural self-consciousness, not consciousness of
a different kind from that which experiences
pleasure. Moreover, if evil in the ordinary
(not the "metaphysical") sense is held to
be identical with sin and its consequences —
as it must be on Christian principles — then
sin and suffering are two mutually counter-
balancing factors in the harmonious inter-
action of all the elements of the universe ;

128 MYSTICISM

evil is an accident of that which is specifi-
cally good ; it is provided for in the universal
scheme of things, as the expansion and con-
traction of the main-spring is provided for
in the mechanism of a watch — it is an irregu-
larity of detail which subserves the regularity
of the whole.

The only alternatives to this view are
either an impossible Manichean dualism, or
some form of philosophical pessimism, such as
the original underlying principle of Buddhism,
or those which are adopted respectively by
Schopenhauer and Hartmann, or such as is
really latent, though not acknowledged, in the
"substance" of Spinozism or the idealistic
absolute of Bradley. The subordinate dualism
of Christianity relieves the Creator of what
may be called responsibility for evil, while
its fundamental monism provides a place for
evil in the scheme of things no less secure
than that which it finds in the supposed
universal substance or the absolute.

As a philosophical statement of the Christian
view of evil this can hardly be unacceptable
to any one. But it must be admitted that

EVIL 129

it fails to go to the root of the matter, even
when combined, as it should be, with the
doctrines of the Incarnation and the Atone-
ment as constituting a manifestation of divine
mercy superimposed upon that of the divine
justice which appears in the natural universe.
No merely speculative account of evil can
be entirely satisfactory, even apart from the
necessary incompleteness of any speculation
on so purely transcendental a subject, so long
as evil is not merely known, but felt. What
gives this problem its peculiar poignancy is
the fact that evil is primarily a matter of
experience ; it is but cold comfort for those
who suffer to know that their pains do not
disturb the harmony of the universe or dis-
prove the goodness of its Creator. ** There
never yet was a philosopher that could endure
the toothache patiently," and it seems improb-
able that any rational explanation of the origin
and nature of evil, however unexceptionable
on philosophical or theological grounds, will
ever subdue the human instinct of rebellion
against the prevailing law of suffering.

But mysticism stands on a different plane

I30 MYSTICISM

from that of philosophy or speculative the-
ology ; it is an experience as direct and as
real as even the most entirely corporal forms
of suffering, and it is consequently able to
provide a real counterpoise to all pains of
mind or body far different from the some-
what empty consolations of philosophy, or
even from those of the deepest human
sympathy ; with which latter it has never-
theless something in common. It is probably,
indeed, in genuine human sympathy that the
only real consolation — inadequate enough —
for unavoidable suffering is to be found by
natural means ; it does not indeed diminish
or shorten the pain, but a kind of set-off is
provided by the regard and affection which
the sympathy implies. There is no consola-
tion, but rather the reverse, in an enemy's
sympathy ; but the joy of friendship manifested
in sympathy is felt to be a distinct gain due
to the suffering which has given it occasion.
In somewhat the same way, though in an
infinitely higher degree, the joy of union
with God is a consolation which mystics
consider to be cheaply bought at the price

EVIL 131

of any pain. Argument and explanation
become, as compared with such delights as
the mystic knows, of very minor importance ;
the "familiar friendship" of God is a practical
argument, more persuasive than any other
could possibly be, for His absolute goodness
and infinite power, no matter what difficulties
may be found in the way of reconciling them
with earthly appearances within the narrow
range of human thought and knowledge.

This eminently practical solution of the
problem of evil is implicitly contained in
what has been called the '* mystical paradox."
Mystics constantly assert that it would be
better to be united to God in hell, than to
be separated from Him in heaven.^ Either

^ E.g.^ St Teresa : "A soul is suffering sorrow and disquiet,
the mind is darkened and dry, but is set at peace, freed from
all trouble and filled with light, merely by hearing the words,
' Be not troubled.' These deliver it from all pain, although
before, if the whole world and all its learned men had united to
persuade it there was no cause for grief, it could not, in spite of
their efforts, have got rid of its sadness." (Castle, vi. 3.) "Souls
that have reached the state I speak of . . . care nothing for
their own pain or glory ; if they are anxious not to stay long in
purgatory, it is more on account of its keeping them from the
presence of God than because of its torments." {lb. vi. 7.)

B. Angela of Foligno {Joe. cit.) : " If I knew for certain that
I was damned, I could not possibly grieve nor labour less, nor

132 MYSTICISM

is, of course, actually simply inconceivable ;
the paradox is merely a strong assertion of
the absolute dependence of the creature upon
the will of the Creator, and the entire con-
tentment which a soul that has once realised
that dependence must feel in occupying its
divinely ordained place in the universe, what-
ever it may be.

The point of view is shifted : the universe
is envisaged from its true centre, which is
God, not from the false and imaginary centre
of self. A faint likeness to this conception
may be perceived in the ** contemplation of
the kernel of things " extolled by Schopen-
hauer; in Hartmann's doctrine that the **ends
of the unconscious " should be made our own,
and in the notion advocated by Comte and
by the '' ethical religions " of the present day,

be less zealous in prayer for the honour of God, so perfectly did
I understand His justice."

Ruysbroeck : " Lord, I am Thine, I should be Thine as gladly
in Hell as in Heaven, if in that way I could advance Thy glory."
— Adornvieftt of the Spiritual Marriage.

B. Margaret Mary Alacoque : " Je ne sais si je me trompe,
mais il me semble que je voudrais aimer mon amour crucifie
d'un amour aussi ardent que celui des Seraphins, mais je ne
serais pas fichde que ce fut dans I'enfer que je I'aimasse de la
sorte." — Vie par ses Contemporaines.

EVIL . 133

that life is to be viewed and transacted from
the standpoint of humanity, or of posterity.
The idea, thus stripped of its personal aspect,
becomes utterly unreal and ineffective ; but
in the mystical consciousness it furnishes the
only antidote ever yet discovered (and that,
it would seem, a complete one) to the bitter
sense of wrong and injustice which the evils
of life are apt to engender. To regard the
world and oneself from the point of view of
the whole human race, so as to act altruisti-
cally for the benefit of others, or to expend
devotion on the idea of duty is one thing ;
to be so united with God that the thought
of self is lost and forgotten is quite another.
One is an artificial pose in regard to blood-
less abstractions which have no vitality ; the
otk^ is the actual grasp of the very root
and vital principle of things.

Thus the mystic translates into real and
living experience the theoretical principle
adduced by Christian philosophy as the explana-
tion of the existence and nature of evil, and
furnishes what for practical purposes may fairly
be called an experimental test of its validity.

134 MYSTICISM

On the other hand, the mystical attitude
towards evil is strongly corroborated by its
exact and obviously unpremeditated agreement
with the only metaphysical theory which pro-
vides anything like an adequate account of
the origin and nature of evil.

It may be noted finally, that the consola-
tions of mysticism in this matter are by no
means to be confined strictly to mystics. In
the first place, the blind trust in the divine
goodness, which is probably for many the only
practical resource in the pains and anxieties
of life, loses altogether its prima facie appear-
ance of unreasonableness when it is founded
on real, even though vicarious experience.
The logical position of the Christian who
believes in the goodness and omnipotence of
God, in spite of appearances to the contrary,
merely because he would otherwise be unable
to believe in God at all, certainly leaves
much to be desired. But if it is reinforced
by the consideration that those who know
Him best have found, by direct experience
which cannot be gainsaid, that He is both
omnipotent and good, the position is really

EVIL 135

no less reasonable than that of those who are
convinced of the insularity of Great Britain
without having personally circumnavigated it.

Secondly, the mystical attitude towards the
problem is quite consistent with the absence in
any particular individual of mystical experience
properly so called. There are doubtless in-
numerable Christians whose conviction of the
power and goodness of God is not less in
degree than that of the mystic, though their
conviction is founded on theoretical rather than
directly experimental grounds. The certainty
of faith, supported as it nearly always is by
a strong sense of the care and protection of
divine Providence, and by the experience of
favours granted in answer to prayer, is in no
way less strong — in some respects it is even
stronger, than that which is based directly on
mystical knowledge.

But even in this case the mystical experience
of others, whether recorded in Holy Scripture
or in the lives of the Saints, or by living
contemporaries, provides an aid to faith, or
"motive of credibility" which cannot rightly
be overlooked,

CHAPTER VII

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE

The supernatural character of mysticism de-
pends upon the double aspect in which God's
presence in creation may be considered. In
one point of view God is everywhere present
in creation, and thus may be approached by
all men, even while they are confined physically
to the material sphere of the senses. There
is between God and His creatures no local
interval, and no intelligible intermediation
such as the Gnostics conceived to exist. The
world is not revolving apart from God, for-
gotten and neglected ; nor is it brought into
relation with Him only through a hierarchy
or chain of subordinate spiritual existences
or emanations. God is rightly, in this sense,
said to be " immanent " in the world as the

constant efficient cause from which everything

136

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE 137

in every moment of existence derives its
being ; as the supreme ruler of all that is ;
and as the intelligent designer of all forms
of being, together with all their permutations
and combinations. He is everywhere per
essentiam pi^esentiam et potentiam} On the
other hand, God is by nature absolutely
distinct and separate from all created exist-
ence, not merely in the way in which one
created being may differ in kind from another,
but by the unique nature of His being,
which is absolute and self - dependent, and
thus altogether incommensurable with created
things, which are necessarily dependent and
derived. Though all creatures are in the
similitude of God by virtue of the being which
is communicated to them by Him, they are
all absolutely unlike Him in His independence;
no imaginable greatness or perfection in any
creature can give it any sort of resemblance
to this essential and fundamental attribute
of the divine nature. Therefore God can
only be known by intellectual separation

1 Su?mna^ I. viii. 3, and cf. St John of the Cross, Ascent^ ii. 5,
and Spiritual Canticle^ xi. 2.

138 MYSTICISM

from all creatures : He cannot be expressed
in terms of anything but Himself, or brought
under any category which has any other
content — there is no ''formula" for God, no
class to which. He may be said to belong.

If God is considered as intelligent, wise,
beautiful or powerful. He is still none of
those things in the same sense in which they
can be predicated of creatures, who can only
be intelligent, wise or beautiful by participa-
tion, as their very existence is only participa-
tion in the being of God. The speculative
knowledge that God exists is the recogni-
tion, theoretically, of a unique kind of being ;
but the experimental knowledge, which is
mysticism, is immediate experience or appre-
hension of that which is essentially different
from all else, and must therefore be appre-
hended or experienced after a wholly different
manner from that in which we experience
created existence. That is to say that God
is transcendent ; and it is only in a sense
consistent with His transcendence that He
can truly be said to be immanent in creation.

There are two other senses in which God

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE 139

has been held to be immanent : one of them the
conception of Spinoza, the other of Eckhart and
Hegel. The former holds that God and nature,
or spirit and matter, are identical — the same
thing, namely ''substance," in two different
aspects. This notion is immanence in its
strictly etymological sense ; God is in nature
and remains in it ; He cannot be outside it,
for there is no outside ; and He cannot be
distinct from it, for He is constituted by the
sum total of its parts and their relations, of
which He is in fact the underlying unity
and reality. Much the same relation to the
world of phenomena is attributed by Bradley
to the absolute.

The other view regfards nature as a mode
of God's being, a necessary phase or moment
in His self-realisation. Nature is identical
with God, but God is more than nature (not
quantitatively but intensively), inasmuch He
is both prior and posterior to nature, in the
order of thought, though not necessarily in
the order of time. This, however, is not
really transcendence ; for God in this view
is ontologically one with nature, so far as it

I40 MYSTICISM

goes ; creation is a necessary part of God,
and He transcends nature only in the sense
of being more than, not different from nature.

Under either of these two conceptions God
is ** given" in nature, and experience of nature
is experience of God. There is no place
therefore for vision, ** rapture" or ** ecstasy,"
the object of which would be merely the
non-existent. All the mystic could do would
be to reflect upon his sensible experience,
and compound a syncretised Deity of the
"threads and patches " of individual sensation,
thought and feeling.

It is a very different process that the
supernatural mystic expounds, so far as the
limitations of human language will allow him.
God is substantially or essentially present in
the soul, as He is in all created things ; but
the mystic does far more than merely reflect
on this truth. What he seeks is the super-
natural union of likeness, begotten by love,
which is the union of the human will with
the divine. He seeks to realise the unfelt
natural presence of God in creation, not by
resting in any aspect of nature, even its most

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE 141

abstract one, as mere being, but by entering
into a personal relationship with the concealed
presence which is the source of being. Where-
as Spinoza saw natura naturans in natura
naturata, and Hegel pure being evolving
itself through the maze of the becoming, the
supernatural mystic cuts himself loose at one
blow from all phenomenal entanglements, and
"passes free and untrammelled by all that is
seen and all that sees " into the ** intangible and
invisible" presence of Him who is "beyond all
things."^ This appears to be the true inter-
pretation of the doctrine of the "ground"
(Grund) of the soul, which is prominent in
the German mysticism of the fourteenth century,
and to which reference has already been made.
This doctrine, as it appears in Eckhart, Tauler
and Ruysbroeck, and the German Theology,
is somewhat confused, and has led to some
apparent misunderstanding.^ There are two

^ See Dion., MysL TheoL, c. i.

^ E.g., Tauler {Sermon of St John Baptist) : " There is no past
or present here ; and no created light can reach or shine into
this divine ground ; for here only is the dwelling-place of God
and His sanctuary. This divine abyss can be fathomed by no
creatures ; it can be filled by none and it satisfies none \ God

142 MYSTICISM

" grounds," spoken of respectively as ** created "
and "uncreated," and the two seem to be
treated as almost interchangeable — whence
these writers seem occasionally to speak of
the essence or substance of the soul as if it
were uncreated, and a part of the divine
essence. But the general principles of at least
Tauler and Ruysbroeck certainly require us
to understand the created ground to be the
substance of the human soul, as distinguished
from its faculties — the principle in virtue of
which it not merely acts, but is ; and the
uncreated ground is then to be understood
as that substantial or ** immanent " presence
of God which is to be found in all created
things alike, as the background and support
without which they could have no existence
at all. The close contact (as for w^ant of a
better word it must be called) between the
two is obvious. The created ground is the
essence of the soul, a thing which cannot be
directly known, but only inferred from its

only can fill it in His infinity. For this abyss belongs only to
the divine abyss, of which it is written 'Abyssus abyssum
invocat.' " And compare the German Theology^ ch, i. : " He
is the substance of all things.'^

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE 143

Operations, a purely spiritual and intelligible
entity, removed from all direct experience ;
and the uncreated ground is another purely
spiritual entity, also incapable of being natur-
ally experienced, which is the basis of the
created ground's existence — the ground of
the ground, in fact. But when the mystical
union of the soul with God takes place, the
two grounds become in a certain sense one.
God is realised as the foundation of the soul's
being, and the soul's perception of its own
essence is, in fact, the perception of its unity
with the essential divine nature. Eckhart
seems, at times, to have identified the two
grounds in an ontological and not merely
mystical unity ; and the others, in the fervour
of devotional experience, as was perhaps
natural, have not always kept the distinction
perfectly clear. But their view is, on the
whole, intelligible enough, and far removed
from any affinity with pantheism. But the
struggle with the sense-implications of language
perpetually besets mystical writers, and never
ceases to involve their meaning in obscurity.
The ordinary processes of the mind can be

144 MYSTICISM

expressed in words only by way of metaphor,
and the meaning of the language of psychology
is not always to be easily apprehended. Much
more must the application of language to
that which is beyond thought, and in some
sense its negation, be difficult and liable to
misunderstanding.

It will be clear enough, however, from what
has been said that the terms "immanent" and
** transcendent," as applied to the divine nature,
are not mutually exclusive, but indicate merely
two aspects of the same thing. The tran-
scendence of God is immanent, and His
immanence is transcendent. By immanence
is to be understood the divine accessibility
to the human soul, and by transcendence the
essential independence of the divine nature of
all created things and persons. The words,
if used rightly, must be used in the Kantian
or subjective sense of two ways in which God
may be apprehended by us, not as indicat-
ing two modes of His existence. God may
be known to exist, and His nature partially
understood, by the Baconian " interrogation " of
His handiwork ; thus our knowledge of God

IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE 145

through nature is an immanent knowledge.
But the conception of God so arrived at
is of a being who wholly transcends nature,
and whose essential distinctness from all that
is not eternally Himself is a fundamental
attribute of His being. Thus our knowledge
of God is transcendent as well as immanent,
since while we conceive Him as manifested by
nature, we conceive Him also, and in the same
act, as essentially distinct and separate from
nature. This, however, is not the same thing
as saying that God is in nature and also
beyond it, but the exact contrary ; God has
neither two modes of being nor two modes of
action ; He is totum inter omnia, et totum
extra — His action, like His existence, is
either wholly immanent or wholly transcen-
dent, according to the point of view adopted.
To contrast the two, in an ontological sense,
IS really to make a cross-division — as if we
were to contrast His omnipotence with His
power to create a universe. It is not to be
wondered at that a fancied distinction between
God's immanental and transcendental actions
should have led to strange results.

CHAPTER VIII

PLOTINUS

The experimental knowledge of God by means

of special divine illumination must, according

to the view we are advocating, be considered

to be the prerogative of Christianity. For

since the fulness of divine knowledge, so far

as it is attainable by human beings in this

life, is to be found in the Christian religion

alone, it is evidently inconceivable that such

knowledge should either fail to be found there

in its highest form, which is mysticism, or that

it should exist elsewhere in equal perfection.

This view is, for the most part, fully borne out

by a comparison of Christian mysticism with

such few instances of non-Christian religious

experience as may by any straining of the

epithet be called mystical. So also the

mystical pretensions of persons outside the

146

PLOTINUS 147

pale of the Catholic Church, and those which,
though made on the behalf of Catholics, the
Church holds to be spurious, are manifestly
untenable on the principles laid down by
Catholic authority as to the necessary char-
acter and results of true mysticism.

There is, however, one case which it is
difficult not to regard as an exception to this
rule — that of Plotinus. This remarkable
figure stands out as the sole instance in
which all the conditions of true mysticism
(with the necessary exception of faith) seem
to have been fulfilled by one who was neither
a Catholic nor a Christian, but the father of
Neoplatonism, in its later and fully-developed
form. Plotinus was born about the year 204,
and studied at Alexandria under Ammonius
Saccas, but at the age of forty went to Rome,
where he taught until the last year of his
life, the Emperor Gallienus being one of his
disciples, and died in Campania in the year
269. He was much sought after in Rome
as a kind of spiritual director ; his habits of
life were ascetic, as indeed would naturally
be the case with one who so despised material

148 MYSTICISM

things as to be "like one who was ashamed
of being in the body, and therefore could not
bear to speak of his birth, or parents or
country."^

His philosophy insists strongly on the
transcendence of God, the supreme unity and
absolute Good, which is above all being and
all thought. Beneath the One are intelligence
(vovg), with which the Platonic ideas are identi-
fied, and the soul {i^vxh), which is the pro-
duct of intelligence, and in its turn produces
corporeal things by impressing form upon
indeterminate, unqualified matter. Thus the
body is in the soul, rather than the soul in
the body ; all things are held together by
the One, which continually draws the manifold
to itself. Man's part is to rise up from the
diversity and degradation of matter, through
thought, into union with the one and absolute
Good. We are not, however, now concerned
with Plotinus's philosophy, but with its practical
consequence. It is in the final stage of the
soul's upward course, its union with God and

1 Porphyry, Life of Plotinus.

PLOTINUS 149

rest in Him, that the system of Plotinus
becomes purely mystical.

The nature of this union is described in
the sixth Ennead. Like Dionysius after him
Plotinus does not bring out very clearly the
notion of special supernatural assistance, or
grace, as a necessary condition of mystical
vision. But, also like Dionysius, he insists
strongly on the distinction between mystics
and the uninitiated {/mr] fxefxv/jiuevoi, compare
Dion., AlysL TheoL, i); and he speaks, as
Dionysius does not, of the ** call " and
** drawing" of the supreme Good, whereby
the soul is brought into union with it.^ This
union with God, or vision of Him, takes
place in the ''substance of the soul"; it is
rather contact than mere knowledge, though
knowledge is a necessary preliminary to it.
It is ecstasy, unity, the projection of the soul
out of itself,^ in virtue of the affinity which

^ iKecPO dr] 6' ^vxv 5hI}K€l Kal 6 0ws v<^ wapix^'- '^cc^ ip-ireahv avrdv
ix^os KiveT, oijTOL 5e6 dav/xd^eiu et Toiavrrjv dvua/xLv ?x^' '^Xkov Trpos avrb
Kal dvaKoKoijfji.ei'ov e/c TrdcTys TrXavT/s, tVa Trpos avrb dvairava'acTO. —
Enn. vi. 7.

^ ov d^afxa, dXXa ctXXos rpdiros tov I5e7u, ^Kcrraais Kal dirXoiO'Li Kal
iirldoa-is avrov Kal ^cpeais Trpos d07];' , . . fj.r]de /car' i7rL<XTrjfXT]v i] (xvve(n$
iKilvov firjhk Kara vorjatv, Cocrrrep to. &\\a vorjrdf dXXd Kara Trapovcriav
€Tr iffTrifirjs KpelrTova. — lb. 9,

150 MYSTICISM

the soul has to the One by its own unity,
as a self-centred monad (to i^uxv^ otov Kevrpov).
Like Dionysius again, Plotinus enlarges on
the abstraction from all that is manifold which
is needful before union with the One can be
attained. The soul in that union despises
even thought, which previously had been its

delight (SicLKeirai Tore cog kcli tov voelv Kara^poveiv,
o TOV aWov xpo'i^oi/ jJcTTrafero) ; mUch more all

material things : for there is movement, or
unrest even in thought, whereas the one is
unmoved, so that the soul that abides in the
one finds absolute rest, and abandons all
things. It is as if one entered a splendid
mansion and admired the beauty of its adorn-
ment ; but when the master of the house
appears, one cannot but forget all those objects
of admiration in the joy of seeing Him, who
comes under no similitude of Himself, but as
the object of true vision. For this Master of
the house is no man, but God ; and makes
Himself known not by means of common sight,
but as filling the soul which beholds Him.
Again, it is not beautiful things that the soul
beholds in this vision, nor beauty itself, nor

PLOTINUS 151

the whole band (xopov) of virtues ; as if one
entered the vestibule of a temple, and saw
there the statues and similitudes of the God,
but afterwards going within the sanctuary, saw
no more any statue or picture, but the divine
being Himself. This union between the soul
and God resembles in its clearness the union

of earthly lovers (epaa-rai koll epw/mevoi avyKphai

OeXovreg) ; the soul will have no other thing,
good or bad ; but itself alone will enjoy Him

alone ('/I'ot Se^tjrai juovtj /jLovouy

Thus we find in Plotinus the most advanced
conceptions of the great Christian mystics.
There is no vision or locution ; all is abstract
or purely spiritual. But Plotinus tells us
almost in identical phraseology of the Mansions
of St Teresa,^ of the prayer of quiet, of St
John's dark night of faith, and of the spiritual
marriage; the ** ground" (Kevrpov) of the soul
is with him as familiar and as necessary an
idea as it is with the German mystics.

Quotations might be multiplied and coin-

1 " Ne croirait-on pas entendre encore Plotin, quand la sainte
fille (St Teresa) nous recommande ' de porter les yeux vers le
centre qui est le palais ou habite ce grand roi?' "—St Hilaire,
DEcole d^ Alexandrie.

152 MYSTICISM

cidences noted to almost any extent. But
what has been said will be enough to show
the character of Plotinus's mysticism and its
marvellous agreement with the true super-
natural type. The question therefore arises
whether we are to consider Plotinus a genuine
supernatural mystic or not ; and if he must
be held to be so, we are immediately con-
fronted with the further question of his true
relation to Christian mysticism. For unless
all supernatural mystics, Christian and Neo-
platonist alike, are subject to a common delu-
sion, it would seem difficult to assign the
same origin to the mystical experience depicted
by Plotinus as to the '* mystical theology" of
Dionysius, or of St Teresa and St John of
the Cross.

It must be remembered that Plotinus was,
during the most important part of his career,
in close contact with Christianity, and that
not in any outlying region of the faith, where
distinctions of creed might be obscured in
the minds of an unlettered people, but in
Rome itself. Moreover, during his residence
at Rome he must have witnessed the pro-

PLOTINUS 153

scripiion and persecution of Christians under
Decius, and the admission of Christianity to
the privileges of a religio licita by his pupil
Gallienus. He can, therefore, have been
ignorant neither of the exclusiveness of the
Christian religion, nor of the influence it was
able to exert over both those within and those
without its pale. He seems, in point of fact,
to have disregarded Christianity altogether ;
he was neither a convert, like Victorinus a
century after him, nor an opponent, like his
disciple Porphyry. Yet he must have in
some fashion deliberately rejected Christianity;
it cannot have escaped his notice. But
the reason why such an aninia naturaliter
Christiana should have resisted the attraction
of a faith which had so much in common with
his own system cannot even be conjectured.

We can only choose between two theories
of the cause of his affinity to the mystical
theologians of the Church. The first would
represent him as affected by the deliberate
approximation to Christianity which the later
Neoplatonism undoubtedly exhibited, and which
we can hardly be mistaken in regarding as a

1 54 MYSTICISM

desperate effort on the part of Paganism to
fight the growing power of the Church on
its own ground with its own weapons. To
this cause are attributed the quasi-Trinitarian
doctrine of Neoplatonism, the revival of
Mithraism, and the life of Apollonius of
Tyana by Philostratus.^ It may well have
been the case that it seemed advisable to
meet the widespread mysticism of the early
Church — naive and simple-minded as it often
was, as, for example, in the visions of Hermas
— with a theory not less mystical but founded
on what professed to be a higher Gnosis.
Plotinus, indeed, has none of the character-
istics of a merely speculative theorist ; his
work bears all the signs of personal experi-
ence, and Porphyry tells us that four times
during his six years' association with Plotinus
his master attained to the state of mystical
union.

It is scarcely possible to attribute conscious
insincerity to a character so striking and
majestic as that of Plotinus : the spirit of his
writinors is of itself almost sufficient to clear him

^ See Bigg, Christian Platonists of Alexandria^ Lect. VII.

PLOTINUS iSS

of any suspicion of mere vulgar charlatanism.
But it is not actually impossible that his
mystical experience may have been of the
natural order, and due not to any super-
natural illumination, but by way of automatic
suggestion, to the direct tendency of the philo-
sophical system in which he was absorbed.
It may have been no more than a strong
emotional realisation of intellectual principles
obtained by remarkable philosophical acumen.
Certainly one may notice — apart from the
quietism suggested by some passages — an
element of mere negative abstraction in his
system, which is indeed necessitated by the
highly abstract and practically impersonal
nature which he attributes to the One, but
which makes a very marked contrast with the
warmth of personal relationship — ih^famtliaris
amicitia Jesu which one finds in Christian
mysticism.^

^ The distinction made by St Hilaire {op. cii.) is only verbal,
and might with equal truth be reversed. " Les mystiques
Chretiens diffi^rent de Plotin en ce que soutenus par la foi, pour
la plupart du moins, ils n'ont trouve dans I'extase que I'union
mentale et spirituale avec Dieu, tandis que Plotin y a trouve
Dieu meme. L'ame de sainte Therese se marie a Dieu, comme
celle de saint Francois de Sales de Gerson et des autres ; Time
de Plotin se transforme en Dieu, ou plutot elle est Dieu.''

156 MYSTICISM

As has been already remarked, the theory
now popular of automatism furnishes a much
needed explanation of the close resemblance
borne to supernatural mysticism by the various
kinds of mysticism which, on Christian prin-
ciples, cannot be accepted as supernatural in
any other sense than that of a possible con-
nection with diabolical agency.

There is nothing to prevent us from holding
this theory about the mysticism of Plotinus ;
but it must be admitted that the direct
evidence for it is of the scantiest possible
description.

The alternative is to accept the experience
of Plotinus as one of those manifestations of
divine grace outside its regular channels, the
occurrence of which has from time to time
been quite unmistakable. The number of
instances has never been large enough to
entitle them to be considered anything but
exceptions to the prevailing rule ; and the
Church has never felt it her business to pro-
nounce judgment upon the spiritual state
of individuals outside her boundaries, strictly
as she is compelled to reject as false all

PLOTINUS 157

doctrines contrary to her own. But the
principle that *'he that is not against us is
for us " may perhaps be applied here ; and if
so, we may consider Plotinus as an involuntary
witness to the truth of the Christian view of
mysticism, and the reality of the experience
of Christian mystics. Why, if this is the
case, Plotinus (and possibly Porphyry as well)
should have been favoured with special divine
illumination it is, of course, impossible to say.
We have no data that could be of any service
to us in an attempt to assign a reason for
such an exceptional dispensation of divine
Providence. But it must be remembered that
mystical experience is not of itself an evidence
of sanctity, still less of final perseverance. It
is possible to suppose that an individual may
have been favoured with the grace of mystical
knowledge for the purpose of his conversion,
and may have failed to correspond with the
divine intention ; as the Magi might, if they
had chosen, have failed to follow the guidance
of the star.^

^ This seems to have been St Augustine's view of Neo-
platonism, and especially of Plotinus, whom he calls " mag-
nus ille Platonicus." "Si Platonici, vel quicunque alii ista

158 MYSTICISM

Whatever explanation we adopt, the fact
is that the system of Plotinus, on its mysti-
cal side, is practically identical with that of
Dionysius and of all Christian mystics, though
it has nothing whatever of all that gives
Christianity its power to attract or influence
or console/

senserunt, cognoscentes Deum, sicut Deum glorificarent, et
gratias agerent, nee evanescerent in cogitationibus suis, nee
populorum erroribus partim auctores fierent, partim resistere
non auderent, profecto confiterentur et illis immortalibus ac
beatis, et nobis mortalibus ac miseris, ut immortales ac beati
esse possimus, unum Deum deorum colendum, qui et noster
est et illorum." — Civ. Dei. x. 3.

^ Quod enim ante omnia tempora, et super omnia tempora
incommunicabiliter manet unigenitus Filius tuus eoaeternus
tibi, et quia de plenitudine ejus accipiunt animae ut beatae
sint, et quia participatione manentis in se renovantur ut
sapientes sint ; est ibi ; quod autem secundum tempus pro
impiis mortuus est — non est ibi. St Aug., Conf. vii. ix.

CHAPTER IX

HERETICAL MYSTICS

If Plotinus furnishes a solitary, or almost
solitary instance of a system which, starting
from false or inadequate principles, arrives at
a method of mystical contemplation scarcely
to be distinguished from genuine mysticism,
the historical cases of an apparently converse
process are too numerous to count. The
names of those who, beofinninof as more or
less orthodox Christians, have ended as
extravagant visionaries, or as maintainers of
principles opposed, not merely to Catholic
orthodoxy, but even to all sane, human con-
victions, are freely scattered over the pages
of history. True mysticism has undoubtedly
been gravely prejudiced by the existence, fre-
quently side by side with it, of extravagances

159

i6o MYSTICISM

which claimed an equal and apparently identi-
cal authority with that of true mysticism.
There are, nevertheless, very real and clearly
marked distinctions between the two, and
there is really no reason whatever for the
common condemnation in which sometimes
both are hastily included.

The external or ''pragmatic" test is easy
of application to all such cases in two ways.
First, it is obvious that, from the Catholic
point of view at least, tenets which directly
contradict the rule of faith cannot have a
divine origin, or be in any sense true.
Secondly, as has been already remarked, it
is incredible that a fresh revelation should
be given with the divine purpose of super-
seding that which was once for all delivered
to the saints ; or, even if it could be granted
that such a fresh revelation were conceivable,
that it should be given in a less public and
tangible fashion, and be of less universal
application, than that which it endeavours to
supplant. Theosophy is not theology, either
mystical or speculative, but the degenerate off-
spring of a false theory of mysticism ; and its

HERETICAL MYSTICS i6i

method is nothing but a corrupting influence,
both in theology and in philosophy. Its philo-
sophical tendency is apparent in the tran-
scendentalism alike of Kant, Jacobi, Fichte,
Schelling and Hegel, and of Schopenhauer
and Hartmann,^ who practically agree in
taking crude emotional data as the basis of
a rational explanation of things. The
"categorical imperative," the *' Indifferenz-
punkt," "self-objectivisation " — no less than
the Will and the Unconscious, are instances
of the a priori idealism from which such
Neoplatonists as Plotinus and Proclus were
entirely free. In theology there is scarcely
any aberration of human credulity, or ex-
travagance of human fantasy, that is not
directly attributable to the same source.
Montanus, Priscillian and the Fraticelli,
Luther, Calvin and George Fox, Boehme,
Swedenborg and Irving, unlike as they are
to one another in many respects, agree in
founding themselves on unreasoned, and
generally irrational intuitions. Mysticism, in

^ Cf. Hartmann, "Philosophy of the Unconscious" {The
Unc. in the Huinan Mind^ ch. ix.).

L

i62 MYSTICISM

the Catholic view, cannot but be discredited
whenever it enters into competition with the
magistei'lum of the Church — whenever it
leaves its true sphere of the personal and
experimental, and becomes dogmatic and
didactic.

But one naturally looks further for some
intrinsic distinction which may differentiate
spurious from true mysticism ; one wishes
to judge of its character, not merely by
the practical test of its fruits, but by the
nature of its principles, considered in them-
selves and apart from all consequences or
relations with particular philosophical or theo-
logical doctrines. Such a distinction is readily
to be found in the essential features of true
mysticism, which we have seen to be of such
a nature as to be incapable of presentation
in the form of abstract doctrine. The essence
of mysticism is, as we have seen, the actual
experimental vision or knowledge of God,
and in itself is necessarily ineffable and in-
describable ; it may be either real, or imaginary
and delusive, but it cannot be either true or
false, in the sense in which a doctrine must

HERETICAL MYSTICS 163

be one or the other. It is, of course, quite
conceivable that a doctrine or a matter of
fact may be revealed in mystical vision ; but
the doctrine or fact is not, and cannot be,
mystical, simply because it belongs not to
the mystical or supernatural sphere, but to
that of the sensible and intelligible world.
A false doctrine or statement for which
mystical authority is claimed may be either
a real divine communication, misunderstood
and misreported, or a deduction from a true
mystical experience, or a mere delusion of
the senses or the imagination. Any doctrine
so put forward is open to criticism like any
other statement, and cannot be accepted
merely on the authority attributed to it by
an individual who may possibly be the
victim of his own imagination or misunder-
standing. But it is evident that where the
doctrine constitutes the whole of the experi-
ence, there is really no question at all of
mysticism. The intelligence of the person to
whom the doctrine is supposed to be made
known may have led him to discover a
truth, or the reverse ; he may or may not

i64 MYSTICISM

have been under the guidance of divine grace
in conceiving it ; but there is no ground
whatever for supposing such a person to have
received a genuine mystical communication.
Since, in such a case, the doctrine purports
to be the bare description of the supposed
mystical vision, it is by that very fact con-
victed of error ; true mystical experience
cannot be described or translated into terms
of the non-mystical. Dionysius's paradoxical
canon is here precisely in point — '' If any
one, seeing God, knows what he sees, it is
by no means God that he sees, but something
created and knowable."

A deduction, on the other hand, from a
mystical experience, or series of experiences,
may quite conceivably be a mistaken one,
even though the experiences themselves may
be real. There can be no reason for sup-
posing that the favour of mystical vision
implies any subsequent immunity from intel-
lectual error — or, for that matter, from moral
lapse. Neither Moses nor St Paul was, or
supposed himself to be, so safeguarded by the
mystical favours bestowed on him. St John

HERETICAL MYSTICS 165

of the Cross insists at great length on the
possibility of misunderstanding divine com-
munications, as well as on the danger of mis-
taking for them those which come from another
source, and concludes, as do all mystical writers,
that much importance should not be attached
to such experiences.-^

Doctrines, then, which claim mystical
authority, must be judged to be true or false
according to the support they receive from the
conclusions of reason or the truths of revela-
tion ; their claim to be in themselves mystical
experiences is refuted by the fact that they
are doctrines, or theories about God, whereas
mysticism is concerned not with doctrines or
theories — which belong to the domain, not of
mystical, but of speculative theology — but
solely with God Himself. The experience,
of whatever kind, upon which such doctrines
are founded, may or may not be genuinely
mystical, and must be judged of apart from
the doctrine for which its authority is claimed,
according to its alleged character, and the
condition of the person by whom it is under-

^ Ascent, II. xviii. and xix.

i66 MYSTICISM

gone. Thus visions experienced by persons
in a state of alcoholism, nervous or brain
disease, or artificially produced anaesthesia, are
manifestly to be attributed to those agencies ;
visions or imaginations of the state of man-
kind or of particular individuals, or of the
material universe, however vast, picturesque
or symbolical they may be, are certainly not
mystical, but are generally due to natural
emotion, mental excitement, automatic sug-
gestion, or some similar cause. Those only
are to be considered even possibly mystical
which include a direct consciousness of the
divine presence, which are preceded by no
emotion or excitement, which can be probably
traced to no physical or mental cause, and
which are not capable of being fully described
in words.

We may illustrate the principles thus
obtained by one or two of the best - known
instances of spurious mysticism. We may
take first the sect variously known as
Christian Brethren, Beghards or Fraticelli,
who flourished in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and were condemned as heretics

HERETICAL MYSTICS 167

at the Council of VIenne. They were said
to be constantly subject to visions and
ecstasies, and were accused (no doubt with
some exaggeration, but probably not without
grave cause) of immoral practices of the
grossest kind. They were influenced, more
or less directly, by the speculative pantheism
of Amalric of Bena, and professed to regard
matter as a secondary and comparatively
unimportant aspect of spirit ; so that when
the spiritual aspect of the universe was truly
apprehended, material things and conduct in
regard to them became altogether indifferent.
Such spiritual apprehension was held to be
a natural process, and open to all human
beings at will. One of the charges brought
against this sect by Pope Clement V. at
Vienne was that they held the Beatific vision
to be attainable by the natural powers of
mankind, without any need for the inter-
vention of the lumen gloriae. They thus
denied what we have seen to be a funda-
mental postulate of true mysticism ; they
were not really mystics, but imaginative or
" temperamental " theosophists. Their so-

i68 MYSTICISM

called mysticism was akin, on the one hand,
to what some modern writers have called sym-
bolism or " nature - mysticism," and on the
other, to the humanism of the Renaissance,
their practical view of life being pretty nearly
identical with that of Lorenzo Valla's treatise
on Pleasure. Visions and ecstasies allied with
doctrines of this kind must obviously be
taken as the consequence of such doctrines
rather than as their cause, and can be con-
sidered only as a neuropathic form of sensu-
ality, as far removed from true mysticism
as anything could possibly be.

Of a very different character were the
strange transcendental imaginations of the
pious shoemaker, Jacob Boehme. His mind
appears to have been constantly fixed on the
idea of God ; and by a purely natural process
there arose in it, together with many sane
and devout reflections, a kind of philosophi-
cal statement of the problems of existence,
transferred in strange and bizarre phraseology
to the divine nature. These ideas Boehme
declared to be ''opened" to him; they came,
he could not say how, into his mind, and

HERETICAL MYSTICS 169

had upon him the effect of a communication
from an external source. But there is no
need, indeed there is no possibility of accept-
ing his explanation of their origin. A medita-
tive and abstractive mind, without authoritative
guidance or restraint, will naturally and almost
inevitably find in the abstract idea of the
divine nature a repetition of the influences
it sees at work in the surrounding world.
Thus the Abyss, the Potential Trinity, the
relation of Being to Not-being, the Will, the
Imagination, the Maiden Idea and the moving
Fire, and the like, are undoubtedly no more
than the pseudo - philosophical forms under
which Boehme conceived and contemplated
the universe, and which rose by some process
of auto-suggestion into his consciousness as
he contemplated the idea of God, and thus
appeared to him in some sense identical with
it. Boehme has affinities — as probably all
naturally contemplative minds must have —
with Gnosticism and Neoplatonism on the
one hand, and on the other, with modern
idealism — with Jacobi, Schelling and Hegel,
and with Schopenhauer and Hartmann. But

1 70 MYSTICISM

with true mysticism he has none whatever ;
he may be thought to claim a revelation as
the authority for his system, but to mystical
theology — the experimental, ineffable know-
ledge of God — he makes no pretension.

The theosophy of Swedenborg may be classed
with Boehme's, inasmuch as both pretend to
direct knowledge of transcendental realities.
But whereas Boehme, with all his strange
terminology, is philosophical and intellectual,
Swedenborg does no more than embody, in
crude, allegorical form, certain phases of
Protestant theology. His visions do, indeed,
profess to be statements of fact, and not allegori-
cal or imaginary — to be, in fact, a revelation.
But even if this claim were admitted, if one
could seriously accept, for example, the story
of the angels' protracted attempts to convert
Luther from his doctrine of justification, and
their daily fluctuations of ill-success, we should
still have nothing like a true mystical experi-
ence. The spiritual, ineffable divine presence
has no place in Swedenborg's gallery, and
indeed would be sadly incongruous there.
Swedenborg's symbolical interpretation of

HERETICAL MYSTICS 171

Scripture, elaborate and dogmatic in tone as
it is, has really nothing to do with mystical
theology properly so called.

Quietism has appeared to many writers to
be a genuine example of mysticism : the
doctrines of Molinos and Madame Guyon have
been identified with those of St Teresa, and
the condemnation of the former has been
attributed to the recalcitrance of their authors
against ecclesiastical authority, as contrasted
with the docility of St Teresa and St John
of the Cross. But the doctrine of '' dis-
interested love," as interpreted by the Quietists,
is quite a different thing from the mystical
passivity of St Teresa, to which it has been
likened. With her, as with other mystics,
passivity consists in a concentration of the
faculties upon God, not, indeed, always in
successive '* acts," but at least in one con-
tinuous act ; whereas the Quietist would have
the soul renounce its very personality and
conscious existence, and that not merely
during the condition of ecstatic contempla-
tion, but as a permanent state. Madame
Guyon is never tired of declaring that her

172 MYSTICISM

soul '* has no inclination of tendency for
anything whatsoever"; she is '* in such an
abandonment " that she is obliged to reflect
in order to know "if she has a beino^ and
subsistence." " I have to make an effort to
think if I am and what I am ; if there are
in God creatures and anything subsisting."

Whatever may be thought of the opinions
or conduct of the opponents of Quietism, of
Segneri, D'Estrees, Bossuet, La Chaise and
De la Combe, it cannot be doubted that its
distinctive doctrine, no less than the con-
demned propositions extracted from the Guida
Spirituale, is contradictory, not only of divine
revelation, but of the elementary facts of human
nature. But it is in no sense mystical : it is a
theory founded professedly on mystical experi-
ence, but it is not and cannot be the experi-
ence itself. Madame Guyon herself says of a
mvstical state which she declares herself to
have experienced that it was '* too simple,
pure and naked for me to be able to speak
of it. The most elevated dispositions are
those of which one can say nothing." One
is tempted to exclaim, O si sic omnia ! But

HERETICAL MYSTICS 173

the difference between mystical contemplation,
and theories more or less directly founded
upon it, could scarcely be better illustrated
than by Madame Guyon's account of herself.

The question remains, are these professedly
mystical experiences genuinely supernatural or
not ? On the whole, one is inclined to think
that they may be. They seem to have had no
emotional state immediately preceding them ;
they are apparently indescribable and unsought ;
they produce subjective conviction of a direct
divine influence ; and they do not appear to
have any real tendency to suggest the false
or questionable doctrines founded on them.
We may therefore perhaps safely admit that
Ouietistic mystical experiences may well have
been genuine and supernatural ones ; and in
that case, that the doctrines founded upon
them were due to mistaken inferences from
them. There is, at any rate, no reason for
regarding the Quietist doctrine as necessarily
connected with mysticism, or as necessarily
discrediting the mystical experiences — if such
they were — which gave rise to them.

A precisely similar distinction must of course

174 MYSTICISM

be made between the approved teaching of
orthodox mystics, and the incommunicable
experiences on which it was founded. The
reforming zeal of St Teresa and St John of
the Cross had to win its way on its own
merits against powerful opposition ; it was
very far from being considered as guaranteed
by the spiritual and personal favours which
gave birth to it. The frequent and extra-
ordinary visions of Margaret Mary Alacoque,
again, and the widespread popular devotion
resulting from them, gained acceptance only
by degrees, and after much opposition. The
essentially mystical side of her life, which has
been somewhat obscured in general estimation
by the prominence very naturally given to her
visions and revelations, is easily distinguish-
able amid the more striking but less evidently
supernatural occurrences in which it abounds,
and follows the lines uniformly characteristic
of genuine mysticism.^

^ "Tous les matins, lorsque je m'eveille, il me semble trouver
mon Dieu present, auquel mon cceur s'unit comme k son
principe et k sa seule plenitude ; ce qui me donne une soif si
ardente d'aller k Toraison, que les moments que -je mets k
m'habiller me durent des heures. J'y vais le plus souvent sans

HERETICAL MYSTICS 175

Thus the alleged difficulty of distinguishing
false from true mysticism is reduced to that
of discerning whether any alleged mystical
state or experience is truly reported by its
subject or not ; and this difficulty is again
greatly reduced by observing the regularity
with which certain features appear in all
mystical experience that may be considered
genuine. The element of uncertainty still
remaining arises from our frequently inadequate
knowledge of the circumstances of any alleged
experience — such as that of Madame Guyon
above mentioned — together with the a priori

autre preparation que celle que mon Dieu fait en moi. ... II
me semble quelquefois que mon esprit s'eloigne de moi, pour
s'aller unir et perdre dans I'immense grandeur de son Dieu. . . .
Mon entendement demeure dans un aveuglement si grand,
qu'il n'a aucune lumiere ni connaissance que celle que le divin
Soleil de justice lui communique de temps en temps. C'est en
ce temps que j'emploie toutes mes forces pour I'embrasser,
non pas des bras du corps, mais des interieurs, qui sent les
puissances de mon ame. . . . J'eprouve encore des attraits si
puissants, qu'il me semble que ma poitrine est toute traversee
de rasoirs, ce qui m'ote souvent le pouvoir de soupirer, n'ayant
de mouvement que pour respirer avec bien de la peine. La
partie inferieure ne voit ni ne connait ce qui se passe en la
partie superieure de mon ame, qui s'oublie elle-meme et n'a
d'autre desir que de s'unir et se perdre dans son Dieu. . . .
Voilk les plus ordinaires occupations de mon oraison, non pas
que je fais, mais que mon Dieu fait en moi, sa chetive creature." —
Vie par Ses Co?ite?npo?'aines — Vie et CEuvres, t. i.

176 MYSTICISM

discredit necessarily thrown by heretical or
immoral inferences upon the source to which
they are ascribed. Where the alleged mystical
state fulfils the conditions which admit of its
being attributed to a supernatural cause, and
the inferences based on it are in accord with
the principles of religion and morality, there
is practically no room for doubt.

CHAPTER X

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

Philosophy is the explanation of facts ; and
since mysticism is undoubtedly a fact, it
necessarily has a certain relation to philo-
sophy, and falls within its legitimate scope.
But mysticism, unlike other facts of which
philosophy has to take account, is not a
normal function of the human faculties, and
is not open to direct investigation. It can
only be dealt with through the reports of
mystical contemplatives, and no analysis of
mystical states is attainable except such as
is furnished by the mystics themselves, ill-
equipped as they most frequently are for such
a purpose. Mysticism is indeed the exact
parallel of sensation, in its immediate and
intuitive character. But whereas sensation is

common to mankind, and the investigator is

177 M

178 MYSTICISM

therefore able to consider it directly, as repre-
sented in his own consciousness, as well as
indirectly, through the reports of other people,
as to mysticism he is mostly restricted to the
latter method, and to a number of examples
which, as compared with examples of sensation,
is exceedingly small. Thus though the nature
of mystical experience seems naturally to be
as legitimate a subject of enquiry as that of
sensation, the limitations under which the
enquiry has to be pursued are so great as
practically to destroy the parallelism altogether.
And seeing how little it has so far been
possible to discover in regard to the nature
and cause of sensation, in spite of the com-
paratively numerous existing facilities for the
purpose, it is not surprising that philosophy
should have little or nothing to say about
mysticism, which offers so much narrower a
field for investigation.

Those writers, therefore, who have con-
sidered mysticism of the true or supernatural
kind from the point of view of philosophy,
have probably acted wisely in declining to
consider the transcendental aspects of the

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 179

matter, and confining themselves to conjectural
expositions of the psychological processes in-
volved in mystical states. Mystical theology
has, however, one point of contact with philo-
sophy, in its bearing on natural theology,
offering as it does an experimental verifica-
tion of the rational proof of the existence of
God, and of the *^ substantial" human soul.
Such experimental evidence has been thought
by some to be furnished by the doubtful
phenomena of spiritualism ; but it may fairly
be contended that the very much less question-
able evidence of mysticism is considerably
more worthy of acceptance.

It must be added, however, that even if
mysticism were more open to investigation
than it is, it would still in its essence be
beyond the purview of philosophy, as belong-
ing exclusively to a region of which philosophy
itself must stop short. The " science of
causes " cannot deal inductively with the First
Cause — the caicsa catisarum, but must be con-
tent in all cases with noting its effects ; and
in regard to that particular effect on the human
soul which constitutes mysticism, philosophy

i8o MYSTICISM

can do little more than barely recognise its
occurrence.^ That species of philosophy which
refuses to accept the existence of a tran-
scendental First Cause cannot, as we have
already seen, treat mysticism on its tran-
scendental side as anything but a delusion —
relying, as it must, in the absence of direct evi-
dence, merely on a negative presupposition.

With religion, however, mysticism stands
on common ground, being itself a form of
religious experience. Its object is indeed the
object of all religion, properly so called, since
it is nothing less than the actual vision of God,
which is the final consummation of all that is
sought by religious practices of any kind. But

^ Such attempts as that of M. Rdcdjac to formulate a purely
metaphysical theory of mysticism necessarily part company
with the Christian, and even with the Theistic principles on
which true mysticism is based. From their point of view, the
" universal mysticism " consists of " tous les moyens de tran-
scendance qui tendent k egaler I'experience aux desirs de la
liberte"; hence it is required "que la charactere symbolique
de nos rapports avec I'Absolu serait franchement reconnu,
c'est-k-dire qu'on renonce k I'intuition directe d'une essence
divine, universelle et infinie." (R^cejac, Fondemenis de la
Connaissance Mystique^ pp. 4, 5 ; 184.) A tendency in the
same direction appears in Professor Inge's Personal Idealism
and Mysticism^ where mysticism is described as " a type of
religion which puts the inner light above human authority, and
finds its sacraments everywhere."

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION i8r

whereas mysticism attains in this world to
some degree of immediate and experimental
knowledge of God, religion in general remits
this final reward to a future state of existence.
Here God is known indirectly, or theoretically,
through His works ; His direct influence is
perceived in the action of divine grace, and
His supernatural presence is recognised by
faith in the transubstantiated elements of the
Eucharist. But the direct intuition of the divine
being itself is not among the advantages
guaranteed by the Church to its members.
We have thus to consider the frequently
propounded question of the relation between
mysticism and what is called '* institutional "
religion — that is, a religion the doctrines of
which are defined, and of which the practices
are rigorously enjoined by a supreme and un-
questionable authority. The two are often
regarded as being, to a very great extent,
mutually incompatible ; the tendency of mys-
ticism is, it is thought, to depreciate the
external obligations, and to disregard the
doctrines imposed by organised religious
authority.

i82 MYSTICISM

Something has already been said on this
point. The alleged opposition between mys-
ticism and scholasticism (which deals mainly
with the doctrine and discipline imposed by
external authority) has been seen to be purely
imaginary. The same may undoubtedly be
said of the alleged antagonism between the
practical system of the Church, which follows
certain prescribed methods in regard both to
the obligatory elements of Christian life and
those left free to individual devotion, and
the inner life of contemplation, for which no
rules are laid down beyond such as may be
drawn from the recorded practices of pious
persons.

The fact is that human nature has a two-
fold aspect, and consequently a twofold set
of needs. On the one hand, man is a ''social
animal," and cannot even exist, much less
lead a truly human life, in isolation ; some
kind of social organisation is an absolute neces-
sity for him, in regard alike to his material,
intellectual and moral requirements. On the
other hand, the life of every man is individual
and personal; he is self-conscious and re-

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 183

flective, as well as active and responsive : the
social activities necessary to human life do
not exhaust the ** abysmal depths of person-
ality," which nevertheless can only exist in a
social environment. The ideally perfect con-
dition is one in which full play is allowed to
both sides of human nature — in which social
needs are fully provided for, and individual
thought, feeling and enterprise are hampered
by no restrictions but such as are needed
for their due protection. Probably no State
has ever existed, or can ever exist, in which
this perfect balance is maintained ; in the
Church, however, the restrictions imposed,
deeply as they affect the external activities
of the individual, are merely the necessary
safeguards of spiritual liberty.

Thus in the Church, as to a great extent
in the State, compliance with the obligations
imposed by external authority is no more
than the necessary condition of the exercise
of personal liberty. Freedom for the citizen
implies a condition of things in which his life
and property are duly protected, not one in
which he is left entirely to shift for himself;

i84 MYSTICISM

and in like manner, religious or spiritual free-
dom is only possible under circumstances in
which the fundamental needs of spiritual life
are supplied, and its energies rightly directed.
A man may not, in a rightly ordered State,
preach sedition or commit suicide ; that is,
he is not allowed to violate the conditions
under which alone he and his neighbours can
freely exercise their natural powers. In like
manner, the Church forbids her members to
neglect the means of grace, or to teach heresy.
But freedom to enjoy life, natural or super-
natural, is not interfered with, but safeguarded
in each case.

It is, indeed, undeniable that one aspect
of human nature is from time to time unduly
emphasised at the other's expense. The
"Friends of God" and the disciples of Molinos,
like the many forms of Protestantism, un-
doubtedly were led by their principles to make
light of Christian institutions and of Church
authority. On the other hand, a too exclusive
attention to the external and legislative aspects
of religion frequently produces such an intel-
lectual aridity as may be observed in the later

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 185

and degenerate scholastics, or such a material-
istic formalism as gave rise to the religious
notions upheld by Febronius and put in practice
by the Emperor Joseph ; or to the extravagant
ideas of the spiritual authority of the State
which were entertained by Hobbes. But it
should be observed that this depreciation of
external obligations has never resulted simply
from mysticism, rightly understood, but only
from speculative principles alleged to be de-
duced from mysticism, and wrongly identified
with it. True mysticism cannot come into
collision with Church ordinances of any kind,
simply because It belongs to a totally different
sphere ; it can no more be the subject of
Church legislation than the height, weight
or ear for music of the population can be
the subject of State decrees.

It is, unfortunately, within the power of
human beings — a power too frequently exer-
cised— to separate things that are naturally and
properly united. Faith and charity, public
spirit and domestic affection, respect for
authority and individual enterprise, are all
complementary virtues. But in point of fact

i86 MYSTICISM

faith exists without charity, public men are
not invariably models of domestic virtue, nor
are the most enterprising spirits always the
most law-abiding. But it would be absurd
to maintain that there is any natural opposi-
tion between the two factors of any of these
pairs of excellences ; and it is really not less
absurd to imagine any natural antagonism
between mysticism and spiritual authority, or
that they can be mutually opposed otherwise
than by the practical inadequacy due to the
infirmities of human nature.

It has been abundantly shown that mysticism
is in a true sense different in kind, and not
merely in degree, from prayer and contempla-
tion of the natural order. But it does not
by any means follow that the two are to be
regarded as radically distinct, or as mutually
independent. On the contrary, there is a
connection between them which may per-
haps be characterised as that of continuity,
as distinct from identity. The soul, it will be
remembered, has, ordinarily speaking, to go
through a preparation before the life of mysti-
cal contemplation can be entered upon ; and

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 187

this preparation is nothing more than exercise
in the lower, or more commonplace methods
of devotion and piety. All religion is an
approach to God, and mysticism represents,
not a short cut, but an advanced stage of the
journey — the more advanced the stage, the
more frequent or constant is the mystical
condition. The traveller sets out on his
journey with no sight of his distant goal before
him ; he knows only that he is on the right
road, and he recognises features in the land-
scape which others who have made the journey
before him have noted, and which assure him
of his progress in the right direction. But it
is not till he nears his journey's end that he
catches sight, indistinctly at first and inter-
mittently, of the city he is bound for. The
distant towers and spires grow clearer and
clearer as he approaches them ; they are seen
no longer in glimpses, vanishing and reappear-
ing at the turns of the road ; till at last
the whole mass of buildings comes into full
sight, even while some distance remains to
be travelled before the pilgrim can pass
through the gates and take his well-earned

i88 MYSTICISM

rest. It is one thing to see the finger-posts
and to observe the landmarks by the way-
side, and quite another to see the city stand-
ing graceful and sunlit, like a welcoming host,
at the road's end. Yet both are incidents of
the same journey, and the end cannot be
reached without the beginning.

The relation between the two states may be
very clearly seen in the Imitation of Christ
— a book which probably owes much of its vast
popularity to its constant recurrence to the
elementary duties of religion and morality, and
its insistence on the necessity of their per-
formance as the prerequisite of the more
exalted spiritual states. The "purgative,"
** illuminative " and **unitive" ways are seen,
so to speak, together, and are dealt with as
aspects or constituents of the Christian life
as a whole, to the completeness of which all
three are necessary, and, in different ways,
of equal importance. The purely mystical
passages are comparatively few and short ;
and the abundance of practical directions the
book contains has sometimes caused its
mystical character to be entirely overlooked

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 189

This disproportion, however, is quite suffici-
ently to be accounted for by the character
of the work, which is that of a directory of
spiritual life in general, and not a scientific
treatise on any particular department of it.
In such a book attempts at describing the in-
describable phenomena of mysticism would
obviously have been out of place, whereas
the practical details of the lower and pre-
liminary states admit of and require minute
explanation. But the tone of the whole book
is mystical, and the most commonplace duties
and the most humiliating strivings with tempta-
tion are in a manner illuminated and glorified
by the brilliancy of the result to which they
tend. Thus, in point of fact, the higher and
the lower elements, the mystical and the non-
mystical, the purgative, the illuminative and
the unitive, are blended in actual human ex-
perience. The proportion may indeed vary
almost indefinitely ; with some, the mystical
consciousness would seem to be almost habitual,
and with others a rare and exceptional privilege.
But in greater or less degree, all the elements

I90 MYSTICISM

of Christian life are present in its highest and
most perfect form.

From this we are led to the consideration
of a question of very great interest, in regard
to which a speculative opinion may be con-
sidered allowable for which no direct evidence
can be adduced. Since the higher walks of
spirituality are thus inevitably interpenetrated
by the lower, and since no height of mystical
contemplation will wholly emancipate the con-
templative from the humble necessities of
penance and of temptation, is it not possible
to suppose that the lower life need not
wholly exclude the higher, but however dry
and commonplace and, generally speaking, un-
spiritual it may be, may nevertheless be
enriched by some occasional and transient
participation in the privilege of the more
perfect state ? It is admitted by all spiritual
writers that the mystical life does not exclude
the vicissitudes of the ordinary or non-mystical
states.^ Little or nothing is said by them,

^ E.g.^ Suarez, De Orat.^ i. 2. 11 ; and cf. Devine, Ma?iual of
Mystical Theology, ch. 1., and Macarius, Christian Perfection,
V. 13, 14.

MYSTICISM, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION 191

however, as to the possibility of some measure
of the higher life entering into the lower —
of some passing foretaste of " infused " con-
templation being granted to those whose lives
are, as a whole, by no means of the contem-
plative order. Yet it seems natural to suppose
that such may be the case. If there is no
incongruity in the recurrence in the unitive
life of the distinctive features of the purgative,
there can hardly be any in the occasional
occurrence of the converse process ; and it
seems not unreasonable to suppose that such
a largesse of spiritual favours, of which the
best are unworthy, may be occasionally granted
even to the most undeserving. It can hardly
be denied that an aspect which it is difficult
to distinguish from that of genuine mysticism
seems at times to belong to some of the inward
experiences of ordinary persons who have no
thought or knowledge of the contemplative
life. Such states of consciousness are, indeed,
too transitory and elusive to be judged of
with any degree of certainty ; and it may be
that they are really no more than the product
of purely natural feeling. Proof is either way

192 MYSTICISM

out of the question. But It is at least an
allowable opinion that the "mystical element
in religion " may extend beyond the limits
within which alone evidence of any direct
kind is attainable ; and such an opinion must
unquestionably be nearer the truth than that
which would equalise all religious experience
by denying to mysticism its genuinely super-
natural character.

CHAPTER XI

DIONYSIUS

The authority of the Dionysian writings is
for us (whatever may have been the case in
earlier and less critical times) derived rather
from the use made of them to express the
received doctrines of the Church than from
any view that may be entertained of the
identity or position of the writer. Their
history is a curious one. They first received
public notice at a conference held at Con-
stantinople in the year 533 between repre-
sentatives of orthodoxy under Hypatius, Bishop
of Ephesus, and those of a Monophysite sect
called after and headed by Severus, patriarch
of Antioch. The Severians at this conference
appealed to the writings of Dionysius the
Areopagite as upholding the Monophysite

doctrine, but their quotations were disallowed

193 N

194 MYSTICISM

by Hypatius as probably spurious. From
that time forward an increasing importance
was attached to the works attributed to the
Areopagite, not only by heretical writers, but
also by orthodox Catholics, among whom
may be mentioned Eulogius, patriarch of
Alexandria in 580, Pope Gregory the Great,
and Maximus, the author of lengthy scholia
on the Dionysian books ; and Dionysius was
referred to by the Lateran Council in 649 as
an authority against Monothelitism. On the
introduction of the Dionysian writings into
France in the eighth century the idea arose
that the author was identical with St Denys
of France ; and Hilduin, abbot of St Denys
at Paris, subsequently did much to promote
the authority of the Areopagite by means of
this patriotic identification, which, it need
hardly be said, has no historical value
whatever.

The works of Dionysius were first trans-
lated into Latin by Hilduin, and somewhat later
by John Scotus Eriugena ; other translations
were made by John Sarrazenus, Grosseteste,
Thomas Vercellensis, Ambrosius Camaldu-

DIONYSIUS 195

lensis, Marsilio Ficino and Balthasar Corderius.
Commentaries were written by Hugo of St
Victor, Albertus Magnus, St Thomas Aquinas
and Dionysius the Carthusian ; and the great
scholastics make copious references to Diony-
sius— notably St Thomas Aquinas. Dionysius
was called, with some pardonable exaggeration,
the founder of the Scholastic method, by
Corderius, who gives an imposing list of St
Thomas's references to him.

Doubts began once more to be cast on
the genuineness of the Dionysiaca by writers
of the Renaissance period : the question was
raised by Lorenzo Valla, and was for long a
subject of vehement controversy, which can
hardly be said even yet to be at an end,
though the opinion of the most recent and
most competent scholars is on the negative
side. The arguments on each side may be
briefly summarised as follows : —

1. The style is not that of the sub-apostolic
age, but closely resembles that of later Neo-
platonist writers.

2. The correspondence of ideas between the
works of Dionysius and those of Neoplatonist

196 MYSTICISM

authors, more especially of Proclus, is very-
close ; moreover, extracts from Proclus's work
De Subsistentia Malorum appear, as has been
pointed out by Professors Stiglmayer and
Koch, in the treatise of Dionysius, De Divinis
Nominibus.

3. No mention is made of the Dionysian
writings by any author earlier than the sixth
century : nor are they mentioned by Eusebius or
St Jerome in their catalogues of ecclesiastical
authors. The writings in which they were
thought to have been referred to before that
period have now been proved to be of much
more recent date.

4. Certain rites and ceremonies are men-
tioned as customary in the writer's time which
were unknown to the contemporaries of the
Areopagite. Other anachronisms are the men-
tion of monks ; the use of the word v-wodTacn^
(substantia) in its later or post-Nicene sense ;
a reference to ecclesiastical tradition as apxdta
7rapaS6(Ti9=^^ the ancient tradition"; a quotation
of the well-known phrase of St Clement of
Rome, *' My love is crucified" [Div. Nom., 4),
though St Clement's martyrdom did not take

DIONYSIUS 197

place till after the death of St Timothy, to
whom the Treatise de Div. No7n. is dedi-
cated, and who is, moreover, addressed by the
author as 7rar?=" child " at a supposed time
when the designation could scarcely have been
appropriate.

None of these arguments were altogether
unknown to antiquity, though some of them
have been considerably strengthened by modern
research. They were replied to at some
length by Monsignor (afterwards Archbishop)
Darboy, who fairly reproduces all the con-
siderations that have been adduced in favour
of the Dionysian authorship from St Maximus
onwards.

I. It is contended that the style is due
to the early philosophical education of the
Areopagite, which would naturally have im-
parted to it many of the characteristics of
Neoplatonism ; it may fairly be considered as
agreeing with the presumed date of the
author.

2 & 3. The correspondences between the
Dionysiaca and Proclus may be due to plagi-
arism on the part of the Neoplatonist, rather

198 MYSTICISM

than of the Areopaglte. Georgius Pachymeres,
when advancing this opinion, suggests that
the Dionysian works may have been sup-
pressed by the Athenian philosophers who
borrowed from them for their own purposes.
4. The anachronisms found in Dionysius
are capable of being explained away. Thus,
it is fairly certain that the essentials of such
ceremonies as the blessing of the baptismal
water, triple immersion at baptism, and the
rites for blessing the Holy Oils were in use
in Apostolic or sub-Apostolic times, though
not then committed to writing ; the strange
ceremony of anointing the dead, mentioned
by Dionysius, is found to have been a Jewish,
and therefore probably also an early Christian
custom. Monks {therapeutce) need not be under-
stood to mean coenobites or hermits, and a
class so called certainly existed in Philo's
time. The use of " virocrraa-i's,'" in its earlier
and untechnical sense of '* person," is paralleled
from Heb. i., and the word is used in the same
sense by Alexander, the predecessor of St
Athanasius. The quotation from St Ignatius
may have been added in a recension by the

DIONYSIUS T99

author, or may have been the work of a copyist;
and a parallel to the phrase *' apxaia TrapaSoa-i^ "
may be found in 2 Thess. ii. 14. The desig-
nation of St Timothy as ''child" is justified
by an elaborate calculation of the comparative
ages of Dionysius and St Timothy.

On the whole, it may be held that though
the Dionysian authorship is not absolutely dis-
proved, the balance of probability is strongly
against it. Who the writer, if not Dionysius,
may have been, or when he may have lived,
it is quite impossible to say. Various dates
have been suggested ; but the use apparently
made of the writings of Proclus seem to point
to one not earlier than 462. Hipler's theory
that the author was a theologian of the fourth
century whose works were, by a misunder-
standing, attributed to Dionysius, found some
favour at the time of its production (1861),
but is now generally rejected. It is indeed
difficult to suppose that the direct statements
of the author to the effect that he had been
a disciple of St Paul, that he remembered
the eclipse at the time of the Crucifixion, and
that he was present with St Peter and his

200 MYSTICISM

Otherwise unknown master Hierotheus at the
interment of the Blessed Virgin, are made
with any other purpose than that of support-
ing his identity, whether real or assumed.

It is of some practical importance to con-
sider whether the value of the books is in any
way discredited by the unauthentic character
which may with at least great probability be
attributed to them.

In the first place, it would probably be un-
fair to regard them simply as a forgery. As
Monsignor Darboy has remarked, no possible
motive can be assigned for a forgery of this
kind. They could hardly, like the forgeries
of Chatterton, have been intended to reflect
credit on their supposed discoverer, or to be
a source of profit to him ; and the supposition
that they may have been intended to give
support to the cause of orthodoxy is hardly
consistent with their subject-matter, which is
not directly concerned with any of the contro-
versies belonging to the time of their appear-
ance. Moreover, though perfectly orthodox,
they were first quoted in favour of heretics,
to whose views they gave no real support. It

DIONYSIUS 20I

must be remembered that our present ideas of
literary propriety had by no means obtained
acceptance in the sixth century ; and our
modern device of making fiction a vehicle
for historical, philosophical or theological
speculation had not yet been discovered.
Romances were, however, not unknown, and
pseudonymous works of a historical and theo-
loo^ical character existed in some numbers.
We may fairly consider that the Dionysiaca
combined both characters. The author would
seem to have intended to give the Christian
rendering of the philosophico-religious system
evolved by Plotinus and later Neoplatonism ;
and he may have sought to gain a hearing
for his views by publishing them under the
name of one who had held positions of honour
both in the Pagan and in the Christian world.
For the sake of verisimilitude the appropriate
contemporary references were rather crudely
inserted. Whatever, therefore, we may think
of the artistic character of the work, we have
no more right to fix upon it the moral stigma of
forgery than to condemn on similar grounds such
works as Waverley, John Inglesant or En Route.

202 MYSTICISM

But in any case, the work is of a character
which cannot be affected by the authority
attributed to its author, as, for example, a
historical work professedly written by a con-
temporary would be. The Dionysian books
must stand on their own merits, no matter
by whom or at what time they were written :
what they say is true or false for all times
and all persons. Their authority, for us, lies
not in their authenticity, as the works of
any particular writer, but in the fact that
they have been adopted by the Church as
truly representative of certain phases of her
doctrine, and as containing nothing contrary to
it : it is, in fact, the accumulated authority of
the long list of approved writers whose work
has been based on, or in accordance with them.

This is more especially the case with the
Mystical Theology and the three letters con-
nected with it. These deal simply with the
relations between God, the world of created
things, and the soul of man. They depend
on no references to persons, places or events,
but appeal to that perception of the inner
truth of things which is alike in all ao-es and

DIONYSIUS 203

all countries, and which probably no man is
altogether without.

The other extant works of Dionysius are
the Divine Names, the Celestial Hierarchy,
the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, and six letters
on different subjects, in addition to the three
here translated. The Treatise of Divine
Names deals with the unique, transcendental
nature of God, which of its superabundant
fulness creates all that is external to God,
and gives to each order of being its proper
degree of the divine likeness, and its function
of communicating a share of the divine gifts
to the order below it. It is hardly necessary
to remark that we have here the Christian
rendering of the Neoplatonic ** one," the Neo-
platonic and Gnostic doctrines of emanation,
and the Gnostic '' Pleroma," or fulness, touched
on in a manner somewhat like the Dion-
ysian treatment by St John and St Paul. (St
John i. ; Eph. i. 23 ; iii. 19 ; Coloss. i. 19 ; ii. 9.)

In the other two treatises, the Angelic
hierarchy in its ninefold choirs, and the vari-
ous orders of the Church, from bishop to
penitent, are described. These are the more

204 MYSTICISM

Striking and important examples of the creative
energy that flows out from the one personal
God, as the primeval Creator, and as the in-
carnate Head of the Church. In these books
God is considered as in a true sense immanent
in the creatures which He nevertheless trans-
cends ; as in the Mystical Theology, the necessity
is insisted on of rising above the created mani-
festations of the divine power and excellence,
for those who desire to obtain some knowledo-e
of the Creator as He is in Himself.

The influence of Neoplatonism, in both
terminology and method, is obvious enough
in the Dionysian writings, and through them
has directly or indirectly passed into nearly
all the mystical literature of subsequent ages.
But, as we have already seen, the pantheistic
doctrines of Neoplatonism are entirely rejected
by Dionysius, and are indeed incompatible
with his view of creation and of the relations,
actual or possible, between God and the soul.
It may therefore be plausibly surmised that
the main object of the author was to present
the orthodox Christian view of the funda-
mental questions with which all philosophy

DIONYSIUS 205

and theology has to deal, in the form which
would be most acceptable to the contemporary
philosophic mind, and in terms of that mode
of thought which was '*in the air" at the
time of writing. In much the same way Aris-
totelianism was christianised by St Thomas,
and many apologetic works of the last fifty
years have sought to express the concepts of
Christian theology in terms of the current
physiology and psychology.^

Dionysius refers to several works of his own
which seem to have remained entirely un-
known, and which are by some thought to
have had no real existence. These are
Theological Outlines, Sacred Hymns, Symbolic
Theology, The Just Judgment of God, The Soul,
and The Objects of Sense and Intellect.

A full account of the Dionysian writings is
given by Professor Stiglmayer in the American
Catholic Encyclopcedia ; a less recent one is
to be found in the Dictionary of Christian
Biography. The available evidence for the

1 "These works were intended to show that all which the
Platonic school had gathered of truth in all parts of the world
and in all ages, is to be found in a far purer and more complete
form in Christianity." — Gorres, Mystique Divute Naturelle et
Diabolique (tr. par Ste Foix), vol. i. p. 67.

2o6 MYSTICISM

authorship is discussed in Darboy's CEuvres
de St Denys, Lupton's introduction to Dean
Colet's Paraphrase of Dionysius, and Barden-
hewer's Patrologie,

Modern translations have been published
in German by Engelhart (1823) and Storf
{Kirchliche Hierarchie, 1877), and in French
by Darboy {CEuvres de St Denys, 1845) and
Dulac (1865). In EngHsh a translation was
completed in 1895 by Rev. J. Parker; and
a translation of the Mystical Theology was
published in London in 1653, in a volume
of sermons by John Everard, D.D., entitled
So7ne Gospel Treasures opened: or the Holiest
of all Unvailing — whereunto is added the
Mystical Divinity of Dionysius the Areopagite,
spoken of Acts xvii. 34.

The most recent, and the most accessible
edition of the text of Dionysius is that of
Corderius, S.J., published at Antwerp 1634,
and frequently reprinted, together with Latin
translation, translator's notes, the commentary
of St Maximus and the paraphrase of Pachy-
meres ; the same edition is included in
Migne's Greek Patrology.

CHAPTER XII

THE MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS THE

AREOPAGITE

Chapter I

lV/iai( the Divine Darkness is

Summary.— (i) Address to the Blessed Trinity. (2) Those
to whom mystical knowledge is open must be distin-
guished from those who do not realise the transcen-
dental character of the divine nature, and still more,
from those who liken the Creator to the creature in
idolatry: whereas in God all qualities of created
existence are to be found eminenter — though at
the same time such qualities cannot strictly be predi-
cated of Him, who is above all created things. In
other words, God transcends creation, but all the
perfections of creatures are derived from Him, and
constitute a certain likeness to Him. Hence the
Gospel is both great and small — />., it declares the
manifold variety and complexity of God's works, but
His own absolute simplicity and unity. (3) Therefore
those who would see God must pass beyond the
limits of creation, into a state which is beyond human
knowledge and light and speech, and must therefore,
from the point of view of created beings, be called

207

2o8 MYSTICISM

one of ignorance, darkness and silence; as Moses
was commanded to separate himself from all impurity
before entering the Divine presence, so those who
would now enter that presence must separate them-
selves from all created things.

Most exalted Trinity, Divinity above all know-
ledge, whose goodness passes understanding,
who dost guide Christians to divine wisdom ;
direct our way to the summit of thy mystical
oracles, most incomprehensible, most lucid
and most exalted, where the simple and pure
and unchangeable mysteries of theology are
revealed in the darkness, clearer than light,
of that silence in which secret things are
hidden ; a darkness that shines brighter than
light, that invisibly and intangibly illuminates
with splendours of inconceivable beauty the
soul that sees not. Let this be my prayer ;
but do thou, dear Timothy, diligently giving
thyself to mystical contemplation, leave the
senses, and the operations of the intellect,
and all things sensible and intelligible, and
things that are and things that are not, that
thou mayest rise as may be lawful for thee,
by ways above knowledge to union with Him

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 209

who is above all knowledge and all being ;
that in freedom and abandonment of all, thou
mayest be borne, through pure, entire and
absolute abstraction of thyself from all things,
into the supernatural radiance of the divine
darkness.

But see that none of the uninitiated^ hear
these things. I mean those who cleave to
created things, and suppose not that anything
exists after a supernatural manner, above
nature ; but imagine that by their own natural
understanding they know Him who has made
darkness His secret place. But if the principles
of the divine mysteries are above the under-

1 The Uninitiated. — The two classes of uninitiated here re-
ferred to are, first, the less spiritually minded among Christians,
and secondly, the heathen. Corderius considers that by the
first non-Christian philosophers rather than Christians of any
kind are intended : but the Neoplatonist contemplatives could
hardly be described in the terms here used, and they only could
have been the "philosophers" in question. The distinction
drawn by some between the words by which the two classes
are designated (d^i^Tjrot = not fully instructed, and d^i5(rrai=not
formally admitted) is perhaps fanciful, but is probably the true
explanation of the classification intended. The impotence of
the natural faculties in mystical contemplation is here stated as
a first principle of mystical theology. Compare St John of the
Cross, Asc. ii. 4 : "It is clearly necessary for the soul aiming
at its own supernatural transformation to be in darkness and
far removed from all that relates to its natural condition."

210

MYSTICISM

Standing of these, what is to be said of those
yet more untaught, who call the absolute First
Cause of all after the lowest things in nature,
and say that He is in no way above the images
which they fashion after various designs ; of
whom they should declare and affirm that in
Him as the cause of all, is all that may be
predicated positively of created things ; while
yet they might with more propriety deny
these predicates to Him, as being far above
all ; holding that here denial is not contrary
to affirmation, since He is infinitely above all
notion of deprivation, and above all affirma-
tion and negation.

Thus the divine Bartholomew says that
Theology is both much and very little, and
that the Gospel is great and ample, and yet
short. His sublime meaning is, I think, that
the beneficent cause of all things says much,
and says little, and is altogether silent, as
having neither (human) speech nor (human)
understanding, since He is essentially above
all created things, and manifests Himself un-
veiled, and as He truly is to those only who
pass beyond all that is either pure or impure,

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 211

who rise above the highest height of holy-
things, who abandon all divine light and sound
and heavenly speech, and are absorbed into
that darkness where, as the Scripture says,
He truly is, who is beyond all things.

It was not without a deeper meaning that
the divine Moses was commanded first to be
himself purified, and then to separate himself
from the impure ; and after all this purifica-
tion heard many voices of trumpets, and saw
many lights shedding manifold pure beams :
and that he was thereafter separated from the
multitude and together with the elect priests
came to the height of the divine ascents.
Yet hereby he did not attain to the presence
of God Himself; he saw not Him (for He
cannot be looked upon), but the place where
He was. This, I think, signifies that the
divinest and most exalted of visible and
intelligible things are, as it were, suggestions
of those that are immediately beneath Him
who is above all, whereby is indicated the
presence of Him who passes all understand-
ing, and stands, as it were, in that spot which
is conceived by the intellect as the highest

J 12 MYSTICISM

of His holy places ; then that they who are
free and untrammelled by all that is seen and
all that sees enter into the true mystical dark-
ness of ignorance, whence all perception of
understanding is excluded, and abide in that
which is intangible and invisible, being wholly
absorbed in Him who is beyond all things,
and belong no more to any, neither to them-
selves nor to another, but are united in their
higher part to Him who is wholly unin-
telligible, and whom, by understanding nothing,
they understand after a manner above all
intelligence.

Chapter 1 1

How to be united with^ and to give praise to Him who is the
cause of all things and above all

Summary. — Therefore God is only to be known in a
supernatural manner, by abstraction from all that is
natural. Natural sight and knowledge are useless
for the purpose of seeing and knowing what is above
nature : the supernatural can only be perceived in
entire separation from all that is merely natural. In
this sense, natural light and knowledge merely obscure
the vision ; we can see God only in a " luminous
darkness " — which is darkness because of the absence of
created light, lumi?ious because of the divine presence
there made known. As, in order to form our concep-
tion of God, we add together the divine attributes
(in speculative theology), so (in mystical theology)
we must subtract them, from the lowest to the highest,
in order to arrive at the essential nature of God.^

We desire to abide in this most luminous
darkness, and without sight or knowledge, to

^ The Divine Attributes. — God's attributes, such as wisdom,
justice, goodness, etc., are human conceptions in themselves.
We know them as they are manifested in the works of God, not
as they exist in Himself. God is not, so to speak, the mere
sum of His attributes, but the simple divine essence, which in

213

214 MYSTICISM

see that which is above sight or knowledge,
by means of that very fact that we see not
and know not. For this is truly to see and
know, to praise Him who is above nature in
a manner above nature, by the abstraction of
all that is natural ; as those who would make
a statue out of the natural stone abstract all
the surrounding material which hinders the
sight of the shape lying concealed within, and
by that abstraction alone reveal its hidden
beauty.^ It is needful, as I think, to make
this abstraction in a manner precisely opposite

different aspects is each of the divine attributes. Thus we
truly say that God is love, justice, mercy, etc. ; but we could
not truly say that love, justice, mercy, etc., together constitute
God. Therefore those who, in any sense, see God in Himself
must contrive to go behind all those created forms in which
His perfection is manifested. (See Summa Theol. I. xiii. 2, 3.)
^ This illustration is used by Plotinus (de Pulcritudine, vii.), and
is adduced as an argument against the identity of the author
with the Areopagite by upholders of the contrary view. It
expresses very precisely the attitude of mysticism towards the
immanence of God, though it cannot be pressed as an illustra-
tion of the nature of immanence. The statue is revealed by
abstracting superfluous material, as God is made known by
abstracting all that is not God. But the residuum, which is
the statue, is of the same nature as the abstracted superfluity ;
whereas the abstraction of what is natural leaves only the
supernatural, or divine. Compare St John of the Cross, ii. 5 :
" In every soul God dwells and is substantially present . . . the
soul, when it has driven away from itself all that is contrary to
the Divine Will, becomes transformed in God by love."

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 215

to that in which we deal with the Divine
attributes ; for we add them together, begin-
ning with the primary ones, and passing from
them to the secondary, and so to the last ;
but here we ascend from the last to the first,
abstracting all, so as to unveil and know that
which is beyond knowledge, and which in all
things is hidden from our sight by that which
can be known, and so to behold that super-
natural darkness which is hidden by all such
light as is in created things.

Chapter III

IV/iai IS afflr7ned of God, and what is denied of Him

Summary. — (i) The Being of God and the Names of God
are expounded in the Theological Outlines and the
treatise of Divi?ie Names respectively, and the method
according to which God is spoken of in terms of
sensible things is treated of in the Symbolical
Theology.^ It was obvious that there was less to be
said of the divine nature itself than of the different
ways in which it may be partially expressed in human
speech. So here we pass in contemplation of God
not merely to economy of words, but beyond speech
itself. (2) In affirming God's nature we must compare
it with what is beneath it ; but in denying of it that
which it is not, we must distinguish all things from
it, according to their degrees of remoteness. Thus
we add in the one case, and subtract in the other.

In our Outlines of Theology we have declared
those matters which are properly the subject
of Positive Theology ; in what sense the holy
divine nature is one, and in what sense three ;
what it is that is there called Paternity, and

^ See preceding chapter.
216

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 217

what Filiation ; and what the doctrine of the
Holy Ghost signifies ; how from the uncreated
and undivided good those blessed and perfect
Lights have come forth, yet remained one
with the divine nature, with each other, and
in themselves, undivided by coeternal abiding
in propagation ; how Jesus though immaterial
became material in the truth of human nature ;
and other things taken from Scripture we have
expounded in the same place. Again in the
Book of Divine Names (we have shown) how
God is called good, how Being, how Life
and Wisdom and Virtue, with other names
spiritually applied to Him. Then in the
treatise of Symbolical Theology we saw what
names have been transferred to Him from
sensible things — what is meant by the divine
forms and figures, limbs, instruments, localities,
adornments, fury, anger and grief; drunkenness,
oaths and curses, sleep and waking, with other
modes of sacred and symbolical nomenclature.
I think you will have understood why the
last are more diffuse than the first ; for the
exposition of theological doctrine and the
explanation of the divine names are neces-

2i8 MYSTICISM

sarily shorter than the treatise on symbolism.
Because in proportion as we ascend higher
' our speech is contracted to the limits of our
view of the purely intelligible ; and so now,
when we enter that darkness which is above
understanding, we pass not merely into brevity
of speech, but even into absolute silence, and
the negation of thought. Thus in the other
treatises our subject took us from the highest
to the lowest, and in the measure of this
descent our treatment of it extended itself;
whereas now we rise from beneath to that
which is the highest, and accordingly our
speech is restrained in proportion to the
height of our ascent ; but when our ascent
is accomplished, speech will cease altogether,
and be absorbed into the ineffable. But why,
you will ask, do we add in the first and begin
to abstract in the last? The reason is that
we affirmed that which is above all affirmation
by comparison with that which is most nearly
related to it, and were therefore compelled to
make a hypothetical^ affirmation ; but when

^ '''' HypotheticaV^ (or comparative), z.^., setting one thing
below another. God is infinitely higher than the highest created
thing : and He is to be distinguished from all forms of created

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 219

we abstract that which is above all abstraction,
we must distinguish it also from those things
which are most remote from it. Is not God
more nearly life and goodness than air or a
stone ; must we not deny more fully that He
is drunken or enraged, than that He can be
spoken of or understood ?

existence, high and low alike : yet He is more truly life than a
stone (comparative or hypothetical affirmation) : He is more
absolutely not passionate than ineffable (comparative abstrac-
tion or negation). Thus in affirmation " more" is predicated of
what is nearer to God; in negation, of what is remoter from Him
(Corderius). In the hierarchy of creation, the higher the form
of existence, the greater its resemblance to God : yet in all
there is the infinite difference of the creature from the Creator.
We have here the Theistic or Christian rendering of the
Neoplatonic and Gnostic doctrines of emanation.

Chapter IV

That He who is the supreme cause of all sensible things is
Himself no part of those things

Summary. — The Creator is not a mere lifeless and
unintelligent abstraction ; yet He is wholly distinct
from all forms of sensible existence.

We say that the cause of all things, who is
Himself above all things, is neither without
being nor without life, nor without reason nor
without intelligence ; ^ nor is He a body ;
nor has He form or shape, or quality or
quantity or mass ; He is not localised or
visible or tangible ; He is neither sensitive
nor sensible ; He is subject to no disorder
or disturbance arising from material passion ;
He is not subject to failure of power, or to the

^ The supreme, universal, or first cause cannot be identified
with any of its effects, or with all of them together. The
simplicity of the divine nature implies entire distinction from
all created things. (See Sumrna Theol. i. 3. 8.)

220

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 221

accidents of sensible things ; He needs no
light ; He suffers no change or corruption
or division, or privation or flux ; and He
neither has nor is anything else that belongs
to the senses.

Chapter V

That He who is the supreme cause of all intelligible things is
Himself no part of those things

Summary. — The Creator is distinct from all merely
intelligible forms of existence, being neither one of
them nor all of them together.

Again, ascending, we say that He is neither
soul nor intellect ; nor has He imagination,
nor opinion or reason ; He has neither speech
nor understanding, and is neither declared nor
understood ; He is neither number nor order,
nor greatness nor smallness, nor equality nor
likeness nor unlikeness ; He does not stand
or move or rest ; He neither has power nor
is power ; nor is He light, nor does He live,
nor is He life ; He is neither being nor age
nor time ; nor is He subject to intellectual
contact ; He is neither knowledge nor truth,
nor royalty nor wisdom ; He is neither one

222

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 223

nor unity, nor divinity, nor goodness ; ^ nor
is He spirit, as we understand spirit ; He is
neither sonship nor fatherhood nor anything
else known to us or to any other beings, either
of the things that are or the things that are
not ; nor does anything that is, know Him as
He is, nor does He know anything that is as it
is ; He has neither word nor name nor know-
ledge ; He is neither darkness nor light nor
truth nor error ; He can neither be affirmed
nor denied ; ' nay, though we may affirm or
deny the things that are beneath Him, we can
neither affirm nor deny Him ; for the perfect
and sole cause of all is above all affirma-
tion, and that which transcends all is above all
subtraction, absolutely separate, and beyond
all that is.

^ Neither one nor^ etc. — See Letter IL to Caius, where the
sense is explained in which this statement is to be understood.
There is a sense in which God is His own nature ; i.e.., as it is
in itself, not in the inadequate sense in which alone it may be
conceived or experienced by us. See Sum^na Theol. i. 3. 3,
where it may be remarked that St Thomas says, not " Deus
est Deltas," but "Deus est sua Deltas."

2 He can neither be affirmed nor denied. — The divine nature
cannot be adequately (though it may be truly) defined, either
positively or negatively.

Letter I

To Cuius the Monk

Summary. — The discursive operation of the intellect not
only is not the means by which God is to be
experimentally known, but actually precludes such
knowledge : the mind knows God by a supernatural
operation, which transcends its natural functions.

Darkness is destroyed by light, especially by
much light ; ignorance is destroyed by know-
ledge, especially by much knowledge. You
must understand this as implying not priva-
tion, but transcendence ; ^ and so you must
say with absolute truth, that the ignorance
which is of God is unknown by those who
have the created light and the knowledge of
created things, and that His transcendent

^ Transcendence (vvepoxLKCos). — The ignorance by which man
sees God is more, not less, than natural knowledge — it is not
ignorance of the objects of natural knowledge, but the rejection
of such knowledge as out of relation to the supernatural sphere
in which God is experimentally known.

334

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 225

darkness is obscured by any light, and itself
obscures all knowledge. And if any one,
seeing God, knows what he sees, it is by no
means God that he so sees, but something
created and knowable. For God abides
above created intellect and existence, and is
in such sense unknowable and non-existent
that He exists above all existence, and is
known above all power of knowledge. Thus
the knowledge of Him who is above all that
can be known is for the most part ignorance.

Letter II

To the Same

Summary. — God is above and beyond that divinity and
goodness which we know, which we seek to imitate,
and of which we are made partakers, as being their
source and fountain head.

How can He who is beyond all things be also
above the very principle of divinity and of
goodness % By divinity and goodness must
be understood the essence of the gift which
makes us good and divine, or that unapproach-
able semblance of the supreme goodness and
divinity whereby we also are made good and
divine. For since this is the principle of
deification and sanctification for those who are
so deified and sanctified, then He who is the
essential principle of all principles (and there-
fore the principle of divinity and goodness) is

above that divinity and goodness by means

226

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 227

of which we are made good and divine : ^
moreover, since He is inimitable and incom-
prehensible, He is above imitation and com-
prehension as He is above those who imitate
and partake of Him.

* Inimitable^ etc. — Man's goodness and sanctity can resemble
God's only analogically, not absolutely. We cannot imitate
the unique pre-eminence of God, though we may endeavour
with eventful success to fulfil His will perfectly, as He perfectly
fulfils His own will.

Letter V

To Dorotheus the Deacon

Summary. — Since God transcends all things, both sensible
and intelligible, He can be known only by separation
from the senses and the intellect. Thus the inaccess-
ible light in which He dwells is darkness by reason of
its excess.

The divine darkness is the inaccessible light
in which God is said to dwell. And since
He is invisible by reason of the abundant
outpouring of supernatural light, it follows
that whosoever is counted worthy to know
and see God, by the very fact that he neither
sees nor knows Him, attains to that which
is above sight and knowledge, and at the
same time perceives that God is beyond ^ all
things both sensible and intelligible, saying

^ Beyond all thmgs (/Jt^erd vavra)^ not " in " or " with " all things
as it has been translated, but "after" them — i.e., from the
human point of view, in which the natural comes before and is
nearer than the supernatural.

228

MYSTICAL THEOLOGY OF DIONYSIUS 229

with the Prophet, '* Thy knowledge Is become
wonderful to me ; it is high, and I cannot
reach to it." In like manner, St Paul, we
are told, knew God, when he knew Him to
be above all knowledge and understanding ;
wherefore he says that His ways are unsearch-
able and His judgments inscrutable, His gifts
unspeakable, and His peace passing all under-
standinof ; as one who had found Him who is
above all things, and whom he had perceived
to be above knowledge, and separate from
all things, being the Creator of all.

APPENDIX I

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE

Until very lately it was commonly believed
that thought proceeds by means of a succession
of mental pictures, sometimes called ''ideas,"
and more recently and correctly "images."
Sense-impressions on the physical organs were
held to form these pictures in the mind ; they
were afterwards said to be revived, less and
less clearly, in process of time by the
memory.

But the most recent psychological investiga-
tions— by Blihler, Ach, Watt, Betts and others
— have proved the existence in consciousness
of " imageless thought." Mental pictures, or
images, of course exist, and are part of the
subject matter of thought. But thought, it has
been shown, can and does go on without them ;

and in either case, not mental pictures as

230

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 2^1

^

such, but the concept connected with them is
the essential matter with which thought deals.

It has been shown by Moore that there
exist imageless mental contents representa-
tive of visible objects ; and further, that
the process of perception consists in assimila-
tion of the data of sense-experience to their
appropriate mental categories.^

A series of experiments performed by Dr.
Aveling ^ has proved that concepts are not the
same as images, but are introspectively dis-
criminable from them, and can and do occur
alone in consciousness ; they are, further, capable
of objective reference and of conveying mean-
ing by themselves, whereas images are not.
These experiments have shown that what is
essentially involved in the thought-process is
the concept. Images also appear in it, some-
times as a means of fixing and sustaining
thought, and sometimes by mere association, a
concept in its origin being inevitably connected

^ The Process of Abstraction, T. V. Moore, Berkeley, U.S.A.,
1910.

2 I am indebted for this information to Dr. F. Aveling, of
University College, London. See T/ie Consciousness of the
Universal, F. Aveling (Macmillan, 191 2).

232 MYSTICISM

with an image. The basis for existential
cognition is thus shown to be sensational in
character ; no new concept can be formed apart
from this sensational element. But the concept
being once formed on this sensational basis,
thinking, it has been demonstrated, can take
place with no mental contents other than
concepts. Concepts, and not images, are the
essential elements of thinking.

These discoveries have a most important
bearing on the psychic process involved in
mystical experience, and confirm in a remark-
able way the account of that process given in
Chapters III., IV. and V. They further supply
an explanation of natural mental states bearing
some resemblance to mystical contemplation,
which renders superfluous the hypothesis
adopted by Professor James and others, of the
existence of states of consciousness of entirely
specific quality, and aroused in certain peculiar
temperaments by external stimulation. We
shall see that there is no reason for assuming
any such specific state of consciousness in
order to account for either true mystical
experiences or those which, though not

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 233

genuinely mystical, have often been classed
with them ; and that the essentially conceptual
nature of thought affords a criterion which
renders it possible to distinguish accurately
between the two kinds of experience, at least
in cases where full information is obtainable.

The theory may be stated in somewhat less
technical terms as follows. Thought implies
two things— the action of the mind itself and
that upon which the mind acts. This latter is
called the mental content^ because what is
thought of Is contained In the mind ; the
external object is the source from which the
mental content is derived, but Is not the actual
mental content ; the Immediate subject matter
of thought is not things In themselves, but
those things as they appear in the mind by
representation. How, then, are they repre-
sented? Is it by a series of mental photo-
graphs, or by something else which the mind
itself adds to the sensible Impression, thereby
Imparting a kind of thought-character to the
impression ? It was formerly supposed that
the essential thing for thought was a picture or
image of the sight, sound, touch, &c., with

234 MYSTICISM

which the mind had to deal, and which, in a
certain sense, identified the mind with the
external object ; this image was held to be
clear and precise at the moment of its formation,
and to become fainter and more indistinct when
revived by the memory after an increasing
interval of time. It has now, however, been
demonstrated that the essential subject matter
of thought, or mental content, is not the image
of a sensible object, but a purely intelligible
factor which arises in the mind at the moment
of sense perception, and is called the concept.
It must therefore be held that the total mental
content derived by the mind from external
objects is compounded of two kinds of elements,
one sensorial and the other conceptual — one de-
pending on the stimulation of the senses, and
the other on the simultaneous action of the
mind. Of these two factors, one, the sensa-
tional, is necessary for the original formation of
the mental content ; the other, the conceptual, is
inseparably connected with the sense-image,
which apart from the conceptual factor could
not be in consciousness, and would have no
existence for consciousness at all. The act

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 235

of perception is accordingly a process by which
sensational experiences are connected with their
appropriate concepts. Every sensation of Vv^hich
we are conscious carries with it a mental concept,
however elementary or indistinct it may be.
The concept, then, is what thought cannot do
without. But can it do without the sense-
image ? Can we think, that is to say, without
recalling any picture or image of what we are
thinkinor about ? It has now been demonstrated
that we can, and very frequently do. The
image is obviously necessary as the original
basis of the concept ; but it is not necessary
for subsequent thought that the same image
should re-appear (which in fact is never the
case), or that a new one should be formed.
We can go on thinking by means of concepts
alone. Images, however, do appear in the
process of thought according to certain fixed
laws : they are useful sometimes as supports
to the attention ; sometimes, again, they are
merely distracting, and in some cases they
apparently neither help nor hinder thought.
Thought therefore deals primarily and directly
with concepts, indirectly with images ; concepts

236 MYSTICISM

are necessarily based on images at the moment
when a thing is perceived for the first time ;
afterwards, when the thing is remembered, it
is the concept which is revived, either with or
without sense-images. It follows that the con-
cepts existing in a free state in the mind may,
according to circumstances, either remain
dissociated from all other concepts and all
images, or be associated with fresh images, or
with other concepts suggested by those images
or by the concepts themselves. For instance,
I may think of mankind without any mental
picture at all ; what the thought means is clear
without any further reference. But then after
my attention has been fixed for some moments
on this object, there arises in my mind a vague
image of a typical man ; then he may become
more definite as a particular species of man ;
then more definite still, till by a process of
association I come to think of a particular man
whose appearance is well known to me, and of
whom I construct a more or less detailed mental
picture. Finally, this picture may easily suggest
a further and quite different picture of the place
in which I last saw my friend. The whole pro-

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 237

cess is a very common one. and may easily be
tested. From it we see that, first, it is quite
possible to consider a concept by itself, without
any representative image ; secondly, that such
a free concept will naturally suggest others
more or less closely allied to it by nature ; and
thirdly, that a fresh image or set of images may
ultimately come into consciousness as the
mediate consequence of the concept with which
the train of thought started.

Let us now apply these considerations to the
object of mystical contemplation. That, we
have seen, must be immaterial ; one, that is, in
the knowledge of which the senses can have no
part, and which is incapable of representation
by images or pictures. But this, we now find,
is the essential characteristic of all mental
objects : they are essentially immaterial, and
merely intelligible, no matter whether accom-
panied by mental imagery or not. The
mystical contemplation of God is therefore
in itself of precisely the same kind as every
other sort of mental consideration ; it is the
consideration of an immaterial object, directly
and without any aid from the senses. Thus

238 MYSTICISM

the difficulty which has been felt in supposing
that the embodied soul can have a direct intui-
tion of what is purely immaterial is entirely got
rid of; and St. Thomas's metaphysical explana-
tion ^ of the manner in which the beatific vision
takes place is confirmed by the latest demon-
stration of experimental science. The process
which St. Thomas describes in terms of " hylo-
morphism " — as the union of matter and form —
is identical with that which the science of the
present day calls the acquisition of mental
content. God, in St. Thomas's language, be-
comes *' form " to the soul's *' matter " in those
who see Him: in the language of experimental
psychology He becomes in them their ''mental
content." The two theories are really the
same theory reached by two different roads —
one inductive and metaphysical, the other de-
ductive and experimental.

It is of interest to notice further that the
place and function assigned by this theory to
revived sense-imagery in thought is precisely
that which mystics have assigned to the visions,
locutions and auditions of mystical experience

^ See p. 94.

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 239

(see pp. 85, 86). Such images are, in fact, by-
products, and serve at most as supports to the
soul in mystical contemplation of the less ex-
alted, as compared with the purely intellectual
kind.

The reality of the object of mystical con-
templation thus appears to be of the same
character as that of the ordinary objects of
thought. The mystic who contemplates God
in his own soul is performing an action psycho-
logically identical with that which he performs
when he looks into a shop window, or notices
the faces of the passers-by in the street, or when
he recalls the appearance of someone whom he
knows well. It is in every case primarily an
intelligible or conceptual object that he con-
templates, and not primarily a sensible one.
The only difference is that the conceptual object
is, in the one case, traceable to an origin in some
sense experience, and, in the other, derived
immediately from a directly spiritual source ;
and, as has been already remarked, there is
considerably less difficulty in understanding
a mental state to be derived from a mental
impulse than in explaining the connection

240 MYSTICISM

between a purely conceptual object of thought
and the sense-stimulus on which it depends.

The reality of visions, locutions and auditions
is again parallel with that of the revived sense-
images which accompany thought. They are real
mental images, and theyaccompany real concepts
— of this there can obviously be no doubt. But
by reality is commonly understood the corre-
spondence of that which the mind perceives
with something external to it which reaches it
by means of the senses. Is there any such
external reality about the visions of mystics?
Was the ring received by St. Rose of Lima a
real rinor — were the crown of thorns and the
stigmata of St. Catherine of Siena real in this
sense — did St. Hildegard actually behold the
scenery of her visions, which so evidently recall
the scenery of the Rhine and Moselle, in which
her convent stood — did Julian of Norwich really
see our Lord in a condition of bodily suffering ?
The answer evidently is that these and other
similar visions correspond exactly to the
symbolic image which frequently accompanies
revived concepts. If I try to think of a tree or
a house fixedly for a few moments, a vague

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 241

image of a particular tree or house comes into
consciousness. If I dwell in thouorht on some
abstract idea, a vague picture, which I clearly
understand to be symbolic, comes into my
mind. ''Honour" suggests dimly a robe and
crown; ''virtue," an austere and beautiful
figure; ''humanity," the busy crowd in a
London street. Or, sometimes, the mere
image of the printed word may attach itself to
the concept. In what sense are these images
real — i.e., how far do they correspond to some-
thing external ? Evidently, they are real in
virtue of their representation of the concept ;
they symbolise the sense-impressions from which
the concept was originally derived. They are
not immediate sense-impressions, and if reality
is to be predicated only of such impressions
neither mystical visions nor the countless re-
produced images of memory on which our
conscious life depends can be called real. But
if reality lies, as it would appear to lie, in a true
presentation to the mind in sense-images of the
concept with which it is occupied, then certainly
both may be rightly called real. St. Rose's

ring was a true symbol of the idea connected

Q

242 MYSTICISM

with It ; the stigmata of St. Catherine were as
real a symbol of her participation In the suffer-
ing of Christ as the visible ones of St. Francis ;
the scenery of St. Hlldegard's visions, though
no doubt primarily derived from her familiar
surroundings, was, like the symbolic visions of
the Apocalypse, made real by the reality of the
ideas which they symbolised. The true fount
of reality Is throughout the concept ; the thing
thought or known, rather than the image per-
ceived. The mystical visions derived their
reality from the actual divine presence which
called them up, just as the reality of a face or
picture in the memory depends on the actual
preservation of the concept, which is, so to
speak, illustrated by the recalled image.

The same psychological discovery gives
experimental confirmation to the distinction
noted In the text (pp. 35, 36) between natural
and supernatural states In which features of an
approximately Identical character occur ; between
the true mystical abstraction and the abnormal
mental conditions brought about by natural
causes, such as the prolonged contemplation of
natural objects, pathological states or the use of

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 243

anaesthetics. The late Professor James con-
siders that abnormal states of consciousness
resulting from such causes are psychologically
indistinguishable from '' religious " or " classic "
mysticism ; and the agreement in detail, which
is a marked feature in religious mysticism, and
which Professor James regards as affording the
strongest available support for its claims, is
neutralised by the differences which are pre-
sented to view by mysticism of the non-
religious kind. The claims of religious
mysticism to supernatural causation are over-
thrown by the occurrence of similar states for
which no such claim is or can be made.
*' Religious mysticism," Professor James says,
" is only the half of mysticism ; the other half
has no accumulated traditions except those
which the text-books on insanity supply." His
conclusion is that there is a natural cosmic or
mystical consciousness which responds to
various stimulants, one of the chief of which is
nitrous oxide gas. This form of consciousness
is the only certain fact in mysticism, and though
the claims of the higher or religious mysticism
cannot be fully substantiated, It is, nevertheless,

244 MYSTICISM

possible to suppose that it opens the way to a
^* wider world of meanings, the counting in of
which and the serious dealing with it might be
indispensable stages in our approach to the
final fullness of the truth."

We may, as we have seen, fully admit the
psychical identity of the process in every case.
The question is as to the cause by which the
process is initiated. If natural causes can be
assigned for states in which the '' cosmic
consciousness" is brought into operation, can
we rightly attribute the similar states of
Christian mystics to a supernatural cause, or
must we look for the cause amono- the non-
mystical details of the mystic's ordinary experi-
ence ? Our answer is that no such cause can
be found, and we are consequently obliged, by
a process of exhaustion, to accept the reality of
the Christian mystics' experience, which they
themselves attribute to it.

The psychological theory we have described
asserts that the concept derived from sense-
experience frequently perseveres in conscious-
ness after the sense-experience itself has passed
entirely out of consciousness. This concept

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 245

may accordingly be associated with other con-
cepts, acquired in the same way, so as to produce
ideas which have a particular aspect of their
own unHke that of any one of their component
elements taken by itself. Such a combination
of concepts, together with their more or less
appropriate sense-images, is familiar to every-
one in dreams.

Now it appears certain that such conditions
of " cosmic consciousness " as those cited by
Professor James can be distinctly traced to
their source in a sense-image, or sense-impres-
sion, together with the concept properly belong-
ing to it. The sense-image drops out of
consciousness for one reason or another, but the
concept remains, and is combined with others
already in the mind so as to produce a set of
ideas which seem at first sight to belong to a
sphere beyond the terrestrial one. But if our
account of the matter is correct, the cosmic
consciousness is not needed ; the ordinary
mental process is sufficient, in the peculiar
circumstances of such cases, to account for the
extraordinary experience. But in the experience
of Christian mystics those peculiar circumstances

246 MYSTICISM

are absent ; there is no external cause to which
the '* stimulation of the cosmic consciousness"
can be attributed, neither anaesthetic, nor opium,
nor brain pressure nor optical strain. We are
therefore forced to the conclusion that the
psychic process has been initiated by a cause
which does not belong to the sphere of sense-
experience, but is capable of producing concepts
in the mind without any initiatory stimulation
of the senses ; in other words, by direct divine
illumination.

An examination of the different instances
given by Professor James of the arousing of
*' cosmic consciousness " will fully bear out this
contention. They would seem to show,
beyond possibility of doubt, that the '' cosmic
consciousness " is nothing whatever but the
natural capacity of the mind for purely
conceptual thought, apart from any sense-
image, and its further capacity, above mentioned,
for associating concepts to form a single
mental content, together with sense-images
evoked from memory as the support of the
associated concepts. The cosmic consciousness
is, in fact, what we have elsewhere described as

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 247

the natural tendency of the mind to mysticism —
a tendency which may be exploited in various
directions, but which attains to true mystical
contemplation only by divine illumination.
The cases cited are the following.

Only that part of each account is quoted
which indicates the sensorial origin of the
abnormal state.

1. The late Lord Tennyson. '* I have fre-
quently had a kind of waking trance. This has
come upon me through repeating my own name
to myself silently, till all at once, as it were,
out of the intensity of the consciousness of
individuality, individuality itself seemed to
dissolve into boundless being."

Here the attention was fixed on the
subjective consciousness of self, until from
overstrain the individual characteristics were
obliterated, and only the concept of being,
which they had exemplified, remained in
consciousness.

2, The late Canon Kingsley. ''When I
walk the fields, I am oppressed now and then
with an innate feeling that everything I see has
a meaning, if I could but understand it." This

248 MYSTICISM

State of mind, which is really a very common
one, signifies merely the mutual weakening by
multiplicity of the sensible images, and a corre-
sponding rise in clearness of their conceptual
factors, which again are too numerous to be
distinctly grasped in one mental act.

3. The late J. A. Symonds. " Suddenly, at
church, or in company, or when I was reading,
and always when my muscles were at rest, I
felt the approach of the mood. It consisted in
a gradual but swiftly progressive obliteration of
space, time, sensation and the multitudinous
factors of experience which seem to qualify
what we are pleased to call our self. At last
nothing remained but a pure, absolute, abstract
self. The universe became without form and
void of content." This is an excellent descrip-
tion of the process in which the sense-images
fade, while the concept of self, still connected,
perhaps, with internal sensations, persists. A
long sermon, or dull company, or an uninterest-
ing book, will produce the same effect in most
minds, from time to time. It is merely the first
stage of sleep.

4. An "anaesthetic revelation," presenting

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 249

exactly the same essential features as the above
three cases. " ' The one remains, the many
change and pass ' ; and each and everyone of
us is the one that remains." The anaesthetic
has approximately the same effect as prolonged
contemplation of self, or of a number of fixed
natural objects, and as enforced quiescence
amid surroundings incapable of fixing the
attention.

5. A *' mystical experience with chloroform "
of J. A. Symonds, with features of a more
varied and startling nature than those already
noted, but of the same essential character. ''After
the choking and stifling had passed away . . .
suddenly, my soul became aware of God, who
was manifestly dealing with me, handling me,
so to speak, in an intense personal present
reality. I cannot describe the ecstasy that I
felt. As I gradually awoke from the influence
of the anaesthetics, the old sense of my relation
to the world began to return, the new sense of
my relation to God began to fade. ... I flung
myself on the ground, and at last awoke,
covered with blood, &c."

Here the ''dealing with "and "handling" were

2S0 MYSTICISM

evidently the surgeons' ; they were Imperfectly
perceived in the state of partial anaesthesia, but
served to awaken the concept of objective
power and subjective helplessness which were
already associated in the patient's mind with
the idea of God. The *' ecstatic" feeling is
readily traceable to the same cause, an
imperfectly felt nerve-stimulation.

6. '* I know an officer in our police force who
has told me that many times when off duty and
on his way home in the evening there comes to
him a vivid and vital realisation of his oneness
with the Infinite Power, and the Spirit of
Peace takes hold of and fills him." No one
would grudge the worthy policeman his sense
of freedom and peace at the end of his
monotonous day's work. But it is extravagantly
superfluous to invoke the cosmic consciousness
to explain it.

7. An instance of the power of nature, in
certain aspects, to awaken mystical moods.
'' I was alone upon the sea-shore . . . and now
again, as once before in the Alps of Dauphine,
I was impelled to kneel down, this time before
the illimitable ocean, symbol of the Infinite. I

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 251

felt that I knew now what prayer really is ; to
return from the solitude of individuation into
the consciousness of unity with all that is."

The passage from a particular sense-image
to concepts directly and indirectly associated
with it is here too clear to need comment.

8. A similar instance. '' One brilliant Sunday
morning my wife and boys went to the Unitarian
Chapel — while I went further up into the hills
with my stick and dog. For nearly an hour I
walked along the road to the ' Cat and
Fiddle,' and then returned. On the way back,
suddenly I felt that I was in heaven." Ob-
viously this was the result of a medley of
sense-impressions, none of them especially
striking, but all combined with silence, light,
fresh air and a sense of general well-being to
produce a vivid concept, and correspondingly
to weaken particular sense-impressions : heaven
was really the composite idea aroused by the
Unitarian Chapel, the hills, light, air and gentle
exercise.

9. Another '' anaesthetic revelation." '' A
great Being or Power was travelling through
the sky : his foot was on a kind of lightning

252 MYSTICISM

made entirely of the spirits of innumerable
people, and I was one of them. I seemed to
be directly under the foot of God, and he was
grinding his own life up out of my pain. He
bended me, turning his corner by means of my
hurt, hurting me more than ever I had been
hurt in my life, and at the acutest point of this,
as he passed, I saw. I understood for a moment
things that I have now forgotten, things that no
one could remember while retaining sanity.
While regaining consciousness I wondered
why, since I had gone so deep, I had seen
nothing of what the saints call the love of
God, nothing but his relentlessness. Then
I heard an answer, saying, ' Knowledge and
Love are one, and the measure Is suffering.'
With that I came to, and I saw that what
would be called the ' cause ' of my ex-
perience was a slight operation under in-
sufficient ether, in a bed pushed up against a
window." This is the most interesting of
Professor James's citations, inasmuch as it
presents a feature which seems to be identical
with one of the characteristics of true mystical
experience, viz., an indescribable intellectual

THE REALITY OF MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 253

communication or vision. We may admit the
possibility that this part of the experience may
be truly mystical. But it is only a possibility
of the barest kind. The more salient features
are, it is evident, to be referred directly to the
imperfect action of the anaesthetic, and its effect
on the nervous system, the pain of the operation
and the light from the adjacent window. This
consideration would absolutely preclude the
acceptance of such an experience as certainly
mystical, however strong its resemblance to
real mystical states might be.

10. There remains only one more of Professor
James's instances to be quoted, and this is not
the description of experience, but the opinion
of a Canadian psychiatrist, with which Professor
James seems, on the whole, to agree. ''Cosmic
consciousness is not simply an expansion or ex-
tension of the self-conscious mind, with which
we are all familiar, but the superaddition of a
function distinct from any possessed by the
average man. The prime characteristic of
cosmic consciousness is a consciousness of the
cosmos ; that is, of the life and order of the
universe/' Here is very plainly shown the

254 MYSTICISM

root of the whole misunderstanding. *' Cosmic
consciousness," as we have seen, is not indeed
an expansion of the ordinary operation of the
mind ; but neither is it the super-addition of
anything. It is the aptitude, possessed by all
minds in a greater or less degree, for contem-
plating ideas apart from images. What is
thought to be the arousing of the cosmic
consciousness is merely the realisation of the
object of contemplation, for the moment, as
an imaofeless idea. The distinction is made
very clear by the last sentence quoted. Cosmic
consciousness certainly should be consciousness
of the cosmos as it is here said to be. But in
the same sentence it is declared to be something
quite different — the " life and order of the
universe " ; that is to say, not the actual cosmos
at all, but an abstract idea which may be, and
in fact is, derived from close investigation of
any fragment of the universe, however tiny.
Life and order are ideas, not things : they are
not capable of extension or division, and may
be abstracted as perfectly from the considera-
tion of a drop of water as from superhuman
knowledge of a world.

THE REALITY OF xMYSTICAL EXPERIENCE 255

All that Professor James's quotations and
arguments, and others like them, have shown,
is that mystical experience implies nothing
contrary to the nature of the human soul. Man
has only one consciousness, and it is not cosmic,
but merely conceptual ; but under the divine
assistance it can and does reach heights to
which the unilluminated imagination cannot
follow it.

The abnormal but natural states of conscious-
ness shew three constant and apparently in-
separable features. First, a direct sense-
experience, next, the conceptual element in that
experience, dissociated from its sensational
basis, and thirdly, a middle term consisting in
some artificially induced physical condition to
which the dissociation is to be attributed. This
last may be either a condition of alcoholic or
other intoxication, a hypnotic or hypnoidal state
brought about by contemplation of surrounding
objects, or a state of excitement, exhilaration or
exaltation due to personal influences. In
mystical contemplation there is, as a rule, no
direct sense-experience which can be supposed
to form the basis of the merely conceptual state

2S6 MYSTICISM

of consciousness, and there are no external
circumstances to which the peculiar physical
condition involved in mystical experience can
be traced. The conceptual object of mystical
contemplation must therefore be of purely
immaterial, that is to say, of supernatural,
origin ; and the abnormal physical and mental
condition of the mystic must be referred to the
same cause ; the absence of any sensational
element in the mental content is not the con-
sequence of the supernatural state, as it is of
the natural one, bu^t its cause.

It may be finally contended that religious
ideas, which are mostly conceptual in character,
may, if constantly dwelt on, as they admittedly
are by mystics, have a natural tendency to
bring on a kind of hypnoidal state manifesting
the special characteristics of mystical experience.
But this hypothesis requires evidence in its
support, and there is none forthcoming. If it
is admitted, however, it practically concedes the
whole position. For, in fact, it attributes to
religious ideas a unique potency which is
susceptible of no other explanation than that
given by mystics.

APPENDIX II

NOTES

Page 35, line 13.— For "necessarily occurs in" read
"originates."

" I went at once to my confessor in great dis-
tress to tell him of it {sc. a vision of Christ).
He asked in what form I saw our Lord. I told
him I saw no form. He then said, " How did
you know that it was Christ ? " I replied that I
did not know how I knew it, but I could not
help knowing that He was close beside me, that
I saw Him distinctly and felt His presence."- -
Life of St. Teresa (Macmillan, 1875).

Page 93, note. — See Suvima, Suppl. xcii. i.

Page 94, note. — Compare Harphius. Myst. Theol. 4,

60. " Est modus quidam superem.inens vitae

contemplativae talis qui quamvis non claro con-

tuitu Dei essentiam intellectui demonstret, ipsum

tamen consequentes simplici puritate spiritus,

peramorosam reverentiam et claram diligentiam

in Deum elevati revelata facie in praesentia

257 R

258 NOTES

divinse majestatis devoto familiarique colloquio
ac confidentia perseverat sibi faciem ill am
amabilem ostendi flagitantis."

Page 95, note. — See Summa, 2^, 2^^, clxxv. 3, 4.

Page 191, note. — Comp. St. Teresa, Way of Per-
fection, chap. XX. " From this rich spring come
rivers : some great, some small ones, and some-
times little pools for children ; this is sufficient
for them, since they would be frightened if they
beheld a great body of water ; these are persons
who are yet only in their rudiments — In this
way the water of consolation will never be
wanting."

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

Abraham, 102

Ach, 231

Alacoque, Margaret Mary, 8$,

119, 132, 174
Albertus Magnus, 57, 97, 195
Alexander, 198
Amalric of Bena, 167
Ambrosius Camaldulensis, 194
Ammonius Saccas, 147
Angela, B., of Foligno, 75, 123,

131.

Apollinarians, 109
ApoUonius of Tyana, 154
Aquinas, St Thomas, 27, 42, 57,
70, 78, 93, 9h 97, 123, 127,
137, I95> 205, 214, 220, 223
Aristotle, 56, 205
Augustine, St, 42, 44, 97, 98

100, 127, 157, 158
Aveling, 231

Bacon, xxiv

Balthasar, 100, 102

Bardenhewer, 206

Bartholomew, St, 210

Beghards, 166 sec/.

Benedict XIV., 37, 72, 87, 113,

118
Bergson, H., 33
Bernard, St, 70, 113
Betts, 230

Bigg, 154

Biran, Maine de, 115

Blosius, 94

Boehme, J., 161, i6S se^.

Bonaventure, St, 81

Bossuet, 74, 75, 172

Bradley, 128, 139

Buddhism, 128
Biihler, 230

Caius, letters to, 224, 226

Calvin, 161

Cardan, J., xxvii

Catherine, St, of Siena, 240

Chaise, Pere la, 172

Chandler, 121

Cleanthes, 127

Clement of Alexandria, 42

Clement, St, of Rome, 196

Clement V., 167 *

Colet, Dean, 206

Corderius, 82, 91, 195, 206, 209

Darboy, 197, 200, 206

Decius, Emperor, 153

De la Combe, 172

Delacroix, 108, no, 115

Denys, St, 194

D'Estrees, 172

Devine, 190

Dionysius, Areopagite, 13, 44,

57, 82, 141, 149, ISO, 152, 158,

164, 193 seg^.

Mystical Theology, 207 s^.q.

Dionysius Carthusianus, 195
Disraeli, xvii
Dorotheus, letter to, 228
Dulac, 206

ECKHART, 79, 81. 82, 139, 143
Emmerich, Anne Catherine, 34. 85
Engelhart, 206
Eriugena, J/S., 194
Eulogiu?, 194
Eusebius, 196
Everard, John, 206

26o

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

\

Febronius, 185

Fichte, 161

Ficino, Marsilio, 195

Fox, 161

Frazer, xxii

"Friends of God," 184

Gallienus, Emperor, 167, 153
Gerson, 51, 59, 76, 77, 78
Gnosticism, 203
Gorres, 33, 115, 205
Gregory the Great, 194
Grosseteste, 194
Glinther, 109
Guyon, Madame, 171 seq.^ 175

Harnack, 53

Havphius, 257

Hartmann, 128, l6l, 169

Hegel, 139, 141, 161, 169

Hermas, 55

Hierotheus, 200

Hildegard, St, 241

Hilduin, 194

Hipler, 199

Hobbes, 185

Hugo of St Victor, 77, 81, 195

Hypatius, 193, 194

IAMBLICHUS, XXV

Ignatius, St, 55
lUingworth, 30
Imitation of Christ, i88, 189
Inge, II, 12, 26, 65, 180
Irving, 60, 161

Jacobi, 161, 169

James, 36, 72, 108, no, 112,

113, 243^^^.
Jerome, St, 196
Joachim of Fiore, 60
John, St, 203
John of the Cross, St, 20, 36, 70,

74, 75> 83, 85, 96, 97, 98, 99,

102, 113, 119, 151, 152, 165,

171, 174, 209, 214
Joseph II., 185
Julian of Norwich, 34, 85, 100,

124, 241

Kant, 144, 161

Kingsley, 247
Koch, 196

Lang, A., xxii
Law, William, 121
Leieune, 67
Lupton, 206
Luther, 161

Marcarius, 190
Maeterlinck, ii, 56
Marett, xxiii
Maher, 116
Maximus, St, 194, 197
Migne, 206
Mohammed, 60
Molinos, 119, 171, 184
Monophysites, 193
Monothelites, 194
Montanus, 161
Moore, 231
Moses, 165, 211
Munsterberg, xli

Neoplatonism, 56, 60, 127, 147,

152, 153, 154, i69> I95i 197,
201, 203, 209

Occam, 109

Pachymeres, 198

Paley, 30

Paracelsus, xxviii

Parker, 206

Paul, St, 52, 70, 94, 97, 109, 165,

199, 203, 229, xxix
Peter, St, 100, 199
Philo, II, 56, 198
Philostratus, 154
Plato, 56, 57, 60
Plotinus, 8, 10, 56, 127, 146, seq.,

161, 201, 214
Porphyry, 148, 153, 157
Poulain, 10 1
Priscilla, 60
Priscillian, 161
Proclus 8, 10, 56, 161, 196, 197

Recejac, 180

Ribet, 33

Richard of St Victor, 77, 81

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

261

Rose, St, of Lima, 240
Royce, 19

Ruysbroeck, 59, 70, 99, 132, 141,
142

St Hilaire, Barthelemy, 151,

155

Sarrazenus, John, 194

Scaramelli, 97

Schelling, 169

Schiller, F., xl

Schopenhauer, 23, 128, 161, 169

Schram, 33

Segneri, 172,

Severus, 193

Socrates, 55, 56

Spinoza, 26, 128, 139, 141

Stiglmayer, 196, 205

Storf, 206

Suarez, 190

Symonds, J. A., 249
Swedenboi^, 161, 170
Tauler, 59, 60, 80, 141, 142
Teresa, St, 34, 59, 64, 70, 74, 'l'],
83, 86, 96, 97, 99, 102, 113,
119, 131, 151, 152, 171, 174
Tennyson, Lord, 247
Theologia Germamca^ 141, 142
Thomas Vercellensis, 194
Thorold, A., 124
Timothy, St, 197, 199, 208

Valla, Lorenzo, 168, 195
Vaughan, no
Victorinus, 153
Vienne, Council of, 167
Virgil, 51

Watt, 230

-18?,5Slfr"-

3 5002 02024 341

Sharpe, Alfred Bowyer.

Mysticism ; its true nature and value

DATE DUE

JM^ki'^im

GAVUORD

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PRINTCOINUS.A

BL 625 . S53 1910

Sharpe, Alfred Bowyer.

Mysticism : its true nature
and value

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