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v^  ^' 


Practical  Aerodynamics  and  the  Theory 

of  Aeroplanes. 
Features  of  the  Earth  and  Moon. 
Maximum  of  Mira  Ceti. 


The  Late  Miss  Agnes  M.  Clerked 


A  Fish  out   of  Water. 

Basis  of  the  Will. 

The  Face  of  the  Sky  for  February. 


NOTES. — Astronomical,   Botanical,   Chemical,  Geological,   Ornithological,   Physical,    Zoological. 
PHOTOGRAPHY.         MICROSCOPY.         REVIE'WS.         &c.,  &c. 


A} 
719 


SECOND-HAND  DEPT. 


JANUARY    issue    of  CLASSIFIED 
List  of  SCIENTIFIC  INSTRUMENTS 

(45  pages) 

Copits  suit  post  fric  on  application. 


C.    BAKER, 

244.    HIGH    HOLBORN,    LONDON. 


CHEMICAL 
WEATHER 


FOR    - 


X-RAY,  &c.« 

See  the  AdvertUement  of  the  ACTUA  L 
MANUFACTURERS, 

HARRY   W.   COX,  Ltd.,  "oM"'* 


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PURE  CONCENTRATED 

you  will  never  want  to  be  without  it. 
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UK.  ANDRKW  WII.SdN,  F.R.S.K.,  iVc. 


A  simple,  cheap,  and  efficient  instru- 
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Changes  in  the  Weather. 

Post     Free,   3s.    6d., 

witli    printed    instructions. 


VW  .\   F.R.MEr.Soc.  jrW^v.1  — 

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the  change  of  weather  takes  place 
1 2-2^  hours  after  the  mdication.  making 
tills  instrument  very  valuable  to 
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in  outduor  life,  whether  for  business 
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pointment    to    H.M.    the    King.     H.R.H. 

the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  the  Govt.. 

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AWARDED  MEDALS  WHEREVER  EXHIBITED, 

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THE 


STIGMATIC  LENS, 

Series  II.     /76. 
EQUIVALENT  TO  FOUR  LENSES  AT  THE  P.'tlGE  OF  ONE. 


X>i*lo*«  «:s.     Smaller  size  «.    May  bg  obtained 

through  any  Optician  or  of  the  SOLE  MAKERS 

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OFFICES  :-27,     CHANCERY     LANE,     LONDON,    W.C. 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[Feb.,  1907. 


RADIUM   ON   HIRE. 

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Lectures  (Si  Demonstrations  Arranged  on 
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BIRKBECK     COLLEGE, 

BREAMS    HUILUINGS,    CHANCEICY     LANE,     EC. 

FACULTY      OF      SCIENCE. 

DAY    ADD    EVENINQ     COURSBB,    under    recognlned    Ttacheri    of    the 
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STEVENSON'S  ERECTING 
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February,  1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


111. 


Just  Out.     With  Portraits  and  other  Illustrations.     Large  crown  8vo.     7s.  6d.  net. 

RECENT  ADVANCES  IN  THE  STUDY  OF 
VARIATION,  HEREDITY  &  EVOLUTION. 

By    ROBERT     K.    UOCK,    IMT.A., 


FELLOW    OF    GONVILLE    AND   CAIUS    COLLEGE.    CAMBRIDGE. 


The  past  few  years  have  been  marked  by  advances  in  Biology  scarcely  less  extensive  than  those  made  by  Physical  Science  within 
the  same  period  :  and  amongst  all  the  branches  of  the  study  of  living  things  none  have  shown  greater  progress  than  that  of  the 
investigation  of  heredity  and  of  the  kindred  problems  which  bear  upon  the  great  question  of  Organic  Evolution.  Coming  at  a  most 
opportune  moment,  the  rediscovery  of  the  work  of  Mendel  has  supplied  the  key  to  problems  which  were  being  approached  by  several 
converging  lines  of  enquiry,  and  is  leading  to  a  remarkable  simplification  of  ideas  as  to  the  method  of  hereditary  transmission  of  definite 
features  in  human  beings  and  in  other  living  things.  To  designate  the  science  which  deals  with  the  problems  of  heredity  and  variation 
by  the  new  methods  now  available  the  term  Genetics  has  been  proposed.  The  object  of  the  present  book  is  to  describe  the  connection 
between  the  new  science  of  Genetics  and  those  ideas  which  have  long  been  summed  up  under  the  e.xpression  Darwinism,  as  well  as  to 
point  out  the  practical  importarce  and  theoretical  interest  of  these  subjects. 

SCIENCE  PROGRESS  IN  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY. 

A    QUARTERLY    JOURNAL    OF    SCIENTIFIC    THOUGHT. 
Edited    by    N.    H.    ALCOCK,    M.D.,    and    W.    Q.    FREEMAN,    B.Sc,    F.L.S. 
No  3.         Vol.   I.        JANUARY.         5s.  net. 
CONTENTS  :- 


[Just  Out. 


The  Economics  of  University  Education.  Sir  .\rthcr 
RiCKER.  D.Sc.  LL.D-,  F.R.S. 

Some  Recent  Developments  of  the  Electrolytic  Dissocia- 
tion Theory.     George  Senter,  Ph.D. 

The  Decadence  of  Ammonites.  Felix  Oswald,  D.Sc. 
(Lond  )     Illustrated. 

The  Rusting  of  Iron.     \V.  fi.  Davis.     Illustrated 

Some  Aspects  of  "  Double  Fertilization  "  in  Plants.  Ethel 
N.  Thomas,   D.Sc. 

Recent  Work  on  Protein=HydroIysis.  J.  Reynolds  Green-, 
Sc  D.,  F.R.S. 

A  Year's  Work  in  Vertebrate  Palaeontology.     R.  Lvdekker. 


The  Behaviour  of  Over-Strained  Materials.  .\.  O  Rankine, 

B.Sc.     Illustrated. 
The  Principles  of  Seed-Testing.     T.  Johnson.  D.Sc. 
The  Chemistry  of  Indiarubber.    Samuel  S.  Pickles,  M.Sc. 
Marcel  Nencki,  1847=1891.     S.  B.  Schryver,  D.Sc,  Ph.D. 
Recent  Advance   in   the    Study    of    Fungi.        .\.  Lorrain 

Smith,   F.L.S. 
The  Danger    of    Flies.       Arthlr  E.   Shipley,   M  .\.  D.Sc, 

(Princeton^   F.R.S. 
The   Reform  of  the  Medical    Curriculum— A   Problem   in 

Technical  Education.     Henry  E.  .•\r.mstrong. 


JOHN     MURRAY,     ALBEMARLE     STREET,     W. 


BECK'S  TELESCOPES 

^    New  .  .  . 
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sole:    makers  : 

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ACTUAL  MANUfACTURERSof  all  kinds  of  Melcorologlcal  Instruments, 

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IV. 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[February,    1907. 


■NOMV     FIEJ^.D'V- 


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IT  HAS  BHHN  SUaanSTEI)  that  many  students 
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By  CARL  OTTO  WI:Hk"r,  Ph.D. 

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Nos.  17  &  18-VITAL  CHEMISTRY  :   General. 

//  all  live  as  they  ought  bacteria  will  not  harm  us. 
//any  live  as  they  ought  not  bacteria  are  the  scourges  wherewith  we  are 
whipped. 

A.    RAMSAY, 


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V. 


V    CONTENTS,    v 


Practical   Aerodynamics    and    the    Theory    of   Aero- 
planes.    By  Major  B.   Baden-Powell    ..          ..          ..  25 

Queens  College  Horn    ..         ..         ..         ..                     ..  26 

Features  of  the    Earth   and    Moon — Volcanic   Forma- 
tions (;;//'/i   iiluslyations)           ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  27 

The  Bogoslofs  and  Earthquake  Disturbance    .  ..30 

The  Late  Miss  Agnes  M.  Gierke  [with  poidait)   ..         ..  31 

Photography  :    Pure  and  Applied.     By  Chapman  Jones, 

F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  &c 32 

Maximum  of  Mira  Ceti.     Hy  P.  M.  Ryves  (with  diagram)  33 
The  Bride-Stones — Cleveland   Hills.     By  E.  J.  Sumner, 

B.Sc.  (with  illiistialioii)           ..          ..          34 

A  Fish  Out  of  Water.      By  Fellx  Oswald,    D  Sc.    (with 

illustiations  and  diagrams)         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  35 

Basis  ofthe  Will ..  37 


Notes. — Astronomical.  By  Charles  P.  Bdtler,  A.R.C.Sc. 

(LoND.),    F.R.P.S 38 

Botanical.     By  G.  Massee  39 

Chemical.     By  C.  Ainsworth  Mitchell,  B.A.  (Oxon  ), 

F.I.C 39 

Geological.     By   Edward  A.  Martin,   F.G.S.  ..  40 

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F.R  A.S. 


By  W.  Shackleton, 


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[Entered  at      "i 
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SIXPENCE  NET. 


CONTENTS.- See  page  V. 


Pra.cticacl  AerodyrvaLmics 
And    the    Theory    of    Aeroplanes. 

Bv  Major  B.  Baden-Pow  ell. 


Introduction. 

Just  now  the  subject  of  aerial  navig-ation  has  been 
prominently  brought  before  the  public.  .'\  wide  interest 
has  been  aroused,  and  people  generally  are  beginning  to 
see  what  a  vast  future  there  is  open  to  a  machine  able 
to  traverse,  surely  and  safely,  the  realms  of  blue. 
.Although  I  am  one  of  those  who  always  prefer  fact  to 
theory,  and  though  most  of  the  important  inventions 
which  have  aided  human  progress  have  not  sprung  from 
the  mathematician's  brain,  I  quite  realise  that  a  certain 
amount  of  study  of  the  principles  underlying  any  such 
subject  is  most  necessary  to  one  who  would  add  any 
important  work  towards  the  conquest  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. 

The  air,  then,  and  the  effects  of  its  pressure  on  bodies 
moving  through  it,  demands  our  earnest  attention. 

.Air  may  seem  a  light,  subtle  fluid.  If  we  pass  our 
hand  through  it  we  notice  very  little  resistance  to  the 
motion,  and  we  mav  wonder  how  it  is  possible  to 
utilise  this  verv  vielding  medium  to  support  the  heavy 
weight  of  a  human  body  or  metal  machinery  against 
the  force  of  gravity.  From  a  mechanical  point  of 
view  it  is  just  the  same  whether  a  body  be  pushed 
against  the  air,  or  the  air  blows  against  a  stationary 
body.  Yet  we  all  know  what  air,  when  in  motion  at  a 
great  speed,  may  effect.  We  know  that  if  the  wind  be 
Jilowing  with  the  force  of  a  gale — perhaps  60  or  80 
miles  an  hour — it  is  capable  of  exerting  a  ver\'  great 
pressure,  especially  on  suitably  disprscd  surfaces.  We 
know  well  enough  that  when  out  on  a  windy  day,  an 
umbrella  held  even  with  its  convex  side  to  the  wind,  is 
sometimes  most  diflieult  to  hold,  and  that  directly  it  is 
turned  so  as  to  present  a  concave  surface  it  is  immedi- 
ately blown  inside  out,  or  if  made  strong  enough  to 
resist  this  action,  would  pull  with  such  force  as  to  be 
almost  impossible  to  hold.  This  enables  one  to  realise 
what  mav  he  effected  bv  making  an  ajiparatus  to  travel 
very  rapidiv  through  the  air. 

It  seems  probable  th:it  an  ordinary  umbrella  (suitably 
strengthened)  held  so  as  to  let  a  very  strong  wind  strike 
underneath  it,  would  pull  so  hard  as  to  be  almost 
capable  of  lifting  a  man  off  his  legs,  momentarily,  at 
least.  This  fact  hardly  seems  extraordinary,  yet  if  we 
imagine  a  flying  apparatus  only  ns  big  as  an  umbrella 
progressing  at  40  or  50  miles  an  hour  through  the  air, 
it  would  surprise  most  of  us  to  think  that  it  was  capable 
of  raising  a  man. 

This  enables  one  to  realise  that  if  only  we  can  get 
the  pmi'cr,  propcrlv  applied,  n  vcrv  small  ajiparatus 
may  be  sufficient  for  our  ]nirposc — and,  if  a  very  large 


aeroplane  be  used,  what  great  lifting  power  is  to  be 
derived  from  it. 

This  subject,  though  likely,  as  already  intimated,  to 
become  one  of  very  great  importance,  yet  is  one  that 
has  received  but  comparatively  little  attention  among 
scientific  experimentalists. 

Langley,  in  the  introduction  to  his  book,  "  Experi- 
ments in  Aerodynamics,"  published  in  i8gi,  says  :  "  In 
this  untrodden  field  of  research  '.  .  .  I  think  it  safe 
to  say  that  we  are  still,  at  the  time  this  is  written,  in  a 
relatively  less  advanced  condition  than  the  study  of 
steam  was  before  the  time  of  Xewcomen." 

Xo  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  exists.  .All  the 
information  that  is  available  has  to  be  extracted  from 
works  dealing  with  aeronautics  (mostly  historical), 
hydrostatics,  and  pneumatics,  and  from  the  various 
technical  papers  which  have  been  compiled  on  certain 
definite  branches  and  on  results  of  particular  series  of 
experiments.  The  following  is  a  general  review  of  the 
whole  subject  gathered  from  these  sources.  It  does 
not  pretend  to  be  complete  or  exhaustive,  but  it  is 
hoped  that  it  may  be  of  assistance  to  those  anxious  to 
get  an  idea  of  the  science,  and  who  are  unable  to  wade 
through  the  various  sources  of  information  enumerated. 

I  propose  treating  of  the  subject  in  the  following 
order.  It  will  be  necessary  first  to  brieflv  refer  to  the 
theory  of  the  balloon,  and  ascent  by  reaction  of  a  fluid, 
and  then  to  get  on  to  the  main  subject  of  aeroplanes 
and  apparatus  working  on   kindred  principles. 

This  latter  subject  must  again  be  subdivided  into  air 
pressures  acting  perpendicularly  on  a  plane  surface, 
air  pressures  on  inclined  plane  surfaces,  the  effect  on 
the  back  of  such  planes,  and  pressures  on  curved  sur- 
faces moving  through  the  air. 

Finally,  to  consider  the  combined  effects  on  various 
shaped  bodies  in  practice,  the  flight  of  birds,  and  the 
theoretical  action  of  aerial  screw  propellers. 

In  considering  the  different  methods  possible  for  the 
attainment  of  artificial  flight — which  is  practicallv 
synonymous  with  means  of  overcoming  the  force  of 
gravity — there  are  three  principles  to  be  taken  into 
account : — 

(i)  Displacement.  —  By  displacing  a  bulk  of  air  bv  a 
body  of  less  total  weight  than  that  air.  Under  this 
head  would  be  included  hot-air  balloons,  gas  balloons, 
and  the  theoretical,  if  impracticable,  vacuum  balloon. 

(2)  Dcnvmcard  Reaction.  —  By  the  reaction  of  a  fluid 
driven  forcibly  downwards.  Such  is  the  principle  of 
the  rocket. 

(3)  Sub-Pressure.  —  Deriving  support  from  the  pressure 
of  the  air  on  the  under  surface  of  a  body  driven  through 
it.  This  would  include  not  only  what  is  understood  bv 
the  term  ".Aeroplane,"  but  also  revolving  aeroplanes 
or  lifting  screws,  and  wings  and  paddles  striking  the 
air  downwards.  I'nder  this  heading,  too,  must  come 
the  wind-borne  soaring  birds  and  thistledown. 

.As  regards  the  first  of  these  methods  wo  need  but 
briefly  go  into  it,  since  the  subject  of  ballooning  is 
rather  beyond  our  present  scope. 


26 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[February,  ii/O?- 


If  a  t;i\'fii  voliinu'  of  :iir  \n-  (lisplact'd  and  tin-  space 
filled  by  a  vessel  iiillated  with  some  suljstanee  lijihter 
than  air,  such  as  Iiydroijen,  coal  gfas,  steam,  or  air 
rendered  less  dense  by  beins^  heated,  then,  if  tlic  con- 
taining vessel  is  not  too  heavy  the  whole  will  rise  in 
tlie  air.  This  is  in  obidii'nce  to  well-Unowii  laws.  '1  he 
heavier  particles  of  air  will  slip  under  the  lii^hter  Ixuly 
and  buov  it  up,  just  as  water  when  poured  into  a  basin 
would  slip  under  and  buoy  up  a  cork  lyini;  in  the  basin. 
That  air  has  definite  weight  can  easily  be  proved  by 
carefully  wei.y:hint,'-  a  bottle  which  has  been  exhausted  of 
air,  and  weii;hintr  it  a.ij'ain  when  air  is  admitted  to  it. 
In  this  way  air  is  found  to  weifrh  .075  lb.  per  cubic 
foot,  or  1,000  cubic  feet  will  wcis:h  75  lbs. 

Hydrogen  gas  can  l>c  weighed  in  the  same  manner, 
and  i.s  found  to  be  .005  lb.  per  cubic  foot,  or  5  lbs.  for 
1. 000  cubic  feet.  Coal  gas  varies,  but  may  average 
about  35  to  .JO  lbs.  per  1,000  cubic  feet.  Steam,  which 
has  actually  been  applied  to  ballooning,  varies  accord- 
ing to  its  temperature*.  .As  regards  heated  air,  what  is 
known  as  Ch.irles's  law  shows  that  a  given  volume, 
under  constant  pressure,  increases  with  temperature 
.00367  times  its  bulk  per  degree  Centigrade,  or  .002 
Mtt)  pei"  degree  Fahrenheit.  If,  then,  the  air  in  a 
balloon  can  be  raised  by  loo"  F.,  one-fifth  of  its  weight 
will  be  exj>elled;  that  is,  each  cubic  foot  will  then  weigh 
f  of  .075,  or  .06  lb.,  or  1,000  cubic  feet  will  weigh  60 
lbs.  instead  of  75. 

The.se  principles  are  often  overlooked  by  unscientific 
inventors,  who  sugg-est  adding  a  small  balloon  to  aid 
in  lifting  their  apparatus,  or  who  anticipate  a  hope  of 
finding  a  gas  lighter  than  hydrogen. 

One  F.  Lana,  in  1670,  was  probably  the  first  to 
suggest  the  idea  of  a  machine  on  this  principle,  but  his 
suggestion  was  to  exhaust  the  air  from  large  copper 
globes,  ignoring  the  practical  fact  that  the  pres.sure  of 
the  atmosphere  would  crush  in  any  such  vessel  as  soon 
as  a  very  small  quantity  of  air  had  been  extracted  from 
it. 

The  second  methcwl,  though  interesting  as  a  specula- 
tive suggestion,  seems  hardly  likely  to  prove  of  prac- 
tical utility,   for  a  man-carrying  machine. 

Rocket.s  are  wcW  known.  They  are  practically  useful 
for  many  special  purposes,  but  are  extremely  wasteful 
of  fuel,  and,  therefore,  short-lived.  Steam  jets  striking 
downwards  have  been   suggested. 

Mr.  H.  Wilde,  F.R.S.,  conducted  a  number  of  ex- 
periments at  one  time*  in  order  to  ascertain  what  force 
could  be  practically  applied  with  this  idea.  He  tried 
high  pressure  steam  and  compressed  air  through  orifices 
of  manv  various  forms,  also  explosions  of  gas  mixed 
with  air  and  ignited  by  electric  sparks  He,  however, 
sums  up  the  whole  matter  by  saying  :  "  The  results  of 
all  these  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  elastic  fluids, 
made  with  a  view  to  the  possibilities  of  aerial  loco- 
motion, were  purely  negative,  and  proved  decisiyely 
that  the  solution  of  the  problem  was  not  to  be  found  in 
that  direction."  It  occurs  to  me,  though  1  have  not 
actually  tried  the  experiment,  that  liquid  air  might  be 
used  in  this  connection.  A  vessel  of  liquid  air  in 
ordinary  atmospheric  circumstances  is  practically 
equivalent  to  a  vessel  of  water  placed  in  the  middle  of 
a  furnace.  The  liquid  air  in  the  one  case  and  the 
water  in  the  other  are  boiling  hard  and  rapidly 
evaporating  into  air  or  steam  respectively.  So  that  by 
employing  this  method  we  practically  have  a  steam 
boiler  exposed  to  a  comparatively  very  high  temperature 
(that   is  the   difference   between   that  of  the  liquid   and 

*  "  On  Animal  Locomotion."  by  Henry  Wilde,  F.R.S.  Vol. 
xliv.  No.  II.  of  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Manchester  Literarj'  and 
Philosophical  Society."     1900. 


that  of  the  surroimding  atmosphere),  yet  without  any 
fuel  or  apparatus  for  binning  fuel.  .\  great  pressure 
may  thus  be  obtained  with  but  little  weight,  and  it 
could,  therefore,  be  made  to  a.sccnd.  It  is  true  that 
this  action  may  be  very  wasteful  and  would  not  last 
long.  Still,  as  an  experiment,  it  might  be  interesting 
to  see  a  vessel  rise  in  the  air  by  this  novel  means. 

It  may  be  added  th:it  though  a  continuous  stream 
issuing  from  a  jet  may,  theoretically,  be  wasteful  of 
power,  it  would  probably  not  Ik-  dillicult  to  make  the 
jet  intermittent,  or,  by  progressing  rajiidly  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction,  to  cause  it  to  act  continu.illy  on  fresh 
air. 

The  third  principle,  which  promises  the  most  practi- 
cal results,  and  is  a  much  larger  subject,  wc  must  leave 
for  a  future  article. 

(7V)  he  colli hiucd.) 


Qvieei\'s   College  Horn. 


In  the  Buttery  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  is  preserved 
one  of  the  city's  greatest  curiosities.  It  is  an  old 
drinking  cup  presented  to  the  College  by  Philipjia, 
Consort  to  Edward  III.,  more  than  five  hundred  years 
ago,  from  whom  it  took  its  name.  In  shape  it  re- 
sembles a  horn;  it  is  made  of  polished  horn,  brown  in 
colour,  and  richly  decorated  in  silver-gilt.  It  is  one 
foot  eight  inches  high,  and  the  outer  curve  from   the 


SUetcUfil  hi/Rtiiry  K.  Crapper,  Qufcn's  CoUcga  Lodge. 
Horn  in  the  Buttery,  Queen's  College,  Oxford. 

extreme  points  is  forty-one  inches.  It  will  hold  two 
quarts. 

On  the  lid  is  a  silver  eagle  of  curious  workmanship, 
and  the  whole  is  supported  by  eagles'  claws. 

An  eagle  was  the  crest  of  the  founder  of  the  College, 
■vobert  de  Eglesfeld,  Confessor  to  Oueen  Philippa. 
This  cup  is  still  used  on  "  Gaudy  "  day,  and  is  handed 
round  after  dinner.  The  contents  consist  of 
"  Chancellor,"  a  strong  beer  brewed  bv  the  College — 
sherry  and  brandy  flavoured  with  pine-apple. 


February,   1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


27 


Fea^tvires  of  the  CoLrth 
8Lnd  Moon.. 

Volca-rvic    FormaLtions. 


that  matter  expelled  from  a  crater  vent  could  be  thrown 
very  much  farther  or  very  much  wider  than  is  the  case  on 
this  planet.     But,  says  Professor  Pickering,  we  are  really 


Some  fascinating  speculations  on  the  formation  of  the 
Earth's  crust  emerge  from  the  publication  among  the 
Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Professor  W.  H. 
Pickering's  "  Lunar  and  Hawaiian  Physical  Features." 
The  physical  features  of  the  island  of  Hawaii  which  Pro- 
fessor Pickering  has  photographed  and  investigated  are 
its  huge  craters  and  lava  plains  and  lakes ;  and  he  has 
noted  a  similarity  m  their  formation  and  contours  with 
the  very  much  larger  craters  of  the  Moon.  The  Earth 
and  the  Moon  being  supposed  to  have  a  common  origin, 
and  tj  have  once  been  part  of  the  same  mass,  it  would 
appear  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  their  exterior 
features  would  bear  some  resemblance.  But  as  Professor 
Pickering  observes  "  the  lunar  surface  presents  such  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  more  thickly  populated  portions  of 
the  Earth  that  little  resemblance  between  them  can  be 
traced.  Even  those  of  our  volcanic  regions  which  have 
been  most  extensively  studied  show  little  analogy  to  the 
Moon." 

The  only  Earth  cra'ers  which  bear  a  colourable  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  Moon  are  the  craters  of  Hawaii, 
with  which  Professor  Pickering  in  the  work  before  us 
compares  them ;  and  from  a  consideration  of  the 
Hawaiian  craters  his  theory  of  the  reason  for  the  differ- 
ence between  lunar  and  terrestrial  formations,  is  chiefly 
drawn.  The  enormous  discrepancy  in  size  between 
the  craters  of  the  Moon  and  those  of  the  Earth  is  some- 
times attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  force  of  gravitation 
at  the  surface  of  the  Moon  is  but  one-sixth  as  great  as  it 
is  on  the  Earth.  But  this  theory  will  not  do ;  although 
if  the  lunar  craters  had  been  due  to  explosions  of  steam, 
as  the  Earth's  explosive  volcanoes  are,  one  may  grant 


Pjg.  2.— Kies  and  Mercator. 

trying  to  compare  objects  formed  under 
conditions.  "  The  larger  craters  on  the 
existence  when  the  thin  solid  crust  cov 
interior  was,  owing  to  the  solidification 


HiK.   1.      Interiur  ul   Itulcnkald. 


entirely  difTerent 
Moon  came  into 
ering  the  molten 
and  contraction 
of  the  crust,  much 
too  small  to  con- 
tain the  liquid 
material.  The 
craters  we  re 
therefore  formed 
by  the  lava  burst- 
ing through  the 
crust,  and  so  re- 
lieving the  press- 
ure." In  other 
words  they  were 
overflow  erup- 
tions. 

Then,  at  a  se- 
cond period  in  the 
Moon's  history, 
another  form  of 
crater,  or  rather 
another  form  of 
volcaniceruption, 
came  into  play. 
Tiie  crust  of  the 
Mixin  had  thick- 
ened ;  and  the  in- 
terior regions,  by 
cooling,  shrank 
away  from  the 
solid  shell,  as  a 
drying  walnut 
does.     The  solid 


28 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[February,    1907. 


shell,  being  insufficiently  supported,  caved  in  liere 
and  there,  permitting  the  great  fissure  eruptions  which 
produced  those  great  tracts  which  we  call  the  lunar  seas. 
These  extensive  outilows  ol  la\a  dissolved  the  original 


Fi^.  3,~Bullialdus. 

solid  shell  whenever  they  came  into  contact,  obliterating 
its  features.  The  same  obliteration  of  smaller  craters  (on 
a  much  reduced  scale)  can  be  perceived  in  Hawaii.  In 
all  probability  the  same  thing,  Professor  Pickering  sug- 


¥t' 


\y^- 


gests,  tODk  place  on  our  own  Earth  on  a  larger  scale 
instead  of  on  a  small  one.  The  inner  core  of  the  Earth 
shrank  still  more  from  the  cooling  and  hardening  outer 
crust ;  the  resulting  cataclysms  were  still  greater  and 
more  destructive;  and  through  great  fissures  there  were 
enormous  outllows  of  lava  and  molten  rock,  now  recog- 
nised as  "archaic  rocks,"  which  conipleteiy  dissolved  and 
destroyed  the  gigantic  blister  craters  which  once  studded 
our  globe. 

The  volcanoes  of  Southern  l£urope,  which  are  those 
most  completely  studied,  have  little  in  common  with  those 
of  the  Moon.  In  the  case  of  the  volcano  of  Vesuvius,  for 
example,  a  high  truncated  cone  has  been  built  up  by 
mild  eruptions  of  steam  and  cinders,  sometimes  alternat- 
ing with  lava.  At  long  intervals  violent  explosions 
occur,  which  sometimes  blow  away  a  large  portion  of 
the  summit.  Such  an  explosion  occurred  when  Pompeii 
was  overwhelmed,  and  it  was  repeated  on  a  minor  scale 
last  year.  The  most  violent  explosion  of  the  kind  of 
which  we  have  any  record  was  that  which  occurred  not 
at  \'esuvius  but  at  Krakatoain  1883.  Nothing  whatever 
of  that  kind  is  perceptible  among  the  discoverable  craters 
of  the  Moon.  In  volcanoes  of  the  engulfment  type,  as 
opposed  to  the  explosive  type,  comparatively  little  steam 
is  evolved  ;  often  there  is  no  exterior  cone,  and  the  craters 
enlarge  quietly  by  the  cracking  off,  and  falling  in  of  their 
walls.  This  species  of  crater  is  to  be  found  in  Hawaii, 
though  the  Hawaiian  structures  are  on  a  comparatively 
small  scale,  the  largest  of  them  being  one-hundredth  the 
diameter  of  a  lunar  crater. 

On  the  great  seas  or  vuiyia  of  the  Moon,  secondary 
engulfment  craters  were  formed  ;  and  of  these  Pessel, 
which  is  about  twelve  miles  in  diameter,  is  a  large  and 
well-known  example.  There  are  no  great  craters  of  that 
size  on  the  Earth  to  compare  with  it ;  all  the  Earth's 
largest  craters  being  of  the  explosive  type.'''  At 
Hawaii,  with  the  exception  of  the  three  great  craters  of 
Haleakala,  Mokuaweoweo,  and  Kilauea,  few  of  the  crater 
pits  exceed  half  a-mile  in  diameter ;  but  it  is  possible  to 
compare  these  with  those  of  the  Moon,  in  spite  of  the 

discrepancy 
of  size.  On 
the  Earth  at 
present,  the 
cooling  pro- 
cessas  wit- 
nessed at 
Hawaii  al- 
ways inter- 
venes before 
great  size 
IS  attained. 
Formerly, 
the  lava  was 
hotter  when 
it  issued 
from  the  in- 
terior; more- 
over,   the 


Fij;.  4.  — Kauhaku,  Molokai. 


*  The  three 
greatest  cra- 
ters on  the 
liarth,  about 
fifteen  miles 
in  diameter, 
occur  in  Kam- 
ch  a  tka,  in 
Japan,  and  in 
t  lie  I'h  i  lip- 
pines.  All  are 
Lf  ihe  explo- 
sive type. 


February,    1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


29 


solid  crust  resting  on  the  liquid  mass  was  thinner,  so  that 
the  channel  communicating  with  the  three  reservoirs   of 


Fig.   5.  — Lava  Lake  in  Kilauea 


molten  lava  was  shorter  and  wider,  thus  offering  a  freer 
passage  to  the  liquid  flow. 

Professor 
Pickering  di- 
vides terrestrial 
craters  into 
three  classes, 
according  to  the 
materials  of 
which  they  are 
composed. 

(i.)  Tufa  cones 
of  hardened  vol- 
canic mud. 

(ii.)  Cinder 

cones. 

(iii.)  Lava 

craters. 

It  is  this  third 
class  where 
steam  or  water 
is  less  involved 
in  the  process 
of  eruption 
which  most 
resembles  what 
we  find  on  the 
Moon. 

This  class  may 
be  again  divided 
into  four  sub- 
classes accord- 
ing to  the  shape 
of  the  craters— 
(f)  lava  rings,  and  (d)  lava  bowls.     Taking  the  first  of 


them  (a),  the  lava  cones,  these  often  emit  vast  volumes 
of  lava  which  may  extend  for  miles  in  broad  streams. 

The  second 
sub-class  (6), the 
lava  pits,  are  by 
far  the  most 
numerousgroup 
and  are  widely 
distributed 
through  the 
Hawaiian  Is- 
lands. They 
have  no  outer 
slopes  what- 
ever, consisting 
simply  of  a  pit 
sunk  in  the 
ground.  Their 
inner  walls  are 
sometimes  ver- 
tical, sometimes 
inclined,  and 
descending  with 
a  steep  slope  to 
a  flat  floor. 

The  lava 
rings  (f )  are  the 
rarest  type  in 
Hawaii,  and 
resemble  the 
larger  craters 
found  on  the 
Moon. 

The  lava 
bowls  (d)  differ  from'them  in  that^the  bottom,  instead  of 
presenting  a  well-defined,  flattened  floor,  is  concave,  the 


Pig.   6.     Lava  Lake  in  kilauea. 


namely,    (a)  lava  cones,   (b)    lava  pits. 


curvature  being  continuous  with  the  walls.  They  are  iden- 
tical in  appearance  with  most  of  the  smaller  lunar  craters. 


30 


KNOWLEDGE    cS:    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[Fedruaky,   1907 


With  these  preliminary  remarks  we  may  introduce 
some  of  Professor  Pickering's  photofjraphs  of  Hawaiian 
volcanoes.  Mud  volcanoes  and  cinder  volcanoes  are  repre- 
sented in  Hawaii.  Tlie  Diamond  1  lead  crater  isof  volcanic 
tufa,  and  bears  an  exterior  resemblance  to  the  craters  of 
the  Moon ;  but  its  floor  is  at  a  higher  level  than  the 
exterior  plane  and  its  outer  slope  steeper  than  its  inner 
one,  so  that  this  crater,  toj;ether  with  all  the  cinder 
cones,  may  be  dismissed  as  having  no  known  counter- 
part on  the  Moon. 

The  Hawaiian  lava  craters,  however,  on  the  other 
hand,  present  a  close  resemblance  in  many  respfctsto 
lunar  formations.  The  first  subdivision  (a),  the  lava  cones, 
are  most  strikingly  represented  by  Mauna  Loa,  by  far 
the  world's  largest  volcano.  Us  base  lies  15,000  feet 
below  the  level  of  the   sea.      Nevertheless,  its  summit 


Fig.  7.— Scblckard  and  Pbocylidcs. 

crater  is  so  large  compared  to  its  depth  that  photography 
could  not  very  well  show  its  characteristic  features,  and 
accordingly  Professor  Pickering  chose  a  smaller  example, 
a  small  lava  cone  in  Haleakala  as  the  typical  example  of 
this  form  of  crater. 

The  terrestrial  tall  volcanic  cone,  with  the  compara- 
tively minute  crater  at  the  top,  was  supposed  to  be 
absent  from  the  Moon.  But  a  recent  examination  of  a 
lunar  photograph  taken  at  the  Yerkes  Observatory  by 
Professor  Ritchey  shows  that  there  are  some  small 
examples.  One  of  these  is  probably  visible  in  fig.  3, 
which  is  a  lunar  photograph  of  Kies  and  Mercator. 
Between  them  is  to  be  seen  a  small  cone  with  a  minute 
crater  at  its  summit.  It  is  not  unlike  Vesuvius  in  size 
and  shape. 

We  next  come  to  lava  pits  (b).  In  the  lunar  photo- 
graph of  Bullialdus  is  a  pair  of  coneless  lava  pits,  just 
above  the  huge  crater.  A  few  other  very  minute  pits 
are  shown  on  the  photograph,  but  all  the  larger  ones 
have  cones. 

In  Fig.  4  we  have"  a  small  terrestr^il  pit  of  this  type- 


It  is  known  as  Kauhaku ;   and   has   no   exterior    cone 
whatever;  it  is  simply  a  hole  in  the  ground. 

Great  attention  was  bestowed  by  Professor  Pickering 
on  the  method  of  formation  of  crater  rings,  the  third  sub- 
division of  lava  craters  ;  and  he  experimented  with  iron 
slag  to  obtain  object  lessons  of  the  methods  of  formation 
of  craters.  But  the  great  central  pit  of  Kihuiea,  Hale- 
maumau,  supplies  object  lessons  on  a  larger  scale.  When 
Ilalemaumau  is  really  active,  the  sight  is  said  to  be  grand 
beyond  description.  Lakes  of  liquid  lava  occur  both 
within  and  without  it.  Numerous  lire  fountains  from 
10  to  50  feet  in  height  play  over  the  surface  of  these  lakes. 
At  times  the  surface  solidifies,  then  suddenly  a  crack  will 
run  across  it,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  who'e  solid 
material  will  break  up  into  separate  cakes,  which  will 
presently  turn  on  edge  and  sink  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  lake.  These  lakes  are  specially  interesting,  since 
about  them  are  found  crater  rings  which  seem  1 1  be 
analogous  in  appearance  to  the  larger  cratir  formations 
in  the  Moon. 

In  itS,  o  the  pit  overflowed,  the  lava  pouring  down  and 
filling  a  neighbouring  dejiression.  At  the  time  of  an 
eruption  such  as  this  the  lava  rises,  overflows,  and  cools, 
thus  forming  a  raised  rim  or  circular  dam.  Such  a  rim 
is  shown  on  a  large  scale  in  figs.  5  and  6,  the  cakes  of 
lava  appearing  like  broken  cakes  of  ice.  In  fig.  7  is 
shown  a  portion  of  the  Moon  near  the  limb  so  as  to  present 
the  craters  obliquely.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  two  large 
craters  there  depicted,  namely,  Schickard  and  Phocylides, 
both  present  a  form  similar  to  the  craters  of  Halemau- 
mau.  The  chief  one,  Schickard,  measures  134  miles  in 
diameter. 

(To  be  continued.) 


The  Bogoslofs  and  Earthquake 
Distvirba.nce. 


Mr.  V.  A.  Black  writes  in  regard  to  the  article  in  last 
month's  "  Knowledge  "  on  the  Bogoslof  Islands  : — 
Whether  there  is  any  direct  connection  between  the 
birth  of  this  island  and  the  recent  severe  earthquakes  at 
San  Francisco  and  Valparaiso — not  to  mention  the 
activity  of  Vesuvius  in  our  own  continent — can  only  be 
conjectured.  The  new-  island  would  seem  to  be  about 
3,500  miles  from  Valparaiso,  and  about  1,500  miles 
from  .San  Francisco.  It  certainly  cannot  be  overlooked 
that  the  emergence  of  this  island  synchronizes  with  the 
occurrence  of  severe  earthquakes  on  the  eastern  shores 
of  the  Pacific,  thoug"h  at  a  g^reat  distance  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  island,  just  as  the  sudden  appearance  of 
firevwingk  synchronized  with  the  occurrence  of  earth- 
tremors  and  eruptions  in  Alaska,  and  with  the  terrible 
eruption  in  Krakatoa.  Krakatoa  is  situated  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  south-western  shore  of  the  Pacific, 
and,  like  San  Francisco  and  \'alparaiso,  it  is  at  a  very 
great  distance  from  the  position  of  the  Bog-oslof  Islands. 
Whether  the  emergence  of  the  first  of  the  three  islands 
also  synchronized  with  similar  phenomena  is  uncertain. 
The  appearance  of  this  new  island  emphasises  what 
we  are  often  apt  to  overlook,  notwithstanding  our 
knowledge  of  the  volcanoes  and  geysers  of  Iceland,  at 
the  Arctic  Circle,  and  of  the  activity  of  Mount  Erebus, 
far  within  the  Antarctic  Circle.  That  is,  that  in  high 
latitudes,  as  in  low  latitdues,  subterranean  forces  are 
still  actively  at  work,  and  that  terrestrial  disturbance, 
in  the  form  of  earthquake  or  volcano,  in  one  reg^ion 
mny,  not  improbably,  be  accompanied  by  sympathetic 


February,   1Q07.] 


KNOWLEDGE    Sc    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


31 


activity  in  other  reg-ions,  especially  in  regions  of 
volcanic  origin  or  geological  weakness.  It  is  an  ascer- 
tained fact  that  the  vast  hollow  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is 
encircled  in  all  latitudes  by  a  ring-  of  volcanic  foci, 
whether  active  or  dormant. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  situation  of  the 
.Meutian  Islands,  is,  in  certain  respects,  very  similar  to 
the  situation  of  the  British  Islands,  so  that  geographi- 
cally, they  represent  our  islands  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  latitude  of  Bogoslof 
proper  is  about  54°  N.,  which  is  about  the  latitude  of 
York.  Assuming-,  as  is  indicated  by  the  information 
received,  that  the  new  island  is  about  120  miles  farther 
north,  its  latitude  will  be  rather  less  than  56°  N.  This 
is  virtually  the  latitude  of  Edinburgh,  the  latitude  of 
the  summi't  of  the  Calton  Hill  being  5.^°  57'  23"  N.  In 
longitude  the  .iMeutian  Islands  extend  a  great  distance 
both  east  and  west  of  the  i8oth  meridian.  That 
meridian,  as  every  schoolboy  knows,  is  simply  an  ex- 
tension of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  the  Greenwich 
meridian  and  the  iSoth  meridian  forming  together  one 
great  circle  around  the  earth  passing  through  both 
Poles. 

The  Bogoslof  Islands  themselves  are,  however,  some- 
what to  the  east  of  the  180th  meridian,  their  longitude 
being-  about  168°  W. 

The  correspondence  in  the  latitude  and  the  similarity 
in  the  longitude  of  the  British  Islands  and  the  Aleutian 
Islands  are  rendered  the  more  noticeable  in  view  of  the 
relative  position  of  each  group  of  islands  to  the  great 
continents.  The  British  Islands,  including  the  neigh- 
bouring small  islands,  form  (as  regards  longitude)  an 
archipelago  lying  between  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
the  continent  of  Xorth  ."Xmerica;  while  the  Aleutian 
Islands  form  an  archipelago  lying  between  the  continent 
of  North  .America  and  the  continent  of  Asia.  The 
British  Islands,  however,  are  a  consolidated  group, 
while  the  .Meutian  Islands  are  a  fragmentary  chain. 
The  British  Islands  extend  chiefly  northward  and  south- 
ward, while  the  Aleutian  Islands  extend  eastward  and 
westward.  The  total  area  of  the  .Aleutian  Islands  is 
estimated  at  about  6,391  square  miles,  while  the  United 
Kingdom  has  an  area  of  120,677  square  miles.  Of 
course,  the  area  of  each  of  the  three  islands  forming 
the  Bog-oslof  group  is  quite  trifling,  probably  not  more 
than  two  or  three  square  miles,  if  so  much. 

The  resemblance  which  the  geog-raphical  position  of 
this  insig-nificant  archipelago  bears  to  the  geographical 
position  of  our  own  country  bring-s  into  more  striking 
contrast  the  tremendous  difference  which,  in  almost 
every  other  respect,  exists  between  the  British  Islands 
and  the  .'\leutian  Islands.  Although  the  latitude  of 
the  Aleutian  Islands  is  similar  to  our  own,  the  climate 
is  very  different,  being  more  like  that  of  Iceland  than 
that  of  Great  Britain.  The  mean  temperature  in  Una- 
laska  is  38.3°  P.,  and,  as  is  usual  in  the  case  of  small 
islands  some  distance  away  from  any  large  extent  of 
land,  the  range  of  the  temperature  is  not  excessive. 
In  the  British  Islands  the  soil  generally  is  good,  and  it 
is  highly  cultivated;  in  the  .'\leutian  Islands  the  land 
generally  is  rocky  and  barren,  and  fishing-  and  sealing 
are  almost  the  sole  industries.  In  this  country  the 
population  is  dense,  and  the  people  arc  advanced  in 
civilisation;  there  the  population  is  scanty,  and  the 
pt'ojile  are  but  partially  cixilised.  The  crow-ning  feature 
of  the  strange  contrast  is  supplied  by  Nature  herself. 
The  complement  of  the  British  Islands,  from  a  geo- 
logical point  of  view,  was  made  up  untold  centuries 
;igo;  while  the  .'\leutian  Islands  are  still  on  the  increase, 
having-  grown  by  three  since  the  time  of  the  French 
Re\'ohition,  b\-  two  since  the  battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir. 


The   La.te   Miss   Agnes   M.  Gierke. 

With  the  deepest  regret  we  have  to  announce  the  death 
of  Miss  .Agnes  Mary  Gierke,  which  took  place  on  Sun- 
day, January  20.  Miss  Gierke  was  sixty-four  years  of 
age. 

In  the  columns  of  "  Kxowledge,"  to  which  Miss 
Gierke  was  so  often  an  inspired  contributor,  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  speak  of  her  commanding:  gifts  as  an  ex- 
positor of  science;  it  is  hardly  more  necessary,  in  ad- 
dressing an  audience  which  embraces  so  many  astro- 
nomical readers,  to  refer  to  her  position  in  the 
astronomical  world.  It  was  said  by  an  appreciative 
critic  of  her  work,  in  one  of  the  obituary  notices  that 
have  already  been  written  concerning  her,  that  she  was 
not  a  practical  astronomer  in  the  ordinary  sense.  That 
is  quite  true;  and  it  is  probably  also  true  that  the  ab- 
sence of  the  hard,  grinding,  day-by-day  study  of  details 
whi"h   are  an    indispcn'-'ililc    part    of   the  equipment  of 


rUiiUiijTajih  bij  Elliot  tt  Fry. 
The  Late  Miss  Agnes  M.  Gierke. 
(Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  '^  Daily  Graphic.*') 

those  who  laboriously  disclose  the  truths  of  science  may 
detract  from  the  lasting  value  of  some  of  her  work. 
But  these  qualities,  the  absence  of  which  mars  the  man 
of  science,  may  make  the  philosopher;  and,  as  the  hand- 
maiden of  astronomy,  as  one  who  held  a  lamp  aloft 
that  others  might  examine  its  discoveries  and  its 
theories,  Miss  Gierke,  in  our  belief,  stands  unrivalled 
in  her  day.  We  may  enumerate  some  of  her  works  to 
show  the  solidity  of  what  she  did  :— "  Problem.s  in 
Astrophysics,"  "A  History  of  .Astronomy  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,"  "The  .System  of  the  Stars, Fhe 

Herschels  and  Modern  .Astronomy,"  "  Modern  Cos- 
mogonies "  (which  appeared  in  "'Knowledge"),  and 
unnumbered  articles,  essays,  and  reviews.  But  the 
enumeration  conveys  little  idea  of  the  work  that  she  did; 
for  she  brought  to  bear  on  the  systematisation  of  such 
subjects  as  therein  are  indicated  an  unrivalled  power  of 
interpretation.  We  gnitefully  acknowledge  the  justice 
of  the  appreciation  iii  the  Times:—"  No  worker  in  the 
vast  field  of  modern  sidereal  astronomy  opened  by  the 
genius  of  Herschel  and  greatly  widened  liy  the  apjilica- 
tion  of  the  spectroscope  to  the  chemical   and  physical 


32 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


[pEnRUARY,    1907. 


prohlcms  of  llii'  univtTSc  l:irki-il  ihic  rccoijiiilioTi  by  Miss 
Ck-rku,  who  ])(Mri>rnu'ci  as  it  srcnu'ii  no  oIIut  wiiti-r 
coiiki  li;i\L'  (ii)iu'  the  work  ol  colhition  and  intirpri'la- 
tion  1)1  this  I'lioniKuis  mass  of  now  material,  t-viT  point- 
iiij;'  the  wav  to  new  liokls  of  invcstit;atioii,  oltcn  hy 
one  preynanl  siiijt^cstion  swoipini^'  asiik'  a  w  hok'  slu'af 
of  tentative  conjeetiires  and  indiratiiit;,  if  not  llie  true 
line — for  in  many  eases  the  truth  is  yet  to  seek — at 
least  a  plausible  and  seientilie  line  well  worth  pur- 
.'Uiini;'. "  There  is  one  other  point  on  whieh  we  should 
like  to  dwell.  No  writer  of  her  time  had  a  juster  sense 
of  style.  In  a  nation  which  consumes  lietion  as  its 
staple  liter;irv  food,  the  quality  of  literary  style  when 
apparent  in  other  kinds  of  literature  is  likelv  ti>  be 
o\erlo!)ked.  lUil  Miss  Clerke  ]5ossessed  it  in  the 
hitjhest  desjree.  There  is  a  passaiifc  in  one  of  the  eha]i- 
ters  of  .Modern  Cosmogonies,  "'The  Inevitable  lather," 
whieh  h.is  always  seemed  to  us  a  model  of  style,  eleijant 
without  alTi'rtation,  fastidious  without  sacriliee  of  mean- 
ini;,  iiunitablv  riijht  in  its  ehoioe  of  words.  W'e  quote 
it  :  — 

"To  the  very  brinl<  of  that  mysterious  oce;m  the 
science  of  the  twentieth  ccnturv  has  hroui;ht  us;  and  it 
is  with  a  thrill  of  wondering'  awe  that  we  stand  at  its 
verge  and  rurvcy  its  illimitable  expanse.  'The  glory  of 
the  heaxcns  is  transitory,  but  the  imjialpahlc,  invisible 
ether  inconceivably  remains.  .Such  as  it  is  to-day,  it 
idready  was  when  the  Fiat  Lux  was  spoken;  its  be- 
ginning must  have  been  coeval  with  that  of  time. 
Xotbing  or  c\erything-  according  to  the  manner  in 
w  hirh  it  is  accounted  of,  it  is  evasive  of  common  notice, 
while  obtrusive  to  delicate  scrutiny.  Its  negative 
qualities  are  numerous  and  baffling.  It  has  no  effect 
in  impeding  motion;  it  docs  not  perceptiblv  arrest,  ab- 
sorb, or  scatter  light;  it  pervades,  yet  has  (apparentiv) 
no  share  in  the  displacements  of  gross  matter.  Look- 
ing, however,  below  the  surface  of  things,  we  find  the 
semi-fabulous  quintessence  to  be  unobtrusively  doing 
all  the  world's  work.  It  embodies  the  energies  of 
motion;  is,  perhaps,  in  a  wry  real  sense,  the  true 
primiim  mobile;  the  potencies  of  matter  are  rooted  in 
it;  the  substance  of  matter  is  latent  in  it;  universal  inter- 
course is  maintained  by  means  of  the  ether;  cosmic 
inlluenccs  can  be  exerted  only  through  its  aid;  unfelt,  it 
i.s  the  source  of  solidity;  unseen,  it  is  the  vehicle  of 
light;  itself  non-phenomenal,  it  is  the  indispensable 
originator  of  phenomena.  .\  contradiction  in  terms,  it 
points  the  perennial  moral  that  what  eludes  the  senses 
is  likely  to  be  more  permanently  and  intensely  actual 
than  what  strikes  them." 

'That  is  not  fine  writing;  it  is  literature;  and  w-hatever 
Miss  Gierke's  place  in  the  history  of  astronomv,  it  will 
be  a  high  one  in  the  history  of  letters. 

E.  S.  G. 


In  Memoriam— Agrnes  Mary  Clerke. 

I  Icrs  was  the  part  to  glean  the  scattered  grains 
Of  truth,  which  reach  us  from  the  starry  field; 
To  weigh  results  which  calculations  yield, 

.See  where  they  tend  and  gather  up  the  gains 

Of  many  a  night-long  watch.      .She  remains 

The  mistress  of  a  style,  v.hose  greatness  sealed 
It  to  sublimest  science,  which  revealed 

Deep  study,  and  far-reaching  thought  contains. 

And  she  who,  judging  the  cosmogonies. 

Marked  what  they  lacked,  dimly  preceived  how 
A  Power  outside  of  Nature  guideth  all 

By  ordered  paths — a  Power  which  vivifies 

And  upwards  leads.     She  has  g:onc  from  us  now, 
.■\nd  from   her   eves   earth's  darkening  glasses 
f""-  '        T.  K.  Hhatii,  F.'r.'A.S. 


Photography. 

Pure  arvd  Applied. 

By  Chapman  Jones,  I'M.C,  I'.C.S.,   &c. 


M  \^^  of  the  (le\elo|)crs  that  are  remark- 
Hnersetic        ,^,^j^,    ^^^^.    ^^^^.^^.  ^.,^^.     ^    .,„j    ,-apiditv   of 
Developers.  _.  ,  ,,  ,      '  .  . 

action,     such    .is    metnl    and    paramido- 

plvcnol  (11k'  latter  is  the  acli\r  agi-nt  of  ni<linal  and 
uiial)  are,  chi'inicall)  s|X'aking,  basic  substances,  ;ind 
are  supplied  in  combination  with  acids,  as  salts,  becau.se 
the  free  bases  are  ton  unstable'  for  pi;ictical  purposes. 
'They  are  g:'nerall\-  sold  in  coiiiliination  with  hvdro- 
chloric  acid  or  siilphiirie  acid,  and  when  dissoKrd  with 
alkali  gi\e  ri.se  to  alk.dinc  chloride  or  sulphate,  which 
mav  ha\o,  and,  doubtless,  sometimes  decs  have,  a  re- 
tarding action.  Messrs.  Lumiere  and  Sevewetx  have 
sought  to  overcome  this  dr.-iwback  without  the  loss  of 
stabililv  in  iIh'  solid  material,  by  combining  the  bases 
with  sulphurous  acid  instead  of  sulphuric  or  hydro 
chloric,  SOI  that  the  alkali  in  the  mixed  dexclopcr  shall 
give  its  sulphite  instead  of  its  sulphate  or  chloride.  .Vs 
alkaline  sul|5hite  is  always  added  in  considerable 
f|iKinlilies  to  such  developers,  the  small  amount  so 
pnxluced  has  no'  appreciable  effect.  'They  report  that 
the  products  "are  stable  enough  for  commercial  purposes, 
and  behave  in  developers  as  if  the  free  bases  had  been 
used.  The  compounds  do  not  appear  to  be  very  defi- 
nite, as  they  contain  several  molecules  (six  to  ten)  of 
the  organic  base  to  cne  of  sulphurous  acid.  Experience 
alone  can  show  whether  these  new  compounds  will 
prove  advantageous,  and  we  certainly  should  feel 
grateful  to  the.se  investigators  for  working  at  the  sub- 
ject. Hut  as  alkaline  sulphates  in  small  qu.antities  do 
not  notably  retard  development,  and  the  simultaneous 
reduction  in  the  restrainer  ;ind  alkali  is  often  of  \ery 
doubtful  benefit,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  much 
room  for  improvement  in  this  direction. 

We   learn   from    a    letter    sent    by   Mr. 
Colour  Julius    Rheinberg    to    Kaiurc    (Novem- 

Photography.  l)er  .'9),  that  the  method  of  colour  photo- 
graphy with  a  lined  screen  and  narrow 
angle  prism  recently  described  by  Professor  Lippmann, 
and  referred  to  in  this  Journal  for  October  last,  was 
the  subject  of  a  patent  by  F.  \V.  Lanchester  in  1895, 
was  described  by  Julius  Rheinberg  in  January,  1904, 
and  was  patented  in  France  early  in  1906.  Thus,  it 
appears  that  the  process  has  been  invented,  according 
to  records,  four  times,  and  it  is  stated  that  others  than 
those  named  have  been  working  on  similar  lines. 

When    formaline  was   first    introduced, 
The  it    w^i,  thought  that    it   might   perhaps 

Hardenins  of  displace  common  alum  and  chrome 
Uelatine.  alum  as  hardeners  of  gelatine.  But 
further  experience  with  it  has  shown 
that  it  also  has  its  weak  points.  One  essential  differ- 
ence between  it  and  the  alums  is  its  volatility,  and  this 
is  not  only  annoying  to  the  user,  but  remains  a  source 
of  uncertainty  in  its  effects.  It  appears  from  some 
recent  work  of  Messrs.  I.umiere  and  Seyewetz  that 
the  treated  gelatine  is  a  more  or  less  loo.se  combination 
of  gelatine  and  formaldehyde,  and  that  the  formalde- 
hyde is  always  ready  to  pass  off  and  leave  the  gelatine 
in  its  original  soluble  condition.      It   mav  be  separated 


February,  1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


33 


slowlv,   hut  completely,   hv    hot    water,   bv    cold   dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  or  by  heating  it  to  iio°C. 

The  recent  action  of  two  or  three  large 
The  Metric  manufacturing  firms  has  brought  this 
System  of  subject  prominently  to  the  front. 
Weights  and  Photographers  are  peculiarly  unfortu- 
Measures.  nate  in  having  to  use  an  ounce  that  is 
divided  into  437 1  grains,  a  figure  that 
no  one  can  suggest  is  convenient  for  division,  much 
less  sub-division.  The  figure  is  impossible,  and  other 
figures,  such  as  440,  450,  or  480,  are  substituted  for  it 
when  necessary,  in  spite  of  the  error  involved.  The 
metric  system  appears  to  be  the  one  practical  way  out 
of  this  and  many  other  difficulties.  But  the  present 
metric  system  is  founded  upon  arbitary  stardards,  and 
so  is  fundamentally  no  better  than  the  English  systems. 
It  appears  that  when  the  metre  was  defined,  those  in- 
terested set  to  work  to  make  a  model  of  it,  and  when 
later  the  model  was  found  to  be  a  little  wrong,  the  real 
standard  was  neglected,  and  the  incorrect  model 
adopted  instead  of  it.  .A  vessel  to  hold  a  litre  was 
also  made,  and  this  was  sub.sequently  found  not  to  hold 
a  cubic  decimetre  as  it  should,  but  instead  of  correcting 
the  error,  that  particular  vessel  was  made  the  standard. 
1  suggest  that  we  want  only  a  standard  of  length,  and  . 
thatlhat  should  be  defined,  if  possible,  without  reference 
to  any  particular  bar  of  metal.  There  must,  of  course, 
Ix;  secondary  standards  of  length,  weight,  and  capacity, 
and  from  these  other  standards  are  needed  to  make  the 
measures  from  that  are  used  in  every-day  work.  But 
I  would  suggest  that  all  secondary  and  other  standards 
should  l>e  regarded  merely  as  practical  conveniences, 
and  if  found  to  vary  from  the  standard,  should  either  be 
corrected  or  so  marked  that  their  error  may  be  allowed 
for.  Such  errors  as  these  would  only  exceptionally  be 
of  importance,  and  would,  of  course,  be  known  to  all 
concerned.  The  disadvantages  of  having  standards  of 
kngth,  weight,  and  capacity  not  simply  related  to  each 
other  are  so  obvious  that  they  hardly  need  pointing  out. 
We  have,  for  example,  already  in  the  metric  system  two 
standards  of  capacity,  the  litre  and  the  cubic  decimetre, 
and  we  shall  perhajjs  get  half-a-dozen  others  as  time 
goes  on,  unless  we  mend  our  ways.  The  trouble  of 
these  many  competing  units  is  shown  in  the  disregard 
of  their  differences  even  in  scientific  work. 

That   portion   of   dust   that    cannot   be 
Laying  the      kept  out  of  scientific  instruments,  such 
Dust  in         as  cameras,  it  is  well  to  trap  or  catch. 
Cameras.         that  its  oresence  may  do  as  little  harm 
as  possible.  One  method  recommended 
for   this   purpose  is  to  smear   the    wood-work    with    a 
trace   of  glycerine,   so  that  whatever  dust   comes    into 
contact  with  it,  sticks  to  it.      Doubtless  this  is  effective, 
but    the    method    does    not    commend    itself    to    many 
because  of  the  trouble  of  cleaning  the  dust-laden  sur- 
face.    Velvet  catches  dust  and  holds  it  lenatiously,   it 
is  not  messy,  it  does  not  need  renewal,  like  glycerine, 
and  it  is  not  very  difficult   to  clean   by  brushing.      If 
black  velvet  is  used,   its    light-absorbing   power  is   an 
additional  advantage  as  a  lining  for  optical  instruments. 
In   all  cases  where  dustless  air  is  required  in  order  to 
prc\ent  as  far  as  possible  the  scattering  of  light,  black 
veh  ;'t  offers   the    double    advantage  of   being  the  best 
non-rjflccting  surface  as  well  as  an  eflicient  dust-trap. 

"  The  Photo-Miniature,"  to  hand,  almost 
Received.        a   year    after   the  date   it    bears,   deals 
with  the  "  Hand  Camera,"  and  gives  a 
considerable  amount  of  practical    information. 


MaLximvirrv   of   Mira^    Ceti. 

By  P.  M.  Ryves. 


The  variable  star  Mira  (o  Ceti)  has  lately  passed  an 
unusually  bright  ma-\imum,  having  remained  for  three 
weeks  fully  second  magnitude,  which  is  about  the  same 
as  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  David  Fabricus  in  1595. 
When  observed  on  July  30  last,  the  brightness  was 
estimated  as  just  under  the  ninth  magnitude.  It  in- 
creased, at  first  slowly  then  more  rapidly,  and  reached 
the  seventh  magnitude  by  October  17.  About  this 
date  a  more  rapid  rise  set  in  ;  the  star  rushed  up  to  the 
second  magnitude  by  December  2,  a  change  corre- 
sponding to  an  increase  in  light  of  a  hundred  times  in 
less  than  fifty  days.  The  most  rapid  portion  of  this  rise 
was  from  the  6th  to  the  3rd  mag.  in  19  days  (October 
26-November  14). 

A  similar  rapid  rise  to  maximum  occurred  last  winter 
and  is,  in  fact,  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  variation  of 
this  and  certain  other  of  the  variable  stars  of  long  period  ; 
but  it  is  not  always  so  well  marked  as  in  the  present 


»-Vi 

|jtjLY"|     A^-Qj\ep"[    OC^      j'nov*'|     D^^C     (T|*n'^|    FtB       |     WAR 

3 

h 
s 

-  6 

1 

/ 

y 
•> 

» 
10 

M  1 

RA 

/ 

/ 

"s 

S. 

1 

•  sot 

.,., 

I 

-• 

--..^ 

: 

"'-. 

: 

l<105 



■  <,o& 

/ 

: 

^ 

y 

/ 

I6j^         to            I*             (.«             W            «Oo          H             *0            ••             ••            t<»r             I,^                       •— ' 

Light  curve  of  Atira  (o  Ceti)  1906-7  compared  with  previous  maximum. 
Each  curve  is  based  upon  about  40  observations. 

case.  This  star  may  only  reach  the  5th  mag.  at  maxi- 
mum, and  frequently  does  not  exceed  the  4th  mag.,  but 
when  a  bright  maximum,  like  that  of  December  last, 
occurs,  Mira  surpasses  in  brightness  any  other  variable 
star  of  regular  period. 

On  account  of  the  general  interest  which  attaches  to 
this  variable  and  also  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be 
observed,  it  usually  receives  a  good  deal  of  attention 
from  amateurs  when  the  epoch  of  maximum  falls  at  a 
season  of  the  ye.tr  when  it  can  be  conveniently  observed. 
Unfortunately,  the  position  of  Mira  south  of  the  ecliptic 
and  the  period  which  brings  the  maxima  about  a  month 
earlier  each  year  render  it  impossible  to  observe  the 
maxima  well  for  several  years  together  when  they  fall 
in  the  spring  arid  summer  months.  A  good  series  of 
observations,  extending  well  on  either  side  of  the  epoch, 
can  only  be  obtained  in  the  case  of  about  half  the 
maxima,  and  those  observers  who  do  not  work  after  mid- 
night will  he  restricted  to  a  still  smaller  proportion  It 
is,  therefore,  very  desirable  that  a  careful  watch  should 
be  kept  upon  this  variable  during  the  present  and  next 
few  years  while  the  conditions  are  favourable.    .\  special 


34 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[I^ebruarY,  1907. 


interest  pertains  to  observations  this  season  on  account 
of  the  brightness  of  the  maximum.  Such  a  bright 
maximum  is  not  hkely  to  occur  uiulcr  ciiually  favourable 
conditions  more  often  than  once  in  twenty  years.  It  is 
to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  those  who  have  made  careful 
observations  will  publish  the  results,  and  thus  contri- 
bute towards  a  solution  of  that  great  problem,  the  cause 
of  variation  of  these  mysterious  bodies. 

.\  provisional  curve  is  given  herewith,  which  shows 
the  general  nature  of  light  change  during  the  past  six 
months,  and,  for  comparison,  an  approximate  curve  for 
the  preceding  season  is  superposed,  the  months  being 
the  same  for  both.  These  curves  are  based  upon  85 
observations  made  by  the  writer  in  Spain.  Those  for 
the  present  season  are  appended  in  tabular  form.  The 
magnitude  scale  is  that  of  tlie  Harvard  College  Observa- 
tory, and  Harvard  magnitudes  have  been  adopted  for 
the  comparison  stars  used.  When  possible,  stars  similar 
in  colour  were  used  for  comparison  purposes  in  preference 
to  white  or  bluish  stars.  The  change  of  colour  is  not 
the  least  interesting  feature  of  variable  stars.  Most  of 
them  are  red  or  orange,  and  some  appear  to  become 
redder  as  maximum  is  approached,  but  Mira,  inten.sely 
ruddy  in  its  fainter  stages,  loses  much  of  its  colour  when 
the  brightness  increases.  On  September  15,  the  colour 
w-as  noted  as  a  strong  red,  but  about  the  time  of  maxi- 
mum it  had  changed  to  a  rather  pale  yellowish  orange. 

Observations  of  Mira,  I906-7. 


Julian  Day 

Julian  Day 

Date. 

Mag. 

2417000  + 

Date. 

Mag. 

2417000  + 

1906. 

Nov 

17     • 

.        2-8o 

532 

July    30     . 

.        9-07 

..        422 

,, 

19     . 

2  68 

534 

Aug.      I      . 

910 

424 

,, 

20     . 

2  55 

535 

.,       17      ■ 

8  88 

440 

1 , 

22     . 

238 

537 

..      19      • 

8-83 

..        442 

,, 

23     • 

2  51 

••        53« 

,,        21 

8  92 

■•        444 

J, 

26     . 

215 

541 

..        25       . 

8-75 

..        448 

,_ 

28     . 

2  19 

543 

.,       30       . 

876 

453 

29     ■ 

2-09 

544 

Sept.  10     . 

S-So 

..        464 

30     ■ 

2  06 

545 

,.     14     ■ 

8-44 

. .        4GH 

Dec. 

I 

2-09 

546 

.>     15     • 

836 

469 

,, 

3     • 

I  92 

..        548 

..     27     . 

792 

481 

,, 

9     • 

1-85 

554 

Oct.      8     . 

740 

492 

,, 

II 

1-85 

..       556 

,.      15      • 

715 

499 

, , 

15      . 

1-96 

..       560 

.,      16     . 

710 

500 

,, 

16     . 

I  88 

..       561 

,,        21        . 

6-67 

505 

,j 

19     • 

I  92 

564 

Nov.    .3     . 

4  23 

..       5i« 

,, 

24     . 

2x0 

..       569 

..    k.  7     ■ 

3  79 

..       522 

1907. 

..J-19     . 

3-60 

••       524 

Jan. 

I 

2-24 

577 

...  13     • 

326 

..        528 

,, 

3     • 

2-41 

579 

„      14     • 

3-20 

..       529 

,, 

5     •• 

2-41 

..       581 

.,      15     •• 

3  00 

530 

" 

10     .. 

2-50 

..       5S6 

New  Prism  Binocular. 


Messrs.  .\.  E.  St.aley  and  Co.,  of  19,  Thavics  Inn,  Holborn 
Circus,  E.C.,  have  sent  us  for  inspection  a  new  prism 
binocular,  of  the  type  now  so  popular,  made  by  the  firm  of 
E.  Krauss  and  Co.,  Paris,  for  whom  Messrs.  Staley  are  the 
British  representatives.  The  binoculars  magnify  eight 
times,  and  have  an  adjustable  milled  bar  for  focussing, 
which  moves  both  oculars,  whilst  one  ocular  has,  in  addi- 
tion, a  graduated  adjustment  to  enable  a  difference  in  the 
sight  of  the  eyes  to  be  separately  rectified.  The  glasses  are 
also  adjustable  for  width  between  the  ej-es— an  equally  im- 
portant matter.  A  minor  improvement  is  a  stud  enabling 
the  binocular  to  stand  upright  on  a  table  without  damage. 
The  definition  of  these  glasses  is  excellent,  and  they  are 
very'  light,  compact,  and  daintv,  so  that  thev  could  be  used 
either  out  of  doors,  for  which  thev  are,  of  course,  primarily 
intended,    or   in    a    theatre.     The    price,    moreover,    is    onl'v 

X.0    lOS. 


The  Bride-Stones — Cleveland  Hills. 

By    E.    J.    SuMNEK,  B.Sc. 


TiiEkE  arc  sexeral  groups  of  stones  in  various  parts  of 
the  Cle\ eland  Hills  which  arc  known  as  Hride-Stones, 
of  which  the  most  im|)()sing  are  tho.se  which  look  down 
on  the  head  of  the  \allev  nrimed  from  thom  —  St;iindale 
— about    8  miles  north-east   of   l'ick<'ring. 

The  photogr;i|)li  shows  in  the  foreground  one  of  the 
c|uaiiilest  of  thes<'  stones,  known  as  the  "  .Salt-cellar," 
and  to  the  loft  of  it,  more  distant,  is  visible  a  round 
boss  of  the  ''  Chcesewring  "  type.     The    matcri;d  is    a 


kind  of  gritstone,  belonging  to  the  oolitic  series  of 
rocks,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  layers  of  greatly 
\arying  hardness.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the 
sea  is  responsible  for  these  curiously  formed  rocks,  for 
they  resemble  those  upon  which  the  sea  is  engaged 
on  the  Vorkshire  coast  at  the  present  day,  though,  of 
course,  the  weathering  action  of  wind,  rain,  and  frost 
w  ill  have  largely  altered  them  since  the  time  when  the 
sea  left  them   in  their  rough-hewn  state. 

The  "'Salt-cellar"  is  some  20  feet  high,  about  10 
jards  round  the  waist  or  lowest  part,  and  20  or  30 
3ards  round  nearer  the  top. 


Some  particulars  have  been  published  of  the  abortive  experi- 
ments in  Transatlantic  wireless  telegraphy  which  were  cut 
sliort  by  the  fall  of  the  tower  at  Machrihanish.  Messages 
had  been  received  and  sent  between  Machrihanish  on  the 
Mull  of  Cantyre,  and  Brant  Rock,  near  Boston,  U.S.A.,  but 
it  was  found  subsequently  that  not  sufiicient  allowance  had 
been  made  for  the  atmospheric  absorption  of  the  Hertzian 
waves  on  all  occasions,  and  in  possibly  unfavourable  condi- 
tions. At  1,500  miles  10  per  cent,  of  the  radiation  got 
through ;  but  when  3,000  miles  was  the  distance  it  was 
found  that  not  i  per  cent,  of  the  radiation  could  always  be 
depended  upon.  Indeed,  during  daj'light  the  absorption  was 
sometimes  so  great  that  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  i  per 
cent,  of  the  energy  got  through.  As  an  illustration  of  the 
complexities  of  atmospheric  interference  it  is  stated  that, 
with  the  same  sending  power,  on  some  nights  messages 
were  received  4S0  times  stronger  than  was  necessary  for 
audibility,  and  the  messages  could  be  read  with  the  receiver 
six  inches  away  from  the  ear.  On  other  nights  with  the 
same  sending  power  the  messages  were  so  faint  that  they 
could  not  be  read.  A  satisfactory  factor  of  safety  in  trans- 
mission had  been  achieved  when  the  antennse  blew  down. 


February,  1907.'' 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


35 


A    Fish    Out    of    Water. 

By  Felix  Oswald,  D.Sc. 


The  well-worn  saying,  "  to  feci  like  a  fish  out  of  water," 
obviously  embodies  the  general  belief  that  fishes  are 
absolutely  confined  to  the  watery  elei.ent.  Nature, 
however,  never  allows  herself  to  be  cramped  by  hard 
and  fast  rules  deduced  from  insufficient  observation; 
for,  although  a  typical  fish  is  eminently  adapted  for 
swimming  and  breathing  under  water,  yet  tl.ere  are 
several  striking  deviations  from  this  normal  state  of 
things.  For  instance,  the  hopping  gobies  (in  which 
the  fore-fin  has  developed  a  distinct  elbow-joint)  can 
leave  the  sea  and  habitually  skip  along  the  shore  in  pur- 
suit of  insects  and  molluscs;  the  climbing  perch  can 
exist  for  days  out  of  water,  and  is  even  said  to  climb 
palm  trees,  whilst  the  aerial  flights  of  the  flying  fish  are 
known  to  all.  These  exceptions  to  the  ordinary  habits  of 
fishes  are  not  merely  of  individual  interest,  but  help  us 
materially  to  realise  the  somewhat  analogous,  but  more 
successful,  struggle  to  invade  the  land  which  occurred 
long  ago,  in  pre-Carboniferous  ages,  on  the  part  of  far 
less  highly  specialised  fishes. 

The  radical  organic  changes  resulting  from  this 
invasion  of  a  different  element  were  mainly  two-fold; 
firstly,'  in  respiration — breathing  by  gills  being  ex- 
changed for  breathing  by  lungs,  and  secondly,  in  loco- 
motion— fins  being  superseded  by  five-fingered,  jointed 
limbs. 


Fig.  I.— The  Hopping:  Ooby  IPeriophthalmus), 

In  the  modern  invaders,  such  as  the  climbing  perch 
{Anabas  scandcns)  and  the  h(jpping  gobies  {Pcriophthal- 
mus  and  Boleo phthalmus),  gills  still  continue  to  be  the 
seat  of  respiration,  but  their  structure  is  much  modified. 
In  the  case  of  the  hopping  gobies  (Fig.  i)  the  only 
change  in  structure  of  the  breathing-organs  is  an  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the  gill-cavity,  which  is  thereby 
able  to  contain  air  as  well  as  water.  The  gills,  how- 
ever, are  much  reduced;  and  respiration  seems  also  to 
be  carried  on  by  the  thin  skin  of  the  tail-fin.  A  more 
advanced  state  of  things  occurs  in  the  climbing  perch, 
in  which  there  is  an  accessory  organ  in  the  gill-cavity, 
consisting  of  labyrinthine  folds  of  mucous  membrane 
(Fig.  2),  so  as  to  expose  a  larger  respiratory  surface  to 
the  air — a  direct  result  of  terrestrial  conditions.  This 
organ  functions  as  a  lung,  by  means  of  which  the  fish 
is  able  to  exist  out  of  water  for  a  long  time,  a  fact 
which  Indian  jugglers  have  made  use  of  in  adding  this 
fish  to  their  stock-in-trade. 

These  labyrinthine  organs  may  be  profitably  com- 
pared with  the  somewhat  analogous  lung-like  out- 
growths in  the  upper  half  of  the  gill-cavity  in  land- 
crabs  (Gccarcinm  and  Birgiis  lairo). 

The  lungs  of  land-vertebrates  have,  however,  laeen 
derived,  not  from  the  gills,  but  from  the  air-bladder  of 
fishes.  This  theorv  is  based  essentiallv  on  the  facts  of 
development,  and  is  now  generally  admitted.  Both 
lungs  and  air-bladder  arc  formed  bv  an  outgrowth  from 
the  gullet,  but  the  lungs  arise  ventrallv.  while  the  air- 


bladder  in  most  fishes  has  a  dorsal  origin.  This  differ- 
ence in  position  is  not,  however,  so  serious  an  objection 
to  the  theory  as  it  would  appear  at  first  sight,  for  in 
Erythrinus  it  arises  laterally,   in  Ceraiodus  it  becomes 


Fig.  2.— The  Climbing  Perch  iAna^ai  ^cawUm,.  The  lower  figure  display* 
the  gill-chamber;  a,  the  labyrinthine  supra-branchial  organ; 
6    the  gills. 


I'ig.  3.  — Diagrammatic  transver.ie  and  longitudinal  sections  miter 
Deam  of  air-bladder  (il  and  adjacent  digestive  tract  (■')  of  A, 
Sturgeon  and  many  Teleosts  iPhyso.itomi' ;  '>',  »yi)iriiiii» ;  C, 
Ceratodm  ;    D,    Lrpiilotirtn  and  ProlopUrui. 


more  ventral  in  position,  and,  finally,  in  Polypterus, 
Calaiiioiclitliys,  r.cpiJosirai,  and  Protopt<rus.  it  has 
actually  the  same  median  ventral  position  as  in  all  true 
lungs  (Fig.  3). 

Now,  when  one  organ  is  evolved  from  another,  tliere 


35 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


IFliBRUARY,  1907. 


is  usually  cithor  a  concomitant  change  of  fundion,  or 
else  a  subordinate  function  may  become  exalted  by  tiie 
altered  circumstances  into  the  first  place. 

The  air-bladik'r  in  the  m.ijority  of  cases  has  a  jnuely 
hydrostatic  fum-lion,  and  swms  t»  prevent  the  fish 
from  too  suddenly  altering  the  depth  at  which  the 
conditions  of  life  are  most  ad\  anlagcmis  li>  ll.  l>nl  il 
the  cli.inge  in  le\el  be  made  grailuallx-,  the  necessary 
compensation  is  oblaineil  by  the  secretion  or  absorp- 
tion of  the  gas  in  the  air-bladder  through  the  abundant 
blood-capillaries  (nV/i;  iiiirahilKi),  which  usually  line  the 
walls.  For  instance,  Moreau  has  show  11  by  his  experi- 
ments that  if  the  air-bladder  is  emptied  of  the  gas  it 
contains,  the  fish  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in 
which  it  is  living,  and  cannot  regain  its  ec|uilibrium 
until  it  has  secreted  a  fresh  supply  of  gas.  With  regard 
to  this  hvdrostatic  function,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  air-bladder  is  not  jjossessed  by  fiat-fishes, 
living  to  the  reason  that  they  habitually  rest  on  the 
ground  and  lead  a  \ery  sluggish  existence.  Hut  il  is 
e(|ually  absent  in  the  large  and  ancient  group  ol 
I';iasmobranchs  (sharks,  dog-lish,  itc),  unless  llu' 
obscure  pharyngeal  pouches  should  be  regarded  as 
degenerate  rudiments.  Perhaps  the  notoriously  pre- 
datory habits  of  these  fishes  would  ha\e  rendered  il 
a  disadvantage  for  them  to  have  acquired  an  organ 
w  hich  restricts  a  fish  to  a  definite  zone-level. 

.Although  the  secretion  of  gas  is  the  chief  function 
of  the  air-bladder,  yet  (as  already  indicated)  some 
absorption  can.  and  does,  take  place  in  those  fishes  in 
which  the  walls  of  the  bladder  are  lined  by  blood- 
capillaries  {rctia  nurabilui).*  The  two  processes  of 
.secretion  and  absorption  have  only  to  take  place  alter- 
nately and  rhythmically  in  order  to  be  equivalent  to  the 
expiration  and  absorption  of  a  true  lung.  Of  course, 
any  actual  breathing  by  means  of  the  air-bladder  can 
only  take  place  in  those  fishes  in  which  the  duct  be- 
tween the  throat  and  the  air-bladder  still  remains  open 
(the  Pliysoslomi).  Tliis  connection  with  the  exterior 
l>8Comes  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  species 
whenever  the  water  it  inhabits  becomes  muddy  or  in- 
sufficiently aerated.  Thus  many  of  the  meml>ers  of  the 
great  fresh-water  family  of  cyprinoids  (bleak,  carp, 
etc.)  need  to  come  periodically  tO'  the  surface  to  sw-allow 
air,  ow ing  to  the  frequent  paucity  of  oxygen  in  the  still 
and  stagnant  waters  which  they  inhabit.  Many 
siluroids,  too,  may  be  buried  in  mud  for  a  long  time 
during  the  dry  season,  or  can  also  travel  on  land  from 
one  lake  to  another.  Even  our  eel  is  known  to  traverse 
considerable  distances  overland. 

.\  still  closer  approximation  to  normal  atmospheric 
breathing  is  exhibited  by  a  ganoid  {Lepidosieus),  and 
by  certain  Brazilian  fishes  {Sudis  gigas,  Erylliriiiiis 
/(Tuia/i/s,  and  brasilieiisis),  which,  according  to  Jobert, 
speedily  suffocate  if  the  air-duct  between  the  air-bladder 
and  the  throat  is  ligatured,  becau.se  in  these  fishes  gill- 
breathing  does  not  alone  sufiice  for  the  necessary 
oxygenation  of  the  blood. 

But  even   in   these  cases   the   general    course    of   the 


•  In  the  air  bladder  of  Siluroids  and  of  some  other  fishes  [e.g.. 
Tench)  the  rctia  mirahilut  are  absent  ;  in  these  cases  a  peculiar 
chain  of  tiny  bones  (the  Weberian  ossicles)  connects  the  air- 
bladder  with  the  inner  ear.  By  means  of  these  ossicles  the  fish  is 
mate  aware  of  any  increased  pressure  of  air  in  the  bladder  caused 
by  sudden  proximity  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  Relief  from  this 
pressure  is  obtained  by  the  emission  (doubtless  by  refle.x  action)  of 
bubbles  through  the  airduct  and  the  mouth.  The  fish  is  thus 
able  to  regulate  its  position  to  a  plane  of  least  muscular  effort,  in 
which  it  becomes  of  the  same  weight,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  the  sur- 
rounding water. 


circulation  has  not  been  finidamentally  .altered.  To  find 
this  state  of  things  we  must  turn  to  the  dipnoi,  the 
double-bicathcrs,  or  lung-fishes  as  they  have  been  aptly 
termed.  In  this  ancient  group  of  fishes,  we  ixn.-  able 
to  trace  tr.ansitional  steps  in  the  supplanting  nt  ^ill- 
respiration  by  lung-breathing. 

In  Ccralodiis  (the  least  specialised  genus),  the  .-lii- 
bladder  is  still  imp;iired  and  dorsal  in  position,  but  a 
slight  median  longitudinal  depression  ioresh.-idows  the 
p.airrd  condition  of  the  hings  of  hii^hcr  animals.  The 
opening  ol  the  air-duct,  .•ilthough  lati'ral,  opens  at  the 
glottis  on  the  right  side  of  the  pharynx  approximating 
to  the  median  ventral  position  of  true  lungs  (i'ig.  3  6'). 
The  latter  condition  is  attained  by  the  African  I'ro- 
toptcnix  and  the  South  American  Lcpidosircit;  and  in 
addition,  the  lung  is  paired  (Fig.  3,  V).  The  plan  of 
the  circulation  is  modified,  for  the  lung  is  now  suijplied 
with  blood  by  a  true  pulmonary  artery  arising  from  the 
point  of  union  of  the  fourth  efferent  branchial  artery 
with  the  aortic  root,  while  in  Ctraindus  it  is  still  given 
off  from  the  former  alone.  'l"he  aiirated  bloixl  riturns 
by  a  pulmonary  vein  to  the  heart  through  the  sinus 
venosus.  In  Prolnplcrus^  too,  the  conus  arteriosus  is 
completely  divided  into  two  halves,  so  that  an  arterial 
and  a  venous  current  pass  out  from  the  heart  side  by 
side,  while  in  Ccraiodtis  this  diyision  is  still  incom])lete. 
In  all  the  members  of  the  dipnoi,  the  lining  memljrane 
of  the  air-bladder  is  thrown  into  ridges  and  folds  just 
as  in  the  hollow^  sack-like  lungs  of  typical  amphibians. 

To  this  transitional  group,  therefore,  we  must  turn 
to  find  fossil  remains  intermediate  between  fishes  and 
amphibians.  Their  antiquity  is  great;  the  few  existing 
species  are  the  widely  distributed  remnants  of  a  group 
which  flourished  in  the  later  Paljeozoic  ages.  The 
.\ustralian  Barraniund:i  {Ccraiodiis)  is,  indeed,  a  highly 
remarkable  instance  of  the  persistence  of  a  gencrali.sed 
type,  for  the  genus  existed  in  the  Trias  of  Europe,  and 
even  in  the  Permian  of  North  .America;  the  very  fact 
of  its  possessing  low  generalised  characteristics  has 
enabled  it  to  survive  changes  fatal  to  more  highly 
developed  and  specialised  creatures. 


TKe  Pleiades. 


For  comparison  with  the  plate  in  the  January  number, 
we  reproduce  this  month  another  photograph  of  the 
Pleiades,  taken  by  G.  W.  Ritchey  with  the2-feet  reflector 
at  the  Yerkes  Observatory. 

The  plate  had  an  exposure  of  three-and-a-half  hours, 
and  shows  the  principal  stars  involved  in  a  fine  tracery 
of  nebulosity;  the  star  Atlas,"  with  its  companion 
Pleione,  which  brings  up  the  rear  of  the  Pleiades,  is  not 
shown  in  this  reproduction. 

The  small  photograph,  taken  by  W.  Shackleton  with 
a  3i-inch  lens,  exposure  33  minutes,  shows  the  group  as 
seen  with  a  pair  of  opera-glasses,  or  a  little  more  than 
the  naked-eye  \iew. 

*  The  names  of  the  Pleiades  stars,  with  diagram,  are  given  in 

"  Knowledge  "  for  January,  1889. 


Supplement  to  "  Knowledge  &  Scientific  News,"  Frbriiaru.  1907- 


<R.7.ri.,(uc.''.ii"»i  Vol.  II.  "f  III-  I'lil'hcalii'ii-  oi   llir  Y.rket  Uhvrrolorii  nt  lltr  Vnirmilii  of  Chic,„,i,.., 

Nebvilosity   in.   the    PleiaLdes. 


February,  1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


37 


Basis   of  the   Will. 


1-'.\K  g-i-L-ater  dilliculties  lia\o  Ix-cn  met  with  in  the 
attempt  to  fathom  the  mysteries  of  psychic  or  conscious 
action,  than  with  any  other  branch  of  Elementary 
Bioioij-y.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  the  following- 
causes  :  — 

(1)  Conscious  action  possesses  no  nervous  grounds. 
This  gives  support  to  the  prevailing  idea  that,  physio- 
logically, its  source  is  to  be  localised  in  such  constitu- 
ents as  form  the  elements  of  physical  or  chemical  action. 

(2)  Conscious  action,  though  no  doubt  in  possession 
of  a  structural  basis,  affords  but  very  complex  clues 
with  regard  to  such  a  basis. 

In  the  first  place,  conscious  action  is  always  synthetic 
or  complex.  Conscious  changes  are  produced  without 
anv  consciousness  of  form.  In  respect  to  action,  all 
consciousness  must  be  structural.  For,  how  would  it 
be  possible  for  changes  of  consciousness  to  occur,  other- 
wise than  by  means  of  sense  of  structure?  But  it  does 
not  follow  that,  because  all  consciousness  is  structural, 
structural  action  is  conscious  action.  For,  on  the  con- 
trary, structural  action  is  united  action,  a  compound  of 
that  which  forms  and  that  which  is  formed. 

Physically,  there  are  no  changes  of  consciousness. 
Energy  has  no  nervous  Substance  of  change,  otherwise 
such  change  would  be  found  to  have  some  nervous  form 
of  transmutation,  which  is  not  the  case.  Changes  of 
consciousness,  therefore,  are  not  relati\e  of  structural 
action.  What  is  called  the  "  Monism  of  energy,"  re- 
presents a  fundamental  jjrinciple  now  generally  recog- 
nised throughout  the  province  of  physics  and  chemistry. 

There  must,  therefore,  be  some  principle  to  answer 
for  the  action  of  conscious  structure.  The  test  of  such 
a  principle  will  be  in  the  structural  difference  of  action. 
Thus,  the  source  of  all  changes  of  consciousness  must 
be  a  non-substantial  of  non-vital  principle. 

Now,  there  is  strong  scientific  evidence  which  points 
to  man  as  being  in  possession  of  this  principle.  For 
instance,  it  is  through  him  that  we  arrive  at  last  to  a 
structural  transmutation  of  consciousness,  to  a  psychic 
form,  which,  in  its  relation  to  structure,  has  been  pro- 
ductive of  pathological  results. 

In  his  Cumulative  Evidences  of  Divine  Revelation, 
page  182,  Mr.  March  Phillips  gives  the  following  signi- 
ficant facts  :  — 

"There  is  this  peculiaritv  in  the  condition  of  man, 
as  compared  with  the  other  mammalia,  that  his  life  is 
shorter  now  than  by  analogy  it  ought  to  be.  In  other 
animals  the  period  of  growth  is  about  one-tenth  to  one- 
fifteenth  of  the  whole  life.  The  lion,  which  is  full- 
grown  at  five,  lives  for  seventv  or  eighty  years.  The 
dog,  full  grow  n  at  eighteen  months,  is  as  old  at  fifteen 
as  a  man  at  eighty.  Man,  li\  ing  as  long  as  the  lion,  is 
not  full  grown  till  twenty.  The  same  proix>rtion  would 
give  men  from  three  hundred  and  twenty  to  four 
hundred  years.  Thus,  his  physical  life  is  not  in  this 
respect  the  normal  life;  it  is  cut  very  short,  and  its 
brevity  points  to  some  primeval  failure  of  vigour — to 
the  presence  of  some  non-natural,  i.e.,  some  diseased 
condition,  sapping  his  vitalit)." 

Ag-ain,  in  his  "  Freedom  of  Science  in  the  Modern 
Slate,"  Professor  Virchow  says  : — 

If  we  gather  together  the  w  hf)le  sum  of  the  fossil 
men  hitherto  known,  and  jjut  them  parallel  with  those 
of  the  present  time,  we  can  decidedly  pronounce  there 
are  among  living  men  a  much  greater  number  of  in- 
dividuals who  show  a  relatively  inferior  typu  than 
among  the  fossils  known  up  to  this  time." 


Evolution,  upon  this  evidence,  can  be  said  to  have  had 
most  astounding  grounds  for  its  moral  tendency,  from 
such  natural  action  as  human  physics  here  supplies. 
However,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  query  any  point  of 
physical  ethics,  but,  rather,  to  bring  into  prominence 
what  are  actually  contradictory  results  produced  under 
similar  action.  Apart  from  reason,  consciousness  is 
structurally  unvarying  in  action — energy  is  monistic. 
Combined  with  reason,  there  is  conscious  change  of 
action.  Consequently,  there  must  be  some  principle 
through  which  man  is  structurally  conscious.  Physi- 
cally, he  is  monistic;  that  is,  an  unvarying  unity. 
Rationally,  he  is  a  multiple,  a  being  of  character. 

Where,  then,  is  the  source  of  this  difference?  As  we 
have  seen,  it  is  not  a  real  or  structural  principle.  It  is 
something  abstract,  something  foreign  to  his  normal 
form  of  vitality.  It  must  be  some  phantasy  or  myth, 
otherwise,  what  is  to  answer  for  the  prevalence  of  such 
a  degenerate  and  diseased  condition  of  his  life? 

.Suppose  we  examine  the  conscious  grounds  of  struc- 
ture, and  by  this  means  locate  the  source  of  this  evil 
and  non-natural  element. 

It  is  by  means  of  the  sensor  nerves  (properties  of  the 
will)  that  consciousness  structurally  acts.  Sensibility 
is  responsible  for  all  structural  actions.  The  motor 
nerves,  which  determine  structural  actions,  act  without 
any  sense  of  structure,  yet  there  must  be  a  conscious 
basis  to  structural  action.  Structural  action  is  not 
physical  action;  that  is,  action  of  growth.  For,  in 
order  that  action  may  be  consciouslv  formed,  the  sense 
of  structure  must  exist  as  a  foundation. 

Consequently,  structural  action  cannot  result  from 
growth  forms;  but,  on  the  contrary,  these  are  them- 
selves only  possible  through  structural  action. 

.Structural  action  is  relative  of  the  sense  of  induction 
— unity.  Growth  action  is  relative  of  the  sense  of  struc- 
ture. Consequently,  the  conscious  grounds  of  struc- 
ture is  a  unit  of  consciousness  or  vital  cell.  Upon  this 
unit  of  consciousness  all  reflex  action  depends,  and  it 
must,  therefore,  be  held  to  contain  the  elements  of  all 
structural  action. 

Instinctive  (adaptive)  actions  are  never  consciously 
formed,  but  are  relative  of  this  unit  of  consciousness. 

Conscious  action  is,  structurally,  unvarying,  for  all 
action  of  sensibility  is  so  formed,  as  sense  of  unvarying 
sense  of  form,  which  is  consciousness  of  conserved 
energy.  Consequently,  the  conscious  ground  of  struc- 
ture is  un\arying  action  of  consciousness,  and  non- 
cellular;  that  is,  action  of  infinite  reflexion. 

Upon  what  principle,  therefore,  must  the  ratit)nal  or 
conscious  action  of  reflexion  rest? 

It  certainly  is  not  a  structural  principle,  for  this 
reason,  structural  action  is  unvarying-  will,  whilst 
rational  actions  are  varying  of  adjustment;  and,  con- 
sequently, such  actions  must  emanate  from  an  unvary- 
ing and  not  a  varying  unit  of  conscious  form. 

How,  therefore,  can  an  unvarying  consciousness, 
prior  to  consciousness,  and  by  which  con.sciousness  is 
consciously  formed,  be  consciouslv  willed  (united)? 

Rationally,  not  otherwise  than  by  free  will,  as  an 
infinite  unit  of  conscious  structure;  consequentiv,  onlv 
as  a  subject  of  structure. 

Thus,  by  analysis,  no  difference  is  to  be  found  be- 
tween instinct  and  reason,  but,  at  the  same  time,  it 
exposes  the  source  of  the  hitter's  contradiction,  which 
is  contained  in  the  freedom  of  will. 

In  conclusion,  it  appears  hardly  necessarv  to  add 
that,  wherever  man's  freedom  has  run  counter  of  his 
normal  or  structural  sense,  there  has  ever  been  li>ss  not 
gain,  pain  not  pleasure,  disease  not  vigour,  insanity  not 
control. 


38 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[Feuruarv,  1907. 


ASTRONOMICAL. 

By  Charles  P.  Butlek,  A.R.C.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.R.P.S. 


Solar  Disturbances  and  the  Corona. 

An  interesting  paper  is  cniiinniiiicated  to  the  Astiopliysical 
Jounuil  for  Meceniber,  190(1,  by  F.itlier  A.  L.  Cortie,  in  which 
he  discusses  the  relation  of  certain  well-marked  features  of  the 
corona  with  areas  of  distnrbance  on  the  solar  surface  as  evi- 
denced by  various  phenomena.  That  there  exists  a  general 
connection  between  the  state  of  disturbance  of  the  sun's 
surface  and  immediate  surroundings  and  the  form  of  the 
coronal  appendages  is  sutTiciently  well  established.  There  is 
a  great  similarity  in  type  in  the  photographs  of  the  solar 
corona  as  photographed  in  the  years  1.S70,  1882,  1893,  and 
ig05,  all  of  them  years  of  maximum  sun-spot  activity,  marked 
by  many  and  great  outbursts  of  spots  and  prominences.  A 
quite  different  type  of  corona  corresponds  to  the  years  of 
minimum  solar  activity,  as  illustrated  by  the  photographs  of 
187S,  iS8(),  and  igoi,  while  we  have  also  examples  of  inter- 
mediate or  transition  types  in  the  eclipses  of  1SS6  and  1896. 
The  uncertainty  comes  in  when  we  attempt  to  decide  whether 
the  spots  or  prominences  are  the  more  intimately  connected 
with  the  changes.  Careful  examination  of  the  Stonyhurst 
photographs  (taken  on  a  large  scale)  of  the  solar  corona  of 
August  30,  1905,  at  \'inaro2,  Spain,  shows  that  the  streamers 
appear  in  general  to  mark  the  regions  of  the  prominences 
rather  than  of  the  sun  spots.  The  longest  streamers,  consist- 
ing of  two  long  wings  with  an  intermediate  shorter  streamer, 
extend  from  latitude  ~  40"  to  —  go"  S.,  quite  outside  the  spot 
zone,  while  another  streamer  is  located  near  the  sun's  north 
pole.  The  fine  group  of  prominences  in  the  north-east  quad- 
rant was  manifestly  associated  with  three  fine  coronal 
streamers.  In  the  lower  corona  the  complicated  structure  of 
arches  and  vortex  rings  are  seen  to  be  attached  to  the  pro- 
minences. 

Detailed  measurements  have  been  made  on  several  of  the 
photographs  in  order  to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible 
the  exact  area  on  the  sun's  surface  from  which  the  chief 
streamers  appear  to  be  projected,  and  comparisons  made  with 
other  measurements  made  on  the  standard  series  of  drawings 
of  the  sun  at  Stonyhurst,  thereby  enabling  the  history  of  the 
various  spots  visible  before  and  after  the  eclipse  to  be  studied. 
The  results  apparently  confirm  the  coincidences,  and  further 
studies  of  the  eclipse  photographs  of  1893  giving  the  same 
conclusions,  the  author  considers  that  not  only  in  general  is 
a  characteristic  type  of  solar  corona  associated  with  sun-spot 
and  prominence  activity,  but  that  definite  structures  in  the 
corona  are  associated  with  definite  areas  of  activity  of  sun 
spots  and  faculje. 

Prominences  Observed  During  190S. 

In  l-5ulletin  Xo.  \TI.  of  the  Kodaikanal  Observatory,  the 
Director  gives  the  individual  observations  of  prominences 
observed  during  the  latter  half  of  igo5  and  an  abstract  sum- 
mary, showing  the  mean  daily  values  and  zone  distribution  for 
the  whole  year. 

Observations  being  made  on  305  days,  the  total  number  of 
prominences  measured  was  4757,  giving  a  mean  daily  frequency 
of  15-6. 

A  very  noticeable  feature  is  the  slight  variation  noted  in 
the  mean  height  for  each  month,  the  minimum  of  which  is 
28-4"  and  the  maximum  357",  giving  a  mean  for  the  year 
of  31-4". 

The  distribution  with  respect  to  the  Solar  equator  is  shown 
to  be  very  nearly  balanced,  being  7'8  for  each  1  eniisphere. 
The  mean  latitudes  vary  slightly  in  the  two  hemispheres,  being 
37'3°  for  the  North  and  3S-3°  for  the  South. 

A  detailed  analysis  of  the  numbers  of  prominences  observed 
fcr  each   quarter  and  half-year  in  zones  of  10'  width  from 


pole  to  pole  is  also  included,  enabling  the  prominence  record 
to  be  compared  in  dutail  with  other  solar  phenomena. 

Observations  of  Phcebe. 

Professor  E.  C.  Pickering  gives  a  list  ol  nine  additional 
photographs  of  Saturn,  showing  images  of  the  ninth  satellite, 
Phn.bc,  which  have  been  obt.iined  with  the  24inch  Bruce 
telescope  at  Arequipa  during  August  and  September,  1906. 
The  exposures  for  these  plates  varied  from  lo^  to  120  minutes. 
Reductions  of  the  photographsshowiug  the  position  angles,  and 
distances  are  given,  these  varying  from  251°  and  12'4'  on 
.Xugnst  II  to  joo"  and  2'o'  on  September  17.  (Harvard 
College  Observatory  ("irciil.ir  No.  119.) 

Nova  Veiorum. 

During  the  examination  of  photographs  taken  at  the  Harvard 
College  Observatory  with  the  i-inch  Cooke  lens,  a  new  object 
was  found  in  the  Constellation  Vela,  with  position  as  follows : — 
K.A.  =  10  h.  58  m.  20  s. ;  Decl.  =  —  53"  srg"  (1900).  It 
follows  a  fifteenth  magnitude  star  by  about  2  s.,  and  is  15' 
south  of  it.  Owing  to  the  small  scale  of  these  plates,  measure- 
ments of  position  and  brightness  were  ditTicult.  The  object 
does  not  appear  on  any  plate  taken  before  December  5,  1905, 
hut  is  seen  on  fourteen  plates  since  that  date  ;  and  on  July  2, 
1906,  it  had  again  fallen  below  magnitude  ii'2.  The  greatest 
brilliancy  occurred  about  Jatui.ary  1,  1900,  when  the  magnitude 
was  9'72;  but  during  the  period  covered  by  the  ol)ser\ations 
the  Nova  exhibited  considerable  lluctuations  in  light,  and  it 
seems  not  impossible  that  it  may  again  become  sufficiently 
bright  for  its  spectrum  to  be  obtained,  but  even  without  such 
proof  there  is  apparently  little  doubt  that  the  object  observed 
is  actually  a  Nova.  (Harvard  College  Observatory  Circular 
No.  121.) 

Companion  to  the  Observatory  for  1907. 

Except  for  a  fesv  minor  alterations  the  present  issue  of  this 
most  useful  compendium  resembles  closely  those  of  previous 
years. 

The  section  dealing  with  variable  stars  has  been  slightly 
re-arranged,  this  b?ing  necessitated  by  the  continued  increase 
in  the  number  of  known  variables,  which  now  total  574  in 
M.  Loewy's  list.  The  complete  list  of  stars  with  their  places 
is  not  now  given,  and  the  dates  of  maxima  and  mimima  of 
long-period  variables  are  shown  in  a  somewhat  different  form. 
These  Ephemerides  are  j^iven  in  Gi-cnni'icli  incait  astronomical 
time,  counting  from  noon  to  noon,  and  not  from  midnight  to 
midnight,  as  in  former  years.  The  range  of  magnitude  is  added 
at  the  top  of  each  column. 

The  occultations  of  stars  by  the  moon  are  alsoincreased^in 
number  by  the  inclusion  of  stars  fainter  than  6-8.  No  diagram 
of  the  orbit  of  Saturn's  satellites  is  given,  as  their  plane  passes 
through  the  Earth  during  1907. 

New  Variable  Stars. 

The  study  of  the  distribution  of  variable  stars  by  super- 
posing a  negative  on  a  positive  of  different  date  has  been 
continued  by  Miss  Leavitt  at  Harvard  College  Observatory 
with  very  interesting  results.  From  photographs  taken  with 
the  24-inch  Bruce  telescope  thirty-one  new  variables  have 
been  discovered,  including  one  in  the  region  of  the  Pleiades, 
two  near  the  nebula  of  Orion,  and  twenty-eight  in  the  region 
of  the  "  Southern  Cross  "  and  "  Coalsack."  From  the 
absence  of  variables  in  the  first  group  it  would  appear  that 
the  conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Pleiades  favour  unusual 
constancy  in  light,  as  no  other  stars  were  ever  suspected  of 
variability,  though  there  are  many  suspected  variables  in  the 
other  regions  examined  in  this  way. 

On  photographs  taken  with  the  i-inch  Cooke  lens,  covering 
a  region  30°  square,  and  showing  stars  down  to  the  eleventh 
magnitude,  thirty-six  new  variables  have  been  discovered,  and 
in  addition  most  of  those  already  known  have  been  re-detected. 
Six  of  them  belong  to  the  Algol  type,  and  a  full  discussion  of 
their  periods  wilFbe  given  later  in  the  annals.  (Harvard 
College  Observatory  Circulars  Nos.  120,  122.) 

Total  Eclipse  of  the  Sun,  January    14,  1907, 

Only  meagre  reports  are  to  hand  as  to  the  total  solar  eclipse 
which  took  place  on  Monday,  January  14.  In  a  message  from 
Renter's  Agency  at  Samarkand,  it  was  stated  that  the  eclipse 
of  the  sun  was  observed  from  a  point  on  the  railway  between 
Kuropatkino  and  Mijulnsk^ja.     The  first  stage  of  the  eclipse 


February,    1907  ] 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


39 


was  noted  a  few  minutes  after  nine  o'clock  ;  totality  occurred 
at  seven  minutes  to  ten,  and  lasted  for  two  minutes,  the  sun 
being  clear  again  shortly  after  ten.  As  it  is  also  reported 
that  snow  was  falling  throughout  totality,  it  seems  probable 
that  most  of  the  observations  depending  on  photographic  de- 
lineation will  have  been  at  a  disadvantage.  Other  observers 
were  to  be  stationed  at  Tashkend,  but  no  report  is  as  yet 
available  from  there. 

Artificial  Reppoduction  of  Lunar  Craters. 

M.  Gaston  Hauet  describes  an  interesting  method  of  pro- 
ducing artificially  variously  figured  structures  which  are 
strongly  suggestive  of  lunar  formations.  Placing  a  quantity 
of  wax  in  a  copper  vessel  heated  by  a  gas  flame,  as  soon  as  the 
mass  commences  to  soften  a  metallic  rod  moistened  with  water 
is  plunged  into  the  mass  and  quickly  withdrawn,  taking  care 
to  close  the  orifice  caused  by  the  insertion  of  the  rod. 

.■\fter  a  few  seconds  the  gas  is  turned  on  stronger,  so  as  to 
heat  the  lower  part  of  the  wax,  and  a  swelling  is  seen  forming 
on  the  surface  of  the  wax.  This  increases  and  at  a  certain 
stage  in  its  development  bursts  about  its  upper  part.  A  jet  of 
steam  escapes,  and  the  swelling  subsides  in  the  form  of  a 
circular  ridge  with  vertical  walls.  By  this  the  action  of  the 
steam  inside  the  mass  has  been  relieved  for  a  time,  but  after 
a  short  interval  a  similar  series  of  phenomena  will  be  repeated  ; 
if  the  new  swelling  happens  to  come  up  inside  the  former 
there  will  be  formed  a  central  cone  very  strikingly  similar  to 
those  so  characteristic  of  true  lunar  formations. 


BOTANICAL. 

By  G.  Massee. 


Delayed  Germination. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  the  case  of  many  plants  the 
seeds  produced  by  one  crop  do  not  all  germinate  promptly 
when  placed  under  favourable  conditions  for  doing  so.  In- 
stead of  this  the  seeds  germinate  at  irregular  intervals,  ex- 
tending through  a  period  of  weeks,  months,  or  even  years. 
In  other  plants  the  seeds  will  not  germinate  under  what 
may  be  termed  normal  conditions  within  a  year  of  their 
production,  and  in  such  instances  certain  of  the  seeds  show 
a  further  marked  dela)'  in  germination.  Numerous  experi- 
ments have  been  made,  and  suggestions  offered  as  an 
explanation  of  this  erratic  behaviour  of  seeds.  Arthur  has 
described  a  ven,-  interesting  case  of  delayed  germination  in 
the  seeds  of  the  cockle  bur  {Xanthivm  canadense).  The  two 
seeds  present  in  the  bur  are  not  exactly  counterparts  of  each 
other,  and  are  produced  at  different  levels.  All  the  low'er- 
most  seeds  germinated  the  first  year  after  ripening,  w-hereas 
those  seeds  produced  higher  up  in  the  bur  did  not  germinate 
until  the  second  year  after  ripening,  and  a  few  were  delayed 
until  the  third  or  fourth  year.  The  author  considered  that 
the  seed  coats  did  not  differ  in  the  two  seeds,  and  suggested 
that  enzymes  are  produced  readily  in  the  lower  seeds,  and 
that,  therefore,  they  had  food  available  for  immediate 
germination,  w'hereas  the  upper  seeds  are  only  able  to  form 
digestive  ferments  after  a  considerable  period  of  rest.  To 
determine  this  question  more  exactly,  Dr.  Crocker,  of  the 
Hull  Botanical  Laboratory,  U.S..\.,  carried  out  a  series  of 
experiments  with  the  seeds  of  various  plants,  including  five 
kinds  of  Xanthium,  and  the  dimorphic  seeds  of  Axyris 
amaranihoides.  His  conclusions  are  as  follow  : — Delayed 
germination  is,  as  a  rule,  due  to  the  seed  coats  rather  than 
to  the  embryos ;  in  other  words,  it  is  more  dependent  on 
mechanical  than  physiological  causes.  In  soine  instances 
retardation  is  due  to  the  seed  coat  excluding  the  required 
amount  of  oxygen.  This  is  the  case  in  Xanihium,  but  the 
exclusion  of  oxygen  is  much  more  marked  in  the  case  of  the 
upper  seeds  than  in  that  of  the  lower  ones,  hence  the  differ- 
ence in  time  required  for  germination.  .\  high  temperature 
brings  about  the  germination  of  the  upper  seeds  of 
Xaiifhium  at  once  by  increasing  the  rate  of  diffusion  of 
oxygen.  In  Axyris  amaraiifhnides,  Aliutilnn,  Avicenna,  and 
many  other  seeds,  retardation  is  due  to  the  exclusion  of 
w'ater  by  the  seed  coats.  In  7ris  seeds  the  failure  to 
germinate  quickly  is  due  to  the  endosperm  and  cap  arresting 
the  .ibsorption    of    water,   and    it    is    onlv    when   a   certain 


amount  of  decay  in   these  structures  has  taken  place  that 
germination  is  possible. 

Seed  coats  which  exclude  water  are  better  adapted  for 
retarding  germination  thdn  when  oxygen  alone  is  excluded, 
because  of  the  much  greater  reduction  of  transpiration  in 
the  first  case. 

Hawthorn  seeds  would  not  germinate  immediately  after 
ripening,  even  when  the  seed  coats  were  removed,  and  after 
subjection  to  high  temperatures  and  high  oxygen  pressures. 
In  this  case  it  was  obvious  that  the  changes  necessary  for 
germination  were  located  in  the  embryo ;  nevertheless,  it  is 
also,  to  some  extent,  due  to  disintegration  of  the  seed  coats, 
because  germination  in  the  end  is  only  effected  after  long 
exposure  to  conditions  favourable  to  germination,  and  not 
when  the  seeds  are  kept  dry. 

Treatment  of  Deteriorated   Tea. 

Dr.  H.  Mann,  in  Bull.  No.  4,  of  the  Indian  Tea  .\s- 
soeiation,  deals  with  the  gradual  deterioration  of  the  tea 
plant  a  few  years  after  planting,  the  bushes  rapidly  losing 
their  early  vigour,  and  after  a  period  varjing  from  10  to 
20  years  they  are  past  their  prime.  The  old  method  of  re- 
storing such  waning  bushes  by  hard  pruning  is  not  always 
successful,  because  in  some  instances  hundreds,  or  even 
thousands,  of  acres  have  been  collar  pruned  w  hen  the  bushes 
are  suffering  from  causes  for  which  collar  pruning  is  no 
remed}'.  The  signs  of  deterioration  are  a  change  in  colour 
of  the  foliage,  which  assumes  an  unhealthy,  yellowish  ap- 
pearance ;  at  a  later  stage  the  young  shoots  soon  cease  to 
grow,  and  do  not  produce  leaves. 

.\mong  causes  of  deterioration  the  principal  are,  ex- 
haustion of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil,  exhaustion  of 
the  bush,  and  incorrect  pruning.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
methods  by  which  the  primary  cause  of  failure  may  be  de- 
tected is  given  ;  also  the  practical  methods,  including  drain- 
age, manuring,  piuning,  &c.,  which  seem  best  adapted  for 
bringing  back  to  a  profitable  condition  much  of  the  tea  in 
India  which  has  now  declined  from  its  former  value. 


CHEMICAL. 


By  C.  AiNswoRTH  Mitchell,  B.A.  (^O.kod.),  F.I.C. 


Action  of  Plants  on  Photogrraphic  Plates  in 
the  Dark. 

Dr.  W.  J.  Russell  has  extended  his  experiments  on  the 
action  of  wood  upon  photographic  plates  in  the  dark  (see 
"  Knowledge  &  Scientific  News  "  Vol.  II.,  119,  235),  and 
has  tried  the  effect  of  various  seeds,  leaves,  and  roots.  He 
finds  that  the  reducing  power  is  very  widely  distributed,  and 
that  many  parts  of  the  plant  produce  as  marked  an  effect  as 
the  wood  itself.  In  the  embryo  state  seeds  appear  to  be 
inert,  but  as  soon  as  growth  begins  the  reducing  property 
manifests  itself,  and  continues  until  the  death  of  the  plant. 
.\\\  leaves  were  found  to  have  this  property,  even  those  lying 
dead  beneath  the  trees  still  possessing  it,  though  to  a  reduced 
extent.  The  best  method  of  preparing  leaves  is  to  press 
them  between  blotting  paper  under  a  pressure  of  one  to 
five  tons  to  the  inch  ;  the  liquid  absorbed  by  the  paper  is 
also  able  to  act  upon  the  plate.  Dr.  Russell's  hypothesis  is 
that  the  active  agent  in  the  reduction  is  hydrogen  peroxide 
— at  all  events,  the  activity  of  the  plant  is  comparable  with 
that  of  hydrogen  peroxide.  Thus  the  seed  leaf  of  the  runner 
bean  has  practically  the  sanie  action  on  a  plate  at  a  distance 
of  an  eighth  of  an  inch  as  a  solution  of  one  part  of  hydrogen 
peroxide  in  100,000  acting  at  the  same  distance  for  the  same 
length  of  time  (24  hoursT.  The  kernels  of  nuts  are  inactive 
at  first,  but  after  exposure  to  the  air  produce  a  verj-  dark 
picture.  Castor  oil  seeds  are  the  least  active  in  this  re- 
spect, and  the  liquid  expressed  from  them  mav  be  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  month  or  mure  without  becoming  active.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  some  connection  m.ay  be  traced  between 
the  drying  capacity  of  the  oil  in  the  seed  and  its  reducing 
power.  The  outside  shells  of  seeds  are  quite  inactive.  In 
the  cocoanut  shell,  for  instance,  the  light-coloured  portion 
has  no  effect  upon  a  plate,  whereas  the  darker  parts  are 
very  active.  In  many  cases  the  roots  of  plants  have  a  verj- 
strong  reducing  action,  the  root  of  the  Scotch  fir,  for  ex- 
ample, giving  a  picture  similar  to  that  produced  by  the 
wood . 


40 


KNOWLEDGE   c^    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


[February,  1907. 


Natural    and    Artificial    Mineral    Waters. 

It  miylit  1h'  iIuiu.i;1u  llial  liv  ili>siih  iiij;"  (lii'  iii;lil  sail--  in 
the  right  iiropoitioji  in  distilled  water  any  natural  niiiural 
water  could  be  exactly  imitated;  and,  in  fact,  special  salts 
are  sold  to  be  used  in  the  pre])aration  of  water  from  various 
well-known  mineral  sprinj^s.  It  has  been  shown,  however, 
by  M.  Neijreano  that  the  natural  waters  dilTer  from  the 
artilici.il  imitations  in  ;in  important  physical  chaiacterislic, 
so  jiiuch  so  that  this  can  be  used  as  ;i  test  for  distinj^uishing 
betwetn  the  two.  'J'he  resistance  offered  to  the  passat^f  of 
an  electrical  current  appears  to  be  practically  a  constant  in 
tlie  case  of  a  natural  mineral  water,  and  will  dilTereiiliate  it 
from  other  natural  waters.  For  instance,  X'ichy  water  was 
found  to  have  a  resistance  (in  ohnis^ — c.c.  at  180  C.)  of  i^o; 
\'illel  water,  500;  and  livian  water  i,2So.  Artificial  watirs 
with  pr.iclically  the  same  chemical  composition  y;ave  very 
dilferent  results,  however,  such  as,  for  example,  112  in  lln' 
case  of  artificial  \'ichy  water,  and  1,120  in  that  of  artilici.il 
Kvian  water. 
A  Test  for  the  Blood  of  Different  Animals. 

.\  simple  modilicatioii  of  the  serum  mellu)d  ol  tlilh  reiiliatini; 
the  blood  of  dilferent  .•uiimals  (sei>  "  Knowt.i;i>c.i-;  X:  .S(  ii-:.\- 
ril-ic  NliW.s  "  \'ol.  II.,  .S(),  !()())  has  been  deviseil  by  llerr 
PiorkowsUi,  and  h.'is  the  s^reat  adv;int;ii;c  of  not  requirini;' 
the  use  of  ;i  livini^-  animal.  .V  small  quaiitity  oi  serum  from 
a  {.fiven  anim.il,  say  a  horse,  is  i)l.iced  in  a  very  small  test 
tube  into  which  is  then  introduced  one  drop  of  the  fresh 
blood  under  examination,  diluted  10  to  15  times,  or  of  ;i 
solution  of  the  dried  blood  in  a  solution  of  salt.  The  tube 
is  allowed  to  stand  for  about  45  minutes,  after  which  its 
contents  are  examined.  If  the  blood  introduced  w-as  from 
an  animal  of  the  same  species  as  su[)plied  the  serum  (a  horse 
in  our  hy|)olhetical  case)  a  faint  red  precipitate  of  coaj^u- 
lated  blood  will  be  seen,  while  the  liquid  above  will  have 
remained  clear.  On  the  other  hand,  the  blood  of  an  animal 
of  any  other  species  will  have  disst)l\-ed  in  the  foreign 
serum,  colouring  it  red.  The  reaction  is  made  more  con- 
clusive by  shaking  the  tube  at  intervals  of  30  minutes  after 
the  first  coagul;ition,  a  fresh  precipitate  being  formed  each 
time.  The  method  is  stated  to  have  given  very  satisfactorv 
results  in  the  ex.imination  of  old  stains  of  human  blood, 
the  test  tubes  being  ])reviously  charged  with  fresh  human 
serum. 

The  Gases  Enclosed  in  Coal. 
Analyses  have  been  made  by  Mr.  V.  Trobridge  of  the 
gases  enclosed  in  coal  from  Birtlcy,  in  Durham,  in  the  dust 
left  on  screening  the  coal,  and  in  that  deposited  on  the 
timbers  in  the  mine.  The  air  was  first  removed  by  means 
of  a  mercury  pump  from  the  flask  in  which  the  coal  was 
placed,  and  the  gases  subsequently  given  off  by  the  coal  in 
the  exhausted  flask  collected  over  mercurv  measured  and 
examined.  Finally  the  flask  was  heated  by  boiling  water 
to  expel  the  residual  gases.  It  was  found  that  the  samples 
of  bright  coal  yielded  the  largest  amount,  and  that  these 
gases  contained  the  largest  proportion  of  combustible  con- 
stituents, the  latter  consisting  almost  entirely  of  marsh  gas. 
The  gases  occluded  by  the  surface  dust  and  the  dust  on  the 
timbers  amounted  to  about  one-twelfth  of  the  quantity  in 
the  bright  coal,  and  contained  other  hydrocarbons  of  the 
same  series  as  marsh  gas.  .An  interesting  point  was  that 
the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  portion  of  air  last  removed 
from  the  flask  was  greater  than  in  air.  Further  experi- 
ments showed  that  freshly-hewn  coal  exposed  to  the  air 
gradually  parted  with  its  enclosed  gases,  and  at  the  same 
time  absorbed  nitrogen  and  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere, 
the  latter  in  the  greater  proportion.  Nitrogen  formed  a 
considerable  part  of  the  gases  obtained  from  the  different 
samples,  and  experiments  are  being  made  to  determine 
whether  this  nitrogen  contained  argon  and  other  inert  gases 
that  accompany  nitrogen  in  the  air. 


GEOLOGICAL. 

By  Edward  A.  Martin,  F.G.S. 


A  Small  Triassic  Dinosaur. 

Dr.    a.   Smith-Woodward,   the    Keepsr   of    the    Geological 
Departmeat  of  the  British   Mussum,  has  described  in  detail 


to  an  enchanted  audience,  at  the  meetinj,'  of  the  Geological 
Society,  two  small  skeletons  of  a  new  reptile  from  the 
Triassic  sandstone  of  Lossiemouth.  The  specimens  were 
discovered  by  Mr.  \V.  Taylor,  of  IClgin,  and  appear  to  be  the 
same  as  two  imperfect  skeletons  which  are  already  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  head  and  trunk  measure  only  4  inches 
in  length,  but  there  is  a  very  long  and  slender  tail,  'i'he  head 
is  relatively  large,  and  resembles  that  of  Oniilhostichus  in 
many  respects;  but  the  fossils  do  not  exhibit  any  teeth. 
There  are  about  twenty-one  presacral  vertebne,  of  which 
nine  are  cervical.  Thi^re  are  distinct  traces  of  a  plastron 
of  delicate  abdominal  ribs.  The  limb  bones  exhibit  ;i  large 
internal  cavity.  The  foreliiubs  are  very  small,  with  a 
liuiucrus  as  long  as  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  hind-limbs 
are  relatively  large,  and  the  ilium  is  extended  aiitero-postcriorly 
for  the  length  of  four  vertebrie.  The  femur  is  almost  as  long 
••is  the  tibia  and  fibula;  while  the  metatarsus  is  especially 
remarkable,  being  half  as  long  as  the  tibia  and  consisting  of 
four  metatarsals  of  nearly  equal  length  firmly  fused  together. 
The  toes  are  long  and  slender,  with  sharply-pointed  claws. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  is  undoubtedly  the  elongated 
metatarsus,  and  the  fusing  together  of  the  bones  suggest 
that  the  creature  was  in  the  habit  of  squatting  thereon,  and 
that  their  united  breadth  would  prevent  it  from  sinking 
into  its  boggy  haunts  or  into  the  soft  sands  of  a  shore.  At 
the  same  time  the  distinct  internal  cast  which  appears  of  a 
limb  bone  suggests  adaptation  for  flight,  and  the  whole  struc- 
ture would  on  account  of  its  lightness  seem  suited  for  it. 
The  smallness  of  the  fore-limbs  seem  to  show  that  these  were 
seldom  put  to  the  ground,  but  this  of  course  agrees  with  similar 
limbs  in  other  dinosaurs.  The  creature  has  been  classed 
with  the  dinosaurian  reptiles  on  perhaps  somewhat  negative 
testimony,  and  the  suggestion  that  it  might  have  possessed 
some  means  of  avian  flight,  although  there  were  no  traces  of 
wing-feathers  or  membrane,  will  no  doubt  not  be  lost  sight  of, 
should  any  further  specimens  be  discovered. 

A  Neolithic  Burial  at  Whyteleafe. 

A  reprint  has  reached  me  oi  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Hogg 
before  the  Croydon  Natural  History  Society,  "  On  Human 
and  other  bones  found  at  Whyteleafe  in  Surrey."  The  site 
is  in  the  well-known  Caterham  Valley,  along  which  the  inter- 
mittent Bourne  flows  from  time  to  time.  The  bones  were 
found  in  October,  iSg6.  They  lay  on  the  undisturbed 
surface  of  the  chalk,  but  at  the  base  of  S  ft.  3  in.  of  super- 
incumbent dark  brown  or  red  loam,  and  grey  marly  chalk 
rubble.  The  burial  was  made  in  the  usual  neolithic  crouching 
position,  and  the  body  seems  to  have  been  let  down  a  shaft 
into  a  dome-shaped  excavation  about  4  ft.  6  in.  in  height. 

The  bee-hive  or  dome-shaped  form  of  the  hut,  or  the 
sepulchral  chamber,  appears  to  represent  everywhere  the 
ideal  architecture  of  the  Neolithic  period,  and  was  well  ex- 
emplified by  the  underground  chambers  discovered  at  Waddon 
in  igo2,  which  were  ably  described  by  Mr.  George  Clinch, 
F.G.S.,  before  they  again  disappeared  from  view. 

The  human  remains  recovered  at  Whyteleafe  consist  of : — 

1.  Portions  of  the  occipital  and  parietal  bones  of  the  skull. 

2.  The  right  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw,  with  eight  teeth. 

3.  The  shaft  of  the  right  femur,  or  thigh-bone. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  right  tibia,  or  shin-bone. 

The  bones  of  the  skull  which  are  preserved  are  thick — in 
the  thickest  part  (the  upper  curved  line  of  the  occipital)  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch.  The  remarkable  rugosity  of  the  occipital 
appears  to  indicate  the  attachment  of  powerful  muscles. 

The  animal  remains  which  were  exhumed  from  the  brown 
loam  included  those  of  the  cijuiis  (small  horse),  boslongifrous, 
ca-vus,  and  ovis.  Mr.  A.  J.  Hogg  concludes  his  paper  by 
remarking  that  the  age  of  the  Whyteleafe  interment  may  be 
taken  approximately  as  that  of  the  close  of  the  Stone  Age,  as 
determined  by  observations  made  in  Switzerland  namely, 
about  seven  thousand  years  ago. 

A  Wealden  Crocodile. 

Although  the  species  of  fossil  crocodile,  GontopJwhs  crassi- 
liius,  was  founded  many  years  ago,  it  has  only  been  quite 
recently  that  the  skull  was  discovered  for  the  first  time. 
This  fortune  fell  to  Mr.  R.  W.  Hooley,  F.G.Z.,  who  by  great 
carefulness  and  patience  collected  the  remains  of  this  fossil 
crocodile  from  a  disintegrating  mass  of  Wealden  Shales  from 
Atherfield  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.    This  mass,  comprising  many 


February,  1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


41 


thousand  tons,  subsided,  pushing  its  foot  across  the  beach 
until  below  low-water  line.  As  the  sea  washed  away  the  base, 
the  mass  continued  to  sink,  and  fresh  horizons  were  denuded. 
In  1905  a  series  of  heavy  "  ground-seas"  cast  up  blocks  of 
limestone  and  ironstone,  containing  crocodile  bones,  which 
were  discovered  on  the  sand  between  high  and  low-water 
marks.  The  skull  came  ashore  in  six  pieces,  whilst  fragments 
of  bones  and  scutes  were  constantly  picked  up,  and  Mr. 
Hooley  spent  many  days  collecting  the  remains  as  the  sea 
sorted  them  out  and  cast  them  up  on  shore.  The  specimens 
were  derived  from  a  horizon  So  to  90  feet  below  the  top  of  the 
Wealden  Shales. 

The  paper  describing  the  discovery  was  read  before  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  and  Dr.  A.  Smith-Woodward 
in  commenting  favourably  on  it  remarked  that  although 
the  remains  of  Goniopliolis  cicissideits  were  among  the  com- 
monest Wealden  fossils,  the  precise  characters  of  the  species 
had  remained  unknown,  until  the  discovery  which  the  author 
had  described.  The  new  observations  were  of  all  the  greater 
value  because  the  Goniopholid:E  represented  an  entirely  new 
departure  in  the  evolution  of  the  Crocodilia  at  the  end  of  the 
Jurassic  Period,  and  biologists  needed  an  exact  knowledge  of 
the  skeleton  of  these  reptiles  before  they  could  discuss  the 
meaning  of  the  development  in  question.  The  late  Sir  Richard 
Owen  thought  that  the  first  appearance  of  alligator-shaped 
crocodiles  such  as  Goniopholis  was  correlated  with  the  in- 
coming of  warm-blooded  quadrupeds  and  birds. 


ORNITHOLOGICAL. 

By   W.    P.    PvcRAFT,  A.L.S.,    F.Z.S.,  M.B.O.U.,   &c. 


The  "  Dpumming  "  of  the  Snipe. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Mr.  Philip  H. 
Bahr  gave  a  most  interesting  demonstration,  illustrating  the 
results  of  his  inquiry  into  the  vexed  question  as  to  the  mechan- 
ism which  causes  the  remarkable  sounds  made  by  the  Common 
Snipe  during  the  breeding  season — sounds  which  are  described 
by  some  as  "drumming,"  by  others  as  "  bleating." 

While  the  older  naturalists  believed  these  sounds  to  be 
vocal,  later  observers  held  that  they  were  produced  by  the 
wings,  and  others  by  the  tail.  The  latter  view  has  been  widely 
accepted  for  many  years,  and  the  experiments  which  Mr.  Bahr 
made  to  test  the  truth  of  this  should  remove  the  last  doubts 
on  the  subject  which  some  yet  maintain. 

He  showed  conclusively  that  the  principal  agents  in  this 
matter  are  the  outer  tail  feathers,  which  are  peculiar,  not  only 
in  having  an  unusually  thickened  and  peculiarly  curved  shaft, 
but  also  in  the  great  width  of  the  inner  vane.  This  is  further- 
more strengthened  by  means  of  very  large  and  numerous 
"  booklets  " — microscopic  structures  which  hold  the  backs  of 
the  feather  in  position  by  reason  of  the  grip  they  take  of  certain 
specially  modified  barbules. 

He  extended  his  examination  so  as  to  include  every  known 
species  of  Snipe,  and  found  that  in  many  species  the  sounds 
produced  are  extremely  high-pitched,  by  reason  of  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  feathers  concerned.  This  decrease  in  the  width  of 
the  vane  reaches  its  maximum  in  the  Pin-Tailed  Snipe 
{Galliiiogo  stcnuni),  which  has  furllier  increased  the  number 
of  the  tail  feathers  to  26  pairs  !  But  here  the  development 
has  been  carried  to  such  an  extreme  that  all  sound-producing 
power  has  become  lost. 

House   Martin   in   December. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Howard,  in  the  Field,  December  22,  records  the 
fact  that  he  saw  a  House  Martin  hawking  for  flies  on  the 
Parade  at  ICaslbourne  on  December  9. 

Baiiion's  Crake  in    Kent. 

According  to   the   I'icU,   December  22,  a  Baillon's  Crake 
(Pur::ana  hailloni)  was  shot  at  Lydd,  Kent,  on    November  24, 
by  Captain  R,  .-Vlexander,     It  proved  to  be  a  female,  and  was 
flushed  from  a  rush-covered  pool  near  the  sea. 
Sea   Eagle   in   Surrey. 

An  immature  male  Sea  l^agle  (llaliintus  (ilhlciUa)  was  shot 
at  Chevcrills,  Surrey,  by  a  gamekeeper  on  November  12,  and 
was  duly  recorded,  as  usual,  in  the  daily  Press  as  a  Golden 
Eagle.  This  makes  the  fourth  authenticated  record  of  this 
species  for  Surrey. 


Honey  Buzzard  in  Wales. 

Mr.  H.  E.  Forrest,  in  the  Zoologist  for  January,  gives  a  short 
account  of  a  Honey  Buzzard  {Pcniis  nt>ivorotis}  which  was 
•'  inadvertently  "  shot  by  a  keeper  at  Kerry,  near  Montgomery, 
on  June  21,  igo6.  On  dissection  it  proved  to  be  a  female. 
This  appears  to  be  the  first  authenticated  record  of  the 
occurrence  of  this  species  in  the  county  ;  while  in  the  whole 
of  North  Wales  it  does  not  appear  to  have  occurred  more 
than  eight  times. 

Mediterranean    Black-Headed   Gull. 

Mr.  Forrest,  in  the  same  issue  of  the  Zoulogist,  brings  to 
light  two  hitherto  unrecorded  instances  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  Mediterranean  Black-Headed  Gull  {Lams  melatiocephahis) 
in  this,  countr)'.  These  birds  are  now  in  the  collection  of 
Mr.  Beville  Staines,  of  Peplow  Hall,  Salop.  They  are  described 
in  the  M.S.  Catalogue  of  Harry  Shaw  as  follows  :  "The  pair 
of  birds  in  this  collection  were  killed  near  Falmouth  in 
March,  1S51  ;  the  only  specimens  of  their  kind  recorded  as 
obtained  in  the  country."  It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  such 
rarities  should  so  long  have  remained  in  obscurity. 


PHYSICAL. 

By  Alfred  W.  Porter,  B.Sc. 

Poulsen-Pederson  System   of  Wireless 
Telegraphy. 

The  great  desideratum  in  wirek^s  telegraphy  is  a  system 
of  \v;ivfs  which  is  practically  continuous.  In  Hertzian  tele- 
ijraphy  each  spark  in  the  sending  apparatus  lasts  for  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  time,  and  the  corresponding  waves  are 
equally  intermittent.  A  few  waves  pass,  each  one  less  in- 
tense than  the  one  before  it,  there  is  then  a  long  pause 
before  a  new  series  is  excited,  and  this,  in  turn,  rapidly  de- 
creases in  intensity.  The  consequence  is  that  the  total 
effect  in  any  moderate  time  is  very  small,  and  the  greatest 
distance  for  easy  signalling  is  correspondingly  short.  It  is 
now  claimed  by  Poulsen  that  this  desideratum  is  supplied  by 
making  use  of  the  singing  electric  arc. 

Duddell  some  years  ago  showed  that  if  a  shunt  consisting 
of  a  suitable  inductance  and  cnp.acity  be  applied  to  the 
terminals  of  a  solid  carbon  continuous  current  arc  lamp  the 
arc  will,  under  definite  conditions,  begin  and  continue  to 
sing.  The  singing  is  the  audible  sign  of  an  oscillatory 
current  in  the  shunt  circuit.  By  adjusting  the  inductance 
and  capacity,  Duddell  was  able  to  obtain  very  high  fre- 
quencies of  alternation  amounting  to  40,000  periods  per 
second.  But  with  a  single  arc  he  was  un.ible  to  satisfy  the 
necessary  conditions  with  a  larger  current  than  five  amperes. 
This  frequency  and  current  are  small  compared  with  what 
is  required  for  distant  wireless  telegraphy.  Poulsen  now 
claims  that  by  putting  the  arc  in  hydrogen  or  a  hydrogen- 
containing  atmosphere  a  much  higher  frequency  is  obtain- 
.ible ;  for  example,  as  high  as  one  million  per  second;  and, 
moreover,  that  succeeding  oscill.itions  are  all  of  equal  in- 
tensity. Improv(Mnent  is  also  elTected  by  applying  a  trans- 
verse magnetic  lield  to  the  arc,  and  also  by  keeping  the 
anode  cool.  The  l.itter  is  effected  by  repl.icing  the  anode 
carbon  by  copper  and  cooling  it  with  a  stream  of  water. 
The  externals  at  the  sending  station  do  not  present  much 
peculiarity.  There  is  the  usual  antenna  attacheil  to  the 
oscill.iting  circuit.  In  a  large  station  erected  in  Denmark 
the  potential  difl'erence  between  antenna  and  earth  amounted 
to  .ibout  2,000  volts,  ant!  the  rate  of  radiation  of  energy  from 
the  antenna  was  .about  100  watts,  or  about  one-seventh  of 
that  sujjplied  to  the  arc.  With  this  good  signals  were  re- 
ceived 300  kilometres  .iw.iy.  Later  still  greater  radi.ilion 
has  been  obtained,  sulVicient  to  carry  some  thousands  of 
metres.  .\t  the  receiving  end  a  special  receiver  is  useil 
which  was  devised  by  Pederson. 

The  radiation  is  received  by  an  antenna  whoso  circuit  is 
accur.Uelv  tuned  to  the  frequency  of  the  w.ives  received,  so 
that  the  principle  of  resonance  is  utilised  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent. To  prevent  the  damping  of  tliise  oscillations  the 
indicating  appar.itus  is  only  intermittently  connected  with 
the  receiver.  This  intermittent  connection  is  made  bv  a 
small,  electromagnelically  driven  interrupter  called  a 
Tikker.    The  indicator  itself  may  be  an  electrolyte  cell,   a 


42 


KNOWLEDGE   &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[Febri'arv,  1907. 


thcrmo-clcmont,  or  a  bolomctric  arrnnRomont  in  combinn- 
tion  with  a  trlrphonc.  The  intormillomc  indoclucod  by  lln- 
til^lvcr  is  SI)  threat  that  in  the  tclcphono  a  bif^h  note  is  heard. 
It  is  clainiftl  that  very  fine  tiiniiijjf  can  be  cniploycd,  witli  llic 
resultinfj  ndvantajj^'e  that  neinhboiirinfi  stations  may  br 
closer  loiifetlier  without  distiirbinjj^  one  anollier. 

Time  alone  will  show  to  what  extent  the  claims  of  this 
new  system  will  be  substantiated.  In  a  leadinjj  article  in 
the  Wcciricinn  (Oecember  21,  iqob),  which,  in  the  main,  is 
eulogistic,  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  cautious 
criticism  of  the  claims  and  the  methods  of  achieving  them  ; 
and  the  opinion  is  expressed  "  that  there  need  be  no  haste 
in  scr.ippintj  plants  at  present  in  operation,  and  that  il  m;iy 
vet  be  many  y<>ars  before  the  musical  arc  can  sinjj  the  diri^e 
of  the  spark." 

Mr.  nuddell,  in  the  last  of  his  Christmas  lectures  lo 
juveniles  ;it  the  Roy.il  Institution,  showed  such  a  sendini;' 
anil  receiviuij  apparatus  at  work,  and  illustrated  experi- 
menl.illy  the  sh.irpness  of  tunintj  which  is  nocessarv  for 
producing.;'  the  best  effect. 

Disintegration    Products    of    Actiniun^. 

The  disinletjration  series  of  acliniuni  has  been  thoroui;blv 
invesliijated  by  Dr.  O.  Ilahn,  and  the  folUnvinfj  six  statues 
have  been  determined  :— 


PrODI'CT. 

— 

Time  to  be  Half 
Transformed. 

Radiation. 

Actinium 

1 

■> 

Rayluss. 

Rad'i  actinium 

Abe 

ut 

19-5  days. 

a  rays. 

Actinium  X    . . 

IO-2 

0  rays. 

1 
Emanation    . . 
1 

39  sec. 

a  rays. 

1 

Actinium  A. 

1 

<u 

i 

36  min. 

Rayless. 

Actinium  B. 

< 

0. 

a; 
t3 

2     ,, 

a  ^  ar.d  7  rays. 

The  Monochroma.tism  of  the  Red  Cadmium 
Spectrum  Line. 

While  .Micbelson's  echelon  grating'  and  also  Fabrv  and 
Perot's  interferometer  indicated  that  the  cadmium  red  line 
was  single,  doubt  had  been  thrown  upon  this  result  by  the 
fact  that  with  Lummer  and  GchrcUe's  apparatus  it  ap- 
peared accompanied  by  several  components.  The  doubt  was 
as  to  whether  these  components  were  real — in  which  case 
the  red  light  of  cadmium  would  be  a  much  more  imperfect 
source  of  pure  light  than  had  previously  been  hoped ;  or 
whether  they  were  only  ghosts  or  accidental  appearances 
arising  from  imperfectness  in  the  apparatus  employed. 
This  apparatus  consists  simply  in  a  long  parallel  plate  of 
glass.  A  parallel  beain  of  light  is  admitted  in  a  very 
oblique  direction,  and  is  internally  reflected  a  large  number 
of  times,  a  portion  of  it  escaping  at  each  reflection  so  as  to 
form  an  aggregate  of  parallel  beams,  between  each  of  which 
a  certain  phase-difference  exists  due  to  difference  of  re- 
tardation in  passing  through  the  plate.  A  similar  result 
to  this  is  produced  in  other  interference  apparatus,  and 
Lummer  claimed  great  efiiciency  for  his  particular  arrange- 
ment. Gehrcke  and  von  Baeyer  have  now  shown  how  to 
distinguish  between  a  ghost  and  a  true  component  by  the 
use  of  an  additional  plate.  The  result  of  their  test  "is  to 
show  that  the  apparent  structure  of  the  red  line  is  wholly 
due  to  ghosts,  and  therefore  all  the  different  interference 
devices  which  are  employed  to  test  structure  are  now  in 
complete  agreement.  Similarly  with  regard  to  the  green 
mercury  line.  Lummer  had  obtained  a  much  more  com- 
plicated structure  than  other  observers.  Here  again,  when 
the  new  test  is  applied,  the  additional  complication  is  .shown 
to  be  spurious.  It  is  very  satisfactory  to  find  the  various 
devices  all  leading  to  concordant  results.  In  order  to 
indicate  the  superiority  of  interference  apparatus  over  diffrac- 
tive  gratings  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  no  grating  has 
ever  been  ruled  which  is  able  to  reveal  the  structure  which, 
with  interference  apparatus,  is  here  being  studied  in  detail. 


ZOOLOGICAL. 

By   K.   Lydekker. 
is  there    a    British   Freshwater  iVIcdusaP 

.\iu)i|-  twenty  jcars  .ago  it  was  iliscovered  that  certain 
slieams  in  rhiladelphi.-i  were  inhabited  by  a  small  polyp, 
which  lives  attached  to  stones  at  the  bottom  of  Ihe  water. 
Twelve  years  later  it  w;is  observed  Ihat  this  Micmlttjilra, 
,-is  il  is  called,  reproduces  itself  by  giving  off  free-swimming 
jell\-lislKs  or  medusas.  All  this,  it  may  be  said,  has 
noliiing  to  do  with  a  British  jelly-lish.  'I'rue,  but  in  certain 
hot-house  tanks  there  were  at  one  time  noticed  small,  fixed 
jjolyps,  then  regarded  as  the  sedentary  stage  of  the  free 
jelly-fish  previously  obserNcd  in  llie  Vidorin  rcgia  tanks  in 
the  Regent's  Park;  and  ihe  suggestion  now  is,  thai  these 
fixed  polyps  may  possibly  prove  lo  be  indigenous  British 
representatives  of  the  .American  Micraliydra.  Whether  it  is 
worlh  the  while  of  amateur  naturalists  to  commence 
bunling  for  this  problemalical  creature  must  be  left  to  the 
(Ici'isicm  of  members  of  lh.-il  liody. 

British     Bears. 

Professor  .S.  II.  R(\  Molds,  of  Bristol,  has  done  much  to 
iricrease  our  knowledge  of  the  bears  which  inhaliiled  Ihe 
British  Isles  during  the  Pleistocene  and  Prehistoric  epochs, 
in  a  memoir  issued  among  the  Palaontograijhical  .Societv's 
monogiaphs  for  1906.  The  author  fmds  that  all  these  bears 
are  closely  related,  but  considers  it  advisable,  on  Ihe  whole, 
to  retain  the  great  cave-bear,  Ursiis  spctiiiis,  as  a  distinct 
species.  All  the  rest  he  groups  under  the  title  of  I'rxiix 
(irrfiis,  as  typified  by  the  brown  bear  of  Scandinavia.  Of 
s()ecial  imporlance  is  the  opinion  that  the  ri'ference  of  cer- 
tain British  (including  Irish)  bears  to  the  .American  grizzlv 
{!'.  a.  horrihiU.*)  cannot  be  substantiated.  This  is  quite 
in  accordance  with  what  might  be  expected  from  other  con- 
siderations ;  for  the  grizzly  bear  (as  now  restricted)  does 
not  occur  in  the  higher  latitudes  of  North  America,  where 
its  place  is  taken  by  races  more  nearly  akin  to  the  European 
brown  bear  and  its  Asiatic  representatives.  If,  then,  any 
of  Ihe  British  bears  exhibited  marked  resemblances  to  the 
grizzly,  it  is  obvious  that  such  resemblances  could  only 
indicate  the  existence  in  the  British  Isles  of  a  race  represent- 
ing the  American  animal,   and  not  that  race   itself. 

The  Attis  Spider. 

The  Rev.  O.  P.  Cambridge  ])oints  out  in  the  Naturcilist 
that  the  power  of  changing  the  colour  of  their  eyes 
possessed  by  certain  spiders  from  Java  (to  which  reference 
was  made  in  our  last  issue)  is  not  a  new  phenomenon.  The 
same  thing  has  been  previously  observed  in  other  spiders 
of  the  Attis  family. 

Papers    Read. 

.At  the  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society  on  December 
II,  igo6,  Messrs.  J.  Rennie  and  H.  Wiseman  contributed 
a  paper  on  the  "  Ascidians  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,"  in 
the  course  of  which  three  species  were  described  as  new. 
The  arterial  system  of  certain  frogs  and  toads  formed  the 
subject  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  L.  K.  Crawshay  ;  while  fiftv-three 
new  African  weevils  were  named  and  described  bv  Mr.  G. 
A.  K.  Marshall.  Results  of  considerable  morphological  in- 
terest were  embodied  in  a  paper  by  Mrs.  O.  A.  M.  Hawkes 
on  the  cranial  and  spinal  nerves  of  the  shark  Chlamydo- 
sdachus.  Two  mammals,  a  cat  and  an  elephant-shrew, 
collected  by  Major  Powell-Cotton  in  the  Ituri  Forest  of 
Central  .Africa,  were  discussed  by  Mr.  Lvdekker,  who  also 
described  a  race  of  the  bruang,  or  Malay  bear,  from  Tibet. 
Finally,  Sir  Charles  Eliot  furnished  a  supplemental  com- 
munication in  regard  to  the  nudibranchiate  molluscs  of 
Southern  India. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  same  Society  on  January  15,  1907, 
the  following  papers  were  down  for  reading  : — On  a  col- 
lection of  mammals  from  Annam,  by  Mr.  T.  L.  Bonhote  ;  on 
the  "  bleating  "  or  "  drumming  "  of  the  snipe,  bv  Mr. 
P.  H.  Bahr ;  on  new  or  little-known  marmosets  from 
.Amazonia,  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Goeldi  ;  and  on  the  classification 
and  anatomy  of  certain  squamate  reptiles  (snakes  and 
lizards),  bv  Air.  F.  E.  Beddard. 


Febrtary.  1907 1 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


43 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


Phenomenal    Sunsets. 

To  the  Editors  of  "  Knowledge  &  Scientific  News." 

Sirs,— On  Mondav,  Julv  11,  1904,  the  sun  set  at  8.13,  in 
a  clear  sky  in  the  west,  though  in  the  south-east  a  heavy 
Ihunderstorm  was  worlcing   up. 

.\bout  8.30  p.m.,  from  a  light  orange  glow,  there  issued 
five  distinct  bands  of  light  of  a  pale  salmon-pink  colour, 
which  radiated  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  from  the  sun, 
being  definitely  separated' by  five  corresponding  bands  of 
pale  blue. 

The  phenomenon  lasted  for  nearly  an  hour,  the  bands 
graduallv  fading  away. 

The  same  night  a  violent  thunderstorm  broke  over  Ex- 
mouth. 


On  Mondav,  Julv  iS,  a  similar  sunset  occurred,  though  in 
a  modified  form,  which  I  saw  from  Okehanioton,  but  the 
"  bands  "  were  reduced  in  number,  though  they  had  in- 
creased in  width. 

The  following  day  a  heavy  thunderstorm  broke  over  the 
town. 

I  saw  a  tliird  sunset  a  few  days  after,  which  was  limited 
to  one  broad  band  of  salmon-pink  light,  slightly  inclined  tc 
the  right  of  the  sun. 

About  the  same  time  thunderstorms  and  heavy  rains  oc- 
curred in  Paris,  and  a  remarkable  phenomenon  was  seen 
in  the  sky  on  the  morning  of  July  25,  between  nine  and  ten 
o'clock,  numerous  coloured  circles  appearing  round  the 
sun,   like   haloes. 

Faithfullv  vours, 

C.  S'OMERVILLE  W.\T.SO\. 

Battersea  Park,  S.\\'. 


Basaltic    Columns. 

To  the  Editors  of  "  Know  i.i;noE  &  Sc  ientific  News." 
.Sirs, — .May  I  refer  those  who  are  interested  in  the  forma- 
tion of  concretionary  masses  from  organic  nuclei  to  a  com- 
munication on  the  subject  which  appeared  in  the  (Icoloqieal 
Maiaziiie  of  August,  1892?  I  have  not,  as  yet,  had  reason 
to  change  the  views  expressed  therein. 
Vours  very  faithfullv, 

cecil'c.vrls-wii.son. 

Royal   Societies  Club,   S.W. 


The     "Flight"    of    Flyingr    Fishes. 

'I'o  tiic  Editors  of  "  Knowi.edc.e  .V  Scientuu-  News." 
-Sirs, — The  question  of  the  flight — so  called—  of  living 
fishes  is  brought  up  again  by  the  interesting  notice  of  Colonel 
Dunford,  who  has  not,  however,  in  my  opinion,  made  out 
his  case.  During  twenty  years  passed  at  sea,  and  at  inter- 
vals since  then,  I  have  soeci.-dly  studied  this  mailer,  and 
I  am  convinced  that  the  fish  does  not,  and  cannot.  Ilv  as 
birds  do. 


The  flving  fish  projects  itself  into  the  air  by  means  of  its 
powerful  tail,  and  it  is  sustained  there,  often  for  a  consider- 
able time,  by  the  extension  of  its  large  pectoral  fins.  A 
rise  in  the  "  flight  "  may  sometimes  be  noticed,  but  that 
is  merelv  due  to  a  heave  given  by  the  air  forced  up  by  a 
wave  crest.  The  fish,  which  apparently  floats  in  the  air 
at  an  angle  of  35°  with  the  sea  level,  will  be  seen  to  fall 
into  the  water,  but  instead  of  getting  submerged,  it 
receives  a  fresh  impetus  and  again  projects  itself  upwards. 
The  active  little  anral  fins  assist  the  tail,  but  the  pectoral 
fins  are  incapable  of  other  movement  than  the  fore  and  aft 
motion,  which  exiends  them  when  the  fish  rises  from  the 
water,  and  folds  them  close  to  the  body  when  it  swims  in 
the  sea. 

In  a  calm  sea  flying  fish  are  seldom  noticed  out  of  the 
water,  and  when  they  are  the  "  flight  "  is  extremely  short, 
nothing  more  than  a  jump,  in  fact.  As  a  rule,  the  fish 
flics  up  against  the  wind  ;  should  it  catch  them  sideways  they 
go  off  at  a  tangent,  and  a  breath  of  air  from  an  unexpected 
quarter  will  often  turn  them  right  over. 

I  had  a  flving  fish  alive  for  a  time,  and  was  able  to  study 
the  motion  of  the  fins  in  water.  Out  of  water,  the  pectoral 
fins  soon  get  quite  dry,  a  fact  which  would  of  itself  be  a 
bar  to  real  flight. 

It  is  useless  to  look  for  information  which  mipht  be 
turned  to  practical  application  in  the  construction  of  aero- 
machiues  by  the  observation  of  the  movements  of  flving 
fishes.  It  is,  however,  quite  possible  that  much  mi'rht  be 
learned  from  observations  of  the  flight  of  the  albatross  and 
kindred  birds. 

Faithfully  yours, 

D.  WILSON-BARKER,  R  N.R. 

H.M.S.    JTorcrsfer,  Greenhithe. 


Average    Rainfall. 

To  the  Editors  of  "  Knowledge  &.  Scientific  News." 

.Sirs, — Assuming  the  rainfall  during  the  first  six  months 
of  the  year  has  far  exceeded  the  average,  is  it  not  fair  argu- 
ment to  assume  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  six  months 
that  the  remaining  rainfall  for  the  year  will  be  deficient? 

Faithfullv  vours, 

R.  M. 
[From  an  analvsis  of  the  Greenwich  rainfall  records,  for 
the  91  years  1815-1905,  it  appears  that  the  rainfall  for  the 
first  half  of  the  year  was  above  the  average  on  43  occasions ; 
of  these,  the  rainfall  of  the  succeeding  six  months  was  above 
the  average  on  20  occasions,  but  below  it  on  23.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  reasonable  data  for  founding  a 
forecast  of  the  coming  season   from  these  figures. — W.M.I 


Brakes. 

To  the  Editors  of  "  Knowlkix.e  &  Scientific  News." 

Sirs, — The  action  of  railway  brakes  was  investigated 
at  considerable  length  in  a  paper  published  a  few  years  ago 
by  Professor  A.  Sommerfeld,  of  the  Technischc  Hochschule, 
.\achen. 

I  cannot  lay  hands  on  my  copy  at  the  present  instant,  and 
should,  therefore,  not  have  referred  to  the  matter  hut  for 
the  very  inconclusive  arguments  used  in  the  discussion  !n 
Vdur  columns.  .\  reference  to  the  paper  appeared  in  Kafiit-'. 
at  the  time,  and  I  have  no  doubt  Professor  SommerfeiJ 
would  send  a  reprint  to  anyone  interested  in  the  matter. 

A  complete  investigation  requires  account  to  be  taken  of 
the  differences  which  exist  between  the  co-eflicients  of  rolling 
and  sliding  friction,  and  the  fact  that  the  co-eftlcient  of 
sliding  friction  depends  on  the  relative  velocity  of  the  parts 
ihat  ore  sliding  on  one  another.  These  dilTerences  arc  not 
mentioned  in  elementary  text-books,  and  the  data  requiro-J 
for  solving  the  problem  are  necessarily  based  on  the  results 
of  experiment.  I  am  practically  certain  that  Professor  Sont- 
metfeld  found  that  the  maximum  efliciency  was  not  in 
general  obtained  when  the  wheels  were  locked. 

G.    11.    BR^.\N. 


44 


KNOWLEDGE   &   SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


[February,  1907. 


REVIEWS  OF  BOOKS. 


ASTRONOMY. 

Sixth  Report  of  the  Section  for  the  Observation  of  Vari- 
able Stars  (Mrmiiirs  o(  llu-  15iili'-li  .\--liomiinu:il  AsMuialiiiTi, 
Vol.  XV.,  pp.  140  with  14  plates;  price  to  non-members  js.). 
- — Of  the  nimurous  observinpf  sections  of  llie  n..\..\.  the 
variable  star  .section,  uniler  the  enerf,'elic  direction  of  Col. 
MarkwicU,  is  by  no  means  the  le.ist  lloiirishinjj^.  X'ari.ible 
st.ir  observation  does  not  necess.irily  require  any  expensi\c 
outfit,  anil  is,  therefore,  peculiarly  attractive  to  workers  un- 
provided with  a  telescope,  or  with  only  a  sm.ill  one,  especi- 
allv  since  the  discovery  of  Nova  Persei.  The  perioil  covered 
bv  the  present  report  is  the  lustrum  1400-11)04,  .ind  a  few 
previous  observ.ilions  are  included.  The  work  has 
naturallv  bei-n  confined  to  fairly  well-known  vari.ible  st.irs, 
of  which  2(1  "  lonij-period  "  anil  two  "  irretjular  "  v.iriables 
provide  the  whole  of  the  5,717  observations.  The  director 
himself,  usinij  a  telescope  of  2,"-inch  aperture,  is  responsi- 
ble for  more  than  2,000  of  the  number,  so  lh;it  he  is  some- 
thinjj  more  th.'in  an  armchair  director.  Of  the  sl.irs  in  the 
list,  X  Cvijni  is,  perhaps,  tlie  best  observeil,  with  508  ob- 
servations bv  13  observers.  Harvard  mai^^nitudes  have  been 
used  for  the  comparison  stars  whenever  |)ossible  in  order  to 
make  the  results  strictiv  comparable  with  those  of  Harvard 
Collefje  Observatory.  The  observ.ilions  have  been  printed 
very  fully,  each  day  and  each  observer  beinij  given 
separatelv  in  every  case,  and  the  resultihpf  mat^nilude  com- 
p.'ired  with  th;it  c.-ilculaled.  The  plates  tjive  the  results  in 
di.ij^-rammalic  form  with  dots  for  measures  and  curves  for 
observed  and  calculated  light-curves.  The  labour  involved 
in  the  comiHil.ilions  and  preparation  for  press  must  have 
been  considerable,  and  in  this  the  director  acknowledges 
valuable  assistance  from  Mr.  C.  L.  Brook,  who  also  con- 
tributed largely  towards  the  expense  of  printing,  which 
would  have  been  too  great  for  the  .Association,  but  which 
was  met  bv  gr.ants  and  subscriptions  from  the  .\ssociation 
and  the  Roval  Societv  (Government  Grant  Committee), 
and  two  of  the  observers,   Messrs.   Brook  and  W'orssell. 

Astronomical  Calendars  for  1907. — We  have  received  from  Mr. 
Arthur  Mee,  of  Llanishen,  Cardiff',  a  copy  of  his  "  Heavens  at  a 
Glance,  1907,"  price  yd.,  post  free.  On  the  one  side  appears  two 
star  maps,  which,  to  use  Mr.  Mee's  own  words,  are  "intended 
only  for  those  who  have  no  access  to  a  planisphere  or  a 
celestial  globe  or  atlas,"  and  on  the  reverse  a  calendar  for  the 
year  together  with  useful  astronomical  information. 

Also  received,  too  late  for  notice  in  our  last  issue,  was 
Hirschfeld's  Star  Calendar  (Hirschfeld  Bros.,  Ltd.,  Furnival 
Street,  is.  net)  for  this  year.  This  consists  of  the  4  cards,  as 
in  previous  if  sues,  each  card  giving  a  rough  but  clearly 
marked  chart  of  the  constellatioDS  for  three  months,  also  a 
monthly  calendar. 

BOTANICAL. 

New  Creations  in  Plant  Life,  by  W.  S.  Harwood  (Mac- 
millan  and  Co.). — Mr.  Harwood  is  obviously  to  a  great 
extent  blinded  by  hero-worship,  and  his  knowledge  respect- 
ing fhe  creation  of  plants,  as  he  is  pleased  to  style  what  is 
usually  known  as  hybridisation,  appears  to  be  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  work  done  by  Burbank,  otherwise  the  introduc- 
tory remark  that  his  hero  "  is  the  foremost  plant-breeder  in 
the  world,"  and  that  "  he  has  produced  more  new  forms  of 
plant  life  than  any  other  man  "  would  have  been  to  some 
extent  qualified.  Burbank  has  undoubtedly  done  some 
good  work,  and  has  given  to  the  world  many  improved 
plants  of  sterling  value,  and  a  straightforward  account  of 
his  accomplishments  and  methods  would  have  been  wel- 
comed by  all,  but  unfortunately  such  practical  matter  is 
completely  swamped  by  a  superabundance  of  rhetorical 
flourish  that  the  subject  proper  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
locate.  "  Speaking  of  making  a  blue  rose,  he  (Burbank) 
said  it  was  one  of  the  easiest  things  in  the  world  if  one 
should  set  out  diligently  about  it,  but  it  would  consume  verv 
>nuch  time  in  the  making,  and  it  would  be  doubtful  after  all 
if  it  added  much  to  the  charm  of  this  rare  flower.  He  ha; 
studied  the  rose  with  great  care,  and  he  has  seen  in  the 
consideration  of  its  colouring  an  easy  avenue  to  a  land  of 
blue  roses."  We  sincerely  trust  that  Burbank  mav  be 
induced  to  reconsider  his  decision,  and  make  a  blue  rose; 
many  people  have  already  attempted  to  do  so,  but  without 


success.  Kverybody  desires  a  blue  rose,  .inil  if  the  only 
person  in  tlie  world  cap.'ible  of  creating  u\n:  declines  to  do 
so,  the  oppoiUmity  will  probably  be  lost  fur  ever.  We  arc 
told  that  Burb.ink  li.is  cle.irly  demonslrated  the  utter 
f.ill.icv  of  the  Meiidelian  L.iws,  ;md  has  ;ilso  brought  to 
light  the  absurdily  of  the  gener.ally  ;icknowl(dged  statement 
that  "  .acquired  characters  .-uc  never  transmitted."  On  the 
other  h.iiul  he  has  established  the  opposite,  that  acquired 
characteristics  are  the  only  ones  that  .are  transmitted. 
I'uller  details  on  these  points  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 

CHEMICAL. 

Practical  Physical  Chemistry,  by  .\.  hindl.iy,  M.A.,  rh.D., 
O.-Sc,  pp.  xii.  .inil  ^Sj  (London:  Longm.ins,  Green  and 
Co.  ;  4s.  ()d.)  Most  ilemenl.uy  books  of  chemical  analysis 
include  a  number  of  physical  exercises,  such  .is  the  deter- 
mination of  the  specific  gr.avily,  molecul.ar  weight  by  diCfer- 
enl  methods,  .and  so  on  ;  but  we  know  of  none  which  deals 
solely  with  the  physical  side  of  the  science.  'I'here  are,  it  is 
true,  several  large  manuals,  such  as  Ostvvald's  text  book, 
but  these  are  far  loo  .advanced  for  the  beginner,  and  hence 
there  is  every  reason  for  the  existence  of  a  book  like  that  of 
Ilr.  Findlay  which  sh.ali  serve  as  ;i  |jractic:il  physical  guide 
to  the  general  student  of  chemistry.  The  work  includes 
chapters  on  density,  thermal  .and  optical  measurements, 
molecular  weight,  electrical  conductivity,  electromotive  force, 
.and  the  velocity  of  chemical  reaction.  It  is  very  clearly 
written,  and  in  each  case  good  descriptions  with  illustra- 
tions of  the  necessary  .apparatus  .are  given,  together  with 
lesl  exercises  in  the  use  of  this  ap|);iralus.  The  author,  who 
is  a  lecturer  on  physical  chemistry  in  the  L'niversitv  of  Bir- 
mingham, is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  success  of  his  at- 
tempt to  provide  a  suitable  lillle  text  book  for  use  in 
schools  and  universities. 

Problems  in  Animal  Metabolism,  by  J.  B.  I.eathes  (Lon- 
don :  Murray,  igob;  pp.  viii  +205  ;  price  7s.  6d.  net). — That 
the  contents  of  this  little  volume— which  is  practically  the 
report  of  a  course  of  lectures  given  in  the  Laboratory  of 
London  LIniversity,  a  couple  of  years  ago — are  thoroughly 
to  the  point  and  up  to  date,  we  have  not  the  slightest  doubt. 
H,  however,  the  work  is  intended  to  appeal  to  any  other 
class  of  readers  than  the  student — and  students  of  a  rathct 
specialised  type — it  should  have  been  written  in  a  much 
less  "  cut-and-dry  "  style.  When  we  first  opened  it,  ws 
hoped  to  find  in  this  volume  a  readable  account  of  the  won- 
derful chemical  processes  which  are  constantly  taking  place 
in  the  human  body.  To  our  great  disappointment,  we 
found  that  llie  book  is  absolutely  unreadable  except  by  a 
professed  chemist  and  physiologist.  Had  the  author  but 
taken  as  his  model  the  admirable  articles  on  the  "  New 
Chemistry  "  which  have  recently  appeared  in  the  Cornhi!'. 
Magazine,  he  might  have  produced  a  work  which 
would  have  been  an  acceptable  and  useful  one  to  scientific 
men  who  are  not  specialists  in  chemistry  and  physiology,  as 
it  no  doubt  is  to  those  who  devote  their  attention  to  these 
blanches  of  science.  The  author's  style  is  also  capable  of 
much  improvement  ;  the  commencement  of  two  consecu- 
tive sentences  on  page  31  with  the  word  "  but,"  being  a 
glaring  example  of  one  of  his  common  failings.  As  we  have 
said,  the  work  is,  no  doubt,  admirable  for  students  of  meta- 
bolism, but  it  may  be  hoped  that  in  a  second  edition  it  will 
be  so  modified  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  wider  circle 
of  readers. 

METEOROLOaiCAL. 
Meteorology  in  Mysore  for  1905.  Thirteenth  Annual  Re- 
port, by  John  Cook,  M..\.,  F.R.S.E.  (Bangalore,  igo6; 
4to  56  pp.  and  8  pl.ates). — This  volume  contains  the  results 
of  the  meteorological  observations  made  at  Bangalore 
(3,021  ft.),  Mysore  (2,518  ft.),  Hassan  (3,001  ft.),  and  Chital- 
drug  (2,405  ft.)  during  the  year  igo5.  'Lhe  following  are 
the  averages  of  some  of  the  results  for  the  thirteen  years 
1893-1905  :— 

Bangalore.       Mysore.         Hassan.      Chilaldrug. 
Temperature-  00^0 

Mean        740  75-5  721  76-8 

Mean  Maximum  84  9  S64  83-2  87  o 

,,       Minimum  64-4  65-8  62-4  tty-i 

Daily  Range       20'5  206  20-8  ig-6 

Rainfall- 
Total         ...         ...     34'68ins.    30-77iDS.    sS'ijins.    2522ins. 

No.  of  Rain  Days         104  103  124  Sg 


February,  1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC   NEWS. 


45 


Observations    and    Investigations    made    at    the    Blue    Hil 

Meteorological     Observatory,     Massachusetts,     U.S.A..     in     the 
years    1903    and    1904,   undi.r   the   direction   of  A.   Lawrence 
Rotch  (Cambridge,   1906;  410.  74  pp.).— The  Blue  Hill  Ob- 
servatory- was  founded  by   .Mr.  Rotch  on  January  30,   1885, 
and  the  main   object  of  its  existence   is  scientific   research. 
Intimate  relations  have  been  cultivated  with  foreign  meteoro- 
logists  and   institutions,   and   Mr.    Rotch  has    attended  the 
.Meteorological  Conferences  held  in  Europe,  and  the  meet- 
ings   of    the   International   Cloud    Commission   and    of   the 
Commission  for  Scientific  .\eronautics,  of  both  of  which  he 
is  the   American    member.    The  exploration  of   the  air   by 
means  of  kites  and  lifting  instruments,  which  record  continu- 
ously, was  originated  at  Blue  Hill  in  1.S94,  and  great  atten- 
tion'has  been  paid  to  this  subject  ever  since.     The  present 
volume  (which  forms  Part  H.  of  Vol.  LVHI.  of  the  AnnaJs 
of    the  Asironcmical    Observatory  of   Harvard    College)    con- 
tains the  observations   made   twice  daily  in   the  years   1903 
and   1904,  and  also  the  results  from  the  kite  meteorograph 
and  simultaneous  records  at  the  ground.     In  addition  there 
are    the    following    papers  : — (i)    Unusual    Sky-Colours,    by 
Mr.  -A.   L.   Rotch;   (2)  The  Effect  of  .Meteorological  Condi- 
tions  upon    Optical    Refraction   in    the   Lower  Atmospheric 
Strata,  by  Mr.  L.  .\.  Wells;  and  (3)  The  Errors  of  Absorp- 
tion Hygrometers,  by  Mr.  S.  P.  Fergusson. 
MICROSCOPY. 
The    Principles   of    Microscopy,  by  Sir  .\.  E.  Wright,  ^LD., 
F.R.S.,    &c.   (London  :    .\.    Constable  and   Co.,   Ltd.,    1906, 
xxii.  and  250  pp.,   iS  plates  and  97  figs,  in  text;  price  21s. 
net.). — With  Sir  A.   E.    Wright's   intention  in   writing  this 
book  we  are  in  complete  sympathy.     There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  users  of  the  microscope  as  a  body  are  content  with  too 
much   ''rule  of  thumb  "  and  too  little  "  reasoned  action," 
and  that  they  fail  accordingly  to  get  the  best  results  out  of 
their  instruments,  even  where  such  results  are  imperatively 
necessary  to  them.     In  endeavouring  to  persuade  the  worker 
with    the  microscope   that   his  methods  are  capable  of   im- 
provement, and  in  leading  him  up  to  such  improvement  by 
a  careful   enunciation  of  principles,  based  upon  demonstra- 
tion   and  experiment,    Sir  .\.    E.   Wright   has    done    much- 
needed  work.     It   is,  however,  somewhat  doubtful   whether 
he  has  not  over-shot  the  mark  and  gone  over  the  heads  of 
the  larger  audience  whom  he  would  no  doubt  have  wished 
to   reach.     In   the  first  place,    the  book,  beautifully  printed 
and   illustrated  though   it   is,  is  unquestionably  costly,  and 
this  alone  would  limit  its  usefulness  ;  in  the  second  place,  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  it  does  not  deal  too  much  with 
principle  and  too  little  with  practice  to  attract  the  average 
worker.     In  this  connection  it  must  be  borne  in   mind  that 
the   book    is  admittedly   written   for  the   "  rule   of  thumb  " 
worker,  and  not  for  the  student  of  microscopical  optics,  but 
the  average  worker,    unfamiliar   with  optics,   would   find  it 
dillicult  to  follow  or  appreciate  the  sequence  of  the  reason- 
ing, or  to  realise  where  he  was  to  get  his  equivalent  return 
for  the  "  intellectual  effort  "  which  the  author  demands  of 
him.     The  method  of  dealing  with  the  subject  is  unfamiliar, 
and  the  phraseology,  and  sometimes  even  the  words,   more 
unfamiliar  still,  but  the  experiments  are  of  the  simple  and 
easily   performed,  yet   ingenious   and    instructive,   character 
which  we  have  learned  to  expect  of  the  author.     The  optical 
principles,     however,     gain     largely    as     addressed    to     the 
ordinary  reader,  from  an  almost  entire  avoidance  of  mathe- 
matic.'il  expression,  and  the  exposition  of  them  leaves  upon 
the  technical  reader  an  impression  of  much  originality.     It 
is  in   the  practical   ap|)lications  of   the  theories  so  carefully 
built   up   that   the   worker    will    find    most    disappointment, 
inadequacy,    and   in    some    instances   even    misdirection,    as 
where   he   is   instructed  (on    p.    174)   to   use  a  plane  mirror 
with  the  sub-stage  condenser  with  daylight,  and  a  concave 
mirror  with  lamp-light  ;  to  obtain   a  "  sharper  "   image  by 
cutting    down    the    condenser  beams   "  severely  "    with    the 
diaphragm  ;  and  by  statements  that  a  too  thin  cover-glass  is 
corrected  for  by  shortening  the  body  tube,  and  a  too  thick 
one  by  lenethening  it  (p.  20^).     The  author  appears  to  con- 
sider the  .\bbe  condenser  witVi   its   enormous  spherical   and 
chromatic    aberrations    as    effective    as    an    aplanatic    .and 
achromatic  condenser,  and  vet  we  see  him   in   Chapter  xv. 
endeavouring  to  get  rid  of  the  aberrations  caused  by  the  use 
of  the  former   condenser   combined  with   a   concave  mirror 
and  an  incandescent  l.imp,  by  culling  down  the  beams  from 


the   latter   by  a   screen   placed  immediately   before    it,   the 
lamp  being  apparently  placed  so  close  to  the  microscope  as 
to  be  in  the  principal  focus  of  the  concave  mirror.     Methods 
of  measuring  the  magnification  of  an  object — though  atten- 
tion  is    not   called    to   this — and   the   magnifications  of    ob- 
jectives and  eyepieces  are  dealt  with  in  original  ways,  which, 
however,  seem  to  us  to  have  no  superiority  over  the  better- 
known  but  untouched-on  methods.    The  author  very  frankly 
expresses  his  indebtedness  to  Mr.  J.   W.  Gordon   for   much 
help  and  suggestion,  but  undue  prominence  would  seem  to 
be  given  to  the  latter's  very  interesting  and  ingenious,  but 
noiie   the   less   still    debatable,   theories.        In    particular,   it 
would  have  been  well  if  Sir  A.  E.  Wright  had  laid  greater 
stress  on  the  limitations  of  Mr.    Gordon's   much-advertised 
method    of    improving    the    image    given    by     high-power 
oculars,  and  his  own  appraisement  of  the  "  achievement  " 
that  it  may  "  carry  us  to  a  higher  limit  of  resolution  "  by 
enabling  the  optician  to  correct  his  lenses  somewhat  more 
easily!     It   would    save    much    irresponsible    talk    as    to   a 
newlv-realised    magnification   of    10,000   diameters,    coupled 
with   suggestions  that   Mr.   J.    Butler   Burke's   "  radiobes  " 
should  be  inspected  by  them  without  delay  I 
PHOTOGRAPHY. 
The       Complete       Piiotographer,       by     R.     Child     Bayley 
(London:   .Methuen   and  Co.;  price  los.  (>d.   net.). — This  is 
the  fourth  volume  of   a  series   of   which   "  The   Complete 
Motorist,"   "The   Complete  Golfer,"  and  "The  Complete 
Cricketer,"  are  the  other  three,  but  there  is  nothing  of  a 
sporting  character  in  it.     It  is  a   straightforward  treatise, 
beginning    with    historical    matters   and    concluding    with 
chapters  on  pictorial  photography,  exhibitions,  and  societies. 
It  is  neither  an  instruction  book  nor  a  guide  to  the  science 
of  the  subject ;  it  includes,  as  the  author  himself  says  in  the 
preface,  very  few  formulae,  and  yet  it  contains  a  great  deal 
ot  information  .set  down  in  a  rather  diffuse,  but  eminently 
readable  style.     Every  few  pages  there  is  a  reproduction  of 
a  notable  photograph,  printed  on  special  paper,  and  of  these 
there  are  more  than  sixty,  intended  presumably  to  show  the 
reader  some  of  the  best  work,  that  he  may  know  the  sort 
of  result  that  he  should  aim  at.    The  frontispiece  is  a  fine 
photogravure     portrait     of     Henry     Irving,     by     William 
Crooke.     After  about  four  hundred  pages  of  subject  matter 
there  follows  a  very  copious  index.    .As  already   stated,   it 
does  not  claim   to   be   what    is  generally   understood  as  a 
student's  book.      He  who  seeks  information  on  any  particular 
subject   will  almost  certainly  find  a    suitable   entry  in   the 
index,  and  on  turning  to  the  page  indicated  he  may  learn 
much,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  find  that  the  subject 
is  merely  talked  round,  or  that  it  is  summarily  dismis.sed 
with  a  mere  reference,  or  an  expression  of  disapprobation. 
The  author  holds  some  views  that  other  authorities  would 
regard  as   unsound,    as,  for  example,   that  levels   on   hand 
cameras  are  of  very  little  use  because  they  cannot  be  seen 
at  the  same  time  as  the  finder,   and  that   for  architectural 
work  they  arc  not  sensitive  enough.     Doubtless,  this  is  oc- 
casionaliv  true,  because  of  bad  design  or  inferior  workman- 
ship, but  it  ought  not  to  be  so.     On  the  whole,  the  advice 
given  is  good,  and  in  those  cases  where  one  is  inclined  to 
disagree  with   it,   it   is  entitled   to    respectful    consideration 
because  of  the  experience  of  the  author.    Those  who  like 
reading  about   photographic   methods  and  similar  subjects, 
and  arc  tired  of  the  innumerable  little  guide  books  that  are 
constantly  being  produced,  will  appreciate  this  volume,   for 
it  is  essentially  a  book   to  be   re.ad,  rather  than  a  work   of 
reference. 

ZOOLOGICAL. 
We  have  to  acknowledge  the;  receipt  of  a  copy  of  an  article 
0:1  ••  Snake  Feeding  at  the  Zoo,"  reprinted  from  the  January 
number  of  the  Humaiiifarian  Hcvinr.  The  practice  ot 
feeding  these  reptiles  with  living  animals  is  strongly  con- 
d'^mned  ;  and  it  is  urged,  on  the  authority  of  the  Director 
of  the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  that  "  dead  meat  "  will 
equally  well  serve  the  purpose. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
The  Scientist's  Pocket  Book  and  Di.iry  (James  WooUey,  Sons 
aivl  Co.,  Ltd..  M.inchester ;  is.,  cloth;  (k1.,  pajxT  cover). — 
This  is  a  capital  little  book,  containing  a  number  of  useful 
tables  in  all  branches  of  science,  and  a  diary  with  a  week  on 
a  page. 


46 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


[February,  1907. 


Conducted  by  F.  Shillington  Scales,  u.a.,  f.r.m.s. 

Royal    Microscopical    Society. 

DlxKMHKK  iq,  Dr.  1).  II.  Scott,  l'M\..S.,  l>i(.-si(l(.'iii,  in 
the  chair.  Mr.  C  L.  dirties  pro.v.'iitccl  to  the  .Society 
:i  dissectiiii^  .stanil,  made  by  the  htto  l.atiiinr 
Chirke,  C.K.,  and  a  li\c-box.  Mr.  Conrad  Hock  ex- 
hibited a  new  form  of  hand  demon.stralion  microscope 
for  low-power  objecl.s  for  use  in  clas.ses.  .Sonie  slide.s 
.selected  from  the  collection  presented  to  the  Society  1)\ 
Mr.  Jas.  Hilton,  were  also  exhibited.  Mr.  S.  Rogers 
re.'id  a  paper  on  "  Microscopic  Study  of  Strain  in 
N'etaLs,"  which  showed  the  nature  of  the  fatifjuc  of 
steels  under  alternating  strcs.scs  of  a  certain  magnitude. 
He  finds  that  the  nature  of  the  effects  in  the  ferrite  of 
steels  is  different  from  that  in  soft  iron,  and  the  effects 
in  pearlite  depend  upon  the  type  of  pearlite.  It  might 
be  expected  that  incipient  cracks  would  tend  to  select 
a  cour.se  largely  through  ferrite,  but  important  re:isons 
show  that  caution  should  be  exerci.sed  in  accepting  thi.s 
hypothesis,  and  much  experimental  work  confirmed  the 
fact  that  the  .selection,  though  marked,  is  by  nO'  means 
exclusi\e.  An  important  difference  exists  between 
;;tcels  rolled  or  annealed  below  about  750°  C,  and  those 
anneak-d  at  higher  temi>eratures,  i.e.,  more  or  less 
overheated.  In  the  former,  the  outcrop  of  surfaces 
upon  which  slip  has  repeatedly  occurred  are  very 
numerous,  short  and  crooked,  and  the  surface  parallel 
to  the  direction  of  stress  becomes  ruffled.  In  the  latter 
type,  the  outcrops  are  fewer,  less  crooked,  and  longer, 
and  the  surface  is  practically  unruffled'.  A  relation  is 
found  to  exist  between  lines  which  are  found  upon 
statically  strained  pieces,  and  this  leads  to  the  theory 
that  specimens  of  the  "normal  "  group  endure  fatigue 
better  than  "  overheated  "  specimens,  because  the  per- 
manent and  injurious  micro.scopic  strains  are  more 
minutely  sub-divided  and  uniformly  distributed  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter.  It  is  conclusively  shown  that 
there  is  a  stage  in  the  life  of  a  piece  of  steel  enduring 
fatig^ue  after  which,  though  it  is  far  short  of  final  rui> 
ture,  annealing  is  futile,  if  not  actuallv  harmful. 
Pieces  in  this  stage,  if  heated  to  250"  C,  or  higher,  and 
then  fatigued  to  rupture,  show  heat  tint-marks  on  the 
ultimate  fracture,  w  hich  map  out  the  portion  of  fracture 
which  was  sufficiently  open  at  the  time  of  heating  for 
air  to  enter. 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club. 
December  21.  Mr.  W.  R.  Travi^s  fxhibited  and 
described  an  expanding  central  stop  for  dark  ground 
illumination.  Mr.  A.  A.  C.  Eliot  Merlin,  F.R.M.S., 
communicated  a  paper  on  "  New  Diatom  Structure." 
This  dealt  chiefly  with  the  recent  resolution  of  "  veiled  " 
m.-irkings  on  some  thre^e  species  of  Mclosira,  and  new 
.';econdary  markings  in  species  of  A'avia//c2,  H ralodncHs. 
Aiilodisais,  etc.  The  author  had  also  sent  for  exhibition 
two.  dark-ground  photographs  of  Triceratmm  nova 
Zcalandica,  x  490,  taken  with  a  Zeiss  16  mm.  apoch- 
romat,  N..'\.,  0.35,  and  a  Powell  26  projection  eyepiece. 
The  focus  in  both  ca.ses  was  adjusted  on  the  image  of 
the  apochromatic  substage  condenser  stop,  formed   in 


the  central  areolations,  and  the  single  bar  arm  of  the 
central  stop  was  well  seen  in  many  areolations  of  both 
specimens. 

The  meeting  was  preceded  by  a  drmonstralion  on 
"  Dark  Ciround  Illumination,"  by  Mr.  II.  V .  .Angus.  It 
was  stated  that  to  .secure  the  best  results,  the  nunn'rical 
apertures  ol  objeclixe,  conden.ser,  and  stop,  should  lia\e 
the  ratio  respectively  of  i,  i,  :md  i,  e.g.,  if  the  ol)jecli\e 
has  N..\.  0.33,  the  v.alue  of  the  central  stop  should  In- 
0.50,  and  the  conden.ser,  N..\.  i.o.  Methcxls  of  deter- 
mining the  N..\.  \aliie  of  the  conden.ser  and  of  the  stop 
ret|uirjd  were  given,  and  the  rules  laid  down  were  illus- 
trated by  a  number  of  specially  arranged  microscopes. 
Collecting-  and  Studying-  Flustrclla 
Hispida. 

In  the  "Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science  " 
R.  M.  Pace  gives  a  method  of  study  of  the  larval 
development  of  Flustrclla  liispii/a  which  may  be  of  ser- 
\  ice  in  other  directions.  The  material  was  collected  on 
the  South  Coast,  being  found  abundantly  between  tide- 
marks  on  tiicus,  and  t)Ccasionally  on  other  algie.  l''or 
the  study  of  larval  development,  colonies  of  one  or  two 
scasotts'  growth  taken  close  to  low  water-mark  proved 
the  most  suitable.  .Such  colonies  contain  abundance  of 
spermatozoa,  or  of  ova  or  larvte,  according  to  the 
season,  the  reproductive  period  being  from  i""ebruary 
to  August.  In  pure  running  water  t'luiirclla  hispida 
may  be  usually  kept  alive  in  tanks  for  a  few  days  to  a 
week.  The  larva;  were  examined  in  the  living  state 
and  after  fixation;  the  fixatives  used  were:  (i)  Satu- 
rated sublimate  with  5  per  cent,  acetic  acid;  (2)  5  per 
cent,  chromic  acid,  100  parts,  with  5  drops  acetic  acid; 
(3)  Flemming;  (4)  Hermann;  (5)  Chromo-nitro-osmic 
mixture;  (6)  .Vcetic  alcohol,  with  sublimate  to  satura- 
tion; (7)  Kleinenbcrg.  .After  fixation,  the  material  was 
removed  to  70  per  cent,  alcohol.  Chrom-acetic  acid 
and  corrosive  acetic  gave  the  best  results  for  fixation 
in  bulk.  Larvas  were  isolated  by  slicing  off  the  front 
wall  of  the  colony  with  a  razor;  the  larvEe  lie  just  below 
tills  wall,  enclosed  in  the  tentacle-sheath.  For  isolated 
larvte,  the  best  fixatives  were  corrosive  acetic  and 
acetic  alcohol,  saturated  with  sublimate.  Kntire  eggs 
and  larvEe  were  examined  during  life  and  after  fixation. 
The  latter  were  stained  with  borax-carmine  or  with 
saffranin.  In  some  ca.scs  the  nuclear  spindles  and  the 
yolk-nucleus  were  clearly  brought  out.  Sections  were 
made  from  isolated  lar\-{e,  and  of  colonics  containing 
larva-.  Groups  of  isolated  larvae  w^ere  embedded  to- 
gether, and  sections  obtained  in  various  planes.  In 
order  to  determine  the  direction  of  unorientated  larva", 
a  set  of  standard  .sections  was  prepared  by  carefully 
orientating  single  larvaB,  which  had  been  first  studied 
entire.  To  ensure  thorough  impregnation  of  colonies 
with  larva;  in  siiii,  the  material  was  left  in  xylol  for 
about  a  week  before  being  passed  through  xylol-paraffin 
to  paraffin.  The  most  useful  stain  for  sections  was 
Heidenhain's  iron-ha-matoxylin,  followed  by  eosin  in 
90  per  cent,  alcohol.  Other  stains  were  u.sed,  among 
which  was  Mayer's  muci-carmine,  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  mucin. 

Differentiation    of    Typhoid     Bacillus. 

The  "  British  Medical  Journal  "  gives  a  summary  of 
a  method  advocated  by  Lcefl!ler  for  differentiating 
typhoid  bacilli  from  nearly  allied  organisms,  by  the 
u.se  of  media  to  which  malachite  green  has  been  added. 
One  of  these  media  contains  2  per  cent,  peptone  and 
I  per  cent,  nutro.se  in  loo  c.  cm.  of  distilled  water,  and 
is  neutralised  bv  the  addition  of  t.o6  c.  cm.  of  normal 
potash.  To  this  is  added  5  per  cent,  of  milk  sui,Mr 
and    I   p;r   cent,  of  grape  sugar.     ,\fter  boiling   for  a 


February,   1907.] 


KNOWLEDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


47 


short  time,  and  tlicn  cooling  to  a  gentle  warmth,  3 
c.  cm.  of  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  malachite  green  are 
addetl.  ^^■hen  this  medium  is  inoculated  with  typhoid 
bacilli,  and  with  other  organisms  belonging  to  the 
typhoid  family,  striking  differences  are  brought  out- 
In  the  typhoid  tubes,  the  nutro.se  is  precipitated  in  a 
qLiite  distinctive  manner.  The  fluid  is  coagulated  like 
acidified  milk,  and  alcove  the  coagulated  layer  there  is 
a  clear,  green  liquid.  With  the  majority  of  the  other 
organisms,  such  as  the  Coli  group,  Gaertner's  bacillus, 
and  paratyphoid  bacilli,  active  fermentation  takes  place, 
the  precipitated  nutrose  adheres  to  the  walls  of  the 
tube  as  dirty,  green  flakes,  whilst  some  of  it  is  carried 
to  the  surface  by  the  gas  formed,  and  floats  as  a  dirty 
green  layer.  When  grape  sugar  is  omitted  from  the 
medium,  only  the  Coli  group  cause  fermentation,  and 
they  can,  therefore,  be  differentiated  from  the  rest, 
whilst  other  organisms  have  a  reducing  action  on  the 
green,  turning  it  a  pale  yellow,  more  especially  when 
the  alkalinity  of  the  medium  is  slightly  increased.  The 
typhoid  bacillus  does  not  change  the  medium,  but  only 
exerts  a  very  gradual  reducing  action  on  the  green. 
The  paratyphoid  bacillus  .\,  on  the  other  hand,  turns 
(he  solution   pale  blue. 

Journal  of  the  Quekctt  Club. 
The  last  (NoAember)  issue  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Quekctt  Microscopical  Club  is  in  no  way  inferior  to  its 
predecessors,  and  contains,  amongst  much  other  matter, 
some  most  interesting  notes  and  observations  on  the 
life-history  of  fresh-water  mites,  by  Mr.  C.  D.  Soar, 
from  the  cg^  to  the  larval,  nymph,  and  adult  stages  ; 
an  illustrated  paper  by  Mr.  "Julius  Rheinberg,  on 
"  Stereoscopic  Effect  and  a  Suggested  Improvement  in 
Rinocular  Microscopes  ;  "  and  a  lucid  account  by  Mr. 
D.  J.  Scourfield,  of  Mendel's  "  Law  of  Heredity,"  with 
special  reference  to  its  relation  to  microscopy,  which 
any  who  are  interested  in  this  fascinating  subject,  but 
have  had  little  opportunity  of  studying  it  at  first  hand, 
should  read.  The  Laws  of  Mendel  are  very  nrominent 
just  now  amongst  biologists,  and  have  an  important 
relation,  not  only  to  our  conceptions  of  evolution  and 
variation,  but  to  many  practical  problems  in  economic 
botany  and  geology  which  the  general  public  will 
realise  with  surprise  when  they  are  accomplished  com- 
mercial facts.  There  are  the  usual  reviews,  once  more 
restored  to  the  Journal,  reports  of  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Club,  and  a  list  of  members  and  office-bearers, 
together  with  some  excellent  plates  and  illustrations. 
Microscopical  Material. 
Mr.  J.  Strachan,  (if  Hallyclare,  has  \ery  kindly  sent 
me  for  distribution,  some  microscopic  crystals  of  lead 
chloride  (Pb  CI2).  Mr.  Strachan  says  :  "  The  crystals 
h;ive  taken  several  months  to  grow,  rnd  are  in  the  form 
of  rhombic  plates,  the  usual  form  being  that  of  rhombic 
needles.  They  contain  numerous  cavities,  similar  to 
tho.se  found  in  certain  rock-forming  minerals.  There 
are  also  numerous  undeveloped  crystals,  so-called 
'  crystal-eggs.'  I  find  that  Canada  balsam  is  a  ycry 
suitable  mounting  nv.-diuni  for  crystals."  I  shall  be 
glad  to  .send  some  of  these  crystals  tO'  any  reader  who 
caras  to  .send  me  a  stampi'd  addres.sed  envelope,  a  small 
tin  box  (they  are  easily  crushed'),  and  the  coupon  to  be 
found  in  the  advertisement  columns  of  this  issue  of 
"  KNOWi.ivDr.F.,"  but  I  must  warn  applicants  that  the 
amount  of  material  is  \iry  small,  and  they  will  only 
receive  a  very  small  quantity  accordingly. 

Notes  and  Queries. 

Qiiilitt    ^firriiscnpiiiil    Cliih.      Mr.    Mmlaiul,   h;iving   given 
in>  Ihi'  iKisI  of  IIiMior.ux     li-r.-i^urcr  lo  llic  (Jurkrll  Ckib,  the 


Committee  have  appointed  Mr.  Frederick  J.  Perks,  of  48, 
Grove  Park,  Denmark  Hill,  S.E.,  as  Treasurer  in  his  place 
as  from  January  i,  igoy.  All  subscriptions  and  other  pay- 
ments, together  with  notices  of  change  of  address,  should, 
therefore,  for  the  future  be  sent  to  Mr.  Perks,  as  above. 

C.  J.  I).  (Hatjwar(Vs  Heath). — I  cannot  lay  claim  to  any 
special  legal  knowledge,  but  I  do  not  see  how  there  can  be 
any  copyright  in  microscopic  slides  as  such.  It  would  be  as 
reasonable  to  suggest  that  there  is  a  copyright  in  a  stuffed 
animal.  Therefore,  there  can  be  no  reason  why  you  should 
not  photograph  or  draw  any  slide  you  like,  whether  pur- 
chased or  not,  provided  it  is  your  own,  failinsj  which  it 
would,  of  course,  be  at  least  courteous  to  ask  the  owner's 
permission  to  do  so.  Having  photogi^raphed  it,  the  usual  laws 
of  copyright  will  apply  to  the  photograph  or  to  the  drawing 
when  published. 

F.  R.  H.  S.  (Munirh). — It  would  be  impossible  to  say 
whether  the  times  recommended  in  any  book  on  Human 
Histology  for  fixing  animal  tissues  are  equally  applicable 
to  vegetable  tissues,  without  knowing  what  fixatives  and 
what  materials  are  referred  to.  Generally  speaking,  a  book 
on  Human  Histology  would  be  a  very  unsatisfactor)-  guide 
to  the  preparation  of  vegetable  structure.  There  are  so 
many  modifications,  but  in  nearly  all  cases  the  most  fre- 
quent causes  of  f.ailure  are  insufficient  time  in  fixation  and 
insufficient  washini^  afterwards.  It  would  be  better  for  you 
to  |)rovide  yourself  with  some  well-known  practical  text- 
book, like  .Strasbursjer's  "  Das  Botanische  Praktikuni." 

T.  H.  H[.  (Hnr/ley). — Vou  will  find  very  full  instructions  for 
the  collecting  and  preparing;  of  foraminifera  in  "  Know- 
ledge "  for  January  and  February,  iqo2,  in  a  couple  of 
articles  written  bv  Mr.  .\.  Earland.  Briefly  sunimari.sed,  it 
is  necessary  to  wash  and  sort  the  material  before  proceeding 
to  mount  it.  The  material  distributed  last  month  has  been 
already  washed,  but  it  will  be  convenient  to  pass  it  through 
gauze  wire  of  various  meshes.  Mr.  Earland  recommends 
two  sieves  40  and  120  meshes  to  the  inch,  the  diameter  of 
the  apertures  in  the  latter  being  about 3iii  of  an  inch.  It  is 
necessary  to  "  float  "  and  "  rock  "  the  material.  The 
"  floating  "  is  done  in  bright  daylight,  t|ie  material  being 
slowly  poured  into  a  jar  of  water.  The  sand  sinks  most 
readiiv,  and  the  more  slowly  following  foraminifera  are 
then  rapidly  tilted  over  and  through  the  finest  sieve.  By 
this  means  the  material  is  roughly  sorted.  The  "  floating  " 
is  best  done  in  a  phototjraphic  developing  dish,  the  residuum 
being  placed  in  this  for  a  depth  of  .ibout  a  qu;irter  of  .an 
inch  and  covered  with  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  of 
water.  By  rocking  and  circular  movements  the  foramini- 
fera are  suspended  in  the  water  and  manipulated  into  one 
corner  of  the  di.sh,  whence  they  are  suddenly  tilted  into 
the  sieve.  The  material  must  then  be  dried,  and  the 
foraminifera  selected  under  the  microscope,  for  which  pur- 
pose Mr.  Earland  recommends  a  little  shallow  tray  covered 
with  coarse  black-ribbed  silk  to  keep  the  for.iminifera  from 
rolling  about,  the  specimens  beinir  selected  Iw  means  of  a 
fine  sable  brush  moistened  with  the  lips,  and  then  transferred 
to  a  prepared  cell  or  slip. 

.\s  fixative  for  mounting,  Mr.  Earland  recommends  gum 
tragacanth,  which  is  almost  invisible  when  dry,  and  free 
from  the  objectionable  glaze  of  gum  arable,  and  also  less 
subject  to  variations  of  moisture  in  the  air.  He  adds  that 
the  same  gum,  diluted  to  a  watery  consistency,  can  be 
u.sed  as  a  fixative  for  foraminifera  before  mounting  in 
balsam,  the  gum,  which  must  be  thoroutjhlv  dried,  being 
quite  invisible  in  b.ilsam.  Dry  mounts  can  be  m.ade  in  a 
similar  way,  the  foraminifera  beintj  mounted  between  two 
cover-glasses,  the  lower  one  beintr  blackened  before  lieintj 
fastened  to  the  slide,  and  the  whole  ringed  round  in  the 
usual  way.  My  own  method  is  to  mount  all  opaque  ob- 
jects with  tr.-msparent  backgrounds,  and  to  have  one  or  two 
plain  slides  with  circular  discs  of  dull  black  paper  fastened 
on  them  which  I  can  place  behind  the  slides  when  I  wish  to 
illuminate  them  as  ojiaque  objects.  By  these  means  obiects 
such  as  foraminifera,  mounted  dry,  can  bi'  illuminated  from 
above  ;is  opaque  objects,  or  from  below  with  annular  (dark- 
groimd)  illumination,  as  required. 


[CommiinicalioiK  and  inquirits  "»  Micrtscot-iciit  niiilttn  shoii'ii  h' 
addressed  to  F.  Sliillington  Siiiles,  "  Jersty."  St  ftarniihis  Road, 
Canihridse.     Cfrrrsf'ondfnt^  are  requested  not  to  se'id  stecw'etis  to  fr' 

iuimed  .\ 


48 


KNOVVLKDGE    &    SCIENTIFIC    NEWS. 


I  February,  1907. 


The  Face  of  the  Sky  for  February. 

By    VV.    SiiACKLETON,    F.K.A.S. 


The  Sun.— On  the  ist  the  Sun  rises  at  7.42  and  sets  at 
4.46;  on  the  2Sth  he  rises  at  6.51  and  .sets  at  5.35. 

Sun-spots  may  occasionally  be  observed,  thouj^h  they 
are  not  very  numerous;  solar  activity  appears  to  be 
diminishing,  though  at  the  time  of  writing  there  is  a 
large  scattered  group  visible. 

■Phe  position  of  the  Sun's  axis  and  of  the  centre  of 
the  disc  is  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


Date. 

Axis   inclined 
from  N.  point- 

Centre  of  disc 

S.  of  Suns 

Equator. 

Heliographic 

Longitiidr   of 

Centre  of  Disc. 

Feb.     5      . . 

:;  I"  :: 
,,  20 

..  25  •• 

Mar.    2 

is"    41 'W 

15°    36'W 
17°    22'W 
19°      o'W 
20°     29 'W 
21°    49'W 

6°      20' 

6°      37' 
6"       52' 
7=         2' 
7°       10' 
7°       14' 

37°      5' 
331°    '5' 
265°    25' 

190°    34' 

133°    43' 

67°   51' 

The  Moon 

— 

Date. 

Phases. 

H. 

M. 

Feb.     6  .. 

,,      12   . . 

20  . . 

,,       28    .. 

• 

Last  Quarter 
New  Moon 
First  Quarter 
Full  Moon 

0 
5 
4 
6 

52  am. 

43  P-m- 
35  a  m 
23  a.m. 

Feb.  10  .. 
,,     22  . . 

Perigee 

Apogee 

7 
0 

6  a.m. 

54  a.m. 

OCCULTATIONS  :- 


e. 

Star's 
Name. 

6 

1 

'c 

Disappearance. 

Reappearance. 

Moon 
Age 

Da 

Angle 

Angle 

's 

rt 

Mean 

from  N 

Mean 

from  N. 

Time. 

point. 

Time. 

point. 

d. 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

li. 

Feb. 

21 

i  Geminorum   . . 

var. 

7  II 

70° 

8  29 

288° 

II 

2 

^■( 

85  Geminorum   . . 

S'S 

7     7 

50° 

»     5 

316° 

12 

I 

•■ 

25 

6  Cancri . . 

4  2 

5  30 

69° 

b  31 

302° 

13 

0 

The  Planets.— Mercury  (Feb.  i,  R.A.  20"  55""; 
Dec.  S.  19°  35' ;  Feb.  28,  R.A.  23*=  46"" ;  Dec.  S.  0°  9') 
is  in  superior  conjunction  with  the  Sun  on  the  2nd  and 
hence  during  the  early  part  of  the  month  is  unobserv- 
able.  Towards  the  end  of  the  month  the  planet  is  an 
evening  star  in  Aquarius  and  Pisces  setting  at  6.38  p.m. 
on  the  20th  and  at  7.20  p.m.  on  the  28th. 

Venus  (Feb.  i,  R.A.  i7'»  39m;  Dec.  S.  19°  23'; 
Feb.  28,  R.A.  19"  38-" ;  Dec.  S.  19°  30')  is  situated 
in  Sagittarius  and  is  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  morn- 
ing sky,  rising  at  4.38  a.m.  on  the  ist.  The  planet  is 
at  greatest  westerly  elongation  of  46°  53'  on  the  gth 
when  it  rises  at  4  43  a  m.  ;  on  this  date  the  telescope 
appearance  is  that  of  "half  moon"  -5  of  the  disc  being 
illuminated. 

Mars  (Feb.  i,  R.A.  i^""  43" ;  Dec.  S.  18°  49' ;  Feb.  28, 
R.A.  16''  47";  Dec.  S.  21"  51')  is  situated  on  the  con- 
fines of  Libra  and  Scorpio  and  rises  about  2.30  a.m.  on 
the  14th.  The  apparent  diameter  of  the  planet  is  in- 
creasing as  the  opposition,  which  takes  place  in  July, 
approaches. 

Jupiter  (Feb.  i,  R.A.  6^  g'"  ;  Dec.  N.  23°  25' ;  Feb.  28, 
R.A.  6''  41" ;  Dec.  N.  23°  29')  is  a  very  conspicuous 
object  in  the  evening  sky  and  is  describing  a  short  retro- 


grade"path  near7the]star  v  Geminorum.  On^  the  25th 
ihe  planet  is  at  the  stationary  point.  Throughout  the 
month  the  planet  is  well  placed  for  easy  observation  in 
the  evenings,  being  due  South  at  8.30  p.m.  on  the  14th. 

The  equatorial  diameter  on  the  15th  is  42"-y,  whilst 
the  polar  diameter  is  2"-8  smaller.  On  the  evening  of 
the  22nd  the  Moon  is  in  conjunction  with  the  planet  at 
6.37  p.m. 

The  following  table  gives  the  satellite  phenomena 
visible  between  6  p.m.  and  midnight  : — 


6 

d 
g 

B 

0 
c 

P.M.'s 

H.      M. 

& 

6 
in 

c 

0 

c 

V 

c 

<U 

a. 

I'M.'s 

H.      M. 

6 

(0 

Q 

n 

1 
0 

£ 

0. 

PM.'s. 

H.       M. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Feb 

I 

III 

Oc.    D. 

9  28 

12 

III. 

.Sh.  F. 

10     6 

21 

II. 

Sh.   I. 

7  38 

3 

II. 

Tr.    I. 

1 1    18 

I. 

Tr.  I. 

11    23 

I. 

Ti.  I. 

7  40 

S 

III. 

Sh.  E. 

6     5 

n 

1. 

Oc.  n. 

8  35 

II. 

Tr.  E. 

8    9 

II. 

Oc.   D. 

6    6 

I. 

Fc.  R. 

II  52 

I. 

Sh.  I. 

8  48 

I. 
I. 

Tr.   I. 
Sh.  I. 

9  35 
10  20 

>  1 

I. 
II. 

.Sh.  I. 
Sh.  F. 

65.3 
7  52 

I. 
II. 

Tr.  F, 
Sh.  E. 

9  57 
10  30 

n. 

Ec.  R. 

10  .|i 

I. 

Tr.   F. 

8     7 

I. 

Sh.  F. 

II     5 

I. 

Tr.  E. 

II  52 

I. 

Sh.  F. 

9    10 

22 

I. 

Ec.  R. 

8  17 

6 

I. 

Oc.  D. 

6  47 

■  5 

I. 

Fc.   R. 

6  21 

26 

Ill 

Tr.  I. 

10  12 

I. 

F.C.  R. 

9  57 

18 

IV. 

Tr.  1-1. 

6  26 

28 

II. 

Tr.  I. 

7  49 

7 

I. 

Tr.   E. 

6  ig 

19 

in. 

Tr.  I. 

6  3, 

I. 

Tr.  I. 

9  30 

I. 

Sh.    E. 

7  15 

III. 

Tr.  F. 

9  .33 

II. 

Sh.  I. 

10  16 

10 

IV. 

Ec   R. 

7  25 

II 

Oc.  0. 

10  "51 

II. 

Tr.  E. 

10  39 

12 

III. 

Sh.  I. 

e  57 

III. 

Sh.  I. 

10  57 

I. 

.Sh.  I. 

10  43 

II. 

Oc  D. 

8  28 

20 

I. 

Oc.  U. 

10  25 

1. 

Tr.  E. 

II  48 

"  Oc.  D."  denotes  the  disappearance  of  the  Satellite  behind  the  disc,  and 
"  Oc.  R."  its  reappearance  ;  "  Tr.  I."  the  inj^ress  of  a  transit  across  the  disc, 
and  "Tr.  E."  its  egress  ;  '*  Sh.  I."  the  ingress  of  a  transit  of  the  shadow  across 
the  disc,  and  "  Sh.  E."  its  egress ;  "  Ec.  D."  denotes  disappearance  of  Satellite 
by  Eclipse,  and  "  Ec.  R."  its  reappearance. 

Saturn  (Feb.  i,  R.A.  23^  2"^;  Dec.  S.  8°  14'; 
Feb.  2S,  R.A.  2311  13™  ;  Dec.  S.  7°  o')  is  only  observ- 
able for  a  short  time  after  sunset,  as  he  sets  at  7  p.m.  on 
the  14th.  The  ring,  as  seen  in  the  telescope,  appears  to 
be  nearly  closed  and  we  almost  have  an  edge  view;  the 
northern  surface  of  the  ring  is  visible  at  angle  of  only 
3'-^  to  our  line  of  vision. 

Uranus  (Feb.  14,  R.A.  18^  48-";  Dec.  S.  23°  18') 
is  a  morning  star,  rising  about  6  a.m.  at  the  beginning 
of  the  month. 

Neptune  (Feb.  14,  R.A.  6"  44™ ;  Dec.  N.  22°  10')  is 
situated  in  Gemini  not  far  from  the  star  36  Geminorum. 
On  the  14th  the  planet  is  due  South  at  9.15  p.m. 

Meteor  Showers  : — 


Date. 

Radiant, 

Near  to 

R  A. 

Dec. 

Feb.  5-10  . . 

15- 

,,        20  . . 

h.      m. 
5        0 

15       44 
12         4 

+41° 
+  11" 

+  34° 

ri  Aurigae 
a  Serpentis 
Cor  Caroli 

Slow:  bright. 
Swift ;  streaks. 
Swift ;  bright. 

Algol  may  be  observed  at  minimum  on  the  9th  at 
10.3  p.m.,  and  on  the  12th  at  6.52  p.m. 

Double  Stars.— Casloy,  separation  5"-6,  mags.  27, 
37.  Excellent  object  for  small  telescopes.  The  brightest 
pair  to  be  observed  in  this  country  ;  can  always  be  relied 
upon  as  a  good  show  object. 

K  Geminorum,  separation  6"-3,  mags.  4,  8'5  ;  very 
pretty  double. 

j-  Cancri,  separation  i"-i,  5"-i,  mags.  5-5,  6-5,  7-5  ;  with 
small  telescopes  the  widtr  component  is  readily  seen. 

V  Draconis,  separation  6i"7,  mags.  4-6,  4-6  ;  a  pretty 
and  easy  double,  can  be  separated  by  observing  with  a 
pair  of  opera  glasses. 


February,  1907.] 


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logical. Swmc-out  Subst.iue,  Abbe  Condenser,  Iris 
Diaphragm,  Triple  Xosepiece,  l|  in.,  ,^in  ,  ami  A  in. 
Oil  Imm.  All  as  new,  ^12.  I'irst-class  Beck  Binn- 
cular,  with  much  Apparatus,  (,m.  4  in.  ASTRO. 
TELESCOPE  by  the  oni;,'fal  Wrav.  Finder,  sever.d 
Kyepieres,  (:•,.  Manv  others,  all  kinds  and  maker-,. 
Clarkson's  Second  Hand  Optical  Mart,  338,  High 
Holborn,  London  (.■|./i.i..i(f  Uroii's  Imi  liil\. 

fiN    SALI-:  —Astronom'cal  Tele- 

^^  scope  liy  \\  KA\,  l{  in.  char  iiiH  rtuie, 
eradle  support,  trij-od.  Under.  f;l2.  Anoihick.  by 
Solomons,  3^  in.,  mngnitlcently  made  tlirouKh- 
out,  two  Btcidying  ttle&copic  rods  to  big  ind,  one 
racking  8t.ndyit>g  rod  to  eyepiece,  plow  nivt-on, 
tripod,  will  respond  to  most  ri»id  test.  .1'19. 
Chemical  Balance,  Ah'ate  bearings,  just 
overhauled  by  Or.UTLiNo,  load  100.  seof-it.ve 
j\,  milliLTninine,  cost  flfi,  price  A'6  10s.  Zeiss' 
Prismatic  Binocular,  slingcase,  l".. 
Chronometer  by  Akkold,  IVi.  Transit 
Instrument  by  Tboitobton  &  Sim.ms,  c.ivular 
stand  in  ti'ass.  adjusiirg  screws,  striding  level, 
1'6  lOj.  Miner's  Level,  complete  ;is  m«.  cost 
.i'24,  price  i'7.  Portable  Microscope  m 
case,  by  Bi-:<  k,  IJ.  Society  of  Arts  Micro- 
scope, compute  in  case,  I'l  10s. 
JOHN  LACKLAND,  :iO  lilnekfriars  Street,  Salford, 
-Manchester. 


SECOND-HAND   TELESCOPES 

r)ia.  Dallmeyer,  Kquattnial,  CNick,  complete,  £80. 
4  ill.  Cooke,  Kqiuitoiiai  ;in  I  Cloi  I<.  coiiiplei*'-  £60. 
."iiin.  Cooke.  .\li  i/.,  i  .iTitpirt..-.  i,.;iil\  n.u,  £17  lOs. 

SECOND-HAND  MICROSCOPES 

Baker's  Nelson  No.  2,  complete  |  «.„  _ 
with  acces'^ories,  >  ^^' 

Watson's  Edmuurgh  H  Bac-  )  «--  .- 
teriologieat  Outfit,  (  **'*  ^"^• 

Swift's      BacterioIof,McaI,     best  ! 


liattern,  rnmpletp 


£14  lOs. 


STANDARD  BAROMETER 

by  Paslorelli   &  kapktn.     Perfect  onler,  £4  4s. 
Many  others,  ali  kinds.        Nttv  Lists  on  Application. 

A.    CLARKSON     &.    CO., 

28,  Bartlett's  Buildings,  Holborn  Circus,  London. 

3VIICROSCOI>Yr 

H.  W.  H.  DARLASTON, 

20,  FREtR  ROAD,  BIRCHFIELO,  BIRMINGHAM- 

Preparer  of  all  kinds  of  Microscopical 

Slides  (Sample  -jd.) 

MEDIA   AND  ACCESSORIES   FOR   MOUNTING. 

TUITION    Br   CORRESPONDENCE. 


CIRCULATING    SYSTEM    OF    SLIDES, 

with  great  advantages  to  subscribers.    Particulars 
on  application. 

tm-S,,    .l/ii-r.i.    Jvii/.r,  ,,    „i,i„i.n.   Jan.   '07  issli.'. 

MICRO.  OBJECT  MOUNTS. 

Interesting  Slide;  VOLCANIC  DUSTS,  Vesu- 
vit  s  1900 and  Soufiitre  l*JU:i,  on  one  slip,  1/4  post  fixe. 
9  Doubly  btained  BOTANICAL  Sections.  6  IN- 
SECT Dissectioi.s.  9  Varitti  s  of  DIATOMS 
(some  test).  18  MISCELLANEOUS  Objects. 
Full  iDstructioi  s  for  mouutiag.  Per  Seri.  s,  1/1  post 
free.  Samp  e  section  and  jjrice  list.  2  stamps. 
p^-     See  Mi  ro.  Editor's  remarks,  Jan.,  Uj6,  Is»ue. 

R.  G.  MASON,  69,  CLAPHAM  PARK  ROAD,  LONDON,  S.W. 

i.j    ijcar-i'    rt'i'iitatton    fur    ijtiu.ily. 

LIVING    SPECIMENS 

FOB   THB 

MICROSCOPE: 

Volvox  globator,  Desmids,  Diatome,  Spirogyra 
Amoeba,  Actinophrys,  Spongilla,  Vortioelia,  btenior, 
Hydra,  Cordylopcbra,  Stephanoceros,  Melioerta, 
Polyzoa,  and  other  forms  of  fond  Life,  is.  per  tube, 
with  printed  drawing,  post  free.  Thomas  Bolton, 
Naturalist.  25.  Ba*eall  He>^th  Roaci,  Birminerham. 

MICROSCOPIC    SLIDES. 

Choice  Selected  DIATOMS,  mounted  in  Styrax. 
Large  variety  British  and  Foreij^n  Specimens.    Lists 

tree.    Slides  on  approval. 
"MICRO,"  7,  PARKEND  STREET,  BELFAST. 


OF  THE    HEAVENS. 

30    LAROE-SCALE   STAR  CHARTS, 

CoverinR  the  whole  star  sphere.     Catalo;;ues 

of  Double,  Variable,  and  Coloured  Stars.  Nebula-,  &c. 

Full    Atl«i    Size    21/-    Net. 

THE  CONSTELLMIONS  AND  HOW  TO  FIND  THEM. 

It  I'l. It.--,  .(I": 

N.  Ileinisplieie.  2/6;     S.  I liiiiiipheie,  3/6. 

GALL  A  INOLIS,  23,  Paternoster  Square, London. 

CHANCE:    A   Comparison   of    Facts 
with    the   Theory    of    Probabilities.      Hy 

JoSKi'H    Cohen    (London:     C.    &    E.    Layloii. 
pp..lS:    price  2/.  net).     Author  of  "  Monthly  Ue:).i\- 

iiirnl-;"  and  "  I'rr-M'lil  \'aliir  Tabic?." 

Second-hand  Books  at  Half  Prices! 
New  Books  at  25,,  Discount. 

Bool<<  in  all  hr>in  hes  of  SCII:NCI;  iiil 
NATURAL  MI.STORV  and  or  All  Hxaniina- 
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bfuiclu.     Good  Prii-es  L-ive  '. 
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The  staff  includes  graduates  of  O.\ford.  Cambridge, 
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.Wdress  Mr.  J.  Charlfston,  B.A.,  Burlington 
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don.S.W'. '^ 

CORRESPONDENCE 
TUITION. 

lyiOST  successful  method.  Work  sheets 
"1  a  speciality,  saving  time  and  trouble. 
Every  pupil  treated  individually.  Splendid 
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JOHN    GIBSON,    M.A., 

21.  CHANCERY  LANE,  LONDON,  W.C. 


CLARKE 

Specialists  in 

LEADENHALL  STREET,  LONDON 


&    PAGE, 

Microscopy, 


Students'  Microscope  (New  Model). 

4  Powers,  Eyepieces,  Polariscope,  Spot  Lens,  Live 

Box,  Stage  Forceps,  &c.,  complete,  £4    T    6. 
MARINE  S LI DES.—Zoophytes  fully 
expanded  as  in  life,  our  own  j/reparalion  :  beautiful 
ntounts  of  Medusae,  Mollusca,  &c  ,  Phyliip- 
phoe  with  entire  anatomy  visible;  Insect  parts 
without  pressure. 
Stcck  of  20,000,  all  branches. 
New  Catalogue,  also  Second-hani  List  of  Stands 
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BOTANICAL    MICROSCOPIC 

SLIDES  FOR  STUDENTS, 

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i'l  Is.  per  series;  illustrating  Mitosis,  Lcucoplasts. 
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Anomalous  Stems,  Embryo-sac  Structure,  Pollen 
Tubes,  Algre,  Fungi,  Anthoceros,  Pilixlaria,  ^Iarsiiia 
Iscetes,  Selaginella,  Finns,  etc.  Catalogue  Post  FrL-.-. 
A.  PENISTON,  5.  MontpeUer  Terrace.   Leeds. 

POPULAR    MICROSCOPE   SLIDES, 

For  ExHiutTioN  or  Stchv. 
6d.  eacli,  12  5  6,  25  10  6,  50  £1.  LIST. 

Ht:       CTRRAnc;        '•♦.  Orchard  Road, 
.      fc.      tlJt5AUt,      Kineston-on-Thames. 

BADGER-HAIRS, 

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AND  FINE  PHOTOCRAPHS 

tire  clo.sely  ulllcd.  N'oii  can  jfet  the  be.st 
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.S'l'jKt  ,(  p,),<tiV(rf/.   <lii'ilin'i   '/.im.    far  our  jii'w  haoklrt. 

Taylor.. TAVLOi^t'lloDSOfJ  L'» 


>    nunxi,   LtiCCbTI 


ToIeKramt  : 
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Telsphona : 
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ESTABLISHED      1760- 

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To  improve  your  Telescope,  use 

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do.  Aciiromatic,      of      great 

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do.  Moiiocentric         . .         . .     21,'-     ,, 

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A.  CLARKSON  &  Co., 

338,     HIGH     HOLBORN,     LONDON. 

(Oppo=.ite   Gray's  Inn  Koad  ) 

LIST  OF  FOSSILS. 

JAMES  R,  GREGOHY  &  CO.  have  had 
printed  a  List  of  about  1,000  of  the  more 
common  and  characteristic  British  Fossils, 
(representing  abouc  one-fift.h  of  their  stock  of 
Fossils) .  This  List  is  very  suitable  for  naming 
and  arranging  collections.     Post  free,  3Jd. 

Collections  and  Specimens  of  Fossils, 
Minerals,  and  Rocks  a  Speciality. 

JAMES  R.  GREGORV  &  CO., 

Mineralogists,  &c., 

139,  FULHAM  ROAO,  SOUTH  KENSINGTON,  LONOON,  S.W- 

SAVAGE  CURIOSITIES. 

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logue of  Ethnographical  Specimens  illustrated  with 
Bromide  Photographs, 4'/.  monthly,  3S.6rf.  yearly.  Col- 
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W.  0.  OLDMAN,  77,  BRIXTON  HILL,  LONDON,  S.W. 
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102  &  103,  HINORIEB,  LONDON,  E. 
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313,  HIGH  HOLBORN, 

LONDON,   W.C. 

1^1^      16,  FORREST  RD.,  EDINBURGH. 
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ESTABLISHED    1837. 


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la,  ROSEBERY  AVENUE,  &  15-21,  LAYSTALL  ST.,  LONDON,  E.C. 

vr    SUPPLEMENTARY    LIST  (covering  all  our  latest  inventions)  free. 


Printed  and  I'ublished  for  tlie  I'ropvittois  by  Ki.ni^  Sell  A'  Olli.ni^,  Ltd.,  27,  Chancery  Lane,  London,  Vi'.C.—tebrunri/,  1907.