The space shuttle at work

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The Space Shuttle at Work

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°^ fOOft QUALHY

NASA. SP-432
NASA EP-156

The

Space Shuttle

AtMrk

Howard Allaway

MV\U\, CDSTf IKS
•OUR ILlliSTRAliUt;;

Scientific an J Technical Information Branch and

Diviiioti of Public Affairs.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 1979

\\/^ith the fir^t orbital flight of the Space Shuttle, the curtain rises on an era that

will shape U.S. space exploration for the next decade, and perhaps for the
remaindei of the century. Columbia and her sister ships will be far more than
odd-looking heavy-lift launch vehicles, though they will be that. Each Space
Shuttle will be an element in a total transportation system linking Earth with
space: vehicles, ground facilities, a communications net, trained crews, established
freight rates and flight schedules — and the prospect of numerous important and
exciting tasks to be done.

Columbia will be as different from previous one-use space vehicles as an ocean
freighter differs from the Clermont. Although the Space Shuttle has been a long
time in development and won't be workaday for several years, it will transform
space travel. We will go into space not just to meet the challenge of exploration
but to do many useful and productive jobs, at reduced cost, returning again and
again. We are initiating an era of "routine utilization" of space, and it signifies a
new epoch in the history of the planet.

As the Space Shuttle first ascends above the atmosphere, it is fitting to describe
the new space transportation system; how it came to be, why it is designed the
way it is, what we expect of it, how it may grow. This book is such a description.
All new technologies can be expected to undergo change and adaptation. It is
natural for an endeavor as revolutionary as the Space Shuttle to develop in
different and unforeseen ways. For this reason, an account of the initial expecta-
tions for this remarkable venture should have value. I commend the following
narrative that describes how the United States plans to make space an extension
of life on the Earth's surface.

June 1979

Adlai E. Stevenson

Chairman, Subcommittee on

Science, Technology and Space

United States Senate

1. A Weeks Work 1

2. The Uses of Space 1 1

3. More, Better, Cheaper 21

4. What Shaped the Design 29

5. From Earth to Orbit 35

6. The Amazing Orbiter -tl

7. At Work Aloft 51

8. Airline to Space 57

9. Plans, Possibilities, and Dreams 65

Acknowledgments 73

Index 7 4

Ameks
Work

An UNliKELV LOOKixG FLYING MACHINE Stands On its tail

above the watery, thkketcd Florida xiindscape. The time
is the mid-iyB(>s, and the Space Shuttle preparing for launch
is one of a fleet of four that now plies routinely, about one
round trip a week, between the United States and Earth orbit.

The first true aerospace %ehiclt, the Shuttle takes off like
a rocket, operates in orbit as a spacecraft, and lands like an
airplane. To do this takes a complex configuration of three
main elements: the Orbiter, a deita-w inged spacecraft-aircraft,
about the length of a twin-jet commercial airliner, but much
bulkier, and built to last for at least UK) flights; a dirigible-
like expendable External Tank, containing half a million gal-
lons of propellants, secured to the Otbiter's belly; and, at-
tached to the sides of the tank, a pair of reusable Solid Rocket
Boosters, each longer and fatter than a railway tank car.

The countdown clocks blink to zero on the consoles in
Launch Control at the Kennedy Space Center, in Mission Con-
trol at the Johnson Space Center, Texas, and in the Shuttle's
cabin. Three main engines in the Orbiters stem ignite, gulp-
ing liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the External
Tank through feedlincs thicker than a mans body. As they
build to 90 percent of full power, in about four seconds, the
two Solid Rocket Boosters begin firing in a storm of flame
and smoke. The whole assemblage rises from the same mobile
launching platform that was once used for Saturn V rockets
that sent Apollo astronauts to the Moon.

Clear of the servicing tower, the Shuttle turns toward its
destin,ition in space and begins arcing over on its back — the
crew heads-down, the tank and boosters on top of the upside-
down Orbiter — and slants up over the open Atlantic, its
direction controlled by slight sniveling of the engines and
rocket nozzles. In their spacious cabin up front, the crew of
three astronauts and a scientist feel no more acceleration than
a comfortable three times normal gravity. They wear ordinary
clothes, work at room temperature, and breathe normal air
at sea-level pressure.

After two minutes of flight. 50 kilometers (M miles) up,
the two solid-fuel boosters, their work done, burn out, are cut
loose from the tank by explosive separation devices, and arc
pushed clear by small rocket motors. The spent boosters toast
upward to about 67 kilometers, then drop back toward the
sea. At 4.7 kilometers each discards its nose cap and ejects a
small parachute; this pulls out a larger chute that, in turn,

pulls out three bigger tmun chutes. These lower che burned-
out Kx-ker case, nozzle first, into the ocean About 2M) kilo-
meters {175 raitesi from the l.utnch site. Watting tugs collect
the |>af,Khittes, attach lines to the rtx'ket eases, and pump in
air SQ that they float horizontally while being umvi ashore
to be fcpacked with propel I ant for reuse.

The Orbiter's three main engines cotitiriue tiring until about
eight minutes into flight, then shut down just before orbital
velocity is reached. Ten to fifteen secomis later the big Exter-
nal Tank, almost empty, is cast off, like the tester rtxkets

Ir» a storm of flatne, fue giaist mcmii diltrer Jmost
H-n:n miUmi pwnJs oi thrud iii (bv tnomt ni of

A slow roll » thi hidJi-dou n. pussthn occMs-f at the u-bkii:,
.uxiiiraihtx d! ,i rt'uahi'iy m'dJ ^-^ ratt:. climb' li>;i,irj fpad'.

After two minuies. .:'>:>!,i »'" ".tU • .'if. S'lik u Qti Joni
ti-v !■! j >o.'..J ri..it.t' .m lUt In'-ifi: anJ J.'oitJ itfiJt- hy

earlier, and folknvs a ballistic rrajcctory I<S5()0 kilometers
down range. Unlike the btx}stcrs, it breaks up reentering the
atmosphere, its surviving tragtT>ents falling into a retnotc
ocean area — the onh- main element ot the Shuttle that dtx.jn't
return to Harth to be used again.

Free of the tank, the Orbiter. after coasting for a short time.
fires its two .small maneuvering engines— fed from internal
tanks— for about 1 05 seconds to reatli orbital velocity of
784"? meters a second i I" 50(5 mph). The initial elliptical
orbir ranges from 111! km (6t) n. mi.) at its lowest point to

The Orbiter in orbit, u irh f.irx'i h.t) Joort don J. hi iiirStt. ami
uiifihllc.-j ..pad. it ^ thruHtri fjtt urutit it in a'li ilirtnion Jt unJ. The
trip ftp Uum thi pud ukis It a Skitt 10 minulei.

ORIGIMAL PAGE IS
OF Pfifm QUALITY

2.S() km I 1^0 n. mi. i at tlic .ipuuw. A sci.ond Sirini; of yS sei-
v)nds. h.iit way ariiuiui the world troin the launch site, rc-
shapis the c-i4i;-sh.ipetJ liiLjht path to a circular orbit, and the
Space Shuttle is ready to ^u to work.

From forward- taiinj; seaf», much like those in an airliner
cockpit, the NASA astronauts ser\ini; as shi;^ coniinander and
pilot now shift to cxcupy orbital work stations facing aft.
The commander, on the left as usual, handles the Orbiters
maneuvcrin^t; and attitude controls. The pilot directs the mo-
tions of a triple-jointed, 15-nieter t50-ft) mechanical arm
in the car^o hold that lifts pavlo.ids out and in. An astronaut
mission s;ccia!i>t and a scienti.st paylo.ui specialist, seated
behind the commander and pilot durint; ascent and maneuver-
m^. now work at stations un either side of th lli^i^ht deck,
-.onducting checks and other chores concerned with ex{X-ri-
ment packages carried in the hold and with satellites to be
deployed, retrieved, or servRcd in orbit.

0\er Australia, .in hour after liftctt. a pair of clamshell
da)fs, split along the top of the fuselage and hinged at the
sides, swing outward to ojxn the full length of the cargo bay.
as big as a trailer truck. On this .'light the payload to be dc
ployed IS another in a series of the oldest kind of workaday
spacecraft, a communications satellite for relayiiig telephone
calls and television programs Ix-tween ctmtinents. Attached to
it is a .solid-fuel nxket, called .in upper st.ige. that will propel
the satellite into a higher. geosynchronou.s transfer orbit. There.
at >^ yOO-kilometers ( 22 >()() mi) altitude after the apogee
mna?r is tired, vehxiiy will ex.ictly match Earth's rotation,
keeping the satellite always over the same area of land or
ocean.

After a lin.il onboard check-out. the satellite and att.ichcd
upper ^tage are nudged out of the bay by cjectiiJn springs and
left free to drift m space. When the ere", has determined that
the s.iteilite .>iu\ its upper st.ige are precisely aimed, and the
Orbitcr h.is moved oH to a s.ift distance, the upper stage is
ignited by r.idio signal from theOrbiier as all cross the et]uat(>r
over South Americ.i.

.\'exr day— il one can measure time by days in a world
where the Sun rises every iiotir and a li.ilf- — the crew change
orbit to rendezvous with .i 9l()t)-kg ( H)-ton) sp' <• telescope
i j meters ( 16 ft) tall ih.it was brought up on an earlier
Shuttle llight. This huge .tnd ptnverful observ.uory has been
designed botli to Ik- serviced in orbit and peri<vltt,i|ly brought

At work aloft. //■( Orhtur pnp.i'i, to Jipt'H iJ 1 t \itliitx
nunhiHUiii Sp,!i.t T(h.','"pt. Tuo ip.>ii-iu'tti.J mtmoii ipiCiulu!:,
piijortH i! fitui (I.Hci.

Moving gi'Rtly away, *hi Or'jkn' ham f/?<, «/,4' HiiHiipehf
unrkhif, it til.

back to Earth for tivt-rhaid and rel.uinch over a itkiirne ai
tfi'tccn to twenty yt\irs. Above tht hazy, turbuk-ni atmosDhcrt
thac blurs rhc view of ttk-scopes on Eanh. the spai't- tek'scope.
its fivt extremtly st-n.^itivt tJistrumcnrs anxK'd and focused by
radis), can sec into suvcral luindred tiroes the %"oiume of spate
Yk'\%v4 by the bifgest groimi-hiisixi ones, observing objects so
far away tfjar their light lias taken billions'''* years to reach us.
The data, transmitted by radio and shared by U.S. and Euro-
pean ;astronomers, are used, among other things, to study
events that hapjx'oed soon after the universe was created, to
watch for new gakixics Ix-ing formed, and to set whether other
stars like our Sun also have planets.

When the Shuttle's flight path has been niatched precisely
with the telescope's, the tnarupulattsr arm is extended- to c.ip-
ture the satellite and stand it tiprighc into the cargo bay. The
pilot and mission specialist put on space suits and cniwl into
the bay tlirou|,'h an airlcKk that lets them out whik" keeping
the air in the cabin at .sea-level pressure. In the first of two
six-hour -work periods they inspect and '^hotrjgraph the tek-
scope,: open its .tceess doors, and make minor correetii>ns and
adfustnients while the scienti.st, a nmmm astronomer "^virh €■'•>
formal ;Ktronaut or ph«t training, watches from the
deck and talks vskh ihen-j by intercom,

fn a .second six !ioui.s next day, after having gone o.tCu *;;
the Orbitef cabin to eat and sleep, the pilot and mission spe-
cialist, again in their space suits, reenter the b.iy, remove one
of the telescopes instruments, ant. replace it with an improved
mode! that hadti't been ready tor the original launch. After
they have returned again to the cabin, the tekscope's various
circuits and medianisms are testcJ remotely by die astronomer
or. the fligltt deck and by grtHind controHtrs. Ir is then pow-
efed up, lifted out of the hcdd by the m,Mi:p»ilator artii. and
set free again in Cfrbit. The Orbiter stands by %'htle the crew
n'ake sute all is working properly, then pulls away to prepare
for its next task.

After the crew relaxes, eats, and sleeps, the Shuttle's sm.tll
ei'igifii's ,ire iired briefly to readjust the orltit ,ind residezvous
witii a ftee-flying spacecraft— also brought up on ars e.trlier
ilight*— that has i«) maneuvering ability, attitude controls,
(5cvver supply, d.na-colleciing ecjuipmetrt. comthutMcations, or
mstrumenss of its own. This is the l.t>fig Dutation Espos'urc
Eaciliry: an etrtpty aluminum caf«ster resembling a huge
Japanese l.mtern, y. bi mcu.rs < ,^l! ft s tall and polygon-

>h.ipkti. Us uutcr Mirt.ii.i.-' wlniuttl tiiC) hi\.-. uua hulu sti.ihow
tr.i'is ■^i.-M.'.w, 'WO ut ?hcii' .it<\;:i '. ths. ] tTiphtT", .uii! tvviJ oil

M r.K .!,..,•. .,,-J M'mc dt'Xi.l i>\(.r, i.nnt,iin (.xjii.rillH«£^ pru-
Mvktl b', NtKHfiNis inj Ln_^i:ivt.rs tit r> and {urticu CiAcrr.
incin .r.iiukH, . ,ini. r•.,Ilv^, „:i.! i:ni»:s;i ,..1 ,,!i,j\uut% I'h
piir-foiii.' ts tu i\pi-.s. \,;riui.s instnuiiL'tii^. in.iuTi.ds, tlcvtrunK
IMTtv .ind. dr-t >il.,.tor-. U) tht sp.n cn\ ironnu-nt liieh
•. .ii.ui.jii c)t, r.,'i •,• ;■! ;\ ip, , M Idr r.iili itii'it. «,' iMiH. r.t\ \. iHurn-
liutLiT. nds ti r si\ ini.nthN . ' iiiiir.-.

. .ii:;.i-|\,4 '..(f ni.iM -I'i.i rl'ui -.i ,i;i. tiM'.ii tlkii Ix-li'- li'.i

H.ui .',..

■•n,.\r>. r- .iH ' fi.d in sli.ift b-:r^;\ (>. ti.;;. th.
l.i-Acr !!'• :iiL;il! iMth :!; .1 .-.If.', iirvs. t.iward r.trrli -l.li ,..r

I't thi. .icr!i<.sp.fk a-.

\,,v, • ■ • -. ,!;i.,i 1 r ;!. ' • • ; rt t>T *l ii

'*'p.i> V ■^Ir.it'k Priyr,!!!-. Mir- n S N'.,.lkiii it' .i %i\iu .i,-, -'Um

d.)\'. (»

Tiii- Ofh.ar rini^r ili.iii_i',i rr.nn .1 <.piA<,i i.tli sd .i-i .Mur.itt

V\hl!c ^l■,■.^l^, • I " ■ .•• < '!'!I..l Nptil! <ii '.- '!• -• "'ii'' ISKU-f-

mph I !i>f LindnL .\!>. At dn .irsnusphcu. ru.uu i;vi, r au i>.
diiru in' ITinu sni.iil ti i.\:>.i\ m '' . 'V"-i ,itt>! t.ul: ift tht

.itrousphcr!-, .lujiutlf ,ukI iJirvi ttiin ,u:c twriirtdlid in' a tun-
Ycmion.d airkraU r«dJi.'r .uui !i,ij5S. Ac nuJdk; sjx,'tH.!^ .itui alti-
rudf», dfrinc •'unrrv itUsi tlu; .unirisphcrr. ro., ktt .a-,] atrii
ilyn.irni: idrufu's smut !h.; -.killtuilv i^Itiidvd. Tli ■ < ntninjiuk/r
and psiut arc .iidcd in this trukv task ky fuc uiinputcr'i on
hcwrd th.ir duidv; \vhah ru. ku-^ si'iuidd be l-ui and k'jr liuw

craft sscaijy and ki-,idcd m ii\v rij^ln dsn-aimj.

tdgiug I'lro thi' atntt/spht-rt. the pdot ii«"> the utitudf-
loriirol dirusa-rs su .mt'Ic du, sirisc up sd di.u du' tr.;!' |ar>ius

S|ifndtnju; tf. •.(in.d.

into the thkhmmi* bl.mkit oi mt at about a lt}-iic|:rct' ang!.; 7
of attack, the term .i4-fon.iuiJt.il t-ufsnecrs ust tti dtsiribc the
upward, si.snt of an aitttatt's !iftM\i: surf.sct'S in rtl.Hiots to its
tiir»;i:tk}n of inoveincnc. Ait triiCi'jn lie.its the Otbttt-r's hf.nil)'
insuiatfd underside ti» tnorc th.in HMHI (", and ioniz.ition of
the surtounding .itnussphi-re bl.itks out tonimiinic.tcion with
tht;|4ri>imd for some sceonds. At about 9,^ kiioiiittcr* ("^8 mi)
altitude the ait becomes detise cnuui»h so tliac .ter»>dvnamit
eoiiifols take hokl and the Otbiter betomt-s a Iteavf glidi-r,
( VC'itiiout fuel tor m main en.'^ines, the craft wouUn't he
.ible to ito atoutid h,it a sccofkl landing approach in c,i,sc' of a
misialcuhition, m an .lirlincr c>Hud; it^ can, howvwt. shift as

Fin,ii .ippfo.K-h

Thesamt' runway

8 mwi'h 4S ilMltl likmK'U'fs t liCH! jni< to thr rijsht or left <>t
its ««ry |\«h to makf 4ti rtm'rijnwy l.ittdiog ,» any «f si-vt-wl
VS. jsrtxwjs ar n«tlary air l\ms. I« such an cvftw. n wtmU
Ih.* tcrtit'J tt» its homi' base on (ht t\»ck ot .t sjH'twlly fmt*J
NASA "4" .ut ir.i«w[xKr. 1

Akwt -iti kslomtfcts abtivc luifth. thf Orbifcr's ikw is
j>usht\! down tw rtfJuix* the angle to alxiui M df|;rt.'€S. At J-i
kilotncti'rs i!'» tnj> height the tiswl appriwih begins, with
ibc <T.iit about *>2 kilomttt-rs O" mi) from tlii" Kenm-dy
Spxv C'i'fttcr. Thf grtar jjlidcr diVt-s tor the runway nose
dt>wri .»t 21 i,k"t»ra's and .m atrspetn! of .dxwt I'^S meters a
stvimd I i*^** mphl. At 120 mncf; t l~Ot) ft) tbe pilot bet:i«s
to tlutctt the ijlide to oisly i.> dt't;rces, tstetids the $l%\\i
brakes, and scttics the ship lor a landing. At *><> ntetef* 1 5tK)
ft*! thf landitJg s^car gtx'.s dtnvn, and setottds t,«i"r the tires
touch lite •t'^'J-JHt'ier t I^IHM^ t't^ vontretc strip— jiiSt thirty
bnsy mimitcs t'rt^m the siiitXJth. silent wcj|»ht{essness oi $i\n:x'.

hntnediatcly attet t!ie laniiidg. gnntnd itwhng equiptnent
like rtwt used tor airliners is attached, and thi- Orbiter is
towed H«o a setvicing buiUing: l.eftovrr frtspellants are
drained from the ranks and keJhnes. and any nnosed explo-
sive actuators are retnoviif. The e.irgo doi^rs are openetl. the
bottg l)«raiit«t Facility is bristed our. jnd tlie vstxTinient
rrays arc distributed to the svsentists whis will study how the
ctMiteiits were aftected by tlieir stay in spMv. After generat
tuaintenantc work on the Orbiter. a new paykiad is lowerctl
into the bay. bor the eoining ihght it is die Spacelab. a cotn-
pk-teiy httetl-oia labotatory. tk-signed and IniiN hy niemlx'ts
t.4 the Iktropean ?^pace Agcncv. «t whk!t lour surnnsts ean
work tor a week to .t n«>nth in an b.arthhke attnosphere
but in liie n-to gravity of orbit.

The Orl>iter, with its new paylo.id, is next tewed tt» the
Veihek' Assenrbly Ikiddinj: originally designed for stackitig
Satutt* ApoOo vehkk'S. ik-rc it is rotated to a vertical posi-
tion and mated surh a nt'w kxternat Tank and reloaded Solid
Rtxkfi BcHistcrs on tiie mobile kitmebiflg ptatforttt.

Ikett on the plitform. as big as a baseball diamond urtd
i.irricd by four eriortnons crawler tratks. the space vehicle
moves skwvlv to the kunuhing pad, More than "00 t«Mis of
siiper-vbideJ propellai^ts are inntsped into the tank, a new
ere« t»f three asff«(»ati!s anti the hiur scientists Ixwrd. and the
Sp.HA- Shtitfk' is ready, two weeks after irs landing, for antrther
working voy,i|»e.

Speed brakes extetidej ( mtit .tplit htiti > el ilu: ritJJtn, th
OfhiSt f It hhl!ti fr> tlx' fk>iu\n Jt mon fhi)i .Jtii) l»i>f(,
i'limptfttf:! .tij th pthHi.

.■..ai-t'-i. r;,iii: i,-,.,-i .',■■',. /•,■'-•!.■ 'I'.t.l'iJ

• -if

■:*ii;i:isiw

1

2.
The Uses
of Space

Tn contoast to the routine two-way traffic made 11

possible by the Shuttle, every paylojd sent into orbit for the
first VKO decades of the space era — every bug, plant, and ani-
mal; every man, w-oman (one, a Russian), and automated
laboratory — rode on the nose of a one-trip rocket that was
discarded after a working lifetime measured in minutes. How-
ever costly, those pioneering ventures into space sent back
startling news of the universe and brought countless changes
for the better in the ways we live: changes in the economy, in
health and safety, in science and technology, in education, in
the protection and use of natural resources, in national defense
and international cooperation.

The first was a re\'oIution in communicauon.

In the middle of the night of July 10. 1962, television relay
stations at Goonhiliy Downs, Cornwall, and Pleumeur-Bodou,
Brittany, picked up a black-and-white picture of an American
flag flapping in the breeze to the accompaniment of the Star
Spangled B;inner. The program was a demonstration being
transmitted skyward from a huge horn-shaped antenna in
Maine to a glistening new Eirth satellite, Telstar I. and down
to a receiving dish in New Jersey for distribution to U.S. view-
ers. Though not intended, the signal also was being bounced
from Telstar across the Atlantic to England and France.

Next day the experimental s.itellitc relayed the first TV pic-
tures westward from Europe. bl.ick-and-whitcs from both
France and England, and within a week the first in color. Be-
fore the month w.is out. maiis audiences on both sides of the
Atlantic watched with awe the first international exchange of
live TV. Viewers in Europe saw the Statue of Liberty, a base-
ball game betwtx*n iIk- Phillies and the CXibs in Chicagt), a
press conference b) President Kennedy, biiflalo roaming the
South Dakota plains, the Mormon Tabern.icle Choir singing
from Mount Rushmon-. Americans, in turn, gvM glimpses of
Big Ben from one of London's Thames bridges, the Coliseum
in Rome, the Louvre in Paris, the Sistine ("hapel in Vatican
City, Sicilian fishermen reeling their nets, reindeer roaming
near the Arctic Circle in Norway.

The trouble with Telstar (and its early successors) was that
it could be used only when its relatively low-altitude orbit of
945 by 5600 kilometers (580 by ^500 miles) brought it
within range of both U.S. and European ground stations for a
few minutes during each 1 5H-minute circuit of the globe. This
problem was .solved the next year by the Syncoms, whose

12 -ipca! in itaular urbi'ts of ^"i SO!) Likmictcfs {22 UM) miles)
.tlxjve chc i.qu.: )r kfpt p.itx- wich Ijnii'.s nst.icioo. i,o chat rhc
>r.Kc-. : it; -■'i'jv.cd tt' 'iiVvcr •..MU'tn.ir-^ viv:.-; flic N,im<.' pL;«.'c en
h.ifdi. hvtii.c ;Ik i.k%tripfioii .n j:u»M.ttK.u.ir\ or ^;;c('s;, ixhru-
ntHiS. Thus uiR- s.trcllitc- toulJ be uslJ lOiitnuioissi) by jjmund
s{.Ki{>ns within it-; siiw, \\hii'h tinx-rtd .ihi««r ,i iliirj of thc
cl' '.V. Tht S\r:t. ••.■•■■- H-! 't.<. r.'i'.ti:' t. .r r^iri th ,n 'iti\ wntii-
!acr..i.it ,uii' I'l >f..fci) io:/itruiii t,,!ts nx-, <-.u:'A\'i.> l.aui.,:K.S diir-
int; the ncxT htrccn years.

Ik-t'ort- chcfiul ai the iS'^tts a <;iub.i! (omsnitiHcauons vifcl-
lifi- sy-.teni, Imclsac. «as tn-iiii:; !i\f ! In iicarh iCtt countrifs —
tr<.)m A{i;h,u5i>r.in u> Zambia — fu cxchaiiiji. TV news, tclc-
phurtc calk, .md !Hl^ifle^s dat.t. It ■«.« eoticinuOH^Iy expanded
XV meet a .".T'mirti; tirnsand (or -Jervite-; M'.Te than a bilHon
pi'upie. uDt uui tit vxerj tui.r ua Larih, vj.uid M-e a niajar c'vLfH
as it happened. li\-e \ ia wteiliEe. W'oildwide investment sn
cumnwnii. afiuHS .satcllice sy.>;£v»i-*i ua.^ snore thai) S! biUion,
.-.n.' n<,cn:iiN "C (.'-.ir'. th sn ^ '!'ii f!dlii>n a vet, iVspif, in-
flation, inttrmatiC'H.d ikU pt..<;i>. wd.N v.er. < lna| ■ r Ui.ui wiien
the first Intelsat bci;,ii5 service m l')6>.

ill ly~J ("asi.ida larauhed rhe hr^r spa^i u lav M.sfioti whi«e
bv ,!tt . .n,i ; b: t,> l;^■,J '<> tal! v, ifii;ii .1 -a-'pii M«antrv. it (h>v\
f;.i. clinx -.i-.it ..!■ !ir, -a!. ,,)iiiia;:;;i-. ..tint;-, -..■.•(.biti^ .ri-.l .1 iitt-
\«.()ik ot htn i;riiiu;i| st.itmn^ NctMni; tlie eiuife eumnr}. it)-
chidiiiu' tar norftsern serrieniciirs tunncilx readu-d unl\ bv
iii»rchaiik' radio, i-our nlmp.ltn^,^ M<>in were jipeiaiiii;; doim-stit
i,t!iHmu!5kacii)ti.i s.triiliti'. 1:1 tiu I'nitei! Slaii..-., and a iUven
udicr KHintrif.'i iiati them. !i\ some dcielnpiiij; nations it \\.i\
L.i-sicr to ni.iki. .t pii.itic t.tll t., .1 in a t!KH,N.Uid niiie^ .u\a'.
dl sM '■> till. ST. \; ;ov, ■•.

Me.uituDt,. a -.erit.'. ni" X.\.~^.\ K%e.Ui l'. saiellus .•> dfiili<')srr.itod
h4n\ spa<.i. ». oiiinnitiKadtvis ..oidd be issetiii ior stub varied
p'T p. -,'_■> I". iwi,--r,>\':'-:i:: i-U\- ittop..d priti:rims .>nd mcdu'al
ia^:nkflOiis .',!>. !l>. ti- r.>):.i;; ! -.idij".-- '.is l-iv, ::<\! l\ :-,
r^icivini; .-ira.tions; provuhnt: eimr^!:iiH\ toinnuink.uiotis m
di.saster anas, searthini; !<»r lust aiur.dt add di^alded ships and
t;iuiiiiic rrsi.itcrs to duin: exili,ini:>rip d.is.sruiim Icirnrcs be
f.scen >"'llt;:eN ;in)!r..crtd% of ii'iks ap.tft. liireifia^i; m: ci..lii<
tar at sea; and brtii^mni: bustncssnu-n ifi ditk-rtnt isUxs t.Ui--U)
late eleuruiuialK- !or two-w.is ^unki; n. ..■,, .ixam tr.mi iin'.i
and fuel.

Wc.'.tiM :.'\>--i.:\,.ihm iroin orbic .[.ikIJi bil..--,',ed '•pan
eumnninRa!iu;)s mai eveuda.y operational .stiviit to nidlioiis

Scanning //-« ;< Ao/i ILtnh.th L.iSDS-iTs

.."( >><,/ /'/.(<;c/.i> 5 ruDnui I. .;'/./ .Cj; t «.',vt.i to

Fetched jauntily «« ^/i iJuhi "■; '. .S/Uti- ,V/-.v,7/c l'ntcr)Tise
.!?»/". Ill it\.i. ii>t Ji h.ii i.i ir, (..//-t I. :')•,,;■ :,<•, i-^i.st > ,il
■ .hi- 'flit-. '<•• /b ('.> I'.i'i'il. /•„'. /■/■,>'' < \lH,..'Jil '.'< *'•" th

mimmAh page is

OF FOOII QUALITY

Odiec ateHi»«s ta tiro-tmt
Nimbm is shown behw) stui'md
beharim of t&e atmoiphett'.

of people .'round the worW. Since 1966 the endre Earth has 13
been photographed daily from space, and no tropical storm has
escaped detection and tracking. Thousands of Ims and billions
of dollars— there is no way to count them precisely— fcwe
been saved by improved forecasts, early storm and flood m-arn-
ings, reports to shippers on wind conditions and iceberg haz-
ards, advice to farmers on %'hen to plant, irrigate, ferrilixe,
spread insecticide.

One kind of tneteorologicai satellite circles the globe on
north-south tracks, looking down as Earth turns underneath.
Its reports are assembled by computers in the United States
to make a complete picture of worldwide m-earher condi-
tions every twelve hours and also are transmitted directly m
hundreds of inexpensi\'e local stations in scores of countries as
the spacecraft passes overhead. A second kind of weather sat-
ellite, in geosynchronous orbit, appears to stand still in space,
keeping continuous watch on a large area— two of them cover
all &i North and South America and the adjacent oceans. They
return a fresh picture every half hour, day and night, to pro-
duce, among other ases, the time-lapse movie strips now com-
monly seen on television weather programs.

Besides cloud co%'cr and movetnents, weather satellites re-
port air and sea-surface temperatures, wind speeds, atmos*
pheric pressure and moiswre content, tainfall, snow cover, and
ice fields. Some collect data from untcnded sensors and gauges
in remote areas, at sea. and on balloons. The pictures and
measurements are used not only for routine kx-al, regional,
national, hemispheric, and global forecasts but also to track
dangerous fast-moving storms: hurricanes and short-lived
sewre thunderstorms that may st-t off tornadoes.

In the mid-1970s observations of iarge wheat-growing areas
of the world from both weather and natural-resources survey
satellites were combined with sarlace information to measure
acreage and estimate yields in a successful demonstration that
crop forecasts could be improved with data from space. In-
formation was gathered not only tnx-r the United States but
also over Canada, Eussia, China, India, Australia. Brazil, and
Argentina, Obviously, early protluction estitnates made regu-
larly in this way could be of signitjcant help in planning food
distribution and .ivoiding the market shocks of unforeseeti
shortages and bumper harvests.

Pictures and computer data from a .series of Earth resources
survey satellites and also from the manned Skylab space .sta-

14 cion wt-rc used sn ikwccis ut w.svs in chc \^>~{h to kip k\k-r.it
•tgcrmt's, sc.ttc Mu'l liK'.il i;i)vt,rnmctitv rt-gk'tuil pLinning
authuficics, prnatL- siidusEfu .Htd h>rcii;n luuiuncs in.in.iijc
'miH-d n.Hural a-sourcc^i ,»inJ mofiitwr the rlirt.".ucnc<.i cnvirusi-

• N',;}->pit«!^ nmuHuin nww ttnrr to torc<..isj spnnj; riuiuft'
available for irriijatiisn >ind power irctK-racioti;

• Dttcaitti; Oil sht.ks ,i( <t.r,

• Clompiknt; a j^iukil atias ot glaciers;

• M.skinii invf ntorics at st.mdimj rimlx-r and i^f.tsslands;

• M.JtSit^^n.ii,' ■>(]•.'.• )rc ilu.n|i.ii^^ ot ^rwa.cc -dud.;!' and mdus-
trii: ••\.i 'its;

• tSlappit\t; tltH)d^ to help in cx.iluatins; damage and planning
relict;

• C'hcikini; 'Hx t!ic cavironmcntal tikrc'- ot dcvelopitii.' tii'w
cncr£:y sources, suih us strip miniiij^;

• Dt-rcttins; potenti.il cardujuakc zohcs as an aid t» pianning
h'.turc v^sniiruition;

• MiMMirii!^;: l-irc:^* i;R d.uria.'r:^' •■::J die cx,\-iu id rkar-.ucnni;
and gypsy-niuth defoliation;

• Trai.itit: air piJllutJin) aiid laic silting;

• Mappini; laiu!-tise vl'.aiu;cs as ast aid to \\ iscr yrban plan-
niiit;;

kiu f-iIiJ up t;t'., .•.'< ifHf/'t <j4 ■i">rt of <'J.-i t.ipi.tir, p.n.

• (.!uniuii\!^ .Mid nictsuriiis; the ari-.i ot dams .hhI l.iki-s;

• \\'>Hi. hiii,u ;:).ttifrs tor M_mi% ot r.ipt>i niuvcitKnus dwt louki
d,un up HJcit waters and l.ucr ciust.- ikxxts;

• Mappini; unthartcd coastal shtsais that could ciu!a«i;t'r

• ^fakln_4 .iiKi apJaCHii: otlscr maps and iiavigatk)i> charts;

• Makii\i; Io\\-i'Om: soil surveys and ^jcologk maps.

The s.uiisijs, 1 omparni with n-v ^ll^t i,f jcritl sarvcuris;,
m.'ik- sKappiru; fruni spa^o au'.atr.^ !.cv. j«;r-.cy. tor iiiStarKc.
■iavcd S2 8 iri.Iljon tn- usitit^ satfilitf iina^t-s to i.tkitlate hcdnh
irosion Anotbir sf >tt taunJ d'at forrtun spue p!< turcs .w.d
OFH anil I hah tiiiii\tars at work, io"«itifsi; >~>0U0, undd
pnuiuic a l.i(Ki-ii\t map that would ha\t laktti 20 000 air-
vfitt phoUK. lorn-tour .n.t'Vi.'- as-o SI" itt'lion.

HjU* .» do/cn h>a'!t;i .lumri. v In'iir th> r iwn ji^roimd sta-
tiot^' hif ri.{ iMft: t'uiM'iisH'onN dirt'cth trom the I'arth survey

• f< Ihti «; \^ht.!t tntrhttd All tht piv!ur<s »*nd data were put
< 1.1^ 1 ' ill -H 1 ftefi. In trc I ^ lXpa*T»r,.iU o! lis-

ti nf It no o... M rpn t. '•iu h(,4<<i»r lH»»t.rs \\<.."e oil and
ini'tiuxvirp 'Mt, , kx k Hi: hi'- !•fa^ . 'nv^ f 1 dril! aivl
d' '. ml '.vtv %rr.!n ' I ir nji --i ■ i'. i <)i r i i i i iK.-xpkifed
rt khis *)l Aliska ( k.nh niofntonnt; I trths shrmkitii; nat-
ural rtsourits kom urht waN the titxt aria ut -»pave activity
u\\ 1 ' r< I tUK fi ( >>nt r(. Ill in "p n. i > a id ! ti'- ic f'nnip-.
I ci;i.i Ui.a -.sK>.is ot h.iH an ,)| >.t >iion il ^ef\K. . s ke those ol-

15

Defatie.! iaiHi-if-c map ' / '• •• 'i-.' .('..•.'t

ti> i'ti,,i' i>'; ti>:".i >it jn.l ,'','..':":> ' S; -i •• "..•,/ i>i

on t iitii I nsifihK .itii.t'i ('I iiiii.i

16 coninuinkjtions and wc.uhcr sattllitcs. should be organized
.liuj m.in.iijcd and the information distributed.

Orhcr Harth-nriciucd satellites dcnioiistraffd spucv-bascd
navigation for ships ami planes; made precise measurements
of the j:lt)be's sii-e. shape, bunips. anti hollows; tietettcd slijjht
movements of iari;e land masses — tectonic plates — in starch
t)f the causes ot* earthquakes; collected data on ix"can surface
winds, turresus. and waves; measured the daily heating and
coolini; of riKks fur dues to oil and mineral depasits; mapped
vvi»rld\vide air pa!li«ic>n; and — in a ilenmjnstrat ion— tracked
an arctic explorer aiul Ins dosj sled across the North Pole.
The military services put up their own satellites for rapid
ijloba! communit.uioii and recoiuiaissanie to verify arms-
cotun>l atjrct Jiiems,

Tiiis (.]uiik sketch oi Ametican achievements in space dur-
ini: the l^Wis and '"Ds has empliasizcd activities leadins; to
imtnediate benefits iu vliily livit\r;. Much of the money, man-
power, .tnd ii\t:enuity spent on the nation's space proirrani.
howevet. durin^u the years ot reliance on expendable l.iunch
vehicles, before the comityc of the rciis.ible .Shuttle, was de-
voted to scientitic exploration of the solar sy.stem and the
universe be\i>nd .tnd to detnonstratinu th.it man i:Mi live and
work in .space.

No iotigfr a total mystery, the Moon kn gittn u,r, (o
UHpnttJiiiliJ Hktitiftc >tsididt. Htn- Apfiila ! Ti Siva ,md
Iruhi ixphrt' StK liaJhy-Aptiin'tne sih:

The resutfs were spcctucufiir xmd potcntuilly rewarding.

IncTtMsinglf complex autommcd laboratories, from the fifi>t
simple Explorers to the almost-humaft Vikings, mapped inter-
planetifry radiatton isHtl magnetic fit-lds; analyEed the turbu-
lent Sun from above Earth's obscuring blanket of air; phoio-
graplietl the entire Moon from luiar orbit, then landed
gend}' on its cr.ifcred surface; observed Venus, Mercury, Mars,
and Jupiter closeup and sent back magniiicent pictures; rested
the l^farttan soil for signs of past or present life; and probed
the heavy atmosphere of Venus downs to the planet's broiling
surface. Orbiting observatories extended enormously the
depth and breadth of astronomers" vision and discovered
mysterious energy sources at incredible distances. New knowl-
edge of other worlds will lead to better understanding of our
own, as observarion.s of other planets' atmospheres are already
opening fresh insights into the mechanisms of Earth's %veathcr,

A succession t,>f twenty-eight U.S. manned flights from
Mercury through Apollo-Soywz proved that people can per-
form usc'ful rasl s together in space and survive long periods
of weightlessness withour serious or lasting hami. The
Gemini flights worked out the lechnicpics of maneuvering in
orbit. Apollo's heroes, as all the world knows, explored the
Moon first-hand, gathered samples of its soil and rocks for
analysis back home, and set up science stations that continued
to radio data long after the last men left. Three Skylab crews
producetl u.seful medical knowledge about the btxiy's reaction
to stress, studied the Sun with a large matuied telescope and
Earth with miiltispcctrai scanners sharper than the human
eye, and demonstrated the possibility of manufacturing in
Ecro-gravity new and better products that cannot be made on
the ground.

!7

18

Tiie hantkhukf iu orbk |-<v .m .tstfon.ttu tit' the last Apollo
and .1 cosmo'niut oi Russia's Suyiiz symbolized more th;ui a

and the rtsuhs shared wich all the world. NASA Lusnthcd
sciencifii and fommiinkations s.itellHeS for a ikm:n nations. ■
U.S. .•ijxii.ct.r.dc c.irried experiments by seieHtistS ii'i twice tiiat
many touncries, inciuJint; the Soviet Vnkm. Two himdreJ
fifty foreit;!! reS': srclicrs fro!P, twcnty^cine iKuions participaictl
in Skyl.)b jrivcstigatiosis: 6{)U scientilu. and technical ijruups
in more than 130 iiHiotrics u.st-d images from the Landsar :
niUafai-ri'Soiircc^ iaicilues. la a vv.iT-hMip. uemonscration a
U.S. expi;ri!;-i;;iu.d c'oittnuaii.. ,ui.n-s s.itcHitc trariMiiicsed edu-
cational tfkvisioti prograrns ft) jOOQ vilLigts in India where
most pct>plc had never .seen a TS' picture. As the two decades
ended. ( an. ilia uiid rnerrtlicrs of the European Space A|;enty ;:
were af work on major roles in the Shuttle-based Space Trans-
porr.ifion System.

Mectini* the time schedules, safety rec]iiitemfnt.<i, .md per- i
forniante go.ik of space exploration .stretelied and pushed

..^picrkiinircchiiokj^ in all. dim:Mris. silt jtifej^^iinga ^hal,

i:fo ittmemp l-itH™StrA|; tfcw'ilksfs .ajli..cihnlittcs, .luHric&tsi

that wouldn't evaporate in a vacuum, itjngd.isting batteric.'i,

jtinj::i}'et:ii|ii|||||f--frfia^^^ electronic parts, ukn^ss^iisipve tire de- .,

tectofSi m<jrc efficient solar-power patiels. ctMipScf computers,

foods that keep fresh without refri|;eratit)n, hitjh re.«)!iitii^n

cameras, low-power communications ctjiiiptnertt, improved «

welding and wirint; tcchnitjues, miniature sensors, lii;ht-

wetght pumps, tough iireproof fabrics. The list could iio on lor

'pa||ls. Thmi'.iods i)[ inmn-.ttinns in m.nefials. iltvitcs. ,ind pr.;i-

cedtires were de.scribed in NASA piiblitations and catalogued

M apipytC-MpSKii libraries open to U.S. industry. Hnntlreds of

■■thernc€i»ikri Spjmjlfs, soon v.crc turinn;; up in lommeru.d uses

and int'dital products from the sih^ery dome of the l)eirc:!t

Lions' new stadiiun to fecltargeabk* heart paccmakcr.s.

Spcndiiv i-rs splits.- projects, includini; the Shuttle tr.i.nspor-
tation sy.scem, stinnd.ittd the econ.omy bodi dirctily ami in-
di.':cdy. The dollars were iH>t .shot oil into orbit when they
might btCitr li.oc i^eeii spent on ii.u'th. .is son^e tritks liked
to say, but went mainiy to pay workers — more than lOClOOO j
at the peak oi the Aptillo program — lis every state. And bc-
cnisc ut.rospMce wages \\ere relatively high, mueh of the
money tended to be passed along [ifonip'H', creating mtsre

Handshake in Earth orbit, ./wn . (iv-
art i n USA:< St.rfforJ „•,/./ 1, SSR .' L owr
i\}nhnli:ti c»opir,itiofi litlm'i n ftin moft-M

fii>i Iroiii .1 uinilotf of tl.H' Aivillo cfym-

mt!»J modHk. „ ■ ■ , .

i

jobs. Moreo%'CT, as economists have Umg known, tcdinoiogicai 19'
advance is the primary source of higher productivity and
economic growth. High technology induscrk-s ;iis«j contribute ,„^
more than others to the narioa's export trudc, helping to offst ciii|li
imports of raw materials, mioerals, nnd fuels.

But perhaps the greatest yi*- from the space pioneers tj
men, women, and cii.';dr.L>; of ;'J1 utjo'T; was a new view of
their home planet. President r, at a ••erefooii)- in whidi

he awarded Congressiona' S ,-dals m ootsnm'i'" ; astro- il;-

naiits, expressed it this way: ::ii.„,;iiiL„;;iiN|

Wc went to the Moon, in jxirt. as a fjwttcr of national pride.
But whi-n wc got t.ht-rc. uv .ii.KovcfeJ somethii.q vet> intfcTi.-sttnjt.
Through the eyes of thv cameras of the astronau's, wc looked back
at the Earth, above the strange horizon <rf the Maon in a pitch black
sky; Wc saw our (W'.rj workl as a sistglc Jtlicate giobc of swirling
blue and wlutc, green, brown. From the ptrsptctive of sp.ice our
planet: has no nations! li»iM»!arics. k h %-ery ht-autiful, hut it is also
very frassie. h is-om^:»5pcciat fcsjxmsthiiity to the huaian race to
preserve it. Of all the things we have Icarncil front our exploration
of space, none has been more important than this perception of the
essential unir|- of our world.

■'■< » t

•'■■A.

3.
More,

Better,

Cheaper

¥ r America managed io do so many things in space %vidi 21

i'xpendlable launch vehicles, as recounced in the previoas
chapter, why rhe Shuttle? The ansm-er begins— but by no
means ends— with the lowered cost of simply delivering pay-
loads into orbit.

Freight rates for the Space Tratisportatioii System are
based on recovering its operating cose and the U.S. im'est-
ment in the Shuttle fleet and ground facilities, though not the
original reaatch and development expense, over a period of
twelve years. Under the resahing price schedule, the Shuttle
will plact satellites in oibit for one- to two-thirds the cost
of launches tiboatd the Delta, Atlas-Centaur, and Titan rockets
used for most recent U.S. civilian and milkary missions and
NASA launches for other countries. The expense of keepi.ig
tip a vatied mvcntory of launch '.'ehicles asid their diifetent
ground systems is eliroinateti Based on traffic projections of
more than hfty Shuttle flights a year when the system cof«es
fully into ua-, the hwnich savings alone could be half a billion
dollars a year or more, depending on iniation.

Since about HO percent of the cost of space missions has
been going into paykxids, and only about 20 percent into
launch costs, still bigger savings— 30 to 40 percent of total
pay load progratn costs— will result from changes in space-
craft design made possible by the Shuttle's great cargo capacity
and by what it can do that one-way launch vehicles can't.

Thanks to the Shuttle's rciati%-ely gentle acceleration, de-
signers of the spacecraft it carries maty be able to use some
off-the-shelf parts rather than creating and testing costly and
rugged onc-of-a-kind equipnicnt Because of the Orbiter's large
payload bay and great lifting ability— twice that of the biggest
expendable vehicle commonly employed— satellites can be
simpler: less tightly packed, less limited in weight. Standard-
ized parts and mtxiular components may be used, and virtually
the same spacecraft can be employed for diierent purposes
by changing only its cameras or other sensors. The Shuttle's
ability to check out .satellites in space while they ate still in
the Orbiter and again after they ate deployed, to repair them
in Pfbit, and to pturn them to Earth for overhaul also justifies
designers in relaxing some reliability precautions, such as
redund.mt circuits. This too saves money. Studies of how past
spacecraft could have been designed diilercntly if the Shuttle
had been availabh- to launch and service them sliowed that
t* ;■'■ ■ d *'avi,- been reduced sukstanttally.

Sffll tjtitcr payU'.id x!\int;,s aa- {Hi»jhlc. Wofkim*. imxicb
of itiNEtunK'!!!-; iiucaji-.l ti>r lotii; unatct-iKfal upcf.icion in orbit
!,.i» iK dcpltHcd ami IcI? in sp.iCf K>r weeks, or ujunths, d»c»
Ih.' rftricvctl .md returned m V irih tar cx.imin.ukia .ukl rc-
workinii it iii'icss.try. This will in»pr<.>vc the rcliabihij' ot
hitufe s.iieltucs .hkI ii-ns;fhen their tikluiic at lifck' niSt whiie
.ils<.> rctluitni; the time iur dcvelopsneiM and groiiriil tcstiii"
Proton pes ot !«:\v tnsin.uricnts e.'.rs also Iv tested in space tot
brtctcr ptTit-nls while still uttavlicj to the Ckbiter, Persistctw
firoblcms cm Ix.' piirsitcd with early rtllights. Satellites can
hv tetrieveJ ac the vnd ol their plmned mission h>r returbish-
menf atu! reuse'. Or siuKhilar lumposH-iKs i,m» .Iv rcptaied jn
eirbir. rediutni; oiit-ot-serviee time, wishoHt brinpitit; back the
eiitsre .Np.ii.et ratr. S.-.teUiies i.iri h: Hpdaaxt iii urbii as ctti-
fii>k\s;v- advatiees. itk.Tea.sins; their perKirtiianec aikl prolongisi!:;
their u-setulriess.

When all l.niikhcs ,irc nwdc aboard the Shuttle aiu! all
spat ci, r.itt art,' ilcssi:;iiev! to take jdvaniaije tii its capabilities,
tb.ere should Ix- i^teatly reduced risk oi n>stlv total f.ijhsres
in sp.kecrait t>peratk>»s. liven a faihire at the Shtittle vehicle
itself need tun hv i.itasirophii. ; the crew could tarrv out t>iH-
ol the abi'rt prtKechires de.scrilteJ i« Chapter ", latidittt: sateie
With the p.svhue. inta.. t A studv \i' IM t.uleres ot tlie l''i4!s
aikl "'ih ttHtntl that sev<-rirv<-ii:!?t ot them, related m the
iaiiucij or to m.dhmuwns eaflv in the tui.ssitw, eowkl li.ive
lHx*n detntcd dwriiit; citeckotst in the {,)rbiief or iisst attef
deploysHcttt. They were problettis that lOtild have been cor-
rected iramedf.ttely or by brituhisg the spacecraft back to the
i.iiitkh -^stc tor repairs. I he oiher t!tt\ jiuci- wt-fe laser l-uktres
or err.uic behavior that ..ouid h.i> e !hx si lorrcued by rerrie\ ityi;
the satcihte Un rep.iir asui rei.eattih.

An interestiiJi; example was i ited bv the depute dircUiM '
ot'„NASAs SIhhiIc !'ro>;r,ii». l.eRoy li. Day. Twt» out ot ti^rt-i-
't^rWtitii; Astroiioiiiu.i! ()bser\asorics l.iuikhed between \'H'>o
.uul i')*tl MiHcretl hual mishap.s. A hatterv vhart:et lailiire
ahcr two days ua the iirst C>AO tiHiki liave hee» lorreite*!
by retMrinni; the safrllitr trom orb« and rrp.Hriiis; it TIh-
third one t.uled, tC' feat, h orbit beiatise the sSttotut tha? pro-
lectctl ft dtirioi^ i.MHkh wa.'^n't tii.svarikd at site riydit tink";
this would hiave been asoulid if the Shimle h.ut been the
iatitkh vehhie. sitke (l»e spacesratt would have been tarried
inside the Orbjter and have needed no .sbroiul. The seiond
OAO pertormetl beantitidly, Inif even the i^robkins that

Space Shitttle ta»sk1» costs. ,i>".f:;

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K.trh- ptKS^tMck rtijcbts. ,i>:J .'„•,'< > ./<..}"• u ■'.•

tKcurrt-d (.Hyiiiiti its pl.tnncJ ojXT>wi»|t litcisiui- <oultl h.s%*t'
Ivcn corrcvtcd in oxVlt. cxrcudtni; sk .st-rvkr, it ihe ShutrU-
h.u! ixrn .iv.tiliblc .mA the };|>.kxvr.it« h.itl Ixvp, t.k'Sii;H«.xl io'
sinh nt.uniftuncc.

Tlic Slnuilc h.ts atlK-t urikptc virtues. It <in Ix* prcp.ircJ
l« i.twnil. on rii.iiivciy short tioricc. Thi« it <%w\k\ lutuviwibly
cwry out .» rcst'uc mi»}*sn. one OiXnit'x hrttsi^iiip s.*fcly ht»inc
iIh- <k\s %4 AiXxMiiKi Orlna-f disabled in s^^kv .»nd iin.iblc tu
rctiiro. It i.m !x- Si-iit t)tl qukkiy m% a s|>iLvi.i! mtwioti to .KJtlx-r
mtorm.Hion !ic&k\l m .hi cm€r|>cnt,y un |-.itt!i. suth 4s .i litxx!
Of tTt>p Wittlin. It fvi.|'!tri.-s HO cl.itx>r.ttc .imi I'Xfxtwjvc 4»{>fr.»-
tt<»» .It Si-.i m r€ta%-fr the ircvv ata-r wch tiijsMuH, .ts in ApoHi>
.Mid athrr fast in.miKi tiit^lHs, And ii \,m take Si'icnfists .uui
cnjjini'ffs »«{<,•* sp.ivt.- routisx-ly to <.ofid\Kt thcjr tnv« cspcri-
sncnts .ind obstTvc the results tirsr-h.ii'd, tt* test insi.-iHnetits
oi thi-if own ^ifsisiii .im! m.ikc ttHmcdi.iEf .kijU5*si««-'nts, The
mission plan e.in W «.lwn^cti dstriot; a llittlw to cope with
j>rultk'ms tv t.tki' .kK-.tm.ttic ot opiH»rtiuiiiK-s.

Btsih the Drintcr'js Lirt:e weight .»nd vitUtnie e.tp.kity .tr,-.l
the frkc ^lK\itilc tor tiijjhts eneouras^- usi- oi the Sp.k'c Tons-
poft.ttwti Sysictn by .i ^udc v.^ricty o\ ti.stti«HT,s. A nymlx-r
ot Sj\ice<.r.th i.uj Ix- «..irricd oti the sjim- tli^^hi, .uxi sh.wtni:
by tbrtefcitt users ts em our.ittul l-AjxTinivm p.ts. k.ttics intended
to rvm.un wsihsn the targo b.iy cm be ritti,\l in with pfim.iry
j>aylo.iids. To stimtd.uc f.iriy «se. r,«es .ire tr^>?vn tor the ttrs«
three years, .uxi are the s.tnx- Uw VS. .uhI toreigti lomntern.il
ririns; later iltey i.\dl Ix: .sdiustcd annually on the basis of
operational e\jH'rientc. A nser that hixik". a full (light and
Itnds there is .Stinte rtk'ui k-h over utn sublet ii, Distoitnts
are ortereJ tu slured-Higlit eiistunx-rs who agree to tiy their
(xiylo.hk on .t sjMU'-.iv.nlable tsi.utdbyi ,irr.tngei»x-m. Aj^j^li-
e.itits whi> (■vntpose .in ext.-ptioiial iieu use of <ijxKe or ,i first-
time iisi' t»t grc.it potential \al«e to the ptiblii .ire <, onsidered
tor .spcci.il rates. NASA It.is est.jhlishcd .» sni.ill technical
gfoup tt> .tdvise and help people with little or \w expenciue
in spaie tescnh.

Sm.tl! selt-vont,iisu-d experinx-nts wtii ht,- tlown .»s .standbys
tor S\0{H) to SlEKtHHl {In !»r*> doll.irs>. depending on sin-
and weight. 0\ the hrst J'^t' reserv.nions. a .Hi.irtcr were tor
e%lucational piirposes atui a lihit were trom mdtvidu.ils plan-
tnng to test ik'w loniepts in the 5p.ue envirotnneni. .S>mc
were donated to hi.ijh Sth»>td anti lolleije students developint;
cxperitMents as part of their .xadetnic work, l-'itty-onc were

2i from foa-ign countries: Gcrm.iHV, IX-tmiark. the l.^nirvd King-
dom, €.in.nl.», J.ip.»rt, Iswcl. and 'igypi. The p.iylo.ds must be
for rtRMfch Of A*vek»j''men( — no eoniiiKTvi.il gimmicks. S.iid
chc dircvtor oi NASA's Splice Transporutton Systrm Opera-
tions. Chcuvt M. Let-: "Wi: lu\x lud to turn iiw.iy a few
spccuiattjrs %v1m> winicd to scnJ up hu;»ks ot mcwt .i»J l.«fr
sell piives .»s suMvensrs or who vvjiwctl ro scrw! up pi>xta|;f
stamps and sell them .u i«|;h profit."

By ctfly projvctions. .ibout h.ilt' t>f cht- p.iylo.tiJs will Ix- tor
NASA, .ilxiut .i fourth tor ihe IX'p.iruiu-nc oi Dttcost-. aot!
thf rest for «.«l»cr VS. |:tivemmeiM 44:«.>«eies. VS. priv.itt.'
organiz.tiitws, .md tt)rcit;n i:ovcrnmencs or tomp.imt-.'i. t"ivili.in
HScK. hiTin.' and .•im.ill, mv vxptXKtl to include t'omirtiinicuion.s
networks, resc.irch townJatitSfis. uuiversit'es. obse-rvatories,
sutc iiijenck-s. county and city plinofrs, publn.- utilities, htm
CiH>petatives, r!tedi«..ii rc.<ML-.krcfi groups .snJ health services, rhe
Itshing .Hid transportation industries, oil and nynii^e intere.«its,
m,inut".n.'twri«|: .md .lero.'ipaee Sirm;;. chcinic.i! afid pharm.iceu-
tic.tl comp.mies, water ion,<i«.tvatit»n ,u»d jxiwer t:ener.»ti»g
authorities, .tnd private citii;ens. IX-veloping couHtries cm
begin .spas.c pro|;r,Mns of their t>wij .it alforJabk- c«wis by
!iharin|: Shuttle missions with c>ther ua-rs and llyini:; nwHtcst
p.»ykwiis that are exposed to .space lrt>m rhe Drbiter. citen
Liter perhaps «i\ovc up to more arohitiows projects like liomes-
tic communieations satellites.

The returns from America's imcstmenr i» the new Sp.a'e
Transportation Syjsteni. then, come not ouh from red«ce*d
l.i«nch. spaceeTaft. operatK>ns. and n»,Hi-i»i-"«pace costs. They
will i'otite aJs<t from l>oih the in«.Te.c<!cd muI wkicr mv oi
sp-ace stiirndateil by re.tdy access to reli.ible. freijwcut, llexible.
econonUc.il two-way freight and pass..oger sctvicc between
Eirth atid orbit. And thev will cotMc. ultimately, from new-
ways irf using sp;sce — inchtding uses not yet thought of.
N.'A.'iA Adniinistf.tt«r R«)lxTt A. Fros^h spoke to a cotiimitiee
of C'ongress nWnn th.mges in the b.isic approach to space
Ihght:

Jitu r,t!t tuH-i i>!<LiI!tJ uith tin: h.t\! Jii,i%,

Vnf t»4iH» \f.trs ui- it.tvs- h.i,f i(> ft.Hh ii»r thf Ivm-tit?; of sj^rttv
to sm.iH, es}x'5WtVf. nrf!\H'ka.«cil iiHrefni-nK, I'.it'h t«tssH>r5 In* htxw
%iK\i ;t« iiHTfiJu-iH. «kh its \0uii k-.i.i time, s»«e»-.j>' ttMn\\^umm
systt'in. m-ijthf iin*! voiyriic oiiwrr.Mnt. ilesniiiuls (or rnliinikiuv.
extraor.lmafv test ri.i;i»rs, -.inA (.oofi^-tv.wivf {.utMre tsLifgiiw, . , . The
e.trly Slniule missions wc will sn- ;trc rcl.Mivi.ly «tr4i>thtf«Jr\v;»!-ti
fvohitin»,try ixtfitsiosis t>t' i-in-sfiu .i}n»rt»,H-h«. ... It wil! t.tke time

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lH'k>rc we recognize thut wt- can afford in S5*<icc ars I'lTfo-'tch to
...txp^fJHiirns siffiilar »,ihex? «t?,:HS on tta:::|!««un4,:,:b« -use vf the
iii»ss- ii|lfcnite':*liHthe hiiipi rxp||line»rpiB{H*i:¥i^l='(eclinictiin, or
a-pairman. We wiif have to stop thisjfcin}; in trrms of Jiscreic sf»ace
miMions. each with its own spacttrijt, its own control ccnifr, its own
grounJ nctvtork, its own dicntck. . . ,

In parisllcl with the changes iii lunv wv will K- <sjx'ratirtg "in
space atrc the inipljcatkin'^ for what «e can Jn there. Perhaps the
:• 'best •,:«Ji||4;ot eslBple iniiii|ien«»:is tejtt of the s|«ice feL o?c.
It is tn»ji«>ta«t''t« reahze ■ that astronoiiicrs have l-fen pynntng for
.he fvlesecift,' since the eaiiy '6(H- and that onir the advent of the
Shuttle revisit for ewWtal »r>a»i!«<-»ance has ma-i *• t^'aaical. The
space telescwpe «s out hrst .aci'.ity in space, no'v not much more
femci(c froitt hunuti -a^-.t'>.» >iun she jnore litiuted instfusnencs
We have huilt oti n»ui«ain tops around the world, , , .

X\<: arc at the K'i;inninj; i>i ancstier ftvolution toJay as aelt:
one ir; C0m;r.aaic;ilir!ns. k would K' .ppropriate to terns this the
"second comrttuniCJitions fevtilutioii." since the sateliitc devetopnients
of the jTa.st hfteen vt-ars have already completely changed dtimestsc
and in^TiLitional i^ttint-to-jHJittt teieconir'.iunicarions traffic, , . . Just
around the cornet , . . is the next quantum jump in this held, , . .
The peotsetty «i the wcwi..! a»\d the space around it. coupled with
the tedioobsiical Cipalnlity fo huiUi large antennas and supportinf;
facjhties in sjxjce cvhslc vastly simpiifving and reducing ground
terminal si^e and coniph-xift'. iii;'ke the possibility of hcmisphcrk
in{etconnec?ton!i M the "t R" level a reaiity. Concepts of public service
i;jekc«fi|^iutMC«i# Iike,tkctr«»nis;:iii»ih n?fi|tcal istftfmi«iot^:i:|Ssfvice ,„
P3e1iv«f f ("tiisfitlilBj; ioteratjttve ■e^ltiptiott, l!ii-hr{»*dif'rfiase»l titerroa- ^
lion .Kcess now .swait iniplenHiuatiou densions rather than tech-
mdogital k'asibihty delMonstraEiun,

Desii^iiers of cammctcul eommiuitc.itions s.stcliiCcs arc stud-

ipngxmMvpnJm fytiiK^ones di,it ''•twH Ix* toi|f tiows lie,tv-

"■kf tWn!todayl''iitul twice as bttl'ky, TK'iargcr'icsigtis relieve

jiwny oi the problems t>f packaginti aiUcmws .imi |^ri>vidii-t|;

snore area tor st)lar ceils ttsr increased pc>wcr. They .slicudd tu-

more efficient unci more reii.iblc, and provide .icUitioii.d

ftunncls.

Ill; Fwscii spoke also t)t « "gtob.d iiifomiatJon system" based

■ Oir'tcmtWe Sftisin|» t>f the* !«iul, sea, and air from s.HeHitcs

launthed and m.tituained by the Shuttie, "{ cbink th.H rather

than having indivkUial satellites kn individual purposes." he

said, "svc wii! inorc and nH)re stX: M}llrfWS:::ia|:i»liiy|nit;a

raaliifiifptisc system of s.jtell)tes ;iriJ jfrSors, witli the'WEins

l'«T hfrtad-st'.ik'- d.it.i transmi.ssit^n and .Uihieij^q .uid jTiKcssini;

data intt» Jnft>rm.it!i)n. This type tif system wutdd kwk at all

feitures and charactt-ri.sfics ot the entire surface oi the Harth

and its atnM}sphere tiiat can Ix sensed from S[\tce. Wiih this

25

26 ^ersntilttf, \%v %vouM be able lo provide a variety of dixu to
different usets."

Migh't&oimkm remote sensip-g of mmul rcsoarcc-s froiH
space will extend uses of such information that were demon-
strateii duriof Ac 1970$ (Ch«|«cr 2). Imtmawms aboard
Orbiters and a new generation of Barth-lotifeing Siweltites m*ill
be* abic* fo dt't&T crap and timber diseases and insect plafKes,
map ocean currents at^d teraf-'efitt^''^'* ifhiit afcc the movemeai
of fish, maintain a m-orMm'ide watch on air pollotion, provide
information for esperimems tti weather moJilication and Set-
ter undiTStandinj* of climate, and forecast gUhd f>rc»duction
of several food crops.

The Shwitte also permits rewarchers to extend their Inves-
tigatiofss of how the imiqwc madkiam in space— virtually no
gravitv, neat-perfect %'i»cattm, vety tow Ttbration — rolght be
used in matiufatturinsi pftxiwcis that are tliflicnit or impossiWe
to make onJEarth. Some ideas wesc tried Qi« in Apolltx Skylab,
and Ajx>lIo-SoyM2 and in brief rtx'ket lli||hts with promisio|?
resylts. Go%"ernment, university, ami industrial scientists are
pl-annittg both imtended and hamls-on experiments in Space-
hb iClMpter Si. Most of these seek to take advantage of the
iiick of ijravity. In the weightlessness of sp,.ce, lit|uid mixtures
of materials of differeof ilensities am he soliditied without
separatijig. as ihey woukf m\ Earth, by the heavier ones siofc-
ing u» the bottom. Liquids may be lloated freely dnrini;; prw-
essfog ivithout k'i«|,* ront.rniinated by reaction w»fh c«»rjtainers.
iarge, llawltss crystals can k' grown without king distorted
by their own wct|,'ht as they form, I'tMurr pi»ssi!»ditics for
t:onit-terci.tIly vaiuabie prtyucts include conipi>sitc materials
and nicial albiys, clecrronic and optical crystals, new kinds of
glass, and biological materials for medtc.d research ,md trt-at-
tiiettr.

An entirely new activity seen as possible with the Shuttle is
tile building of large strticfurcs in space. Sav and wei|;ht need
no longer \x limited ti) tl^e payload of a single lairnch vehiek\
A series of Shuttle liight-. ,ould deliver structural inembers
or mtidwles to orbit for assenybly there. An Orbiter «»uld serve

the ctmstrwction crew as living ^luartersi as well as provide
ckxtrical power. communicatitJtts, and data: pnx'essing. t>(ir
or two electro-mechatucal cargo-handlistg artns, atttiched to
the Orbiter, cookf assist the .spa«c-s«iied buifders in tsioving
ktrge pieces into pla«\<, lk\ause there's no gravity, space struc-
tures coukl be very larj»e yet rehitivcly tlimsy withtsut ctdlaps-

jn|» at' rhcir uwii \vci|jlK. StriMurcs ih.it mittht lu- as<vjnWcd 27
in sjxicc incttidc l.trpc comHiunk.idon .tna-nn.is. solar cncry;y
coilcctors mm\ trunsmiurrs. nwiincd labooturii-s. prm.s.'ssiHi:
.mJ m.»ii«t'.»t,t«riH|; f.K'ilittcs, larjtc ssMiccfjIt .wsi-niMv |il.tnis.
%v.ifc!iioii*ics, ,»nJ R-htciinsj iHul rf|\nr tk-puts. Otu- tliy a Shuttk-
Huv build .HI .klv.mcc b.»sv tor .in i-xpcilition to the f.irrhcr
sliiwcs oi' the sokir sYStt-m.

|-rit*cioij \:!r<ti\ ?/',•'.•,.■,•> (>' f''. .'</'/'(

./•/'< It- ,■<,■// ••;,,•<> I'.i'h i>t il; Shttth OrhiUr aIou (<>r .,-?(«

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Vhat
Shaped

we Design

aeronautical cnginet-rs recognized that economical, ever)'-

day use of space would require a transportation system em-
ploying vdiic'es th.it could inakc repeated voyages into space
and return

Newspapers in 1947 carried a series 4>f jsnaginari%'e stories
describing "A Trip to the Moon and Back" that showed air-
plane-like rocket shipi. In I?*) i CoUun ma^Kazinc pwbiished
articles by Wcrnhct von Jkaun and hih associates popala fixing
the idea and economic advantages of Earth-to-orbit cargo
carriers that would be recovered for repeated use. A paper
given at the l')'^?? meeting of the Amertvan Rocket StKiety
was vntitlfd ■'tAiiiii.ictcf..; R(k:;<.: A;ri.'.,iac: .A «. orracansj.;
Lictk to Kfanned Space Flight."

Hiwcver. rlie tecluiulogy (uxu>.a tor luulding ictur. sable.
reusable spacecraft was not yet in h.md. particuiariy knowledge
oi how to desigr> long lived, high-pertormafice rtx'kct etygines
ant! if^suiation thai wouUin't burn away in ',» single licry re-
cntr\ mu) 'hv atm«phete. The urgent. y of ballistic missiles
and the perie:v<,d need to ..onipete with, the Russians in
manned llight. moteover, kept American emph.tsis in the
l*)10s <.n convtntional nxkerrv. One program to ad%-ance the
tethnologv -(.alied Dyn.mwc. tor uyiiainH .v.iritig. t;:.i!'.g a
vehicle th.u would Ixuhkc ort the upper armo.sphere, like a
.skipping stone — -was begun by the Air korie bus (.aniclk-d.
NASA studied an ide.i vailed He.id-F.nd STeeruys:. This m-
\olved c.uui-.-.g, .» 111. it-^.er;, u',:,*. I'.mrusi ■'..ipcd liiang h-KK nn
the nose nt .i big rtx-ket uf very simple design. Expensive
mud.u-.iv .'.lid voiuro! equipment wtntid bv ItK.ired in the lift-
ing body, which voidd maneuver m the atsiiosphere after ir.s
reentry trosn orbit and be recovered for repeated trips — hut
the booster rtx'ket still would have beet) expendable This
.scheme was droppeti bev.iuse u dtdti't seem to ortei niuvh
advantage over the simpler ballistic-t .ipsule appru.uh Ixini;
wt>rked sHit tor she Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs.
Bv ihe v.irh h)C>(ls cnginceis studying the weieht. propiil-
stou, and thcrm.d probicuu .v.v. no. pr,.siu,d \\.i> tu design
■i Miicie air.. raft.sp.ntxratt that -.Mndd ir..d r iliv irip intu i^rbit
by itseli v\itli worJhwhdv bads .uid SLiurn. An nuaumkal
svstem reqiured two venides: a reusable cargo tarrier plus
some kill'.: ot l.,ic.^i!.r tulKip it Ciooibif WlKflv.r rhc .-.posar
alsii slioyid be Rtfiablc was debated .it length, juxtaposed
artivies m lia- January I '.'{■. i issue ol Ailrmutulki nMg.»?i!H*

29

30 cni|^h.isizcd the grcutcr cipcr.tttn^s^ etonomy but higher origioid
dfVclupmctit costs of "a winged, rccovcrabk* rtx'ket-powercd
launch system."

Thriiui;ii the dtxudc unctnintt-tl t-ngtHct'rs ist Europe as welt
.IS rhe United St.itcs |X)ndcf«.'d various proposals for wholly
t>r fturtly reusable l-.,irth-ro-orbit tninsportation concepts. The
Hurope.in Space Research Orgunizarbti (ESRO)— now the
turupean Space Aaiency — initiated studies involving industrial
gfiRips throusjhottt western tiwropc. Titles of some of die
papers jjiven at a U.S.-European coiiference on Low Cost
Space Transportation isi 196" indicate the wide variety of
ideas explored, 'Trenth (AOTvept for ;ui Aerospace Trans-
porter" ... "A "^'est German Approach to Reusable Launch
Vehicles" ... "A British Reusable Booster Concept" . . . "Air-
Breaching Reusable Launchers" . . . "The Enigma of Booster
Recovery — Ballistic or Winged.'" ... "A Camiparison of
Fixed Wing Reusable Booster Concepts." Meantime, aero-
space technoloity was being .idvanced by llight .-esearch with
the X-l^ rocket plane and lifting btxiies. operational experi-
ence in Mercury. Gemini, and Apollo, and the development
of superstmic milit.iry and transport airtraft. A series of studies
fi.jr iVA.SA. reported at a Span; Shuttle tonk-rence in Wash-
ington in the tall of 1969, concluded that building:; a reusable

Concept of a reusable spaceship lki( emtU l.mJ likf a pS>»H'
h fiir from m u\ .(,( Jnmin^i from P)4'^ Sacfanit-uto Bee hilmt
situsift. Mail) JtffiTiHl t »,??>/»■< r/n.t; t-.trkuions lih- thi- oiu at
right, hthif, tfi rt txjmhii-J, f.itc/fl.itiJ. JitJ U'i»ti-tf/»iit!-tvfh J.
Tf.H- Orbili r Eiuerpr tsc. ri^ht. is tin' producf of ujr.i of </t t vlop-
nwnl uurk.

A Trip To The Moon And Back

No, !: Tb« Rocket Ship

spate transportation system was now becoming tt-ch»ically
■fcasible and economifaily justiiied.

Before even the first Apollo flight, U.S. policy planners were
shifting their mgk& to low-cost use of space for p. cricaJ
purposes. The President's Science Advisory Committee in
'February 1967 said: "For the longer range, studies should
be iB.tde of more economical i'erryinc^ .systems, presumably
anvolving partial or coral recovery and use." In September
1969, two months after the first Moon landing, in a report
to a task group established by the President to outline the
fiuute of the U.S. space program, NASA recominended build-
ing :', . . a low unit-tiiission-cost transportation system that
would make Earrh-Moon space ea.sily and economically ac-
cessibic to man for his use tor cxploractOi!, applications,
science, and technoiogy re.seafch." The head of the manned
flight |>ro_!;rara, Gcors^e E, Mueller, wrote: "No law says space
must be expensive." In March 1970 the President announced
that a major objective ol the U.S. space program was to reduce
substantially the cost of space operations. A reusable trans-
portation system to shuttle between Earth and orbit was idcn-
titied as a way of .ichieving this.

Two years of detailed feasibility, engineering, and ecbrioihic'
studies by NASA, aerospa e companies, and academic groups
focused on a fully reusable twu-stage. }dggyback vcliicie that
woiild take off \-erticaliy and land horizontally. Each stage
woiUd carry jrs own fuel in internal ranks. When the first
stage ran out, the second stage would continue its climb into
orbit while the first returned to land on a runway. Since no
ranks were to be dropped, the pair could take oil without
concern about passing over p{)pulatcd areas. in the .early p.irt
o f t ii e ll ight .

Each .stage would have a crew of two. The sectmd, orbital
stage could carry, in addition, twelve passengers, since one
of its main jobs wtwdd be to ferry rcphicement crews, as well
as supplies, to a permanent spate station. The cargo bay wtndd
'lrti|S"i!Wlph,::ttt carry up modules from which the stadon
cibttJclNiiie-assenibki;! dn orbit. Doth st,iges «'otsld have new
high-pressure hydrogen-oxygen rtxket engines, two or three
for the Orbiter and ten or twehe fur the booster. The engines
vvi^ujd he t.ipaidt ol rep>eated u.se and of being throtlled b.uk
to half power ro keep .icieleration during a.stent to less than
three times aormal gr.r-.jrs This v..i> imp''rfant for trew and
pa-i^engtr {irnforf ,iod woaid permit 'arrving itss riigeed.

31

proved

32 and therefore cheiper, payloads that would not be damaged
by high accefcration and vibration. Engines were recognized
as the pacing item in the Shuttle development, as they
to be.

Two configurations for the Orbiter were coasidered. Otic
had stubby, straight wings and was designed for reentry at a
high angle of attack, which reduced extretne hetsting from
air friction but also reduced maneuverabtlity from side lo side
of the descent track that might be needed for an emergency
landing. The second was a deiu or triangular shape that
couid reenter at a lower angle of attack, permitting greater
Cfoss-range maneuvering but also causing greater heating M
the nose, leading edges, and underside of the fuselage arid
thus complicating the problems of designing adequate chermal
protecriofl. Tlie systems analysts, weighing advantages and
disadvantages, chose the delta shape.

The very success of Apollo in beating the Russians to the
Mt»n, and the subsequent trend toward reducing the annual
cost of the U,S, space prc^ram, then forced a major change
in the Shuttle design. The ultimate operating cost of a fully
reusable vehicle would be lower than that of systems using
some simpler, expendable elements; but the original develop-
ment costs would probably have been more than SKI billion
—19? I dollars — for two large piloted vehicles, both posset-
ing features of a rocket launch vehicle and a supersonic air-
craft This seemed more than successive administrations and
Congresses were Ukely to provide.

A search for ways to reduce the cost came up with a smaller,
more efficient Orbiter %vith external, expendable hydrogen
tanks; and the booster "s top speed was lowered to permit tHe
use of less expensive heat shielding. These changes cut the
ptospecilve price about 20 percent but not enough. So both
the liquid oxygen and licjuid hydrogen tanks were removed
from the Orbiter m favor of a single expendable comliined
tank, divided to carry both propellants, * .ther reducing the
Orbiter's size and development cost but not its performanc*.'.

With the Orbiter configuration essentially settled, the final
major decision was m resolve the booster issue. Charles j.
Donlan, a leader in these studies, has described the interhx'k-
ing engineering and economic tradtofs and choices:

Partly to save money and parti}' because of worries about
the safety of the booster crew in the event of a malfonctbn
or aborted flight, the planners decided to give up the manned

One of dozens, the OHtker niedgfi <tt right had some ckmic-
temtks €»/ fhi' am ehmt'tt. Shown Moit are timtrhtgi o/ thi'
mmplaa hmth rthkk ««>«• pu-pmug^.

•x-

IG

'v.

bcMScer. An unmanned one then presented the choice of liquid- 33
propelbnt or so!if' ' v-l rocket motors. Llauid engir,,-s in a
series-burn configuration, where the Orbiter t-nj^ines would
be ignited ;ifter che booster had shut down and separated,
were cou»pnred with solid rockets that would be ignited simul-
taneous!)' with the Orbiter engines at liftoff and bum in
parallel during the initial ascent,

Be-, .tuse ol the high price of a liquid-fuel booster, it would
be ij»|}ortjiijr that each one be recovered, refurbished, and
reused. This was not so critical for the cheaper soi<d-fuel
rocker. In effect, the cost of discarding a lic-juid bt»srer would
be so niuch greater than discarding a solid that its use would
impair the ability of the Shuttle to maintain the Iww cost of
recurrent operations that was its major objective. Recovering
a liquid booster would also be more complicated and expen-
sive. Most of all, while the cost pet flight would be higher
with recoverable solid boi)sters and an expendable hydrogen-
oxygen tank (fueling engines oi a recoverable orbiter) rhan
with the fully reusable vehicle original ly fa%'ored, their choice
would cut the program devek)pment cost almost in half. In the
face of right budgets, die deci.sion seemed obvious.

On January 5, 1972, the President stated:

The Utjitcd States should proKcd at ontc with the dcvefopwent of
an entirely new tj'jx' t>f space transix>r{atk>n system designt-d to help
tt&mlorm the space frontier oi the 1970s into familiar territory,
easily secessibic for human cnticavor in the 1980s anti '90s. ... It
will rfvoiutiomxc tr;insp<srtatj«sn tn{f> near si'aa- by rouiiniiing it.
... It «')fl (akr the aumnomkal ants twt ol astMtiautks. . , . This
is whj- comtnitmcni to the Space SSiuttk-'s pto|;r.im is thr rigfit next
step (or Atnt-rjca to take.

Separate solid-fuel nK'kets tor abort from the latmch pad
and fl)-back jet engines lor the Orbiter were larer dropp-d
to simplify the design and save weight, but other changes were
minor through seven ye;irs of develop-nent. elaborate testing,
and initial prodtiction.

The three-part configuration selected by NASA on j^larch
n, 1972 — reusable Orbiter, partly reusable Solid Rocket
Btsosters, and expendable Esternal Tank- — is esscnti.dly the
Space Shuttle of ftxiay.

•f^'HJR QOALITy

SS«SSZ^^^,:S>iars:-r^>->J>' --SSii^rtiri^-ii-Sri.-t^SKSSKH. !§'!&«

J.

From Earth
to Omit

Tr\i3Pn-j-: the fire and thi-nder of liftoff and the enor-
mous power required, gcrriijf into spiice is in some ways
the easiest part of the Shuttle's imiriiey. It follows -x familiar
pacterr. tested by eisrlicr manned flights and hundreds of un-
manned ones: simply dropping,, jff parts of the vehicle, as they
run out of fuel, while the rest continues into orbit.

The first to go are the Solid Roeket Boosters.

Standing 415 meters from nmak to nose, and meters in
diameter (1%) k hv 12 ft), the boosters are .ittached near
their etJtls to the External Tank, sitghtly taller and twice as
fat, which »n turn is attached to the Orbiter. A Shuttle boi>stef
is the largest solid-fuel raiet fYer flown, the first built for
use an a manned spacecraft, and the first designed for reuse, k
is assembled from seamless segments of half-inch steel, lined
with heavy insulation, that arc filled with propelknt ar the
manufacruring site in Utah and shipped on railway flat cars
to the Kennedy Space Center for issembly— or, for south-
north flights. Vandenberg Air Force Base north of Los Angeles.

The pfopeliant looks and feds like the hard rubber of a
typewriter eraser. It is a mixture of aluminum powder as fuel
aluminum perchlorate powder as an oxidizer, a dash of iron
oxide as a catalyst to speed the burning rate, and a polymer
binder that also serves as a fuel. It is not sensitive to igtiicion
by static, friction, or impact; and it will not detonate during
storage. The case segments are loaded from a single lot of
raw materials to minimize any thrust imbalance between the
pair of boostets used for a given Shuttle flight.

For launch, the propellant— 5fX) CJOO kilograms ( 1 100000
lb) in each kxjster— is ignited by a small rocket motor. Flame
spreads over the exposed face of the propellant in about 0.15
second, and the motor is up to full operating pressure in less
than half a second. As the propellant burns, at a temperature
of about 3200 C, huge quantities of hot gases speed through
the nozzle, which restricts their flow and increases the pres-
sure, producing thrust as they spew from the exit cone. The
two boosters" thrust of 1 200 000 pounds augments the
1 125 000-p(j«nd thrust of the Orbiter 's three main engines
through the first two minutes of ascent. The propellant is
shaped to reduce the thrust briefly by about a third at 62
seconds into the flighr, to prevent overstressing the Shuttle
vehicle during the critical transonic peritxl of maximum
dynamic pressure.

The noExles, each 3.76 meters (13 ft) in diameter at its

35

M i5(x-rnfit:, v,in K- sttivck't! hydr.itiliially up lo (>.6*» ik'|jri"« txi
^umnn.inJ by t!tc t>rlMti-r'T» pitt'.jtkf iompiitrr to tOHtrul tlw
tlia-t rion ol ditust Will) >.it«il.ir swivi.-lt»ii I'.t the t)rbiti-r
jn.iin ctii:iHcs. ihb stcits ilu- i-aria- Shtmk- %chkic. The oucsulc
oi shv l>H*{cr,s i>; >tis«l.wi\l ,it;.uiwT titc hcic »>! .nr irkfjOH .md
(hv bl.»Nt oJ tin- Drbtfcr f!»t;t!K-i .u S!.-p.»r.»to» wich .hi .ibluivs,-
iM.iH-ri.U thM burns .nv.n- in icmpcf.iriircs iIj.u rc.uh I200 ('.
AfuT kiriiini; oist. chc SisliJ lUvkcT Hoosti-rs arc cul li>osv
trosn thf l-'xfcrn.il T.ink bv vkxirtnilv fircJ c\pl»wtve dvvkvs
.md .irt- mined .n\.u' !iy small rt^'kcr srp.ir.uinn iiunurs, bwr
iH\»r thf.- luwc ot i-.iili .»»ii knir .ilc. lirctl by (.t'tiii't.mJ Irom stn-
l>r!i«cr, ll»c sptni Khiscits itust wjn\.ird a«Hl(lH'(t f.ill I-.srth-
w.srJ tor .dintwr tour tninuic*. rc.uhiat: .» speed oi •ib'^0
kik«iictcrs ,m hmtr i J')PO ti»ph ^ Ix-ton- kcin.i: xl.nvt.-d by
.imnssphcric Jr.i_c Vtom Axmt i" kik^mctrrs t > mi 5 c.jvh is

V

luwcrtii ';?;■ a MU'.cSMiip. of ;>,'r.i'. I);,;;' *, tht slircc nnsins ^'^
mcrtf* ia ds.uncfcr ( 1 15 h ) . dcploycu f -oin the noM.' ofs signal
from A b,tromffr!<.-prt.'ssi.'.re swiah. to a splashdown of about
^)') kjknnctcrs ;m hour ( 60 mph ) ,

Sintc the empty riKkcr enters the w.utr \\itt> the nozzle
down, utr is crapped m (he upper end to ikwt it upright until
one of two recovery vessels, sumnioned by a radio beacon and
flashing light, .itf.ithes lines to tow it back to the launch
center. There the kxwer is taken npa,rt and the r«ket seg-
ments are ship|X'd to the Utah factory, where they are cleaned
out. i!H[x;Lted foriratk.<;. prcs,sure-tested. rtiined, reloaded, and
reshippcti W) the site. When the rtxkct throat and nozzle
also have been relineJ with dslatii.'e insulation, the p.ir.ichur:.-s
washed and repacked, and other parts reforbt%lied or rcpl.it.ed.
the btHi-.ccr is !'.-a;.seiiil^'.eJ i<> liy again. TJic main :,(ructtire.

37

•*/ /., \^
'^4 :■

M dirvi.ti<nul tontrok. .uui t-trufn,.!! system .iff pl.tniH-J ior
C'Avnty liii^lHs, rl*.c rixowrv sysniJi for c(.-».

I'lk- svn»«ti fk-nR-tH 0I chc Shunlv ih.it is Jis^Mikxl drnwii.
■isvvnt in I'rbit. jhJ tht- only in.tfor part tiot tisa! .ij:.tits. is the
l;\U'rn,il I'.uik, As l.ill 1 l<»,S tnctcrs 1 .is .t litavivstorv httild-
t!ti; .Htil .;s I'll, t S. i »Hit.'rs in dtaiw-k-r ) .» .1 t.inn ,sila. rhr
i.ink lom.iin- the h»|iiit! hulrtycn .itul liiftikl uxvitt-o {Jt.tr his.-!
ihc Shi:tik-'s three m.nn c(\i:itH-s m the stem tsl the Orhker.
,inj Uviits the b.tk kbotie ol the erwirc vehii le tluriuj; l.uiiH'h
Tile tjiiky .ifc huiit ii) .1 turtticr S.ii»f« pLuM nvM Xcw
Otle.uis .;ikI slM|'(H\i hy t\ir_i;e lu ihc Liuikh Sites, those tur the
W'oi r«;.i^r piii'.i: ttir<>i!t:h. tlie l',i«,it».i C'.in.il,

M.iiie s»t .ilutni!U!in .i!l.>y up tii 's,.'' lentiineters i J in ^
[bilk, die I'.sterii.il T.mk is .taii.tlly twu prt»|icll.i:!t t.inks
t i»jitH\t{.\! hv .1 (,vlmJrti.,tf iolkir th.u b»Htses iontrt>l fqntp-
tiitist, 'VUv iiose itirxiS !i» .1 |Hnr« ttppai l>v .i H^;!ltt^i»l; roil.
The U.rw.irJ i.mk is kuJeJ with ^.!'M>iH' bters s ! ItUHH?
t:.iH«HW' *»} hqtiltl t'M_i;f!(. JiiJlfJ to lanim I i"..! i\ weii;li
isii: «H»^'''S> ktU';:r.uns t ! ^^tUHHi lh>, Thv onv {.ir(«tt\i; tik-
.lit sei,fH>!5. i\Ko .(ill! h.ilJ times kifi^er. ».niu,!i»s 1 i ''S HX'
hters i ^StMHHi j:j11o!(».> i>t hi|utd !nJf»»,urti .it inimi^i .''^ 1 T.
'!'bi> •iu-i_s;hs niUv ItM "^IH kjl»\i;r.inis i.'..'>!HH> li-"^ Iw.iuse
htjiiiil hviir»«i;eu is sixteen time-; lipfltt.t.

I'he t.tiik's tustNiile skin is t:isiil,iteil ^iMih s|'r,iy-t>n jHihiiie-
ih.mv Uwm th.it rtxhkcs be.it tr.inskr mui thi' i.mks tb.ij
jouki t.iiise eXii'Ssne boibus: oi the j'fj'.pdkints, !t .ih%> helps
prvMii! the buildup durtit:: lutnib pr<.(Mr.isioiis ol iie th.it
loulii sb.ike loti>.i' in tbi;!« ..tul J.iiJKi.ue the thhitrr. An
.tbkifith: m.HiTi.d slut ib.trs .i».iy ptutei's the t.mk's Intl^^es
.iful prt»jei tu^n-i Irinn Iriiiitm be.ittitj; Jiirini; iiseent ttiruiiijb
ihe .itmospbere.

! iiiri.Hint.il b.ittles in the oxyj^en t.mk present ^k»hing th.it
KiukS tiirim die vehii k" iHit ot t-itirfuk ,intl AUti vortex b.iilles
hke bm billies in hiih (.inks juevcnf the tiirtn.it itMi oi ubirk
p«H»ks di.it lould let i;.ises. rather th.m ln|a(il propelkmts, into
the I '. I?< teimtiietcr 1 f-itkbi pipes tb.it i.irrv ..* !.*tHHt liters
s J> 1 iHHi ;:.dkitis> .1 tnmute to the e(ii;t(H's, Pi'upelluits are k'd
Wf du' e!u;ine pumps hv the pri,.>sure ot ^ijasts birtiieJ bv ti'ti-
trolled btnlinii in the tanks anil. Jnrinit fli.cbl. I'v v.ipuri/ed
propellaitl ;;ases routi'i! b.ii k troiii the eni^itie.s into the Links,
For t.os( s.uiitj;, mtm ol the tiuid uintn>b and v.ilves .ire
loi.iteti ill die reits.ible Urhiter r.ifber than the expetukible
l-'\terti.il I'.ink,

W'id* the needed nfbita! \eloeii4 .„•'. ',-,.Vi .■I'v,'",.*. ..', ..■!.'..'

;..;,,,.

After- the Stiiid Rix'kct l^xKfers svjxsf.ttc .« ■>?) kiiomt'icrs
{ il mi)' altitude, the Orbitcr, with chf ra.«H cssgincs sdll fir--
i(\i», (.■arrit'S the Extcrn.il Tank to nt-jr orbital vckxity .»r ;ilx)ut
111 kiiotttetcf.i {~0 mi) akn-c li.tnh. There, eighi minuies
after t.ikctrtf, clic- ninv-ettipty t.ink xivnuvs, and i.ills i« .1
pl.Hincd {r.iiectt»ry into the Ijidtm IXxnin un ms»i»ms trom the
Kennedy Sp.iee <x-mer wr titc South Fatitic on fh|ilit.'i from
V,mdenlx.TU Air Furec B.'.se in C'.aliftwni.i. Vcntini; of unustd
t)xyj?eii controls the r.itik's r.«te uf twmWjii|; to j'teveni skifv
(>ins: whi-n it hits the ypjx'r .nniosphcre and la assure that it
will break up and td! within the desigtiated ^Kean areas fat
from busy shipping lanes.

39

Heavy, ,'k >.'.•/»» r.j/.vct )t:!!.tt.!i:t u iKJi'U ,«■ ,ti: <• ..•i/.-i»
»;.,v. ',> .4 ; /t :. ?i< f'% Inn::,

i%'»^''i'

6.

The

\m\izifig

Orbiter

'T'hi-; OtmnvM.. \\\\k\\ aII othi-r ck'iwtMs of tiii' Span.- Trans-
ixwtatitiii Systwn sin^j\ift or dc{K'n4 i»tt. liwks lik- .»« .dr-
|^l.Mit' uiid .WW like urt€ durini; tin- List mintitcs ot fltghi.
Bt« it is tir imwt- comfli-K; ilu» the most si5|i!iis{k.«».'d air-
t.rah: t'orty-ntiK- t.'t\i'ities. t'.vciay-tliav .iiitwjtMS. tiw 4'otn-
jHitcrs. svpawtt sets »>!' controls t«r tlyitsjj t(i spiKv .itid in tht
air. i'lcftric-|H)wi-r ^s»cniT.i{ors xh,a. .d.sa jiftHluvt" drinking w.iier.

The thiik-htxiitd, dflta-wiiiijid .icrasji.icc tr.itt is 3" imtiTS
k«i|:. lus a S|\iti iit 2 i mca-rs i I2II ft by 80 ftl, Jtid \\vic.hs
atxHtt ~1tM10 fciluijrjms empty i l6'»tJ0t! IbK its cargo bay,
IK.^ ractvrs loi\i: and J.Cj incti-rs ia di.tjnttcr t60 t't by H itK
Cits driivcf sinsjlc ur mist-d payloads of wp ta 29 S$)0 kilo-
grams i b'S (KH) lb i to orbirs ot up to ,=i"*l kilometers .iltifudt,-.
«>r sm.dli-r iM.ids up to li US kiloraaers i J,^t5 mi tt? (t'JtJ tnil.
It can brmi: |Myk«ds of l-i S\S kilograms \yl IHW Ibi back
tiJ Earth; and it cm carry out a vark-ty of niissiotis lasting
Sfvt-n to thirty days, it normahy tarries a crt-w of tlwec astro-
nauts atid one to four Siienrists ot tfihnkians ti) mafiagt-
thu paykwds.

The airfratne is mostly aktminutn prtwcitcd bv misabic
surfave itwidation. The inain scetiotis arc the forward fuselage,
containing the air-tight ctcvv module; the cargo-carrying mkl-
fusclage. witb fuUdctigdi m'crhead doors: the aft fuselage,
inckidic.g !he engine tliriist striscturi- .uk! the body flap that
contnds the craft's ptteh in atntosjiheric Hight atxd shiekk t!ie
tnain etigines frojii the heat of .lir lrictk>n during renitrv;
thf wings, which htmse the main latiding gear; .uid die vertical
t.iil.

The forw.irt! (usclage is made t>f akimitiism alloy panels.
fr.ifiH'S. auil bulkheads, with wiuduw trames ^4 machitJcd
p.srts atf.iibcd to the strucHiral p.uteis .lud frames. 1'he irew
module, wlnth will he described more ftdly in die next chap-
ter, is madducd ahnnimini ,dIoy plate «ith integr.d .stilfening
stringi-rs. It h.ts a side h.ttih for tufrtn.d entry and exit .-nd an
airlock frotr? the crew living deck it«i> the itnpressitrized
iargt» b.ty.

The mid-fusel.ige is die primary load-i.irrviug strikmri-
Ix-twceu die torviard .tnd .ift hwcl.iges. Tile skin is maciuned
.Nk! honcycond"i-s.itH!%kh |\tucls .md t!;e frames ,i condkna-
tk»u of alinninmn p.tnels with rivetwl or tn..chint'd intogr.il
stdleners antl .i trus:-.-striittuie icnter scttion. I'he upper half
tonsists of the largo hold tloors. hiugetl .doug the sides and
split at the top eenterltne. M.tde of gr-sphite-eptwy lomposiit-

41

42 frjitifS and hont-ycajnb pMivh, ilicv ItxmforMc radiaturs thai
arc vxpo$vd hi spact' wticn tin* ikms mv opva m dissi|xttc h«it
tfOfH t'k\'rfk\ii «.\|uipmcHt in the OrWtt't .«ij p.iykyJs.

Thf .il't tusi-li|»f stnictitrc. wliicli c.trrk'S the m.»*n-fni»inc
ihriJst kwils w riic my-l'tJst'l,ig<.' ami tluring asi-rnt, w the
Estcrjui Tank, is a nufhitied alwmimiot panel with a truss-
typc: ittterual mmmm ol titaaiimi: reiflfofeed with hmm%
ff Dxy, The wings .ire a»nstr«ctcJ with a carnsgateJ spM and
triiss-ty|x' fib intcrtwl arr.iiigement and skiH-strio|;ct stitlenal
aliMHinum alkw. TIjc verticil tail is a two-spar, muhi-rib,
stirt'eiwd-skifi k»x *il aktmiratm allay bolted to the alt tiist-Lii^c
at the tw« fiaift spars. The ruikT And speed brake .issembly.
divided ttito upper and kwver sectiofls. is akimimtm h.ntey-
comb patieis.

i»^sal.«Jon tough emwgh to protect the Orbiter and its erew
immthe s:MmgkBM\4m\'VAt^^^

In earhcr niarmcd sp.iceeralt, thvnnal buildup was amttolki
h}' sht'ddtng gknvini: bits tif the heat shiekl mdi Ikit NASA
asked for materials that woiiki iasr thriwgb 100 missions
before replacement, and dlective eiMHi|»h to protect the .thiuii-
n«m suhstructarc beneath for ^00 niissiiMis. The atiswer was
a .special tik>-Uke insiilitioti that reflects away heat so vrtVc-
tive!y that when one side is cool enouj,'li to hold in yotir bare
kmds. the other $kk' c,«i be red hot.

Tm» types ol iasulatioa cover the top and side* ot the
Orbtter: bhicks ol* silica tiK-r with a glas.sy coating and rtcsibk-
sheets oi nylon kit ciiareJ with silicone. The tiks. aroutid
2.1 centimeters thick and 2i) ect»tinieters sijuare ( I in. by
~"s in. Si.|tiarei. protect the aliimimim surfaces up to hM^ C
the rtexible tnsukintsti up to ™(l (1 l*he ctMtijJi:; t;ivcs the
upper part of the crafr a nearly white color and has optical
propcttie.s ?ha! fclk-ct solar radiation. Simiiar tik.^ with a
diilerent coating; protect the bottom of the spacecraft and the

leadhyj ed^e of tlie (ail Mj5 iti U6ll C TIte lti|*heF-res«pefa-

ture eoa{io|» ijivcs the underside a |jlo.«y bl.ick appearance. Top
and IxitttJin, there are tnore than ^1 000 of the tiles, for which
the Orbiter has been called "the llyini: brickyard." The nose
and leadintj edge of the wij\«s, which get !H*ttest «>f .dl, are
eiin*ered with .t nt.(teri.rl c.dled reinforced carbon -carbon
ccarbon cloth itiipregnated « ith additional carbon, then heat
treated and csMfed with sihcon carbide >: that protects them
tip to I61i) C

Rudder
and speed
brake

Mam engines i3

Maneuvering
engines (2;

Aft

COtltfO:

thrusters

Hydraane and
nitrogen letroxide
tanks

Eievon

Forward
con fol
thrusters

£,t>ac-- 'adiatofs
'{snsict; joors;

Mid-deck

Electrical system
fuel cetis

Nose gear

Mam gear

^oinoijx p

'^^4A|g

The Orbitef's three main engines, developed by the Mar-
shall Space Flight Center, which created the great Saturn ¥
Moon rockets, are the most advanced rocket engines ever
built and the first designed for repeated reuse. Their thrust
for »-eight is the highest of any engine yet de¥etepd:an3:
they can operate for apWi&mMiSAMS hours of accumu-
lated firing tiine— liftj'«ii\'e flights— before a major overhaul
Four and a third jseters tail and 2.4 meters in diamerer at
the flare of the nozzle ( 14 ft by 8 ft ) , each produces 375 000
pounds of thrust-— eqwivaleni to about six and a hall miliion
horsepower— at the rated power level used for most launches
and 470 000 pounds iKrust^

can be varied from 65 to 109 percent of rated power to tailor
the performance to different loads and to keep acceleration
within comfortable bounds.

45

5.6

(10.

m
5ft|

■

Bulk alone ii a M,mt chfe m HfftH'aiet m ihtisv three eitghm.
The P-r¥jimS4ttinVY]im stage. ^^u^
tfttiOftfm minutes: Ai- ie(mui- mid thinl-mg^ ]-2 used
hiimgi-u. dim haJ a than JesigH lift.'. SfuMh' engftu's iSSME),
ftisiiy iiime edkiem, liut |of 55 fligbts htjore ortrbmi.

^^^^. mMMMK mfmms:

Space Shuttte
engine

^ Moaated ©o dw; ©rbitef aft fuselage in a tnanguliirpittterTi,
the thrw engines tdh; swivel 103 degrees up and down and
%.3 degrees from side to side durmg flight to change the
direction of their thrust and, with the two Solid Rocket Boost-
ers tbat assist during the first two minutes, steer the Shuttle
as well as push. They continue to burn for six minute.*! after
the boosters are dropped off, each minute drawing abouf
47000 gallons ©niS^^^^^ gallons of

liquid oxygen from the Extetn.il Tank.

The propellants, ignited by devices similar to spark plugs,
are burned in two sta^^es, bttng partly combusted at rclatft'ely
low tcmperatorc in preburners and then completely burned
at high temperature in the maititpmbustion chamber of each

46 engine. Propcll.ints are fcd unticr hit;h pressure by turbine

;;;;i:ni:;:: puTOps dfivcii Bv hot ^^ixscs itom tlic prcbiimcrs. Operating

lllll pressure in the iHiiiti combustion chamber is 3(K)0 pounds p^r

,:l||«are inch— four times that of previous rocktr engines— -as

0:U:.^if'the fuel burns ;ir 35 !> C

Each engine is controlled through a pair of comptifers '
(primary and backup) that iiiontror its operation. They com-
lllll pare actual with programmed performance fifty times a sec-
liiad; a||imati||(ly CQ||JCt an||i:prcihlip.s o?iiis|ely:|||.t <kmk.

i;m;,\ ilie""«rigffte; ■T«;eive--coiiniiani"! ttjm the OrBferi piMaW

and navigation computers fur engine start, tliroctle changes,
illll: and slmtibwn; and keep a record of the engines operating
p™ilTyiihtswQ^„faffiai!iS»aria;;pwrposcs.

.l|lf"Twiiirbitailiitiaoeiiering engines in externa! poiis to the

llll left and right of the upper main engine each produce 60{!0

pounds of thrust to speed the Orbiter up to orbital velocity

lllll after she main engines shut down and the External Tank

::fi:: dtops uwav. Tlicv aiso supply energy to change orbits, rendez-

j .:::: Yoos with other spacecraft, and rtturii to ILirch. They burn

lllll mononicthyl hydrazine as the fuel and nitrogen tetroxidc as

ji||::| the oxidiiK;r, which ignite on contact when mixed, rctiuiring

lllll no starting spark. Propeliants are iorce-fed to the engines

::||i!fOm siparatc pairs of tanks in caclj||>od biipressure from a

■■■lank of gaseous hel!iin\. The engines can Be' used separately

™|| or together aisd can be swiveled pins or minus H degrees to

hllll controJ the Orbiter's direction. ' "".y are designed to be re-

IllllliillrtllliiilplttSirpi^^ «re c.!pablc oi HK)0 starts .hkI

■■llfifeeii^i&urs'lPcontiiiMoiis lk:ng.

Batteries oi small rocket engines, uilled reaction c»niro!

fhrtistei.s, in the Orbiter's nose and near the taii provide atri-

lllt tude control in space and precision velsxity changes for die

s-™™||: final phases of rendezvous .md docking or orbit corrections,

:i Along with the ship's aerotlynamic control sorfaces, they also

control its attitude during reentry into the .itmosphere and

ar high altitude. In the nose are fourteen primary reaction

lllll corttrtd engines, eacli of K~l) pt>unds thrust, anti tv.o ivrnier

|^/''''''':||i:pgin,«|SK)f 25 pounds thrust tor fine tiuiing. Aft, twelve pri-

y;:„„|p'maricS';Snd two verniers nestle in each pod lieside the maneu-

lllll vering engine. Their propeliants .ire die same as for the

llllll maneuvering engines, and though the reactit)n control thrusi-

IIP ers have tlieir nwn tanks, they can .dso draw on tiiose of the

|:i:paoei?ief«ng,:||e;pgines. Each primary; eiigint:, is des^jgned for

Meticulous i>iJt,i:;.i;toii tc ,.'-•.,„•/■-); ^ri.n;! lilis «
f«,0'>. Almoit !!'> art) till ,1 Mi ,diki : their b.icks iirt-

toiitr,!,'' :;\i;hhuJ. ('.!<i.sv>,\ •:.' of fit with )hiiihhor-

;liffljpji>H»S,i|l|:iM)n starts, .

fiJO:SectMkls,«l eiuimdauvt

Main j»car touches .;i ti t EitutpiiH itiuii < i>i
ili.iJ ^tii t frnm .ill i.iil-i LiiiJuit; h if .;/ fJu.irJi
Ait Vitnt ILki. X'ht ttl'iih mil ">oii fo/irl'.

iiring. cadi vtrnicr engine ti)r ICO m sions, 5l){)000 swrts. 47
.md 125 (MM) a-coniis of lirin^.

Intcrnai |Hnvt-r tor the Orbitcr is supplied by separate
elcttriiiil and iiydfaulic systems. Hydraulic power i.s gctierated
by three (iiimps geareil to gin turbines driven at ~ i 1 6() rcvt)iii-
tions per minute b}' tiic decompositiDii of hydrazine as it
passes over a catalyst bed. Hydrautit actuaur? move the cle-
\ons (wintj ilajis). body flap, rudder/speed brake, main-
engine \ah*es and swivelint; mechanisms, Iandii\i; gear, wheel
brakes, nose-wheel steering jsicar, ami devices that di>>.onnect
the propeilant lints from the Externa! Tank to the Orbiter
on separation.

Electricity for everything else, from computers to rhe pav-
load-manipulating arm, is generated by three fiiel-ceil power
plants. l)e\ek>ped in earlier manned lliglu prtsgrams. fuel
cells generate direct current througu the ekctrochcmicai reat-
tion of hydrogen and oxygen. Electrical power needed may

'■f.'fV ^ ' i' ■ .

4H

mi (St

v.iry {'runi .?n ;n M'- k;! )w.i;fs Juni-.t; rla- •i-u-niijir-te
to yfbif and ihf halt hour o{ recatr) .nui Linilin^. ',\i,t
{«}-lt>rtd equipment is rurneJ ofi" 'w on st.mJbj-, up to an avcr-
tj.'f ■)! ■ i i.'lii-A.if; Mvl ,1 V'cak f>f ^6 kiltHvartv ',\hc-n die

retjaipBicnt is in opc'.Uiun sn «;bit. A vjUiablc bvprudiicc uf
tije liici cells is tlrinkini^ WMtt-r for die crew -.{rsd piissfngers.
The Orbjter's cavernous cargo hold, with payload attuch-
. jnt poHits aloEig us fidl k-ogth. is adapcabic enough to
accoinmixlatf as rniiiiy as live uninaniicd spacecraft ot various
sizes and shapes on a single mission, instniments that view
Earrh or upper space from witlun tlie hc<ld wlit-n ihc doors
are open, sm.iii seH-contatned experiments for a variety ot

' USprs^iipr §^ fully quipped manned scientitk . joratory. Space-

ilitt|tte:ri!»d morefullv m (Chapter K. The Orbitcr supplies
rhem with elecrricuj pov. cr, tluid and gas utilities, htacsn!,; and
cooling, data transffiss.sion t>T storage and displays for the pay-
Ju.'d specialists alxearsl, ar!u coinni'anitations widi "ground sra-
tie'is. For iristrumtius ch.u make rheir observ;riyns tr«n
platforms in the pa\'load bay. die Orbirers CMiiputers lire

irhe?::^inqll,,yprnie!: jfflit«fcpjn:fro thrusrers t(5 mujorain point-
m§ aimimf ■wiilia.. Mm .cHgree-

Using radar, the Orbirer can rendezvous from 560 kilo-
meters away (330 mi) with a cooperative laigct, like the
space felesvOpe, or from about 20 knometers ( 12 .iii) with
a passive one, like the Long Duration Exposure 1-acility, botn
described in Chapter !. Voice coinmonications, television
signals, and seienitik and engsnecring data arc ttansmitted
and received on live fretjut-ncy bantis through seventeen to

iding f:n she mission, to and from
de[?!ou'd, serviced, or retrieved;

twcnty-thrte antennas, dcpe-
StmS^mg sp.itetratt being

tO' astfaiauts working iti open space in their pressure suits
and maneuvering backpacks; to two cracking and data re!ay

:i tatellites, to be Jauochcd on early Shuttle operational flights;
and directly to ground stations for use by controilefs and
experiment managers at the Jolinson Space Center, the God-
dard Space Flight (x-nter iti Kfaryland, and the Jet Profjidsion
Laboratory in California,

:; ,Ja*i||ii*S^C'M? bf^ lifted out of or hauled mtt? tite otrgo ksM;

i||dltipMii|»|ji«ng .trrn controlled remotely frons rlic ©rbiftr
flight deck. A secontt arm cva be insodled on clit odicr side
of the hold for mi.ssions oti wiitch very large or awkward pay-
loads must be h.indled. bc-dgned. devtdoycd, and built 'w
Ciaitadian mi '^itjal linns under the direction, ami lundtng ot

Cari;o h.n ■ ..•-.■ .;.'.>
of ti's) hmtti/iHut'-.

i>,l:>.

• itl\ rtl Li j5 X

'•r. r. thi

fhe Nationu! Rcstarth Coimcii of Canada, the manipulator 49

IS .: Tohvi hum.m ,i:i:i, I'i nittcr^ liji5|; OO tt) wir'i juinti
at the ihuuldcr. elbow, amj wrtsr, tddt operated by six fkttric
motors. It ends in a dcviie tluc engineers c.di the "end eticc-
tur' tlnit tjn take huk! ot a s|..ice<.rat't t;> Lx- dcplr»yt{i or
gmh one Ay'wv, outsitlt*. Teievision laraer.ts on the itmer arm
and liglits in the carsro h;ty help th'- a.s£roa.iut mission sptxial-
ist guide the arm'.s movements from a station on the flight
ce. !; T:«- arsii lukIu bv u -cd ti,.> r<;svuc ihc crew iu,v.\ a dis-
abled Drbiter or to iielp asscinbie Hriiciures in .space. I'hcrc
is no doubt that this ingenious t!ecrro-nHxh.»nii,aI extension
(st men's brain aiul muule wdl perform v.diiabie st-rvite in
vxars to tome. "^''hir i< vastiv k.ss tertaio is that \vc will
ai.tuaH\ v.dl tis hand an "end elkxior."

■'< »:,;ii\ Jitjiitnl -tihf If II i!i K.L'iit ll'i hii:!' cmti oj HitiUlU}.

OF POC:^^ Arf; J^

/^NCE THE SHiitTCE has complffed m iriji ¥©>■%»«. At- 51

^-^ fet of tiiesc wk* may go inio space %viil be jreatiy en-
lafgcd. Mo l0ftfa\Ttli travel feyond Earths scatriri* blank-t
of atmosphere be restricted m a Si4txt popahmn of phvsi-
cally ptrfcct and tMenskt-tj- trained astioftauts.

Accefcratitift stresses feit % the Orbiter's iTew and pas-
sengers dm'mg launch and iisceni co orbit are never more than
three times normal gra%'fty. aniy a thki of the peaks to on
earlier nlartnaJ Bights naA well within Ac physical limkadotis
of tton-astforui»t Kieniists a«td t«:hriscians, who nom- can go
laio sgacc for the first ttint* m tend their o%va experimems
there and «3b«rve the KSuksrTfie spacSm f:?i5 C8itie««««

meters: 25M m fti pm&smpmme <x:mkm§««md living

quafSrs suppirt^with: ordinarf ::att— 2£^|^
pR»M::ma%e«— <« stS^^ Kfckvdzrpressufe of J4.7
pounds per sefttaf e inch and comfortable tempcrarures cf 1 1 C
to 27 C. The humidity is controltfi and odors and carbon
diaxtde ■are cominuoBSlf filtered out. ■■■

The upper sectioa of the caBin is die flight deck, from
j'thicS the Shtarte Is tontroilcd and most payloads are handled.
It soRiewfcat resembles the cockpit of a JXI III jetliner. Tlwe
is a coBveatjonar pilot-copilot ammgemcnt of forward-facitig
aats for the ship consffiander ( on , the left li and pilot, TV-like
displays, and duplicate sets of conv««ntional-!m>king hand ct»-
ttollcrs, pedals, levers-, and switehes with tt-hkh either astro-

mmt can fly thextaft atone BariBg- ascent and iteturn the

mSion'lpeciaKsr, who=fc also * MASArasticmaut, and the
nofi-astro«awf paytatd spmajist, if there's one along, stt

=:::behiiid tlte ,pite afi£^^

Behind and alongside the scats are four standupZduiy' sta-
tions, two facing aft with wiS3m-s and a wsTOlowfcss <me=»
along each side of the deck, %vhere the crew and patluad spe-
cialist work while is orbit. Looking aft tin the left is the
rctidezwius and dtJckirig siacion. itsnali}' occupied by the coro»
otaitder, contaioini* radar displays and contrtJis for maneuver-
ing thi' "f^rbiter close to another spacecraft. Alongside ir, tcj
the right, is the payload Ijandling .station, with djsplays and
controls to manipitiatc, deploy, refeSsc. and capfare parload.s.
The crew member at this st.«rton. t««i)lr the pilot, tan open
and ctee rhe pavJoad door.s; deplf>y the cotiltog r,»diatc»rs;
tiepby, operate, and .«ow the manipidat<»r arm; ,snd operate
the fights and televi,siofs cameras in the pay bad bay. Two
TV screens dispLw the pictures from the remote caracnts'.

mm.

Rendezvous a"0 Psyioau !\<?Kli!t».^

docktng con!(ois corittois

, At! viewing windows

Hand conttoih.Hs

l-lighs defk .'.">*'.•

displays

^'

-I - 1 t " 1

iK»i<«*s;»w|'" •*1««b: \ ''^

Kiia>5t deck

;o Tf M:ppiif\1 tvv NASA

The tU!<.*.i(n5 .-.r.itHW, )u>»i I'cIhiiJ .i;ul to ilk- ru;ht ut jlsi

nil >j<t I. t.lilNt. » HlllSjItlN

piit'fs Sf.J! aik! tXtupitti !n tin nn

(.'OnCrols {i1 m.m.iL'i' .•!)•, I'sI.k: ■■ au t. .:sr.-. n.'-i^ w:;!'. .•..•;■
i-'.ui-. ,i:h; cli'.ir ou'irnu " flu: i\ \r::i. .il tu thi (>rhiCf( '•-
^■.k-n llu- -.(ifi.v.i !% ttpiippfi I.' nit>!u!>>r M.inmjttil. v.i.-urul.
,:v..l iifrniuiii<-..u v.n\: j',i\i. uK ..:: '-.Ix-i <.i '.Ik * Vlnct r or
ilymc iit-irb-, , .1 t.uitiiia ,uul wjtmsi:.; ili%j»i.u .ikicr. (ia u'tw
int-mKr-. (<> m,.it;iiii. tiujis :f, ;•■-, !,>.,i! ., <t!ii;'iir.i IH^ Cirbidi
Kuiitian-- <;t,!i .u> Hilt ,i:i(p,i. ;i,;!i ii .ii:i,,!i r.i j!ii- Ii-^Ik ,1;.
,t!so be m.m.ii;t,'il irniu larc

t)n chc oj^jHiMtc Nidc lit ihc iliuiii ilrsk. Ixbffui aikl !o iIh
1 tt "t du K.nWu.n.U f s .;.;: i- :;:•■ ..iU.-ivf :..i..ni. iMupiit'

In .i p,r> U>,ki ^pt.■^.l.^>l^l \\ !u a Shv I!it>--t<l!l rcqiHiS.^ IV!U_ t' IV

lo.uis ars, •.hvtkti! mu .»u1 t5i.in.tnn! triMn h«'rc. aiul jIh- Nf.iiitM!
iiu likk"» .1 Mirt.kf (\\i: nu'K-i% Mju.tft tor tt ttun.ihlc lll^i•i.H^
.iskI uniirub that kmi l><. v h,.s(i;!.'il !>'r dtikivsH p.iUi>,ids on
JiiliTt iit t'.usMons A s..i(1k'Ji -i.u -tiilx ils-.j-i.n .hk! kf^!\i,irJ
!• -r ii.nir'-.in.- i( i,.-^ ",ith ; .!> i ••,,•'■ tin .j.-h ;'• ■ i'>:\-w.' -, ,;..s.-
prtxiv^mc susttm iu.n W .uliktl ricuriij! power atnl .nr
• firkltcitM)!!!:: hif p.i", !o,u!\ rh.tt (H-cd fht-Hi .trc rt-'ul.md fu>i!i

!hl^ ,t.iri,.;i

Tl-v- S')i;;r\ \ !;it:!i; ;•■ .u Ji.>; ni i'\ win; .!u^•^p.,^^. i -i^;!
!i!.'crN •.!!! fK I14 wire {lure .sre !u> uKI t.i-.liiutK\i l'^'^K, t .ihle-..
. : h..-t.-iii>. ■;•■'. ■.■■■,•; Mm., n.^ "^ ■.'! I'tt p;! >t--' h m-.i 1. •.•.iup.^l
ii.r> ,-iu! ped.d'* .lie ■.( iiMiK-J t!Ui> eKi:ri>nk ••ii;i .d.-> ,uui, lik(,
rhc pro:;f.in'!nHd f^trv, t•^n;^ h>r .•,;!(. >ri,itii liicjic, .ire roeU'd
fsro.ii;!! - •'-r.'.:-u;^ r% flu ^t.i'pi.fiix .it.'. > •.•1,11:1. uitl '.o t

Pavload

opi?raliorts

riKM St^jt

Mighj dcvk .'.-. (.■'-■.< %" ;...■(,;.

v.:;s

•MWt

.^!i^^5

r.uk

.Ui

siw

.V's:

StMl

c!\ui"t.'S atid .utitiuk' cluu,st<.rs Jufinij lautuh. .isitiu. t>rhit.il x<

opera tH<n.< .ukI rct'ticry or to the h\.lf.itilii .luu.icof; rh.it
operate the ekvon ll.s[^s, rudder, .uui ^(x•ed br.ikc diirii\^ de-
sieni and l.uulini:. IXit.i on the vehuies [HTtonn.iiu e. attinide.
posuiuit, .u\eUr.itu>a. veliKitv, .iiul direituni fliuv to itxkpit
displays and to the niti»puter.< trom rate _s;yri<s. an i leriinKters.
star trai-kers, inertial measurini; ucuJs, thrusicrs thrustdirce-
iit>n ii>ntro!s. airsjxxd prubes. radar ahitneters. and air tiavi-
i;atio(i ainl n»Krin\avc laiidmi; systcjiw. Vom tumptiters
I there's als(> a Kivkup oiie^ pnxess the same data stir.uUaia--
luisly. I'aih iiMiipares it.; nnuputations with those e! the
inherN and a!;ri.x\l-up»in vomtiiaiids ave sens to tht.' approprijue
4»>iHr>'! .uttiatur. It ,md uhen fheiv is il!>a_!:reet«er«. the n'lst-
puters ill etk\i vote, and unniiianJs trom the outvoted
nnnpiifet are tqnorvd.

The i.ahin nud-deik. reaJievi thriHijjh ait open ha!«.l) trom
the iuqht dev k aKne. is the hviiii; area, i It also iOiuaiiis
iiukh ot the t>rl->iter"s ek\tro!iiis _i;ear, * Here are iiuee estra
scats tor avlditiooal pa* load Sj»ev ialist> whvn the Nlisittie is
(.jrrviiiu the istanued Spaielab. AIoik the letl sid.e ot tins
de^ k are the t;aile\ and. .i \vaNhrov>in vxidi a iodef The calks
inv hidi's an oven, hot .uui *oUI waiir dispi users tor prep.irniL;
treeiedrievi toixls. sti»r.i^ce tor Mvetuy ttnir kihils ot {otni .iitd
tweiitv KveraciS, pLi^es tor drisikitii; itips atui e.itinc i;tensdN.
a shell ttir diiiitii; travs. a water i.iuk, .nui tr.ish bins. Ot\ tl-se
r!_i;ht. besides ho\iS t\ir the >. few's persona! thm:;v. are three
inii'.ks .ind ,! M;tiial sleep stalioti ' On a mission ti' risaie
fheitew %it another I Arbiter straiulevl lu sp.Ke. the hunks vould
l<e rtntoviJ iixl i(ir<,e i:K>ie si-.us Hv-.|.!lk'd, I he tof.d ot
ten s«.ais. -.iv luie .md 'our on the tttuht deik. then vvoidd
.i^.(.>>innti\iatv the ri^itie lii^ht ^rew ot thrve .md the inaMiitiun
ot seven irtim the ihs.ibled iratt.

.\ lower >e\tion o! the labiii nusdidi-. beneath the in mu
tjti.irters .iiul re.u hcii thrin!t;h removahk I'l'oi p.uuK. n>n(.iins
more stor.mt sp.ue aiui thv i^rbtler's eavironment.il ionfr<<!
eiijuipmem.

i'roni iiie bavk ot the middevk an .liilink .1 ixhndru.d
<.omp.r nuent wilii .nr tt;;ht h.itih<.s on opposite sidi-- U .uis
i'Ato die i.n\i;i' i\n , .Vviti'naiiis in >p.ue suits int^r trom thi
i.ibiii .hhI I lo>e ih.e h.-iti'; 011 (h.ii side ht io!i- opeujni; tht
othir one, ihtis preventin;; t.ilnii ,i.f )n<m ss, .ipui;; inio tlu
unpri-sui t.tii h.i*> .mil the v.ivunm ot sp.ui- li.mdr.uls. h.nsd
holds, .iud too! restr.iiius .n v.uious |i>v.uions in tlie v.ibin.

M .iirl»Kk. .tiki i\nls\Hi k»ys help rhc wfit;btk'ss ircw siicmlxTs.
>.. K in;!s. -ind •>, •. Iitic, i ir.N t<> niiut .ihnisf .m*! v.ork as i) ihu-
u.tll', 'iH.oi.uH i.;Kicr\'. .u<. r 'i!)v\ ■,,;!! _:^. .li.'r.j; .t l-i.taJr.id
on rlu lou! ir..ir.!(n.!.(;!nj :n; ii.ini. .il .inn !o work ik-. .i p.n •
i...i»i •: :!h r.T uul .'! thi ku . it. a c ii ,i -iKllifc hriJ .nit i.i
xp.Kf Ih ihi' Mm tiuntu; drplo\ii>cnt rUurbtvlinK'ur, nr jc-
tnc\.il. or to c,vi M p.ifu t>r <:k (itbiicr H-t-l: ih.n ni.ix accd
i isj . ti- -^ . , ■.-. ■ . U 1-1 ,'

B.ukiMi,k'> %\K>rn vv.'h tttv \|\Ht. mik-; jmox-hIc o\yt;cii .uui
Milt uH>lint; tor mk iuniis, .uu! the Oitnur ^,aiK-> Mippiivs
[ur u%,. H-.ru -.i;. l!.".ii ivr-.-!-. »>' l-''-'A v\rr,,\i hKuLsr
.kti\tt'>' - -for two (.rev. nu'inlxt^. A s|^.n.c-su!ti.'il .iMrotj.iut
liti .\Uo wen on hi> Kk k .1 jHrNOtijI riH kvt kit, c.dlcJ the
Hi.uuicu tH-iiittiicfHif, liiiif, to ih ouf^tdc {'R i iri;i> i\t.- \\ an
lhl^ h.uiii-n>iurohs,il j'ro!Hi!M%i Jc%ki, Ih I. in rc.ufi .; nc.trtn
fut living -.'tcllitc. ir.ir,s|^orr ...ir_co ot tnojft 'tc m'-x -su h k
m.n tx ivquirtil i%i( scr\iciiii; a Np.itur.iti. ot rcittc\e ^m.i!!
trc<.--iK<.rs th.it ni.i\ be sensitive ro pcrtitrkuiim or tui-r.tniiii.i-
<ioi! bs UK i^rbtitr s ,utttutic-4,omn>l chrtwtcrs. The m.UK-ttver-
in^U tiiu; - own lo« rhrust iMtfOjiti) fn>jH;lLmt CiUSl's ninim.il
dihturli.uKe .itiii ISO (,uat.!iiiii\.ition

l.\'A (.»>},> m.n HKhkk sii^pi.-. tin.c ..(kl j^huii\i;r.iplii:\:: p.ty-
UkkK <.'r their (.umpoaeni^, ui^c.dhn^i;. leiiuivin;:. v)r tr.t!1^icr■
rint; htm ^.l^scttc•.. nutcri.ils sample;, proteaivc ^over-;. am!
i!nttHnH-f«N opir,ii!»>; i ijuifmcii!, unih, .ifid t.imcras. (.k.m-
mf, optK.il MHtai.c">' (.oHfieitiUi;, JiMutincvrini;. aiui ^teiwinji
lUti'l .in<! ckxcnia! hni^ rt-pairnyj;. rcpl.utiur. i .uibratiii;:,
.uu\ itV'i -.v t'.iit; (r..>(!iil,ir ■.•]!;ip-t!';!":t ul! iti^rnnni'tus. ik'piov-
lilt;. rctraitiH^!;. and posittsiiimi; aiuetm.is, booms, and M>kir-
powiT p.mcb; transterriHg earjio: pertormios: experr.ncnt.';
i!i the t.tceo b.iv; and fuJssibly rcpairinj: f-omc d.iw.i^uetl ot
m.ilkrtKfionmt: Orbuer meduniMii m orbit,

\n I .iH- ut •JeriotiN frouble Junni: .ivett! Co orbit ch.it axMlv
){ iinpovsibk- or uiUMsc to vo:ums:v tht sni'-Nio:! fo it-- ff.'.l
diir.itton. (Ik Orbtcer l^ expeucd to t:ct Kak ro Farth with
it-. ;vrv,n!.il ■,.<!:; .ipj -r-'. p.ivki.ui if.tau.

if ,1 dciiMoii to <.uc the Itighc -ihort iiad io lu- ni.Sik- tkirint;
the ttr.\f tivjr inmutes oi po\\ercd asietu on tlie niaiii eui;tnes.
th'.', -Ai I. Id '4 p. '.s-lik'b; kip' I-:. it;: untd cb.e 'ubi-.k ri.i. bed
.tti .dnnair oi NO-ine IdO kdometeis 1 fiO an). There the
.iitMosphere wottid be thtn etientgh m> th.tt rhe Orbiter. with
thi- l"\!orn..l l,i:ik Mill .!f:.,.!u-,l. ...tdd 'bp. o%c' .<rid poit'.t
ba. K-.s.ud t',;wait,! lite i.iuiu h sire, f oHtiniK-J. eiyutiie thrust

..4

■i

iockers

55

Sleep station
lockets

Mid deck uHHl'l}: tisrii.irj.

would slow (hv t.itl-Jksr vekx'isy lo zero .uid then acccfcrutc
the Vfha-!e. nose first, b.ick tow.ird the l.iutKh sifc. When tr
rc.icht'd chc ixitm where the t)rbifef .tlanc couk! t;ltde home,
the engines wouU Ix- shut down .md the umk jettismied into
.« noi-trti-biisy ixxwn .ika svleeteJ .ihe.tti oi time. A eompurer
gt»''utt,e protjr.uii tor just such ,«» £.'merj»etKy wiwilJ etwtrol
eriiie.. n.mcDvers uiwi! the tJrhtter glided within r,ii\se tor
the crew to j«.ike a m.tmutl l.sndjnj; on its iisii.t! base runw.n\
.ibf.m twenty nisnuies after hftoC

In .» mission .»lx»rted during the List hall ot* the l.iunth
phase there woidJ Ix.' enous^h thrust left to power the Shuttle
to jwst .short ot orbir.d veltKity. The t'.stern.tl lank Wiiuld he
dropped into the norn^al Jispos.d .tre.t, and tiie Drbitt-r's tr.i-
jeerory wtwld fake it on«.e* .iround the gtobf lor a nearly
normal reentry and Ln>ding on the home runway abotit nitiety
minutes after takeotf. If the trotthle tame in the last few
minute;: of ,weent, the tank would K- disi..tfded into the
planned are.i and the Dtbifcr wtiukl make orbit, maylx- at
a kwver .iltiwde th.m planned, by firing its orbital maneuver-
ing eni:ines loni:er tiian ii.stial. The mission, thtniph probable
shiwtened. miglu last several days and woukl viMnlndi- with
a twrma! return to l-.arth.

It an emergency during t^rbital tsperations required urcent
return, the crew tould deeek'r,ite front ttrbu promptly but in
the normal way .Hid. it sum within raJiige oi home b.!se. lome
into one ot se%'eral air fields with long, strong rutnv,>ys tli.u
NASA has lined up as emergency landing sites.

8.

Airline
to Space

'TpHE Spac:!- Transportation Svsti-m is, broadly, the
Shuttle— Orbttcr, imi wnk, and irtunch booMcrs- — plus
everything thiit gtx-'S with tt:

• Spacclab. in which sficntists and technicians oi many
nations tan tondutt their awn experiments beyond Earth's
gravity and iitmt>s{ihere;

• Optional lii^ht kits of special equipment imd t-xtra supplies,
such as additiosial tanks oi fuel ioi matieuvcring. co enhance
the lL)fbiter*s petfomiance, and extend its stay in space;

• The payload manipulating arm described in Chapter 6;

• A modular spacecraft that can be owttitted with different
sets of instruments for a variety oi missions;

• Rixkets to prof-el Shuttle payloads to higher orbits or an
their way to other planets;

• A complex communications network;

• Launch sites and service facthties;

• Ingestions cargo handling equipment to speed gnituid
opcraiii)ns;

• Groimd ctMitrol centers;

• And the management structure to put them .lil together
into a working system.

The head of NASA's Ortice of Space Transporration Sys-
tems, John F, "^'ardley. has compared the t>peration to running
a scheduled airhne with aspects tif a chartet service.

Twesity to thirty percent of al! Shuttle missions will c.trry
.some parts of Spacelab. a versatile orbiting l,ilx>r.iiory for
manned and automated research in tlse low-gra%'ity. higis-
vacuum envinsnment of space. In its labor.uury module men
and women working without sp.ue suits in a ct>nift>rt.il'"k'.
Earthdikc atmosphere will ct»nduct scieotiiic ,uhI tethnital
experimesHS in close cooperation witli colleagues on the
groiijul. Its tievelopment is fiiunced by ten luuopean jiatii>ns
undet she I'airopean Space Agency. Agreements with the
I'ttited States prtn ide tliat liSA ilesign and build om.- Spaccl.ih
as well as its tesr and grtnuitl cnuipment, l)!hers that m.iy
k' ordered later will he paid for by the U.S. N.-\S,'\ is in
charge of operations. The liufopeaii couturies involved .ire
Austri.i, Belgium. Denmark. '^X'est tiermany, France. Italy,
the Netherlands. Sp.un. Switzerland, and the I'niied Kingdoni.

Like the Shuttle itself -but unlike Skylab — Spacelab is

reusable, desigtied to be launched am! tettirned widi the
Orbiter as many .is (ifty times twer a life uf ten years. It stays
in the Orbiter ihrt>ughout the llight. is expiwed lo spate when

57

58 the hiii carito Jtsors arc t>pc» in orbir, .imt is rcimivcd on the
^«rtHtikl for rc.trr.H\t;i.-mciH trt its ck-tncius and ch4«|ics o{
ittstriirnctits .im! wiyipmiiu h>r Jirtcrciu kinds ot mixskms.

Sp.itfl.ih's nu'm clcnsctits .irc the pfvs-Mm.txl Liborutory,
which .tthsrds shirtskwc workiiiji lOnJitjons. .«id ,in inMrii-
mcnt-cirryini: pLiiform i.dlwl djc [i.tllct. .i xurt t>f o[xn b.ak
porth. th.ir exposes m.itcri.ds and et.|ui[">niti« dircctlv to S{\ife.
li.ich i)f these 5S scjimemed for mission tlcxibdicy: t-icher cm
he tlown .ilune or iti more di.m lialt a dozen dirferent com-
hin.ttions with the oilier.

One .scaimeiit ut the Libur.ikwy intduk', c.dkd the core sei?-
ment. L.iiises dat.t pnxvssiiJi» ex|uipmcrtt .uid iirilhics t«r both
the ffessufizetl modules .itsd the paJk'ts uheti flown rs-iiteflter.
It .iiso h.LS usuj! Liboratt^ry lixtttres — .ur-eondirjoncd expcri-
metit racks, work besiehes. and so forth. The second, c.iHed
the espefiraenr sei;nienf. provide.'* morv pressiiriad workini:
space, racks, and hetkhes. ILich pressurized seiimeiit is a eyehH-
der •(. 1 nwters in di.imeter and 2," meters Umi: ? 1 i h In- 9 it).
Whc-n the two are a,sse!«bk'd. with rlieir cone-shaped end .sec-
tions, the maximum oiitskk lem'tli t.s " mvtt-rs ! 2.i ft).

M4>cktip iti SpaecLtb .i>:j Jr-iu /j.'.c

Tunrse!
Tunnel adapiei

txpetsmeni module
SupfX^r; modi.V

Spiieelah .A ..'c',' h,it:,ri

Ability to comhisK tfi.itr, huki h a .fpttiJ rirtiii' of ihc Orhktr.
iitreii Dtjiiht' Dfpaiimnil spi!ti.i:t>fU h rtti\i.itii, taml lOiiifcttJ
to it.i an H orhit. Ah'hirJ lor l.ihr Ji pla) na-Ht ,in- ntlu r uttdiUi'S,
hhittiling dii /UitiiiH-fti Ritiiio AUrniioiny l'..xplfiri;f.

As many as live piilk-t segmcms can be ilown at one time. 59
each three- meters ( iO ft) io«g. They serve not only as plat-
forays for moiinttng instrtijBents but also can cooi t^uipaienr,
prov'de electrical power (generated by one of the Orbitcr's
three fuel ceils), atid furnish connections for commanding
experiments and acquiring data from them. When pallets
itione are used, equipment for essential services for the experi-
ments, such as a power distribution box and computers, are
nrotected in a small pressurized, tetnperature-controiled bous-
ing oiled the iglcc. Equipment and experiments can be ser\'-
iccd. if necessary, by astronauts in space suits. The pallets
are used for large 'nstrumetjts — -telescopes, antennas — and
experiments rhat require direct exposure to space or need un-
obstructed or br<}ad fields of view. An instrument-pointing
system provides actitude control and stabilization for experi-
ments that require more precise (pointing than is possible with
the Orbiter controls. Pallet experiments can be controlled
from the laboratory module or the Orbiter flight deck or from
the ground through the Orbiter's communicarions links.

The labotatory module can accommodate thtee people reg-
ulatly and a fourth for brief periods, such as a change of
shifts. Handhoids, hiindrails, and foot restraints help them
work in the most convenient body position and move about
safely. The overhead structure contains lights and air ducts.
The air is at sea-level pressure, as in the Orbiter, and is kept
at 18 to 27* C At the work benches are electrical outlets,
laboratoty-wipe dispensers. %vriting instruments, paper, and
storage compartments for tx|uipOTenf like microscopes, cen-
trifuge.", incubators, materials-prtxessing furnaces, and photo-
graphic apparatus. There are view ports and, in the top, an
optical window -.ind an airlock, a merer in diameter, for
extending tnaterials and sensors into space and retracting them.

Spacelab missions will concentrate on intensive, relatively
short investigations that complement iong-tcrra observation
programs using free-flying satellites. Examples are studies of
the Sun and solar wind, comets and novai, and high-energy
radiation from distant regions of the tinivcfse; mca.suremcnts
of Eardi's electromagnetic environment and upper atmos-
phere; experiments in space prtKcssing of industrial and bio-
medical prtxiucts; studies oi the effect conditions in space
have on human beings, plants, animals, and cells; and—with
the Orbitet flying upside down— testing and calibration of
sensors that will be used later in Earth-survey satellites.

*«i^-

60

A pressttria'd mnml kads from the laboratory mcstluie m
the Orbiter cjibin. m'hefe the experimenters, called pay load
sptxlatiss, Wili Ike when off dtwy. Unlike tlic Basic Shuttle
iliglM crcm-— comma oJer, jptlot, and mission specialist— pay-
load spectidists need not be career NASA astronauts. They
are scieiirists or techiikians in reasonably good health chosen,
with NASA approval, by the designers and sponsors of the
itisrrimietns und experiments m be flown. NASA gifcs thera
sever.ll weeks of classroom instruction and training tn llighr
simulators ta .icquiiint rhem with the Shuttle and its equip-
ment, living and working conditions in space, safety and
mcdicd protedurcs. and their roles in cooperation wirh other
members of the* crew in carrying twt the planned mission.
The first five selected for training were two Americaas and
three Europeans; German, Swi& and Dirrch.

The JMiiltimission Modular Spacecraft, although not cLis-

silieS By SASA as part t>f tie Sp.icc Transptwtation System,
is a versatile mw unmanned workhorse to be carried into
space in the cargo bay of the Shuttle. Dewgned to take advan-

Various eofl%«rations »/ Spanittb mmims mi J pJieu tju be ftiuJ into she $bmtk'$ airgo bay.

Satellites orbited by tht* Shtittk bixht lih u iih a sUn r
ypoun: (hi nrkii i.i txjitli rix/.'t: lia-lrmUiC ga a Kiit-mintth
t,.(t: iuhtf piitulj jiiJ anhnthu ,.in iiuhiJiJ in it agl'L TNt
ow if Mi AJraiiiiJ LtiuJiui.

Up: of tl'f Shiitik'S «r.k]Uf cupabiltrics, it will i-arry iis i»vn
p:rop«lsio«, stiiWiixati-jH, and guidance »)«ipme(it Ic

Vtnii

61

reodfzvous with t\m Shuttle for vctv:

m

orbit

Ciltl

Of for

return to Harth for mvthmi. Fittt-d with interclmngciblf
instrumentation, tht Mt\iS cut cake on a vark-ty of aiissions
oriented toward Earth, the Sun, or stars. A considerabk |vo-
pmthii oi all awtomated satellite proframs ol the l9SQs
may use it.

The spacfcraft is a bad-carr|-ing structure with modules
anat'hcd for power, ctiinmunkaiions and dat« handling, and
attitude control. Propulsion motors for changing orbits, .solar-
power arrays, and various kinds of antennas can be added.
It is deployed from the Orhittr and recaptured lar servic\*.j
or return by the ineehanieal cargodiandhng i. m. lot ser%'icitig
and updating in orbit, Jostriin-jents tan be removed ai^d stowed
and replatenients inserted by meehani.sms eonftolfcd from the
Orbiter llight deck.

Two Icnv-tost, expendable i„Josters arc k-.a-t pn, ktted to
propel spacecraft deployed front the Orbi to altitudes
beyond its reach. Tht ^ 're called uppes stages, sificc they do
the work performed by the tinal, lop stages of earlier launch
vehicles. Both are solid-propellas« rockets that come in dif-
fcrenr sizes and eonibinations for small m large payltwds
destined for missions near and far.

For a launch from the Shuttle, the upi^-r st,tge and att.tchcd
spaa'cwfr are pcrinfecl in the right direction by the Orbiter "s
aititude-control thrustcrs, and are then gently ejected by
springs. At the proper place in the circular orbit to adiieve
tile desired destination (twer the Ei|uator. ftsr ex,tm|>le, to
reach geosyjichronoi-s esrbit 5 , with the Orbiter manetivered to
a safe distattce, the upper stage is ignited by Ktdio i-'.mm.ind
or a timer to increase vekxtty and raise the trajectory.

The sirtpler of these barters, developed by induftty as a
commercial venture im sale to NASA and other nser.s. is the
Spinning Solid Upper Srage. so named because its stability
and i'irectiofl in flight are maintained simply by spinning,
like a gyroscope. The rocket and spacetrafr to|j;cther are spiu\
up niechanitally as high ,is IW! revolutions per minute, de-
pending tin hize, before being reteasct* front the Orbiter. Two
sizes are designed to lib payloads oi about I KKI kikMtrams or
aboit 2««l kik)gratiis « 2 ((Mi lb or l iOO Ihi to higli tratisfer
orbJK. with the spacetiidr thei} \vmk\mi! pfo!>id.<>i«i! fc-r li»fcd
injeetior? into geosynchtontnis t>rbit. I'inal v.ei,i;hts jsn station

62

will be about 510 and 1000 kilograms ( 1200 afld 2200 lb)
respfCtivel)-. Four of the smalk-r spiimiag solid t:pper stage
or t%vt> oi the larger makl, with iheir spacecraft, can be
carried on a single Shuttle flight. One or two may also shi'rt
;* flight with other piiyloads-

A huslvit-r booster, the Inertial Upper Stage, is being devel-
oped by the U.S. Atr Force for use with both military and
civihan spacecraft. As the natne implies, it has a built-in
guidance and propulsion system for stability and flight control
Using two or three solid rocket motor.*;, it can pkice heavy
loads — 22~0 kilograms t KKKI lb ) ..r mtsre— in geosynchro-
nous or other iiigh-akitude orbits. Ir can also inject spacecraft
into trajt'crories for the Momi or planers.

One of die lirst assignments for the Itiertial Ups^r Stage
will be 10 pitcf' in geosynchronous orbit Tracking ami Data
Relay Satellites to handle communicarions among all eli.itients
t>f tlie Spare Tr.snsportation Sy.stem. Space tsperations iti the
p,ist have depended m.Mnly on ground stations and tra.'Ling
ships ksr comniunicatitsns, and there were lar:c i»lintl snots
in their cuver.tge. (jews of manned sp.tcccrat': *'ere out of
touch with iMissism Comn:4 tor part of every orbit, arn! satel-
lites fretjuently had m rect>rd data tin hoard and tt.uismit
t<iem to Lirth later whwi within r.vnge of a 'eceiving st.uioR.

Two Tr.it king .md Data Relay Sattliites. otje tni the Ikj.ia-
tor off Bra:il and one iwer die P.icitic Ocean, and a single
ground station .« White Sands, Kew Mexico, m.ike ir possible
to t,**ack and commisnicaie with the ()rbi?er and most (srhiting
spacecraft for .'^l to VH pertent ot the time. Several tracking
stations and tr.icking ships can be elimin.ttel. and her-.; ^till
be less need for on-boa, i tape ixt«ders-— often a trouble-
prone part of a satellite.

The Tracking .tnd Dat.t Rel.n* S.uellites svill be supple-
mented by the remaining stations tit' the older glob.d sp.ice
tracking and d.ita network, and the ?<ASA ground ctsmtnuni-
cata)ns ne'work. perh.ips .uignietited by dcnncsiic tomtnunic.t-
tions satellites, will continue t»> link *he tracking station.s ,uh1
control centers.

During operations in cirbit. comniunicaiiotis wiih the Ot
biter .tre m.iint.tined. as iu previous tnanned flights. Iw the
Mi.ssion C'ontiCJl ("crter at the johnstin Space C 'enter near
Houston, Te as, hspetiinent ground controllers will commu-
nicate with p.iyltuds throtigh the tJtbiiet as h)ng as these ate
attached to it. After sepatatitjn, commnnicatiors with free-

This strange spidery satellite (riU Iw om of lire )mk i '-j: ' '•
ft/ thi: Httr Spaa Tt-iiiupotMimt Sysitm..'1'bey. jre Tivi-htrg ,mti
Ditta Relit V uiteliihs. Mil tc'di Imh 0(bm-r.umi{ gmtmJ , with
tit} ktr mtl-f>f-tmt(h pitmik Tbtyll In- ftp iff gcmptthtmiOMs
mfm-em m-er tbf Athmtk anJ am mrr (he P^teifu.

Ipng sattilitts in Earth orbk will go to and f-om a Paf load
Operations Control Center at tiie GodUard Space Fiigiit
Center, in Maryland, aear Washington, D£, One at the Jet
fmnnlsma Laboratory in California, near Los Angeles, con-
trols syacecrafe head«l for the Moon or placets through
NASA's Deep Space Metm-ork. Payloads tliat remain attached
CO the Orbiter, including Spacelab, sire ntonitored from a
Payload Operations Cbntrol Cecter in the same building with
Misstaa Gmtrol, which pro'fides aparate voice channels for
science and Orbiter operations and teleyision channels shared
by the lligiis crew and payload specialists.

Launches of early Shuttle tnissions, both civilian and mili-
tary, ate from the Kernedy Space Center, Florida, out over
the Atlantic Ocean to avoid flying over populated areas in
the critical first minutes. Tliis direction also gi^'cs space-
bound vehicles an extra velocity sssHt from Earth's eastward
rotation. The pay loads from here include all comaiiinications
.satellites and others far geosynchronous orbit. Missions re-
quiring north-south (polar) orbits, ificluding many weather
and Earth-survey satellites, are launched southward over the
ofxn Pacific from Vand^nberg Air force Base, on a point of
the California coast.

Ground operations at the two bases are similar. Using pro-
cedures like those of commercial airlines, such as servicing
the engines without removing them, ground crews working
ra-o shifts are expected to have an Orbiter ready for relaunch
in as short a time as rwo weeks after return to Earth. The
planned goal, %vlien the Space Transportation System is fully
operational and running smoothly, is l6C) working hours:
an hour at the landing runway for rhe crew to debark, for a
quick safety inspection, and hooking up air-conditioning
equipment and a tow tractor: 90 hours in £he Orbiter Proc-
essini; Facility for post-landing safety procedures, removing
any :eturned payloads, inspecting and scrv-idng of rhe space-
craft, and installing the new payload; -15 hours in the Vehicle
Assembly Building for hoisting the OrWrer to a vertical posi-
tion and mating it w-'h a new Extertal Tank and refurbished
Solid Socket Bcxssters; -nd 24 hours for moving the as.sem-
bled space vehicle on the mtjbile launching platform to the
launch pad, installing any itaxardous or extra-.sensitive pay-
loads here rarher than carHcr, loading propellants, getting
the new crew on board, and final ciiecks during a two-hour
countdown to liftoff,

63

» mm mMim

9.

Plans,

Possibilities,

and Dreams

'T' HI SmiTLi IS i»L.\NNi:i> .»!. tiK- key clement of American 65

operations in space ihrouijh the 19Sl)s and into the "90s.
W'liat I an \\e exjxvt in i:ro\vch of its abilities and extension
of its uses.'' NASA is nt\ess.irily conser>ative in makii..; firm
plans, limited by bud^ns and expressed user needs, but is
imai^in.itive in the ran^i;e of jHWsibilities bein^; examined.
St)me t>f the ideas di.siussed here may startle anyone but a
reader of S(.ient.e liition. All. in f.ict. have been kx)ked at
solxrly by NASA planners or other hard-he.ided engineers,
.sv iemists. and ixonomi.sts in the Government, industrial com-
p.inies. and universities.

N.ASAs advanced studies envi.s.i»;e an evoIutionar>' buildup
from K>ni;er Shuttle llii:hts w frcv-Hyinj; Sp.icelabs. automated
and then manned orbit-to-i>rbit freii;hters. Shuttle-tended and
then (.i>minuously kxnipied sp.Ke bases, demonstrativ)ns of
solar jHiwer j;eneration and iwher industrial applications of
space, and wide |->ersi>nal u.<e of sp.ice tcvhnoloj*y like elci-
troiui mail delivery and wrist telephones linked by satellite.
The lirst step is to extend the duration of the Orbiters
lliuhr Ixviind the lurrent lap.ibility with extra tanks of pro-
pellants fi>r its attituvle -control and maneuverini; eni;ines and
of hvdros;en and oxvi;en for its {x^wer-iieneratini; fuel tells.
One st>luti»>n planncil is a utilities nuxiule that is carried to
v>rbit in the paylo.id bay and left in sp.ice. It will unfurl lari;e
win_i;like arrays of solar cells to colkvt !iunlij;ht for pnxluc-
tii)n of elivtricity, i;eneratini; twenty-live kilowatts of power
for the Orbiter and experiments on board. It will alst> contain
extra paylo.id-ciH>lini; r.uliators and a set of ijyros».opes for
.utitude control of the Orbiter and ati.iched payUwds. The
i>yn)Sn)pes .s,ive maneuverini; fuel by eliminatini; the ntx-d
tot frecjuent lirini; of the control thrusters.

A twenty-tjve-kilowatt nnxlule can supply |-H>wer tor a
Sp.icelab or lonstruition mi.ssion of sixty da\s or more. After
sixty days the llii;ht wvnild Ix- limited by such factors as fixxl
and drinkini: water. The mixiule could also .supply plui;-in
[xiwer for free-liyini; payloads that would dixk with it. and
it could lx> det.Khcd and paiki%l in orbit betwecr ,Shuttle
missions. One version u>uld itself fly free of the Orbirer with
instruments tor, say, studyini; the Sun or Tarth. Another could
be att.uhed to a free-nyini; Spatelab tor lonu-dur..tion mis-
sions like observini; the ."^un lontinuously throu^ub two or more
2S-day solar vyvles or stvidyin^c plaiMS or animal sjx\imens
thrv>Mj;h several };enerati\^ns. A Sp.uelab with its own utilities

66 and atittude-fontrot mcHlule c»wM ofKtmt st tag time— a step
tmvadi a p-ermaneftt spaa* st«tta — ii reapplied pcrkKlialh-
% thi' Shuttle with lo«i water, mi oihrr cousamabte.

NASA pktmeB forest* ntxis for fonsMei4bl>* aioi* than
t%xn(rj"-iw kitowatts at [umver in space by the middle or Isitei"

• Ak»t li% kilowatts for a miittibeam coromanitfations
satellite «rving httfldtrfs «f th<muni$ trf wr|' small fe<."civcrs
on E«h— wrtsr mkplwmp—ot a prototj-iM? tnattriiils-pwK-
essinjs labtmitory if early Spacekb c3sfwrimen» prove prontis-
tflg;

• A IsMndtixl kilowatts for electronic mail— nearly instan-
tanetms facsimifc transmission of letters ami other do(."«me(«s
ihrt«i|?h s,itellires— and more for tesiiRi; space-to-intderwater
eomniiMMcation;

• 1 wo himdfed and tifty kilowatts for a Sh«rle-te«de».l space
baa* to construct a large prtxtsion aiKe»«n.» or for ,t lo^v-orbii
space- jHwer lesr projat. This com I J evalwate {xnver transtnis-
sioft efticicncy. |vi«fti\i» accoracy. ptsssiMe heatini* of the
atromphere, and other factors to W considered k*fore pro-
cealini; widj a large-Si.-ak', high-orbit plant to iolkxt solar
cncr|«y and lu-am st to Karth;

• Several handrtxl kilowa-.x for solar ekvtric propidsion tor
moving large objcxts from km- lo hij;h mhm or for s*>me t'f
the exciiing !oni:-diiratio« Si'tejitirtc mis<io«s tike rendcxvows
with a comet or Jlybvs ot" the onter plan«s.

This power could Ix* j^encratetl by tmclear rrattors or bv
dwSwn. I'orbotli {ethnical and envtronsoental reast»«s, NASA
so f.ir prefors solar ptnver. The Sms can Iv used to drive
wtating general* ws; to convert solar \km dtnxtly into ck\
triciiy with tlwrnticfoic sysceras; or so tcwivert (he Am*s elci
tr\Mna|;neiic lattiation into ekvtric cwtrcnt with photovohatt
cells. These, iomtnoniy tailed solar cells, employ a Si'mtcon-
ductor SMch as silicon that releases electrons when bombarded
by photons innn solar radiation. Bccmse of its sy^csshd
es|ierk*ncc with soLir cells h»r many vears to power scores of
satellites, N.ASA favors contintniut with them; it has devised
several conli|j«rations of .m enortnons .*'>lhkikwa{t photo-
voltaic power nitHlide.

I'rep.»rin|; to build and ttse a solar ;Hnu-t generator oi that
si?eor I.iri^er. «-ith dim,ctisions in htimlrcds t4 sncnTS. reqiiires
.tdvances in a lot of ttther arras; transporiaticsn svstenis. cr.mrs
atid re)«ote manipniators, jigs and fasteners, so-called cherry

Aittoniaietl beam biiiWer itmlJ mll-iorm ^nJ I»m.y trmtsit^ar
,m$km k-ami »i tbt txait km0b mrJfJ far iargt- tfrWri».<
stmitmct. Ti-c}'J In ii^k tmt stnm^t.

OIWIMAL fkm IS
OF POOR mMMf

pickers like the ones that lioist powerline repairmen, |»ower
tools that can be handled by consiructiott workers in space
suits. A free-%in§ robot tractor designed in the 1970s for
monag large objects nmuai m space— MASA calls it a rele-
operator— can be used not only to assemble space structures
but also to place Shuttle pay loads in medium-aWtadc orbits
beyond the Orbiier's range and retrieve ihem for servicing.

For very iarge structures, it will make more sense to fabri-
cate some secrions in space rather than bringing up pfeces In
the Shuttle for assembly. An aerospace company has devel-
oped an autorai»ted beam builder to fit in the Orbiter that
can extrude, triangular girders from compact coils of altra-
light metal plate. It's fed through rollers that shape it to the
desired cross section in a manner similar to the on«sit« fabri-
cation of aluminum mm gutters. The beams would be so
light— less than a hundredth the weight of comparable
ground construction— that a single Shuttle flight could bring
up material for a structure approxim»tely 300 by 100 by 11
meters < 1000 by .^25 by 50 ft).

A number of large space structures of the future, including
multipurptjsc communications platforms, must operate in geo-
synchronous orbits in order to provide continuous coverage

m

Big antennas triH /«' mtJiJ l« spate f-ar niimy higb-tLttii-ratf
appiktttiOHs; aiiJ ,m army max kc imkr ikitt out ksgi i>)U, thn tire
Ofkiim JmAk-kMU thi isk

68 of thdf xrvm areas. Tltey not only will outgrow the see and
weight capacity of the first.gewration Shattle-lauached upper
stages dacribed in the previous chapter but also will require
^rvicing in orbit to exiend their working lives and spread
their high original costs over many years. Soiae aaay l» »
large — solar power stations, for instaace— that they can best
Ix built at. their Ojpetating sites. Hence a uwl for retisable,
Hiatined vehicles to carty boih car^ and work crews between
low and high orbits. A two-stage hydrogen-oxygea orbital
irtttsfer vehicle couU Ik asseniblatl in tow «fbit ffom separate
stages carried by t«-o Shuttle lights. Other Shuttle iighs
woald bring up the propellants, car^, and crews.

To avaid the complications of loading propellants in orbit,
ho%vevcr, NASA planners are studying ways to increase the
Shuttle's Hit A growth from the present limit of 29 500 kilo-
grams ^65 000 lb) to about 460X1 kilogratns ( 100 000 lb)
would allow r»'o upper stages, already fueled, to be carried
to low orbit by two Shuttle flights and linked there. One
concept for a low -tost, heavy-life launch ^-ehiclc uses the
Shuttles solid-propelliint launch boosters and its three hydro-
gen-oxygen mdn eagioci, attached to die hig fuel tank, but
substitutes a large payload, covered only by a light protective
metal shroud, in place of the more costly Orbitcr. A single
lauflch could then put more than three times the Shuttle 's
present maximum load in low Earth orbit C Still mightier
launch vehicles proposed by aerospace companies would team
up sixteen or twenty-four engines to lift payloads of 225 000
or 275 000 kilograms (500000 or 600030 lb).)

Looking beyond NASA's rccenr studies of possible future
spjice operations, the ;tgency*s director of Advanced Programs,;
John H. Dtsher, predicted in an article published as rhe
Shuttle war being prepared for its first orbital test flights:
". . . the Shuttle and Spaeelab. I bclievi;, will energize space
flight as the DC-3 and lXI-4 did aviation— prompting greatly
increa.«d «.« of the ««iq«ie fc-tt-res of space both for appli-
cations we understand t:xlay and for applications not yet con-
ceived. Given this spur, 1 can see advances being made
substantially more rapidly than provided for by our current
quire conservative plans."

Energy shortages and ptdlution wotries, and the prospect of
worse to come, have focused special interest on the idea of
converting space sunlight— -unlimited, unfiltered by the at*
mosphere, uninterrupted by nightfall— into electricity for

OlIGMAL PAGE IS
OP POOR. QlJAIiTY_

JFh-e-iEigawatt mht p*»wef station »j iom-tiicJ fw xmnpi-

wbil mi$,kt mm€ from, its owi: power.

Otisumers on Earth. The r«S[xxtt-d Amerkiin Institute of
Aeronauikf! and Astmnmtks (AIAA) selectcdi space fom-er,
aIaoi^ with tiWttrials proce&siag cdiscus«*d tn C'hapter Three!
and file aimces rea'arch (such as gravity-free bed rest for
tmMmmt of burns md fractures)* as thtt't* particu'arly pr-om-
king future ways to urn: the unique environment of space to
itefp solve pmhkms that are compljcarcd by gravity -mi the
attwsphere.

While tioting that more rea'arch will be needed to establish
the eixjnomicfeasibiiity of space po«'er. the AlAAsiB^^^^^

is little question of technical feasibility*: all eleineots
Mprfve power plants haye^^^fe by cither

69

"tThete
rif pros

experimental tests or long |«riods of operation in space. . . ."
The report listed a tiiiniher of advantages besides ample free
sanshitje for loi-atiog power plants in orbit: isolation from
populated places, no earthquake hasrds. ejisy disposal of ex-
cess hear, sm-in^s of naitiral resources by Mj'ht^veiijht con-
struction, no corrosion of materials, no pollution, no ne«d for
energy storage or backup faciliries.

The AIAA committee considered two ways of gencratJn|j
power: imwensw arrays of solar cells and large collectors of
solar heat. The coficctors would focus sunlight on a central
receiver. hcKtng a gas«>M.<» woriing fluid u> a/ive a turbiae.
compressor., and generator. Either type of station woald bcaim
the energy to Earth as microwaves, which would be collected
by large antennas and converted to alternating current foi
distribution by grousid power grids. The getjctating plant, the
study said, might be a.«cnibled in low orbit from components
carried by fttttire heavy-lilr vi%idi\* and ihea^^^^te to

gc'osynchrottous orbit by electrical thrustets using power gen-
erated by the plant itself on the way up.

(The report also meotioticd as "extremely interesting* a
pri»posal, originally suggested by proponents of space coloni-
zatitm, for building space power plants from materials mitiai
on the Moon. The material would be r«'«*ncd and structures
fabricated in soIar-powercd fiictoties at neutral-gravity loca-
tions betmxen Earth and the M«in. Ci»e;'per transportation
than from Earth, thanks to the Mo4>n*s low gravity, would
oifscr the cost of fh« lunar mttrfng ba.«. I

lite AlAA study suggested that a solar power system of
Several generatittg statio«i», thougl* k could cost tc«s of billions
of dollars, might Ix* paid for while being built up over scv«'fal
years front the sale of power at prices ct>mpttitive with

70 ground-based plants. "As a nonpoUutmg lioiitless source of
energy," the report said, "space-based solar power stations
could lead to a system capable of producing much of die
United States* power requirements early in the 21jC century,
and in the very long term could conceivably develop into the
world's primary source of electric power."

The Government's position is more cautious. "It is too early
to make a commitment to the development of a satellite
solar-power station or space manufacturing facility, due to the
uncertainty of the technology and economic cost-benefits and
environmental concerns," a White House statement said in
1978, then continued: "There are, however, very useful inter-
mediate steps that will allow the development and testing of
key technologies and experience in space industrial operations
to be gained. The United States will pursue an evolutionary
program that is directed toward assessing new options. . . ."

Aerospace company officials, understandably, see grander
visions. One said his firm has identified 130 oppormnities for
profit-making space industrialization, including thirty-five for
space manufacturing of new or improved products ranging
from pharmaceuticals to high-strength permanent magnets.
He envisages extremely large multibeam antennas in space
making possible pocket telephones and also electronic tele-
commuting: "Rather than driving to work each day, the
workers would operate from their homes or from a small
satellite office where they could interact electronically with
people and machinery in a central office building in a nearby
city or in one located many hundreds of miles away. This . . .
would help solve our energy problems and improve efficiency.
It would also allow a life-style whereby people could live,
work, and play in small communities, but still perform jobs
that are essentially urbin."

He cited a study which estimated that industrial uses of
space could create 100000 new direct jobs by the mid-1980s
and nearly rwo million by the year 2010. Through the multi-
plier effects, the study forecast, this could lead to two or three
times as many total jobs and an increase of hundreds of bil-
lions of dollars in the gross national product.

Others dream of space tourism: a NASA consultant sees a
lOO-room hotel by the year 2000 with rates — presumably not
for the average family vacation — starting at $3000 for the
round trip and a few days in orbit. And of permanent settle-
ments in space. In an exercise in realistic imagining, a group

71

Another solur power ttMian might Imk tike tbh. UttUmited
p&Ummn-lfge power h thmrttkdly atlaimbk. But e§et$s of
mkmmve or Imer liVili are net fuMf kttBwm.

of engineers, architects, physical and social scientists, and
athem met for ma week$ in die suiiii»«r of 1975 at Stanford
University and the nearby NASA Ames Research Center and
designed a city m space for 10 000 inhabitants, lite AIAA
assesnieat of future practical applications of space, in dis-
cussing the potential of a life sciences laboratotj-, said: "It is
almost certain that studies on plants will lead to being able to
calttire plants for space colonies and that these plants will be
able to use human waste prodacts to generate food and
fflcygen."

Dreams?

An economist who lias done several eost-l»tiefit stadies for
NASA on other subjects: "The establishment of space habita-
tion will be an evolntionari' outcome of the current United
States space program. Mankind will achieve in the next 100

72 years the most signitican*' accomplishment yet: true Earth-
independent, self-support systems which will lead to the estab-
lishment of a multitude of new, different, and enterprising
civilizations."

And John Disher, in his article on NASA's own advanced
studies: "No one can foretell when we may have permanent
settlements of people in space or large-scale use of resources
from the Moon or asteroids for space construction. The bene-
fits, costs, and risks of such undertakings remain to be estab-
lished. Fortunately, however, the nearer-term developments
discussed here will proceed on their own merits and constitute
necessary developmental steps toward the longer-term possi-
bilities. . . ."

Possibilities . . .?

Dreams . . .?

Or goals?

Time will tell. Decades from now some of these ideas may
seem innocently unrealistic, based on ignorance of hard real-
ity. But it's also possible that some will seem astonishingly
timid, cautious forays by limited imaginations. (One remem-
bers those 19th Century visions of future air travel in ship
staterooms aboard sail-driven balloons.) There may be as
much chance that we will undershoot as overshoot in predict-
ing the topography of the future.

What we are concerned with are not solely engineering
measurements like mass and specific thrust. Fully as important
is another kind of thrust: the questing human spirit.

Achioivledgments

73

Material for this publication was supplied bjr John L.
Hammersmith, Fred R. Steven, Mary Fitzpatrtck, David W.
Garrett, Shirley Keehn, Richard McG>miack, Nidiolas Panagakos,
and Margaret Ware, of NASA Headquarters; Robert V. Gordon
and Anthony A. Verrengia, Johnson Space Center; Amos Crisp,
Marshall Space Flight Center; and Darleen Hunt, Kennedy Space
Center. The reproductions on pages 20 and 28 are taken from
painting by Arthur Shilstone.

ibout the yiiitbor

Howard Allaway is a journalist living in Canton, Mass. He has
worked for the Associated Press, PM, the Hew York Times,
Popular Science Monthly, Consumer Reports, and NASA, where
he served for more than a do::en years before his retirement in
1976, receiving an Exceptioi<al Service Medal for his part in the
Apollo Program. A previo'is NASA publication of his was
"Homton, We've Got a Proble,/t," an account of the Apollo 13
incident.

Aboi/t the Fold-out Draw nig

The painting on pages 42 and 43, which in full size measures
43V4 in. by 80V4 in., was made by Barron Storey. It presently
hanp in the Administrator's office in NASA Headquarter; m
modified form it also appears in a 29-in. by 40-ia wall chan
prepared by the NASA Public AfiFairs Division, and is offered for
sale by die Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govenunent Print-
ing Office. Washington, D.C 20402. Price is $1.60 and stock
number is 033-000-00743-4.

74

Index

Advanced Landsat 61

airiock 5, 53

American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics

(AIAA) 69
American Rocket Society 29
Ames Research Center 7 1
angle of attack 6, 7, 32
AtlasOntaur 21

costs 22
attitude-control thrusters 6
automated beam builder 66, 67

Qbin module 5 1
environmental<ontrol equipment
flight deck 43,51,52
duty stations 51,53
mission 52

51

53

52

payload handling 5 1
rendezvous and docking
living area 53, 55
galley 53
lower deck 53
"vertical sleep station" 53
washroom 53
cargo bay 4, 48
commander 4, 6, 5 1
communication blackout
communications satellites
Intelsat system 12
Syncoms 11-12
Telstar I 1 1

Day, LeRoy E. 22
Delta 21

'■nsts 22
Disher, John H. u8, 72
Donlan, Charles J. 32
Dynasoar 29

Earth resources monitoring 1 3- 1 5, 26

7,62

4, 11-12, 18

Earth resources survey satellites 1 3, 59

Landsat 12. 15, 18
Earth-to-orbit cargo carriers 29
economics 22, 23
Edwards Air Force Base 47
ejection springs 4
electronic mail 65, 66
emergency landings 8, 55
engines 45
Enterprise 12, 30, 47
European Space Agency 8, 18, 57
European Space Research Organization ( ESRO) 30
External Tank 1, 33, 35, 36, 38-39. 45, A<S, 47, 55

dimensions/specifications 38
extravehicular activity (EVA) 54

flight, aborted 54
fly by-wire control 52
freight rates 21,23
Frosch, Robert A. 24
fuel cells 47

geosynchronous orbit 4. 1 3. 6 1 , 62. 63, 67, 68
geosynchi jnous satellites 12, 63

Syncoms 12

weather satellites 13
global information system 25
Goddard Space Flight Center 48, 63

Head-End Steering 29

igloo 59

Inertial Upper Stage 62

Intelsat system 12

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 48, 63
Johnson Space Center 1, 48, 62

Kennedy Space Center 1, 8, 35, 39, 63
Landsat 12, 15, 18

75

lauocb vehicles 21

Adfls-Ceniaur 21

Delta 21

SatumV 1

Titan 21
L», Chester M. 24
Loqg Duration Exposure Facili^ 3, 8, 48
luaar landscape 17
lunar ntining 69

Malkin, Myron S. 6
tmneuvering engines 3, 6. 46
manipulator arm 4, 5, 48-49, 37
manned maneuvering unit 54
Mar^all Space Flight Center 43
mechanical arm 48-49

"end efiEector" 49
meteorological satellites 13, 13
Mission Control Center 62
mission specialist 4, 3, 3 1, 32
monomethyl hydrazine 46, 47
Mueller, George £. 3 1
multibeam comr-iunications satellite 66
Multimission Modular Spacecraft (MMS) 60-6i
Multiffiission Satellite 49

NASA Deep Space Network 63
National Resejrch Council of Canada 49
Nimbus 13
nitrogen tetroxide 46
nozzles 33

Office of Space Transportation Systems 37

orbital velocity 3, 6

Orbiter 1,2,3,5,6,7,27.54,39. •>

airframe 41

antennas 3, 67

body Aap 43

cargo bay 4, 48

controls 32

crew module 4 1

des^ 32

dimensions/specifications 41-42
electrical system 43
elevon 43
engines 43

dimensions/specifications 43

orbital maneuvering 3, 6, 38, 43. 46

primarv 4&

reaction control thrusters 43, 46

vernier 47
insulation 42
internal power 47

electricity 47
hiel cells 47,48

hydraulic power 47
landing gear 9, 43
liftoff 2
main sections 41
nose gear 43
propellants 8, 35, 43, 46
ndhtocs 43
solar panels 3
speed brakes 8, 43
sunshields 5
tanks 43
tiles 42, 46
windows 39
Orbiter configurations 32
fuel tanks 32
heat shielding 32
Orbiter main engines i5-36, 43, 45
Orbiter Processing Facility 63
Orbiting Astronomical Observations 22

Payloads 21-24

standby 23
payload manipulating arm 4, 5, 43, 48-49. 57
Payload Operations Control Center 63
payload specialist 4, 5 1, 60
piggyback flight 23
pilot 4,5,6,51

76

President's Scienie Advisory Committee
propellant composition ""'5

31

U.S. Air Force 62
utilities moduli- 65

remote sensing
runway 7, 9

26

Saturn V 1

Sky lab 13. 17, 18

solar cells 65, 66, 69

solar electric propulsion 66

solar power stations 66, 69, 7 1

Solid Rocket Booster 1,3,35-37,45

liquid vs. solid fuel 33
space colonies 70-7 1
space comar.inications 12
space industrialization 69
Spacelab 8,48,5^57-60,65

laboratory module 58

segments 58
core 58
experiment 58

pallet 59, 60
space mapping 17
':pace power 69
space rescue 23
space structures 26
space telescope 4, 5
space tourism 70

Space Transportation System 1 8, 2 1 , 23, 24. 62
Spinning Solid Upper Stage 6 1
Stanford University 7 1
Syncoms ] 1 - 1 2

Vandcnbt.-g Air Force Base '5, 39, 63
Vehicle Assembly Bui.ding S, 63
von Braun. Wernher 29

weather >' .ervation !2
weather satellites 12-13
wrist telephone 65, 66

X-15 .30

Yardley, John F. 57

telc-opcTdfor 67

Telstar I 1 1

Titan 21

Tracking and Data Relay Satellites

upper stages 4, 6 1

Inerrial U|>per Stage 62
Spinning Solid Upper Stage 6 1

62, 63