Full text of "The National geographic magazine"

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Given in memory of

Elisha Hanson
by

Letitia Armistead Hanson

/VJ17
AH

THE

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE

AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY

Editor

GILBERT H. GROSVENOR

Assistant Editor

JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE

Associate Editors

A. W. GREELY

Arctic Explorer, Major Gen'l U. S. Army

C. HART MERRIAM

Member National Academy of Sciences

O. H. TITTMANN

Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geo-
detic Survey

ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN
U. S. Geological Survey

WALTER T. SWINGLE

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

DAVID G. FAIRCHILD

In Charge of Agricultural Explorations,
Dept. of Agriculture

HUGH M. SMITH

Commissioner, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries

N. H. DARTON

FRANK M. CHAPMAN

Vol. XXIV— Year 1913

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL

WASHINGTON, D. C.

NOV 5 1981

i/BRARlES

WASHINGTON, D. C.

PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC.

I9I3

CONTENTS

Page

Beacons of the Sea: Lighting the Coasts of the United States, by Gkorge R. Putnam. i
The Discovery of Cancer in Plants : An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by

the U. S. Department of Agriculture 53

From Jerusalem to Aleppo, by John D. Whiting 71

Honors to Amundsen and Peary 113

Map of Central America, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Islands of the Caribbean Sea.... 131

The Recent Eruption of Katmai Volcano in Alaska, by George C. M.\rtix 131

Do Volcanic Explosions Affect Our Climate? by G. C. Abbott 181

The Changing Map in the Balkans, by Frederick Moore 199

The Countries of the Caribbean, by William Joseph Showalter 227

National Geographic Society 251

Oysters : The World's Most \^aluable Water Crop, by Hugh M. Smith.'. 257

Greece and Montenegro, by George Higgins Moses 281

Megaspelseon, the Oldest Monastery in Greece, by Carroll Storrs Alden 310

Mysterious Temples of the Jungle : The Prehistoric Ruins of Guatemala, by W. F.

Sands 325

Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala, by Sylvanus Griswold Morlev 339

Saving the Ducks and Geese, by Wells W. Cooke 361

Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande, by Mrs. Albert S. Burleson 381

In the Wonderland of Peru — The Work Accomplished by the Peruvian Expedition of
1912, under the Auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society,

by Hiram Bingham, Director of the Expedition .'. 387

Panorama of Mount Robson Peak and Glaciers, 16x44 inches, by Charles D.

Walcott ' 575

Monsters of our Back Yards, by David Fairchild 575

The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies, by Charles D. Walcott 626

The Lama's Motor Car, by Ethan C. Le Munvon 641

A Geographic Achievement 667

Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard 669

Birds May Bring You More Happiness than the Wealth of the Indies, bv Frank M.

Chapman ' 699

Chinese Pigeon Whistles 715

The Nation's Capital, by James Bryce 717

Curious Scenes in Out-of-the-way Places 751

Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by Day and bv Night, bv George Shiras,

3RD ■;....: -^ti

L'ntoured Burma, by Charles H. Bartlett 835

Scenes in Out-of-the-way Places 854

The Ascent of Mont Blanc, by Walter Woodburn Hyde 861

Gems of the Italian Lakes, by Arthur Ellis Mayer 943

The Resurrection of Ancient Egypt, by James Baikie 957

Reconstructing Egypt's Historj', by Wallace N. Stearns 1021

The Sacred Ibis Cemetery and Jackal Catacombs at Abydos, by Camden M. Cobern.. 1042

Rumania and Her Ambitions, by Frederick Moore 1057

An Island in the Sea of History, by George Kennan 1087

The Mysterious Life of the Common Eel. by Hugh M. Smith 1 140

Our Army versus a Bacillus 1 146

The Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands, by Dean C. Worcester 1157

Religious Penances and Punishments Self-inflicted by the Holy Men of India, by Rev.

W. M. ZuMBRo 1257

The Marriage of the Gods, by John J. Banninga 1314

Texas, Our Largest State, by N. H. Darton 1330

INDEX FOR 1913

(ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES)

Page

Abancay, Peru,

Curious rocks near, illus 536,537

Abbot, C. G.,

Do volcanic explosions affect our climate?.. i8i

Abu Simbel, Nubia,

Rock temples at, illus 1006, 100;, 1008, loio

Abydos, Egypt,

Entrance to Jackal cemetery at, illus 1051

Examples of primitive burial at 1041

Ibis and Jackal catacombs at 1042

Ibis cemetery at, illus 1045

Lines of pottery excavated at, illus 1030

Oldest necropolis in the world 1050

Temple at Sety I, illus i0-:8

Acapulco, Mexico,

Fort at, illus 248

Aiguille du Dru, Switzerland, illus 873

Akhenaten, King,

Body of, discovered 999. 1000

Decline of Egypt under 996, 999

Religious reforms of 996

Alaska,

Map showing ash fall from Katmai N'olcano. 132

Albania,

Peasants of, illus 856

Brigands of, illus 210

Albertus Magnus,

His views on the eel 1 141

Alcaldes,

Group of Indian, Peru, illus 397

Alden, Carroll Storrs,

Megaspelseon, the oldest monastery in Greece 310

Aleppo, Syria,

V'iew of citadel at 112

Alfalfa in Texas,

Field of, illus 1 3 5 1

-Mlagar, Hindu god I3-". i3-9

Allalinhorn, Switzerland, illus 904

Alpine valley, Views of, illus 907, 916, 918, 925

Alps,

Cloud effects in the, illus 920, 921

Exact meaning of word 924, 925

Amalik Bay, Alaska,

Ash falls and pumice in, illus 177, 178, 179

Ambrose Light, illus 41, 45

Amenhotep II,

Mummy and tomb of, discovered 989

Amenhotep III,

Court of, at Luxor, illus 998

Life and character of 991, 996

Amenhotep IV. See Akhenaten.

Amundsen, Roald,

At National Geographic Society Banquet,

illus 120

First meeting with Admiral Peary, illus.... 114

Special gold medal for, illus 128

Honored by National Geograpliic Society. 113, 129

Ananur, Caucasus,

Monastery at, illus 1092

Angora goat, illus 1336

.\nnam. Costume of Mandarin in, illus 757

Ant, Common red.

Described, illus 605

.\nubis,

Egyptian deity 1048

Aobamba N'alley, Peru,

Exploration of 520,521,530,546

Glaciers of, discovered 539, 541

Glaciers in, illus 560, 564, 565

Appenzell, Switzerland,

Religious procession in, illus 926

Apurimac River, Peru,

Crossing the, illus 402

Grand Canyon of, illus 540

Architecture,

Dravidian, Examples of, illus.... 1322, 1323, 1324,
1325, 1326, 1327, 1329
Spanish mission, examples of, illus.... 1331, 1337
Argentiere, Switzerland,

Church of, illus 864

Arm-rests,

Used by Hindu ascetics, illus 1288, 1289

Page
Armenians,

Types of, illus 1 1 28

ARMY VERSUS A BACILLUS, OUR 1146

Artesian well in Texas, illus 1345

Axenstrasse, Switzerland, illus 914

Ascetics,

Effects of, on Hindu thought 1287

Female, illus 1275, 1302, 1303

Home of, illus 1283

Practices of 1257

Assouan, Egypt, Dam at 1021,1022

Aten, The, Egyptian deity 996, 999

Athens, Greece, described 299

Austin, Texas, described i359

"B"

Baalbek, Syria,

Description of 99. loi

\'iews in ruins at 86, 87, 88, 90,

91, 92, 93> 94. 95. 96, 97

BACILLUS, OUR ARMY VERSUS A 1 146

Baikie, James,

Resurrection of ancient Egypt, The 957

Balkan League,

Origin of 307

Balkan States,

Map of 224

BALKANS, THE CHANGING MAP IN THE. 199

Balmat, Jacques,

First ascends Mont Blanc 871,873

Banana trees,

Height of, illus 327

Banco, A,

Described 381

Formation of a new, illus 382

Bandai-San, Japan,

Eruption of 191

Banninga, John J..

Marriage of the Gods, The 1314

Barabaras,

Aleut huts in Alaska 144

Bartlett, Charles II.,

Untoured Burma 835

Bathing festival, Hindu, illus 1312

BEACONS OF THE SEA i

Beaver that photographed itself, illus 803

Beaver dam,

\'iew of, illus 802

Beaver house, illus 801

Bee flv, described 59"

Illus 594

Bee, leaf-cutting.

Described 603

Illus 606, 607

Begging-bowl,

Hindu ascetic with, illus 1262

Bellagio, Italy,

Description of 943

View of, illus 949

Benares, Pilgrims at, illus 1276

Benghazi, Tripoli,

Pilgrims embarking at, illus 857

Salt heap in, illus 254

Blioicrccnit,

Defined and illustrated 1296, 1304

Bingham. Hiram.

In the Wonderland of Peru 387

Portrait of, illus 516

Bird in the hand. A, illus 713

Bird reservations.

Location of 375.377

Map showing location of 369

Birds,

Economic value of 669

Man's relation to 707

Never- failing charm of 699

That photograplicd themselves, illus 804,805

Their place in nature 701

BIRDS MAY BRING YOU MORE HAPPI-
NESS THAN THE WEALTH OF THE;
INDIES 699

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Page

BIRDS OF FARM AND ORCHARD, FIFTY

COMMON 669

Bishaieen boy and girl, illus 9°7

Bittern, Least,

On nest, illus 71^

Blackbird, Brewer's,

Described and illustrated 684

Blackbird, Crow,

Described and illustrated 683

Blackbird, Red-winged,

Described and illustrated 685

Bluebird,

Described and illustrated 673

Boats, Peruvian straw, illus 389

Bobolink,

Described and illustrated 686

Bob-white,

Described and illustrated 695

Borromean Islands, Italy,

Described 956

Views of, illus 952, 953

Bosnian peasants, illus 223

Boston Light,

Described 6, 9

Illus 4, 5

Brahminical thread,

Ascetic wearing the, illus 1264

Bread 4,000 years old, illus 1021

Breithorn, Switzerland,

Summit of, illus 906

Brevent, Switzerland,

Summit of, illus 869

Bridge, Pontoon,

Illus 1334

Brienz, Switzerland,

Street in, illus 903

Brochyjuoia arborea,

Described 609

Illus 612

Brownsville, Texas,

Ferrying mules near, illus 1333

Wild cranes near, illus 1342

Bryce, Ambassador James,

Farewell speech of 117

The Nation's Capital 717

Buddhist monks printing, illus 574

Bucharest, Rumania,

Atheneum at, illus 1076

Country teamsters in, illus 1066

Described 1079, 1080

Fruit venders of, illus 1066

Government savings bank at, illus 1076

Open-air cafe in, illus 1071

Peculiar coachmen of, illus 1080 '

Porters of, illus 1068

Roman wolf at, The, illus 1058

Typical churches at, illus 1078, 1079

Buck, white-tailed.

Night picture of, illus 767

Takes its own portrait, illus 764.

Buddha ^ . / 4

Becomes an ascetic, illus 1274

Burleson, Mrs. Albert S.,

Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande 381

Bulgaria,

Ambitions of 220

Union of, proposed with Rumania 107s

Bulgarian brigands, illus 213

Peasants, illus \\ '-,-,■>

Bull moose and calves, illus 822

Bumblebee, male,

Described -0^

Illus ■.:::::::::: 60?

Bumblebee, worker,

DescrilDed .„„

Illus ::..;:::::::::: 600

Burial jars, Egyptian, illus 1040 104^ ioak

BURMA, UNTOURED 1040,1043,1045

Burmese country folk, illus 842

Lady smoking, illus 0,0

Butterfly, °-^°

Described (-. ,

Head of, illus 1,1

Butterfly, swallow-tail,

Larva of, described fi„„

Illus T^

611

"C"
Cactus, cultivated.

In Texas, illus ,,.0

Calvary, A, '348

In a Swiss village, illus 002

Page

Camels,

Mongolian freight, illus 645

Camel cart, Mongolian,

Illus 654, 667

Camera, The,

In the conservation of wild life 834

CANADIAN ROCKIFS, THE) MONARCH OF

THE 626

Cancale, France,

Oyster fleet at, illus 272

CANCER IN PLANTS, THE DISCOVERY

OF S3

Canyon, Texas, illus 1358

CAPITAL, THE NATION'S 717

Capitol, Washington, D. C, illus 747, 748, 749

Caracas, Venezuela,

Described 241

Scenes in, illus 238, 239, 240

CARIBBEAN, THE COUNTRIES OF THE-. 227
Caribou that photographed themselves, illus.... 817

Cartagena, Colombia, Views in, illus 246, 247

Cape Ann, Massachusetts,

Lights on 27, 28

Illus 37

Cape Charles, Virginia,

Lights on 23

Illus 28

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,

Lights on, illus. 27

Cape Henry, Virginia,

Lighthouse and fog signals 27, 47

Illus 21,22

Cape Mendocino, California,

Light on, illus 29

Car, Hindu processional.

Described 1315

Illus 1318, 1319, 1321

Cat takes its own photograph, illus 807

Catbird,

Described and illustrated 677

Caucasian

Costumes, Varieties of, illus.... iioo, iioi, 1123,
1126, 1128, 1130, 1131

Dance, described 1 107

Highlanders, Types of, illus.... 1122,1124,1125,

1127, 1130

Villages, Characteristic, illus.... 1113,1114,1115,
1116, 1118, 1119, 1120
Caucasus,

Characteristic scenery in, illus 1088,1089,

1094, 1102, iioS, 1109, H12, 1113,
1134, 1135, 1137, 1138

Eastern 1087

Map of 1086

Primitive bridges of, illus 1098, 1102, 11 03

Racial types of 1 1 2 1

Statistics concerning the 1086

Cauliflower farming

In Texas, illus 1346-

Ccorihuayrachina, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 555

Cetinje, Montenegro, described 285

Views in 286,290,291,292-

Chalets, Swiss, View of, illus 901

Chamonix, France,

History of 865.

Illus. 863

Chandeleur lighthouse, Virginia,

Illus 31

Chapman, Frank M.,

Birds May Bring You More Happiness than

the Wealth of the Indies 699-

Charles, King of Rumania,

Election of, to the throne 1066, 1069

Charleston, S. C,

Harbor lights of, illus 30-

Chart showing range of lights on Atlantic coast. 6

Chesapeake Bay, Maryland,

Canvasback ducks leave 371

Oyster beds of 261

Chickadee,

Described and illustrated 675.

Chillon, Switzerland,

Castle of. The, illus 912

Chimney, Climbing a, on the Eiger, illus 909-

Chinese

Coffins, illus 647

Graves, illus 651

Inn, illus 650-

Women, illus 652-

INDEX FOR 1913

VII

Page

Chins, Types of, illus 846, 849

Cicada,

Described 587

Illus 586

CLIMATE, DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS

AFl-KCT OUR 181

Cloud effects in the Alps, illus 920,921

Coal, Deposits of, in Texas 1349

Coast-line of United States,

Length of I

Cobern, Camden M.,

The sacred Ibis cemetery and Jackal cata-
combs at Abydos 1042

Cockroach,

Described 587

Illus 585

Coffins,

Chinese, illus 647

Colima, Mount, Mexico,

Erupting, illus 198

Colossi of Memnon, Egypt, illus 982

Columbus. Tomb of 242

Conacha, Peru,

Carved rock at, illus t39

Cooke, Wells W.,

Saving the ducks and geese 361

Coons that photographed themselves, illus... 795,797.

798, 799, 808, 809
Cordouan, Phare dc, France,

Described 17

Illus 8

Corinth,

Medieval fortifications of. illus 307

Ship canal, illus 306

Coryiwcoris distinctud .

Described 609

Illus 613

Costumes, Caucasian.

\'arieties of, illus 1100,1101,1123,1126,

1 128, 1 130, 1131
Cotton,

Amount grown in Texas i343, i345, i347

Cranes, Wild, illus 1342

Creeper, Brown,

Described and illustrated 676

Crevasses,

Formation of 885

On Mont Blanc, illus 881, 887, 888

Tragedies of those on Mont Blanc 889

Cricket on the hearth.

Described 583

Illus 582

Cricket, stone, or camel.

Described 587

Illus 584

Crow, Common,

Described and illustrated 686

Cuba,

Progress of 249

Road-making in, illus 243

Cuckoo, Yellow-billed,

Described antl illustrated 69 1

"Cuzco Bones," The history of 490, 491, 496, 500

Cuzco, Peru,

N'iews in, illus 519, 567

Cuzco Valley, Peru,

Geology of 501

"D"

Daghestan, The highlands of 1087

Dallas, Texas, Description of 1353

Dance, Caucasian country, illus 1131

Hindu religious, illus 1279

Danube,

Iron Gate of, illus 1063

View on, illus 1062

Turkish fort on, illus 1075

Dariel, Pass of, Caucasus,

Views in, illus 1091, 1094, 1096, 1097, 1099

Darton, N. II.,

Texas, our largest State 1330

Davis, Theodore ^L,

Discoveries of, in Egypt 989,999,1036

Dead. Book of the 1045

Deir-el-Bahari, Egypt,

Recent excavations at 980, 1023, 1038, 1039

Temples at, described 980,981,1023,1027,

1038, 1040

Temples at, illus 1022, 1024, 1025, 1026

Tomb of the kings discovered at 986

Page

Devil dance, Mongolian, illus 761

Djordjadzi, Prince,

Crosses the Caucasus i 103, 1 104, 1 105

Dobrudja, how obtained by Rumania 1073, 1075

Does,

Pictures taken by, illus 765, 768, 769, 770,

771. 772
Dolomcdcs tciiebrostis.

Described 625

Illus 624

Douglas Village, Alaska,

Volcanic ash at, illus 142

Dove, Mourning,

Described and illustrated 694

Dragon-fly,

Described 597

Illus 593

Dravidian architecture,

Examples of, illus.... 1322, 1323, 1324. 132

DUCKS AND GEESE, SAVING THE.

1326,
1327, 1329
. . . . 361

"E"

716
3. 17

I 143:

I 145
II4I

1 1 43
1141
I 144

Eagles in China, Hunting with, illus

Eddystone light, illustration of 10. 12,

Edson, John Joy, Treasurer National Geo-
graphic Society, Report of

EEL, THE MYSTERIOUS LIFE OF THE
COMMON

Eel,

Destructive habits of 1 146

Growth of, illus 1145

Importance of its scales 1 144

Larval, illus

Myths concerning

Scale of. illus

The common, illus ,

Where and how it breeds 1 142

Egypt, Ancient,

Bird and animal burial in 1 042

Chronology of, Views concerning 965

Dark ages of 976

F-if th dynasty of 973

Furniture of tombs in 963, 999

Jewelry of 985

Marriage customs in 1009, loi i, 10 15

System of succession in 1 003

Undertakers, Guilds of, in 1043

\'alue of recent discoveries concerning 1022

Egypt Exploration Fund, Work of the 980, 1021,

1038. 1 04 1, 1042

EGYPT'S HISTORY, RECONSTRUCTING... 1021

EGYPT, THE RESURRECTION OF AN-
CIENT 957

Eiger, Switzerland.

Climbing a chimney on, illus

View of. illus

El Castillo. Yucatan,

Pyramid temple at, illus 228

Elephants, temple, illus 1315

Elk, Bull, that photographed itself, illus.
Cow that photographed itself, illus..
Near Yellowstone Lake, illus

El Paso, Texas,

Description of 1357

El Tajin, Mexico.

Pyramid teniple at, illus 229

Emperor Falls. Canada,

\'iew of. illus 636

Eng-daw-yd Pagoda, Burma, illus 837

England,

Oyster industry of 273

Erpate.

Princes of ancient Egypt 1003

Exodus, Date of the 1020

..p..

Fairchild, David,

The monsters of our back yards 575

Felt-covered houses, Mongol, illus 667

Ferdinand of Bulgaria 1077

Finger-nails, Abnormal growth of, illus.... 1288, 1297,

1306, 1308
Fiji Islands,

Scene in, illus 760

Flashlight apparatus for wild-game photography,

illus 772.773

Flashlight photography of wild game 763

909
936

831
832
830

VIII

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Page

Flicker,

Described and illustrated 690,707

Fog-signals,

Coast and maritime 47

Fomiosa,

Ovster culture in, illus 274

Fort o'f Second Dynasty, Egypt, illus 1044

Fort Worth, Texas i355

France, Oyster industry of 209

Funeral in Yunnan, China, illus 75S

"G"
Galveston, Texas,

Description of i357i

Causeway at, illus

Residential section, illus

Shipping cotton at, illus

Game, Wild,

Flashlight photography of

Game refuges, Louisiana,

GEFfSF)? saving' THE DUCKS ANd'. '.'.'.'.'.'. '.
Geese,

Greater snow, illus

Wild blue, illus

Wild Canada,

Domestication of

illus 360,376

Georgia military road, illus

Georgian

Beauties, illus

^^'omen in national costume, illus 11 00,

GEOGRi\PHIC ACHIEVEMENT, A

Glacier des Bossons, Mont Blanc, illus 876

Glacier du Geant, Mont Blanc, illus

Glaciers,

Measuring movements of

On Mount Robson 638

Glissade, A, illus 874

Goat, Angora, illus

Gobi Desert, A trip across, by motor-car

Described 647

Telegraph across

Gopnrams,

Defined and illustrated 1322,1323,

Grand Mulcts, Mont Blanc, illus 882^

Grasshopper, Baby,

Described

Illus

Green,

Described

Illus

King,

Described

Illus

Skeleton,

Described

Illus

GREECE AND MONTENEGRO

Greece,

Soldiers in royal body guard, illus

Greek peasant types, illus 297, 300, 301, 302

Grindelwald,

Church at, illus

Ski-jumping at, illus

Winter sports at, illus

Grinnell, Alton G.,

Our army versus a bacillus

Grosbeak,

Black-headed, described and illustrated

Rose-breasted, described and illustrated

Grosvenor, Gilbert H., Director National Geo-
graphic Society, Report of

Ground-beetle, Predacious,

Described and illustrated

Grouse, Ruffed,

About to drum, illus

Described and illustrated '.

Guatemala,

Condition of

Prehistoric ruins of 3,5

Guglea, Edmondo de Amicis, illus. ............ '

Gull, Franklin's,

Described and illustrated

Gypsies, Rumanian, illus ' 1069,

1359
1338
1341
1339

763

373
361

378
372

377
, 379
1 09 1

IIOO

1123
667

,877
874

. 639
, 910
1336

641
. 653

653

1324

579

577

583
580

579
576

579
578

210

, 304

916
898
934

1146

680
681

251

595

700
695

233

, 361

911

697
1070

"H'

Hama, Syria, Water-wheels at, illus.
Ha-Noi, Tonkin, Market at, illus

104, 108
.. 1154

Page

Hathor,

Shrine of, at Deir-el-Bahari 1040

Shrine and statue of, illus 1027

Hatshepsut, Queen,

Her reign and greatness 1036

Portrait of, illus 1023

Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari 980, 1027, 1039

Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari, illus 1022,

1025, 1026

Havana, Cuba,

Goat suckling baby, illus 243

Hawara, Egypt,

Pyramid of Amenemhat III at 983

Hawk,

Cooper's, described and illustrated 694

Red-tailed, described and illustrated 693

Sparrow, described and illustrated 693

Erroneous ideas concerning 670

Hay, John,

What might have happened to 1095

Henshaw, Henry W.,

Fifty common birds of farm and orchard.. 6,69

Herefords, White-faced, illus 13 54

Hieroglyphics,

Prehistoric, at Quirigua, illus 356

High priest, Hindu, illus 1313

Hinduism,

Asceticism in i357

Hogs, razor-back, that photographed themselves,

illus 815

Homs, Syria, Views of 98, 100

Honduras, Condition of 233

Hook-swinging,

At Hindu festivals 1267

Illus 1310,1311

Hornet, bald-faced.

Described 599

Illus 602

Horse-fly,

Described 599

Illus 598

Hospodars of Wallachia and Moldavia 1063, 1065

Houston, Texas, Description of i355, i357

Huayana Picchu Mountain, Peru,

Ascent of 427, 431, 438, 439

West side of, illus 418

Hyde, Walter Woodburn,

The ascent of Mont Blanc 861

Hyksos Dynasty in Egypt. . . . ; 985, 986

"I"

IBIS CEMETERY AND JACKAI^ CATA-
COMBS AT ABYDOS, THE SACRED 1042

Ibis,

Cemetery at Abydos, illus 1 045

Mummy, illus 1049

Wrappings of embalmed 1046

Symbol of Thoth 1 046

Virtue of 1044

Inca place names 520

Indians,

Group of mountain, Peru, illus 400

Interlaken, Switzerland,

House in, illus 927

Irrawaddy, Rice boat on, illus 839

Isis, Temple of, at Pliilas, illus 1016, 1017

ISLAND IN THE SEA OF HISTORY 1087

Isola Bella, Italy, Views of 952, 953

ITALIAN LAKES, GEMS OF THE 943

"J"

Jackal,

Cemetery of, described and illustrated.... 1042,

1047, 1051

Sacred in ancient Egypt 1048

Jains,

Indian religious body 1275

Janssen, Dr.,

Builds observatory on summit of Mont

Blanc 89 5

Japan,

Oyster farms in, illus 275, 276, 277, 280

Oyster industry of 277

Jassy, Rumania,

In the market at, illus. .• 1073

INDEX FOR 1913

Page

Jay,

Blue, described and illustrated 68-, 708

California, described and illustrated 687

JERUSAI^EM TO ALEPPO, FROM 71

Jews,

Position of, in Rumania 1 080

Rumanian, illus 10-2

Jhiittadarces,

Defined and illustrated 1304

Jigatofka,

Caucasian sham attack 1 105

June-beetle larva.

Described 59 1

Illus 588

June-bug or May-beetle,

Described 595

Illus 59^

Jujube tree.

Grown in California, illus 123

Jungfrau, Switzerland,

Views of, illus 936,937

"K"

Kachin wedding, Burma, illus 843

Woman, illus 848

Kahun, Egypt,

Importance of discovery of 985

Kalgan, China,

Street in, illus 640

Kalgan Pass, China,

View of, illus 646

Kali, Hindu goddess 1314

Karma (retribution),

Hindu doctrine of 1284

Karnak,

Avenue of Sphinxes at, illus 990

Gateway of Ptolemy Euergetes at, illus.... 988
Hypostyle hall at, illus 992, 993, 994, 995

Pylon of Tahutmes III at, illus 997

Katmai village, Alaska,

Ash fall at, illus 146

\'olcanic ashes from 189

KATMAI \^OLCANO IN ALASKA, THE RE-
CENT ERUPTION OF 131

Katydid,

Described 583

Illus 581

Kazadis,

Defined and illustrated 1278,1279

Kavasses, .Albanian, illus 309

Kennan, George,

.\n Island in the Sea of History 1087

Khafra, King, builds Second Pyramid... 958,961,964
Khartikhunski Ravine, Caucasus,

View of, illus 1 1 08

Khevsurs. Caucasian tribe.

Described and illustrated 1093

Khondadatcl Ravine, Caucasus,

\'icw of, illus 1112

Kluifu, King,

Builds Great Pyramid 958, 961, 966

Sarcophagus of, illus 969

Khiyut, Caucasus,

Sidphur mine at, illus 1 1 1 o

Killdeer,

Described and illustrated 696

Kingbird,

Described and illustrated 689

Kingbird, .Arkansas,

Described and illustrated 688

Kingfisher

Leaving its nest, illus 701

Kinglet. Ruby-crowned,

Described and illustrated 674

Kkenko, Peru,

Carved rock at, illus 533

Kleinglockner, Switzerland,

View of. illus 942

Kodiak, .\laska.

Effect of eruption at 154, 179

Ash fall at, illus.. 153, 156, 157, 159, 162, 173, 190

Cluirch at, illus \ . . .' 149

View of 134

Konigspitze, .Austrian Tyrol.

View of, illus 94 1

Krakatoa,

Eruption of 161,165,189

Krushevo, Macedonia,

Destroyed by Turks, View of 212

Kumbakonum, India,

Mahamadkham festival at, illus 1312,1313

"L"

I'ai

La Guaira, Venezuela,

Views in, illus 236, 237

Lake Como, Italy,

Described 943, 946

Views on, illus 948, 949, 950

Lake Lugano, Switzerland,

Described 946

\'icws on, illus 951, 994, 997

Lake Maggiore, Italy,

Descrioed 956

Views on, illus 945, 952, 953

Lamas, Mongolian,

Character of 655

Tvpical. illus 6s'?

LAMA'S MOTOR CAR, THE 641

Lark, Horned,

Described and illustrated 688

La Union, Salvador,

Barracks at, illus 245

Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland,

View of, illus 918

Lebanon, Cedars of.

Views of 81,82,84,85

Leh, Kashmir,

\'iew of 854

Le Munyon, Ethan C,

The Lama Motor Car 641

Leptocephali (larval eels) 1 142, 1 144, 1 145

Lighthouses,

Lenses and reflectors in 36

Lens used in, illus 42, 43

Number of, in United States i

Staten Island, New York, depot, illus 2

Service, U. S., personnel and work of i. S3

Light vessels 41

Illus. of 44, 46, 47, 48

Lima, Peru,

Corpus Christi procession at, illus 390,391

Lipovans, The (Russian sect)

Described and illustrated 1080

Little Afognak, Alaska,

Church at, illus 151

Llacta in Palcay, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 558, 559

Llacta Pata, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 555, 556

Llamas,

Pictures of... 392, 393. 394, 395, 396, 398, 413. S'S

Lolo yvomen, Yunnan, China, illus 759, 1 155

Louisiana,

Game refuges in 377

Lucerne, Switzerland,

Milkman in, illus 935

Lugano, Lake of.

Views on, illus 944, 947, 951

I,umber industry in Te.xas 1347

Luxor,

Colossi of Rameses II at, illus looi, 1002

Court of Amenhotep III at, illus 998

"M"

McLean (Wild Bird Protection) Act 377

Machu Picchu, Peru,

Agricultural terraces at, illus 51S. 516

Altar in chief temple, illus 501

Ancient stucco still in portion, illus 463

Approach to 403, 408, 416

Archeological importance, its 489

Bird's-eye view of, illus 404

Burial caves at, illus 428, 429, 430

City gate, illus 447, 465

Clan groups at, illus 468, 496

Cradle of the Inca Empire, The 403, 409

Defenses of, illus 450

Detail of Sacred Plaza at, illus 417

Discovery of 403

Effects o'f clearing at, illus 432,433.434.435.

498, 499

Entrances to clan group at. illus 472,473

Excavating at 44°. 446, 447

Excavating at, illus 427. 4*9

First camp at, illus 475

Forestration of region near 477, 480

Fountains in, illus 460, 461

Gables, house, illus 452.453.455.478

Gates of and their bolts 464

General view of, illus 514

High priest's house at, illus 504. S^S

Inner city wall, illus 439, 445. 446

Interior of houses at, illus 462,469,480,495

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Machu Picclui, Peru, Page

Intihuatana Hill, illus 50S

Kitchen utensils, illus • 409

Locks and locking devices, illus 460,467.

470, 471

Main road to. illus 449

Map of 42s

Moat of, illus • 444

Niches in house at, illus 487. 495, S03> 505

North view of, illus 5ii

Outer city wall, illus 43°

Pottery from, illus 573

Precipice near, illus 437

Princess Group at 486,491,490

Ridge on which it stands, illus 43°

Sacred Plaza at, illus 409, 498, 512

Sacred rocks at, illus 481, 482, 497

Site of 453

Snake window in, illus 492, 493, 494

Stairways in, illus 451, 454, 456, 457, 4S8,

459, 507

Stone settee at, illus 469

Sun dial at, illus S09

Temple of the Three Windows at, illus 40S,

418, 431

Tower, Semicircular, at, illus 489,490,401

Typical doorways at, illus 470, 477, 478, 479

Typical houses in, illus 464, 480

Typical masonry at, illus 476

Water supply of 459

West view of, illus 5^0

Wonderful masonry at, illus 416, 484, 485, 487,

488, 490, 502, 503, 504, 506, 509
Workmen employed at, illus 426

Machu Picchu Mountain, Peru,

Signal station on summit of, illus. . . 441, 442, 443

Madagascan Queen and her court, illus 860

Magdalena River, Colombia, Scene on illus 232

Madura, India,

Great temple at, illus 1326

Hindu festivals at 1257, 1314

Mahabaratha,

Stories from the 1269, 1270

Mahamadkham, Hindu festival, illus 1312, 1313

Mai-Mai-Chen,

Business capital of Mongolia 660

Makapuu, Hawaii,

Lighthouse at, illus 41

Mallards feeding, illus 366

Manetho, History of, verified 958

Manu, Laws of, relating to ascetics 1302

Map

of the Caucasus 1086

of Machu Pichu, Peru 425

of ruins at Quirigua 349

of Texas. . .7 1353, 1355

Showing breeding grounds and migration of

Ross goose 367

Showing breeding grounds and migration of

the white-winged scoter 365

Showing breeding grounds of wild ducks

and geese 362

Showing Canadian breeding grounds of

ducks and geese 364

Showing Nile from motith to first cataract. 972
Showing region explored by Yale-National

Geographic Society Expedition to Peru... 388

Showing U. S. bird reservations 369

Showing wanderings of the Rio Grande. . . . 384
Showing winter resorts of wild ducks and

geese 368

Showing Yellow Lake and adjacent country. 818

Maracaibo Lake, Venezuela,

Scenes on, illus 234, 235

Mariette, Egyptian explorer,

Wasteful methods of gc7

MARRIAGE OF THE GODS, THE 1314

Martin, George C,

The recent eruption of Katmai Volcano in

Alaska ,... . 131

Martin, Purple,

Described and illustrated 680

Maspero, Sir Gaston,

Discovers tomb of the Kings 986

Mastaba, A, described and illustrated 1055

Matapalo tree. A, illus ,46

Matterhorn, The, Switzerland,

Views of, illus 899,900,901

Maucallacta, Peru,

Inca ruins at, illus 411;

May-beetle,

I^f="''e<l 595

Illus 5^2

Page

^Mayer, Arthur Ellis,

Gems of the Italian lakes 943

Meadow-lark, described and illustrated 685

Medinet Habu, Egypt,

Pavilion of Rameses III, illus 1012

Pylon in temple of Rameses III at, illus. . . 1013
Temple of Rameses III, illus 1014

Meenachi, Hindu goddess 1314, 1315

MEGASPEL^ON, THE OLDEST MONAS-
TERY IN GREECE 310

Magaspelason, Views of the Monastery, illus... 311,

314, 316, 318

Memnon, Colossi of, illus 982

Memphis, Egypt, Statue of Rameses II at 984

Menaggio, Italy,

Described 946

View of, illus 951

Menkaura, King,

Builds Third Pyramid 958, 961

Mentuhotep I, King,

Temple of 980, 981, 983, 1023

Mentuhotep II,

Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari 1022, 1024

Mer de Glace, Mont Blanc, illus 866, 867

Merenptah, Pharoah of the Exodus,

Date of the Exodus under , . , . 1020

Mummy of, discovered 989, 991

Portrait of, illus 1029

Metchnikoff, EH,

Discovers the phagocyte 1147

JMeteora, Greece,

Monastery at, illtis 308

Min-lin-min, King of Burma,

Tomb of, illus 844

Mink that took its own picture, illus 786

Minots Ledge, Mass.,

Lighthouse on 18

Illus 14,15

Mission architecture, Spanish,

Examples of, illus 1331, i337

Mocking bird,

Described and illustrated 678

Moldavia,

Hospodars of 1065

Unites with Wallachia 1066

jMonastir.

Turkish soldiers leaving, illus 211

Monch, Switzerland,

View of, illus 936

^longolia.

Capital of 641, 661, 663

Commercial metropolis of 660

General description of 669

Meditim of exchange in 669

Mongolian horsemen, illus 656, 657

Well, illus 651

Women, Types of, illus 658, 659, 664, 665

Mongols,

Meat-eating habits of 669

Monks, Greek,

Types of, illus 317, 319, 321, Z22

MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS, THE- . 57s

Mont Blanc,

At the Seracs of the Junction, illus 878

Crevasses on, illus 881,887,888

Dome du Gouter, illus 886

Early attempts to ascend 867

General view of, illus 862

Glaciers of, illus 870, 871, 874, 876, 877, 878

Grand Mulcts, illus 882, 884

Grand Plateau, illus 896

How to ascend 879

History of 893

Janssen Observatory on 897

Illus. of 897

History of 89s

Summit of, illus 890, 892, 896, 897

Worst accident on ' . . . . 89 1

Mont Blanc du Tacul,

Illus 874

MONT BLANC, THE ASCENT OF 861

Monte Caprino, Switzerland,

View of, illus 944

Montenegrin soldiers 214

Types, illus 283, 284, 286, 289, 290, 296

Veterans, illus 285

MONTENEGRO, GREECE AND 281

Montreux, Switzerland, The quay at, illus 913

Moore, Frederick,

Changing Map in the Balkans, The 199

Rumania and her ambitions 1057

Moose, illustrations of 823, 824, 826, 828

INDEX FOR 1913

Page

Moose cow that photographed itself, illus 825

Moose Pass, Canada, View of, illus 630

Morley, Sylvanus Griswold,

Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala 339

Moses, George Higgins,

Greece and Montenegro 281

Mosquito, Anophales,

Described 597

Illus 596

Motor car, A trip across the Gobi Desert by... 641

Mount Robson, Canada,

Attempts to climb 627, 628

Described 626, 635

Glaciers on, described 638, 639

Glaciers on, illus 632, 633, 634

^Making a panorama of 629, 635

\'iews of, illus 631

Mujal, Central Caucasus,

View of, illus 1 1 39

Mummies,

In double coffin, illus 1054

Of dogs and monkeys, illus 979, 980

Of cats found at Abydos, illus 1040

Ibis, wrappings of, illus 1046

Mummy,

of Sety I, illus 1036

Ibis, illus 1049

Mummy-case,

Late Egyptian, illus 1037

Muskrats that took their own pictures, illus.... 777,

778, 780, 782, 783, -84, 785

Their homes and habits 781

MYSTERIOUS TEMPLES OF THE JUNGLE 325

"N"

Nantucket Light, illus 43, 45

National Geographic Society,

Annual banquet of 1 13, 130

Directors' report, 1912 251

Expedition to Peru 116

Map work done by.... 501,504.506.507,510

Report of \ . . .'. 387

Results achieved by 391, 395

Staff of 387

Lecture program, 1913-1914 1360

Location of home of, illus 740

New buildings for, illus 126

Treasurer's report, 1912 256

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY,

PROGRESS OF 231

Navesink, N. J.,

Lighthouse at, illus 33, 39

Naville, Edmond,

Excavations of, in Egypt.... 980, 1031, 1037, 1038

Necklace, Ancient Egyptian, illus 981

Nefertari, Queen,

Portrait statue of, at Luxor, illus 1003

at Abu Simbel, illus.... loio

New Guinea,

Bachelors' club in, illus 762

New Hebrides,

Taboo signs in, illus 751

Nicaragua. Condition of 233

Nicholas. King of Montenegro,

Achievements of 293

Portraits of, illus 291, 292

Nighthawk,

Described and illustrated 689

Nile River, Map of 972

Nusta Espana, Peru,

Excavation at, illus 554

Nuthatch, White-breasted,

Described and illustrated 673

"O"

Oil, Deposit of, in Texas 1 347

Ollantaytambo, Peru,

Ancient fortress near, illus 407

View of 414

Oporto, Portugal,

Ox carts of, illus 732

Opossum that photographed himself, illus 811

Oria, Switzerland,

Church at, illus 947

Orinoco River. Venezuela,

Scene on, illus 241

Oriole, Bullock's,

Described and illustrated 684

Orontes River, Asia Minor 109

Page

Osiris,

.\ncient Egyptian deity, illus 1034

God of the dead 1041, 1045, '046, 1052, 1056

Osireion, Abydos,

Mystery of the 1052, 1056

Clearing entrance to, illus 1031

Reliefs in, illus 1032

Sloping passage in, illus 1053

Ovenbird, illus 711

Owl,

Barn, described and illustrated 692

Screech, described and illustrated 692

Oyster,

Anatomy of, illus 260

.\ttacked by starfish, illus 267

OYSTERS, THE WORLD'S MOST VALU-
ABLE WATER CROP 257

"P"

Pagan, Burma,

Pagodas at 850

Ruins at 843

Palaung women, Burma, illus 840, 841, 851

Palcay, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 556, 557

Pan-American Railroad 239

Panhandle of Texas I337

Panta Mountain, Peru, illus 543, 544

Papandayang, Java, Eruption of 163

Pavlof Volcano, Alaska,

View of 138

Passenger pigeon.

Extermination of 379

Peacocks, White, illus 954, 953

Peary, Admiral,

First meeting with Capt. Amundsen, illus.. 114

Peasants, Rumanian, illus 1064,1065,1067,1073,

1074, 1082. 1083
Swiss, illus 928,929,930,931,932,933

Pelee, Mont,

Eruption of 192

Pelicans, A breeding colony of, illus 820

Penances, Hindu,

Ascetics and 1 237

Balancing, illus 1285, 1298

Bed of thorns, illus 1268, 1269, 1270, 1297

Buried alive, illus 1281

Fire, illus 1286

Hanging head downwards, illus 129S

Rolling, illus 1284, 1 29 1

Spiked shoes, illus 1328

Stooping, illus 1 296

Thirst, illus 1289

Unvaried postures, illus.... 1290, 1293, 1294, 1306

Weight bearing, illus 1292

Weight carrying, illus 1280

Persian, Typical, illus 1 126

PERU, IN THE WONDERLAND OF 387

Peru,

Anthropological studies in 36, 562, 564

Work of National Geographic Society in. 116,387

Ruins, Important, in 483

See also Machu Picchu,
Weather observations in 564, 563

Peruvian Indian women.

Types of, illus 401, 500, 503, 522, 570, 571

Petit Manan, The

Light at, illus 24, 27 1

Petrie. Prof. Flinders,

Excavates Tell-el-Amarna 999

Views of, on Egyptian chronology 963

Work of, in Egypt 973, 983, 983, 999

Petroglj-phs,

In Peru, illus 367

Petroleum fields of Rumania 1081, 1082, 1083

Petroleum,

.Amount produced in Texas '347

Phagocyte, Discovery of 1 147

Philse, Egypt,

Court of the Birth House at, illus 1017

Great colonnade at, illus 1018

Pylon of Temple of Isis at, illus 1016

View of, when submerged, illus 1019

Pilgrims, Hindu, illus.... 1239, 1260, 1261, 1271, 1312,

1313, 1316, 1317, 1320

Pigeon, passenger.

Extinction of 379

Pigeon Point, California,

Light on. illus 23

PIGEON WHISTLES, CHINESE 715

Pigeon with whistle, Chinese, illus 714

XII

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Page

Piquillacta, Peru, illus 526, 5^7, S28

Pisac, Peru,

Inca ruins at, illus 412, 413

Piz Palu, Alps,

View of, illus 94i

Plants, Cancer in 53

Plevna, Rumanian successes at, 1877 1071

Plover, Upland,

Described and illustrated 696

POLICEMEN OF THE AIR, OUR 698

Pontoon, bridge, illus i334

Porcupines that photographed themselves, illus. . 774,

775, 816

Tree barked by, illus n^i

Porto Rico,

Progress of 227

Tobacco plantation in, illus 244

Pot burial,

Ancient Egyptian, illus 1038, 1039

Potomac River,

Views on, illus 722, 723

Pottery, Peruvian, illus 519

Prayer wheel, Mongolian, illus 670

Procession, Hindu religious, illus 1318, 1319, 1321

Protection of wild birds 368, 377

Ptolemy Euergetes,

Gateway of, at Karnak, illus 988

Pueblo,

Typical Hopi, illus 1139

Pucara, Peru,

Inca fortress at, illus 532

Punt,

Expeditions to, from ancient Egypt 975,

976, 1037
Putnam, George R.,

Beacons of the Sea i

Pj'ramids,

The builders of the 970

Pyramids of Gizeh, Egypt,

as seen from Kafr, illus -. . . 960

Builders of 958,961

General view of 961

Great Pyramid,

Main passage 968

Sepulcher chamber in 969

Views near 966, 967

Wonderful construction of 973

Second Pyramid 964

Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt, illus 959

"Q"

Quail. Florida, take their own photographs, illus. 806
QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA, EXCAVATIONS

AT 339

Quirigua, Guatemala,

Excavations at 1056

Excavating, illus 339, 341, 347, 348, 350,

351,353,358

1-orest vegetation near, illus 326, 327

Prehistoric monoliths at, illus 324, 329, 330,

, 333, 336, 337, 342

Rabbis in Jerusalem, illus 73

Rabbit, Habits of the northern 787

Rabbits that photographed themselves, illus 788,

. „ 789, 790, 791

Kacme Reef, Lake Michigan,

Light on, illus 29, 34

Ramesseum, The,

At Thebes, Egypt, illus 1004,1005

Rameses II,

Colossi of, at Luxor, illus . looi, 1002

Life of 1002

Portrait statues of at Abu Simbel, illus 1006,

1007, looS, loio

statue of, at Memphis 984

Vainglory of looi

Rameses III,

Pavilion of, at Medinet Habu, illus 1012

Pylon m temple of, Medinet Habu, illus... 1013

Temple of, at Medinet Habu, illus 1014

Rangoon, Temples at, illus 836

Reincarnation, Hindu doctrine of 1284

Reliefs, Ancient Egyptian, illus 1013, 1026, io"-'9

^^.ffiOpS PENANCES^°'iND^'pU^'iSH"' ^°^°
MENTS SELF-INFLICTED BY THE
HOLY MEN OF INDIA 1257

Page

Rimpfischhorn, Switzerland, illus 905

RIO GRANDE, WANDERING ISLANDS IN

THE 381

Robert College, Constantinople, Influence of, in

the Balkans 1081

Robin, described and illustrated 673

Robin and nest, illus 706

Rock temples at Abu Simbel, Nubia, illus 1006,

1007, looS, loio
Rock tomb, Thebes, Egypt,

Interior of a, illus 977

Roosevelt, Col. T.,

Prehistoric portrait of 357

Illus 359

Rosary used by Hindus, illus 1285, 1306

RUMANIA AND HER AMBITIONS 1057

Rumania,

Education and military service in 1085

Products and trade of ' 1083

Rapid progress of 1078

Rtimanian

Gypsies, illus 1069, 1070

Peasants, illus 1064, 1065, 1067, 1073, 1074,

1082, 1083

Soldiers, illus 1060, 1061, 1064, 1077

Veterans, illus . : 1059

Rumi Ccolca, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 528, 529, 530

Russia,

Influence of, in Rumania... 1065, 1066, 1073, 1075
Russo-Turkish War, 1877,

Rumania's action in 1057,1069,1071,1073

"S"

St. Georges Reef, California,

Light on, illus 18,23

St. Johns River Light, Florida, illus 27

St. Simon Stylites 1267, 13 14

Sable, Russian, illus 386

Sacshuaman, Peru, Inca fortress at 534

Sadhus, Hindu ascetics 1257

Salaverry, Peru,

Fisherman of, illus 389

Salcantay Mountain, Peru, illus 563

Saloniki, Street sweepers of, illus 220

San Antonio, Texas,

Alamo, The, at, illus 1331

Description of 1349, 1353

Plaza of the Alamo at, illus 1332

San Bias, Mexico, Scene in, illus 250

San Francisco, California,

Oj'ster beds of, illus 270, 271

Sankaracharya,

Work and influence of 1272

Sannyasis,

Contemplative ascetics 1 309

San Salvador, Condition of . . 233

Sand Island, Alabama,

Light on 29

Illus 32

Sands, W. F.,

Mysterious temples of jungle 325

Sandy Hook lighthouse 5

Santa Caterina del Sasso, Italy, illus 945

Santo' Domingo, Progress of 242

Santa Maria, Guatemala, Eruption of 192

Sapsucker, Yellow-billed,

Described and illustrated 690

Saqqara, Egypt,

Oldest pyramid at, illus 959

Tombs of sacred bulls at 970

Saussure, H. B. de.

Stimulates ascents of Mont Blanc. 867,868,875
Saylla, Peru,

View in, illus 519

Scaup, Wild lesser, illus 370

Schreckhorn, Switzerland,

View of the, illus 939

Scoter, white-winged. Habits of 365, 567, 368

Scutari, Lake of.

Views on, illus ■ 294, 295

Sect-marks, Hindu,

Examples of, illus 1272, 1273, 1307, 1316, 1317

Sekhmet,

Ancient Egyptian deity, illus 1034

Self-torture of Hindu ascetics 1257

Semeiski women, illus 858

Senegal natives, illus 756

Seracs, illus 867, 876, 878

INDEX FOR 1913

XIII

Page

Servia,

Kingdom of joi, J93, 309, 1057

Map of 224

Servian,

Guerrilla leader, illus 208

Soldiers, illus 200, 201

Sety I,

Mummy of, illus 1 036

Portrait of, in relief, illus 1035

Relief showing, illus 1050

Reliefs showing after-life of, illus 1033

Temple of, at Abydos, illus 1028

Seville cigarette maker at work, illus 859

Shans, Types of 843, 847

Sheep, Fat-tailed, illus 77

Shishaldin Volcano, Alaska, View of 137

Showalter, William Joseph,

The countries of the Caribbean 227

Shiras, George 3rd,

Wild animals that took their own pictures

by day and by night 763

Shrine, Loggerhead,

Described and illustrated 679

Shumet-es-Zebib, Egypt,

Second Dynasty fort at, illus 1044

Siberia, Boys' school in, illus 11 53

Silistria, Province of, obtained by Rumania.... 1062

Sinaia, Rumania,

Palace at, illus 1081

Sisikon, Sw-itzerland,

View of, illus 915

Sitka, Alaska, View of 136

Siva. Hindu deity.

Devotee of, illus 1263

Marriage of 13 14

Worship of 1272

Skaptar-Jokull, Iceland,

Eruption of 165, 1S6

Ski-jumping at Grindelwald, illus 898

Skins, Preparing for U. S. National Museum,

illus 62S, 629

Shoptsi (Rumanian sect),

Described and illustrated 1080

Skunks,

Some adventures with 790

That photographed themselves, illus 792,793,

794. 796, 812, 813

Slav Question, JMeaning of 225

Smith, Erwin F.,

Discovers plant cancer 57

Smith. Hugh Jil.,

The Mysterious Life of the Common Eel.. 1140
Oysters, the World's Most Valuable Water

Crop 257

Soiroccha Mountain, Peru, illus 545

Sombrero Key, Florida,

Light on 22

Illus 25

South Pole,

Discoverer of the 127, 128, 129

Sparrow,

Chipping, described and illustrated 682

English, described and illustrated 683

Song, described and illustrated 681, 704

White-crowned, described and illustrated... 682

Spat

Growing on oyster-shell, illus 259

Spcicher, Swiss,

Defined and illustrated 930

Spider.

Jumping,

Described 615

Illus 61S

Male,

Described 625

Illus. 623

Orb-weaving,

Described 615

Illus 616

Small white, illus 621

\'agabond.

Described 615

Illus 617

Wolf,

Described 619

Illus 620

Wolf. Skeleton of,

Described 619

Illus 622

Sphin.x, The, Egypt, illus 962

Page

Sphinxes, Avenue of, at Karnak, illus 990

Siiuash-bug,

Described 611

Illus 614

Squirrel, Gray, takes its own photographs, illus. 810

Standard Rock light, Michigan, illus. of 15

Staten Island,

Light on, illus 31.3-. 33. 38

Stearns, Wallace N.,

Reconstructing Egypt's history 1021

Strawberry farming in Texas, illus 1350

Submarine bells 51, 52

Sugar beets. Cancer in 56

Sumc, Mongolia,

Lamasery at 655

Views of, illus 660, 661, 662

Sun,

How its heat is measured 183

Swallow, Barn,

Described and illustrated 679

Sivaini, defined 1266

Swiss cattle, with cow-bells, illus 924

Farms, illus 922,923,925,928,929,936

Peasants, Types of, illus 928, 929, 930,

931 , 932, 933
Syria, Railroad expansion in 75. 78

"T"

Taboo signs, illus 751

Tah Peak, Canada, View of, illus 630

Tahutmcs I,

Obelisk of, at Karnak, illus 993

Tahutmes III,

Pylon of, at Karnak, illus 997

Tampu Machai, Peru,

Ruins at, illus 531

Tampu Tocco,

Machu Picchu, identified with 409, 410, 414

Tanks, Hindu temple.

Examples of i 312, 1322, 1327

Tasha Lama,

Religious and political head of Mimgolia. . . 641,

663, 664

Tartars, Types of, illus 1 104, 1 130

Tateski, Caucasus,

^Monastery at, illus 1106

Teal, Blue-winged, illus 374

Tell-el-Amarna, Egypt,

Excavations at 999

Records discovered at ^ 99 '

Temple of the horse near Kalgan, China, illus.. 644

Tern. Black,

Described and illustrated 697

TEXAS, OUR LARGEST STATE 1330

Texas,

History of 1331. '3^i- '335

Map of 1353. 1355

Population of '343

Railroads of 1 360

University of '359

Thebes, Egypt,

Colossi of Memnon near, illus 982

Ramesseum at, illus 1004, 1005

Interior of rock tomb at, illus 977

Tombs of the Kings at, illus 974

Thimble Shoal, X'irginia,

Light on, illus 33

Thorns, as instruments of penance, illus... 1270, 1297
Bed of, Hindu penance, illus 1268,1269

Thoth, Egyptian deity.

Creation of 1044

Ibis head of 1046

Thrasher, Brown,

Described and illustrated 677

Illus 709

Thrush, Russet-backed,

Described and illustrated 674

Thrush, Wood, illus 703

Tliuaa, father of Queen Tyi 999

Tibet, Little,

Peasants of, illus 855

Tillamook Rock, Oregon,

Lighthouse on 16,17

Illus 21

Timbuctu,

Market at, illus 754

Tuareg chiefs at, illus 755

Tipon, Peru,

Illus 524. 525

XIV

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Page

Tirupurankundram, India,

Temple and sacred rock at 1257

Illus i-S«

Titlis, Switzerland.

Summit of, illus 93»

Tomboro, Java,

Great eruption of ''"S

Trinity, the Hindu 1272, 1273, 1314

Tripoli in Syria, _

Views in 74, 79, 80

Troy, Shepherds of, illus 29»

Tsame festival, ^

Groups of actors at, illus 7oi

Tuareg chiefs, illus 755

Turkey.

Balkan war in 209, 211,214

Early history of i99, 201, 1063

Russo-Turkish war of 1S77 1069, 1071, 1073

Turkish troops, illus 202, 203, 204, 206, 207

Turtle, Land, that photographed itself, illus 814

Twig-pruner,

Described

Illus

Typhoid fever.

Germ of, discovered 1 147

Vaccination against 1146

Typhoid vaccination.

Introduced in America 1148

Made compulsory in the Army 11 49, 1150

Method of, illus 1151

Tyi, Queen of Egypt,

Deeds and character of 99^

Tomb of 999

Necklace found in tomb of, illus 981

Portrait bust of, illus 978

Volcanic ash,

Views of, falling.

Page

153, 154, 155

"W"

595
589

"U"
United States,

Boundary of, with Mexico settled

Lighting the coasts of .

Oyster culture in

Urga, Mongolia,

Described 641, 661, 61

Prayer-wheel in, illus

Summer palace at, illus

Temple at, illus

Uri-Rothstock, Switzerland,

View of, illus

Urubamba Caiion, Peru,

Picturesque view in, illus

Road in, illus

View of

Urubamba River, Peru,

Bridge across, illus 4

Bridging the 4

Road alongside, illus

Urubamba Valley, Peru,

Cuzco road in, illus

Ushba, Mount, Caucasus,

Views of, illus 113

Ushabiis, Ancient Egyptian, illus

Uskub, Servia,

Market-place, illus

"V"
Vaccination

against typhoid

Illus.

Peruvian Indians practice

Val Bondasca, Italy,

View of, illus

Venizelos, Eleutherios,

Greek statesman

Viaduct, The great Pecos, Texas, illus

Visp River, Switzerland,

Near Zermatt, illus

Vilcos, Peru,

History of

Location! of 512, 5

Sacred rock near, illus 550, 551^ 5

Vivekananda, Swami

Vishnu, A devotee of, illus

Volcanoes,

Cause of eruptions

Effect of, on climate !'.!!!!

Eruptions of iMi

In Alaska " ' "^ '

383

I
263

663
670
668
666

915

419
421
406

22, 423

17, 423

405

410

2, 1133
975

218

1146

1151

391

305

1335

511

13, 520

52, 553

1266

1282

143

181

61, 186

135

Waco, Texas I3S9

Walcott, Charles D.,

The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies 626

Wallachia,

Hospodars of 1065

Unites with Moldavia 1066

Wallachian types, illus 221

Wallis archipelago.

Curious rock in the, illus 1156

Warbler, Myrtle,

Described and illustrated 678

Washington, D. C,

General view of, illus 718, 740

See the Nation's Capital 717

Streets of, illus 724, 725, 726, 727, 729, 730,

732, 733, 734, 736, 741
Water-wheels,

Largest in world 104, 109

Westcar papyrus.

Discovery and contents of 973

Wetterhorn, Switzerland,

Climbing the, illus 908

Wengernalp, Switzerland,

Station at, illus 919

Wheat field in Texas, illus 1352

White Fathers, The, illus 753

Whiting, John D.,

From Jerusalem to Aleppo 71

WILD ANIMALS THAT TOOK THEIR
OWN PICTURES BY DAY AND BY

NIGHT 763

Woman,

Position of, in ancient Egypt. 1000

Woodcock, Stroking a, illus 705

Woodpecker,

Downy, described and illustrated 691

Red-bellied, illus 710

Wren, House,

Described and illustrated 676

Wright, Sir Almoth,

Introduces typhoid vaccination 1147,1.148

"Y"

Yale-National Geographic Society Expedition to
Peru,

Map-work done by 501, 504, 506, 507, 510

Report of 387

Staff of 387

Results achieved by 391, 395

Yaqui River, California,

Oyster beds of, illus 268

Yellow hammers, pair of, illus 707

Yellow jacket.

Described 603

Illus 604

Yellowstone Lake, Map of 818

Yellowstone River,

View on, illus 819

Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming,

Moose and other game in 808

Typical view in, illus 821

Yoga,

Definitions of v 1265, 1298

Yogi,

Definition of a 1265

Pictures of 1265, 1266, 1274, 1308, 1309

Yuaa,

Mother of Queen Tyi 999

Yucay, Peru,

View of 411

Yunnan, China,

Lolo's of. The iiss

Yurt, Mongol, illus 667

"Z"

Zermatt, View near, illus 899

Zoomorphs at Quirigua, illus 334, 340, 344, 345

Zumbro, Rev. W. M.,

Religious penances and punishments self-
inflicted by the holy men of India 1257

Vol. XXIV, No. 1

WASHINGTON

January, 1913

THE

ATHONAIL

©(SMAIPIBIIIC

A(SAM

BEACONS OF THE SEA

Lighting the Coasts of the United States
By George R. Putnam, Commissioner of Lighthouses

THE sea-coast line under the ju-
risdiction of the United States is
48,881 statute miles, measured in
three-mile steps. The general govern-
ment provides lighthouses and other aids
to navigation along all this coast, with
the exception of the Philippine Islands,
11,511 miles, and Panama, where the
marking of the coasts is maintained by
the local governments. In addition, the
L'nited States provides lights along the
American shores of the Great Lakes,
4,020 miles, and on interior and coastal
rivers, 5,478 miles.

The United States Lighthouse Service
thus maintains lights and other aids to
navigation along 46.828 miles of coast-
line and river channels, a length equal
to nearly twice the circumference of the
earth. In this distance it has 12,82^ aids
to navigation of all classes, sufficient to
place one every two miles around the
equator.

In respect to territory covered and
aids maintained, it is much the most ex-
tensive service of its kind under a single
management. There are 1.462 lights
above the order of river-post lights, and
there are 762 lights having resident
keepers. 51 light-vessel stations, and 438
lighted buoys. The total lighted aids of
all kinds is 4,516. There are in all 933
fog signals, of which 510 are fog-signal
stations, 43 submarine bells, 124 whist-

ling buoys, and 256 bell buoys. There
are 6,281 unlighted buoys, and 1,474
da}marks, or unlighted beacons. There
are also 516 private aids to navigation,
maintained at private expense, but under
government supervision.

This service is carried on through an
organization of 19 districts, under a cen-
tral office in Washington. Each district
is in charge of a lighthouse inspector
and has a local office and one or more
supply depots and lighthouse tenders.
In all, there are 46 of these small vessels
which carry the supplies to the stations
and place and maintain the buoys and
light vessels.

About 5,500 men are required for the
lighthouse work, of whom 211 are in
the executive, engineering, and clerical
force, 1.733 ^^'^ keepers of lights and de-
l)ots, 1.570 care for ]:)OSt lights, 1,516 are
on vessels, and 489 are in the construc-
tion and repair force.

The entire personnel is under the civil-
service rules, and appointments and pro-
motions are on a strictly merit system.
This is of great importance for the main-
tenance of good organization and rigid
discipline in a purely technical service,
on the efficient conduct of which is di-
rectly dependent, the safety of p.11 the
lives and all the property carried on the
seas and the navigable waters of this
country.

r^ O
9 "^

O '^^

'5^

t.l.n Liiti! ^l.^«^f. «t!«f « M.di ' u'd .i »i>

LIGIITIIOUSKS OF AXCII-:XT TIMKS, AS I'lCTUKi;]) ()\ ROMAN .MI'IDAI.S

A lighthouse is mentioned as earl}- as 660 B. C. ; the Pharos, at Alexandria, built about
260 B. C. was one of the "seven wonders" of the world, and is estimated to have been about
400 feet high.

The annual maintenance cost of the
entire service is close to $5,000,000, and
in addition in recent years there has been
■expended about $1,000,000 a year on
new lighthouse works and vessels. This
service is supported by appropriations
•out of the general revenyes, and no spe-
cial light taxes are collected from ship-
ping, as is customary in other countries.

At all important light stations there
are from two to five keepers, who main-
tain a continuous watch of the light at
night and of the approach of fog at all
times. At less important stations there
is but one keeper, or sometimes a single
keeper cares for several neighboring
lights. The average pay of keepers is
less than $600 per year, but they receive
also a ration allowance and usually quar-
ters and fuel. The maximum salary at
difficult offshore stations is $1,008. For
the care of a post light along the rivers
about $TO a month is paid, but this re-
quires only a small amount of work each
day.

At the general lighthouse depot on
Staten Island, New York harbor, shops
are maintained for the repair and manu-
facture of special lighthouse a])paratus.
This is also a general supply station for
the service, supplies and equipment being
purchased and tested and experimental
and designing work being carried on.
IMany of the lighthouse vessels are over-
liauled or outfitted here. There are em-

ployed in this depot and offices 253 per-
persons (see page 2).

Light stations and vessels are insi)ected
four times a year, and the districts and
offices are themselves inspected from
time to time by a general inspector and a
tra\eling auditor.

An accurate cost keeping system has
recently been introduced for the entire
lighthouse ser\ice, so that at the end of
the year the ])rincipal items of cost for
each feature can readily be ascertained
and compared. The following are aver-
age annual costs of operating various
features of the service : Large lighthouse
tender, $40,500; light vessel on exposed
station, $15,300: important light station,
with fog signal. $4.200 ; same without
fog signal, $3,000: river-post light, $90;
gas buoy. $100 to $300, according to size
and type.

I'AITIlFUIv LIGIIT-KEKPKRS

Although the pay is small and the life
often lonely, the work attracts as a rule
an excellent class of faithful men, willing
to take large risks in doing their duty
and also in helping those in distress.
There are many cases of faithful service
and bravery, of which the following arc
a few instances :

The hurricane of September. 1906, did
serious damage to lighthouse property
along the Gulf coast and a number of
lives were lost at Sand Island anrl at

OLD BOSTON LIGHT (FROM A RARE) PRINT OF 1 729)

The first lighthouse built in North America, several
times attacked, and finall}^ destroj^ed in the Revolu-
tionary War. The "great gun" on the right was the first
fog signal in America (see page 7).

Horn Island light stations ; at the latter
the keeper, his wife, and daughter being
drowned. Twenty-three lights were de-
stroyed by this storm. On October 3
the inspector of the eighth district made
this report : "The employees of the
Lighthouse Service have, as was to be
expected, maintained its credit. I have
heard stories of gallant actions, and I
have witnessed the uncomplaining man-
ner in which they and their families have
taken their great losses and deprivations,
also their cheerfulness in beginning all
over again."

The keeper of post lights on the St.
Johns River, Florida, after being se-
verely injured, went on with his work,
as he tells in this report, in May, 1912:
"I arrived at the light at 9.30 a. m. I
took the lamp out, and as I went to blow
it out it exploded and knocked me off the
light (22 feet), and I did not know any-
thing until 12 m. When I came to I
found the lamp gone. I crawled back to
the boat (250 feet), got another lamp
and put it on the beacon and lit it. Then
came home (8 miles). Injury: broken
leg just above the ankle and severe
bruised shin and bruised arm and lick
on head."

There is a pathetic story of the keeper
of Key West light, who after 35 years
of service became so absorbed in his duty
that he would not leave his task, even for
a short vacation, laboring under the de-

lusion that no one but himself
could properly care for the
light. On a certain very
stormy night a ship was
wrecked near the fort at Key
West. The keeper, then nearly
70 years of age, excited by the
storm and the prolonged whis-
tle blasts of the unfortunate
vessel, insisted that the wreck
was due to the front-range
light being out, although it had_
just been examined by his son
and found burning properly.
In spite of his feeble condition
he procured a lantern and, re-
sisting efforts to detain him,
went on foot in the storm to-
the range light and satisfied
himself that it was really burn-
ing. He died not long after-
ward.
The keeper of Van Weis Point light,
New York, died recently at the age of
93 years, having tended this light for 52
years.

At present there is no provision in this,
country for the retirement of light-keep-
ers on account of age, long service, or
disability resulting from their work.

The keeper of the most distant light
in Alaska — Cape Sarichef — returned re-
cently, his first absence in three years.
At this station there is sometimes an.
interval of five months between mails,
and the keepers' only neighbor is a trap-
per, 10 miles aAvay. A light-keeper on
the Columbia River, Oregon, has taken
only two days leave in 23 years, and one
of these two da5^s was for the purpose
of being married.

WOMEN IvIGHT-KELPERS

There are a number of women light-
keepers. One of these, the keeper of
Angel Island light in San Francisco Bay,
reported that after the machinery of the
fog signal was disabled on July 2, 1906,
she "had struck the bell by hand for-
20 hours and 35 minutes, until the fog
lifted," and that on July 4, when the ma-
chinery was further disabled, she "stood
all night on the platform outside and
struck the bell with a nail hammer with
all my might. The fog was dense."

A widely known woman light-keeper
w^as Ida Lewis, who died about a vear-

THL: I'RKSKNT BOSTON LIGHT
r.uilt in 1783 by Massaclnisetts and ceded to the United States in 1790 (see page 7)

SANDY HOOK l.IGHTHOLSK, NKW YORK

This and Cape Henlopen lighthouse, both built in 1764, are the oldest existing lighthoust.
towers in this country. The walls at the base are 7 feet thick

CHART SHOWING TUt LIGHTS THAT MARK THE) APPROACHES TO THE; GREjAT HARBORS
OF BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND PHILADELPHIA (SEE PAGE I5)

Note the overlapping of the arcs of visibility of lights on an important coast. The lights
differ in character and thus may easily be distinguished

ago. She lived at I^ime Rock lighthouse,
on a ledge in Newport harbor, for 57
years, her father having been appointed
keeper when she was 12 years old. She
was keeper of the light for 32 years.
There are reports of her having rescued
13 persons from drowning. On one oc-
casion, it is said, she saved three men
who had swamped while attempting to
pick up a sheep, and then she rescued
the sheep also.

Because of the difficult life, keepars at
isolated stations are granted shore liberty
and leave 72 days a year, and crews of
light vessels 90 days a year.

THE BOSTON LIGHT WAS THE EIRST
AMERICAN LIGHTHOUSE

The first lighthouse on this continent
was built by the province of Massachu-
setts, in 1715-1716, on an island in the
entrance to Boston harbor. In 1713 a

2^.

<a-^«-

^?5L<2-.c^

^^/^^Xa,^

AX ENDORSEMENT BY PRESIDENT WASHINGTON, IN HIS OWN HANDWRITING, ON A

LIGHTHOUSE DOCUMENT

Showing the caution exercised hy the first President in approving a contract for making a

chain for a buoy (see page lo)

committee reported to the General Court
on "the most convenient Place for Erect-
ing a Light House, which will be of
great Use not only for the Preservation
of the Lives and Estates of Persons de-
signing for the Harbour of Boston and
Charlestown but of any other Place
within the Massachusetts Bay," and the
court resolved "that the Projection will
be of general publick Benefit and Service
and is worthy to be encouraged," and
that the want of such a lighthouse "hath
been a great Discouragement to Naviga-
tion by the loss of the lives and Estates
of several of His Majesties Subjects."

In 1719 the keeper petitioned the Gen-
eral Court ''that a great Gun be placed
on Said Island to answer Ships in a
Fog." The court voted the gun, and it
was probably the earliest fog signal es-
tablished in "this country (see page 4).

The light was supported by light dues
of one penny per ton, levied by the re-
ceiver of impost at l^oston on all incom-
ing and outgoing vessels except coasters.
This lighthouse was an object of attack
during the early part of the Revolu-
tionary War, and was burned by the
Americans and finally blown up by the
British in 1776. A new lighthouse on
the same site was built in 1783 by ]\Iassa-
chusetts, and this, with various altera-
tions, is the present Boston light.

Although candles and even coal fires
appear to have been used in lighthouse

illumination in England to a much later
date, Boston light was probably illumi-
nated from the first by oil lamps. In
1789 the light was produced by 16 lamps
in groups of 4. Crude lenses and re-
flectors were fitted in 1811, and also re-
volving mechanism, it having previously
been a fixed light. In 1838 Boston light
is described as "a revolving light, con-
sisting of 14 Argand lamps, with parabolic
reflectors," the lamps being "of about
the volume of similar lamps in family
use." In 1839 large reflectors 21 inches
in diameter were fitted to this light.
Boston light was provided with a Fresnel
lens in 1859.

Apparently the gun was the only fog
signal at this station until about 1852,
when a fog-bell was installed. A me-
chanical striking bell was installed in
1869, in 1872 a fog trumpet, and in 1887
an air siren.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF OUR LIGHT-
HOUSE SERVICE WAS ONE OF THE
FIRST ACTS OF THE FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT

Several other lighthouses were built
and maintained by the colonial govern-
ments. On the organization of the na-
tional government, at the first session of
Congress, an act was passed, approved
on August 7, 1789, providing that all
expenses "in the necessary support, main-
tenance and repairs of all lighthouses.

beacons, buoys and pub-
lic piers erected, placed,
or surtk before the pass-
ing of this act, at the
entrance of. or within
any bay, inlet, harbor, or
port of the United States,
for rendering the navi-
gation thereof easy and
safe, shall be defrayed
out of the Treasury of
the United States." Thus
the Lighthouse Service
Avas one of the earliest
established by the Fed-
eral government, though
it has been conducted
tmder several different
forms of administration.

The maintenance of
bghthoi^ses, buoys, and
other navigational aids
was. at the organization
of the government. placed
under the Treasury De-
partment, and the details
of lighthouse work were
directed personally by
the Secretary of the
Treasury — Alexander
Hamilton — by whom
many of the earlier pa-
pers are signed. This
work was during two
later periods placed under the Commis-
sioner of Revenue.

In 1820 the administration of the light-
houses devolved upon the Fifth Auditor
of the Treasury, who was popularly
known as the general superintendent of
lights. Mr. Stephen Pleasonton dis-
charged these duties for 32 years. In
1852 Congress established the United
States Lighthouse I>oard, composed of
three naval officers, three army engineers,
and two civilians, with the Secretary of
the Treasury as ex-offxcio President of
the Board. The Chairmen of this IJoard
were Admirals in the Navy, with the
single exception of Prof. Joseph Henry,
who was Chairman from 1871 to 1878.
In 1910 the present Bureau of Light-
houses was established by Congress,
under charge of a Commissioner of
Lighthouses and other executive officers
appointed by the President. The Light-
house Service is now a part of the De-
partment of Commerce and Labor, to

AX liXDGRSI'MENT 13Y rUIvSIDENT J KFFKRSOX, IX HIS OWX
IIAXDWRITIXG

Expressing his opinion of the responsil)ility of lignt-keepcrs (see

page 15)

which it was transferred from the Treas-
ury in 1903.

Under the act of 1789, 13 lighthouses
were ceded to the United States by the
several States, though apparently but
eight of these were in actual operation
at the date of the act (these are the eight
first named in the list). The following
are the lighthouses ceded, most of which
are standing at the present time, although
much altered :

Portsmouth Harbor, X. H.

Boston, Mass.

Plymouth (Gurnet). ]\Iass.

Brant Point, Nantucket Island, Mass.

Beavertail, Newport, R. I.

Sandy Hook, N." Y.

Cape Ilenlopen. Del.

Charleston. S. C.

Portland Head. Maine.

Newburyi)ort Harbor. Plum Id., ^lass.

Cape Ann. Thatcher Island, Mass.

New London Harbor, Conn.

Tybee, Ga.

THE FIRST kddystone; i,ight, off the south

COAST OF ENGLAND

The Eddystone is the most famous lighthouse in
the world. Four towers have been built on this
dangerous rock. This, the first one, of fantastic
design, was completed in 1699 and destroyed in the
great storm of November, 1703, and the keepers and
the engineer who built it were lost (see page 17).

The oldest of the existing Hghthouse
structures in this country is the tower
at Sandy Hook, New York, built in 1764.
The Hghthouse at Cape Henlopen, Dela-
ware, was completed the same year.
These are similar in design — massive
structures of stone and brick, with walls
7 feet thick at the base (see page 5).

PERSONAL ATTENTION GIVEN BY PRESI-
DENT WASHINGTON TO EIGHT-
HOUSE MATTERS

Massachusetts, in ceding her light-
houses, showed her caution with respect
to the new government by providing
"that if the United States shall at any
time hereafter neglect to keep lighted,
and in repair, any one or more of the
lighthouses aforesaid, that then the grant
of such lighthouse or lighthouses so neg-
lected shall be void and of no effect;"
and also, "that if the United States shall
at any time hereafter make any compen-
sation to any one of the United States

for the cession of any light-
house . . . like compensation
be made to this Commonwealth
by the United States, for the ces-
sion of the Light Houses afore-
said, in proportion to their re-
spective values."

There are many interesting
documents in the early archives
of the service showing the atten-
tion given by high officers of the
government to matters of light-
house detail. President Wash-
ington personally approved such
contracts as these : for the pur-
chase of spermaceti oil for Cape
Henry lighthouse, "to erect, sink,
and build a well for water" for
Cape Henlopen lighthouse, and
for making "a mooring chain for
one of the Floating Beacons of
the Delaware Bay." On the last
document appears the endorse-
ment, all in Washington's hand-
writing, "April 27th, 1793, Ap-
proved, so far as it respects the
new chain ; but is there an entire
loss of the old one? G°. Wash-
ington." There is a proposal for
Tybee lighthouse "for a hanging
stair C2se for the sume of £160,"
or "should a plain square stair
case be preferred," for £110, with the
endorsement, "Approved with the plain
stair case. G°. Washington."

During the earlier administrations the
salaries of lighthouse-keepers were fixed
by the President, and appointments of
keepers were approved by him. The
following document is of interest as
showing the salaries then paid :

"United States, July i8t/z, 1793.
"By the President's command T. Lear
has the honor to inform the Secretary
of the Treasury, that the President hav-
ing duly considered the Representation
of the Commissioner of the Revenue and
the other documents relative to the com-
pensations of the Keepers of the Light
Houses, which were put into his hands
by the Secretary, approves of the altera-
tions of certain compensations as sug-
gested by the Secretary, viz :

"ist. For the Keeper of the Light Houses
on Thatcher's Island per annuAi, 266 2/3 doll.

"2. do. Boston Bay, 266 2/3
doll.

"3. do. Plymouth, 200 doll.

"4. do. Portland Head, 160
doll.

"5. do. Conanicut, 160 doll.

"6. do. New London, 120
doll.

"7- do. Sandy Hook,

^662/3 doll.

"To commence from
the 1st day of the present
Month. —

"The President thinks
it proper that the Keeper
of the Light House at
Portsmouth be informed,
that he must reside on
the spot where the Light
House is, if he continues
in that office, and that he
will not be permitted to
employ a deputy to take
care of the Light House,
unless upon some special
occasion.

"Tobias Lkar,
"Secretary to the Presi-
dent of the United
States. "

The Commissioner of
the Revenue in 1797
writes to the Secretary
of the Treasury regard-
ing salaries of keepers :
"In the case of Major
, there are the ad-
vantages of plenty of
fuel, without expense, upon the public
land, the opportunity to fish for his fam-
ily use, or even for sale, a boat to fish in
will be furnished for passing to the main,
there is a little land for tillage and grass,
and for a plentiful garden. The place is
represented to be very healthy. ... I
have been thus particular because the
salaries of keepers appear to have been
subjected to some miscalculation on their
parts from the unnecessary degree of
former standing, which some of the can-
didates have had. It is plain at first
view, that the above duties are not in
their nature adaj^ted to the standing of
a field officer, or of a Major of Brigade '

A recommendation of a person for
a])i)ointment as keeper in 180Q stated that
the applicant "being by occupation a
mason will engage to keep the Light

LA.VDING THE RELIKF AT THE EDDVSTOxNE

The keepers in turn are allowed shore liberty. It is often
difficult to land at a wave-swept lighthouse

House white washed, should he receive
the appointment, free from any expense
to the Government as long as he is its
Keeper."

THE PETITIONS OF EBENEZER SKIEF,
KEEPER OF GAY HEAD LIGIITIIOUSK

The keeper of Gayhead lighthouse in
1805 made this petition for an increase
of salary:

"Gayhead, October 2j, i8oj.

"Sir: Clay and Oker of different col-
ours from which this place derived its
name ascend in a Sheet of wind pened
by the high Clifts and catch on the light
House Glass, which often requires clean-
ing on the outside — tedious service in
cold weather, and additional to what is
necessary in any other part of the Mas-
sachusetts.

»-*««i^'*^p„..

THE FOURTH AND prese;nt eddystone ughthouse, complete;d in i88i (see

PAGE 17)

"These Impediments were neither
known nor under Consideration at the
time of fixing my Salary.

"I humbly pray you to think of me,
and (if it shall be consistent with your
wisdom) increase my Salary.

"And in duty bound I am your's to
Command

"EbenEzER SkiEE,
Keeper of Gayhead Light House.

"Albert Gai.i,atin Esquire

"Secretary of the Treasury."

In consequence of this letter Presi-
dent Jefferson approved of increasing
his salary by $50 to $250 per annum.

Ten years later the same Ebenezer
Skiff petitions for an increase of salary
on these grounds, some of which have a
familiar ring, although the spelling has
somewhat changed. The letter is quoted
in full, as of interest in showing the life
of a light-keeper at that date :

"To Samuel Smith Bsquire Commis-
sioner of the Revenue
"Sir: Clay ochre and earth of various
colours from which this place derived its
name ascend in a sheet of wind from the
high clifts and catch on the glass of the

A SECTION OF THE BASE OF THE EDDYSTONE
TOWER

Showing how the stones are dovetailed so as to
withstand the terrible buffeting of the sea

"The Spring of water in the edge of
the Clift is not sufficient. I have carted
almost the whole of the water used in
my family during the last Summer and
until this Month commenced, from
nearly one mile distant.

light-house, which glass requires to be
often cleaned on the outside : — Te(Uous
service in cold weather and not so com-
monly necessary in any other place in
the ^lassachusetts, nor in any of the
New England States.

"The Spring of water in the edge of
the clifts. by means of their late caving
has become useless. I cart the water
used in my family more than half a mile,
necessarily keep a draught horse and
carriage for that purpose and frequently
have to travel in a hilly common extend-
ing five miles to find the horse. Truely
I catch some rainwater and it is as true
that many times I empty it coloured as
red as blood with oker blown from the
clifts.

"My firewood is brought from the
^lainland and. there being neither har-
bor nor wharf here, is more expensive
than in seaports. Keepers in some places
get their wood with little cost ; but here
the native Indians watch the shores to
take all drifts.

''The lately constructed light with a
stone revolves by a clock which is to be
stopj)ed every time anything is done to
the fire, which, in cold weather, must be
kindled the sun an hour high, or sooner,
and recruited until eleven o'clock, or
after, when I have to trim the lamps and
wind up the weights of the clock and
can go into bed at nearly midnight until
which a fire is kept in the dwelling-house
consuming more wood than when I
tended the former light.

"It is about eight miles from here to a
gristmill and in the common way of pass-
ing are creeks not fordable at all seasons.
"The business respecting the light is,
mostly, done by me in person, yet I oc-
casionally leave home to procure wood
and many other necessaries ; previous to
which I have to agree with and instruct
some trusty white person to tend the
light in my absence : If my salary would
admit I would hire some person to live
constantly with me lest I should be sick —
I have no neighbors here but Indians or
peoi)le of colour.

"Tending the former light might be
deemed a simple business if compar'd
with the tendance of the present compli-
cated works and machinery, which re-
quires much time care &c.

"Almost any man or lad under my
wife's care could light the former lamp

.\ SKICTCll OF TllK lATKklOK OF THIC

sToxn; lighthousp:

Showing the foundation, dovetaihng of
and interior arrangement

KDDV-

stones.

PRESKNT STONE IvIGHTHOUSH ON MINOTS IvEDGE, MASSACIIUSIiTTS : NOTE THE

BREAKING SURE

This structure ranks among the difficult lighthouse engineering works of the world.
During the first summer only 130 working hours were obtained on the rock, and after three
years' work only four stones of the foundation had been laid. Commenced in 1855 and
completed in i860 (see page 18).

and do the business a short time ; but the
case is not so now.

"When I hire an Indian to work I
usually give him a dollar per day when
the days are long and seventy five cents
a day when the days are short and give
him three meals : Now supposing the
meals worth twenty-five cents each they
amount to seventy five cents which is
seven cents more than the wages for my
service both a day and night (while I
hoard myself) only sixty eight cents,
computing my Salary (as it now is) at
two hundred and fifty dollars a year and
the year to consist of three hundred and
sixty five days.

"I have the use of two acres of land
intersected with buildings, the use of a
small dwellinghouse and a small barn.

"I refer you to Capt. Winslow Lewis
Superintendent of the Lamps &c. for the

truth respecting all of the above particu-
lars that he is acquainted with — and be-
fore I forward this Application shall lay
before the Selectmen of Chilmark, which
adjoins Gay Head, for their inspection;
And in duty bound I humbly pray you to
take this Matter into your wise consid-
eration and afford me relief by granting
an increase to my Salary.

"Gay Head 2nd November 1815.

"I am Sir with all possible respect
yours to command,

"Ebenezer Skiee."

As a result of this letter. President
Madison approved of a further increase
of $50 in his salary.

CHARACTERISTIC ENDORSEMENTS BY

JEFEERSON
On a recommendation to appoint Jared
Hand as keeper of Montauk Point light

STAXXARU ROCK LIGHT, MICHIGAX

Built in ir feet of water, 24 miles from the
nearest land, it marks the most dangerous reef
in Lake Superior. It is the most distant from
shore of any lighthouse of this country.

to succeed his father. President Jefferson
wrote this endorsement :

''I have constantly refused to give in
to this metliod of making offices heredi-
tary. Whenever this one ])ecomes ac-
tually vacant, the claims of Jared Hand
may he considered with those of other
competitors. "Thomas Jefferson."

In a matter respecting the conduct of
the keeper of Cai)e Henry lighthouse he
wrote :

"I think the keepers of light houses
should be dismissed for small degrees of
remissness, because of the cakuuities
which even these produce : and tliat the
opinion of Col. Xewton in this case is of
sufficient authority for the removal of
the present keeper.

•'Dec. 31. 06." "T"- JEFFKRSOX.

LOCATIOX AXn COXSTRUCTIOX OF LIGHT-
HOUSES

The first-class light and fog-signal sta-
tions are located at the more prominent

.§smt,^ III ^^^^

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^!,^ ^0 .. ^ ; ~ jj

^s; ill

SECTIOX 01* MIXOTS LEDGE LIGHTHOUSE
Showing fastening of stones and interior
arrangement. It is 107 feet from hase to
summit.

and dangerous points along the seaboard,
and on a well-lighted coast such stations
should be sufficiently close that a coast-
ing vessel may always be in sight of a
light. The smaller lights are placed to
mark harbors, inside channels, and dan-
gers. Along the navigable rivers numer-
ous post lights are maintained to indicate
the channels.

For Xew York harbor and immediate
approaches alone 268 aids to navigation
are recjuired, including 46 shore lights,
2 light vessels, and 36 lighted buoys;
there are 192 buoys of all classes and 37
fog signals, including sounding buoys.

A chart of Xew York harbor in 1737
shows not a single aid to navigation
there at that time. One may imagine the
difiiculties of Henry Hudson when in
1609 he sailed into X^ew York T>ay in the
Half moon. The diary says: "We found

it to have a very
shoald barre before
it ;" and, again, "the
mouth of that land
hath many shoalds."
Boats were repeatedly
sent ahead to sound
as the Halfmoon
worked her way into
the harbor and river.

The natural altera-
tions in channels and
coast lines, the prog-
ress of improvements,
and the changes in the
trend and character of
commerce and ship-
ping make numerous
modifications neces-
sary in the aids to
navigation, so that this
Is a work that Avill
never be complete
while nature and man
are active. During the
past year notices have
been published of
about 1, 600 distinct
changes in aids to
navigation maintained
by the United States
Lighthouse Service.

Among the light-
houses of the country
may be found ex-
amples of great engi-
neering skill and of
dignified and simple
design. Some of the
tall lighthouse struc-
tures are of beautiful
architecture, suited to
the purpose, and set
off by picturesque lo-
cation on headland or
rock overlooking the
sea. The tower must
be built to give the
light a suitable height
above the water, and
hence tall lighthouses
are required on low-
lying coasts.

A light must be
about 200 feet above
the water to be seen
from the deck of a

THE TII^LAMOOK ROCK LIGHT COMPLETED

The seas here are terrific. On October 19, 1912. a wave broke a pane of the lantern 132

feet above the sea (see page 21)

vessel 20 nautical miles distant ; beyond
that distance the curvature of the earth
would prevent a light at this elevation
being seen. The light and lens are pro-
tected by an outer lantern of glass.

At the principal stations provision is
made either in the tower or in separate
buildings for the mechanical equipment
connected with light and fog signal, for
storage of oil and supplies, for quarters
for keepers and their families, boats, etc.

\'arious materials have been employed
in lighthouse construction — stone, brick,
iron, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete,
and wood ; in new work, however, the
latter is now little used because of the
desirability of permanency.

The Lighthouse Service at i)resent
owns 1,186 distinct pieces of land; be-
sides this, many lights stand in the water,
and post lights along the rivers are on
temporary sites not purchased.

WOXOKRFUL SK.V-SWKPT LIGHTIIOUSKS

Lighthouse construction on the land
is usually comixirativcly simple, except
when there is flifficulty of access to the
site. But often it is important for the
protection of shipping that lighthouses
be erected either on rocks or reefs ex-
posed to the sea or actually in the water,
on sand or rock bottom. Such work has
called forth the greatest skill of engi-
neers.

Numerous types of construction have
been used. Where the foundation is ex-
posed, even at the lowest tides, masonry
towers have been, with great labor and
often danger, fitted to the bed-rock ;
otherwise the structure has been erected
on iron piles driven, screwed, or pumped
into the sand or coral, or on caissons
floated to the site and set on the bottom
or sunk deeper by the pneumatic process,
or by the use of coffer-dams, within
which the masonry tower has been
erected ; smaller structures have been
placed on rip-rap foimdations.

The earliest exami)le now existing of
a sea-swept lighthouse is the beautiful
tower of Cordouan. built in 1584 to 161 i.
on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the
Gironde. on the west coast of France.
This lighthouse has since been altered
and raised in height,
ture was elaborately
floor was occupied
page 8).

The most famous of the sea-swept
righthouses is the ICddystone. 13 miles
from Plymouth harbor. Kngland. This
was completed in 1699. after four years
of work. During the first year all that
was accomplished was drilling 12 holes
in the rock and fastening irons in them.
This lighthouse, with the keepers and the
engineer who built it, disappeared in the
great storm of November, 1703. and since

The original struc-
decorated, and one
by a chapel (see

BUILDING THE IvIGHTHOUSE; ON ST. GSORGE; RElUl^, CALIFORNIA

The rock is so exposed that the workmen were obliged to live in the schooner, moored beside
the rock, and were carried back and forth by a traveler on a cable (see page 23)

1 t

ST. ge;orge; rkup light, California, completed
A difficult and expensive structure

that time three other Hghthouses have in
succession been erected on the Eddy-
stone (see pages 12-13).

MINOTS ledge light

The earhest lighthouse built in this
country in a dangerous position, exposed
to the open ocean, was that on Minots
Ledge, a reef off Boston harbor which
had long been a terror to mariners. This
was an open-work iron-frame structure,
supported on wrought-iron piles wedged
into holes 5 feet deep, drilled in the rock,
which was bare only at low water. It
was completed in 1848 (see page 14).

There was a great gale in April, 185 1.

"The light on the Minot was
last seen from Cohasset on
Wednesday night at 10 o'clock.
At I o'clock Thursday morn-
ing, the 17th, the light-house
bell was heard on shore, one
and one-half miles distant; and
this being the hour of high
water, or rather the turn of the
tide, when from the opposition
of the wind and the tide it is
supposed that the sea was at
its very highest mark ; and it
was at that hour, it is generally
believed, that the light-house
was destroyed ; at daylight
nothing of it was visible from
shore, and hence it is most
probable it was overthrown at
or about the hour named." Two keepers
were in the tower and were lost, and
this extract from the official report tells
the story of one of the great lighthouse
tragedies.

The present massive stone lighthouse
was built on the same site on Minots
Ledge, commenced in 1855 ^^^ completed
in i860. It ranks among the difficult
lighthouse engineering works of the
world. During the first summer only 130
working hours were obtained on the rock,
and after three years' work only four
stones of the foundation were laid. The
reef rock was prepared to fit the stones
of the lower courses and the latter were

A TUG TOWIXG A CAISSON TO BE SUXK FOR A LIGHTHOUSE; FOUNDATION (SEE PAGES

20 AND 26)

cut to interlock. Dwellings for the
keepers' families were built on the shore,
accommodations for the men only being
provided in the tower.

Longfellow visited Minots light in
1871. and in a letter thus describes it:
"The lighthouse rises out of the sea like
a beautiful stone cannon, mouth upward,
belching forth only friendly fires."

SPECTACLE REEF AND STANNARD ROCK

Spectacle Reef lighthouse, built on a
reef near the northern end of Lake Hu-
ron, is a stone tower standing in a (lei)th
of II feet of water, 10 statute miles from
land. It is in a ])osition exposed to heavy
ice action. A cofifer-dam was constructed
at the site, the water was pumped out,
the bed-rock was leveled off, and the
hghthouse was constructed of cut stone,
securely fastened. It was completed in
1874, and is a notable engineering work.
■The first year it was well tested by the
ice. When the keepers returned to the
tower in the spring of 1875 they found
the ice piled against it to a height of 30
feet. As this was 7 feet above the door-
way, they had to cut through the ice to
enter.

Stannard Rock light, 24 statute miles

from the nearest land and marking the
most dangerous reef in Lake Superior,
is the most distant from shore of any
lighthouse in this country. It was com-
pleted in 1882, constructed in a manner
similar to that on Spectacle Reef, and
stands in the same depth of water — 11
feet (see page 15).

WHITE SHOAL LIGHT

White Shoal, a dangerous spot in Lake
Alichigan. at the entrance to the Straits
of Alackinac, was marked for 19 years
by a light vessel anchored over it. On
account of the ice, this vessel could not
be kept on the station during a portion
of the season of navigation in the spring
and fall. As the unmarked shoal was a
serious menace to navigation at the.se
seasons, an appropriation was made for
building a lighthouse, and this was com-
])leted in 191 1 at a co.st of $225,000.

.V timber crib ^2 feet square and 18
feet high was built on shore and floated
out to the site, where the depth of water
was 22 feet. The bottom, which is of
coarse gravel, was covered with 2 feet
of rock, and the crib was filled with stone
and sunk. Above this was built a con-
crete pier, which supports the lighthouse.

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CAPE HENRY FOG SIGNAL, N'lRGlNIA

This fog signal is an air siren driven by oil engines. The trumpets are curved down-
ward to prevent sand drifting into the sirens. "The fog signals now in use in the United
States consist of sirens, whistles, reed trumpets, aerial bells, and sul)marine bells. Sirens
and whistles are operated by compressed air or steam, and trumpets In- compressed air. To
furnish air. compressors driven by internal combustion engines are used, and for steam signal
boilers are employed. The larger fog bells, up to 4,000 pounds, have hammers actuated by
a weight and clockwork" (see page 47).

The light is of 1,200,000 candle power,
fla.shing white every 8 seconds. In ad-
dition to the compressed air fog-whistle
there is a submarine bell signal, located
in 60 feet of water three-quarters of a
mile from the station. This bell is sup-
ported on a tripod standing on the bot-
tom of the lake, is operated by electric
power transmitted through a cable from
the hght station, and strikes "23."

TILL.^MOOK ROCK — ON'K OE THE MOST
EXPOSED IN THE WORLD

Two lighthouses involving great diffi-
culties have been built on rocky islets off
the Pacific coast — Tillamook Rock, com-
pleted in 1881, and vSt. George Reef in
1891. Tillamook is a high, precipitous
rock south of the Columbia River and
about a mile from shore. It is exi)osed
to the sweep of the Pacific Ocean. Land-
ing on the rock was very dangerous, and
the foreman was drowned the first day
a working jiarty was landed. There was
serious difficulty in providing any protec-

tion on the rock for the workmen. It
was necessary to blast off the top of the
rock to secure sufficient room for the
lighthouse (see pages 16-17).

This light station is one of the most
exposed in the world. The tower is 136
feet above high water, but the keepers
reported that in a storm in 1887 the seas
broke over the building, some going
above the tower, and serious damage was
done. In another storm a mass of con-
crete "filling weighing half a ton zvas
thro7vn over the fence into the enclos-
ure," at a level of 88 feet above the sea.

Here is the keei)er's rej^ort of a storm
in October, 19 12. at Tillamook light. The
lighthouse tender, on account of weather
conditions, was not able to reach the
rock for 7 weeks after this storm :

"I regret to state that on the evening
of the 1 8th. or morning of the TQth, we
lost a portion of the west end of the
l^ock, water and rocks coming over with
so much noise we could not tell when,
and did not know it had departed before

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Tiin OLD A.\D Tiij:; nl;w light tuwlks at c.we ciiaklhs, \ikoi.\ia

The tower on the right was built in 1864, but was abandoned in 1895, as the site was
destroyed In- erosion of the sea. The previous tower, built in 1827, had been discontinued
in 1863 for the same reason. The new lower, shown on the left, consists of an iron cylinder
surrounded by iron framework (see page 28).

next morning- when tlie sea went clown
so tliat we eould go outside.

"At 12:35 ^- "''• o" the 19th the sea
came up and broke one ])ane in of the
middle section of the lantern (132 feet
above the sea), which also put the hght
out and flooded the watch-room, as well
as down-stairs. To add to it all the soot
and ashes came out of the stove in the
kitchen.

".\t 12:50 a. m. we had the light
burning and storm ])ane in for the rest
of the night.

'"Siren was running imtil the crash
came, but making no regular blast on ac-
count of the water filling the trumpet too
fast. After getting the Hght burning we
closed down the fog signal, as the wind
hauled to westward and cleared the at-
mosphere somewhat. Shortly afterward
when taking siren out to clear it I found
it filled jiartly full with rocks ; therefore

the water could not get out of it (siren
horns are 95 feet above the sea).

"Will also state that every one under
my charge worked hard and faithfully,
regardless of water and glass, everybody
l)eing drenched to the skin."

Before the location of the lighthouse,
this rock had been a favorite resort of
sea hons, who comj)letely covered its
slojies ; these at first were hostile and
disi)osed to object to other use of the
rock, but finally retired to other resorts.

ST. GKOKGK KKKF LIGHT. CALlFORNL\

St. George Reef light is built on a
rock lying 6 miles off the northern coast
of California. The rock was so exposed
and swept by the seas that workmen
could not safely live upon it, and it was
necessary to moor a schooner near the
rock to provide quarters for the men.
who were tr;nis])orted back and forth by

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TIIIC PIGEON I'OIXT LIGIITIIOUSI':, OX THE RUGGED PACIFIC COAST, CALIFOKXIA

This light gives each lo seconds a flash of 4 seconds' duration and 160,000 candle power. The
fog signal is a tirst-class air siren, giving each 30 seconds two blasts in quick succession

a traveler on a cable. The total cost of
the work at St. George Reef was about
$712,000, making it the most expensive
lighthouse that has been built in this
country. These two exposed light sta-
tions on the Pacific coast are the only
ones having five keepers (see pp. 16-18).
Of lighthouses built on piles in the
water, the original Alinots Ledge struc-
ture has been mentioned. r)randywine
Shoal light, in 6 feet of water in Dela-
ware r>ay, completed in 1850, was the
first in the United States built on iron
screw-piles. These were bored down 6
feet into the sand bottom, the broad
screws at the ends of the i)iles also fur-
nishing additional bearing surface: this
structure has stood 62 years, but now
mtist be rebuilt on account of the ])iles
having been damaged by the ice.

LIGHTS ox THE FLORIDA REEFS

Fi\e i^yramidal iron skeleton light-
houses have been built in the water along
the Florida reefs ; these are supported on

iron piles forced about 10 feet into the
coral rock or sand. The piles are driven
through large cast-iron discs, with a
shoulder bearing on the disc ; these discs
are about 8 feet in diameter and give a
broad support for the structure.

Sombrero Key, with its light 142 feet
above the sea, is the tallest of these reef
lighthouses (see page 22). The keepers'
quarters are carried within the skeleton
tower, and they thus live 37 feet above
the water.

LIGHTS ox SAND BOTTOM — THE I4-F00T
BAXK LICHT

The first lighthouse built in the sea
distant from the land and not on a rock
foundation was the Rothersand. This
notable engineering work stands in 20
feet of water, on a sand foundation, in
the Xorth Sea, 10 miles from the Ger-
man coast, in the approach to I'rcmen.
The first attempt to place a lighthouse
in this position resulted in failure, but a
structure was finally completed in 1885.

A POST I,IGHT ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER
Post lights are maintained on about 5,500 miles of rivers in the United States

A caisson of boiler iron 36 feet wide,
46 feet long, and 61 feet deep was built
in port. This caisson was towed to the
site and sunk in position. Eight feet
above the lower or cutting edge of the
caisson was a diaphragm, forming a
working chamber, from the center of
which rose a cylindrical shaft with an
airlock. The caisson was sunk by the
pneumatic process to a depth of J'}^ feet
below low water, the sand being removed
from the working chamber by a sand
blast; the caisson was filled with con-
crete and masonry and the light-tower
erected on this foundation.

Two years later, in 1887, the first light-
house in the United States built on a
submarine foundation and sunk in a
sand bottom by the pneumatic process
was completed on Fourteen-foot Bank,
Delaware Bay, in 20 feet of water. A

timber working chamber 40 feet square
was built, with cutting edge 7 feet deep.
On this was placed an iron cylinder 35
feet in diameter and 18 feet high, built
of cast-iron plates bolted together by
their flanges. This was towed to the
site and placed in position. It was sunk,
by digging and blowing out the sand, to
a depth of 33 feet below the surface of
the shoal, the cylinder being built up
until it was 73 feet high and filled in
with concrete (see page 20).

Cast-iron cylinders have been used
also on other shallow submarine sites
affording stable foiuidations or on rocks
nearly awash. Wooden cribs floated to
the site have been similarly employed,
an example of which is Detroit River
lighthouse. Recently reinforced concrete
caissons have been used, sunk in place
on the bottom, for minor light stations.

THE TALLEST LIGHT TOWKR OF THIS COUNTKV, 200 1-KKT HIGH : Tllli CAl'E HATTKKAS

LIGHTHOUSE, NORTH CAROLINA
The spiral painting is to furnish a distinctive day-mark to mariners. "A light must be
about 200 feet above the water to be seen from the deck of a vessel 20 nautical miles distant;
beyond that distance the curvature of the earth would prevent a light at this elevation being
seen.

F.\MOUS SHORE LIGHTS

Cape Henry lighthouse, at the entrance
to Chesapeake Bay, is an example of an
iron tower built with cast-iron plates
bolted together along their flanges. The
old tower at Cape Henry, abandoned in
1 88 1, was the first lighthouse built by
the United States government, being
completed in 1791. There is a letter
datetl December 18, 1789, from Gov-
ernor Randolph of \"irginia to Presi-
dent \\'ashington. saying: "The State
some years ago placed upon the shore at

and cede the necessary land to the United
States (see page 22).

Petit Alanan lighthouse, l\rainc. is a
granite tower 115 feet in height. On
Thatcher Island, at Cape Ann. Massa-
chusetts, are two handsome granite light-
towers, each 124 feet in height. St.
Johns River light, Florida, is of brick.
80 feet high (see page 24).

The tallest light-tower in the United
States is that at Cape Hatteras. on the
low-lying coast of North Carolina, which
is 200 feet from base to top of lantern.
The highest light, however, is that at

Cape Henry nearly a sufficient quantity Cape Mendocino, on the coast of Cali

of materials to complete such a light-
house as was at that time thought con-
venient, which have been in the course of
time covered by sand. Measures are
taking to extricate them from this situa-
tion," and offering to sell the materials

fornia, which is shown 422 feet above
high water; it is on a cliff, the lighthouse
itself being only 20 feet in height (see
pages 27 and 29).

The main channel range for the harbor
of Charleston, South Carolina, is com-

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posed of two stations of historic
interest, the front-range hght be-
ing on Kort Sumter and the rear
light in the beautiful spire of St.
Philips Church (see page 30).

LIGHTHOUSE DISASTERS AND
PERILS

Many are the vicissitudes and
tragedies that are connected with
lighthouse history. Mention has
been made of the destruction by
storm of the first Eddy stone and
the first Minots Ledge lights, with
the loss of all the keepers, and of
the fact that the first Boston light
was burned and finally blown up,
incident to the operations of war
(see pages 4 and 7).

The danger of , fire is great.
There is a quaint report by Jesse
Tay, inspector of customs, of the
burning on November 7, 1792, of
Tybee lighthouse, the first built in
Georgia : "About 2 o'clock in the
morning the negro that trimed the
lites went up to trim them and he
discovered the lanthorn in flames
he cry'd out the litehouse was on
fier i jump'd up and run up Stairs
. . . the glass and sinders was
fawling so thick and it was so
very hot i was not able to tarry
half a moment and i saw it was in
vain to attempt to save it."

Lighthouses are sometimes un-
dermined by the encroachment of
the sea. From this cause three
successive towers have been built
at Cape Charles, Virginia. The
first was constructed in 1827, 700
feet from the then shoreline ; this
was abandoned in 1863, and the
whole site has now been washed
into the sea.

The second was built in 1864,
also about 700 feet from the
shore, but the sea continued to
encroach until this now stands on
the edge of the water.

The present lighthouse was built
in 1895, about 3,600 feet from the
shore, and is an iron cylinder 9
feet in diameter, surrounded and
braced by an iron framework.
This light flashes "45" every min-
ute, four flashes in succession, fol-

lowed by an eclipse, and tlien five
flashes (see page 2^).

Hunting Island lighthouse is a
tower of cast-iron plates, built in
1859, about a quarter of a mile
from the sea, on the coast of
South Carolina. On account of
the sea cutting away the end of
the island, its position became mi-
safe, and in 1889 the lighthouse
was taken down and reerected on
a. new site i,'4 miles distant.

Sand Island lighthouse, with
keei)ers' dwelling, was built on a
sand island at the entrance to ^lo-
bile Bay. Alabama. The hurri-
cane of September. 1906. carried
disaster along the Gulf coast, and
this telegram was received from
the lighthouse inspector: "Sand
Island light out. island washed
away, dwelling gone, keepers not
to be found." The tower re-
mained, and one keeper had, for-
tunately, gone ashore, but the
other kee])er and his wife per-
ished (see page 32).

Point Arena lighthouse, Cali-
fornia, was wrecked by the great
earthquake of April. 1906: it has
been replaced l)y the first light-
tower of reinforced concrete built
in this country.

The foundation of Chandeleur
light, on the coast of Louisiana, was un-
dermined and the tower thrown out of
plumb by a storm in October. 1893.

Thimble »Shoal lighthouse, in Chesa-
peake Bay. was run into by a schooner
recently, the structure broken, and the
house and light destroyed by the fire
which resulted. This is the second time
the structure has been destroyed by fire,
and it has been rammed a number of
times by vessels and tows (see page 33).

TROUnLHS FROM ICK. r.IRDS, AXD SAXI)

Winter seriously increases the work
of maintaining aids to navigation ; the
spray or sleet freezing may C()m])letely
envelop the tower in ice. obscuring the
light until the lantern is cleared. In
northern waters, where there is floating
ice. many of the gas buoys must be re-
moved in winter and replaced by spar
buoys, over which the ice may pass with-
out serious damage to the buoy. The

Till; CAPl; MEXDOCIXO LIGHT, CALII-OKXIA

This lightlinuse is only 20 feet in height, but it
stands on the edge of a clifl'. and the light is 422 feet
above the sea. the most elevated in this eountry.

spra\' freezes to bell btioys sometimes
until the weight of the ice overturns
them.

IMost of the lighthouses on the Great
Lakes arc closed during the winter
months, when general navigation ceases
on those waters. There is risk to men
and vessels in taking off the keepers in
the winter gales at the close of naviga-
tion. In 1893 three lighthouses in Chesa-
peake Bay— Wolf Trap. Smiths Point,
and Solomons Lamp — were swept away
by the ice.

Sand creates difficulties at some light
stations located among dunes or shifting
wastes of sand. At Cape Henlopen the
sand driven by the wind has cut deeply
into the wtx-xl framing of the kee])ers'
dwellings, and has ground the window
glass so that it is no longer trans])arcnt :
but the lantern of the light is too high
to be so affected.

Even the flying birds make trouble at

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UNDER^rIXl•:n v.y a tornado ix 1893

lighthouses, as the brilliant light so at-
tracts them that they will fly directly for
it, and striking the heavy glass of the
lantern are killed and fall to the ground.
At Cape Charles light the keeper has
seen ducks tly directly through the lan-
tern and fall to the floor cut and torn by
the broken glass. Some lighthouses are
fitted with bird-protecting screens around
the lantern, as for instance at Mayo
Beach light on Cape Cod. When Sabine
Bank light, in the Gulf of Mexico, was
increased in brilliancy by installing an
oil vapor lamp, a bird-guard was found
necessary because of the birds flying for
the lantern, attracted by the more bril-
liant light.

FROM WOOD FIRKS AXD CAXOLKS TO OIL
V.\POR .VXD KLIvCTRIC L.\.MPS

The early lighthouses were lighted by
wood or coal fires burned in open bra-
ziers, and later by candles inclosed in
lanterns ; the resulting light was neces-
sarily weak and fitful, and a large part
was lost by being diffused in directions
of no use to mariners. A coal fire was
burned at the Isle of May light on the
coast of Scotland U]) to 1816. and the
famous Eddystone was lighted with 24

wax candles to 181 1. Oil lamps were
early used in this country, if not from
the first lighting of Boston light. Fisii
oil, sperm oil. colza oil, lard oil, and
mineral oil were in turn burned, increas-
ing expense in each case compelling a
change. Circular wick lamps, with a
central current of air, were invented by
Argand in 1782.

At the present time lamps with from
one to five concentric wicks, and burn-
ing a high grade of kerosene oil. are used
in a majority of lighthouses. About
610,000 gallons of oil are burned each
vear at the light stations of the United
States, about 340,000 gallons of which
are for lighthiiuse illumination.

For the more important lights the in-
candescent oil vapor lamp is now used,
having been introduced by the French
in 1898. In this lamp the oil is heated
and then vaporized, and is burned mixed
with air under a mantle which is made
incandescent. This gives a nnich more
brilliant light than the wick lamp, with
a smaller consumption of oil.

For instance, this change of lam])s
recently made at Cape Hatteras light
has increased the brilliancy of the light
from 34.000 to 160,000 candle power.

THK SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION, ALABAMA, BEFORE THE HURRICANE OE

SEPTEMBER, 1906

THE SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION AFTER THE HURRICANE

This storm washed away the island with the keeper's dwelling, and the keeper and his wife

were lost (see page 29)

TI-IK ORIGIXAI. 'lIlIMlil.K SIIOAI, I.IGHT STATKJX, \-IR(UXIA

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THE TIlIMnLK LIGHT STATION AFTJ.K A bclluu.\l-.l< HAD C( il.I.i l)i:i) WITH 11 AM' MM

IT ON firh;

A temporary light is shown, pending the building of a more substantial structure, now

under wav

wliile ihc consumption of oil has l)cen
reduced from 2,280 gallons to 1.300 gal-
lons a year.

Electric lights are iise'd at a few light
stations only. The exi)ense is too great
to warrant the employment of electricity
at many important stations. For some
harbor lights it can be used to advantage
by taking current from a local source of
supply, and a light can thus be main-
tained in an exposed position and con-
trolled from the shore.

The electric light at Xavesink, on the
higlilands just south of Xew York har-
bor, is the most powerful coast light in
the United States. This light shows
each five seconds a flash of one-tenth
second duration estimated at 60 million
candle power. .Mthough, on account of
the curvature oi the earth, the light it-
self cannot be seen more than 22 miles,
its beam has been reported to have been
ol)served in the sky at a distance of 70
nautical miles (see page 39).

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THU RACINE; REEI^ LIGHTHOUS]^, in I.AK]? MICHIGAN, COVERED WITH ICE

"Winter seriously increases the work of maintaining aids to navigation; the spray or
sleet freezing may co'mpletely envelop the tower in ice. obscuring the light until the lantern
is cleared. In no'rthern waters, where there is floating ice. many of the gas buoys must be
removed in winter and replaced bv spar buoys, over which the ice may pass without serious
damage to the buoy. The spray freezes to bell buoys sometimes until the weight of ice
•overturns them" (see page 29).

LIGHTHOUSE Ti:XDlCR CROCUS JUST IN FROM WINTRY WORK ON LAKIC KKHi NEAR THE
END OE THE SEASON OF NAVIGATION

Most of the lighthouses on the Great Lakes are closed cluring the winter months, when
general navigation ceases on those waters. There is "risk to men and vessels in taking off
the keepers in the winter gales at the close of navigation" (see page 29).

LIGHTS THAT ]JURN Ft)K MONTHS
WITHOUT A KEEPKR

There has in recent years been a greatly
increased use of gas as an illuminant for
minor Hghts, such as unattended lighted
beacons and lighted buoys ; this is due to
the facility with which gas may be stored
or generated, the light burning for con-
siderable intervals without attention.
There are also a few coal or oil gas har-
bor lights, supplied from local sources.

There are in use a large number of
acetylene gas-lighted beacons, sui)plied by
tanks of gas of sufficient cai)acity to
maintain a (|uick flashing light for five
months without attention. In (^ther
acetylene lights the gas is generated from
carbide at the station or in the buoy.
Oil gas under compression is also ex-
tensively used for lighted buoys, having
been first employed for this purpose in

1878. Some of the acetylene beacons
are provided with a sun valve, which
saves gas by automatically cutting off the
gas supply during the time the sun shines.

A gas beacon has recently been estab-
lished on Richardsons Rock, a wave-
swe])t rock west of the Santa liarbara
Islands, California. It would have been
very expensive to build a lighthouse with
keepers' quarters on this rock, .so this
flashing beacon was established to give
])resent i)rotection to vessels from the
danger. This beacon, without atten-
dance, will Hash its warnings everv 3
.seconds for 7 months (or over 6 million
flashes) before it requires another charge
of gas (see page 36).

Ten years ago the first light in .\laska
was established : now there are 95 in that
territory, and the rapid increase of recent
years has been due largely to the facility

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with which flashing gas Hghts, un-
attended, may be established in
that region, where it would be
difficult and expensive to main-
tain keepers. At stations, how-
ever, where there are fog signals,
keepers must be stationed, as there
is not yet available a practical
automatic fog signal for land use.

POWERFUL REFLECTORS, LENSES,
AND PRISMS ARE USED

In order to increase the effec-
tiveness of illumination, reflectors,
lenses, and prisms are used to con-
centrate the light and throw it out
either in a plane around the hori-
zon or in a beam or limited arc,
where it will be most useful.
Parabolic reflectors were intro-
duced about 1763, and to show
around the horizon or to render
the light more powerful it was
necessary to mount on a chan-
delier a number of lamps each
with its own reflector. Thus in
an early list of American lights
the number of lamps is given, as
Boston lighthouse 14 lamps, and
Sandy Hook 18 lamps.

The French physicist, Augustine
Fresnel, beginning in 1822, revo-
lutionized lighthouse practice by
inventing a system of annular
lenses, refractors, and reflecting
prisms, all of glass and surround-
ing a single central lamp. Various
forms of lenses designed on these
principles, with further improve-
ments, are now universally used
in lighthouse work, varying from
the simple lens lantern, with a
single annular lens, to the great
first-order lenses, built of many
pieces of beautifully cut and pol-
ished glass.

Of such a lens the distinguished
lighthouse engineer, Alan Steven-
son, wrote : "Nothing can be more
beautiful than an entire apparatus
for a fixed light of the first order.
It consists of a central belt of re-
fractors, forming a hollow cyl-
inder 6 feet in diameter and 30
inches high; below it are six tri-
angular rings of glass, ranged in
a cylindrical form, and above a.

crown of thirteen rings of glass,
forming by their union a hollow cage,
composed of polished glass, lO feet
high and 6 feet in diameter. I know
of no work of art more beautifully
creditable to the boldness, ardor, in-
telligence, and zeal of the artist."

With the most complete lenses
about 60 per cent of the light is
rendered useful, the balance being
lost at the top and bottom and by
absorption of the glass of the lens
and the lantern.

The first lens in the United States
was installed at Navesink light in
1 841. The largest lens in this service
is that at Makapuu Point light, Ha-
waii, which is S-yi feet in diameter.
The introduction of more powerful
illuminants and quick-flashing lights,
with lenses concentrating more of
the light, has rendered large diameter
lenses unnecessary (see page 41).

INGENIOUS METHODS TO DISTINGUISH
LIGHTS FROM EACH OTHER

It is important that lights be so
distinguished from each other as to
avoid the possibility of the mariner
mistaking one for another. To this
end lights are distinguished by their
number, color, intensity, or time of
visibility. Before the introduction of
flashing or occulting lights, in a few
cases two or three light-towers were
built close together to give a dis-
tinctive combination, an example be-
ing the two lighthouses on Thatcher
Island, Cape Ann. This is an expen-
sive method not now employed for new
lighthouse work.

Color distinctions, especially red, have
been widely used, but arc not suitable
exceprt for minor lights because of the
great loss of power; with the best color,
red, the loss is about 60 per cent. For
lights to be seen at close range, two lights
are sometimes shown, one vertically
above the other.

\\'ith the systems now available of
flashing and occulting lights, it is possi-
ble to obtain a great variety of clearly
distinguishable characteristics. The first
revolving light was installed in Sweden
in 1763. The earlier slow revolving
lights are now generally superseded by
lights giving a flash or various combina-
tions of flashes at shorter intervals, or

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AN ACETYLENE GAS LIGHT^ THE FAIRPORT
W^EST PIER LIGHT, OHIO
Gas tanks at base; light automatically occulting
every two seconds. Sun valve to the left of lan-
tern automatically cuts off the light while the
sun shines.

lights showing continuously except for
short occultations. Quick-flashing lights
were first introduced in France about
1892.

The most powerful flashing lights are
arranged to have the entire lens revolve,
the beam from each panel of the lens
appearing as a flash as it sweeps past the
observer. To obtain rapid and smooth
revolution, the lense is mounted on a
mercury float, and a lens weighing, with
fittings, as much as 7 tons may make a
complete revolution in 30 seconds.

A recent examj^le is the lens for Kila-
uea light station. Hawaiian Islands, built
in France and co.sting about $12,000, in-
cluding import duty. The moving part
weighs nearly 4 tons and turns on a mer-
cury float, making a complete revolution

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the most powerful lic.ht of this country, estimated 6o.000.000 caxdi.e
power: the xavesink lighthouse, new jersev

"The electric light at Navesink, on the highlands just south of New York harbor, is the
most powerful coast light in the United States. This light shows each 5 seconds a flash of
one-tenth second duration estimated at 60 million candle power. Although, on account of
the curvature of the earth, the light itself cannot be seen more than 22 miles, its beam has
been reported to have been observed in the sky at a distance of 70 nautical miles (see
page 33)-

every 20 seconds and giving a double
flash of about 940.000 candle power
every 10 seconds. The light is suffi-
ciently powerful to be visible 40 miles,
but because of the earth's curvature it
can be seen only 21 miles (see page 42).

Occulting lights are less efficient, the
occultations being obtained by revolving
a screen around the light, by a drop shut-
ter, or by blank panels in a revolving
lens. With gas lights, flashes or occulta-
tions may be obtained by automatically
intermitting the gas supply, a small pilot
light still remaining.

The earlier lighthouses all showed
fixed lights, and were equipped with
lamps giving only moderate candle
power. There is always danger of mis-
taking the identity of a fixed light, as it
may be confused with other hghts on
shore or on vessels, or one lighthouse
mistaken for another, and marine dis-
asters have resulted from such mistakes.

All countries have, therefore, long since
undertaken to change the fixed liglils at
important coast points and give them a
distinctive characteristic, and also to in-
crease the brilliancy of illumination.

To indicate the steady progress made
along these lines, during the past two
years this service has changed 47 lights
from fixed to flashing or occulting, and
at 68 light stations has substituted in-
candescent oil-vapor lamps for oil-wick
lamps, the latter greatly increasing the
brilliancy, with a diminished consumjjtion
of oil.

D.WM.XRKS

In addition to the lights, many other
marks are provided to assist navigators.
The light-towers themselves are painted
and shaped to make good landmarks in
the daytime, and special beacons and
spindles are placed usually to mark
shoals or other dangers. Nature and
man also provide many landmarks valu-

AN UNATTIJNDKD FLASHING LIGHT AT THE ENTRANCE TO PRINCE WIUJAM SOUND
THE ZAIKOE POINT EIGHT STATION, ALASKA (SEE PAGE 35)

A LIGHT WHICH FLASHES EVERY 3 SECONDS FOR 5 MONTHS WITHOUT ATTENDANTS

Many such lights have been installed to mark the inside passages in Alaska. This one is

placed at Point Retreat, Alaska

able to mariners, but which are
not included in the official aids.

LIGHT VESSELS

All thus far mentioned are
known as fixed aids to navigation,
but it is frequently desirable to
put marks in the water where the
depth or other conditions do not
permit of the building of a light-
house or beacon. More than half
the aids to navigation maintained
by the Lighthouse Service are
floating — light vessels or buoys
moored in position.

Light-ships are placed in loca-
tions off the coast, where it would
be impracticable or needlessly' ex-
pensive to build a lighthouse, and
they usually mark the approach
to a port or bay or the outer limit
of an offlying danger. They are
also sometimes used in inside
waters. They may be moored in
the channel or close to it, and they
have the advantage over most
lighthouses, that a vessel may steer
directly for them without danger
so long as collision with the light
vessel is avoided, and also that
they may be moved and moored
in another position when change
of conditions or necessity requires.
On the other hand, a light vessel
is more expensive to maintain, and
there is the possibility of its being
driven from its station, though
this is reduced in recent years by
improved vessels and moorings.

The first light-ship, the Nore.
established in England in 1732, at the
mouth of the Thames. The first in this
country was stationed in 1820 in Chesa-
peake Bay. ofif Willoughby Spit. Sandy
Hook, now Ambrose, light vessel was
established in 1823. A light vessel was
placed oft' Cape Hatteras in 1824 and
was driven ashore in 1827. and a ship
was not established again in this dan-
gerous position until 1897, after unsuc-
cessful attempts had been made to build
a lighthouse on Diamond Shoal.

The United States maintains light ves-
sels on 51 stations, and there are a num-
ber of relief shii)s. so that the regular
ships may be brought in for repairs.
Some of these positions are of the great-

THE LARGEST LENS OF THE U. S. LIGHTHOUSE
SERVICE

The lens is 8 ^ feet in diameter, an occulting light
eclipsed for 1^/2 seconds each 9 seconds. Makapuu
Point Light, Hawaiian Islands.

was

est importance to mariners, as, for ex-
ample, the Nantucket Shoals light vessel,
moored 41 miles from land, for which
most of the transatlantic vessels steer
in approaching America, and the Dia-
mond Shoals light vessel, moored in 30
fathoms of water 13 miles ofi^ Cape
Hatteras and marking the most danger-
ous locality on the .\tlantic coa.st of the
United States. These larger ships are
full-i)owered vessels, capable of return-
ing to their station, and they each have a
crew of 15.

The latest shi]is are j^rt^vided with
I)owerful and distinctive lights and fog
signals. Thev more nearly approach the
lighthou.se in design, having a heavy
tubular iron mast surmounted by a lan-

A BEAUTIFUI, GLASS LENS AND MOUNTING RECENTLY BUILT IN FRANCE) FOR THE
KILAULA LIGHTHOUSE NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

It will be the landfall light approaching the islands from Japan. The light will give a
double flash of 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The lens and mounting "weighs
nearly 4 tons and turns on a mercury float, making a complete revolution every 20 seconds
and givmg a double flash of about 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The light is
sufficiently powerful to be visible 40 miles, but because of the earth's curvature it can be seen
only 21 miles" (see pages zi and 39).

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A CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE LAMP OF THE LENS SHOWN ON 1'KE<'ED1XG I'AGE,

SHOWING HOW THE LENS DIRECTS ALL THE LIGHT OUT IN 1\JUK

BEAMS, IN TWO GROUPS

tern, sometimes with a revolving lens was stranded near Cape Disappointment,

supported like a pendulum to hang verti- and as it could not be gotten otT into the

cally, so that the light beam will be kept sea again, it was hauled 700 vards across

near the horizon regardless of the mo- the land through the woods and launched

tion of the vessel An example is the j,, ^^^ Columbia River,

recently completed Milwaukee light ves- ^j^^ light-ships, being necessarily near

sel, which will show a double flash every .111 r ^1 ;^ii: 1^,1

, rtA, • 1 , r -1 the channel ways, are frequently collided

10 seconds. Ihis vessel has a fog signal ■ , t t 1

giving two blasts each minute, with in- )vith. In January, 1912 a schooner ran

tervals of 7 and 46 seconds. '"to Diamond Shoal light vessel. 1 he

master, in his report, describes the dam-

LIFE ON THE LIGHT-SHIPS age done and states that "the 6 seamen

Life on a light-ship is somewhat dreary, and also the cook worked manfully all

but not without excitement. During ev- night in trying to save the mainmast.'

erv fog the crew on Nantucket ship know and that "repairs having been made, the

that numerous vessels are headed directly light having been ke])t burning as usual,

for them, and in a storm, anchored as and the ship kept in right position, unless

thev are in the open sea. thev mav be very severe weather sets in the vessel

far' from comfortable. The men in 'turn will stay here until relieved."

are allowed liberal leave ashore. There The directions of the Superintendent

are often serious difficulties in getting of Lights in 1829 to the master of a light

coal and provisions to the ships on ex- vessel instruct him "not to slip or cut

posed stations, so that it is necessary the cable, or suffer it to be done, in any

that thev carrv sufficient supplies to last event, and if the vessel should be likely

over stormy periods. to founder, to abandon her with his

In 1899 tiie Columbia River light vessel crew."

DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VLSSElL, NORTH CAROLINA

This vessel is anchored in 30 fathoms of water in the Atlantic Ocean 13 miles ofif Cape
Hatteras, and occupies one of the most exposed and dangerous positions. The vessel is
shown after being stranded in 1899. The diagram below shows the improved method now
in use of mooring light vessels with a submerged buoy.

Notwithstanding the severe conditions,
Diamond Shoal Hght vessel has in recent
years been maintained on the station with
little interruption. The vessel is now
moored with a 7,500-pound mushroom
anchor and 150 fathoms (900 feet) of
heavy chain. About one-third of the
length from the vessel a submerged
spherical buoy is attached to the chain,
carrying a part of its weight and greatly
easing the pull of the vessel.

In recent years some unattended light
vessels have been established abroad.
These are small vessels without any crew
and with all the apparatus automatic in
operation. The Barrow light vessel, on
the coast of England, with no crew, has
an automatic flashing gas light with a
revolving lens, a fog bell in the air, and
a submarine bell, both actuated by the
motion of the vessel in the sea (see
page 48).

DIAGRAM SHOWING THlJ MOORING ARRANGE;me;nT 01* DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VESSEL

Length of chain on buoy, 7^ fathoms; from the anchor to buoy chain, 105 fathoms; from

buoy chain to ship, 45 fathoms

THE AMBROSE LIGHT VESSEL AND AN OCEAN LINER

This light vessel is anchored off the entrance to New York Bay. Ocean passages are
reckoned to or from this ship. "Light-ships are placed in locations off the coast where it
would be impracticable or needlessly expensive to build a lighthouse, and they usually mark
the approach to a port or bay, or the outer limit of an offlying danger. They are also
sometimes used in inside waters. They may be moored in the channel or close to it, and
they have the advantage over most lighthouses, that a vessel may steer directly for them
without danger so long as collision with the light vessel is avoided, and also that they may
be moved and moored in another position when change of conditions or necessity requires.
On the other hand, a light vessel is more expensive to maintain, and there is the possibility
of its being driven from its station, though this is reduced in recent years by improved
vessels and moorings" (see page 41).

THE NANTUCKET LIGHT VESSEL, MOORED IN THE ATLANTIC 4I MILES FROM LAND

Most of the transatlantic vessels steer for this vessel. "Life on a light-ship is somewhat
dreary, but not without excitement. During every fog the crew on Nantucket ship know
that numerous vessels are headed directly for them, and in a storm, anchored as they are in
the open sea, they may be far from comfortable. The men in turn are allowed liberal leave
ashore. There arc often serious difficulties in getting coal and i)rovisions to the ships on
exposed stations, so that it is necessary that they carry sufficient supplies to last over stormy
periods" (see page 43).

THS COLUMBIA RIVEiR LIGHT VE;SSe;l, AFTER BKING STRANDED ON CAPE DISAPPOINT-
MENT IN 1899, WAS HAULED THROUGH THE WOODS 7OO YARDS AND
LAUNCHED INTO THE RIVER (SEE PAGE 43)

BUOYS

Floating buoys are efficient and rela-
tively inexpensive aids to navigation.
They are used to mark dangers — as
shoals, rocks, or wrecks — to indicate the
limits of navigable channels, or to show
the approach to a channel. They vary
in character according to their purpose
or the distance at which they should be
seen. The simpler forms are the wooden
and iron spar buoys, and iron can and
nun buoys. For warning in thick
weather, buoys are fitted with bells,
whistles, and submarine bells, all actu-
ated by the motion of the sea.

Some important buoys are lighted,
usually by means of oil gas compressed
in the buoy itself or acetylene gas com-
pressed in tanks placed in the buoy or
generated in it. The light is often flash-
ing or occulting, for the purpose both of
providing a distinctive mark and of pro-

longing the supply of gas. The use of
gas buoys has greatly increased in recent
years, there being at present 346 in this
country. They are a very valuable addi-
tion to the aids for the benefit of mari-
ners, and often obviate the necessity of
establishing much more expensive light
vessels or range lights on shore.

The buoy off the entrance to Ambrose
Channel, New York harbor, at a height
of 27 feet above the water, shows a light
of 810 candle power, occulting every 10
seconds and visible 10 miles. This buoy
recently burned for one year and four
months without, recharging. The buoy
is nearly 60 feet long and weighs over
17 tons (see page 50).

Buoys are painted and numbered to
indicate their position and the side on
which they should be passed. To keep
the 6,700' buoys of this country on their
proper stations and in good order is a
heavy work and is one of the principal

THE COUUxMJ'.IA LIGHT VESSEL JOURXEVIXG THROUGH
THE WOODS

uses for the lighthouse tenders. Buoys
may be damaged or sunk, or dragged or
broken from their moorings by vessels
or tows, or wreckage, or ice.

Two buoys from the Atlantic coast of
this country have been picked up on the
coast of Ireland, and one from the Cali-
fornia coast was found in the Hawaiian
Islands, these having gotten adrift and
been carried across the oceans by the
currents.

For use in mooring buoys and light
vessels, the Lighthouse Service purchases
annually about 15,000 fathoms of chain,
a length equal to 17 statute miles.

roc SIGNALS

The most powerful coast lights may
be rendered of little or no use to navi-
gation by thick fog or rain. To assist
vessels under such conditions, making

their course more safe or allowing them
to proceed, fog signals of many sorts
have been established. Of these the bell
is the most common, and until about
1850 the only signals in use were bells
and guns. The first fog signal on the
Pacific coast of the United States was
established at Bonita Point. San Fran-
cisco Bay, in 1856 — a fog gun to be fired
each half hour.

The fog signals now in use in the
United States consist of sirens, whistles,
reed trum])ets. aerial bells, and submarine
bells. Sirens and whistles are operated
by compressed air or steam, and trum-
pets by compressed air. To furnish air,
compressors driven by internal com-
bustion engines are used, and for steam
signals boilers are employed. The larger
fog bells, uj) to 4,000 jKjunds, have ham-
mers actuated by a weight and clock-

the; miIvWaukee; light vessel, the latest built in this country

It has a hollow steel mast, through which access is had to the lantern surmounting it. The
lantern will be fitted with a revolving lens giving a flashing light (see page 43)

AN UNATTENDED LIGHT VESSEL ON THE COAST OE ENGLAND

It has no crew, and is equipped with flashing gas light, aerial fog bell, and submarine fog
bell, all automatic. The bells are operated by the motion of the vessel in the sea

A BELL BUOY TAKEN ON BOARD LIGHTHOUSE TENDKU
Shows marine growth and the necessity for periodic cleaning and painting of buoys

work. The smaller bells are rung by
hand. Besides the above, there are vari-
ous noise-making buoys ; bells, whistles,
and submarine bells are attached to
buoys and are made to sound by the
movement of the buoy due to the sea.

There are also used abroad several
other types of fog signals. The dia-
phone, similar to the siren, explosive sig-
nals, consisting of a tonite or other ex-
plosive fired from the top of a mast, and
recently there has been installed, experi-
mentally, at several light stations in
France apparatus for sending signals by
wireless telegraphy, and a compass has
been invented which from a vessel will
give the direction of the sending station.

Nearly all fog signals excepting those
on buoys are operated to sound a charac-
teristic signal so that they may be distin-
guished, there being a succession of
blasts or groups of blasts or strokes at
regular time intervals, which are made

known for eacii station. Even adjacent
buoys are differentiated by the use of
whistles and bells and by variation of
tone.

A first-class fog-signal station requires
powerful and expensive machinery and
skilled attendance. Such a station may
have duplicate engines of 20 horsepower
each, and the signal may consume 100
cubic feet of free air per minute.

While aerial fog signals furnish a very
valuable aid to navigation under weather
conditions when assistance is most
needed, yet they are far from the ideal
of perfection. Sounds are transmitted
through the air erratically, and some-
times within a comparatively short dis-
tance of a station the fog signal may be
inaudible, while in other directions it
may be heard for long distances. This
is due to the effect of the adjacent land
or to conditions in the atmosphere, the
sound beiiifr reflected or the sound waves

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deflected or retarded; the subject is one
of importance, requiring further investi-
gation.

There is sometimes an unfortunate
conflict of interest between the neetl of
a loud and distinctive sound to aid the
mariner in a fog and the quiet and com-
fort of seashore residents in whose midst
the fog-signal station may be located.
Even the mournful note of the whistling
buoy may bring complaints from the
near-by shore residents.

Keepers at fog-signal stations must
maintain a continuous watch day and
night, as the signal must be started
promptly on the approach of fog. Some
portions of the coast have little or no
fog, as on the south Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, where there are but few fog sig-
nals ; there are no fog signals in Porto
Rico or in the Hawaiian Islands. Fogs
and thick weather are very prevalent on
the X^ew England and the Pacific coasts.
At the station at Seguin Island, Maine,
there were, in 1907, 2.734 hours of fog.
more than 30 per cent of the entire year.

SUBM.VRIXE BELLS

Submarine bells were first regularly
employed as fog signals in the United
States in 1906. The bell is suspended
in the water from a light vessel to a
depth of 25 to 30 feet and is operated
by compressed air, or the bell is mounted
on a tripod on the bottom and worked
by electric power transmitted from the
shore through a cable, or it is suspended
from a buoy and actuated by the motion
of the sea, which moves a vane and winds
a spring (see page 52).

Sound from sul)marine bells is trans-
mitted through the water more uni-
formly and cfl'ectively than it is through
the air from an aerial signal, but the effi-
cient use of submarine bells requires that
vessels be equipped with suitable receiv-
ing apparatus attached to the hull on
each bow and telephonically connected
with the wheel-house ; by comparing the
loudness on the two sides the direction
of the signal may be obtained. Subma-
rine bells have frequently been heard
through the water at distances of 15
miles and more.

LIGHTHOUSES MAINTAINED BY ALL
COUNTRIES

As of the surface of the earth 51,886.-
000 square miles is land, as compared
with 145.054.000 square miles of water,
it is evident that a large part of the com-
merce of the world wfll always be carried
on this great water area. Lights and
buoys and fog signals are essential to
safeguard the ships as they approach the
continents and follow the coasts, and
these or other suitable guides will be
needed for aerial traffic, should it ever
develop.

The proper lighting and marking of
the coasts is an obligation assumed by all
modern maritime nations. The lights
protect not only the ships of the countrv
maintaining them, but the vessels of other
nations as well. The lighthouse, for in-
stance, at Cape Maysi. on the east end
of Cuba, is of great value to many ships
which never call at a Cuban port. A
lighthouse on Cape Spartel. Africa, at
the entrance to the Mediterranean, is
maintained jointly by the contributions
of II nations, including the United States.

But there is a great difference today
in the manner in which the shores of
different seas are lighted. The official
British lists give a total of about 11.600
lighthouses and light-ships for the entire
world, but of these 8.900 are on the
coasts of Europe, the United States, and
Canada, while Asia. Africa. Australia,
the remainder of America, and the islands
of the sea have together about 2,700.
South America has but 300 lights, and
Africa 500.

A region of interest to our shi])ping.
much of which is badly lighted and
marked, is the area including the Carib-
bean Sea. the West Indies, and Central
America. For example, the large island
of Haiti has not a lighthouse at any one
of its three prominent extremities. The
only lights on Haiti are four harbor
lights, which are marked in the list "not
to be depended upon." .\ number of the
lighthouses on the Central American
coast are maintained by an enterprising
steamship company.

Around the entire shore line of Bering
Sea there is but one lighthouse — that at

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THE DISCO\-ERY OF CAXXER IX PLANTS

Cape Sarichef, Alaska — and some small
lights near St. Michael ; but this is a
region where the commerce would not at
present justify a costly lighting system,
particularly as navigation is mostly con-
fined to the season of no darkness at
night.

It seems almost incredible to find, only
three centuries ago, powerful opposition
to the establishment of lighthouses. In
1619 a heroic Cornish gentleman, Sir
John Killegrew, petitioned the king for
permission to build a lighthouse on the
Lizard, the southernmost point of Eng-
land, where there is now an electric light
whose powerful beam sweeps around the
horizon. The nautical board to whom
was referred the petition advised the
king that it was not "necessarie nor con-
venient on the Lizard to erect , a light,
but, per contra, inconvenient, both in re-
gard of pirates, or foreign enemys ; for
the light would serve them as a pilot to
conduct and lead them to safe places of
landinge ; the danger and perill whereof
we leave to your majesty's absolute and
profound wisdom." Notwithstanding the
flattery, James I granted the petition.

Next the local Cornish people opposed
the work, as thus told by Killegrew:
"The inabytants neer by think they suflfer
by this erection. They affirme I take
awav God's grace from them. Their

EngHsh meaning is that now they shall
receive no more benefitt by shipwreck,
for this will prevent yt. They have been
so long used to repe profitt by the cal-
lamyties of the ruin of .shipping, that they
clayme it heredytarye, and heavely com-
playne on me." The light was, however,
completed and the fire kindled, which,
wrote Killegrew. "I presume speaks for
yt selfe to the most part of Christendom."
But it was impossible to obtain, for sup-
porting it, the "voluntary contributions"
from shipping which the king's grant
authorized. Finally the corporation of
the town of Plymouth pulled down the
lighthouse, which the shipowners con-
sidered "burthensome to all ye countrie,"
and there was no light at the Lizard for
132 years thereafter.

Some of the early lights and buoys in
England were maintained by religious
men. On a tradition of such a philan-
thropy is founded Southey's ballad re-
garding the buoy on Bell Rock, where
now stands a great lighthouse :

"The good old Abbot of Aberbrothock
Had placed that bell on the Tnchcape Rock;
On a buoy, in the storm, it floated and swung,
And over the waves its warning rung.

"When the rock was hid by the surge's swell,
The mariners heard the warning bell :
And then they knew the perilous rock.
And blessed the Abbot of Aberbrothock."

THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS

An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture

With Photographs by Dr. Brwin F. Smith

THERE is no disease to which
mankind is liable more produc-
tive of intense suflfering than can-
cer, and yet its origin is unknown and
no certain method of cure has yet been
discovered.

In recent years, particularly during
the last decade, the attention of experts
in medical research all over the world
has been more and more focused upon
this subject. Thanks to the munificent
cooperation of various public bodies and
individual philanthropists, a number of

splendidly equipped laboratories have
been founded, and international con-
gresses are held from time to time, at
which investigators from all parts of the
world submit the results of their re-
searches. But. in spite of much patient
and laborious investigation, no definite
clue has been found, and we are still ap-
parently far from a knowledge of the
causes producing this disease.

This is the more unfortunate because,
if we may tru.st the statements of statis-
ticians, cancer is becoming increasingly

' .^•■♦'

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plate; I. A MARGURITE OR PARIS DAISY IN WHICPI PLANT CANCEiR HAS BE;e;n

produci;d by inoculation (stt page: 6i)

"A sterilized needle is taken and dipped into the culture containing the bacteria and
one or more small pricks are then made in the skin of the plant. After a few days nodules
appear."

THE DISCO\ERY OF CANCER IX PLANTS

common. According to the very care-
fully prepared statistics covering the
death rate in England and Wales, it ap-
pears that while in every million living
in 1871-1875 the annual death rate from
cancer was 445 cases, in 1901-1904 the
rate had risen to 861 cases. With an in-
crease so appalling, the need of discover-
ing the cause and cure of this disease is
urgent.

WHAT THE CELLS ARE

Cancer is a disease of the cells of the
body, and to obtain a clear idea of its
nature it will be necessary to consider
very briefly the cells as the living units
of protoplasm, of which all bodies, both
of plants and animals, are composed.
For example, the human body has its
origin in the union of two small cells,
and the single cell thus produced divides
in its turn into two, these two into four,
each cell dividing upon an arithmetical
progression of 2 . 4 . 8 . 16 . 32 . . . .
with incredible rapidity. Some concep-
tion of the diminutive size of these cells
can be formed when we know that ten
days after the union of the original male
and female cells the cell-structure, wdiich
will ultimately develop into the human
body, has attained the size of a pin's
head, yet it contains hundreds of thou-
sands of cells.

All cells act automatically and repro-
duce themselves under internal or exter-
nal stimulus, but only in accordance with
the needs of the body to which they be-
long. Just what that stimulus is anc|
how it is caused is still a matter of some
obscurity, but recent researches by Dr.
Alexis Carrel, of New York, and many
others tend to show that all normal cell
stimulation, as far as the human body is
concerned, is due to secretions produced
by certain cell-groups, such as the pan-
creas, the thyroid, and other glands.

So long as this automatic self-division
of cells, or proliferation, as it is called,
coincides with the needs of the body, a
normal condition exists.

HOW A CANCER BEGINS

A cancer results from an abnormal
proliferation of certain of these cells.
When from some still unknown reason a
cell is stimulated to abnormal, malignant

proliferation it becomes the mother cell
of the cancer and gives rise to daughter
cells, which often multiply with immense
rapidity and so on indefinitely. These
abnormal cells also react upon normal
cells and stimulate them also into rai)id
growth until the typical cancer is formed.
A great number of theories have been
put forward to account for this abnor-
mal cell growth, the more important be-
ing the following: \^irchow's theory,
which attributes all tumors and cancer
to the direct results of injury or irrita-
tion ; Cohnheim's theory, which accounts
for cancer by a supposition that during
embryonic life certain cells are isolated
or "displaced from their normal relation-
ship or fail to undergo normal atrophy"
(Adami, Principles of Pathology, vol. i,
p. 835), the result being that they lie
dormant until roused into activity by
some stimulus, and that, having the
enormous power of proliferation which
characterizes all embryonic cells, they
outstrip the adult cells and a cancer re-
sults.

Those who maintain these and other
theories of the non-parasitic origin of
cancer, and they constitute at present the
major part of all research workers in
the field of cancer, have always main-
tained that this disease cannot be para-
sitic, not only because no one has ever
been able to isolate or demonstrate any
parasite, but also, they claim, because the
cancer cell is itself the parasite. Cancer,
as of rats, mice, etc., cannot be repro-
duced, they have said, except by the in-
troduction into the animal experimented
upon of living cancer cells, usually from
another animal of the same species.

THE PARASITIC THEORY

The parasitic theory, however, has en-
thusiastic supporters, and is still a matter
which excites keen discussion in medical
circles. As will be shown later, it is
along this line that present indications
show the greatest promise of future re-
sults. This theory holds that cancer is
due to an abnormal stimulation pro-
duced by some still undiscovered micro-
organism, and its adherents point out
that cancer, with its localized primary
growth and widespread secondary infec-
tions, bears a remarkable similaritv to

THE DISCOVERY OF CAX'CER IX PLAXTS

certain other diseases which are known
to be of parasitic origin.

Dr. Borrel, of the Pasteur Institute,
has found animal parasites (acarids)
buried in the cell masses of certain can-
cers of the face, and he conceives that
possibly these parasites introduce an or-
ganism or a poison much in the same
way as the mosquito introduces the ma-
laria virus into the system. Still more
recently (1911-1912) Dr. Peyton Rouse
has announced* that a chicken sarcoma
(cancer) is inoculable in the absence of
cancer cells, and that the tumor material,
even when dried for six months, is still
infectious.

THE LATEST DISCOVERY

But perhaps the strongest support of
the parasitic theory of cancer has come
from what at first sight would seem to
be the most unlikely source, namely, the
Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture. This, how-
ever, is not so remarkable when we re-
member that cancer is a disease result-
ing from abnormal cell stimulation, and
that the cell is substantially the same in
both plants and animals.

Indeed it is to comparative pathology
that we must look for the most striking
results of our future investigation.

For some nine years past Dr. Erwin F.
Smith, the pathologist in charge of the
Laboratory of Plant Pathology of the
Department of Agriculture, and his as-
sistants have been conducting a series of
investigations into the origin and his-
tology of the crown gall.

The crown gall is a plant disease which
causes an annual loss to farmers of mil-
lions of dollars and has become a serious
problem to the agriculturist on account
•of the number of species of plants liable
to its ravages. It is known to attack the
daisy, the almond, peach, and other stone
fruits, the apple, quince, raspberry, black-
berry, the rose, the grape, red clover,
alfalfa, cotton, hops, sugar-beets, and va-
rious shrubs, hot-house plants, and shade
trees. Up to the time that Dr. Smith
undertook his investigations its cause and
character were entirely unknown.

♦Journal American Medical Association;
American .\ssociation for Cancer Research;
Journal Experimental Medicine.

A NEW BACILLUS FOUND

He has proved the parasitic nature of
this disease (Bulletin 213), and now
states (Bulletin 255) that it is nothing
more or less than a plant cancer, since it
is due to parasitic stimulation going on
within the cells and leading to abnormal
proliferations essentially like those pres-
ent in cancer of men and animals.

While Dr. Smith has surrounded his
conclusions with all those qualifications
so dear to the modesty of the scientist,
there is no doubt that he has made a dis-
covery of the first magnitude in pa-
thology, and has indicated a line of re-
search which investigators of human
cancer will be unable to ignore.

In 1904 the Department of Agriculture
received a number of margurites, or
Paris daisy plants, which were infected
with gall-like growths on the stems and
leaves. They were sent in to the De-
partment by one of the large commercial
growers in New Jersey, accompanied by
the statement that the galls appeared,
without apparent cause, both on plants
grown in the open in summer and under
glass in winter.

now THE DAISY HELPED

The first result obtained from the in-
vestigations undertaken by Dr. Smith
was the establishment of the fact that
these growths were not due to insect in-
juries. The next step was to discover
whether the galls were due to infection
by fungous growths, and this was de-
cided in the negative after very conclu-
sive experiments. The possibility of
these growths being due to bacteria next
presented itself and was investigated,
but for some time the results obtained
from the experiments were so inconclu-
sive that the bacterial hypothesis was
temporarily abandoned. Every eflfort
was then made to produce the galls by
mechanical injuries practised upon the
plants in every stage of growth, but ex-
periments in this direction were fruitless.

More than two years of careful in-
vestigation had been consumed before
Dr. Smith and his assistants were able,
bv bacteriological culture-methods, to iso-
late anv organism which would reproduce
the disease when plants were inoculated

PIvATi: III. A CROSS-SECTION OF A PI.ANT SHOWING BOTH NORMAL AND DISEASED

CELLS (see page 6i)

PIRATE IV. A LONGITUDINAL SKCTIOX SHOWING HKALTIIV AND DISliASKD CELLS IN

THE SAME PART OF THE PLANT STEM AS SHOWN IN PRECEDING

PHOTOGRAPH (SEE PAGE 66)

pIvATe; v. the; e;fi''e:ct of thf continued abnormal growth of thf cancfr cflIvS
IS shown in this longitudinai^ section of a peant stem

The tumor in course of formation is very apparent (see page 66)

,^ THE DISCO\^ERY OF CANCER IX TLAXTS

with it. They finally succeeded in sep-
arating a white bacterio-organism found
in the tumors which they discovered
would produce the crown gall when in-
troduced into a healthy plant. This they
have named the Bacterium tumcfaciens,
or tumor-producing organism.

Subsequent experiments showed that
the most uniform success followed ex-
periments upon young and rapidly grow-
ing plants, it being often possible to ob-
tain 100 per cent of infections. But
eight years passed before they were able
satisfactorily to stain the organism in the
tissues so that it could be demonstrated
under the microscope.

Still further work was necessary be-
fore Dr. Smith was convinced that the
time had come when this disease could
be properly described as plant cancer.

THE PLANT CANCER DISCOVERED

These results have been announced in
two luminous bulletins of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, Kos. 213 and 255. con-
taining a series of admirable photo-
graphs and photo-micrographs, which
show the plant cancer in all its varia-
tions.

With the aid of some of these photo-
graphs, we will follow Dr. Smith through
one of his experiments, showing how the
cancer is produced ; how it sends out
tumor-strands from the original point of
infection ; how secondary cancers de-
velop from these tumor-strands ; also the
dilTferent structure of primary and sec-
ondary leaf tumors, and finally we shall
see both the disturbance produced in the
normal cell structure and the Bacterium
tumcfaciens, which is responsible for the
trouble.

In Plate I (page 54) we have one of
the Paris daisies, or margurites, which
served as the medium for very many im-
portant experiments. A sterilized needle
is taken and dipped into the culture con-
taining the bacteria, and one or more
small pricks are then made in the skin of
the plant. After a few days nodules ap-
pear, wdiich finally grow into the pri-
mary cancer, producing the malforma-
tions shown in this plant at the points
marked X, where the inoculations were
made. From this point the cancer be-
gins to throw out its roots or tumor-

strands, which work their way up and
down the stem and into the leaves, throw-
ing ofif secondary cancers as they pass.
These secondary cancers can be plainly
seen at the points marked A and C,
where they have ruptured to the surface,
while a number of them, still buried in
the normal tissues, are visible along the
leaf E, with others at D.

In the right-hand corner of the plate
there is a cross-section of the stem taken
at the point marked 1, which shows how
a large ' tumor-strand (marked S) ap-
pears to the naked eye.

WHAT A TUMOR-STRAND IS

This tumor-strand is of great impor-
tance in determining the cancerous na-
ture of the gall disease. In the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica, Dr. Louis Court-
land says : "A cancer follows a course
very different from that of an innocent
tumor. Its growth has no appointed ter-
mination, but continues with unabated
vigour until death ; moreover, it is more
rapid than that of the innocent tumours,
and so does not permit of the formation
of a capsule by the neighboring tissues.
In consequence such a tumour shows no
well-defined boundary, hut from its mar-
gin fine tendrils of cancer cells make
their zvay in all directions into the sur-
rounding parts, which gradually become
more and more involved in the process.
Thus a cancer of the breast will attack
both the skin covering it and the under-
lying muscle and bone ; a cancer of the
intestine will eat its way into the liver,
spleen and kidney, until these organs be-
come to a great extent replaced by can-
cer cells, and can no longer perform
their proper functions."

In this tumor-strand, therefore, we
find just exactly what we should expect
to find in a plant sufifering from cancer.
The enormous rapidity with which plant
cancers may develop is shown on Plate
II, which exhibits two sugar-beets inocu-
lated by needle pricks with pure culture,
the photograph being made only two
months after the roots were infected.

WH.\T CELLS LOOK LIKE

We will now^ turn to Plate III and see
how the tumor-strand disturbs the nor-
mal cell structure. This plate shows a

s^»'

'i^KM

^^%«

PIRATE VI. THE CANCER ROOT OR TUMOR-STRAND AS IT LIES IN THE SURROUNDING

TISSUE, SHOWING THE NUCEEl OR POINTS EROM WHICH CEEL

DEVELOPMENT STARTS (SEE PAGE 66)

Note the black spots in this and the following photograph. These spots are the nuclei or
points from which the proliferation starts, due to the stimulation of the parasite

PLATE VII. AN ENLARGEMENT OF THE TUMOR-STRAND SHOWN IN THE TUKViOUS

PLATE, SHOWING A CLEARER VIEW OF THE NUCLEI

Note the black spots, or centers of activity, are ver\- prominent (see preceding plate)

PIvATe; VIII. THE CROSS-SECTION OE A STEM BETWEEN TWO TUMORS, SHOWING THE
SMALE TUMOR-STRAND (aT POINT x) WHICH CONNECTS THEM (P. 66)

PLATE IX. AN KXI.ARC.KD I'MOTOCKAIMI ()!• Till- SMALL TL MOK-STUAXl) OF Till-

I'RI-A'IOUS I'l.ATK

Showing how the cells have been displaced from their normal relationship, which supports
Cohnheim's hypothesis (see pages 55 and 66)

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

typical cell formation in the stem of a
plant as it appears in a cross-section or
looking down upon it from above. This
is a photo-micrograph, and the tiny cells
have been magnified until, taken collec-
tively, they look like a cobblestone pave-
ment; but we can now see how the cells
look when they are subject to both nor-
mal and abnormal stimulation. The
^reat majority of the cells shown here
are behaving quite normally, but in the
<;enter of the picture, where the large
pith-cells join the smaller wood-cells, we
notice a little group of cells which seem
to be different from the others and to be
forming a little circular colony of their
own. These are the cells which, under
the stimulus of the cancer bacillus, form
the tumor-strand.

Just how abnormally these cells are
Tjehaving will be immediately apparent
when we view a tumor-strand in longi-
tudinal section or in a front view as
^iven in Plate IV. Here the cells in the
tumor-strand, which is shown in the cen-
ter of the plate and looks not unlike a
sweetbread, have a markedly different
appearance from those of the normal
tissue surrounding them. The effect of
their continued abnormal growth is
shown in Plate V, where a young tumor
is developing, while a more detailed pho-
tograph of a cross-section of a tumor-
strand lying in the midst of less abnor-
mal cells is shown on Plate VI.

TH© NUCLEUS AND ITS FUNCTION

This is a particularly interesting plate,
as it shows that the tumor-strand, just
like many human cancers, has a strong
affinity for the stain used upon the mi-
croscope slide, and this shows especially
quite dark. A series of small black spots
at the edges of the strand, which appear
will also be observed, very numerous in
the cells in the tumor-strand and ap-
pearing at intervals in a few cells on
other parts of the plate. These spots are
the nuclei or points from which prolif-
eration starts, and the superabundant
proliferation in the tumor-strand, due to
the stimulation of the parasite, can be
easily seen.

An enlargement of the tumor-strand
area is given in Plate VII, which affords
a much clearer view of the nuclei. It

will be observed that these points of pro-
liferation are distributed all over the
tumor-strand area, but are especially
numerous at the edges.

Plate VIII shows a cross-section of
the stem of a daisy plant between the
primary and secondary tumors. The
tumor-strand occurs at the point x, and
the rest of the stem is quite normal ex-
cept for a slight thickening of the ring
of wood-cells at the point nearest the
tumor-strand.

An enlargement of this tumor-strand
and the surrounding cells appears in
Plate IX, the tumor-strand being at the
junction of the small wood-cells above
and the larger pith-cells below. Here in
the tumor-strand we have the cells "dis-
placed from their normal relationship,"
referred to in Cohnheim's hypotheses (see
p. 55), the pitted portion bemg vessels
(trachids) which have developed out of
place and still contain nuclei which are
absent from these vessels when fully de-
veloped. They also show, by their feeble
staining, that they are still in process of
of development, as adult vessels of this
type usually stain heavily.

HOW PI.ANT CANCI^R DESTROYS TISSUE!

A cross-section of a leaf stalk in which
a tumor has developed is shown in Plate
X. The ravages of the cancer can be ap-
preciated when we realize that the light-
colored cells at the top and left are all
that is left of the normal tissue. This is
a secondary tumor developed from a
tumor-strand which has pushed its way
up from a primary tumor situated on the
stem below, and consequently it has an
imperfect stem structure, consisting of a
central tumor-strand, which takes the
place normally occupied by the pith.
From it radiate in all directions woody
plates (the dark rays in the picture),
separated by enlarged pith rays (the light
rays), the whole being inclosed by a ring
of bark cells. The great excess of soft
cells leading to rapid decay and the ab-
sence of pith are the chief differences
between this and a normal stem.

The very striking contrast between
such a secondary leaf tumor and a pri-
mary leaf tumor can be seen in Plate XI,
which is a cross-section of a primary
leaf tumor produced from a pure culture

:m^^fsS-^-^J^'^

:M^^^m

PLATE X. A CROSS-SliCTlOX OF A LKAl-' STALK IN WHICH ALMOST ALL TIIL NORMAL
CELLS HAVE BEEN EATEN AWAY BY THE CANCER (SEE PAGE 66)

.■-L '»^ ?;-.•"*

^%a:¥

"r^- .,

•<=u«^

'"<^ ""^'^i^-

i#'^V M:^,..

m:^.¥/ l/'^..

•-f^-

^^,,*?^^"

PIvATe; XI. CROSS-SECTION 01^ A IvEAF TUMOR PRODUCElD IN THE; I,e;AI^ FROM A PURE
CULTURE BY A SINGLE NEEDLE PRICK (SEE PAGE 66)

No normal cells remain; the whole body is a tumor composed of fleshy tissue and woody

fiber

.•*^

V' ^'

Xl^ -

5 /

4/ <<.

V ^

•«

% /^

PLATE Xll. ril()T()-M ICKOC.RAl'II OF KlCITT LKXKI.S IX A CKLI,. SlIOWIXC. TlIK KOD-I.I KlC

ORGANISM WHICH PRODUCES PLANT CANCKR. TiiK Bactcrium tumcfacicHs,

AS IT APPEARS UNDER TilE MICROSCOPE
These bacteria are from a daisv tumor

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

by a single needle prick on a healthy
leaf. Here no normal cells remain; the
whole body is a tumor composed of
fleshy tissue and woody fiber, the minute
dots all over the picture being the nuclei
of the tumor cells, from which further
proliferation will take place.

It is not a simple matter to obtain
photo-micrographs showing the bacteria
actually in the cells, but on Plate XII we
have photographs of eight different levels
m a cell, and the irregular rod-like bac-
teria are easily distinguishable. These
bacteria are described by Dr. Smith as
follows : "The galls on Paris daisy are
due to a white schizomycete named Bac-
terium tumefaciens. This organism is a
short rod multiplying by fission and mo-
tile by means of a polar flagellum. It
can be grown in many sorts of culture
media, but does not live very long upon
agar. It forms small, round, white colo-
nies in agar or gelatin poured plate."

HOW the; parasite; works

The fight between the infected cell
and the bacillus is most interesting, and
shows how the cell responds to the
stimulation and reproduces itself. This
is how Dr. Smith conceives it to take
place :

"The relation between host and para-
site in this disease may be regarded as a
symbiosis (or condition in which two dis-
similar organisms live together), in which
the bacterium has the advantage. The
bacterium derives its food from the cells
of the host and drives them at a break-
neck speed. It gives to them in return
its waste carbon dioxide for the use of
their chloroplasts." (Chloroplasts are
the bodies in the cell which contain chlo-
rophyll or green coloring matter, and are
the most important bodies concerned in
the making of starch from the water in
the cell and the carbon dioxide of the
air.) "The bacterium does not destroy
the cells of the host, but only stimulates
them into an abnormal and often exceed-
ingly rapid division.

"This stimulus, it would seem, takes
place through the following delicate ad-
justment of opposing forces : Within the
host cell the sensitive parasite produces
as one of its by-products an acid. As

this acid accumulates it stops the growth
of the bacteria and destroys a portion of
them without, however, destroying the
host cell. The membranes of these dead
bacteria, which have now become perme-
able, allow the diffusion into the host
cell of bacterial endotoxines." (Endo-
toxines are poisons produced by the bac-
teria, but held within them while alive,
and only escaping when the membranes
of the dead bacteria disintegrate.)

the; CtU-, DIVIDES

"The host cell now contains, of abnor-
mal bacterial products, (a) these escaped
endotoxines, (&) a certain amount of
weak acid (acetic ?), (c) some ammo-
nia, and {d) an excess of carbon diox-
ide. Under the stimulus of one or more
of these poisons the nucleus (or point
from which proliferation commences)
divides by mitosis (the usual but more
complex of the two methods by which
cells multiply). In process of division
the nuclear membrane (the envelope in-
closing the nucleus) disappears and the
contents of the nucleus flows out into the
cell. The dormant bacteria under the
stimulus of this nuclear substance renew
their activities in the daughter cells until
again inhibited, whereupon the daughter
cells divide. By this rocking balance, in
which first the parasite and then the host
cell has the advantage, the tumor develops
rapidly and independently of the needs
of the plant."

This rapid growth of the tumor, inde-
pendently of the needs of the plant, and
the tumor-strand, which produces the
secondary tumors with structure of the
primary tumor, show very clearly the
cancerous nature of the disease, and its
development closely parallels what takes
place in cancer in men and animals.

Dr. Smith is very careful to point out
that he considers that his discoveries
have no absolutely direct bearing upon
human cancer, and the following closing
words are characteristic :

"Nothing in this bulletin should be
construed as indicating that we think the
organism causing crown galls is able to
cause human cancer, but only that we be-
lieve the latter due to a cell parasite of
some sort."

FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO

Being flic experiences and i)nprcssii)iis of the ivritcr zuliilc making a trip starting
from Jerusalem via Jaffa and Tripoli of Syria to the Cedars of Lebanon,
through the Lebanon pass to Baalbek, and on to Homs, Hama, and .lleppo,
during the months of August and September, 1912, and illustrated b\ photo-
graphs taken specially on the trip by members of the American colony.

By John D. Whiting, of the American Colony, Jerusalem

THE chief boatman at Jatta called
out "Yalla! Yalla !" to his men,
who were making their way de-
liberately to the large row-boat in which
we were se.ited. The steamer was soon
to leave, and the call of the chief had the
result of electrifying the men, and in a
few moments eight brown, muscular
boatmen were pulling us through the
narrow opening between the rocks to
whicli tradition states Andromeda was
cliained, to be eaten by a sea monster.

Tiiese rocks have been the terror of pil-
grims and tourists for centuries, but the
Jaffa boatmen are renowned for their
skill as well as courage and endurance.

We were now able to compose our-
selves and count our packages. We had
only decided after dinner the evening be-
fore to take the trip, and ]\Ir. Larson
and Mr. Baldwin, my two companions,
were up all hours of the night getting
ready. Yes, the pieces were there ; thir-
teen in all.

It might seem strange for three men to
need so much baggage, but the fact is we
had only two small suit-cases between us,
and the balance was photographic ap-
paratus of all kinds and a couple of
heavy boxes of plates.

A few hours of slow steaming brought
us round the promontory of Mount Car-
mel, which figures so largely in Old Tes-
tament history, and which, since Haifa
during the j^ast half century has grown
so raj^idly in importance, has become
quite a summer resort.

The sun was almost setting as the large
barges were being filled and emptied as
fast as possible by yelling Arabs, who
can do no sort of work without exercis-
ing their lungs as well as muscles.

TIIK SYRIAN EMIGRANT

The lower decks of the steamer were
packed with steerage or deck passengers,
who, from the time we were nearing
Beirut, occupied themselves in arrang-
ing their toilet preparatory to disem-
barking.

From their appearance many could
have been taken for Italians, but one had
only to watch a few moments to see that
they were Syrians who had been seeking
their fortunes in America. Suit-cases
and ponderous trunks were opened, dis-
closing a mixture of old clothes, silk
dresses, patent-leather shoes of distinct-
ive American type, onions, garlic, bread,
and the like, thrown in together with
true Arab shiftlessness. Their attire and
talk disclosed that they were just return-
ing from various parts of America, and
their gala dress and glad faces that they
were nearing their native homes.

The entire costumes of both men and
women were of the Occident, while the
head-gear just donned was that of their
native land, to which they had been used
from their youth, until laid aside, with
their Oriental costumes, when they
launched out to seek their fortune in a
foreign land. They are extremely proud
of returning clad in a foreign costume,
but few. especially of the men, want to be
seen by their countrymen wearing hats.

Some landed at Beirut, while the
larger portion waited to disembark at
Tripoli. Some had been very successful
in their enterprises and were talking of
soon going again to the land of their
adoption ; some had made the trip back
to Syria with the sole object of getting
married and returning to pursue their
fortune-making, while a few had been

loo o 100 ^00 300 miles

MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAIv TOWNS MENTIONED IN THE ARTICLE

entirely unsuccessful and were now plan-
ning to settle down to the simple life
they had forsaken.

TRIPOLI IN SYRIA

While we were still quite a way out
from the port of Tripoli a fleet of sail-
ing boats glided swiftly out to meet us.
The anchor dropped just as the sun set,
and the cannon from the Crusader castle
announced that the Mohammedan fast
of the month of Ramadan had set in.*

* The month of Ramadan is kept as a fast
by all devout Mohammedans. During the en-
tire day they abstain from food, drink, and
even smoking, until sunset, when they may eat.

Tripoli (to be distinguished from the
x-Vfrican Tripoli), called in Arabic Tara-
bulus, is a twin city. The larger town is
a little inland, nestled on the fertile plain
amid a great area of orange and lemon
groves, forming a sea of green, and on
this account called by the natives "Little
Damascus." * This town has grown so
that its eastern edge has crept up the
side of a low range of hills crowned by

Another meal is taken just before dawn. In
the towns a cannon is fired twice — once to
announce that the fast is over for the day and
again as the fast rebegins.

* Damascus is noted for the verdant gardens
which surround it.

K.\l!i;iS IN JliKUSALK.M

a large Crusader castle, which, at least
outwardly, is well preserved and has long
served as a barracks for Turkish troops.

THK CRUSADKKS' IXKLUEXCK AT TRIPOLI

Tripoli, like most of the towns in this
part of the country, has a varied history,
having been first dominated by the Phoe-
nicians, and then successively by the Se-
leucides, the Romans, the Moslems, the
Crusaders, and now the Turks.

It was during the five-years' siege, be-
gun by Count Raymond of St. Giles in
A. D. 1 104. that the Crusaders built the
castle that overlooks the town to prevent

any relief from coming from the outside.
This fortress during our visit was evac-
uated by the Turkish troops and the am-
munition removed to a safer place fur-
ther inland, in view of the war with
Italy. It is a rather elongated building,
the walls facing the ravine being higher
and better protected (see page 79).
From a Crusader's point of view, the
castle could not have been better placed,
but with modern artillery it would be an
inviting target to a man-of-war.

The smaller town, called El Mina (the
])ort), is located on the bay about two
miles from the larger town, the space

A muive;-drawn stri;e;t car of curious de;sign running butwuen the twin

TOWNS OE TRIPOIvI (see TEXT, PAGE 75)

The traveler from the West is usually surprised to find how often the electric street car
of American manufacture is found running merrily in the most unexpected places all over
the East. The above type of street car is one which is rapidly giving way to the more
speedy and comfortable competitor from the West.

FRO^r TERUSALKM TO ALEPPO

between being a green expanse of orange
orchards and mulberry trees irrigated by
the mountain streams. The two towns
are connected by a primitive mule-drawn
street-car service (see page 74).

RAILROAD KXPAXSIOX IX SYRIA

About a year ago a railroad was con-
structed from Tripoli by a French com-
pany to connect with their lines running
from Ueirut and Damascus to Aleppo.

Since operations have begun on the
Aleppo section of the German railway
line from opposite Constantinople to
Bagdad, Tripoli has become an active
seaport for receiving rail and railway
materials, wdiich are sent over the French
line to Aleppo, thence to be reshipped to
the eastern end of the line, wdiich during
our visit was nearing the Euphrates.

On the coast near the railway station
is an ancient fort, built in the middle
ages and called by the Arabs Bur] es
Seba (Tower of the Lion). Our friend
the station-master, who calls himself
Monsieur Khies, informed us that it was
built by Coeur de Lion, but the style of
architecture is Arabic.

It was one of a series of six forts
built to protect the coast, only one other
of which still exists, and it is in poor
condition. The last one destroyed was
to make room for the railway station.
A petition has been sent to Constanti-
nople, and, if granted, will also seal the
doom of Burj es Seba, which, though
fully worth being preserved as a relic of
antiquity, is thought to be an obstacle in
the way of the "iron road," as the na-
tives say (see page 80).

The old saying, "The never-changing
East," should be modified to "The slowly
changing East." at least as far as Pales-
tine and Syria are concerned. One can-
not travel thrrnigh these countries with-
out constantly being struck with the inter-
mixture of the very old and the new side
by side.

THE FAST OF RAM.\D.\X

After two full days at Tripoli, w-e
were ready to start for our first goal, the
Cedars of Lebanon. We woke while it
was still dark, thinking Mohammed Ali.
our muleteer^ had come with the horses,

but instead found it to be a man with a
drum, which is beaten with a strap to
awaken the sleeping fast-keepers to their
early morning meal. The pealing of a
cannon at this hour serves for this pur-
pose, but it is supplemented by a number
of poor men, each one of whom volun-
tarily canvasses a given district with a
view to receiving, on the feast at the end
of Ramadan, presents of food and cash.

The night was still, and the voice and
drumming recalled memories of child-
hood when living in the Mohammedan
quarter of old Jerusalem. The crier
stopped before each door, repeating short
sentences, alternating them by a few flaps
on his drum. His verse ran something
like this: "det up to your morning meal"
(flap-flap-flap). "The Prophet has come
to visit you" (flap-flap-flap). "Don't be
lazy" (flap-flap-flap).

Alohammed Ali came in due time, and
by the light of a .small oil lanij) in a
smoked street lantern he loaded our
heavy parcels on a mule, while the cam-
eras were put on his mount in order to
be more accessible en route. His small
nephew, a boy of about 12, was taken
along to drive the mule, which, however,
he rode when the paths were not too
steep. Alohammed Ali's horses could not
be said to be fine mounts, but they were
good enough, while he himself made up
all deficiencies by his good qualities as a
muleteer. L'nlike most muleteers, he ad-
mitted his ignorance of the roads ; but
since one of us had been over this route
once before, we were not anxious.

In ascending the Lebanon range
through the valley before us to Bsherreh,
where we were to spend the night, we
followed the right-hand side of the Wadi
Kadisha (Sacred \'alley) along a car-
riage road, availi*^g ourselves of short
cuts now and then. The scenery was
most striking. The entire hillsides were
carefully terraced and planted with vines,
from which hung large clusters of ripe
fruit, unprotected except by a low stone
wall.

"ami:ricax villac.ks" ix thk i.kiiaxox

W'c had just lost ourselves in the
bcautv of our surroundings when, look-
ing up, we saw a native apjiroaching us.

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

He was clad in a shirt and trousers of
foreign make, supported by a broad pat-
ent-leather belt. However, he wore na-
tive slippers and head-gear and he swung
a heavy club in his hand. He looked at
us and the grapes inquiringly, but was
soon reassured, and addressing us in
Arabic, asked what we were doing here
and where we were from.

We were also inquisitive to learn
something of his history, and took him
to be one of the many natives who had
been seeking their fortune abroad. So
in reply to his query we said, "From
the United States."

This hit the nail on the head ; his face
beamed as he began in broken English,
"You all from United States? I Amer-
ican. I real citizen. I just come back
for small time. I watch all those vine-
yards. All those grapes mine. You go
up to spring, rest little ; me bring plenty
grapes, countrymen. You from Amer-
ica. Dat's my country. This country
no good. America good country."

As we ascended we were continually
passing beautifully located villages, most
of the houses being of a modern type,
large and with bright red imported tiled
roofs, while a few were of old style, with
low, flat roofs, consisting generally of
two or three rooms built in a row, with
a porch of pointed arches running the
full length and surrounded by gardens
of mulberry trees, with the leaves of
which they feed the silk-worms.

It was evident that here was a portion
of the Lebanon from which the emigra-
tion had not only been large, but also
successful. It showed also how the
money gathered in America was brought
back here to' be enjoyed. The glowing
accounts of business success brought
back from America enkindle in the
young people of this region the ambition
to repeat the experiences of their elders.

To those who have seen the miserable
surroundings of these Syrians in their
colonies in, say, Chicago, where they
are huddled together in crowded rooms
in dilapidated houses, gathering their
money by peddling for large profits and
spending very little, their glowing stories
of their success and importance when
there does not greatly appeal.

However, the natives look up to them
as merchant princes, and their small for-
tunes avail here for much display. These
"American villages" in the Lebanon, as
they are sometimes called, are almost be-
witching when viewed from a distance,
but a nearer inspection brings disillusion.
While the houses are comparatively
clean, the streets are dirty and disor-
derly.

some; "American" GE;NTiv]iME;N

From Ain Sindiani the mountain slopes
grew very steep and the carriage road
winds up in short turns, so that short
cuts are resorted to by pedestrians and
animals. In crossing one of these we
came upon a number of donkeys heavily
laden with grapes. Their drivers were
dressed in the ordinary costume of the
Lebanon working class, and on their
shoulders each carried a hard-wood pole
about 8 feet long and i^^^ inches thick,
and which served the double purpose of
urging on their patient beasts and of
defense.

We saluted them in Arabic and found
they were going over the pass above us
to sell their grapes at Aineita. These in
turn found out we were Americans, and
one began, "I been all over America. I
been to Michigan, Buffalo, and Detroit.
That mighty good country. Where you
from?" In reply, pointing to Mr. Bald-
win, we said, "That gentleman comes
from Philadelphia." "Oh !" he broke in,
"you see those gentlemen," pointing to
his fellow donkey drivers, clad in a sort
of bloomer-like trousers reaching to
about the knees, made of heavy blue cot-
ton cloth, with tight-fitting vests, with
long sleeves of the same material, over
which they wore native coats of bright
colors, "they come from Philadelphia.
This country no good. Here walk every-
where. In America ride train, go every-
where. Donkey no good. I go back to
America bye and bye. I got some prop-
erties here, for that I come back."

We outstepped the heavily laden asses
and were soon out of speaking distance.
We had now attained a considerable
height when we noticed a number of
fossils, one mass being as large as a
half-bushel basket and composed of fos-

A I'AT-TAii.KL) siii:i;i>

These large-tailed sheep are seen thrnushout the Lchanon. Tlic people fatten thein
excessively by forcing mulberry leaves and other food down their throats, so that their tails
become of an enormous size. To such a size do they jjrow that they often become an im-
pediment to the animal's movement. In these cases the natives build little wheeled trucks
to which the tail is fastened, the sheep beini^ thereby relieved of the weight, and freedom
of movement is secured. Note the charm hung around its neck to ward off the evil eye.

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BURJ ES SE;bA at TRIPOLI, A RELIC OF ANTIQUITY DOOMLD TO DESTRUCTION, TO MAKEj
WAY FOR THE "iRON ROAd" (sEE TEXT, PAGE 75)

This fort was probably built about the year looo A. D. by the garrison which owed
allegiance to the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who treated the city with great favor and made
it the headquarters of a trading fleet. Local tradition ifpakes the builder Richard Cceur de
Lion, but the Arabian style of architecture proves that'it was not built by any of the Cru-
saders. Its Arabic name^ Tower of the Lion, probably accounts for the tradition regarding
Richard the Lion-hearted.

FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO

silized shellfish of many forms, proving
that these regions were at one time be-
low the sea-level.

We soon obtained our first view of the
cedars beyond and above us, and passed
through Hadeth and Masrun and arrived
at Bsherreh before sunset.

TIIK PROVINCE OF LEB.VNON

It will be recalled that the massacres
of Christians in i860 led t" European
intervention, since when the Lebanon has
been an independent Sanjak or province,
governed by a ^lushir. who must be a
Christian and is appointed for five years,
with the consent of the Great Powers.
There is no compulsory Turkish military
service, and there is a small local force
of paid soldiers who do police duty.
Taxation is light. Under this adminis-
tration excellent roads have been built
tln-oughout the province, by which nearly
all villages are reached and benefited.

During the day the valleys were ob-
scured by a haze caused by the heat of
the day evaporating the moisture below,
but in the cool of the evening, by twi-
light, climbing the mountains quite a dis-
tance above Bsherreh, a never-to-be-for-
gotten view was obtained. Here nature
seemed to have carved out a huge amphi-
theater, terrace above terrace, the upper
one being that whereon the majestic
cedars stand, though not then visible
from our point of view. Below, in the
bottom of the valley, was a deep ravine,
rock-bound by high precipitous cliflfs of
gray limestone, which contrasted strik-
ingly with the green terraces of mulberry
and vine that extended upward, one
above the other, c nd which broadened in
so doing. On our left the River Kadisha,
which rises not far from the cedars, falls
in foaming cascades down into the center
of the amphitheater and loses itself in a
silver line in the bottom of the gorge.

Bsherreh is on the edge of a great clifif
almost at the head of the valley, but a
little to the left, as one looks down to-
ward the sea. Its water-supply is an ice-
cold stream flowing down from the re-
gion of almost perpetual snow.

THE CED.\RS OE LEB.XXGN

We left Bsherreh at dawn and made
our way up the steep and winding road

towards the cedars. In some places it
was difficult to pass the loatled animals
coming or going. Having made all pos-
sible haste, we reached the cedars just as
the sun was sifting its first rays through
the thick foliage — a sight calculated to
make any heart beat faster. The grove
numbers about 400 trees. With the ex-
ception of a few stragglers, the grove is
inclosed by a neat stone wall to protect
the smaller trees from goats. In the cen-
ter is a small Maronite chapel (see page
82 ) .

To dwellers in Syria, where forests of
tall trees do not exist, these majestic
cedars must be overawing. A modern
S\rian writer says of them, that they are
"undeniably the most lofty of all the
vegetable kingdom." The fact is that
they are about 80 feet high, which is
more than the height of the trees of an
average American forest. They are justly
renowned for the size of their trunks,
the girth of the largest reaching 47 feet.

A striking peculiarity of these trees is
the growth of their branches, which ex-
tend straight out at right angles to the
trunk and are furnished with exceedingly
thick foliage, brown as seen from be-
neatli. but when viewed from the hill-
sides their upper surface resembles a
rich, dark-green lawn studded with cones
standing erect. These latter are the size
of large goose eggs.

LEBAXOX NOW DENUDED

In some other parts of the Lebanon
there are cedar groves, but the trees are
much smaller. Here we have a sugges-
tion of what the Lebanon was in ancient
times, when the now bare peaks and
mountain sides must have been coxered
with these trees.

It was here that King Solomon's sev-
entv thousand hewers wrought, with their
three thousand six hundred overseers,
besides those supplied by Hiram, King of
Tyre, to get the cedar wood required for
the temple at Jerusalem, and which was
taken in rafts to Jaflfa and thence car-
ried up to Jerusalem. The.se trees were
also used in the construction of David's
house, and later in the building of tiie
second temple. A white resin which they

FROM JERUSALEAI TO ALEPPO

•exude served in the ancient process of
•embalming.

These trees {Ccdnis libaiii), called by
the natives "Arz," are a local variety of
<i widely distributed species. The wood
is cream color and works up easily, much
resembling soft pine. This grove stands
on a small hill situated at 6,315 feet
above sea-level, and above it rises ab-
ruptly the lofty Jebal el Arz, whose suni-
uiit is seldom without snow.

The Christian natives attach a sanc-
tity to these trees, and here is held an
annual feast, to which pilgrims flock
from all directions. It also serves as a
delightful summer camping place. At
the time of our visit a number of fam-
ilies were encamped among the trees, in-
■cluding some of the professors from the
American College at Beirut, who, with
their families, were here for their sum-
mer vacation.

WIIEX DID SOLOMON LIVE?

While sauntering through the grove
Ave encountered the ]\laronite priest in
charge of the chapel. He asked how we
liked the cedars, and in reply we ex-
pressed our admiration, but said it was a
pity there were so few left. He replied,
"So they have been for 4,000 years, and
history tells us that they have been just
-iis you see them since the flood." "lUit,"
we remonstrated. "Solomon got all his
timber for the building of his temple
from these mountains, so there must
have been many more." "It is true,"
he said, "that Solomon got his timl)er
here, but that was long before what I
have just mentioned." A peasant stand-
ing by, regarding with awe the wisdom
■of the priest, added, "You see. khawaja
(gentleman), these trees," pointing to
some of the smallest of the cedars, "have
"been growing since the days of Christ."

As we turned away we mused ujion
this new leaf of history, that Solomon
lived before the flood, and that it takes
2,000 years for a cedar to attain a di-
ameter of about 18 inches.

Shortly after noon we reluctantly left
the cedars, as between us and liaalbek
there lay 10 hours on horseback, and we
wished to deviate a little from the direct
road, so we pushed on so as to shorten
the next day's work.

Soon we came to the very steep ascent
of Jebal el Arz (Cedar Mountain),
which brings one to the top of the pass
7,700 feet above sea-level, while to the
north towers a higher peak, Dahr el Ko-
dib, 10,050 feet.

Both sides of this pass were covered
with a thick layer of finely crushed
stone, as if a gigantic stone-crushing ma-
chine had been at work for ages. The
upper part of the ascent had to be done
on foot, as well as all of the descent, for
the horses' feet buried themselves in this
loose mass, which kept slipping from
under them at every step. This road has
been described as akin to those encoun-
tered in Alpine climbing.

ox THE ROAD TO BAALP-EK

The view from the top was superb.
Far below, to the east, lay Baalbek and
the great plain on which it stands, like a
raised map, terminated by the Anti-
Lebanon and the snow-capped peak of
Hermon. To the east, far down through
the beautiful valley we had traversed,
Tripoli and its bay were plainly seen,
and all bathed in shades of transparent
blue.

Descending to Aineita, we spent the
night in the priest's house. It is a small,
poor village, lying just on the upper
edge of the timl)er-linc. The houses, all
but the little church and a couple of
others, are built of small stones without
mortar, with low ceilings and with roofs
of rough timber covered over with clay
to shed the rain.

The house of the priest, which might
be taken as a typical one, consisted of
three rooms, two on one side and one on
the other, connected by a roofed court.
Native mattresses were spread for us on
the floor and native quilts of exceptional
thickness and weight served as covers.
Everything was remarkably clean, and
the night we had been dreading was
passed comfortably.

THE LAKE OF VEXrS

By dawn we were en route for the vil-
lage of Yammouneh and the mountain
lake of the same name. The latter in
winter is large, but by the end of sum-
mer has dried up, even though it is fed

A TYPICAI. CEDAR OF LTiBANON, AS USl^D BY SOI.OMON IN BUILDING THE TEMPLE

"And Solomon sent to Hiram, saying, . . . Now therefore command thou that they
hew me cedar trees out of Lebanon; ... for thou knowest that there is not among us
any that can sl<ill to hew timber hke unto the Sidonians. . . . And Hiram sent to Solomon,
saying, ... I will do all thy desire concerning timber of cedar, ... My servants
shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea : and I will convey them by sea in floats
unto the place that thou shall appoint me, . . . So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees and
fir trees according to all his desire" (i Kings 5 : 2-10).

IN' TIIK IIHART OF TlIK, CKDAK CROVK. SlloWl XC, T 1 1 K COXTKAST MKT \V KKX TIIK OI.I)

AXU VOL'XGIiK TKEliS

The big tree in the center, wliile not the largest, is one of the oldest. These trees were
rnuch admired l)y the Crusaders, who attempted to introduce them into Europe. Some of
these efforts were successful, and at Warwick Castle, in Kngland. there arc still some famous
old cedars planted by one of the crusading earls of Warwick nearly 800 years ago.

the; six pillars that re;main of the; grkat temple;

"These lofty pillars do not taper as they appear to do when seen from below." Behind the
pillars is seen the Temple of Bacchus. The Great Temple was dedicated to Jupiter, identi-
fied with Baal and the Sun, and with him were associated both Venus and Mercury, under
whose triple protection the ancient city of Heliopolis was placed. The extreme license which
marked the worship in this temple is often referred to by early Christian writers (see text,
page 99).

ONE OF TIIK DOORWAYS LKADIXG FROM THE GREAT COURT INTO A S.MALI. ROOM
WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN FOR THE USE OF THE PRIESTS: BAALBEK

The ruins at Raalhek were first visited in modern times in 1507. bv a German, Martin
von Laumj,^arten, and a.q:ain, in 1555, by a Frenchman, Pierre ['.efon, who wrote two books
upon the suliject. Much damage was caused l)v an earthquake in 17^9, the disorder then
occasioned remammg tUl 1901, when the German Archcol.igical Institute intrusted the work
ot cleanng and excavating to an expedition Iieadcd bv Professor Puchstein, under whom
admirable work has been done.

w ^ ^''

FROM lERL'SALEM TO ALEPPO

constantly by numerous springs around
its shores. There is no visible outlet.

The natives account for this in various
ways. Some of them say that the water
finds its way by a subterranean passage
to the other side of the mountain range,
where it Hows out, forming the spring
called Afka. They base this theory on
the fact that the fountain increases its
flow and also diminishes and ceases its
flow simultaneously with the lake.

On the shore of the lake is a ruin, con-
sisting of large blocks of drafted stones,
which is said to be the remains of a tem-
ple of \ enus. Local mythology claims
this as the lake in which \'enus, when
pursued by Typhon. changed herself into
a fish.*

Shortly after leaving Aineita until we
struck the Plain el Bika (the ancient
name being Coelesyria ) . the broad valley
between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon,
these mountain slopes were covered with
forests of wild oak, juniper, almonds,
and pears. The latter were fr.U of fruit,
and a proportionate number of small
stones lodged among the twigs, thrown
up by youngsters in their attempts to
bring down the fruit.

The forests are now denuded of about
all their tall, straight trees, and those
now left are short and gnarled. Seen
from a distance, this low range looks
black in comparison with the higher
ridge, which is bare of trees and there-
fore called in Arabic Ras el Akrah (the
Bald Head).

THE WOXOERFUL RUIXS OF B.\ALP.EK

From these forests to Baalbek on the
other or eastern side of the plain there
was little of interest, except large herds
of camels and their young, until we came
to the column of Yaat, which is an iso-
lated shaft 65 feet in height, composed
of 16 drums of limestone crowned with
a Corinthian capital. Traces of an in-
scription can be seen near the base,
which, however, does not disclose its
secret, and one can only guess why and
by whom it was built.

A half hour's ride to the southwest
brings us to the world-renowned ruins

History of Baalbek. Michael M. Alouf.

of Baalbek, an adequate description of
which would fill a volume.

These ruins, properly speaking, are
known as El Kalla (Citadel) and are
comi)osed of only two temples, and they
do not cover a large area when compared
with other ruins in Syria. They are,
however, unique in their massiveness
and in the great amount of both bold and
delicate carving with which they are
adorned, of which there is so much and
in such variety as to make one's first
visit quite bewildering.

Since these temples were built on a
flat plain, it was important to raise them
above the surrounding level to render
them more imposing, and to that end
there are vast substructures of vaults and
passages supporting these shrines.

THE GREAT TEMPLE

The Great Temple, or the Temple of
Jupiter, as it is called, had its main en-
trance from the east. Here a wide flight
of steps led up to the propyh-ea. 19 feet
above the gardens and orchards that now
surround the ruins. This portico was
open to the east the full width of the
stairs, and the worshipers used to enter
between rows of columns, on the bases
of three of which are inscriptions stating
that the temple was erected to the "great
gods" of Heliopolis by Antoninus and
Caracalla. At an early period the Arabs
converted these temples into a fortress,
and to a certain extent remodeled them.
The columns mentioned were removed,
the staircase taken up. and the material
used to construct a solid wall where the
column.:, had been.

Xext came the hexagonal forecourt,
entrance into which was made by means
of a central doorway, with a smaller one
on each side. This small court was sur-
rounded by a colonnade, and on four of
the six sides by exedrre. The .\rabs have
also blocked this three-fold entrance and
converted the exedras into fortifications,
filling them with brick masonry.

WORK oi- THE c.i:kma.\ .\rch eoeocists

Since the visit of Emperor William to
these ruins, in 1898. a body of German
excavators were sent to Baalbek, who
worked here from 190T to 1904. and

RUINS OF OXK OP THK ^[{)SOUl•;S AT I'.AAI.UKK. P.UII.T OT AXCIKXT MATKKIAI.S 1-KO.M

THK Tlv.MI'I.KS

Although the population of Baalbek now numbers only aliout s.ooo. it was in tlic middle
ages a flourishing and well fortified Moslem city, which was visited and described by tlie
Arab geographer Abulfeda. Prince of Hama (see page 109). The mosque shown above
probably dates from the reign of Sultan Kalaun (1282). So well fortified was i'.aalbck that,
while the Crusaders raided the valley several times, they never succeeded in taking the city.

c a

1"°

LOOKIXG OUT THROUGH THE GREAT DOORWAY, TEMPLE OE DACCIiUS

The native in the doorway supplies an approximate scale of measurement. Note how,
through the cleavage of the inside face of the door post, to the right, the winding stairs
leading to the top of the building are exposed.

the: great I'ORTAI, INTO TllK TKMl'LK OV I'.ACCIIUS (SKK TKXT, I'AGK lOl)

The view of this exquisite portal was long obstructed by an Arab screen in the vestibule.
This was removed by the famous orientalist. Sir Richard Burton, when he was British consul
at Damascus, in 1870. He also propped up the cracked door-lintel, which has since been
more firmly secured by the German archeologists.

\ 'l \

EXAMPLES OF PLAIN AND FLUTLD COLUMNS, TEMPLE OE BACCHUS

Note the great doorway seen between the columns. The structure , at the top of the
picture is the remains of the Arab fortification, which is also shown from the other side in
the picture on page go (see text, page loi).

IXTI'KIOK OF TIIK Ti:.MI'LK Ol" KACCllUS

On the wall to the left is a tablet in late Arabic art, put up by the Turks to commemorate
the German Emperor's visit in 189S. The modern and ancient styles of art may rudely clash;
but as the visit resulted in the expedition under Professor Puchstein, it well deserves com-
memoration (see text, page 89).

O ,G

FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO

every visitor owes them a debt of grati-
tude. They not only dug down and re-
moved the debris, but strengthened weak
parts, and, where necessary, they have
removed the Arabic work so as to make
the original plan more easily compre-
hensible to the visitor. However, it was
not entirely a disinterested work, for the
llerlin museums now possess many of
the finest examples of the carvings found
here.

The workmen built a narrow staircase
where the broad old one used to be, have
torn away the wall constructed over the
bases of the columns, and have opened
an entrance through a great block of
stone which was placed across the cen-
tral doorway into the forecourt, so that
today we enter again as did the Roman
worshipers of old.

Proceeding inward we pass through a
triple entrance into the Great Court, or
Court of the Altar. It is about 440 feet
long by 370 feet wide. The central
portal, as well as one of the smaller side
ones, has fallen in, and the pieces which
formed the arches have been collected
and laid together on the ground below
the place where they had originally been.

Around this court, on three sides, omit-
ting the west end, where a staircase led
up to the level of the Great Temple, are
square and semicircular exedr^e. each of
which contain many handsome niches for
statues, of which, unfortunately, not a
single example remains. These were de-
signed as resting places for the devotees
who came here to worship. In front of
these exedraj ran a colonnade of polished
Egyptian granite surmounted by an en-
tablature bearing carvings of rare beauty.
The columns have all fallen and now
Avith fragments of their entablature and
capitals lie about the court.

HOW TlilC CHUISTI.VXS USKD THE TEMPIJvS

In the center of the court, rather
nearer to the steps ascending to the
temple, stands what is left of the large
altar. On each side of it is a pool or
basin used for ablution in connection
with the religious rites here observed.

When these temples were taken pos-
session of by the Christians, a church
was erected over this altar, part of which

was destroyed, and then the space leveled
up with the earth so that the church floor
was above the top of the altar; so, also,
the lower part of the staircase was filled
o\ er, while the upper part was removed
to accommodate the apses.

The construction of this basilica is at-
tributed to Theodosius, Roman hjuperor
of the East, who reigned towards the
end of the 4th century of our era. The
Great Temple was demolished to furnish
materials for the construction of this
church.

The idea was to obliterate heathenism
by placing this Christian shrine right in
the center of this renowned temple of
the heathen gods. As it seemed to work
in best, the apses were placed as above
described on the west, with the entrance
from the east. Later this was considered
unorthodox, and an apse or apses were
built at the west end, so that now traces
of them appear at both extremities of the
ruins.

The Great Temple itself has been al-
most entirely destroyed. All that is left
are six columns of the peristyle, still
standing in situ, capped with Corinthian
capitals and joined by ornate and mas-
sive entablature. These lofty pillars do
not taper as they appear to do when seen
from below (see page 86). They are
over 60 feet high and 73^ feet in diameter
and are each comi)osed of three drums.
The deep entablature is also in three
layers, the uppermost, or cornice, having
a gutter cut in its upper edge to receive
the rain water from the roof, and at in-
tervals mammoth lion heads with o])cn
jaws serve as spouts. In all. this entab-
lature measures 17 feet in height (see
page 88).

TIIK TKMPLE OF B.ACCIIUS

One can perhaps best mentally recon-
struct the Great Temple by an inspection
of the smaller one, dedicated to P>acchus,
which lies to the southeast of the Great
Temj)le, entirely independent of it and
on a lower level (see pages 92 and 93).
It had no court, but was entered by a
flight of steps from the east.

The walls of the cella, which is ob-
long, are quite plain on the outside and
are built of carefully dressed stone, the

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FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO

101

joints so perfect that a knife-blade can-
not enter between. x\round this at a dis-
tance of lo feet runs on the two sides
and ends a row of smooth columns which
forms the peristyle.

These, including their capitals, are
about 52 feet high and are surmounted
by a magnificent entablature. This en-
tablature is connected with the walls of
the cella by enormous slabs of stone,
which are elaborately carved with the
heads of emperors, deities, and inter-
woven with floral designs, forming an
exquisite ceiling.

While the walls of the cella are still
perfect, more than half of the columns
forming the peristyle have fallen, the
north side being the best preserved. Not-
withstanding the profuse ornamentation
of the peristyle, it is exceeded by that of
the portal to the temple, which is indeed
the gem of the entire edifice (see page

The door posts are elegantly carved
with figures of Bacchus, fauns, cupids,
satyrs, and bacchantes, woven around
which are grape-vines and clusters of
fruit, also poppies and ears of wheat, all
of which are symbolical of the attributes
of the revelling god to whom the temple
is dedicated.

This great doorway stands 43 feet
high and 213^2 feet wide, while the carv-
ing of the posts just mentioned covers a
space about 6 feet wide. On both sides
of this door stand graceful fluted col-
umns, forming the prostyle or portico,
while the plain ones of the peristyle,
which stand behind them, seem to re-
flect their beauty.

The decorations of the walls of the
interior of this temple resemble the carv-
ings of the exedn-e of the Great Court,
having two rows of niches for statues
one above the other and divided perpen-
dicularly from each other by engaged
fluted columns.

As already mentioned, these temples
stood on a raised platform resting on
substructures. The Great Temple lies
44^ feet above the level of the plain
and is the highest part of the entire in-
closure, while the Great Court was only
23 feet lower.

THE EXORMOUS MONOLITHS OF BA.\L1!KK

An inclosing wall, the mammoth stones
of which have been the marvel of engi-
neers for ages, deserves mention. The
lowest courses are built of stones of mod-
erate dimensions, but which grow rap-
idly in size until we come to a row of
three enormous stones, the shortest being
63 feet and the longest 65 in length, and
each being about 13 feet high and 10
feet thick. The course of which they
form part is some 20 feet above the sur-
face of the ground.

They are the largest building blocks
ever known to have been used by man ;
and a still larger one lies in the ancient
near-by quarry, never having been de-
tached from the rock beneath. This one
is 70 feet long by 14 by 13 feet.

In addition to the Acropolis, as the
ruins described are called, there are at
Baalbek several other objects of minor
interest, such as the Temple of \'enus.

At the hotel in Baalbek we met a.n in-
teresting Turk. He was traveling, being
sent out by a newly established de])art-
ment of agriculture at Damascus, with a
carload of American and European farm
machinery for sale or exhibition to the
peasants. He had a very clear concep-
tion of the reforms needed to aid the
agriculturist in Turkey, and his eyes
snapped with delight as we drew from
our scanty knowledge of what the De-
partment of Agriculture at AX'ashington
had done for our American farmers.

A short train ride northward from
Baalbek, first through a flat valley which
broadened into a plain, brought us to
Homs, a town of some 60,000 inhabit-
ants, located on the banks of the River
Orontes. which here flows far below the
level of the plain, so that the town lies
cradled, invisible to one approaching it,
until almost upon it.

A large mound rises to some height
above the level of the valley, on which at
one time stood the citadel of the town.
The houses are built of unbaked bricks
and have flat roofs, with some better
edifices constructed of black basalt deco-
rated with white limestone. There are
numerous minarets, but very unlike the

102

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

ordinary type. They are square and do
not taper upward, and instead of a bal-
cony arrangement for the muezzin, or
caller to prayer, a window is provided
on each side, the top terminating in a
sort of dome.

THE UBIQUITOUS ADVIi;RTISEME;NT

Homs, the ancient Emesa, which has
a varied and interesting history, today
gains its living as a market for the large
Bedouin tribes of the adjacent country.
The bazaars remind one quite a good
deal of Damascus, as one wanders
through them, seeing here a man work-
ing a primitive hand loom, on which he
turns out bright fabrics for which Homs
is noted, and there a small spice shop,
and again a dyer, with hands stained
dark with indigo, hanging up his wet
cloths in the street.

When we had lost ourselves in these
strange surroundings, which seemed to
place civilization at a remote distance,
our eyes were struck by a placard, on
which appeared in bold English "Use
Fel's Naptha Soap."

On the outskirts we came across nu-
merous potters' shops, where large water
jars, some 20 inches high, were being
turned out by ancient methods. The
plain ones retailed at 2^ cents each,
while those striped with bands of red
and otherwise decorated sold at double
this price. Further on were extensive
threshing floors, where the grain was
being threshed out with appliances that
have probably been in use for thousands
of years.

Here we also found limekilns, the fuel
being a common pricker that grows in
the wheat fields and which has to be col-
lected and transported from a distance
requiring two to three hours' travel (see
page 103).

We were often told that we would
find the people of Homs and Hama very
fanatical and anti-European, but our ex-
perience did not bear this out. We found
them very polite and not averse to being
photographed.

Moreover, we never heard the familiar
word "bakshish," the only person who
asked for a tip being a tired native wo-
man, who had been carrying bunches of

thorns all day to the limekiln, when she
was asked to hold her bundle up while a
picture was being taken. When the
money was handed her she seemed to be
ashamed of herself and only took it after
much persuasion. The secret lies in the
fact that they have not been spoiled by
Europeans.

If you want to see the Arabs at their
best, take them where they have not been
tainted by outside influence, for, like
most primitive peoples, they more readily
take on the vices than the virtues of civ-
ilization.

A TEST OF KEEPING RAMADAN

On our return to the town we were
stopped by a native, who seemed to be a
friend of our carriage driver and who
asked him if he was keeping the fast.
The driver replied that he was. "Then,"
answered the friend, "by Mohammed,
the prophet of Allah, show me your
tongue." The driver produced that mem-
ber and the questioner used both hands
to draw the jaws open wider in order to
complete his examination, after which
he turned away, shaking his head with a
kind of unexpected satisfaction, mutter-
ing to himself, "By Allah, he is really
fasting." We said nothing, for not long
before we had seen him, while waiting
for us, go into an obscure corner to sat-
isfy his hunger with some bread he had
with him.

Curious windmills are to be seen here
on the tops of some of the houses.
Round disk-like pans of sheet-iron are
fastened to wooden arms and are so dis-
posed that the wind striking them causes
them to revolve.

A curious custom also obtains of en-
snaring domestic pigeons. Our atten-
tion was called to it by seeing a man on
his housetop swinging round over his
head what resembled a huge tennis
racket, only instead of the tight strings a
loose bag was attached to the frame.
Over him hovered a large flock of pig-
eons. We were told that his own pigeons
decoyed others which followed and were
caught. After being taken, if they proved
to be the property of a friend they were
returned, but if of an enemy they were
kept. They did not regard it as stealing,

A XATI\K I.I.MICKII.X

Large tracts of Syria are completely destitute of trees, and consequently anything in
the nature of fuel is exceedingly scarce. Often the only tree to be found is a small, scrul)l)y
thorn bush, whicii nevertheless has its value. The woman sliown in the picture had collected
fuel for this limekiln at a distance requiring between two and three liours' travel.

103

104

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\VATKK-\vni;i:i. at iiA>rA calm-d "xal-rat ki. kki.kxkv"

These water-wheels, which in wnrkint? make the most curious and discordant noise, not
unlike a brass band m which every instrument is out of tunc, not onlv serve to supjilv the
town of Hama with water, but they also irrigate the adjacent gardens (see text, page 109)

105

io6

107

NATIVES OF HAMA WASHING WHE;aT IN THU ORONTi;S

and ground in mills, making "borghal," which is the chief food of this
en ^hown in this picture are all peasants and do not veil their faces

lo8

FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO

109

but viewed it from the same standpoint
as the Bedouins, who raid their neighbors
for what they can get from them, as long
as they are not friends.

HOW THE ORONTES GETS ITS ARABIC NAME

The country over which we passed
after leaving Homs was at times quite
level and free from rocks, planted in
watermelons and yellow corn ; then again
it would become quite rocky and co^•ered
with boulders of tufa ; and still again,
as we neared Hama, level and rich with
extensive vineyards. The fallow ground
was as if sown by nature's hand with
countless wild holly-hocks in bloom. At
times the road ran quite near the edge
of the Orontes. whose turbid waters
flowed along many feet below the level
of the surrounding plain.

It is called in Arabic '*E1 Asi," which
means stubborn or unwieldy. We asked
a native why this name was given to the
river, and he gave the following explana-
tion : "A Jew once filled a bottle with
water from the 'Sea of the Nile' (the
Arabic name for the Nile River) and
came to this country to perform magic
with it. Our Lord Ali^' met him and
asked what he had. The Jew denied that
he had anything, but when hard pressed,
he threw the bottle against a rock and a
river issued forth. Our Lord Ali bade
it stop, but it would not, and so he named
it El -Vsi." A fellow-passenger ques-
tioned if this were an actual fact, to
which our informant replied that a look
at the color of the water proved it, for
it was exactly like that of the Nile.

Finding our friend communicative, we
asked him what use this corn was put to
which here grew so plentifully, but was
not known in Palestine. Opening his
capacious jaws and gesturing with his
fingers, he answered, "To eat ; and when
the loaves are hot they are mighty good,
but when cold it would take one of
Ibrahim Pasha's cannon to force it down
one 3 throat."

THE HOME OF THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS

Shemsi Bey, to whom we had a letter
-of introduction, met us at the station at

*Ali, the caliph and successor of Mohammed.

Hama and took us to his home, where
we were guests during our stay. After
a sumptuous repast, we began our in-
spection of the town. It much resembles
Homs, and like it is located on the
Orontes, has a mound crowned by a
citadel, and cannot be seen until one is
right upon it.

Like every part of this region, Hama
has a checkered history. It is first men-
tioned by the prophet Amos as "Hamath
the great" (Amos 6:2). .V small mosque
called Jami el Haiya (Mosque of the
Snakes), so named from its two inter-
twined columns, contains the tomb of
Abulfeda, Prince of Hama, whose geo-
graphical work is still renowned. Under
his rule Hama prospered until his death,
in A. D. 1331.

The famous Arabian geographer, Ya-
kut, is said to be a native of Hama, and
while we were there we heard of a manu-
script written by him which is in the pos-
session of one of the rich families of the
town.

If one would know the full beauty
and picturesqueness of Hama, let him
climb to the top of the citadel hill, and
around will be spread out a scene which
cannot be outdone in Syria. An Arabic
proverb says that three things make the
heart of man glad — water, vegetation,
and beautiful faces. Here we have the
first two, and other features in combina-
tion, whose value is enhanced by con-
trast with the arid lifelessness of the
country which surrounds it, for at the
time we were there the wheat fields were
all harvested and bare.

THE WATER-WHEEI.S OF HAMA

The Orontes flows through the town
and drives the large water-wheels, here
called nanra. They serve not only to
supply the town with water, but also
irrigate the adjacent gardens. We had
long before heard of these singular
wheels, and in fact had seen similar
ones at Antioch. As we began the ascent
of the citadel hill, creaking, groaning,
and other weird sounds reached our ears.
It at first suggested a pipe-organ, then a
brass band practicing, and it was not
until, after a little time, the top of one of
them came into view that we realized

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FROM JERUSALKM TO ALEPPO

111

that these sounds came from tlic water-
wheels.

A large crowd of men and boys fol-
lowed us around during our inspection
of the water-wheels and the town, but
were very courteous and went out of
their w^ay to show us little kindnesses.
Small boys bathing in the river would,
for fun, get in between the spokes of the
wheels and allow themselves to be carried
around many times, or they would hang
on the outside of the wheel and drop
back into the water when half way up,
which made the faces of the old men
who were looking on beam, undoubtedly
reminding them of like achievements in
their boyhood days. Our cameras were
a source of much curioc'ty, and a peep at
the ground glass was considered a treat.

AN EVfXESS EDIiN

A couple of long streets arched over
with masonry were the chief bazaars
and were in their aspect Oriental in the
e.xtreme. Here Bedouin men armed with
sword and pistols jostled townsmen in a
variety of native dress. Not a Euro-
pean suit was to be seen except our own.

A few swarthy daughters of the desert,
with their tatooed faces and flowing gar-
ments of indigo, were the only females
we saw. In fact during our entire stay
at llama we did not see a towns-woman.
Christian or Aloslem, veiled or unveiled,
upon the streets. We understood that
the Moslem men are very particular about
their harems, and the Christians likewise
as to their ladies.

The men are very fond of outdoor life,
and spend their summer evenings on the
banks of the river sipping coffee and lis-
tening to the curious music of the naiiras.

At Hama one can witness a most crude
method of printing cotton goods. The
operator sits cross-legged on the ground
before a low table, on wdiich is laid the
hand-woven cloth. He dips short blocks
of wood, W'ith patterns carved upon
them, into a dye mixed with gum arabic
and presses them upon the goods. It re-
quired six to eight impressions to cover
the width of the cloth and a great num-
ber of them to complete the length of a
small bolt, and this tedious operation had
to be repeated with every color used.

The finished article resembles a \cry
coarse Persian shawl and is sold to the
peasants to cover mattresses with.

A VISIT TO THE MARKET GAKDEXS

As we were going out from our
friend's house to visit the souks, or mar-
kets, our aged hostess, a Christian wo-
man, followed us out into a garden,
through which our path lay, and accosted
two wrinkled, gray-haired men, one of
whom was handling the plow and the
other dropping seeds into the furrow.
"Alay Allah give you strength !" sounded
the voice of the old lady. "And may
Allah strengthen you," replied the two
men. "May your crop be blessed," re-
turned our hostess. "By your pres-
ence," both murmured. After exchang-
ing more elaborate salutations, which are
common among the Arabs, she learned
that they were planting corn for roasting
ears, but on only half the tract. "We are
keeping half to plant with bits of soot."
said one. with a roguish twinkle in his
eye. "Soot! What do you mean?" "To
raise negroes" (slaves), came the reply.

We had now advanced too far to
hear the end of the conversation, but on
our return we found the old men resting
under the trees, sitting on their heels.
Their long-legged cows were unyoked
and chewing their cud, while the wife of
one of the men was cutting up water-
melon to feed to a couple of half-starved
sheep. We asked how their negro crop
was coming on, and did not have to wait
for the answer. "Khawaga (gentlemen),
we are poor and own nothing. The land
all belongs to the Eft'endis. and they ex-
act the rent from us whether we get a
crop or not. Now it is Ramadan, and
during the fast they use much water in
their homes, so very little of the water
the wheels turn up, which we need for
our vegetables, gets to us. But we dare
not com])lain. Life is getting so hard
here. W^e realize but one mcttalic ( i '4
cents) for a rattle (six pounds) of egg-
plant, and tomatoes are only half that
price. So I thought if I could only plant
some negro slaves they might bring me
better returns."

We parted, all laughing, and we walked
away reflecting that even here, pinched

VIEW OF AI.EPPO, SHOWING THE CITADEL DOMINATING THE TOWN

Note the round minarets with balconies, in contrast with the square minarets of Homs.
A minaret of the type most common in the Moslem world is shown near the great dome to
the left of the picture.

by poverty, the heart was still young that
throbbed in that dried-up old case.

The low price of many commodities
was noticeable. In the market we ob-
served a sweet-meat vendor, on one side
of whose tray was a little pile of the
money his produce had brought in, but
of it all there was no coin representing
more than a fraction of a cent.

THE BEAUTY OE THE EARGER HOUSES

Most of the townspeople are rich, and
it is said that about two-thirds of the
farming land of the surrounding villages
is owned by a few of the influential fam-
ilies. The houses of the wealthy much
resemble those of Damascus, with a

large open court in the center, where a
fountain of water plays.

We visited several, one belonging to
the heirs of Muaiyad Bey being espe-
cially interesting. One guest-chamber
contained a small fountain ; the windows
were of colored glass, and the walls were
covered with woodwork, ornamented
with carving and stucco work in elegant
floral designs, relieved with pictures and
inscriptions with dates, one of which
made the work about 200 years old. The
general color was a commingling of deep
reds, blues, green and brown on a back-
ground of gold and silver, which were
reflected through the semi-transparent
colors. One of the panels held a picture

HONORS TO AMUXDSEX AXD PEARY

lis

of the citadel hill, crowned with a fort,
mo-sques, and houses, surrounded by a
wall, the approach to which across the
moat resembled the one still to be seen at
Aleppo.

Leaving Hama and the Orontes, with
its gardens and water-wheels, which ex-
tended some way up along the course of
the railroad, we found ourselves rolling
over a lifeless plain, except for here and
there a flock of sheep with Bedouin
shepherds. With each flock was a small
donkey as a mount for the shepherd, and
which followed the sheep almost like one
of them, as they ran away in terror of
the train.

THE "beehive" houses

We now came into a region where we
found a peculiar style of village, com-
posed of "beehive houses," so called on
account of their similarity in shape to
the abodes of bees (see page no).

The country is destitute of trees from
which to hew rafters, and in parts there
is no stone at all, and therefore the na-
tives resort to building these curious
structures of sun-dried bricks with high
and steep domes, so as to resist the heavy
rain and snow storms which i)revail here.
Each home consists of several (^f these
huts standing near together and sur-
rounded by a wall of similar materials.
One or more is used to live in, another
is for the animals, and still another serves
as a granary, and so on according to the
possessions of the proprietor.

We pulled up at Aleppo, one of the
greatest cities of the East, a once som-
nolent mart, whose past prosperity and
importance as a center of commerce is
fast returning to it with the advent of
the railway, now in the course of rapid
construction, which is to connect Con-
stantinople with B .gdad.

HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY

THE annual banquet of the Na-
tional Geographic Society, held on
January ii, 191 3, at the New
Willard Hotel. Washington, was marked
by several features of more than usual
interest.

The 700 members and guests had the
satisfaction of hearing the announcement
that the total membership of the Society
had grown to the very gratifying total
of 170,000, the Society thus ranking, in
point of numbers, not only as the first
geographical society in the w^orld, but
also as the largest educational association
■ in existence.

But no statistics, however satisfactory,
could have accounted for so large and
so distinguished a gathering. It was. as
Ambassador Bryce remarked, "an occa-
sion which had never happened before
and could never happen again." a uni([ue
event in geographic history, for those
present saw the discoverer of the South
Pole meet the discoverer of the North
Pole, from whose hands he received the
special gold medal voted by the Society
as the tribute of the American people to
his great achievement.

With Capt. Roald Amundsen as its
guest of honor and Admiral Peary as its
toastmaster. the Society had before it
two men who had literally come from
the uttermost ends of the earth to enjoy
its hospitality.

As would be expected on such an occa-
sion, there were representatives from
almost all the embassies accredited to the
United States and from nearly every
State in the Union.

The one note of regret was sounded
when Ambassador Bryce. an old and tried
friend, made his speech of farewell to
the members of the Society. It was a
speech worthy of his fame — graceful,
witty, learned, and kindly reflecting the
personality of the great English states-
man and scholar who will .soon leave
these shores to pass the evening of his
life in his native land. When he goes
no good wishes will follow him more
cordial and sincere than those of the
National Geographic Society.

The encouragement of agriculture was
represented by the novelty of the menu,
which this year consisted of a fruit new
to America — the Chinese jujube. These

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HOXURS TO AMUXDSEX AXU PEARY

1 i

jujubes were grown, dried, and candied
in California, where they had been in-
troduced by the Department of Agri-
culture, and were the first of the home-
grown variety to be served at a public
function.

ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT GANNETT

Members of the National Geographic
Society, ladies and gentlemen: It is with
great pleasure that I welcome you here
this evening, on the occasion of our 25th
anniversary. A quarter of a century ago
a few score of men assembled in the
Cosmos Club and organized this Society
and elected Gardiner Greene Hubbard its
first President. The Society has had a
wonderful growth in its membership, and
today its members number 170,000. The
business of the Society has likewise
grown, and the total income last year
from all sources was $370,000. Of this
amount, after paying the running ex-
penses and spending some $14,000 in
geographic research, the sum of $50,000,
more or less, was added to our reserve
fund, which now stands at a total of
about $175,000.

W'e have carried on geographic re-
search this year in Peru and on the east
coast of Hudson Bay and have made
an examination of Katmai volcano, in
southern Alaska, which broke out seri-
ously last summer.

The theme this evening is the South
Pole. We are fortunate to have with us
Capt. Roald Amundsen, the hero of the
South Pole, to whom is to be awarded a
gold medal by the Society. The Toast-
master this evening is Robert Edwin
Peary, the hero of the other end of the
earth. I have the honor to present Ad-
miral Peary.

THE TOASTM ASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY

Mr. President and fellozv-memhers of
the National Geographic Society: I fancy
it is suj^erfluous for me to say to you
how deeply I appreciate the honor of
being elected by the Society as Toast-
master for this distinguished occasion.
I will say to you that I recognize fully
that the first qualification for the posi-
tion of Toastmaster is to let the others
do the talking:.

Before beginning with the program of
the evening 1 am going to read two an-
nouncements to you, the first in regard
to the special delicacy which you will
have the opportunity this evening to test.
I might say that our members and guests
always appreciate and welcome the oj)-
])ortunity given us by our friends, the
Secretary of Agriculture and his assist-
ants, to test some of the discoveries
made in foreign lands by the agricultural
explorers of the Department.

Two years ago the members of the
Society were the first at a large function
to test the American-grown dasheen, im-
ported from China. Last year Amer-
ican-grown dates, imported from Africa
and grown in California, were served to
us. This year we are given the oppor-
tunity of tasting some preserved Chinese
jujubes. The story of their discovery in
China and of their cultivation in America
is told on the printed matter which is
placed at every plate this evening.

AWARD OF GRANT SQUIRES PRIZE

The first award of the Society from
the Grant Squires fund, relating to com-
merce and industries of the Orient, has
been made to the author of ''Farmers of
Forty Centuries." ^Mr. F. H. King. This
book is an exhaustive study of the meth-
ods by which a very populous nation
have been so skillfully cultivating their
lands for more than 4.000 years that the
fields of China are today more fertile
than when first cultivated by man. That
is a wonderful record. Mr. King's book
represents what the Society believes is
an ideal study of foreign places.

This Society, among other eft'orts in
the wide field of research which it has
undertaken, has been assisting in ex-
ploration in South America, and the first
speaker of the evening will be the leader
of the Yale-X^ational Gcogra])hic Society
Peruvian Kx])edition during the year
TO12. This expedition, under the leader-
ship of Dr. Bingham, has performed a
most interesting work, and procured, af-
ter trials and tribulations, most valuable
material.

T have the pleasure of introducing Dr.
Hiram Bingham, who will tell us of the
home of the Incas and their predecessors.

116

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

the; yalk-nationai. geographic socie;ty
peruvian expedition by hiram

BINGHAM

Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentle-
men: I must confess that I feel rather
chilly, having recently come from the
tropics and finding myself so close to
both poles. In fact I am reminded of
an experience a friend of mine had in
the Northwest, where so many of our
most healthy American citizens are from
the land of Captain Amundsen. This
friend had the bad taste to try to take an
automobile trip, bumping over some of
the unmacadamized roads of the district
and losing some of his tools. He finally
ran into trouble and looked for a farmer
to help him out of it. He asked the
farmer if he could borrow a monkey-
wrench. The farmer looked very sad
and said, "I don't think so, my friend.
My father he got cattle ranch, and my
brother John, he got sheep ranch, but I
think it too damn cold here for monkey
ranch."

Nevertheless, it is a great pleasure to
talk with members of the National Geo-
graphic Society about Peru, for one does
not have to explain, as my good friend
the Minister from Peru has to do some-
times, where Peru is. I went down on
the steamer with a healthy young Amer-
ican from Chicago, who was spending
some of his father's money in securing
an acquaintanceship with South America,
and he asked me confidentially a day or
two before we got to Lima, if I would
please tell him whether Lima was in
Peru or Peru was in Lima.

THE EXPEDITION TO PERU

When we got to Lima we received that
very cordial reception from the Peru-
vian government which I have always
received on going to Peru. We were
given every facility, and it is a pleasure
to take this occasion to thank the gov-
ernment of Peru, through the Minister,
for the many courtesies we received. In
fact those who know the character of
some of the mountain Indians will realize
that it would have been quite impossible
for us to have done our work had it not
been for the kind assistance the Peruvian
sfovernment extended to us on account

of our connection with the National Geo-
graphic Society and Yale University.

I do not hold it against the Minister
that when I got to the wharf in Callao
some one (I think it was a reporter from
a Lima paper) said to one of the officials
to whom I had been introduced, and who
was courteously passing all our baggage
without any examination or difficulty :
"Who are these people?" The customs
official said : "Oh, some of them are scien-
tific men." "And who are the rest?"
"Well, the rest are professors."

In 1911 we began a topographical
cross-section of the Andes, which, owing
to the tremendous difficulties of the
undertaking and the magnitude of our
program, we were unable to complete.

Owing to your generosity, we were
able this year to take an expert topo-
graphical engineer and a corps of as-
sistants, who did excellent work, and
whose work I hope you will all live to
be proud of.

We also made a special study of the
osteology and geology of the Cuzco re-
gion, and came to the conclusion that the
human remains found there last year
were not nearly so old as had been at
first supposed.

One of our principal geographical tasks
lay in the identification of several, cities
and towns described in 1911. In particu-
lar, there was that remarkable "White
City," a remarkable buried city, away
down in the jungles on the Urubamba
River, below Ollantaytambo, which place
was supposed by Squier and other stu-
dents of Peruvian archaeology to be one
of the frontier fortresses of the Incas.
Down below this place, and buried in
jungle, we found a city called Machu
Picchu.

THE EIRST CAPITAE OE THE INCAS

That is an awful name, but it is well
worth remembering. The city, built of
white granite, is on top of a ridge sur-
rounded by precipices from two to three
thousand feet high, above the Urubamba
River, at a distance of four or five days
journey from Cuzco, the well-known
Inca capital. Last year we Avere not able
to do more than make a reconnaissance
of this old city, but we realized that it

HO-\ORS TO A.ML'XDSEX AND PEARY

117

was very important aiul were anxious to
study it more, and to try to find out
something about its builders. We could
find nothing in the chronicles anywhere.
No one, with the exception of a few In-
dians, had ever heard of it. The name
was not known in Cuzco, only a few
days' journey away. Nobody in Lima
had heard of it.

Fortunately, owing to your interest,
and largely through your generosity, we
were able to go back this year and spend
four months and a half at Machu Picchu.
We spent about $2,000 simply in clearing
the tropical jungle from these ruins and
excavating them, taking off the dirt and
decayed foliage that had accumulated for
many centuries.

\\'e found the city had 150 houses,
built of white granite ; palaces, temples,
and more especially stairways. We un-
covered over 100 stairways of white
granite, containing a total of more than
2,000 steps. This does not include sev-
eral stairways leading oft' into the jungles
and up the side of the mountains, one of
which was nearly half a mile in length.

We found also that ]\Iachu Picchu was
a city essentially of windows. Standing
at one point, after we had cleared the
ruins, we could count in the walls of the
houses about 55 windows — a very extra-
ordinary occurrence. This fact leads me
to believe that ]\Iachu Picchu was the
])lace from which the Incas came when
they started for Cuzco and established
the Inca Empire.

When we went down there last year
we were looking for Vitcos, the last capi-
tal of the Incas. By accident, in running
down those ruins, we stumbled on the
first Inca capital. As it was owing to
vour generosity that we were able to
make these and several other important
discoveries, I take great pleasure in
thanking you on behalf of Yale Uni-
\ersity. We hope eventually to be able
to prove by our excavations and the ma-
terial we have brought away the connec-
tion of Machu Picchu with the later Inca
Empire.*

*An early number of the N.\tion.\l Geo-
graphic M.\G.\zi.\K will contain a complete ac-
count, with 150 illustrations, of Dr. Bingham's
remarkable discoveries.

Till; TOAST.M.VSTER, ROBERT E. IM-AKV

I may say, supplementary to Dr. Uing-
ham's brief, modest, and interesting re-
marks in regard to his work, that his
discoveries of these ancient cities have
astounded the scientists of the world.

We have with us tonight the beloved
familiar face of our old, tried, and true
friend, an indefatigable globe-trotter, who
has been everywhere on earth except,
perhaps, at the poles. He is the repre-
sentative of our cousins across the sea,
one of whom, Shackleton, pioneered the
way to the South Pole, and another of
whom, Scott, is still down there, or, as
we hope, may be now on his way home
with a splendid record of exploration
and scientific work.

I do not know what Ambassador Bryce
is going to talk about any more than you,
nor do I need to know ; but whatever he
says will be worth saying and it will be
well said.

His Excellency the Right Honorable
James Bryce, Ambassador from Oeat
Britain.

ADDRESS BY THE BRITISH AMB.VSSADOK,
MR. BRVCE

Mr. President, Mr. Toastmaster, ladies
and gentlemen: I am very much honored
by being asked to say a few words to you
this evening, and I feel that it is a real
privilege to be present on an occasion
so historic that it makes us all feel as if
we were historic figures ourselves. This
is an occasion — a conjunction of discov-
erers — that has never happened before
and can never happen again.

My friend. Professor liingham, says
that he felt cold in the neighborhood of
the poles. I have the honor of being
between the two i)oles and therefore in
a warm climate. I suppose I cannot call
myself the Equator, for that honor be-
longs to your President, who is exactly
in the middle. May I claim, being nearer
the South Pole, to represent the tropic
of Capricorn ?

It is a great occasion, ladies and gen-
tlemen, when we meet both of the dis-
coverers of these two remotest and least
accessible parts of our earth. They have
accomplished that which all nations have

118

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

dreamed of for centuries as doubtfully
possible at all and that has been accom-
plished by the enterprise, courage, science,
perseverance, and faith of two such re-
markable men. Their names will go
down to the remotest posterity, and it is
a privilege to all of us to have met them
on the first occasion when they are to-
gether. As we heard from Admiral
Peary two years ago, so we heard from
Captain Amundsen, a narrative of his
achievements — plain, simple, straightfor-
ward, modest, impressive.

I cannot fancy listening to what he
told us today without being struck by the
fact that the man who approached his
great task in so simple a spirit and with
such a forecasting mind showed his qual-
ities in the way in which he told it as
well as in the way he accomplished it.

A TRIBUTE TO PROFESSOR BINGHAm'S
WORK

You will hear, from those who are to
succeed me, more about the South Pole
and about what Captain Amundsen has
done. Let me therefore say one word
about what our friend, Professor Bing-
ham, has done. His modesty has pre-
vented him from giving you anything like
a full account of the additions he has
made to geographic knowledge. He has
cleared up some very long-standing and
difficult problems in primitive Peruvian
history ; he has explained many features
of the neighborhood of Cuzco which had
puzzled previous inquirers ; he accom-
plished in his previous journey a remark-
able ascent of one of the loftiest peaks
in the Andes, and he has now secured a
mass of archeeological material which I
think will occupy him and your archse-
ologists in this country years in collating,
describing, and interpreting.

I think, ladies and gentlemen of the
National Geographic Society, that you
may now feel well pleased with the gen-
erous liberality which your council ex-
ercised a year ago when it made a grant
for the undertaking of this expedition by
Mr. Bingham. The expenditure has been
amply justified and amply rewarded by
that which he has discovered and brought
home.

WHAT GEOGRAPHIC DISCOVERIES REMAIN
EOR THE EXPLORER?

I remember, on one of the previous
occasions when I had the honor of ad-
dressing you, observing that those of us
who care for geographical science seemed
to lie under the danger of having, sooner
or later, our theme exhausted. We have
not yet found a means for the exploring
of any other part of this universe except
our own planet. With our planet so
limited in its area, and now rendered
so comparatively accessible in every part,
with its population growing so fast, and
the number of its explorers increasing,
it is natural to believe that before very
long there will be no great discoveries
left to make. Certainly no discoveries
remain to be made so striking as these
which have been made of the two poles.

We may, however, comfort ourselves
by reflecting that there is another kind
of work to be done, and the work which
Professor Bingham has done seems to
me to show how large that work is and
how full of interest and instruction it
may be made. Professor Bingham has
taken a region which has been known,
more or less, since the time of the Span-
ish Conquest, in the middle of the i6th
century ; but he has revealed immense
fields of further inquiry, which had not
been little thought of until he went there.

Has not the time come Avhen we may
apply to geography what may be called,
in the language of agriculture, "inten-
sive cultivation," when we may begin to
bestow upon the surface of our planet a
study so full, so exact, so carefully sci-
entific, that we shall examine every part
of it from the point of view of the vari-
ous sciences and from the point of view
of the events that have happened since
man found him strong enough to deal
with and overcome nature. Orography,
geology, botany, meteorology, zoology —
all these sciences are the handmaids of
geography.

THE OBSOLETE TERM, "mAN"

In the largest sense of the word, they
may all be called branches of geographic
science, which is nothing less than the

HONORS TO AMUXDSEX AXD PEARY

119

whole knowledge of our globe, and which
is to be worked out by study applied in
these various departments. That is to be
supplemented also by a study of history
of what man has done in these parts of
the world where nature permitted him to
settle and thrive. So you may say geog-
raphy is the meeting point of all these
sciences, a great stream into which they
all pour their tributary brooks. Geog-
raphy tells us what Nature has offered
to Man and what Man has made of
Xature.

Possibly I should apologize for using
the {lerhaps obsolete term "man." con-
sidering that some of your \\'estern
States, following in the wake of Aus-
tralia and Xew Zealand, have recently
transferred the political, as well as the
social scepter from man to woman, and
especially considering the fact that this
victory is going to be celebrated in Wash-
ington upon the third of March by a pro-
cession. I will therefore withdraw the
obnoxious term and say "human na-
ture."

MR. BRYCE's farewell

Ladies and gentlemen. I reflect, with
sadness, that this is probably the last oc-
casion on which I shall have the pleasure
of meeting you here — at any rate, as the
representative of my country. I wish to
take this opportunity, in saying farewell,
of thanking the National Geographic So-
ciety for its constant invitations to my
wife and myself, and not only for the
hospitality we have received from you,
which we have warmly appreciated, but
also for that welcome which doubles the
value of your hospitality.

.Among all the pleasant gatherings
which we have been privileged to attend
in Washington, among all the friends
whose constant kindness we gratefully
acknowledge, here and elsewhere through
your country, there are no gatherings
which we shall look b ick upon with more
pleasure and with a more grateful mem-
ory than those of the Xational Geo-
graphic Society. Here we have rejoiced
to meet many who were interested in the
same subject, who were alive to all the
movements of the world and were eager

to help them forward. Here we have al-
ways noted and been impressed by the
feeling which has pervaded your gather-
ings, that all nations and all men of sci-
ence and learning ought to be united by
ties of sympathy and mutual helpfulness
in endeavoring to advance science and
learning and to promote also the peace
and good understanding between nations
which ought always to go therewith. To
be present at such gatherings as this has
been to us a constant pleasure. We shall
always remember them, and we venture
to hope, ladies and gentlemen, that some-
times you will remember those friends
who have left you to recross the -\tlantic
and who will never forget you.

May I express my wish for the con-
tinued growth, prosperity, and useful-
ness of this Society, which in so short a
time has attained a position of such
prominence among the geographic socie-
ties of the world, in its numbers as well
as in its activity. It is the hope of all
your English fellow-workers that for
centuries to come the members of your
Society may still find something fresh to
do, and that their zeal and earnestness
may know no weariness or abatement.

THE TOASTMASTER, ROHERT E. PEARV

I voice the thought of every one in
this room when I say I sincerely hope
that Ambassador Bryce's prophecy may
not come true, but on the contrary we
shall many more times have the pleasure
of welcoming him and ]\Irs. P>ryce here
at the meetings of the Xational Gco-
gra])hic Society. Comments upon Am-
bassador Pryce's remarks are im])ossible
and superfluous. Di])lomat. student of
])eo])le and countries, whenever he speaks
the fullest measure of pleasure and in-
struction goes to his hearers.

Our next speaker is a successful man
of business affairs, one of our prominent
legislators, a man who has felt and seen
and believes in the extension of geo-
graphic instruction. Whatever he may
have to say upon this subject of the need
of geographic knowledge will be well
worth our consideration. I have the
])leasure of introducing to vou Hon.
William C. Redfield, of Xew York.

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HONORS TO AMUXDSEX AXD TEARY

121

.MR. KKDFIKI,!), OX TllK NKKD OF GEOGRAPH-
ICAL TEACHING

Mr. President, Mr. Toast master, ladies
and yentlemen: If we may follow the
geographical parallel, the position in
which I find myself this evening is that
of the English Channel, which separates
Great Britain from France. It has a
somewhat unsavory reputation, but I
venture to hope it may not add tonight
to the evils which it has visited hereto-
fore upon suffering humanity.

I am but a voice this evening to men-
tion a need and to offer a suggestion,
neither more nor less. It is somewhat
embarrassing, when one has tried faith-
fully to teach a Avorking force of sup-
posedly intelligent young Americans
something as to where some places are
on this globe, to be told by one of them,
in answer to a question, "Where is Ja-
maica?" that it is an American island in
the Pacific Ocean. It is almost as bad
to be told in Manila that a large Boston
firm wrote to a house there on the 8th
of June demanding payment of an ac-
count, and wrote again on the 25th of
June wondering why they had not re-
ceived a response. It is also equally
bad to be told that a large Xew York
concern referred an actual inquiry from
Panama to its agent in the Philippine
Islands.

I have, unfortunately, been obliged to
make an eff'ort to employ young Amer-
ican men and women who were sup-
posed to have some elementary knowl-
edge of geography. I have never found
it possible to get one with those qualifi-
cations. I think that statement, if you
mean by "elementary" the fact that there
are continents, is not correct, but if it
means any sort of useftil knowledge that
was available at call as to where the im-
portant countries and cities of the world
were, I believe it is correct. That is to
say, if you attempt to employ young peo-
ple of from 16 to 25 years of age at any
pay running from $10 to $20 a week, you
will not find it practicable to obtain from
any of them a ready, ordinary common
knowledge of the chief cities of the
globe. I think that statement is well
within the fact.

I doubt very much if a graduating
class in our universities could answeV
correctly 20 out of 25 rather ordinary
geographical questions. For example, let
us take a practical illustration out of
every-day office life.

THE LACK OF GEOGRAPHIC K.NOWLEDGE IN
CO. M MERGE

A shipment of machinery is to go to
the town of Bandoeng, in the center of
Java, and we will call our clerk or tell
our stenographer to find out whether this
shipment should go by way of Rotterdam
and by Dutch steamer to Batavia and
thence by rail, or whether it should go
to London and thence by P. and O.
steamer to Colombo and then via Sing-
apore to Batavia and thence by rail, or
whether it should go west by wav of San
Francisco and Manila and Hongkong, on
a chance of catching the steamer for
Soerabaja or Semarang and by rail from
either point.

I imagine, ]\Ir. Toastmaster, that some
of them are caught now, and yet, ladies
and gentlemen, with the exception of
Bandoeng, there is not one place men-
tioned that is not a large seaport of prime
commercial importance. X'ot one of those
cities but has daily in its harbor many
large commercial vessels. There is not
one of the towns mentioned with which
this country is not in daily, if not hourly,
communication by mail and wire, and the
statements I have made are taken from
facts out of the ordinary commonplace
work of a business office.

Our clerks do not know, and there is
no place in America today where our
young people can get the thorough teach-
ing that will give them a working knowl-
edge of where these places are.

Every day young women as stenog-
raphers and young men as clerks are
called upon for this knowledge, and their
employers are keeping kindergartens to
instruct them because the schools do not.
It is not the fault of our young people,
but their misfortune.

That is a very plain statement of a
commonplace fact that every business
man who is engaged in foreign coiu-
merce knows all about. It is a very seri-
ous handicap.

122

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

HOW TO REMEDY IT

The suggestion is this : Cannot this So-
ciety, in some way, learn the facts as to
the ignorance of the average American
young man and woman on the subject of
geography? Secondly, having learned
them, cannot this Society, in some way,
standardize, or attempt to standardize,
geographical teaching ?

I can say for one very large organiza-
tion of business houses that if young men
or women were to apply to any of the
150 concerns therein represented, bearing
some sort of a certificate that the school
in which they had learned geography con-
formed to the standards set by the Na-
tional Geographic Society, employment
would be quicker for these people and
wages would be higher. I make the sug-
gestion that something of this kind may
possibly, in time, be started, because
another scientific society, finding a similar
state of ignorance in another line, is now
attempting to formulate some standard
of instruction that will be country-wide.
At the present time, however, our school-
taught young men and women of 18 and
20 years of age do not know practically
enough geography to trust themselves out
at night alone.

TPIE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY

There is certainly much need for
thought in Representative Redfield's re-
marks. If I might venture, I would sug-
gest that if Mr. Redfield and others
would be willing to utilize their com-
manding positions to assist this Society
in the construction, either here or in New
York, of a great globe on a scale of i to
I million — which is a scale advocated by
representative national geographic con-
gresses for a universal way of the world —
that such globe would enable the business
men, the traveler, the student, and the
school children to keep in touch with the
big as well as the small details of geo-
graphical information, which information
could be transferred to this globe from
time to time as secured over the world,
thereby making the globe continuously
up to date. An hour or two of visual
work on such a globe as that would
count for more than days of reading of
geographical books.

Across the water there is a sunny-
land — the birthplace of the automobile,
the leader of the world in aviation today,
a country in the front rank of every
sphere of human activity. The sons of
that country have written French names
within the Arctic and the Antarctic.

The last of these, Jean Baptiste Etienne
Auguste Charcot, the National Geo-
graphic Society has elected an honorary
member in recognition of his splendid re-
searches and explorations in the south
polar regions. The certificate of his elec-
tion will be received for him by another
illustrious Frenchman, also our friend
and long acquaintance, His Excellency
Monsieur J. J. Jusserand, the French
Ambassador.

ADDRESS BY THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR,
MR. JUSSERAND

Though prevented from being present
at the comestible part in tonight's cere-
mony, I greatly desired not to miss it
altogether, not only because I was sure
Admiral Peary would speak with his-
wonted forceful eloquence, but because I
have made it a rule ever to be present
when Captain Amundsen is honored for
having discovered a pole.

Five years ago we celebrated together
the deeds of this Viking's son and of his
good ship, Gjoa, with which he had,
shortly before, ascertained the exact po-
sition of the north magnetic pole, and
seconded by a crew of six men had, first
of all sailors in the world, navigated that
northwest passage vainly attempted by
innumerable predecessors, from the i6th
century to our time.

Like the present occasion, that one was-
brilliant and memorable, and I am not
the only person in this assembly who was
there and still cherishes its remembrance.
The members of the National Geographic
Society were present in imposing num-
bers ; at different tables several explorers-
of fame were seated; pointing to one of
them, a neighbor of mine at table said:
"You see that gentleman with the long-
mustache? Many are making the at-
tempt, but if the North Pole is to be
reached by any one, it is he who will do
it; he is called Peary." All the world
now knows whether my neighbor was or
not a good prophet.

A liRAXCII OF TIIK JUJUItK TRKK, LOADED WITH FRUIT, GROWIXG IX CALIFORXIA

American-grown jujuljes were first served in the United States at a great public function
on the occasion of the Annual IJanquet of the National Geographic Society, January ii.
Those jujul)es represented one of the tangible results of agricultural exploration as it is
carried on by the Department f)f Agriculture.

The jujulic is one of the i"ive principal fruits of China, and has been cultivated for at
least 4,000 years. A Chinese work published 800 years ago listed 43 named varieties; hun-
dreds are described in the more modern works. In China this fruit is highly esteemed, and
there are hundreds of varieties, differing in shape, size and flavor. There is even a seedless
one and one as large as a hen's egg. Some are eaten fresh and others are candied and dried
or used for preserves. The seedless sort is stewed with rice, much as we use raisins.

The jujubes served at the National Geographic Society banquet were grown at the
Plant Introduction Garden at Chico, California, and had been candied in syrup and dried.
Many of the varieties thus preserved have almost exactly the shape, color, and flavor of dates.

Here, then, is a new fruit as delicious as a choice date and capable of being grown
hundreds of miles further north than the date palm. Trees growing in Washington, D. C,
were entirely uninjured by temperatures as low as 17 degrees below zeri* l;i>;t winter.

123

124

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

THE ACTIVITIES OF MR. BRYCE

And while others were exerting them-
selves in far-off lands, most of us Wash-
ingtonians were staying at home, anxious
for news, but very quiet in this beautiful
city. Some exceptions there were, how-
ever, one being my British colleague,
who was present at the other dinner and
is also with us tonight ; he did not re-
main dormant ; it is not his fashion. Sure
it is that he has in the interval increased
the number of his travels, of his books,
of his speeches, but not, to all appear-
ances, the number of his years.

Between the dates of the two dinners
memorable deeds have been accom-
plished, causing the unique event which
we are going to Avitness to be possible.
Those hands will clasp before us that
have planted the flag of their country at
the extremities of the world.

We went yesterday to the Masonic
Temple, holding tickets in our hands.
The carefully devised inscription on
them read: "Admit to the South Pole,"
and we were indeed admitted there.
With his clear, plain, straightforward
manner of expressing himself. Captain
Amundsen truly led us to the pole. We
took part in his undertaking, his dog-
breeding establishment, his clever prepa-
ration, and his long, long journey across
unknown solitudes, till at last the goal
was reached. Queen Maud's Land was
baptized, and Norway's flag planted
where no man had set his foot before.
The orator spoke calmly ; we can scarcely
do the same when talking of what he
has achieved.

In its kindness the National Geo-
graphic Society has desired to associate
a French name to the famous ones we
are honoring tonight, the name of Dr.
Jean Charcot.

THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS IN
AMERICA

In the dash to the pole, France, it is
true, took no decisive part. There is,
however, some dash, I dare say, in my
nation, but the kind of discoveries which
have ever been the special aim of her
sons are the inland ones. While others
were exploring coasts we, from the first,
have taken a particular pride in assum-

ing the often hard task of exploring the
interior of countries. This was con-
spicuously done on this continent when
those singularly bold expeditions of our
early explorers took place which are
just now the subject of admirable arti-
cles by President Finley. The valley of
the Mississippi was as a whole first ex-
plored by French people, and the names
of Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans first
appeared on French maps. The same in
Asia with Bonvalot, Dutreuil de Rhins,
Pavie, Lefevre-Pontalis, and all the
others ; the same in Africa with Fou-
reau, Lamy, Brazza, and their peers.

We did not, however, entirely neglect
the polar regions; witness those sailors
whose names have just been recalled by
that good judge in such matters, Ad-
miral Peary, witness especially the work
done before Charcot by Dumont d'Ur-
ville, with his tiny frigates, the Astrolabe
and the Zelce, and his visit, toward the
end of 1837, to the Great Barrier. As
he sailed along he sighted a rift and
drove his ship through the narrow
chasm, which closed behind him. For
five days he* was there a prisoner, with
no apparent hope for his life and that of
his crew, when a lucky storm caused a
cleavage in the ice which, with the help
of saws and axes, they were able so to
increase as to bring the ships safe again
to the open sea.

THE FRENCH IN THE ANTARCTIC

On a second expedition, in 1840, he
explored vast antarctic regions yet un-
known, some still bearing on every map
the names he gave them ; in particular
that of his dearly admired wife, Adelie,
the god-mother of Adelie Land. On his
return, in 1841, he was presented with a
medal by our Geographic Society, the
same medal which the same society pre-
sented the other day to Captain Amund-
sen in Paris.

Dr. Jean Charcot has proved a worthy
successor to Dumont d'Urville, and I
offer on his behalf sincere thanks for the
way in which you tonight so kindly show
your appreciation of what he has done.
What he wanted was at all risks to be
useful, and he succeeded in perfecting
our knowledge of an unknown part of

HOXORS TO A-MLXDSEX AXD TICARV

125

the Antarctic Continent, one not particu-
larly easy to explore. Acting with the
earnest desire to help toward a complete
survey of an unexplored section, he dis-
carded all idea of duplicating the work
of other explorers or of competing with
those who, duly prepared for the at-
tempt, were planning their dash to the
pole. As testified hy your award tonight,
by the praise which our chairman has
bestowed on him, and by the tokens of
appreciation conferred on him by his
peers in several countries, he succeeded
in what he had planned ; our knowledge
has been considerably increased, thanks
to his exertions, and the fatigues and
dangers he and his companions under-
went have not been wasted.

DR. CH.\RCOT's achievements

Owing to his two expeditions, with the
Prancais in 1904-1905 and the Ponrqitoi
Pas in 1908- 1910, presidential names
have been added to the royal and im-
l)erial ones, recalling almost all Europe
and the United States, too, at the south-
ern end of the world. Europe will be
more completely duplicated — a quiet, si-
lent, snowbound Europe — now that there
is a Loubet Land and a FaUih-es Land.

N^o poles at present remain to be dis-
covered, and the line of coasts of the
Southern Continent has been in a great
measure explored. What will such men
as Shackleton, Charcot, Peary. Amund-
sen now do ? Wt do not know ; perhaps
they do not know. Of one thing we are
sure — that is, that whatever they attempt
will be worthy of their name ; whatever
it be we wish them success.

THE TO.\STM.\STER, RORERT E. PE.\RY

It has been my good fortune on sev-
eral occasions and on entirely different
sul)jects to listen to .Ambassador Jusse-
rand, and in every case it has been a dis-
tinct and emphatic pleasure. His clear-
cut diction lifts as the wings of the aero-
plane and carries us direct to the point
with the directness of the automobile. I
wish my friend Charcot could ha\e been
here tonight to hear of his magnificent
work in the .\ntarctic regions so ably
presented.

We have with us tonight a man who
has had experience in both the tropical

and the Arctic regions, and I am going to
ask him to give us a few remarks upon
his experience in those localities. 1 take
pleasure in presenting Air. Walter L.
Fisher, Secretary of the Interior.

SECRETARY FISHER

Mr. Toastmastcr, ladies and gentle-
men: It has been suggested to me that I
should say something to you about those
far outlying posts of the Department of
the Interior in this country, that after
all get into the realm of exploration. I
have made two very slight \oyages of
discovery, one to Hawaii and one to
Alaska, but on both occasions my object
was the investigation of industrial and
economic conditions and not of geog-
raphy.

Of course, I realize that the Depart-
ment of the Interior has much to do with
the subject with which this Society is
concerned. A great deal of the geo-
graphical work of the United States gov-
ernment is carried on under its direc-
tion, the work of the Geological Survey
particularly, and in the opening remarks
of the President I noted with some in-
terest that this Society has spent some
money with some energy upon the recent
eruption of a volcano in Alaska.

II.AW.MI .\XD .\L.\SK.\

The two countries which have been
suggested to me have a singular resem-
blance and singular dift'erences. I do
not know whether all of you have
thought of the points of resemblance so
much as you have of the points of differ-
ence ; but if for a moment we consider
the fact that .Alaska is largely volcanic :
that it contains some of the few active
volcanoes of the world ; that it has re-
cently had the most active eruption, we
may see one of the resemblances. The
volcano which can be best observed for
scientific purposes, the volcano which is
most accessible and most interesting to
the traveler, is that which exists upon the
island of Hawaii.

The territories are very diff"erent in
most respects. I do not know whether 1
can in this brief notice succeed in re-
peating to you something that has been
written to describe these ditTerences in
verse, possibly not intentional in cither

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HONORS TO AMrXDSKX AXD PKARV

12:

case, and yet if I am able to remember
the lines they may carry home some of
these distinctive features and may illus-
trate the different spirit which pervades
those far outlying territories of ours.

The island of Hawaii, of course, lies
in the tropic or semi-tropic region, and
it has a poetess, in the person of the wife
of the present Governor of the island,
who has written a poem which perhaps
describes the sentiment and the atmos-
phere of those islands better than any
other of which I know. It runs some-
thing like this :

MY ISLANDS

On the edge of the world my islands lie,

Under the sun-steeped sky,

And their waving palms

Are bounteous alms

To the soul-spent passer-by.

On the edge of the world, dear islands, stay,

Far from clamorous day,

Content with calm,

Hold peace and balm,

Be Isles of the Blest for aye!

The port of the northern clime is of
much rougher variety. I do not know
how much you know about the country
which got its greatest nott)riety from the
rush to the Klondike. That rush was
celebrated in a poem, which has in it
vigorous lines like this :

You've read of the trail of Ninety-eight, but

its woe no man can tell ;
It was all of a piece and a whole yard wide,

and the name of the brand was "Hell."

But the poem which best describes that
land is perhaps the "S])ell of the Yukon,"
written by Robert W. Service.

THE SPi:rj. OF TIIK YUKON'

I wanted the gold and I sought it ;

1 scrabbled and mucked like a slave.
Was it famine or scurvy — I fought it;

I hurled my youth into a grave.
I wanted the gold and I got it,
Yet somehow life's not what I thought it,
And somehow the gold isn't all.

No, there's the land. (Have you seen it?)

It's the cussedest land that I know,
Frotn the big, dizzy mountains that screen it

To the deep death-like valleys below.
Some say God was tired when He made it ;

Some say it's a tine land to shun.
Maybe, but there's some as would trade it

For no land on earth — and I'm one.

There's gold, and it's haunting and haunting;

It's luring me on as of old;
Yet it isn't the gold that I'm wanting

So much as just linding the gold.
It's the great, big, broad land 'way up yonder;

It's the forests where silence has lease;
It's the beauty that thrills me with wonder:

It's the stillness that Jills me with peace.

TlIK TO.\STM.\STlCR, ROHKKT K. I'l-.XkV

In the first chapter of Genesis we read
that the Creator, after having first sep-
arated the light from the darkness and
the earth from the land, filled the land
with vegetation and the sea and the air
with life, creating man, and said: "Let
them have dominion over the earth."
Only now, with the attainment of the two
uppermost parts of the earth — the Xorth
and the South Pole — has that scriptural
command become realized.

Today there are. broadly speaking, no
large regions on the face of the glol)e
that have not been traversed or pene-
trated by that incomparable, wonderful,
adjustable machine — the human animal —
guided by the flame of divine intelligence.

Ended is that splendid series of great
ventures and voyages, beginning with the
first pushing out of the I'lKienician navi-
gators through the Pillars of Hercules
into the frightful storms and fearful
terrors of the great Atlantic ; the crossing
of the Equator, where the sun's furnace
heat, it was thought, scorched men black :
the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope ;
Columbus' splendid launching into the
mysteries of the unknown West : the cir-
cumnavigation of the globe : the accom-
plishment of the X'ortheast and the
X'orthwest passages : the attainment of
the X'orth Pole and the South Pole.

Ended is the long list of strange con-
ceptions of the shape and character of
this world of ours.

TUF. I'OI..\R MVSTKRIICS V.XNISIl

\'anished are those mysterious regions
about the two poles, filled with strange
imaginary conditions and peoples.

done is the "Open Polar Sea" —
"Svmnes Hole" — the Garden of Eden:
the glistening Lodestone Mountain : the
huge ice-cap ; the great crater-like basin.

Though every one in this hall tonight
knows that the last of the poles has been
discovered, I fancy there are some of

For H:!S ANTARCTIC !^'^^^

the; spe;ciaIv gold medal awarded to
amundsen by the national
geographic society

you who have not yet grasped clearly the
striking contrast in almost every physical
condition at those two points. As a
matter of fact, the conditions at the two
poles are as far apart as the poles them-
selves.

Yet, though every one of my
auditors knows that the last of the
poles has been attained, I have no
doubt that some of us have not
grasped clearly the striking con-
trast of physical conditions exist-
ing at those two points.

Conditions at the two poles are
as unlike as the poles are far
apart. The North Pole is situated
at the center of the hemisphere of
the land, yet is itself located in an
ocean.

The South Pole is situated at
the center of the hemisphere of
water, yet is itself located in a
continent.

An explorer at the North Pole
stands up on the frozen surface
of an ocean two miles or more in
depth.

An explorer at the South Pole
stands on the surface of a great
interior snow cap two miles or
more above sea level.

The most northery North Polar
lands possess a comparative abun-
dance of animal life — musk-ox,
reindeer, Polar bear, wolf, fox,
arctic hare, ermine, lemming, and
land birds, as well as forms of
insect life — and during a few short
weeks in summer numbers of bril-
liant flowers.

On the Antarctic continent there
is absolutely no form of animal
or vegetable life, though two or
three species of sea birds breed
during a few weeks in summer at
several localities on the coast.

Human life is found within
some 700 miles of the North Pole.

The nearest human life is some
2,000 miles from the South Pole.

Efforts to attain the North Pole
have been going on for nearly 400
years.

Efforts to reach the South Pole
date back 140 years.

The history of North Polar ex-
ploration is studded with crushed
foundering ships and the deaths of
hundreds of brave men.

The history of South Polar exploration
shows the loss of but one ship and the
loss of two or three men.

In one respect the two poles are alike.

ROALD

and

128

HOXORS TO AAI fXDSEX AND PEARV

120

Their conquest depended, in the last
analysis, upon the first primal machine,
the most wonderful and adjustable of
all — the animal, man, and the Eskimo
dog.

TIIIC DISCOVKRICR OF THE SOUTH POLE

Sitting at this table is a man — look in
his eyes and try to imagine to yourselves
what those eyes have seen — a man who
forced his way across hundreds of miles
of icy Antarctic waste ; climbed thou-
sands of feet into the frozen Antarctic
air, and stood at last more than two miles
above sea level, with a frozen desert
stretching from his feet to the horizon,
and the yellow sun circling parallel with
the horizon, at the South Pole — Amund-
sen, of Norway.

Amundsen, for your "Antarctic explo-
rations, resulting in the attainments of
the South Pole," The National Geo-
graphic Society has awarded you this
special gold medal.

You already hold the Society's other
grand prize — the Hubbard gold medal —
for your successful forcing of the first
ship through the Northwest passage,
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and for
your definite re-location of the North
AFagnetic Pole.

In one respect this medal is imique.
Within its yellow circle is crystallized
the a]:»preciation of 175,000 intelligent
men and women, the members of this
Society. In this respect no other trophy
you have, or will receive, can equal it.

Health, strength, good luck continue
with you.

C.\PT.\IN -AMUNDSEN

Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, ladies
and gentlemen: I am not going to try to
make a speech here tonight after all
these delightful speeches which we have
heard delivered from those illustrious
and distinguished men here tonight. I
am only briefly going to thank the Xa-
tional Geogra])hic Society for the great
hospitality and the great kindness which
they have shown me this time. This is
not the first time. I came here five years
ago and I was received when I came as a
stranger, but I went away, as I felt, a
good, dear friend. I went away with

the highest honors from the Society.
The feelings I had at that time toward
the Society were highly strengthened by
the hospitality and the sympathy which
it extended to me here.

I certainly appreciate very highly this
special gold medal, the highest medal
which the Society can bestow upon an
explorer. I appreciate it highly, but I
also appreciate still more highly the way
in which I have been handed this medal.
I have been handed this medal. 1 might
say, from the most illustrious of the liv-
ing polar explorers.

From the time I was a boy I followed
Admiral Peary in his work ; I was with
him wdien, in 1890, for the first time, he
crossed Greenland. I was with him in
my thoughts ; I was too young to try to
follow him, but I have followed him in
my thoughts and later in his work. I
followed him when inch by inch he
worked his way toward the north, inch
by inch, foot by foot, and yard by yard
until he finally succeeded in planting the
Stars and Stripes on the most difficult
part of our globe.

I am mighty thankful to you. Admiral
Peary, for all the experience and all the
assistance you have really given me in
my work.

WHY AMUNDSEN SOUGHT THE SOUTH
POLE

There is one thing wdiich perhaps not
many of you here tonight know, and that
is that it was really .\dmiral Peary who
sent me out to the South Pole. I was
preparing my trip toward the Xorth
Polar regions — it may be to the Xorth
Pole — in 1909. It was not very easy to
start an ex])edition from Xorway. for it
was hard work among us to raise money
and I was preparing this expedition
slowly.

Then suddenly the news flashed all
over the w^orld that the Xorth Pole had
been attained : that Admiral Peary had
planted the Stars and Strii)es u]:) there.
The money, which had been .scarce, now
went down to nothing. I could not get
a cent more and I was in the midst of
my preparations.

One of the last mysterious points nf
the globe had been discovered.

130

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

The last one still remained undiscov-
ered, and then it was that I took the de-
cision to turn from the north toward the
south in order to try to discover this last
problem in the polar regions.

So you see it was really Admiral Peary
who sent me away. Well, I thank you,
Admiral, for that.

I am now going to thank the National
Geographic Society for all they have
shown me in the way of kindness and
hospitality, and permit me, in closing, to
wish the Society every prosperity in the
future. The President recently told us
that the Society at present holds a mem-
bership of 175,000, I think the largest by
far of the geographic societies in the
world. I wish the Society a continued
growth, and when I come back from my
North Polar Expedition I hope I may
find it holding a membership of at least
300,000.

THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY

I thank you heartily. Captain Amund-
sen, for your friendly remarks in regard
to me.

You have listened to the words of a
man who has accomplished a great thing.
I need not go into details. You have
heard from his own lips the story of
how he pitted red blood, tense muscles,
and the insistence of the human brain

against the cold, the hunger, the fatigue
of the Antarctic hell, and won.

The presence of such a man as
Amundsen in our midst ought, and I
hope will, spur us as individuals, as So-
cieties, and as a nation to take our
proper share and part in the great work
yet to be done in the Antarctic.

There are two ways in which this
country could make up for its past leth-
argy in Antarctic work and take front
rank at once in this attractive field.

One is to establish a station at the
South Pole for one year's continuous ob-
servations in various fields of scientific
investigation.

The other is to inaugurate and carry
out in a special ship, with a corps of ex-
perts, through a period of several sea-
sons, a complete survey and study of the
entire periphery of the Antarctic Conti-
nent and its bordering ocean.

We should also set before ourselves
the thorough exploration of the region
south of Cape Horn, the Weddell Sea
region, which is especially within our
sphere of influence, together with a trav-
erse from the most southern point of
that sea to the South Pole itself.

Such traverse, with the work of
Amundsen, of Shackleton, of Scott,
would give us a complete cross-section
of Antarctica.

Vol. XXIV, No. 2

WASHINGTON

February, 1913

ATHOMAIL

©(SMAIPIHIII€

MBAZE

THE RECENT ERUPTION OF KATMAI VOLCANO

IN ALASKA

An Account of One of the Most Tremendous Volcanic
Explosions Known in History

By George C. Martin

Air. Martin is the geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey zvho directed the
National Geographic Society Alaska volcano researches in igi2

THE volcanic eruption of Mount
Katmai, Alaska, of June, 1912,
was undoubtedly one of the most
violent eruptions of historic times.

This volcano was one of the least
known of the many Alaskan volcanic
peaks, and had been so long dormant
that there were apparently not even local
legends of its former outbreaks. No
observed warnings of its renewed activity
were given other than copious steaming
and minor earthquakes. These attracted
little attention even among the few dwell-
ers in that thinly settled land, for dozens
of other volcanoes along the Alaskan
coast steam freely from time to time.
The peak is usually hidden in the clouds,
and local earthquakes are so frequent as
to cause little comment.

Among other people than the few local
inhabitants and the comparatively few
others who have had occasion to sail
through Shelikof Strait, the very exist-
ence of Katmai Volcano was doubtless
unknown.

Then, without warning, on the 6th of
June, 19 1 2, the Katmai Volcano pro-
claimed itself by a violent eruption. All
southern Alaska knew of the event at
once, for the sound of the first mighty

explosion carried down the coast as far
as Juneau, 750 miles away, and was even
heard across the Alaska Range at Daw-
son and Fairbanks, distant 650 and 500
miles respectively.

THE FIRST ERUPTION

Those who did not hear the sound of
this first blast, or did not feel the accom-
panying earthquakes, did not have to wait
long for another form of announcement.
The column of steam and ash rose sev-
eral miles in the air and was immediately
seen as far away as Clark Lake and
Cook Inlet. This cloud of ash was car-
ried eastward by the wind and within a
few hours had shed a shower of ashes
over all the east end of the Alaska Penin-
sula, the east half of Kodiak Island, and
all of Afognak Island (see map, page

132).

Intense darkness accompanied the fall
of ashes. Midnight blackness in the day-
time extended as far east as the Kenai
Peninsula. Darkness lasted for 60 Imurs
at Kodiak, 100 miles from the volcano.
Dust fell as far away as Juneau, Ketchi-
kan, and the Yukon Valley, distant 750.
900. and 600 miles. The fumes were
reported from points as remote as \'an-

132

I'liMto l.y l.iciil. .1. i'.ilai

A FLASHLIGHT VIEW TAKEN UNDER THE OPEN SKY AT NOON, SHOWING ASH-COVERED
CHART BOARD OE THE "MANNING," JUNE 8, I912 — lOO MILES FROM VOLCANO

"The darkness was intense, and the ash so thick in the air that bright lights failed to
penetrate it for more than a few feet. It is said that a lighted lantern held at arm's length
could harely be seen, and that the searchlight of the Manning failed to penetrate farther
than the liow of the ship" (see page 156).

couver Island and Puget Sound. 1.500
miles away.

In the violence of the explosion, in the
quantity of material thrown out, and in
the distance to which the ejected material
and sound waves were carried, this was
certainly among the greatest eruptions
witnessed by man. It differs, however,
from almost all other known great erup-
tions in that the immediate damage to
property was almost nothing, and that,
as far as known, it was not the direct
and sole cause of the loss of a single
human life.

now THE NEWS CAME

The stories which came by wire from
the towns along the Alaska coast at this
time told of an eruption of the first mag-
nitude somewhere to the westward.
These towns heard the explosion, felt the
earth tremble, and saw the air clouded
with dust brought in on the west wind.
Still no authentic news came as to the

exact origin of the disturbance. The
volcano proclaimed its own news for a
thousand miles down the coast, yet si-
lenced the wireless by which the .Vlaska
Peninsula and Kodiak Island were ordi-
narily in communication with the world.

The first detailed and authentic news
came when the little old mail steamer
Dora, notorious partaker in many a wild
Alaskan episode, returned to Seward
from her monthly Aleutian pilgrimage
with her decks smeared with ashes and
reported witnessing the outl)reak from a
near-by point and running out to sea in
24 hours of darkness and ashes. The
Dora had been unable to reach Kodiak
in the darkness caused by the volcanic
cloud (see page 154).

It is highlv probable that other vents
in the vicinity of Mount Katmai had
been steaming profusely throughout the
summer, and they may at times have
been in a moderate state of eruption, but
all the available evidence indicates that

133

134

Photo by George C. .Martin
VOLCAXIC CLOL'D I'OURIXG OVV.K MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK DAY, I.30 P. M .,

AUGUST 10, igi2

The white drifts which cover tlie mountain slopes are not snow, hut ash and pumice from the

volcano

Alount Katniai is by far the most active
of the group, and is probably the only
one which contributed in any large way
to the great volume of solid matter
ejected in June.

TriK SCKNE OF TIIF ERUPTION

Blount Katmai is a peak 7,500 feet
high, situated relatively near the eastern
end of the .Maska Peninsula and of the
Aleutian Mountains.

The Alaska Peninsula is like a great
horn, convex on the southern side, 500
miles in length, averaging 50 miles in
width, and ])rojecting southwestward
from the .\laska mainland. It has a
])artly submerged extension in the Aleu-
tian Islands which stretches 1,100 miles
westward toward Asia, and wnth these
separates Bering Sea from the Pacific.

The .\leutian range, like the less con-
tinuous line of peaks on the islands
trailing from it, is dominantly volcanic
throughout, there being certainly nine,
and probably at least twelve active or
latent volcanoes in the .-Maska continental
end of the belt. The .Aleutian Islands
probably contain a still larger numl^er
of volcanoes. Only two of the .Maska
volcanoes. Wrangell and Edgecombe.

are not situated in these groups (see page

The mountains in this belt which have
shown indications of volcanic activity in
historic times include Redoubt. Iliamna,
and St. Augustine, on Cook Inlet. Re-
doubt was active in January, 1902. while
St. .\ugustine had an exceptionally vio-
lent eruption in October. 1883.

The easternmost volcano known on
the .Alaska Peninsula is Mount Kugak.
which was probably active in 1889.
Mount Katmai comes next to the west-
ward, and has a near neighbor. Mount
^lagcik. which seems to have shared, in
a more moderate way. its recent activity.
There are probably other unnamed vol-
canoes in the near vicinity.

Veniaminof, near Chignik, was in
eruption on .August 28th, 1892, this out-
break a])parently being, next to those of
Katmai and of St. .Augustine, the most
^•iolcnt known in .Alaska. Farther west
and near the extremity of the .Alaska Pen-
insula is Mount l^aviof, which has been
continuously steaming for many years.

The volcanoes of the .Aleutian Islands
include a well-known group at the east-
ern end in which are Isanotski. Shishal-
din. Pogromni, .Akutan, and Rogoslof,

135

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136

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137

138

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and a large nuniber of
others situated far-
ther to the west.

Shelikof Strait, a
turbulent and treach-
erous body of water,
averaging 35 miles in
width, lies south of
the eastern end of the
Alaska Peninsula and
separates it from Ko-
diak and Afognak
islands, which shared
the effects of the
eruption with the east-
ern end of the Alaska
Peninsula. These
islands are mountain-
ous, but not volcanic.

THE IXII.MilT.WTS OF

TIIK ALASK.V Pi:.\-

IXSUL.V

The inhabitants of
the Alaska Peninsula
include a few hundred
people in ten or twelve
small native villages,
the employes of four
or five salmon can-
neries, and a handful
of traders and pros-
pectors. Most of the
native villages had a
former basis of pros-
perity in sea-otter
hunting, but with the
])ractical extinction of
the sea otter this is
gone and the salmon
is the chief means of
support.

The inhabitants of
Kodiak and .\fognak
islands are mostly de-
scendantsof Russians.
The largest settle-
ments are Kodiak (St.
Paul) and Afognak.
The former is well
known as one of the
quaintest and most at-
tractive towns on the '
.\laskan coast. Its
population includes
the largest proportion
of Americans of anv

139

Q
W
«

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o

140

THE ERUPTION OF .MOUNT KATMAI

141

town in southwestern Alaska. The town
had long lived upon the memories of its
former glories as capital during the early
Russian occupation and of the prosperous
sea-otter days. New activities have re-
cently come through the establishment of
salmon and halibut fisheries and of im-
portant agricultural industries.

It was the sparse settlement of the
district which alone prevented great loss
of life during the recent eruption.

The town of Katmai was deserted at
the time of the eruption, most of the in-
habitants being at Kaflia Bay, 30 miles
east of the volcano.

TliE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY'S
INVESTIGATION

As soon as it became known that there
had certainly been a great eruption in
southwestern Alaska the Research Com-
mittee of the National Geographic So-
ciety made plans for the investigations
upon which this article is based. This
expedition is the beginning of a system-
atic study of the Alaskan volcanoes which
the National Geographic Society has in
view and which will be carried out by
some experienced authority on volcanism.
The writer was selected for this first
expedition not as a student of volcanism,
but as one who eight years before, in the
course of the U. S. Geological Survey's
investigations, had made a cruise of 300
miles in an open boat along this little-
known coast, and was consequently some-
what familiar with the local geographic
details.

A hurried departure from Washing-
ton, a busy day of outfitting in Seattle,
and a leisurely voyage of 13 days past
all the windings of the sinuous southern
coast-line of Alaska preceded an arrival
in Kodiak just four weeks after the
eruption began. The protracted voyage
from Seattle had its compensation in
that it permitted visits to many places
which had been afifected by the eruption
and interviews with many eye-witnesses.

On reaching Kodiak it was found that
the revenue cutter Manning was still in
port and was about to move the refugees
from the uninhabitable mainland villages
to a new location west of the affected
zone. Capt. K. W. Perry kindly wel-

comed the writer as a passenger on this
and following cruises of the Mann'uis;.
The four weeks spent aboard the Man-
ning permitted the obtaining of vivid ac-
counts of the hours of darkness which
the officers of the cutter witnessed at
Kodiak, and of their subsequent obser-
vations in the vicinity of the volcano and
elsewhere, and also gave opportunity to
see parts of the coast which would other-
wise have been inaccessible.

After leaving the Manning, the power
schooner Lina K. was chartered and
cruises were made along the southeast
shore of Afognak Island and the north-
west shore of Kodiak Island, the effects
of the eruption being thus studied in de-
tail. While in Shelikof Strait watch was
kept for a glimpse of the volcano, but
the clouds hung continuously upon the
mountain.

On August 8 the clouds seemed break-
ing and the sea was smooth, so we
crossed to Amalik Bay on the mainland.
V^ast columns of steam could be seen ris-
ing through the clouds, but the latter
were not dispelled enough to permit a
satisfactory view. Two weeks were
spent on the mainland between .\malik
and Cold bays. During this time many
interesting phenomena, described below,
were observed, but the glimpse of the
volcano itself, which was desired most
of all, was not obtained.

The part of Alaska in which Alount
Katmai is situated and the districts most
seriously affected by the eruption are so
thinly settled that the number of persons
who observed the eruption and its larger
eft'ect is comparatively small. The writer
has been able to get in touch directly or
indirectly with most of these people, and
they have furnished information of very
great value which could not otherwise
have been obtained.

CONDITIONS PRECEDING THE ERUPTION

Mount Katmai had been in a dormant
condition for an unknown length of
time, but for many months prior to its
outburst it must have been going through
the changes which a dormant volcano
alwavs undergoes prior to an eruption.

A volcano consists of a vent extend-
ing from the surface of the earth to a

142

THE ERUPTION OF AIOUXT KATMAI

143

reservoir of molten material deep in the
earth's crust. The vent usually reaches
the surface at the summit of a mountain,
composed of material thrown out in ear-
lier eruptions and terminates above in the
opening known as the crater. When the
volcano is not in eruption this vent is
closed by material fallen in from above
and by material which was not fully ex-
pelled during- preceding eruptions and
solidified there.

WHAT CAUSES AN ERUPTION

An eruption is preceded by a long
continuing and gradually increasing ac-
cumulation of pressure from the reser-
voir of molten material. The eruption is
caused by this pressure becoming at last
sufficient to overcome the resistance of
the material which chokes the vent, or
by a sudden relief of pressure by fault-
ing or some other cause. The conditions
preceding the eruption include a gradual
rise of lava in the vent, accompanied by
an increase in the temperature of the
surface rocks, an increase in both tem-
perature and volume of the waters and
gases given out. and by earthquakes and
minor explosions.

The initial outburst is accompanied by
the final clearing of the vent and break-
ing up and expulsion of the detritus and
solidified lava by which it had been
closed and sometimes by the destruction
of the mountain. This suddenly relieves
the underlying liquid lava of an enor-
mous pressure, and results in the rapid
giving off of the steam and other gases
which the lava contained.

Hot molten lava, especially when un-
der pressure, has the capacity to dissolve
great volumes of gas. It is in the con-
dition of water under pressure and
charged with gas. The uncorking of the
volcano has therefore the same effect as
the uncorking of a bottle of any other
liquid charged with gas : the gas rushes
out, carrying part of the liquid material,
chiefly in the form of coarse spray.

It is this frothing of the lava which
creates pumice, which is nothing but
lava blown full of holes and projected
in a liquid condition into the air. where
it cools. The explosion which began
is then continued in great force with the
ejection of a stream of lava-spray or

liquid pumice, which is kept up as long
as the imprisoned gases last.

This action is usually intermittent, the
volcano behavmg somewhat as a geyser
and being subject to the effects of' re-
peated accumulation and sudden release
of pressure from below. In most cases,
after the larger part of the gas is given
off. the lava flows quietly out in response
to the pressure back of it.

HOW SHOWERS OF ASHES ARE FORMED

The column of steam and lava-spray,
after being blown out of the crater, ex-
pands until it is in so rarefied a condition
that it floats freely in the air and is
known as volcanic smoke. This grad-
ually cools, and in so doing becomes un-
able to support the solid particles which
gradually fall in a shower of ash and
dust. These finer materials are com-
posed chiefly of the smaller particles of
spray as they solidified, together with
detrital material made up of fragments
broken from the walls of the crater by
the passing blast, and of pumice dust
made by the larger pieces breaking as
they struck each other or cracking as
they cooled.

The eruption of Mount Katmai was
doubtless preceded by the conditions de-
scribed above, yet in this case, probably
because of the absence of near-by ob-
servers, none of them except the earth-
quakes were recorded. Earthquakes
were felt at Katmai for at least five days
prior to the eruption, while more severe
shocks were felt on June 4 and 5 at
Kanatak, Uyak, and Nushagak. These
places are 65, 58, and 130 miles from
]\Iount Katmai to the southwest, south-
east, and northwest respectively.

It seems highly probable that the vol-
cano began to throw out large volume^
of gases on the 5th. since observers at
Cold Bay noted that the northern sky in
the direction of the volcano "looked
black and storming" late that night, in
spite of the fact that there was fair
weather on the coast.

THE EXPLOSIONS THAT WERE HEARD QOf
MILES AWAY

Early in the afternoon of June 6 the
volcano passed into a state of violent
eruption. There must have been fre-

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144

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Photo by Gci.r:-;c C. Marm
IMJ'RIUK Ol" MAIX ROOM OF BARaBARA AT DOUGLAS VILLAGE, SHOWING HOW TIlK
ASH PENETRATED THE CREVICES AND CRACKS

quent explosions accompanied by earth-
quakes during the morning, but few of
these were intense enough to be noticed
at a (hslance. It was only at Seldovia
and Xushagak that these preliminary
morning explosions were noted.

The beginning of the violent phase of
the eruption was apparently at i p. m.,
June 6, at which time a terrific explosion
and earthquake was noted by C. L.
I'oudry at Cold Bay (see page 147). At
the same hour a heavy cloud was seen
from the steamer Dora (55 miles away)
rising over Blount Katmai. This cloud
was under observation from this time
until it enveloi)ed the steamer, 5^ hours
later. The accompanying views of the
cloud were taken by John E. Thwaites,
mail clerk of the Dora, just before dark-
ness shut down (see pages 154. 155).

At 3 p. m. there was a tremendous
explosion, which was heard for hundreds
of miles around, and the volcano passed
into a state of continuous eruption, which

lasted, except for possible short inter-
vals, for several days.

This exjilosion was noted at Uyak,
at lliamna I)ay, at several places on
Iliamna and Clark lakes, at Koggiung,
and at a point ()0 miles southwest of
Eagle. Ex])losions were also heard at
about this time, although no statement of
the exact hour is available, at Juneau,
750 miles east, and Fairbanks, 500 miles
northeast of the volcano. At Iliamna
Bay the sounds were accompanied by a
"sudden, quick motion of the clouds that
would start and stop."

It was ])robal)ly at this time that the
larger part of the coarse, gray ash which
forms the lower stratum on the Alaska
Peninsula and on Kodiak and .-Vfognak
islands was thrown in the air. This ash
reached l^yak, 58 miles away, at 3.30
p. m., and Kodiak, 100 miles from the
volcano, at 5 p. m., and soon afterward
complete darkness settled down over an
area of several thousand square miles.

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146

THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KAT.MAI

147

KVK-WITNESSES OF THt) KRUPTIOX

The only people who witnessed the
explosion from near at hand were na-
tives. Two families, who stayed at Kat-
mai after the other people of that town
went away to work in a fishing camp,
left Katmai for Cold Bay on June 4,
and were in camp on the shore between
Kamvik and Alinchak bays at the time
of the eruption.

C. L. Boudry, who was at Cold Bay
when these people reached there wrote
in his diary : "They report the Katmy
hill blew up and threw rock out to sea,
but could not tel mor as they whare on
the road to Cold Bay — an that pommey
stone in fire whas falling 20 miles an
that the watter was hot in the Katmy
bay — after examining ther boat ther i
found pummice stone the sise of com-
mon rice."

jack Lee, who also interviewed them
on their arrival at Cold Bay wrote :
*'They report the top of Katma Moun-
tain blun of. There was a lot of
I'ummy stone in their dory when they
t^ot here and the say Hot Rock was fly-
ing all eraund them."

These last two statements of the in-
terviews with the natives are quoted ver-
batim because each contains an assertion
that the explosion wrecked the moun-
tain. In this connection it is important
to note the statement made by William
Neilson, of Iliamna, as quoted in a letter
from Thomas W. Hanmore. Mr. Han-
more says : "While Mr. Neilson was in
Naknek" (he went there June 7, and was
there at least until June 9) "the natives
from the Indian village of Savanoski, at
the head of Naknek Lake, came to Nak-
nek very much excited. They reported
the upper half of Katmai ^lountain gone
and the mountain burning up."

These people, together with those
from Katmai, were the nearest persons
to the volcano at the time of the erup-
tion, and were in an excellent position
to observe what happened. Proper al-
lowance must, of course, 1)e made for the
natural but unintentional exaggeration
due to the excitement of the moment ;
but the close similarity of these entirely
inde]iendent accounts, their source from
people who. though familiar with dor-

mant volcanoes, certainly never before
witnessed a violent eruption, and their
agreement with what we would expect
to happen in an eruption of this charac-
ter, all confirm them as being probably
reliable and accurate descriptions of
what occurred at 3 p. m., June 6, as seen
by the only eye-witnesses.

THE SECOND EXPLOSION

The activity of the volcano probably
slackened somewhat after the severe out-
break at 3 p. m. The next violent explo-
sion was probably at about 11 p. m. that
night, at which time a hard earthquake
was noted at Cold Bay and at about
which time a strong glare of light was
observed at Kanatak (see page 148).

It is believed to be the ash of this
eruption which began falling at Kodiak
about noon of June 7. at Afognak at
4 p. m. of the same day. and at the west
end of the Kenai Peninsula early the
morning of the 8th. This shower con-
tinued without interruption at Kodiak
for 26 hours, or until 2.30 p. m., June 8.
The ash which fell during this shower is
the second stratum of fine brown mate-
rial 41^4 inches thick at Kodiak after
being packed down.

The people at Cold Bay apparently
first realized that a volcano was in vio-
lent eruption on the morning of June 7.
The westerly wind on the 6th kept any
ash from reaching Cold Bay, and appar-
ently neither the earthquakes nor the
black cloud in the northern sky had been
considered as having any connection
with the long dormant volcanoes. By
the morning of the 7th the continued
and increasing noise of thunder and ex-
plosions, together with the growing vio-
lence of the earthquakes, called closer
attention to the appearance of the cloud,
which had then risen to a great altitude
and assumed a well-marked form and
other characteristics which made it im-
possible to confuse it with an ordinary
storm-cloud.

Father Patelin, who was at Kanatak,
noted that the smoke came and dust fell
there the morning of June 7. though the
wind continued to be from the west.
There were earthquakes nearly all day,
with short intervals between. Many of

148

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

the earthquakes were strong and there
was continuous rumbhng. The earth-
quakes became so severe toward evening
that it seemed dangerous to remain in
the barabaras, one of which nearly fell
in, so they were abandoned and tents
used. That evening after lo o'clock
came the strongest earthquake yet felt,
accompanied by heavy rumbling and
rock-slides from all around. There was
evidently a strong glare of light from
the volcano, it being recorded that "the
mountains were like sunshine." After
midnight he heard a "big noise like
thunder from the Katmai side," after
which everything was quiet and he slept.

THE THIRD EXPLOSION

It is important to note the very severe
earthquake which was felt at Cold Bay
at 10.40 p. m. June 7, and also at Kana-
tak at about the same hour. At Kanatak
heavy rumbling was heard and an in-
tense flare of light came from the direc-
tion of the volcano. Earthquakes lasted
all this night at IHamna Bay (115 miles
distant from Katmai Volcano), it being
recorded that "the earth never ceased to
move for nearly 12 hours." Earthquakes
were reported from 90 miles southwest
of Eagle at 11 p. m. June 6 or 7. It is
evident that these phenomena marked
another violent outbreak of the volcano.
Probably it was the material erupted dur-
ing this period which forms the upper-
most stratum at Kodiak and vicinity, fall-
ing there during the night of June 8.

The period of explosive activity and
of the ejection of large quantities of
solid matter seems to have ceased on
June 8, the volcano then passing into a
less violent but freely erupting stage
which lasted all summer and possibly
still continues. An immense column of
steam was noted rising from the volcano
wherever the absence of clouds permit-
ted a view in that direction. Frequent
earthquakes were noted on the Alaska
Peninsula at intervals throughout the
summer ; heavy rumblings were heard
by all who approached the vicinity ; so-
called flames were observed from Bris-
tol Bay; fumes were noted at long dis-
tances from the mountain, and occasional
light showers of ashes fell as far away

as Nushagak. These subsequent phe-
nomena will be described more fully af-
ter we have considered the conditions
existing during the fall of ash from the
eruptions already described.

THE ZONE OF DARKNESS AND FAEE OF
ASHES

The material hurled into the air by the
explosions described above ascended to
great heights and traveled east under the
influence of the prevailing wind in a suc-
cession of clouds. The coarser material
began to fall at once, but so great was
the total volume of material that the
clouds traveled several hundred miles
before very considerable amounts of dust
had ceased to fall and before they ceased
to spread absolute darkness over the
land and sea. The track of the clouds
seems to have been to the east over the
southeast end of Kodiak Island and out
to the sea for an unknown distance, then
back under the influence of a wind shift-
ing into the east, so that Cook Inlet, IH-
amna Lake, and Bristol Bay received a
belated shower. The influence of the
west wind at the time of the eruption on
the distribution of ash is shown by the
fact that the total amount of ash which
fell at Cold Bay, only 50 miles from the
volcano, was less than that which fell at
Seldovia, 150 miles away, and probably
was little if any more than that which
fell at Juneau, which is 750 miles distant.

The nearest to the volcano of those -
within the zone of darkness were the na- I
tives in a fishing camp at Kaflia Bay. '
Ivan Orlof^, the creole Tyone of Afog-
nak, who was with these people, wrote
as follows to his wife :

Kaflia Bay, June g, 1912.
My De;ar Wife Tania :

First of all I will let you know of our un-
lucky voyage. I do not know whether we
shall be either alive or well. We are awaiting
death at any moment. Of course do not be
alarmed. A mountain has burst near here, so
that we are covered with ashes, in some places
10 feet and 6 feet deep. All this began on the
6th of June. Night and day we light lamps.
We cannot see the daylight. In a word, it is
terrible, and we are expecting death at any
moment, and we have no water. All the rivers
are covered with ashes. Just ashes mixed with
water. Here are darkness and hell, thunder
and noise. I do not know whether it is day

I'iioto by Jolin K. Tluvaites
XATIVK CHURCH AT KDDIAK UEFOKK THE EKLl'TIOX OF MOL'XT KATMAI

THE SAME SCENE DURING THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI. JUNE 6, I<)12.
SHOWING THE GREAT DRIFTS OF VOLCANIC ASHES

149

LAST SEA-OTTER HUNT, UNGA

BIDARKA IN ILIAMNA BAY

These bidarkas are used in the pursuit of otters. They vary from i8 to 25 feet in
length and are very light, being constructed of hides stretched over a slight wooden frame-
work. They can be very rapidly propelled and are constructed to carry one to three people
with never more than three paddles.

ISO

i'hutu by (.'
RUSSIAN CHURCH AND IX II ACITAXTS OF LITTLE AFOGXAK, JULY 3O, HJl.

I'holo by George C. Martin

THE INTERIOR OF THE RUSSIAN CHURCH AT LITTLE AFOC.NAK, JULY 30, igi2

The inhabitants of Little Afognak are mainly descendants of Russian settlers and belong to

the Orthodox Church

151

152

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

or night. Vanka will tell you all about it.
So kissing and blessing you both, good-bye.
Forgive me. Perhaps we shall see each other
again. God is merciful. Pray for us.

Your husband, Ivan Orloff.

The earth is trembling; it lightens every
minute. It is terrible. We are praying.

WHAT WAS SEEN FROM A PASSING
STEAMER

The outburst on the afternoon of June
6 was witnessed from the. steamer Dora,
which was then passing through Sheli-
kof and Kupreanof straits, eastbound.
Capt. C. B. McMullen, of the Dora, has
given the following description of the
phenomena which he observed:

"Left Uyak at 8.45 a. m., June 6;
strong westerly breeze and fine clear
weather. At i o'clock p. m., while enter-
ing Kupreanof Straits, sighted a heavy
cloud of smoke directly astern, raising
from the Alaska Peninsula. I took bear-
ings of same, which I made out to be
Katmai Volcano, distance about 55 miles
away. The smoke arose and spread in
the sky, following the vessel, and by 3
p. m. was directly over us, having trav-
eled at the rate of 20 miles an hour,^

"At 6 p. m. passed through Uzinka
Narrows, fine and clear ahead, and con-
tinued on expecting to make Kodiak.
At 6.30 p. m., when ofif Spruce Rock,
which is about 3>^ miles from Mill Bay
Rocks and the entrance to Kodiak, ashes
commenced to fall and in a few minutes
we were in complete darkness, not even
the water over the ship's side could he
seen.

"1 continued on in hopes that I might
pick up entrance to Kodiak, but when
vessel had run the distance by the log
conditions were the same, so I decided to
head out to sea and get clear of all dan-
ger. At 7.22 I set a course NE. by N.
(magnetic). Wind commenced to in-
crease rapidly now from the southwest
and vessel was driven before it. Heavy
thunder and lightning commenced early
in the afternoon and continued through
the night. Birds of all species kept fall-
ing on the deck in a helpless condition.
The temperature rose owing to the heat
of the volcanic ash, the latter permeat-
ing into all parts of the ship, even down
into the engine-room.

"About 4.30 a. m. next day vessel
cleared the black smoke, emerging into a ,
fiery red haze, which turned mto yellow,
and by 6 a. m. the ashes had ceased to
fall and the horizon was perfectly clear
from west to north.

"The wind now came from the north-
west and vessel was headed for Chugach
Islands, as the smoke and ash was still
in the sky astern of us.

"During the day Katmai continued to
be emitting volumes of smoke and could
be seen at a distance of over 100 miles.

"The vessel was covered with ash from
trucks to deck, the decks having ashes
from 4 to 6 inches deep.

"Made Seldovia June 7 at 8 p. m. and
Homer at 11 p. m. Leaving Homer at
11.30 p. m., proceeded on toward Seward.
At 3.30 to 4 a. m. passed through bank
of volcanic ash. At 7 a. m. vessel was in
complete darkness again and I dropped
the anchor near Clam Bay until 9.20;
clearing a little, proceeded again and run
out to sea. At 10 a. m. complete dark-
ness again, which continued throughout
the day until 4 p. m., when we ran out of
the smoke area into brilliantly clear
weather."

THE RAIN OE ASHES

John E. Thwaites, mail clerk on the
Dora, was quoted in a local paper as
saying that at i p. m. an immense column
of smoke was seen ascending from the
westward, its diameter seeming to be at
least half a mile or a mile. The column
rapidly became dimmer, and a dark mass
of cloud showed above it, mingled with
it, and came toward the steamer. Soon
the cloud obscured the column altogether,
and afterward lightning was seen in the
cloud. At 4 p. m. the edge of the cloud
was directly overhead and the pictures
were taken (see pages 154, 155).

As the sun passed behind the edge of
the cloud at this time, it immediately be-
gan to grow dark. At 5 o'clock lights
were turned on. At 6 o'clock the ad-
vance edge of the cloud was out of sight
beyond the horizon, and small white
flakes began to fall. Darkness gradually
increased as the streak of clear sky in the
northwest narrowed, until "when the last
ribbon of clear sky was suddenly ob-

Photo by W. J. Erskine
BARGE "ST. JAMES'' AT KODIAK, JUNE 4, 1912, BEFORE THE ASH FALL

riioto ii

THE "ST. JAMES

AT KODL\K, JUNE 9, I9I2, AFTER THE ASH FALL

"The buildings of the Navv wireless station, on Wood Island, were struck '^X ^f Strung

burned on the evening of the 7th or the morning of the 8th. The darkness at the time

was so intense that the flames could not be seen from the mission less than <, "i;'^_^^^^>;

Late in the afternoon of June 8 partial daylight appeared and the fall of ash almost ceased

(see page 156). There was darkness for practically 60 hours, at a distance of 100 miles

and
was

from Katmai Volcano (see page 165).

153

I'lioto and copyright by John JJ. Thwaites

i;dge; of volcanic cloud, looking southwe;st

FROM THL "dORA," 75 MILLS FROM
VOLCANO (SLL PAGL 133)

scured, the light snuffed out hke a candle
and we were left in absolute darkness."

Mr. Thwaites' further statement of
conditions during the darkness and fall
of ashes on night of June 6, as published
in the Sczuard Gatczvay of June 15, is as
follows :

"And now began the real rain of ashes ;
it fell in torrents ; it swirled and eddied.
Gravity seemed to have nothing to do
with the course of its fall. The under
side of the decks seemed to catch as much
ashes as the sides or the decks under our
feet. Bright clusters of electric light
could be seen but a few feet away, and
we had to feel our wav about the deck.

The officers of the deck had to close
the wmdows of the pilot-house
tightly, and even then it was with
the greatest difficulty that the man
at the wheel could see the compass,
through the thick dust that filled the
room. In the meantime, lurid
flashes of lightning glared contin-
uously round the ship, while a con-
stant boom of thunder, sometimes
coinciding with the flash, increased
the horror of the inferno raging
about us. As far as seeing or hear-
ing the water, or anything pertain-
ing to earth, we might as well have
been miles above the surface of the
water. And still we knew the sun
was more than two hours above
the horizon.

"In the saloon everything was
white with a thick layer of dust,
while a thick haze filled the air.
The temperature raised rapidly, and
the air, what there Avas left of it,
became heavy, sultry, and stifling.
Below deck conditions were unbear-
able, while on deck it was worse
still. Dust filled our nostrils, sifted
doAvn our backs, and smote the eye
like a dash of acid. Birds floun-
dered, crying wildly, through space
and fell helpless to the deck."

BLACKNESS OF NIGHT AT MIDDAY

The events at Kodiak during the
eruption, including the appearance
of the black volcanic clouds, the
rain of ashes, the 60 hours of al-
most continual darkness, the pre-
cautions taken for the safety of the
people, and the welcome return of
clear skies, have already been vividly de-
scribed in these pages by Captain Perry,
of the revenue cutter Manning ^^ and
will not be repeated in detail here.

The volcanic clouds were first noticed
about 4 p. m., June 6, in the south and
west. Another cloud afterward appeared
in the north, the two meeting in the
northeast. Ash began to fall at 5 p. m.,
coming in gradually increasing volume.
At 7 p. m. complete darkness had shut
down. Thunder and lightning Avere ob-
served soon after the cloud appeared, and

*(See National Geographic Magazine, vol.
XXIII, No. 8, pp. 824-832.)

154

L'hnto and copyriglit by John !•". Tlnvaitcs
\"()LCAXIC ASH APPKOACIIIXG KODIAK ISLAND
Photograph taken straight up from deck of the Dora. June 6. iqu

i'hoto and copyriglit by John Iv. Phwaiti-'
SMOKE FROM KATMAl VOLCAXO AS IT PASSED OVER KODIAK ISLAND
Photograpli taken straight up from deck of the Dora June 6, IQU
"The column rapidlv became dimmer, and a dark mass of cloud showed above it mingle<l
with it. and came toward the steamer. Soon the cloud ol)scured the column altogether and

afterward lightning was seen in the cloud \s the sun passed liehind the edge of the

cloud at this time, it immediatclv began to grow dark. . . . "The last rd)bon ot clear sky
was suddenly obscured, the light snuffed out like a candle, and we were left m absolute
darkness.'" (seepages 152. 154).

15S

i'lioto bi ii. C iicniiaiiu
ON BOARD THE "MANNING" AT KODIAK, JUNE 8, I9I2

continued in great severity throughout
the rain of volcanic material, but dimin-
ished in intensity after midnight of the
6th.

The lightning was described by one
observer as traveling like a snake and in
some cases as going up from the earth
in round balls. Electrical conditions
were such that wireless apparatus could
not be used. A number of severe earth-
quakes were felt during the night.

Ash fell continuously until 9.10 a. m.,
June 7, but in decreasing volume after
3 a. m. The total fall of ash up to this
time was originally about 5 inches, but
packed down afterward to 4 inches, form-
ing the lower and coarse gray stratum
now on the ground (see page 166).

THICK DARKNESS AND A RAIN OE ASHES
EOR OVER 25 HOURS

At noon, June 7, the fall of ash was
renewed. At i p. m. darkness came
again, not to be dispelled until after 2.30

p. m. of the following day. During all
this time the fall of ash was continuous
and was accompanied at times by sul-
phurous fumes. The darkness was in-
tense, and the ash so thick in the air that
bright lights failed to penetrate it for
more than a fezv feet. It is said that a
lighted lantern held at arms length could
barely be seen, and that the searchlight
of the Manning failed to penetrate far-
ther than the bow of the ship. By the
morning of the 8th the ash had accumu-
lated in sufficient bulk on the steep hill-
sides to begin sliding in great volumes.

The buildings of the Navy wireless
station on Wood Island were struck by
lightning and burned on the evening of
the 7th or the morning of the 8th. The
darkness at the time was so intense that
the flames could not be seen from the
mission, less than 54 n^i^e away. Late
in the afternoon of June 8 partial day-
light appeared and the fall of ash almost
ceased. The ash which fell during this

156

I'huto by W. J. j;r~kiiic
THE END OF THE ASH FALL AT KODIAK : SCHOONER "mETHA NELSON" AND BARGE

"ST. JAMES," JUNE 9, I912

time constitutes the second stratum, now
45^ inches thick, of fine-grained brown
material.

During the evening of June 8 the fall
of ash was again resumed and continued
until an unrecorded hour in the night,
when it gradually diminished, entirely
ceasing by the morning of the 9th, when
daylight appeared. The ash which fell
during this interval is the third stratum,
composed of i^A inches of very fine-
grained, light-gray material.

Conditions as observed at Afognak by
E. M. Uall differ in few essentials from
those already described at Kodiak. The
time of the appearance of the cloud is
not recorded. It is, however, described
as approaching in silence, there being no
wind on the level of the ground and no
thunder and lightning.

The ash reached the we^^t end of Kenai
Peninsula early in the morning of June
7, slight showers being reported at Port
Graham at 3 a. m., and at Seldovia. 150
miles from Katmai volcano, at about
the same time. Explosions and earth-
quakes had been noted since 9 a. m..

June 6. becoming louder and more fre-
quent throughout the day. The sky was
overcast all day June 7, but there was
no darkness, and comparatively small
amounts of ash fell. The more heavily
ash-laden clouds were at this time passing
eastward, further south.

Boats on Cook Inlet reported lightning
rising from the water in the direction of
Barren Islands. Explosions and earth-
quakes were observed throughout the
day. The next day there was a much
heavier fall of ash. and there was modcr-
erate darkness for two hours during the
forenoon. Frequent and violent earth-
quakes and explosions were noted. A
dense cloud of dust came slowly in from
the south about 3 a. m., June 9.

Ash fell from 5 a. m. till nearly noon,
and inkv darkness prevailed during i)art
of this time. (This place is 150 miles
from the Katmai volcano. ) The fall of
ash was much heavier than on the ])rc-
ceding day. about ;}4 i"<-'li accumulating
on the ground, and sulphur fumes accom-
panied its fall. Explosions were heard
at irregular intervals on the 9th and con-

157

158

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

tinned in decreasing violence and fre-
quency until the 14th. The last ash was
recorded as falling on the 13th.

i;xte;nt op the; ci.oud q-^ ashes

The ash cloud reached the eastern end
of Prince William Sound, 375 miles
northeast of the volcano, about noon of
June 7, at which time the log of the
steamer Bertha records that the sun
turned red in a clear sky, the air became
hazy, and dust began falling. Cannonad-
ing at irregular intervals was heard
aboard the steamer at 2 a. m., June 8, at
Cordova. The Whiteshead wireless sta-
tion reported at this time that the noises
had already been heard there for 36
hours. There was a light westerly breeze
when the dust first came, but after the
steamer passed Cape Hinchenbrook the
wind came from the east, but the fall
of ash increased, continuing until the
steamer reached Juneau, at 8 p. m., June
10. The heaviest fall was east of Cape
St. Elias, in a fresh easterly breeze.

Dust fell at Katalla (410 miles from
Katmai volcano) 48 hours after the
first explosions, which sounded like dis-
charges of dynamite in the near-by hills.
The ash came first on a southwest, but
afterward on an east, wind. For about
three days the air was so thick that one
could see only a mile or two. There was
no darkness, and only about yi inch of
ash fell. Vegetation was turned yellow.

The steamer Admiral Sampson also
reported that ash fell all the way from
Seldovia to Juneau. The air was so
thick that one could not see more than
2 miles until passing Cape Spencer.
Brass tarnished in 15 or 20 minutes after
being polished.

It was reported in the press that dust
fell in Ketchikan (900 miles from Kat-
mai) June 8, and in Vancouver and Vic-
toria June II.

Dust fell 90 miles southwest of Eagle
the morning of the loth, and was re-
ported from Dawson on the nth. It fell
also in small but appreciable quantities
at Fairbanks, Ruby, and in the Innoko
district.

SUBSEQUENT EVENTS

The freely erupting condition of the
volcano, which appears to date from the

cessation of the continuous violent ex-
plosions and of the ejection of large vol-
umes of ashes, etc., about the 8th of June,
continued until at least the last week in
August. The exact conditions during
this time are not known, but it is evident
that violent earthquakes occurred fre-
quently; that the crater or craters sent
forth vast and probably continuous
clouds of vapor, and that at times con-
siderable dust was ejected.

At Cold Bay (50 miles from Katmai
Volcano), where complete daily records
were kept from June 6 to August 15,
earthquakes were recorded on 50 of the
70 days from June 8 till August 15. They
were heaviest on the following dates :
June 8, II, 13, 17, 21, 22, 28, July 4, 16,
21, 23, 24, 30, and 31. The most severe
ones were noted on June 11, 21, and
July 30.

Sounds, probably of volcanic explo-
sions, were heard at Cold Bay on June
17, 22, 28, July 9, 16, and August 13.

The presence of fumes and falling
dust at Cold Bay was influenced largely
by the direction and intensity of the
wind. Fumes were noted almost contin-
ually from June 8 till July 5, from July
12 till July 24, and on July 30 and 31,
and August 10 to 12. They were strong-
est on June 8 to 11, 17, 23, 24, and Au-
gust 5. A general decrease in their in-
tensity is thus shown. Dust was preva-
lent in the air until June 24, falling in
sufficient amount to be seen upon the
ground on June 10, 13, 17, 21, and 24.

The times at which columns of steam
and other visible evidence of conditions
at the volcano could be seen from Cold
Bay depended chiefly, if not wholly,
upon weather conditions, and are conse-
quently of little significance other than
indicating that they were probably al-
ways present.

The glare of volcanic light upon the
steam and clouds was observed on June
23 and July 21 and 31. This phenome-
non could be seen only during favorable
weather conditions, so its apparent ab-
sence at other times is not significant.

Some of the phenomena observed at
Cold Bay were of widespread occurrence :

On the morning of June 9 observers
at Naknek, 80 miles northwest of the
volcano, saw a beautiful illuminated fun-

I'iuH.. ;■> w.

TPIE I^ND OF THE ASH 1-ALL AT KODIAK

.^Itf-'r-

~:-~*^g yv

I'hoto by W. J. Erskinc
A PORCH WHICH COLLAPSED BENEATH THE WEIGHT Ol- THE ASHES
Manv of the liouscs at Kodiak were wrecked by the weight of ashes which descended
in avalanches from the hillside. In other cases the roofs collapsed under the weight ot
ashes, for the deposits were fre(iuently as much as 24 mches m thickness.

159

Photo by George C. INIartin
SPRUCe;S NIEAR KODIAK, WITH SOME; ASH Rj^MAINING ON THE) BOUGHS, BUT NOT AS

MUCH AS IN more; she;i,te;re;d pivAce;s: SE;pTi;MBi;R 4, 1912

160

THE ERUPTION OF AIOUXT KATMAI

161

nel-shaped cloud, which rose straight
into the air to a considerable altitude,
and, as there was no wind, retained its
shape. It afterward assumed different
colors and dissolved into cloud banks,
being illuminated all the time. A similar
cloud was observed from Iliamna, 115
miles north-northeast of the volcano and
135 miles from Naknek, at the same
time, the description differing from the
above only in the statement that in losing
its funnel-shape form it assumed "the
shape of a ship."

A severe earthquake was felt in the
Yukon Valley and Alaska Range on Jul>'
6, the after eft'ects continuing for about
a week. It was apparently not felt in
southwestern Alaska, and it is very
doubtful whether it has any connection
with the volcanic disturbance, as it was
apparently central to the north of IMount
McKinley.

Strong sulphurous fumes were re-
ported by several on board the Maniiiiig
from 6 to 9 a. m., July 27, when south of
Marmot Island and about 120 miles east
of the volcano. The author did not notice
the fumes, but they were of sufficient
strength to darken the new white-lead
paint on the Manning and in Kodiak.

An immense column of steam ascend-
ing through the ordinary clouds in the
position of Mount Katmai was seen by
the writer during the evening of August
12 from Takli Island. While anchored
here we heard almost continuous roar
as of waterfalls or of surf on the islands,
but no such surf was seen. Possibly
the sound came from landslides in the
ash, but more likely from the volcano.

THE RAIN THAT TARNISHED SILVER

On August 15 the writer was at the
mouth of Katmai River. The wind was
from the west and the sky was clear
much of the day, except for cloud caps
on the mountains.

The hills from west (magnetic) around
through the north to the east (magnetic)
of Katmai village were enveloped in a
blue haze, which became denser through-
out the morning. At noon the haze be-
came so thick that the end of the ridge
north of the Steamboat Bay \'alley and
the low hill 2 miles northwest of Kat-

mai village were invisible from our an-
chorage, a mile above the mouth uf the
river.

Rain fell during the middle of the
morning. The drops of water striking
the eyes produced a sharp pain, and brass
and silver were tarnished by the drops.
The blue haze was thickest about noon
and came nearer with the stronger wind,
receding as the wind lightened. About
I p. m. it became oppressively sultry, an
apparent glare of heat being noted from
the north. Xo sounds attributable to the
volcanoes could be heard, nor were earth-
quakes felt. Photographs were taken,
showing the edge of the haze on the end
of the ridge west (magnetic) of our an-
chorage. No clouds over the volcanoes
could be seen on account of the haze.

On August 16 sulphurous fumes were
noted by H. M. Eakin i.t the Ophir Creek
mines, 350 miles north of the volcano.

On August 17 earthquakes were felt
at Naknek. They were so violent as to
upset lamps on the table. Reports either
of thunder or explosions were also heard.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER ERUPTIONS

The magnitude of a volcanic eruption
is not properly measured by the loss of
life and damage to property which it
caused, for these are the accidental re-
sults of the eruption and are due largely
to the chance proximity of cities. It is
rather to be measured in terms of the
natural phenomena ; the quantity and dis-
tribution of the ejected material, the dis-
tance at which sound waves, dust, dark-
ness, and fumes were observed, the vio-
lence of the accompanying earthquakes,
the distribution and intensity of the re-
sulting atmospheric conditions, and other
natural phenomena of various kinds.

The greatest eruptions on record, meas-
ured by criteria of these kinds, include
those of Krakatoa in 1883, Cosoguina in
1835. Tomboro in 181 5. Skaptar-Jokull
in 1783. and Papandayang in 1772. The
eruption of Katmai was apparently of a
magnitude comparable with some of
these (see article by Dr. Abbot in this
number).

Comparing the eruption of Katmai
with that of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait
between Java and Sumatra, in 1883. we

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164

THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAl

165

find the volumes of ejected materials are
not far from equal, but the explosive
violence of the Krakatoa eruption was
by far the greater. The explosions of
Krakatoa were heard at a distance of
3.000 miles ; those of Katmai were not
recorded farther away than Juneau, a
distance of 750 miles. But it should be
noted that the country east of Juneau is
chiefly an uninhabited wilderness, from
which sounds are not likely to be re-
ported, and that the more distant reports
of sounds from Krakatoa came from
islands and sailing vessels, both of which
were more numerous in the Indian than
in the North Pacific Ocean.

Darkness was recorded at a distance of
276 miles from Krakatoa and only at 150
miles from Katmai. The darkness lasted,
however, only 22 hours at a distance of
133 miles and for 57 hours at a distance
of 49 miles from Krakatoa, while there
was darkness for practically 60 hours at
a distance of 100 miles from Katmai.

The ash from Krakatoa fell to a depth
of 18 inches in 24 hours at a distance of
66 miles, while the depth of the ash from
Katmai was about 12 inches at a distance
of 100 miles. (See also article by C. G.
Abbot, page 191, in this number.)

The dust from Krakatoa fell at least
1.800, and possibly 3.300, miles away;
that from Katmai has not been recorded
authentically farther than Ketchikan, 900
miles away, but probably fell in small
amounts at a distance of 1.200 or 1,500
miles. Here again it must be noted that
the direction of heaviest ash fall from
Katmai extended into the wilderness of
British Columbia, where its maxinuim
extent is difficult to recognize.

It is probably fair to conclude that the
eruptions of Krakatoa and Katmai were
of approximately equal magnitude, the
former exceeding in the brief intensity
of its culminating explosion, the latter in
sustained violence, and the two being
about equal in the quantity of material
ejected (see also pages 166, 167).

THE GREATEST KNOWN ERUPTION

The eruption of Tomboro, on the
island of Sumbawa, east of Java, in
181 5, if the published reports are to be

credited, appears to have exceeded all
other known eruptions. It caused dark-
ness lasting for three consecutive days
at a distance of over 300 miles. Ash fell
to a depth of 2 feet more than 850 miles
away. Dust fell over an area of 1,000.-
000 square miles. The explosions were
heard at a distance of i.ooo miles. The
material ejected has been variously esti-
mated at 28.6. and even at 50 cubic
miles.

The eruption of Skaptar-Jokull, in
Iceland, in 1783, appears to share with
Tomboro the preeminence as the greatest
eruption known. Comparison with the
other eruptions here described is made
difficult by the fact that the larger part
of the material ejected was lava and not
ash. The immense flows of lava from
Skaptar-Jokull exceed in volume any-
thing known during historic times. In
addition to this, there were showers of
ashes throughout the island, the atmos-
phere over Iceland was loaded with fine
dust for months, crops were destroyed in
Scotland. 600 miles away, and plants
were blighted and sulphurous fumes
were noted even in Holland, 1,100 or
1.200 miles away.

The eruption of Papandayang. in
western Java, in 1772, was accompanied
by the extrusion of much larger quanti-
ties of material than were thrown out by
Krakatoa in 1883. Towns were buried
under ejected materials at long distances
from the mountain. The volcano was
reduced in height from 9,000 feet to
5,000 feet.

The more famous eruptions of history,
such as those of the Mediterranean,
which are not mentioned above, occupy
a i:)rominent place in human, rather than
in geologic, history. These volcanoes
are famous because they are situated in
thickly settled districts, and have conse-
quently been familiar objects to millions
of people, while their eru])tions have
caused great loss of life and property,
not primarily because of their violence,
but because of the proximity of the peo-
ple and cities.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EJECTED M.\TERI.\L

The character of the material ejected
from Mount Katmai is as yet known

only from the deposits which fell
at distances greater than 15 miles
from the mountain. If streams
of lava flowed out, they did not
come within sight of the coast.
The deposits which were studied
in detail vary in thickness from
55 inches at the head of Amalik
Bay, 15^ miles from the moun-
tain, to 31^ inches at the east end
of Afognak Island, 113 miles
from the volcano.

Throughout this entire district,
at least three layers correspond-
ing to the three major outbreaks
can be observed. The bottom
layer is of relatively coarse gray
material ; the middle layer is
finer and is brown, and the upper
layer is the finest and is light
gray or almost white. Each layer
decreases in thickness with the
distance from the volcano, the
decrease being most marked in
the bottom and middle layers
(see pages 132 and 176).

The bottom layer consists of
fragments of pumice mixed with
a small proportion of fragments
of crystals of feldspars and py-
roxenes and other dark minerals.
The pumice -is consolidated lava-,
froth, mostly white, and varies in
size from pieces i or 2 ounces in
weight and 2 or 3 inches in long-
est dimension, which fell 15 miles
from the volcano, to material of
the grain of fine sand, which fell
70 to 100 miles away.

The middle or brown material
near the base of the mountain
consists of several layers, which
differ from the lower bed in con-
taining a smaller proportion of
crystalline material and in con-
taining a considerable amount of
yellowish and brownish pumice.
At distances of 70 to 80 miles
from the mountain this material
consists of two brown layers, the
lower one of sandy grain and the
upper of very fine dust. At dis-
tances of 90 to 100 miles from
the mountain only a single layer
could be recognized, and that was
composed of impalpable brown
dust.

166

^^^ i

I'lioto by George C. Martin
SECONDARY ACCUMULATIUX Ul* I'UMlClv AT LASli Ui" AlDLMAlX WEST OF AMALIK

BAY, AUGUST lO, I912

The uppermost material consists of
fine light gray or white material, varying
less in grain with the distance from the
mountain than the other layers. It con-
sists of several alternating layers of fine
sand and very fine dust near the moun-
tain, and of a single layer of extremely
fine white dust at a distance.

The finer material and the dust of all
the layers are apparently composed
chiefly of pulverized pumice of the same
character as the larger pieces. This ma-
terial in petrographic character is appar-
ently rhyolitic.

The \arious layers aggregate about 4.9
cubic miles in bulk, extending over an
area of many thousand scjuare miles and
ranging in thickness from 4^ feet 15
miles from the crater to almost one foot
100 miles away and to the fraction of an
inch 150 miles away.

THE CHANGE IN THE LANDSCAPE

The eflfect of this covering on the
landscape is well illustrated in the photo-
graphs (pages 166 and 168) taken on
Takli Island, which lies in the mouth of
.Vmalik l>ay, about 21 miles southeast of
the volcano, and was nearly in the direct

track of the heaviest ash fall. This island
is the place where those who risk the
hazardous bidarka voyage across Sheli-
kof Strait watch and wait for favorable
weather. A small cove on the inner side
of the island afforded shelter for our
schooner during a northeast gale, which
lasted several days, while the hills
formed good lookout points from which
the clouds pouring out from the volcano
could be watched and studied at such
fortunate moments as storm and fog per-
mitted.

The island was covered with 3 feet of
volcanic detritus, in which there were
numerous fragments of pumice an inch
long. The scene was a dreary one — a
grav expanse of ashes broken only by a
few ledges of ancient lava, patches of
half-killed willow and stunted birch, and
two small groves of young si:>ruce. These
spruce trees are of interest as being the
westernmost evergreens on the Pacific
coast of America. They are far from
others of their kind, and I suspect that
the Russians may have planted them
there as they did at I'nalaska.

The surface of the ash was strewn
with recentlv killed willow and alder

167

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leaves, too fresh to have
been killed at the eruption
of June 6. They may have
fallen, because the bushes
were slowly dying through
suffocation, or may have
been withered by a more re-
cent volcanic blast. Fumes
were noticeable while we
were there, in spite of the
fact that the wind was pre-
vailingly from the east.

I believe that a steady
northwest wind at a time
of only moderate activity
would have carried suffi-
cient fumes to make even
vegetable life precarious.
The only indications we
saw of animal life in this
locality were soaring eagles
and tracks of foxes.

Amalik Bay heads back
among the high mountains
at a distance of about 15
miles from the volcano.
We here realized that we
were indeed in a volcanic
land, for through the clouds
of volcanic vapors which
were pouring over the
mountain crests and under
the thick covering of the
volcanic detritus of last
June could be seen layer
upon layer of columnar
lava, aggregating at least
3,000 feet in thickness,
which poured out from
some mighty vents, prob-
ably in Miocene time, per-
haps a million years ago.
These ancient volcanic
rocks, mantled by those of
June, except on the cliffs
too steep for the latter to
lodge, are shown in all the
views taken from this bay.

It was near the head of
Amalik Bay that the thick-
est ash accumulation was
found. Fifty-five inches on
the level was measured at
one point, this thickness
representing the original
fall and not a secondary ac-
cumulation. The material

170

171

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173

DRY CHANNElv OR GULCH ERODIiD IN ACCUMULATION OF VOLCANIC ASHLS AT BASE
OF MOUNTAIN WEST OE AMALIK, AUGUST ID, I912

included one piece the size of a brick,
which had traveled through the air for
15 miles.

THREE DOGS ESCAPE DEATH

Katmai lies desolate on the edge of the
great gray waste. It was fortunate that
the people went away before the erup-
tion, for a breath of hell swept down the
valley, bringing death even to the trees.
The only living things we saw were a
few spears of grass, which had pushed
up through the places where the wind
had swept part of the ash away, and
three dogs, who had escaped either by
seeking refuge in the inner and deeper
recesses of the barabaras or who possibly
had been away on a hunt. The scene
was the more deathly because it lay on
the edge and in full view of the bril-
liantly green and undevastated country
to the west (see page 146).

The appearance of this newly altered
landscape is also shown in the views taken
in the vicinity of Kodiak. The dust fell as
a dry and impalpable powder, which was
incapable of supporting weight. Heavy
rains fell soon afterward, the greater part
of the water being absorbed by the dust,

which acquired the consistency of soft
mush. It was in this condition at Doug-
las Village when we landed there. At
every step one would sink to the ground,
the feet sticking in the soft mud as in
molten tar. When this water-soaked ma-
terial dried, it cracked as mud does in
drying. The cracks are in places 2 inches
wide and extend through the two upper-
most and finer layers (see page 172).

Hilltops and ridges are being swept
bare, and thick drifts similar in form
and surface to sand dunes are accumu-
lating. At times of high wind the air is
thick with the drifting dust. In the for-
ested areas a large part of this dust is
derived from the trees, the forests look-
ing as if brush fires were running
through them.

As soon as the material fell to such a
thickness that it was not held down by
the grass it began sliding down the
steeper slopes. This action was accentu-
ated by the rains, and large volumes de-
scended the steep hillsides back of Kodiak
carrying houses off their foundations and
crushing in the walls. Such deposits are
shown in many of the Kodiak views (see
pages 134, 140, 173).

174

CRKKK CUTTING A CHANNEL IN A UEEi' ACCUMULATION OF \OLCANlC ASHES AT i'.ASE
OF MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK BAY, AUGUST 10, I9I2

"The streams are heavilj' overloaded with the volcanic detritus, and consequently are
rapidly building up and extending their flood-plains, and are constructing large alluvial fans
at their mouths and at points of flattening grade. Avalanches and deposition at the mouths
of tributaries are changing the grades and even the courses of some of the streams. Lakes
are being rapidly fllled and great changes are being made in shore-lines."

DEPOSITS FORMED MORE THAN 25 FEET
THICK

In the area of thicker ash-fall and on
the stee])er mountain slopes tremendous
avalanches took place. The immense ac-
cumulations formed in this way are
sliown in the views from Katmai and
from Amahk P>ay. Much of this mate-
rial had, on August 12, come to rest tem-
porarily at least, but the enormous de-
posits gave evidence as to what the char-
acter of the avalanching must have been
and inspired caution in climbing steep
slopes.

The dejjosits along the stream below
the waterfall, shown in view above, had
been (leei)ly trenched by the stream after
it spread them. A thickness of over 25
feet was exposed and still the base of the
deposits v/as not reached. This expo-
sure is, moreover, not at the very foot of
the hill, where the greatest thickness
must have been deposited.

The streams are heavily overloaded
with the volcanic detritus, and conse-

quently are rapidly building up and ex-
tending their flood-plains, and are con-
structing large alluvial fans at their
mouths and at points of flattening grade.
Avalanches and deposition at the mouths
of tributaries are changing the grades
and even the courses of some of the
streams. Lakes are being rapidly filled
and great changes are being made in
shore-lines.

MASSES OF PUMICE COVER THE SEA

The pumice is being washed into the
sea by the combined action of streams,
waves, and tides. There it forms great
floating fields, which migrate with the
winds and tides and greatly impede the
navigation of small craft such as ours.
An immense field of pumice which visited
our anchorage at Takli Island is shown
on page 178. The view shows the dis-
tance to which a dory could be forced
into it. This visitor came and went under
the influence of tidal currents and winds,
and constituted a menace which led us
to seek a more sheltered nook for our

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178

TIIK WAKE OF THE DORA

i'liuto by Joiiu i;. I'll
THROUGH THE Fl.OATTXG I'l'MICE

Fishermen reported a field of pumice in Shelikof Strait dense enough to support a man.
The pumice consists of rhyolitic glass, with a small amount of crystals of feldspars and
pyroxenes. It is a lava which solidified at a time when it was giving off gases, and is con-
sequently of a porous and spongy texture, which makes it so light that it will float.

boat. Even this was invaded by the float-
ini^ rock, vhich jammed tight arotmd and
carried our boat with it when it moved^
in spite of two anchors and two pieces
of pig iron down, and forced us to make
fast to a projecting cHff. The floating
pumice was twelve inches thick alongside
the boat and possibly was much thicker
in the center of a large field. Fishermen
reported a pumice field dense enough to
su])port a man in Shelikof Strait.

The pumice, once in the sea. will drift
around until it is thrown high upon some
beach, is ground to powder, or finally
becomes waterlogged and sinks.

EFFECT ().\ LIFE

The efifect of the eruption on whatever
vegetation clothed the flanks of the vol-
cano was certainly annihilation. The
position of the death-line around the
mountain is not known, but it came prac-
tically down to the sea, 15 miles from
the crater at Katmai. The conditions
under which the bushes in Katmai Val-
ley were killed is uncertain, but a hot
blast like that of Pelee is stiggesleil.
The brush is living in Amalik Bay, no
farther from the volcano, and where the

fall of ash was twice as great as at
Katmai.

The efifect on the vegetation of Kodiak
and Afognak islands was apparently
only that of burial. \\'here the ash was
washed ofif, even after many weeks, the
grass soon came up, and apparently
showed the effects of no other injury
than that which would be caused by a
similar burial imder any other material.
The stronger-stemmed plants, especially
the fireweed, lui)ines, and some of the
grasses, forced their way up through the
cracks in the ash, and even through its
solid mass where the thickness was not
too great (see page t8o).

The finer dust stuck to the trees, espe-
cially to the spruces, causing a wintry-
looking scene which lasted all summer.
This fine dust does not wash or shake
oft' readily, and probably will cling to the
more sheltered spruces for manv years.
The dust from the eruption of Redoubt
in January, 1002, was still lodged on the
sjiruces along T.ake Clark in the summer
of KJ09. It api)arently had a serious ef-
fect upon the trees, only the to])s and
the outer tips of the boughs showing a
healthv growth. This same after effect

I7Q

I'hutu bj' George C. Mai tin

lupine;s growing through cracks in the ash ne;ar kodiak, September 4, 1912

"The stronger-stemmed plants, especially the fireweed, lupines, and some of the grasses,
forced their way up through the cracks in the ash, and even through its solid mass where the
thickness was not too great" (see page 178).

is to be expected on Kodiak and Afog"-
nak islands and in lesser degree on the
southern end of Kenai Peninsula.

The leaves of the currants, salmon
berries, and many other of the shrubs
and herbs on Kenai Peninsula and Prince
William Sound were blighted by the dust
or by the acid rain which fell there.
This effect, curiously enough, did not
occur in the district of thicker ash.

Marine life was affected to a larger
degree than would perhaps be expected.
The writer observed that the barnacles
and mussels as far down as low tide in
Katmai Bay were mostly dead. Kelp is
apparently dead as far as the eastern end
of Afognak Island. This is indeed a
catastrophe, since the kelp is the one
great aid to navigation on the Alaskan
coast. Cod and halibut are reported to
have died in great numbers in the shal-
lower waters of lower Cook Inlet.

ANIMAES STRICKEN WITH BEINDNESS

The bears on Kodiak and Afognak
islands were made bold by hunger, and

attacked cattle in close proximity to the
villages. It is reported that some of the
bears were blind.

In the vicinity of Iliamna Lake, where
not over 4 inches and for the most part
less than i inch of ash fell, most of the
small birds died, many rabbits were
made blind, and the reindeer were se-
riously affected by the dust. Dead gulls,
geese, ducks, ptarmigan, snipe, hawks,
and many small birds were found at the
mouth of Kakhonak River. A dead
eagle was found hanging in a tree in such
a position that he was probably killed by
flying into the tree when blind. Blind
rabbits, and birds which were either
blind or had their eyes affected, were
noted at several places in the Iliamna
district. Small fish in some of the creeks
were killed, and the fish in the lakes
were driven off"shore into deep water.

Small birds, squirrels, marmots, and
mice were killed at Cold Bay. Mosqui-
toes were entirely exterminated through-
out the greater part of the district in
which the ash fell.

DO \OLCAXIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE?

181

j\Ian escaped the injuries received by
the other animals by seeking sheher.
Many of the people reported severe
headaches, pains in the throat and lungs,
and sore eyes while the dust and fumes
were in the air. Two or three people in
Kodiak died during the eruption, but
their deaths are considered as being
merely hastened by exposure and by
breathing the dust and as not due pri-
marily to the eruption.

]\Ian was indirectly affected by the
eruption through the injury to other ani-
mal life and to vegetation. The scarcity
of salmon during the summer of 1912,
the injury to crops and grass, and the
destruction of srame and fur animals

must all be counted as indirect, but none
the less serious, injuries to man. The ef-
fect on the salmon, through the probably
complete filling of all the smaller lake's
by the ash, which will for years work
down the streams and hillsides into them,
and through the possibly permatient de-
struction of the spawning grounds, is
probably the most serious of these in-
juries.

\'egetation will be affected only tem-
porarily, the soil will probably be im-
proved, and the people can feel assured
that not in many years, and possibly not
in centuries, can the volcano accumulate
enough force to cause another eruption
of this character.

DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR

CLIMATE?

By C. G. Abbot
Director AsTRoriivsiCAL Odskrvatory, Smithsonian Institution*

J nth Photographs by George C. Martin

IX THE month of June. 1912, I was
engaged in making measurements
at Bassour, Algeria, on the quantity
of heat coming to the earth from the
sun. At the same time my colleague, Mr.
F. E. Fowle, was engaged in making
similar measurements at Alount Wilson,
in California. Recent work of the As-
trophysical Observatory had strongly in-
dicated that the sun is a variable star.
The fluctuations in the amount of the
solar radiation seemed to be of variable
magnitudes, seldom exceeding 5 per
cent, and occurring in irregular periods
of from 5 to 10 days.

The work on which this conclusion
was based had been done at Mount Wil-
son, in California, and it was not impos-
sible that local atmospheric conditions
may have had such an influence there
that the observed changes might possi-
bly be of atmospheric origin. To ex-
clude this possibility it was necessary to
show that the same results would be
reached by simultaneous observations at
another station so remote from Mount

* Published by permission of the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution.

Wilson that the local circumstances
would be entirely different.

Hence it was that an expedition occu-
pied the station in Algeria in 1911. and
again in 1912. As we shall not have
occasion to refer again to the main pur-
pose of the expedition, it will suffice to
say here that, so far as yet reduced,
high values of solar radiation obtained
in Algeria coincide in time with high
values obtained at Mount Wilson, and
vice versa : so that the results seem to
strongly confirm the supposed solar va-
riation.

DUST FROM ALASKA OBSERVKO IN AI.f.ERIA

While observing on June 19, 1912. I
noted streaks resembling smoke lying
along the horizon, as if there were a
forest fire in the neighborhood of the
station. These appearances continued,
and were soon joined by others more
noticeable. After a day or two we
began to see peculiar mottled figures
like those of the mackerel sky. although
absolutely no clouds were present. The
phenomenon became so marked that we
ceased entirelv our observations of the

Photo by George C. Martin
LUPINES GROWING THROUGH THlg ASH NEAR KODIAK

solar radiation, as the sky seemed to be
quite too poor for such work.

About the 25th of June a cloudy pe-
riod began, with rain, and after this, of
course, we expected that all these curious
sky phenomena would have passed away ;
but not so, for when the clouds had quite
passed by, about the 29th of June, we
found that the whole sky was filled with
haze, and this state of affairs continued
even more pronounced until the expedi-
tion left Algeria, about September 10.

For a long time I supposed the hazi-
ness was local, but in August a letter
from Mr. Fowle told me that at Mount
Wilson also the same conditions pre-
vailed, and the presumption was that
they were world-wide. I then recalled
reading in an American paper of the
volcanic eruption at Mount Katmai, and
turning to the paper, which fortunately
had not been destroyed, I saw that the
magnitude of the eruption must have
been very great, and was perhaps the
cause of the phenomena which we had
observed.

On my return to America I found the
matter even more certain, for Professor
Kimball, of the Weather Bureau, re-
ported a great increase of haziness at
Mount Weather, Virginia, beginning on
June 10. European journals also began

to be filled with notices of an extraor-
dinary haziness which had prevailed
throughout the summer in Europe.

THE DUST TRAVELED 25 TO 40 MILES AN
HOUR

Assuming these effects to have been
due to the volcano in Alaska, it is inter-
esting to note the rate at which the dis-
turbances were propagated. Mr. Kimball
noted the effect at Mount Weather, Vir-
ginia, 3,700 miles from Katmai, on June
10 and II. The writer noted effects in
Algeria on June 19, but the observations
seemed to indicate that they were be-
coming appreciable as early as the morn-
ing of June 17. This was at a distance
of 6,000 miles.* The first observations
of Mr. Fowle were noted on June 21 at
Mt. Wilson, distant 2,500 miles from
Mount Katmai.

The rates of propagation then Avere
roughly as follows : Toward Washington,
40 miles per hour ; toward Bassour, 25
miles per hour; toward Mount Wilson,
3 miles per hour. The great delay in
reaching Mount Wilson was doubtless
because the prevailing winds in the higher
atmosphere have a course from westerly

* By shortest course directly over the North
Pole. It is probable that the actual course was
much longer.

182

rhm- li> i,cMi,;r C. .Martin
BLUEGELLS AXD MOSS AMONG THE ASHES! MIDDLE BAY, SEPTEMBER 12, I912

toward easterly, so that Mount Wilson
lay decidedly too far to the south for the
most favorable communication.

HOW THE sun's HEAT IS MEASURED

Before taking up the question of the
reasonableness of the hypothesis that the
dust from Alount Katmai was distributed
all over the higher atmosphere and re-
mained there for months in suspension,
we may consider for a moment the exact
effects which were observed with our
ajiparatus and the nature of the appa-
ratus with which these effects were ob-
served.

In the tirst ])lace we have the pyrhcli-
ometer. an instrument for measuring the
heating effect of the sun at the earth's
surface. In the second place we have
the spectro-bolometer, that wonderful de-
vice of Langley for observing the exces-
sively minute heating effects of the rays
of the solar spectrum. Imagine that you
have before you a very intense solar
spectrum, and that it is still early morn-
ing, with the sun perhaps an hour and a
half high.

If you had a thin, delicate blackened
thermometer, you could carry it along in
the spectrum from the extreme ultra-
violet to far beyond the red. and detect

varying degrees of temperature rise, pro-
portional to the heat produced by each
spectral ray. It would make no differ-
ence whether these lay between the violet
and the red and were visible to the eye,
or were the short Avave-length photo-
graphic rays beyond the visible end of
the violet spectrum, or the long wave-
length rays lying beyond the visible end
of the red. All would produce their just
and ])roportional heating effects upon this
delicate thermometer. At each of the
Fraunhofer absorjition lines the ther-
mometer would fall slightly.

The "A" band of oxygen would pro-
duce a comparatively great decrease of
temperature, and beyond the red there
would be still more prominently the great
bands, due to the water vapor in tlie
earth's atmos])here.

Suppose now that several hours later
vou repeated the experiment. You would
find that, excepting in these great water-
vapor bands, practically every part of
the spectrum was hotter than before, and
that the change had been greatest in the
violet end. Knowing the altitude of the
sun above the horizon at each time of
observation, you could compute the thick-
ness of the layer of air traversed by the
solar beam.

183

Photo by George C. Martin
ASH IN FOREST NEAR HEAD OF WOMAn'S BAY, NEAR UZINKI, AUGUST I, I912

From this it would be possible to de-
termine how much the intensity of the
rays would have been increased had the
observation been made outside of the at-
mosphere altogether — as if it could have
been made, for instance, upon the moon.
From this result one could determine
how much the rays of each part of the
spectrum were diminished in intensity by
their passage through the atmosphere on
their way to the surface of the earth.

AN INSTRUMENT THAT MEASURES ONE-

MIEEIONTH PART OE A

DEGREE OE HEAT

No ordinary thermometer would be of
any value for this purpose ; but the bo-
lometer invented by Langley about 1881
is an electrical thermometer so sensitive
that a change of temperature of i one-
millionth part of a degree is observable
with it under ordinary conditions.

We were equipped with such an ap-
paratus at Bassour, and Mr. Fowle had
one similar on Mount Wilson, and with
these, following the scheme of operations
which I have indicated above, we meas-
ured for all rays of the solar spectrum
the transparency of the atmosphere.
Similar measurements have been made
at Mount Wilson for many years, and
were made in Algeria in the year 191 1.

The following table shows the decrease
in the transparency of the atmosphere,
first for the beam of the sun as a whole,
and then for the rays of different re-
gions of the solar spectrum :

Percentage Decrease of Direct Solar Radiation
by Hase of 19 12

Computed for Solar Zenith Distance 48°

Station.

Bassour.

Radiation.

Total.

Ultra-
violet.

Green.

Infra-
red.

Wave-length

July I to 31

August I to 31 . . .
September 5

All.
18.0

19-3
16.4

3.700
21.4
19.7
14.3

5,300
22.2

24-3
18.3

10,000
16.8
14.9
14.9

Station.

Mount Wilson.

Radiation.

Total.

Ultra-
violet.

Green.

Infra-
red.

Wave-length

July I to 31

August I to 31 . . .
September 5

All.
10.7
16.8
17.I

3.700
15-5
275

5,300
12.9
23.1

10,000

5-4
14.0

20 PER CENT OE SUN S HEAT LOST IN 1912

From these results we see that the un-
common haziness of the sky during the

184

DO \OLCAXIC KXPLOSIOXS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 185

summer of 1912 produced a very marked
decrease in the direct solar radiation in
all parts of the spectrum,* and reached
nearly 20 per cent at high sun for the
total heat.

There was, however, some compensa-
tion in the increased brightness of the
sky for this apparently very great loss in
1912. In order to understand this, think
for a moment what happens to the sun-
rays before they reach the earth's sur-
face. // ice could i:^o outside the earth's
atmosphere — to the moon, for instance —
the sky would look dark as it does at
night, studded zvith stars, except zchen ive
looked directly toward the brilliant sun.
zchich xi'ould shine wholly undimnied. It
is the earth's atmosphere which changes
all this, for in the passage of a sunbeam
through it, even on a cloudless day, two
kinds of losses occur — one imperceptible
to the eye, the other giving us the sky-
light.

Firstly, some of the invisible rays of
the infra-red spectrum are totally ab-
sorbed by the water vapor, oxygen, and
carbon-dioxide of the earth's atmosphere.
and cease to exist as radiation long be-
fore the sunbeam reaches the earth's sur-
face. Secondly, the molecules of the air
and the fine dust suspended in it scatter
and diffusely reflect the sun-rays, and
make the sky bright, much as the motes
of dust in a sun-lit room reveal the path
of the sunbeam in it.

Thus, of the sun-rays scattered in the
earth's atmosphere, some reach the ob-
server at the earth's surface, coming no
longer from the sun directly, but dif-
fusely reflected from every part of the
sky. The remainder are scattered away
into space and lost altogether for the
purpose of heating and lighting the
earth.

IIKAT REFLECTED INTO SP.VCE INSTE.\D OF
REACHING THE EARTh'S .ATMOSPHERE

It is this last-mentioned portion which
most interests us here, for we wish to
inquire how much more heat than is
usual was lost to the earth by rcflecti<Mi
of the atmosphere to space in 19 12, owing

* This circumstance must have caused a de-
cided increase in the exposures required by
pliotoeraphers for solio prints.

to the dust which came from Katmai
volcano. One can easily see that since
the light of the sky and the loss by re-
flection to space both depend on the j^res-
ence of the molecules and the dust of the
atmos])here, an increase (;f the dust (at
least up to a certain point) must make
the sky brighter and the loss to space
greater also.

What, then, do we ordinarily receive
from the sun?

(A) The direct solar beam.

(B) The skylight.

What else would we have received if
there were no atmosi)liere?

(D) The rays reflected away to space
from the upper atmosphere.

The sum of these four quantities
should be approximately equal to the
heat of the solar beam outside the earth's
atmosphere, as, for instance, on the
moon. This we may call (E). As we
cannot measure (D) directly, we must
find it by subtracting A+B-j-C from E.
It is of course (D), the loss to space,
with which we are principally concerned.

For we must ask ourselves: Jl'as
the earth's loss of heat by reflection of
the upper air to space made greater by
reason of the haze of IQI3? To answer
this we must know the value of the ex-
pression (D)HE— (A-|-B+C)}> as it
was in 191 2 and as it is ordinarily.

Measurements of (A), the direct sun-
rays, and (C), the water vapor and other
absorption, we make every day. and I de-
vised and built with my own hands at
Bassour two pieces of apparatus for
measuring (B). the light of the sky.
From observations taken a little before
noon on September 5, 6, and 7. 191 2, we
found at Bassour the following results,
stated in calories per sq. cm. per minute:

(.\) Heating effect of the direct beam of

zenith sun 1 .250

(R) Heating effect of the entire sky 0.245

l)y water vapor from sun and sky
radiation 0. 175

Total (.\ + B + C) I fi/O

(R) Heating effect of total radiation
outside the earth's atmosphere
(from the moon for instance)... 1.05"

(D) = (E)-[(.^) + (R) + (C)] 0.280

186

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

The difference between the heat out-
side the earth's atmosphere and the sum
of the various parts of it indicated above
is 0.280 calory per sq. cm. per minute,
and this we may suppose represents ap-
proximately the loss of heat by reflection
from the atmosphere to space in the
summer of 1912.

In former years similar experiments
to these have been made at Mount Wil-
son and Mount Whitney, and it was
found in each case that the sum of the
radiation: (A) of the direct solar beam,
(B) from the sky, and (C) lost by the
absorption in the atmosphere, lacked
less than 0.05 calory of the total heat-
ing effect outside the atmosphere.

I am of the opinion that the difference
between these results of 1912 at Bassour
and those of earlier years at Mount Wil-
son and Mount Whitney (or about 0.20
calory) represents approximately the
radiation reflected away to space by the
volcanic dust of 1912, or, in other words,
the loss of heat available to warm the
earth, which we must attribute to the
great haziness which prevailed in 1912.
The difference is about 10 per cent of the
whole intensity of the sun's radiation
outside the atmosphere. Hence I con-
clude that the dust of Katrnai diminished
the heat available to warm the earth in
the north temperate zone by about ten
per cent during the summer of IQ12.

In accordance with the laws of heat
and radiation, this might produce a fall
of 7° centigrade in the temperature of
the earth as a whole, if it was effective
for a long enough period of time, pro-
vided that there were no counteracting
influences, such as altered cloudiness or
decreased nocturnal earth radiation,
brought about at the same time with,
and perhaps by reason of, the increased
haziness of the atmosphere.*

* The results here given on the combined
brightness of the sun and the sky must as yet
be regarded only as provisional. No experi-
ments were made at Bassour on the brightness
of the sky prior to the coming on of the haze;
hence we shall be obliged to wait until the
haze has entirely cleared before we can have
measurements strictly representative of the
conditions which would prevail there in a clear
sky. Dr. Dorno, observing at Davos, in Swit-
zerland, does not confirm my conclusion that
the total brightness of sun and sky was de-
creased by the presence of the haze, although

world-wide; haze caused by terrific
eruptions in japan and iceland

Having now given estimates of some
effects of the great haziness of 1912, we
shall next consider whether volcanoes
can really produce such world-wide
haze. To answer this we have only to
go back to the records of times of the
greatest volcanic actions of the last 150
3rears.*

In the year 1783 occurred the eruption
of Asamayama, Japan, stated to be the
most frightful eruption on record. Im-
mense rocks were hurled in all direc-
tions and towns and villages buried.
One stone, said to be 264. X 120 feet, fell
into a river, and looked like an island.

In the same year occurred the (if pos-
sible) still more extraordinary eruption
of Skaptar Jokull, in Iceland, beginning
near the end of May and producing the
most violent eruptions on June 8 and 18.
Arago records that the dry "fog of 1783
commenced about the same day (June
18) at places distant from each other,
such as Paris and Avignon, Turin and
Padua. It extended from the north
coast of Africa to Sweden and lasted
more than a month.

The lower air did not seem to be its
vehicle, for in some parts the fog came
on with a south, in others with a north,
wind. Abundant rains and the strongest
winds did not dissipate it. In Eanguedoc
its density was such that the sun was not
visible in the morning up to 17° altitude
above the horizon. The rest of the day
the sun was red, and could be observed
with the unprotected eye. At the time i
of new moon the nights were so bright f
that the light was compared to that of
full moon, even at midnight."

In 1814 occurred the great eruption of
the volcano of Mayon, in the Philippine
Islands, and on April 7 to 12, 181 5, the

he found very strong effects of the haziness
in reducing the intensity of direct sun rays,
and noted even that the combined brightness
of sun and sky in the green had fallen off by
7 per cent as compared with that of the com-
bined brightness in the red. His measure-
ments of the combined brightness do not ex-
tend to the whole spectrum, so that it is possi-
ble that in this fact may lie the explanation of
the divergence between his results and mine.
* See Report of Krakatoa Committee of
Royal Society of Great Britain.

rimtii by CiioTKc C. .Martin

ASII-LADKX TREKS XKAK KOHIAK. AUGUST 2^. 1912
(See article by George C. Martin, page 179)

187

Photo by George C. Martin
POI^EMONIUM IN BI,OOM AT BASi; OF ASH-COVE;re;d CLIFF NEAR KODIAK,

SFPTFMBFR 4, I912

extraordinary eruption of Tomboro,
Sumbawa, of which it is said "this erup-
tion was the greatest since that of Skap-
tar Jokull, in 1783." For three days
there zvas darkness for a distance of 300
fniles. After these extraordinary erup-
tions there were noted in Europe streaky
skies, haziness, long twilights, and red
sunsets; so that "the year 1815 is the
most remarkable as regards sunset lights
recorded up to that date."

THF DRY FOG OF 1 83 1 AND 1883

Passing on to the year 183 1, there oc-
curred three moderate eruptions and
three more of the very first magnitude.
Graham's Island was thrown up, and
eruptions took place in the Babujan
Islands and at Pichincha.

Arago says: "The extraordinary dry
fog of 1831 was observed in the four
quarters of the world. It was remarked
on the coast of Africa on August 3, at
Odessa on August 9, in the south of
France and at Paris on August 10, in
the United States on August 15. The
light of the sun was so much diminished
that it was possible to observe its disk

all day with the unprotected eye. On
the coast of Africa the sun became visi-
ble only after passing an altitude of 15°
or 20°. M. Rozet, in Algeria, and others
in Annapolis, United States, and in the
south of France saw the solar disk of an
azure greenish or emerald color. The
sky was never dark at night, and at mid-
night, even, in August, small print could
be read in Siberia, at Berlin, Genoa, etc.
On August 3, at Berlin, the sun must
have been 19° below the horizon when
small print was legible at midnight."

Passing over, among many others, for
lack of space, the great eruptions of
Hecla in 1845 ^^'^ 1846, and those of
Vesuvius and Merapi in 1872, we come
to the tremendous explosion of Kraka-
toa of August 27, 1883, and the eruption
of St. Augustine, in Alaska, October 6,
1883. The extraordinary atmospheric
phenomena which closely followed these
remarkable volcanic eruptions were so
evidently in the relation of effects to
causes that there can be no doubt as to
the reasonableness of ascribing the haze
of the past summer to the volcanic erup-
tion in Alaska, provided that eruption

188

DO \OLCAXlC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLLMATE? ISO

was comparable in magnitude to those of
which we have spoken.

KATMAI DEPOSITS ONE FOOT OF ASHES IOC
MIIvES AWAY

The eruption of Mount Katmai vol-
cano reached its most vigorous phase on
June 6 and 7, 1912. Observations were
made by Captain Perry, of the revenue
cutter Manning, at Kodiak Island, situ-
ated 100 miles from the volcano. At 5
o'clock, June 6, a noise like distant thun-
der was heard and ashes began to fall.
Thunder and lightning were frequent,
and the sky became dark, although two
hours before sunset.

When the deposit of ashes ceased, at 9
a. m. of June 7, about 5 inches of ashes
had fallen. At noon they commenced to
fall again, and increased in density, until
at I o'clock it was impossible to see be-
yond a distance of 50 feet. At 2 o'clock
pitch darkness had set in, and although
all ashes of the previous day had been
removed from the ship, yet the decks,
masts, and yards zvere again heavily
laden, and the men worked incessantly
with shovels and streams of water to
clear the decks, falling over one another
in the blackness.

At 2.30 p. m. of June 8 the fall of
ashes decreased, the sky assumed a red-
dish color, objects became dimly visible,
and the deposition ceased by the morn-
ing of June 9. At Kodiak Island, 100
miles from the volcano, the ashes reached
the average depth of one foot. (See arti-
cle by George C. Martin in this number.)

THE VOLCANIC EXPLOSION OF KRAKATOA
WAS HEARD 3,000 MILES AWAY

In order to compare the intensity of
this volcanic outbreak with the great
outburst at Krakatoa in 1883, which
stands at the high-water mark of vol-
canic activity for the past century, it
will be interesting to review some of the
])henomena of the Krakatoa eruption as
stated in the report of the Krakatoa
Committee of the Royal Society of
Great Britain.

]\Iay 20. 1883. booming sounds were
heard at P.atavia and P.uitcnzorg, towns
in Java, situated about lOO miles from

Krakatoa, and on May 21 a sprinkling
of ashes was noticed on both sides of
the Strait of Sunda. From this time
until August 26 the eruption of Kraka-
toa continued with considerable inten-
sity, although several times parties
landed on the island.

On August 26, 27, and 28, violent ex-
plosions occurred, which blezv azvav the
whole northern and loiver portion of the
island of Krakatoa, leaving submarine
cavities sometimes a thousand feet deep
zvhere before the island had risen to
1,400 feet above sea-level. The water
wave following the greatest explosion of
August 27 was estimated to be 50 feet
deep or more when it reached the coasts
of Java and Sumatra. A ship of war
zvas carried inland for nearly 2 miles,
and left jo feet above sea-level. Be-
tween 30,000 and 40,000 people lost their
lives by the overwhelming of their vil-
lages.

The explosion was heard as far as the
island of Rodriguez, nearly 3,000 miles
away, and the area over zvhich the actual
noise of the explosion was heard em-
braced one-thirteenth of the area of the
globe. The air waves traveled outward
from the volcano as a center till they
reached the antipodes in South America,
were then reflected backward to their
origin, and from there returned, so that
they were observed by the meteorologi-
cal stations to have made four complete
passages away from Krakatoa and three
in return before their traces were lost.

The sea waves were several feet high
after crossing the Indian Ocean, and at
a distance of several thousand miles, and
were even thought to be observed by the
tide gauges of the English Channel.
The height of the column projected from
the volcano on August 26 was measured
as 17 miles (89,760 feet).

Beginning shortly after the eruption,
the sky at distant regions of the earth
became hazy, and abnormally long twi-
lights and sunset gUnvs continued to be
observed even as much as two years after
the occurrence. It was comjnUed that
the fine dust from the volcano reached
an altitude at first of 120,000 feet and
was still at a height of 50,000 feet more
than a year after the eruption.

I go

DO \OLCAXIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLLMATE!

VJ]

BUT KRAKATOA DID NOT EJECT AS MUCH
ASHES AS KATMAI

Although the violence and destructive-
ness of this celebrated eruption places it
in the first rank, and the quantity of
matter ejected was very great, yet when
we compare the depth of ashes falling at
considerable distances from the Island of
Krakatoa with the quantity of ashes
which fell on Kodiak Island after the
eruption of Mount Katmai it appears that
the volcano of Krakatoa was far inferior
in this respect to the recent one.

According to the investigations of \'er-
beek, the average depth of the ashes at
the distance of lOO miles from the vol-
cano of Krakatoa was about one quarter
of an inch. We have seen that at Kodiak
Island the depth of the deposit from Kat-
mai was about one foot and the average
depth at a distance of lOO miles from
Katmai at least one inch (see page 132).
If, then, the air was filled with haze from
Krakatoa for two years after the erup-
tion, it need not surprise us that a great
amount of haze occurred following the
eruption of Katmai.

But it must not be forgotten that the
violence of the eruption of Krakatoa was
most extraordinary. It is possible that
although the amount of ashes sent out
from Alount Katmai may have greatly
exceeded the quantity sent out from
Krakatoa, yet the height to which the
ashes were projected in the atmosphere
by Krakatoa may have greatly exceeded
the height to which they were projected
from Katmai. Thus perhaps we ought
not to infer that the meteorological con-
sequences of Katmai should last as long
as those extraordinary ones which were
observed after Krakatoa. Recent pyr-
heliometer measurements, however, show
that in January, 1913, the sky was still
abnormally hazy.

It is only since just before the Kraka-
toa eruption that we have had measure-
ments of the intensity of solar radiation
comparable to those which were available
in 1912. From a paper of Prof. H. H.
Kimball* I copy the accompanying illus-
tration, which shows the fluctuation of
the annual solar radiation received at the
earth's surface as measured at different
stations, f

VIOLEXT VOLCANIC OUTBURSTS SERIOUSLV

DIMINISH THE AMOUNT OE HEAT WE

RECEIVE FROM THE SUN.

It is apparent that very great de-
partures from the usual intensities oc-
curred from 1883 to 1887, 1888 to 1893,
and from 1902 to 1904 respectively.
Having now convinced ourselves that
such departures may reasonably be ex-
pected in consequence of great volcanic
eruptions, it is interesting to find, if we
can, the causes of the diminished solar
radiation at about 1891 and 1903 re-
spectively.

The activity of the Island of \'ulcano
lasted 20 months — from August 3. 1888.
to March 22, 1890. The most violent
explosions occurred on August 4, 1888;
December 26, 1889. and March 15, 1890.
An eruption which took place there on
January 6, 1889. was observed by A.
Ricco from the Observatory of Palermo
to be sending a column of smoke to the
height of more than 6 miles.

An eruption of Mayon, in the Philip-
pine Islands, took place December 15.

1888. \'ast columns of ashes ascended
from the crater, and in a short time the
darkness was so intense that, though it
was midday, lights had to be used in
Manila. Violent eruptions were also re-
ported in the same year in other islands
of the Philippine group.

A vessel passing the Island of Oshima.
in Japan, reported violent eruptions of
the volcano of Miharaizan on April 13,

1889. O" January 16. 1890, a violent
eruption took jilace at Mount Zoo, near
the town of Fukuyama, in Japan.

In February, 1890, there was the vol-
canic eruption at the Island of Bogoslof,
in Bering Sea. Three small new islands
were created in the immediate vicinity
and the island was raised i.ooo feet.
Ashes were collected in Unalaska. about
40 miles distant.

1!ANDAI-SAN THROWS UP JOG
TONS OE MATERIAL

MILLION

On June 7, 1892. a severe erupt

ion

* Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observa-
tory, vol. 3, Part IT.

t Professor Kimball's data comprise the four

broken lines near curve A of the figure, page
i()6. I have marked them i-i (from 1883 to
1900); 2-2 (from iS<y3 to 1903); 3-3 (from
1901 to 1905): 4-4 (from 1906 to 1909). The
results of different observers have been com-
bined and smoothed, as will be stated below.
Results of this kind from single stations are
much influenced by local haziness. In future
years much fuller information will be available.

192

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

began from a volcano near the capital of
the Island of the Great Sangir. . Some
thousands of people were killed and im-
mense quantities of ashes fell all over the
island. The noise of this eruption was
heard at Sandakan, 500 miles away.

An eruption of Mount Etna began on
the nights of July 8 and 9, 1892, and
continued with more or less intensity all
the month. Occasional less severe out-
breaks occurred afterwards. The erup-
tion was notable for the enormous quan-
tities of smoke and sand emitted.

But undoubtedly the greatest eruption
of this period occurred in northern Japan.
Bandai-San is a mountain about 5,800
feet high, which had shown no sign of
activity for about 1,100 years. A sub-
ordinate peak, called "Little Bandai-
San," arose on its northeastern side. On
the morning of July 15, 1888, "Little
Bandai-San" was blown completely into
the air and obliterated. The debris buried
and devastated an area of at least 30
square miles. An estimate based on the
depth of the debris in this area indicated
that the quantity of earth, rocks, and
volcanic material reached 700 million
tons, and that doubtless the true figure
would be much greater. About 600
people perished horribly and many more
were reduced to destitution.

It was, with one possible exception,
the most terrible volcanic disaster which
had occurred in Japan since the famous
explosion of Asamayama in 1783. The
force of an explosion capable of tearing
a mountain to bits and distributing it
over an area of 30 square miles may
well have been sufficient to blow the
column of ashes high enough into the air
to have been carried over the earth like
those ejected from the crater of Kra-
katoa in 1883.

the; devastation wrought by mont

The town of St. Pierre, on the Island
of Martinique, was struck and totally
destroyed by two volcanic blasts of nearly
equal severity, occurring respectively on
May 8 and May 20, 1902. The loss of
life reached nearly 30,000 persons. The
volcano of Mont Pelee continued in ac-
tivity for a long time after these occa-
sions. An eruption of May 28, observed
by Mr. George Kennan, carried ejected

matter up to a height estimated by Mr.
Kennan as exceeding 12,000 feet.

It seems doubtful, however, whether
the eruption of Mont Pelee and the
nearly simultaneous one of Soufriere, on
St. Vincent Island, produced a widely
distributed haze in the atmosphere.

On the one hand the measurements
made at the Astrophysical Observatory
of the Smithsonian Institution on the
transmission of the earth's atmosphere
in 1901, 1902, and 1903 show that dur-
ing the latter part of 1902 and the whole
of 1903 the transparency of the atmos-
phere was very decidedly low — below the
normal. On the other hand, however, a
measurement of the total intensity of the
solar radiation, made at this observatory
in Washington on October 15, 1902, gives
a value of the intensity of 1.40 calories
per sq. cm. per minute, which is among
the very highest observations of this kind
which have been made at this station.

It is of course possible, though rather
unlikely, that the haze due to the erup-
tion of Mont Pelee was not so quickly
distributed toward the more northern lati-
tudes as that of Mount Katmai, in Alaska,
in 1912, was diffused toward more south-
erly ones ; so that perhaps the dust from
Mont Pelee reached Washington later
than October 15, 1902,

THE WHOEE SIDE OB* THE MOUNTAIN
BEOWN AWAY

On October 24, 1902, however, there
occurred the eruption of Santa Maria, in
Guatemala. The ashes from this volcano
covered an area of more than 125,000
square miles. Pumice stone and ashes
fell to a depth of 8 inches or more in a
region extending over about 2,500 square
miles, within which the houses and farm
buildings were crushed under the weight
of the ejected material and in some cases
totally destroyed. Six thousand persons
are believed to have been killed.

The cloud from the volcano reached
18 miles in height, and the sound of the
explosion was heard at Costa Rica, 500
miles away. The whole side of the
mountain was hlozvn away, exposing a
cliff, nearly perpendicular, y,ooo feet in
height and forming a crater three-quar-
ters of a mile wide, seven-eighths of a
mile long, and 1,500 feet deep.

I'll.. I.. I,y („..:g<- c;. Mam

OLD FORKST SI'RUCK, WITH MOSS-CoXKUKl) TKL'NK AXD BRAXCHKS LOADED WITH ASII,
K\:.\R KODL\K, SKPTEMI5KR 4. I912

(See article by George C. Martin, pages lyc^iSo)

193

194

DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLLM.VTE?

195

The magnificent volcano of Colima, in
Mexico (height, 3,960 meters, or 13,000
feet), had a period of great activity from
February 15 to Alarcli 24, 1903, during
which there were maximum eruptions on
12 days. In a photograph taken ^larch
7, 1903, the cokmin of ashes seems to
reach a height of about 17 miles.

It is clear, I think, from these records
that the decrease of solar radiation from
1888 to 1893 had much volcanic action to
cause it. including Bandai San, Mayon,
in the Philippines, \'"ulcano Island, and
others; and that the depression, whose
maximum was in 1903, was attributable
to the terrific explosion of Santa Maria,
in Guatemala, on October 24, 1902, rein-
forced by the later eruptions of Colima,
in Mexico, of which a photograph is
given on page 198.

Temperature Departures [Cejit (grade).

DOES the; voi,c.\xic ii.\zk troduce cold?

I have made some preliminary study
to determine if the haziness produced
by volcanoes causes a decreased temper-
ature at the earth's surface.

Taking the year 19 12, I find from the
international ten-day mean values pub-
lished by the German Marine Observa-
tory that the high altitude stations of
southwestern Europe, namely. Pic du
Midi, Puy de Dome, Brocken, Schnee-
koppe. Santis. and Hoch-Obir, give a
very marked indication of a decrease in
temperature with respect to the normal
beginning about the middle of July.
The six stations I have named are very
consistent with one another in this indi-
cation, and the following table, giving
their mean result, shows the effect very
clearly :

ilfean 0/ Six Jfountaiti Stations, igi2.

onth

February.

March.

.\pril.

May.

June.

Julv.

I 2

+0.7 ; +3-6

3
+5-9

I 2

+ 2.1 +0.7

+2.8

I 2
— i.o —3.2

3
—0.9

I
+0.5

2 3
+ 2.8 1 —1.5

I 2 1 3
—0.6 —0.6 +0.6

1
—1-7

2
+2.1

partures...

+o°.69

Diith

July.

August.

September.

October.

November.

cade

partures...

3
... -0.8

I ! 2 1 3
—2.2 —3.6 1 —2.1

-5-0

—44

3
-4.9

: 2 ' 3
—2.6 — 0.4. —0.3

I 1 2 3 ! - ...

—34 ; -3-6 -1-5 - 1 ...

Mean.

-20.68

Stations in our own country, however,
are not so consistent. I have chosen some
where the cloudiness is small so as to
avoid that complication. The stations
chosen are arranged in the following
table with regard to whether their tem-
perature departures* are increasingly

negative after July, and thus support the
indication of the high mountain stations
of southwestern Europe, or not. It is
interesting to see that Leadville and
Flagstaff, which are both very high sta-
tions, fall in the first category.

*These departures are in Fahrenheit degrees.

station.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May. June.

July.

Aug.

Sept. Oct.

Nov.

Meau.
1. 1 2.

El Paso..

+ 1.6

-2.5

- 1.9

-4.7

— 0.6 j— 1.8

+0.5

— o.S

— 1.7 —0.2

—1.6

-1.65

—0.76

Pueblo ..

—3.0

+0.5

— 7.2

—I 7

-ho. 1 ;— 4.0

-1.4

— 0. 1

—7.0 |— 0.9

-f-2.2

—2.55

— 1.44

Dodge. . .

—9.3

+0.9

— II. I

-1.6

4-2.3 —5.0

+0.9

b.o

-4.2

+ 1.6

+4.5

-3.93

+0.56

Santa Fe

+0.4

—1.8

- 1.8

-5.3

-I..', I-3.8

—0.5

+0.2

—2.5

-1.0

+ 1.0

—1.93

—0.56

Leadville

+0.5

—2.0

— 0.61—4.1

—0.5

—2.7

— 2.2

—1.8

— 7.2

-1.8

4-0.2

—1.57

-2.56

Flagstaff.

-hi. 6

-M.8

— 1.7—4.0

-1.9

—0.9

-3-8

— 1.6

-3-2

-0.9

+ 2.3

-0.85

— 1.44

Tucson . .

+0.7

—1.6

— 2.9—6.8

—2.4

4-1. 1

—5-1

—2.7

-3-6 -3.8

—0.9

— 1.98

— 3.22

o o 6 . • ^ ''O "C ''c> "6 *o "o

Mvno^ •sa33iA/n|\/ xodS-N'^s; 3anj.VH3dW3jL

2" ^

K 3

ig6

DO \'OLCAXIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE?

197

The volcanic effect, if here present, is
certainly obscured by other intluences.

As stated above, there seems to be a
strong indication that the mountain sta-
tions were rendered appreciably cooler
by the explosion 'of June, 1912. In order
to see if a similar effect was caused by
the dust cloud emanating from Krakatoa
in 1883, I have studied the temperature
departures for Pic du Midi, Puy de
Dome, and Schneekoppe for the years
1882 to 1884, inclusive, but there does
not appear to have been at that time any
such decrease of temperature following
the eruption of Krakatoa, August 27,
1883, as occurred in July, 1912. Never-
theless at Pic du Midi there was a very
well marked decrease in the daily tem-
perature range, beginning with Septeni-
Der. 1883. I have found for some other
stations a similar decrease of the daily
temperature range following the erup-
tion of Krakatoa.

The fact is that the temperature of the
earth is a function of so many variable
quantities that general or cosmical ef-
fects are often greatly obscured by local
ones. Studies have, however, been made
by various authors to detect if there is a
periodicity of terrestrial temperature cor-
responding in time to the sun-spot cycle
of about 1 1 years, and it has been found
by Koppen, Arctowski. Nordmann, New-
comb, Abbo^ and Fowle, and others that
there is indeed an increased temperature
at the time of minimum sun-spots. This
increase of temperature is greater than
would be caused directly by the darken-
ing of the sun by sun-spots, so that it is
supposed that there is accompanying the
spots some secondary influence affecting
terrestrial temperatures.

The fluctuations of temperature are,
however, not fully accounted for by the
march of the sun-spots, and I have en-
deavored to see whether a combination
of the well-known eft'ect of the sun-spot
cycle with the effect of the volcanic haze
will produce a more exact correspond-
ence between the cosmical phenomena
and the temperature of the earth.

Referring to page 196, the curve (A)
is a smoothed representation of the aver-
age intensity of the direct solar radiation.
The method of smoothing the curve is as

follows, taking for example the year
1895 • -^^^^ to the value for 1894 twice
that for 1905 and that for 1896 and
divide by 4. Curve (B) is the smoothed
sun-spot curve as given by Wolfer. The
sun-spot numbers run from o to about 80
Curve (C) is a combination of (A) and
(B). They are taken in the following
proportions: Multiply the percentage de-
parture of radiation by 6* and subtract
from it the sun-spot number for the given
year. Curve (D) represents the depart-
ures of mean maximum temperature for
15 stations of the L'nited States distrib-
uted all over the country. It is smoothed
in the same manner as curve (A). Curve
(E) represents the departures of tem-
perature for the whole world, also
smoothed in the same manner as curves

(A) and (D). The data for the curves
(D) and (E) are taken from Annah,
Astrophysical Observatory, volume 2,
page 192, and from the Monthly Weather
Review of the United States Weather
Bureau.

Although there is a considerable de-
gree of correspondence between curve

(B) and curve (D), yet it is not hard
to see that there is also much of discord-
ance.

For example, the sun-spot maximum
of 1893 was greater than that of 1883
or 1906, yet the temperature curve (D)
indicates a gradual increase of tem-
perature for the three periods ; also the
temperature had begun to fall in 1890,
although sun-spots were still at the mini-
mum, and the temperature had begun to
rise in 1892. although sun-spots had not
yet reached their maximum.

Similar discrepancies occur in other
parts of the curves, but when we com-
pare the curves (C) and (D), that is to
say, the combination of. the effects of
sun-spots and volcanic haze, with the
mean maximum temperature for the
L^nited States, the correspondence of the
curves is most striking.

CONCLUSION

It seems to me, in consideration of
this, that there can be little question that
the volcanic haze has very appreciably

* T incline now to think a better result would
have come if 5 were used instead of 6.

Photo by R. R. Rivera. By courtesy of The University of Chicago Press and the Journal of Geology

MOUNT COIvIMA IN ACTION, MARCH 7, I903

The column of ashes seems to reach to a height of 17 miles, or 89,760 feet. It is pre-
suined that this notable eruption was largely responsible for the decrease in solar radiation
noticeable in 1903 (see page 195).

influenced the march of temperature in
the United States. When we take the
march of temperature for the whole
world the apparent effect is not so strik-
ing, but in this case there are so many
conflicting influences at work that it is
perhaps too much to expect so good an
agreement.

In view of this slight preliminary
study of temperatures, it seems to me
that the question of the effect of vol-
canic haze on terrestrial temperature is
well worth serious consideration.

Although a large group of stations
may, by their contrary local influences,

mask the influence of the haze, / helicve
it zvill be found eventually that tempera-
tures are influenced perhaps as much as
several degrees by great periods of hazi-
ness, such as those produced by the vol-
canoes of 188^, 1888, and ipi2.

Certainly an agency capable of send-
ing vast clouds of dust to a height of 20
miles in the air, there to be distributed
by the winds all over the world, and to
remain in suspension for months or
years, causing the decrease of the direct
radiation of the sun by as much as 20
per cent, is a climatic influence not to be
iqrnored.

THE CHANGING MAP IN THE BALKANS

By Frederick Moore

Author of "The Balkan Trail" and Correspondknt of the Associated Press

A\'ERY definite settlement of the
centuries-old Balkan Question
promises to result from the war
Avhich the "Allies" have heen conducting
against the Ottoman Empire. The Turk
has been driven not entirely back to Asia
but far enough in that direction to termi-
nate his power over subject European
races. This is the solution for which
those European countries not materially
interested in the maintenance of the Ot-
toman regime have long been hoping.

Centuries ago the Turks set out from
Asia Minor with the idea of conquering
the world for their Prophet Alohammed.
They carried their new faith east into
Persia, India, and China, and west into
Europe. In Europe they succeeded in
driving their way as far as the gates of
\'ienna, subjugating all the peoples of
Southeastern Europe except some few
bands of hardy Serbs who took refuge
in the fastnesses of the mountains that
now make up the little kingdom of
JMontenegro.

the TURKS CONQUERED, BUT FAILED TO

convert

But though the Turks conquered and
subdued with the sword they found the
peoples of Southeastern Europe who fol-
lowed the Christianity of that day most
hard-headed and unconvertible. Had the
Turks adopted the method of the Arabs,
who went across North Africa on the
same mission and even entered Spain,
they would have left no soul alive who
did not say with them

"There is no god but God. and Mohammed is
His Prophet."

They did not desolate, however, to the
same extent as the Arab ; their method,
though sufficiently terrible to blight the
conquered countries and retard their
progress for centuries, was never quite
as drastic as the methods of ether Mo-
hammedans. The Turks are the best of
the peoples who have accepted that un-
compromising militant faith.

The territory which the Turks suc-
ceeded in overrunning was too vast to
lay entirely waste and the people too
numerous to exterminate. Those whom
they could convert were made Moham-
medans ; the others became vassals and
serfs, laboring for the conquerors, paying
them tribute in money and in kind, and
yielding up not only of their wordly pos-
sessions, as the Turk demanded, but also
of their flesh and blood. Many of their
daughters went at the Turks" will to ^lo-
hammedan harems, and for many years a
tribute of their finest sons was also ex-
acted.

In the early days of the conquest the
Sultan's agents visited every four years
the Christian villages under his domina-
tion and took away a fifth part of all the
male children between the ages of six
and nine, to be raised as ^lohammedans
and to form his corps of Janissary sol-
diers. Naturally, the strongest and finest
boys were selected ; however, being taken
young, like many of the girls, no mem-
ories of parents or deep religious beliefs
long affected them.

HOW THE TURKS IMPROVED THE RACE

By this system and by conversions
(for many of the Christians went over
to the new faith because of the privileges
it oflfered, the foremost being the right
to carry arms) the Turks added to their
Semitic blood some of the finest manhood
of the races of Southeastern Europe.
Turks whose appearance is thoroughly
European and Turks with fair hair and
straight noses are to be distinguished
throughout Western Turkey from the
distinctive Semitic type ; and some of the
best brains in the recent Young Turk
movement are European brains.

The infusion of European blood had
a certain minor efifect uj^on the character
of the Turk, but the greater change came
upon the converts and their ofifspring.
The blight of the Mohammedan creed,
which impairs all better civilizations that
it touches, affected the Europeans only

199

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irhoto by 1- rcdc-rick .Moore
SKRVIAX PEASANTS, CALLED TO ARMS, SIGXINX THE MUSTER-ROLL

less seriously than it had the Asiatics
whom it reached.

When Europeans became Mohammed-
ans tiiey became to all intents Turks and
called themselves such ; they were no
longer Greek. Servian, or Bulgarian, as
the case might be. In spirit if not in
blood they were wholly gone over to the
other race. Such is the power of the
Moslem faith !

l)Ut the conversions were not on the
whole large. The great majority of the
Christians remained steadfast, and per-
secutions, as they generally do, made the
peoi)le more than ever obdurate. And
so we find the iSulgarians, Greeks, Serv-
ians, and .Albanians of European Turkey
today hard-headed iJeople in spite of their
centuries of oppression, not only retain-
ing their own faiths, but wearing such
clothes as they wore in the mediaeval days
when they were conquered, and s])eaking
not Turkish, but Servian. Greek, lUilgar,
Albanian, and. among the Jews who took
refuge from the persecutions in Spain,
the Spanish language.

SEVEN RACES IN ONE LITTLE CITY

All these people, clinging fast to their
own ideals and marrying only in their
own faith, remain today in remarkable
distinction one from another, seven races
sometimes making up the population of
one small city, and remaining distinct in
facial appearance, distinct in dress, dis-
tinct in language, and reverencing at
least three distinct beliefs, with the Chris-
tian religion divided within itself.

The retreat of the Turks from the
Balkan Peninsula has been com])aratively
rapid. (iradually, sometimes unaiderl,
sometimes with the assistance or entirely
by the efforts of one or more of the great
Powers, the conquered Christian peoples
have regained their independence. The
modern States of Rumania. Greece.
Servia, and Bulgaria were carved in the
|)ast century out of the conciuests of the
Turk, and .Montenegro, always independ-
ent, was given definite boundaries and
recognition.

Slowly the question of Turkey in Eu-

Photo by Frederick Moore

ASIATIC TURKISH TROOPS IN OLD ZOUAVE; UNIFORMS, SOCKS PULLE;d OVER

TROUSERS, DRILLING

Notice physiognomies of these as compared with European types of Turks

rope had been narrowed down, until at
the beginning of the present war the
provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and
the Adrianople vilayet (known in ancient
times as Thrace) composed all the Euro-
pean territory remaining under the domi-
nation of the Sultan.

There was no reason why the Balkan
Allies could not have driven the Turks
out of Europe ten, or even twenty, years
ago, had they been able to agree upon the
division of the territory and had they
been bold enough to defy the dictation
of Europe, — which has been anxious al-
ways to avoid the dangers of a conflict
between the great Powers. But because
there were Greeks, Bulgarians, and Ser-
vians scattered over European Turkey,
each small State, unduly ambitious, pre-
ferred to let the years slip by in the hope
of some turn of politics among the Pow-
ers that would work in its favor.

At last, however, the leading statesmen
if not the masses of the people of the
Balkan States set aside their jealousies

and rival ambitions, and, coming to an
agreement early in 191 2, entered in a
few months into the present war confi-
dent of success.

THE ALLIES FORCE THE ISSUE

They had always reason or excuse for
war. The Turk had never seriously re-
formed; he had not assimilated the con-
quered people, nor had he done what has
made the. English powerful among for-
eign races over which they rule — he had
not governed justly or well. In the case
of each of the Allied States there were
people of their own blood and religion
just beyond their frontiers being con-
stantly persecuted and massacred.

When the States were ready for war
they made demands of Turkey which
they knew the pride and arrogance of the
Mohammedan, who had held them so long
in subjection, could not accept. They de-
manded no less than the right of inter-
ference in the control of affairs in Eu-
ropean Turkey, in order to put a stop to

,«:

Photo by Frederick Moon
TURKISH RKCRUrrS ARRIVIN'G IX SALOXIKI l-ROM ANATOLIA

the intolerable conditions under which
their fellow-Christians were oppressed.

The Turkish people clamored for war,
and the wiser heads amon,^ them under-
stood that war was inevitable. Tiiose
wiser heads had come to realize that they
were unable as a race to rule subject
jieoples except by the sword. They
knew. too. that each of the Balkan
States — and this was perhaps the most
important factor — was ambitious to an-
nex territory.

Underlying these motives of the Allies
was a deep desire for vengeance on the
Turk, There was not a Christian family

in European Turkey whose property and
hard-earned money had not at some time
been taken by some IMohammedan ; not
a family without a record of parents
slaughtered in massacre; not one which
had not mourned a daughter enticed or
taken forcefully to the harem of some
lustful Turk. And what recourse was
there for the Christians in a Turkish
court of justice?

W.\R Till-: OXLV SOLUTION

The situation was one that only war
could .settle. The Turks saw that to ac-
cede to the demands of the Allies would

203

be only to defer the day
of trying the issue with
modern arms.

If the Turks admitted
European agents for the
purpose of reforms with-
in their own boundaries,
and gave equal rights to
Christian Bulgar, Greek,
and Servian, they would
soon be the subject and
not the ruling people.
Numerically the Chris-
tians of their European
provinces outnumbered
them and they were also
quicker of wit. The sit-
uation was one of an in-
ferior continuing to hold
back several advancing
races.

The Turks decided to
accept war in place of
the terms of the Allies.
They were confident of
holding the Allies in
check if not of driving"
them back beyond their
borders. Regiment upon
regiment of recruits
brought up from Asia
MinoF passed through I
Constantinople crying '
"On to Sofia !" And one
of the Turkish newspa-
pers boasted that in fu-
ture years visitors to
Bulgaria would cross the
plain of Sofia and say,
looking over a desert
waste, "This was once
the site of the Bulgarian
capital."

Europeans generally,,
even military attaches lo-
cated at Constantinople,,
believed with the Turks
that the Allies would fall .
back before a terrible
Turkish onslaught. For-
eigners based their opin-
ion on two things — on
the name and reputation
of the Turk as a fighting
man and on the fact that
the Greeks had been

204

i'hutu by Frederick Moorc
CHOLERA VICTIMS THROWN FROM THE TRAIXS WHICH CAME INTO CONSTANTINOPLE
DAILY FOR WEEKS WITH SICK AND WOUNDED FROM THE LINES (SEE P. 21 5)

crushed by the Turks in battle not many
years before.

THE allies' SCHEME FAILS

When the Turks rejected the propo-
sals of the newly Allied States of what
they termed interference in their internal
affairs, not all of the Allies declared war
but only little Montenegro with her army
of about 40.000 men — 40,000 against the
Turks' paper million !

In this preliminary declaratit)n of war
by Montenegro alone there must have
been a strategical design on the part of
the Allies. They evidently intended to
draw a large i)art of the Turkish army
off to the western extremity of the mili-
tary area, thereby weakening the armies
of Turkey that stood between the Bul-
garian border and Constantinople and giv-
ing the Bulgarian forces the best chance
of a successful rush, as they planned,
upon the Turkish capital.

But the Turkish government, no doubt
advised by their foreign ex])erts. left the
garrisons of Scutari and other Turkish
towns in the neighborhood of Monte-
negro to take care of themselves and re-
inforced primarily the army that was to

oppose the Bulgarians. The Turkish
plan was apparently to defeat the Bul-
garians first, and. having dealt with this
most formidable of their enemies, to turn
their attention later to the punishment of
the other States.

But the Turks were not even equal to
the first of the tasks they set themselves.
They are a slow-moving race. I think it
was Moltke who said that the Turks be-
gin to defend a position only when an-
other army would consider capitulating.

In the present war the Turk has shown
a number of times how slowly he learns
a lesson and how often he begins to act
upon an experience too late. Xeverthe-
Icss, as in the case at Chataldja and in
the historic example of Plevna, he will
defend too late with remarkable deter-
mination.

i:ULC..\RIA M.\Ki:S A RECORD IN
MOBILIZATION

In the case of the Bulgarian, the army
is a thing of s])eed and French-like dash.
The lUilgarian officers, in i)reparing as
they have for years for this war, de-
voured the history of Xa])oleon and
planned to emulate his quickness of

205

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207

Photo by Frederick Moore

A SERVIAN KOMMITTADJI (BANDSMAN ), THK CHIEF,
VOIVODA PDTKO

One of the Servian revohitionists of Macedonia who, after
operating for years in Macedonia, finally served as guerillas in
the present war.

movement. It w^as always said round the
club in Sofia that when the Bulgarians
struck their movement would be hard and
fast against Constantinople. Consider
how this little nation, with only about 3
million inhabitants, which the average
American was wont to consider a primi-
tive country of "Dagos," mobilized their
army of 350,000 men. In two weeks
.after the call to arms their forces were

camped behind the fron-
tier mountains ready to
move through the border
passes on word from
Sofia that peace was defi-
nitely broken.

Those who know some-
thing of the Turk can
picture him at the front
on receiving news that
his own government had
declared war against the
Bulgarians and Servians,
not waiting for those
enemies to follow with
Greece the example of
Montenegro.

The news gave the
Turkish soldier a meas-
ure of keen satisfaction.
But, slow-moving and
generally lazy, his camp
was not stirred by the
news as was that of the
Bulgar. Slowly he gath-
ered in little groups with
his fellow-soldiers, knelt
and gave thanks to Al-
lah, made coffee and
rolled cigarettes, and
spent a happy night
round a comfortable
camp-fire discussing how
he would make the Bul-
garian girls dance to his
music when he entered
Bulgaria and the Bulgar
riien deserted their wo-
men and children to him.
But the Turk himself
and not the Bulgar was
the man who was going
to hop and skip to get
out of the way of the
enemy. The Bulgars
came through the passes
with speed that amazed
the military authorities of other nations,
and, after three quick battles following
rapidly upon each other, the Turkish
army was driven back to the sheltering
positions of the Chataldja lines, about 30
miles from Constantinople.

the; BULGARIANS AVOID THI) TRAP

It was evidently the opinion of the
Turkish generals, and also of the Ger-

208

ALUAXIAX KAXASSKS, DRKSSED IN THE SA-MK "l" USTEN ELLA,
THAT THE NORTHERN GREEK WEARS

f hoto by !• rederick Mooie
(m PLEATED SKH^T,

The Kavass is the armed watchman whom the foreign emlmssies or consulates keep to
protect them and their residences in Turke.v. Note their pistols

man eng-ineers and military ofificers who
had aided in the construction of the for-
tifications of Adriano])le, that the Bul-
jT^arians would Ijrcak their hacks, so to
speak, there at Adrianoplc, just as the
Russians liad spent so miH'h of their
energy and their time at Plevna in the
war of 1877 before proceeding on to
Constantinople. While the Bulgarians
stormed and invested the position at
Adrianople the Turks planned to bring
up their great hordes of men — it would
take several months, to be sure — from
Asia ^^inor.

The lUilgarians, however, did not stop
at Adrianople. Contenting themselves
with masking the fortresses there with
■only sufficient men to prevent the garri-
son escaping or getting in further sup-
plies, they pushed on at once toward their
goal.

And what was the result of their get-
ting to the Chataldja entrenchments with-
in three weeks after they first charged
the Turkish lines? The result was amaz-
ing; so terrific that almost any nation
would have made peace withotit another
battle and would have paid whatever in-
demnity the Allies saw fit to demand.
I hit the soul of the Turk is of a difl^ercnt
stuff. I lis religion is not a thing that
considers seriously a waste of this world's
fiesh and blood.

The Turks had had in all probably
400,000 armed men s.-attered over Euro-
pean Turkey, yet they could muster on
the Chataldja lines but 70.000 effectives
for the defense of C(Mistantinople. The
others are to be accounted for in various
ways ; some had been killed in battle,
some had died or become inefifective by
starvation and disea.se, some had been

209

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I'll 111 i'. I- rcderick Moore
I'AKT OF TllK TURKISH GARRISON OF MOXASTIR MOVING OUT OF TllF CITY (iX A

FORMER campaign)

made prisoners by the armies of the sev-
eral AlHes, some had been locked up in
garrisons like those of Adrianople. Jan-
nina, and Scutari, which must in time
cajMtulate. and others had been cut ofif
from retreat and com]:)elled to take to the
fastnesses of the mountains.

CHATALDJA an IDKAL place FOR DEFF.NSE

Yet with these 70,000 men the Turks
were a])le to hold their position at Cha-
taldja. There they began to fight. In
this cramped position the Hulgarians
were no longer able with swift move-
ments to outflank them. The sea on
either side and the heavy guns of Turk-
ish cruisers confining the attack to a
limited central plain, permitted the Turk-
ish soldier to occupy his trenches and

redoubts and fire steadily from them at
the oncoming Bulgarian infantry.

It is a (|uestion whether the lUilgari-
ans. now that the London conference has
failed and fighting has been renewed, can
succeed in taking the Chataldja lines.
Their capture seems possible only by a
slow tedious mining and trenching pro-
cess; in other words, only by laborious
and sacrificing eflfort such as the Japanese
devoted to the taking of Port .\rthur.

The questions have often been put to
me why the Turks did so badly in this
war and whether they are no longer the
capal)le warriors they were in former
days.

My opinion is that the reinUation of
the Turks as a whole rests ujxm the
heroic work of a few ardent leaders.

211

213

Photo by Frederick Moore
MONTENEGRIKT S0LDIE;RS ON THE) HE^IGHTS ABOVE THE; AUSTRIAN COAST

partisans of the faith, who encouraged
and employed the spirit of Islam, which
the great majority of the ignorant people
of Turkey possess. Some of the Turks
fight well — as, for instance, at Adrianople,
at Scutari, and at Jannina — and some do
not.

The trouble rests with the organiza-
tion of the Turkish government, which
is so incompetent and corrupt that no
standard of fighting efficiency can be
maintained. If any one army or single
garrison fights well it is because that
garrison is properly controlled and led.

THE REASON WHY THE TURK HAS FAILED

As a whole the nation cannot and will
not, because of internal political jealous-
ies, work in unison, work zealously and
honestly. The killing of Nazim Pasha is
a case in point, and also the memorable
delinquency of the palace clique in ignor-

ing persistently the appeals of Osman
Pasha, the commander of Plevna, for re-
lief and reinforcements in 1877. Many
of the Turks would rather see the enemy
win than that their poHtical rivals should
hold office.

As this war has brought out, there
are great defects of organization in the
Turkish army. Whole regiments, for in-
stance, were sent to the front during the
mobilization with few or no officers, the
officers joining the men in the camp or
even on the battlefield.

In former days, as, for example, at
Plevna — as no doubt in Adrianople, Scu-
tari, and Jannina today — men and offi-
cers shared the hardships in common,
suffered together, and sympathized one
with another. Too many officers of the
new school, who reside mostly at Con-
stantinople, do not know their men, and
are consequently mistrusted by them.

214

Photo by Frederick Moore
ON THE (former) TURKO-BULGARIAN BORDER: A BRIDGE OVER THE. RIVER STRUMA,
THE CENTER OE WHICH WAS THE BORDER LINE; A TURKISH SOLDIER
ON THE LEFT AND A BULGARIAN ON THE RIGHT

The foreign-educated ofificer of the ]:)res-
ent day spends too much of his time in
the cafes and the foreisT^n restaurants of
Pera, and too little in the camp of his
soldiers.

I saw on one occasion a young Turkish
doctor, immaculately dressed, wearing a
high collar on the field, refuse to touch
a line of 20 or 30 invalided men hccause
they were too dirty for him to handle.
To my knowledge these men had had
hardly sufficient water to drink and no
opportunity whatever to wash.

THE HORROR OF THE CHOLERA CAMPS

Conditions in the cholera cam])s —
which I had occasion to describe in my
dispatches to the Associated Press dur-

ing the month of November — were final
proof, if proof were needed, of the hope-
less incapacity of the Turks. There is a
measure of excuse even for massacres,
Mohammedans believing that they do not
offend God by slaughtering "infidels;"
but could there be any excuse for permit-
ting thousands of their own soldiers to
die without taking the trouble to give
them water?

The scene at San Stefano was horrible
almost beyond conception. For weeks
train-loads not only of sick but wounded
men and men with frozen feet were
dumped down at this summer watering
place on the Marmora. Those who were
able to walk entered the cordon of death
without assistance ; those unable were

21.S

2l6

Photo by Frederick Moore

SWEARING TO A BARGAIN

Being unable to write, men wlio buy and sell ponies or other animals arc sworn to a bargain
(over which they shake hands) by a third man

jmshed oft the cars and lay wliere they
fell, or rolled down the steep railway em-
bankment some 20 feet or more to the
level ground. For a fortnight or several
weeks practically no attention was paid
to the victims put into this camp.

On my first visit to the place, in the
company of Mr. Hofman Philip, first
secretary of the American Embassy, and
Major Clyde S. Ford, of the United
States Army, there were probably eight
Red Crescent men standing idle among
the dead and dying, who lay huddled to-
gether in groups on the open ground, en-
deavoring to get, by close contact, what
shelter they could from the winter winds.

We saw one man praying, whose over-
coat blew over his head, he was too
feeble to replace it, and yet the men who
wore the Red Crescent did not trouble to
help him. They did not trouble to place
a stone under the heads of many who
might have been more comfortable for
even so hard a pillow.

Tlie victims lay. that first day of our
visit, on the hard, cold ground for the
most part, unsheltered even from the
wind. There were not more than a dozen
tents and they were crowded with
cor]:)ses and men who would soon be
corpses. In one tent Major Ford coimted
twenty-two. The Red Crescent men
shrugged their shoulders as we ap-
proached, as much as to say, "What can
any one do?"

Occasionally a water cart would pass»
a barrel on wheels drawn by a pony or
donkey, and the driver would call out
"su !" Those who were able to rise and
respond to this cry of water got a little.
They fought and fuml)led for it, men
sometimes falling in the melee. Those
who wanted bread and could res])ond
when the call came of "ekmek" went like-
wise to the cart and got it for themselves.

I saw one man at a deep well trying,
evidently, to wet the end of a long sasli
which he had unwound from his waist in

217

218

THE CHAXGIXG MAP IX THE BALKAXS

219

order, I suppose, to moisten his parched
hps. The water cart did not come his
way.

THE TURK REFUSES AID FOR HIS OWX
WOUNDED

Several men lay on a manure pile, in
which one was feebly digging with his
fingers a trough in which he might lie
and thus keep warm. Several round this
manure heap lifted their heads and called
out to us in Turkish. Our kavass (an
embassy attendant) told us that they
said, "We are sick men and no one gives
us water and no one gives bread." Their
appeal to us in the sight of men of their
own faith seemed to me a remarkable
recognition of a somewhat better condi-
tion of humanity existing among men of
the Christian nations.

There was no excuse for this terrible
condition, which existed not only at San
Stefano, but on the Chataldja lines and
even in Constantinople. The govern-
ment had brought the cholera over to
Europe from Asia Minor in the mobili-
zation, and then brought it into Constan-
tinople, where sick and wounded were
crowded into the mosques. At Constan-
tinople there was an abundance of pro-
visions and an endless supply could be
got in from the several seas that wash
the Empire's shores. There were also
many foreign Red Cross volunteers in
the city, who were not permitted to go to
the front !

The Turk likes to conduct his affairs
or leave them to conduct themselves
without the interference of foreigners,
and though always polite he availed him-
self of the foreign medical officers and
nurses only when they forced themselves
upon him. In order to get patients some
of the volunteer surgeons were compelled
to meet the incoming trains and take
away as many wounded men as they
could accommodate in hospitals which
they improvised.

The condition at San Stefano was so
pitiful that Mr. Philip and Major Ford,
together with the Rev. Robert Frew, a
Scotsman, and Mr. Maurice Baring, an
Englishman, went out there with the
idea of saving at least some of the

wounded and injured who were not
stricken with cholera. ]\Iere segregation
and feeding and watering hundreds of
those cordoned at San Stefano would
save their lives.

The work which these men took up
was financed by Mrs. Rockhill, wife of
the American Ambassador, with Amer-
ican Red Cross funds and other collec-
tions. Soon the Turks, shamed at the
sight of foreigners doing tlieir work,
sent out a few officers and a number of
men and made a feeble pretense of medi-
cal work, and soon foreign Red Cross
men and some Austrian Sisters of Charity
went out to assist at the work.

TWO HEROIC WOMEN

But the pioneers of all were two old
women, one Swiss, the other a Hunga-
rian, both frail old ladies of more than
sixty years, whom Philif's party on their
arrival found already working among
the mass of dying and dead humanity.
These old ladies, governesses living in
San Stefano. went into the cholera cor-
don, taking their own savings of money
and working with their own hands, not
even troubling to notify the foreign em-
bassies of their action, much less appeal-
ing for protection. Miss Alt and Mad-
ame Schneider were the names of these
ladies.

THE DILEMMA OF THE YOUNG TURKS

The Young Turk movement, which
promised much a few years ago, seems
doomed to failure. The original leaders
of this reform movement were men af-
fected by European education — almost
entirely men who had lived, if they had
not also studied, abroad. The majority
had returned home with their faith in
Mohammed distinctly shaken.

But though they had lost their zeal for
the creed of Islam their sojourns abroad
had not made Christians of them. Against
their natural enemies, the Balkan States,
they were as bitter as ever. Their re-
ligion had given place to patriotism. In-
stead of replying in the manner of the
"true believer" to the question of their
nationality, namely, that they were Mos-
lems, they would answer now, if you in-
quired, that they were Ottomans.

Photo by Frederick Moore

STREET SWEEPERS IN SAEONIKI

The White Tower in the background is where the ancient pre- Turkish wall, probably built by

the Crusaders, met the sea

They succeeded, as is well known, in
overthrowing the Sultan Abdul Hamid,
whose tyrannical regime bore only less
heavily upon Turks than upon Chris-
tians.

Having come into power (in 1908)
they were faced with the problem of the
faith : Should they denounce Moham-
medanism or support it?

They tried a middle course, attempting
to give to Christians and Jews equal
rights with their own people. This im-
possible combination naturally failed.

There is now left to them the alterna-
tive of supporting or denouncing Mo-
hammedanism. By continuing that faith
as the soul of the empire they maintain a
stifling idea, a state of mind that cannot
progress sufficiently to keep pace with
the advancement of the countries which,
being "infidel," all true followers of the
Prophet must scorn and oppose.

On the other hand, should the Young

Turks attempt and succeed in destroying
the Mohammedan faith — a thing they
will not do — the result would be the
break-up of the Empire, for Arabs, Syr-
ians, Anatolians, Kurds, and others are
bound to the Turks only by the "faith,"
and because the Sultan at Constantinople
is their Caliph, their religious chief.

It is regrettable that though the Bal-
kan question is solved and the people of
European Turkey liberated, there still re-
main many Christians, notably the Ar-
menians, in Asia Minor, for whom inde-
pendence or even a measure of relief
seems impossible. That these Christians
of Asia Minor will suffer further, as a
result of the present war, there seems
little doubt.

THE AMBITIONS OE BULGARIANS

The Bulgarians have now by conquest
come down to ^gean Sea. They speak
already of the navy they intend to build.

220

riiulu by licuciick .Mooic
WALLACiriAXS (OK KUTSO-Vf.ACHS, AS THEY ARE KNOWN IN MACEDONIA), ONE OF
THE SEVEN DISTINCT RACES OE MACEDONIA

The people whose blood affinity with the Rumanians gives Rumania excuse for claiming
territorial compensation for their annexation by Bulgaria

planning to have ships in both the 1 '.lack-
Sea and the ^Egean, and thereby con-
trolling if not possessing the great water-
way that joins these two seas. A glance
at the map will show what a splendid
position the Bulgarian army as well as

the navy will hold in any future war tliat
may arise with Turke_\-.

Tn offering back to Turkey, as the Bul-
garians did at the abortive 'Tx>ndon cot\-
fcrence, a sufficient stri]) of tcrritorv to
connect Constantinople and the Da'rda-

221

rilolo by I'lcdciick Moore
SLAV PEASANTS OF BOSNIA IN THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAxN EMPIRE

nelles, they gave evidence of a desire to
keep out of the high poHtics of Europe.
By occupying the coveted city of Con-
stantinople and the Dardanelles — that is
to say, all of European Turkey — the Bul-
garians would at once enter the sphere
of politics which causes the Great Pow-
ers to form into two balancing groups in
order to maintain the peace of Europe.
The Bulgarians seem, curiouslv, to have

little ambition to hold the city, which, as
one of their leading statesmen first
pointed out to me, has caused the ruin
and downfall of every empire that has
possessed it.

The lUilgarians, unlike the Greeks,
are not dreamers and have no imperial
aspirations. They are very hard-headed,
as every student who has written of
them has declared. Even more than the

223

224

Photo by Frederick Moore

TH12 TURK GOES OUT OF EUROPE AS HE CAME

Long lines of these arabas pass daily over the bridges of the Golden Horn and are conveyed

to the Asiatic shores bv boat

Servians and the Montenegrins, who are
likewise Slavs, the}^ are most practical.

WHAT THE SLAV QUESTION MEANS

\Mien we take up the Slav question
we enter at once into the politics of Eu-
rope. Why have the European Powers
the right to interfere in Balkan affairs?

It is in the first instance the right of
might ; but most of the Powers have also
very definite reason or excuse.

England, the supporter of the Turks
in former years, aided them then be-
cause the alternative of their occupation
of Constantinople seemed to be an occu-
pation by the Russians : and England, in
spite of the present entente with France
and Russia, has never ceased to guard
against the Russians achieving their am-
bition to acquire ati outlet to a southern
sea.

As is well known, England's perma-
nent policy in European affairs is to
maintain a divided continent in order
that she may remain supreme. She is
always to be found balancing the rival
European camps, thereby keeping the
peace by placing her navy on the side of

the weaker group. Hostile to Russia
prior to the Japanese war, she now forms
the Triple Entente by supporting the
Franco-Russian Alliance, the Triple Al-
liance of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
and Italy being, she believes, the present
danger to European peace. Hostile to
Russia when Russia's ambition was to
possess Constantinople, England is now
hostile to Austria-Hungary and her sup-
porter, Germany, who together appar-
entlv covet the possession of Saloniki
and hope for the extension of a German
shaft of territory from the Baltic Sea to
the .Egean.

England is well satisfied that the Bal-
kan States are victorious in the present
war. tliough she opposed them when she
feared that they, being Slavs like the
Russians, would eventually be annexed
bv Russia. P.ut the three Slav States of
Southeastern Europe liave given very
clear proof to the contrary, and as long
as thev desire their own liberty of action
and it'idependence Great Britain will al-
low her Christian sympathies to support
those minor States against the Turks.

225

226

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

WHY AUSTRIA INTERVENES

The position of Austria-Hungary, sup-
ported by Germany in her interference on
behalf of the Albanians, is one of serious
politics as well as of thwarted ambitions.
The evident intention of the victorious
Balkan States was to divide Albania — an
important territory, though peopled only
by a primitive mountain race and more
or less sparsely settled. But the accom-
plishment of this plan would unite the
Montenegrins and the Servians, on the
south of Austria, within whose borders
are many Slavs.

Austria-Hungary desires to keep any
confederacy of the Southern Slavs feeble,
because though these Southern Slavs in-
tend to maintain their independence, they
are, nevertheless, in sympathy with Rus-
sia, the great Slav nation, whose religion,
like their own, is Orthodox — that is to
say, of the same form as the Greek.

The great balance of racial power in
Europe being Germanic and Slav, the
Germanic Powers must prevent a strong
Slav confederacy south of them as long
as their northern frontier is permanently
open to a Russian menace. Further-
more, by maintaining an intact Albania,
which Austria will support and assist for
political purposes, she may prepare for
the future alDsorption by herself of this
section, at least, of Turkey in Europe.

IS Rumania's claim just?

It is because Rumania is not Slavic,
yet lies geographically between Russia
and the Southern Slavs, that she naturally
adheres in sympathy to the Germanic
Alliance. Rumania's claim for territorial
compensation from Bulgaria is based on
the fact that many settlements of Ru-
manians, not emigrants from Rumania,
but remnants evidently of ancient Roman
invasions of the Balkan Peninsula, will
be annexed by Bulgaria with her share
of the conquered territory of Macedonia
and the Adrianople vilayet.

With the new order of things that must
come soon after the several countries are
able to mark out their new border lines
and extend their respective governments,
the various scattered settlements of Bul-
gars, Serbs, Albanians, Greeks, and per-
haps even Rumanians (or, as they are
known in Macedonia, Vlachs) will natu-

rally, to some extent, shift themselves be-
hind the respective border lines of the
races with which they are to become
assimilated.

The Tziganes, or gypsies — of whom
there are very many — will be content to
live anywhere, and there will be no diffi-
culty of politics or national ambitions
arising from their presence.

Likewise, there will be no difficulties
save those that exist already in Balkan
countries, with the Spanish Jews, who,
as I have said, took refuge in Turkey in
great numbers during the period of per-
secution in Spain.

THE TURK EORCED BACK TO ASIA

As for the Turk, he will trek back in
great numbers to Asia, selling out his
lands for what he can get or allowing
them to be taken from him, for there is
much vindictive feeling among the Chris-
tians. He will dispense with the ques-
tion of compensation — being a fatalist —
as the will of Allah.

He will make his way back to Asia
as he came away, centuries ago, little
changed by his association with the peo-
ple of Europe — whom he has kept as he
found them, in a medieval condition,
with all the barbarity of medieval Eu-
rope, with all its picturesqueness, its
color, squalor, and unthinking faith.

The Turk is to be seen already moving-
toward the Bosphorus. Many thousands
went away, fleeing before their retreating^
army, leading their double teams of buf-
faloes or oxen, behind which creeped the
lumbering, four-wheeled arabas, laden
with the remnants of their possessions,,
and with their veiled women in black and
their children gaily clad in striking con-
trast.

Will the Turk change now, and pro-
gress and reform? That is a question
which I should answer in the negative.
He is a Moslem, and the soul of the true
Moslem is indifferent to progress.

But for the enlarged Balkan States it
seems safe to predict rapid development
along modern lines, for we have seen how
all of them under great difficulties have
already fulfilled partially, at least, their
aspirations to adopt the civilizing insti-
tutions of Europe and to advance in edu-
cation, morals, and material welfare.

THE COUNTRIES OF THE CARIBBEAN

Bv William Joseph Showalter

THE wonderful changes that will
be wrought on the countries of
the Caribbean region by the com-
pleted Panama Canal are beginning to be
evident through the plans these countries
are making to capitalize on the advantages
it brings to them. Everywhere there is
anticipation that the completion of the
canal is going to bring in a great stream
of capital for development purposes, and
that an era of unprecedented growth and
expansion will result.

Such a desirable outcome will take
place in some of these countries, but not
in all of them ; for, until capital is made
safe in any country, it will not come in,
and there seems to be no prospect of such
an issue of affairs in many of the coun-
tries of this region.

Xowhere else in the world has Nature
been more bountiful in her blessings of
natural resources than in the Caribbean
region. Everything that her treasure-
house holds has been bestowed with lav-
ish, and also with impartial, hand. Some
one has observed that if you tickle the
ground with a hoe it smiles back with a
yam, and certain it is that in any one of
these countries the ground of natural re-
sources may be tickled with the hoe of
foreign capital and it smiles back with
yams of wealth.

These countries are nearly all favored
alike in natural wealth, but there is a vast
diff'erence in the development of that
wealth — a difference that may be attrib-
uted almost wholly to the character of
the governments in the respective coun-
tries.

POVERTY AND MISRULE DWELL TOGETHER

In some of these lands the milk and
honey of plenty flows in a bountiful
stream. Others are in wretched poverty,
where the masses never have enough to
keep the gaunt wolf of hunger from
gnawing at their vitals day and night and
year in and year out. In traveling
through these countries one is impressed
with the fact that prosperity abides with

good rule and poverty dwells with mis-
rule.

Starting out with the easily demon-
strated fact that there is very little differ-
ence between these countries in their nat-
ural resources, it is interesting to look
around and notice what a vast difference
there is in the use that is being made of
this natural wealth. One needs not go
out of the confines of Central America to
see this. It would require six Salvadors
to make one Honduras, and yet Salvador
has three times as much population and
three times as much foreign commerce
as Honduras.

Costa Rica is less than half as big as
Nicaragua, and yet it has three times as
much foreign commerce as Nicaragua.

And yet, when Salvador and Costa
Rica are compared with Porto Rico, they
in turn seem to be slow in their develop-
ment. Porto Rico is so small that seven
islands like it would be required to cover
an area equal to that of Costa Rica, yet
it has a foreign trade five times as great
as that of the Banana Empire. Porto
Rico is less than half as large as Sal-
vador, yet it has a foreign trade seven
times as great.

WHY LITTLE PORTO RICO HAS PROGRESSED

Little Porto Rico is so small that it
could be buried in a single Central Amer-
ican lake ; it would take 57 islands of
its size to equal Central America in area,
and yet Porto Rico produces more for-
eign trade than all Central America to-
gether from Tehuantepec to Colombia.
The reason ? I5ecause Porto Rico has
an ideal government. The trade of the
island has nearly quintupled since Uncle
Sam took possession there. The number
of children enrolled in school has in-
creased sixfold. The wages of the la-
boring class has multiplied threefold.

We read of Porto Rico's present pros-
perity in every page of the record of its
expanding industry. It is seen in the
sugar fields, where four tons of sugar
are produced where one was a dozen

227

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228

Photo from W. H. Holmes. U. ?. National Museum

THE PYRAMID TEMPI^E OF EL TAJIN

This pyramid temple, situated at Papantla, in the province of Vera Cruz, Mexico, pre-
sents a feature found in no other pyramid. It is constructed of earth, dressed with stone,
and is soHd throughout. With the exception of the space reserved for the stairway, the
pyramid is faced on all four sides with a series of stone niches apparently designed to receive
statues. This feature is unique. The temple proper, which crowned the pyramid, has now
disappeared.

years ago, and where the Porto Rican
people receive $6 for exported sugar
where they received $i only a dozen years
before. It is seen in the expansion of
the coffee fincas, where production has
quadrupled since the beginning of the
century. It is seen in the growth of the
fruit-export business, where the produc-
tion of oranges increased sevenfold in
ten years, pineapi)les twenty-fold in four
years, and grapefruit twenty-five-fold in
three years.

Wherever one turns Porto Rico is ex-
tending its sugar fields, planting new
pineapi)le jilantations, establishing new
coffee fincas, and laying out new citrus-
fruit groves. And given a free entrance
of their products to the markets of the
United States, products raised where
frosts never threaten and where labor is

abundant and cheap, Porto Rico is des-
tined to become a great competitor with
Florida and southern California in sup-
])lying our tropical and semi-tropical
fruits.

The crusade which was initiated and
originally directed by the U. S. medical
officers against the hookworm disease in
Porto Rico has been a godsend to the
suffering people of the island. Formerly
practically the entire population of Porto
Rico suffered from this wasting affliction.
Hundreds of thousands of cases have
since been treated and the majority of
them cured. Forty-five dispensaries are
maintained throughout the island, and in
a single year 49,000 cases have been
treated, out of which 19,000 complete and
7.000 partial cures were made. There
still remain some 200.000 cases in the

229

Photo from W. H. Holmes, U. S. National Museum
A PREHISTORIC WATER GOD

This enormous serpent is found sculptured on the rock on a hillside near the town of
Fuente, in Mexico. It is represented as if crawling out of the spring, which here issues
from the rocks. It is 20 feet in length and its tail is hidden in the spring. Archeologists
are of the opinion that it represents a Mexican water god.

island, but they are being reduced at the
rate of about 12,000 a year. The treat-
ment is free to the people, the expense
being borne by the government.

With hundreds of thousands of men,
women, and children released from the
thralldom of one of the most wasting
and preying diseases that may attack the
human system, humanitarian ends with-
out measure have been served ; and, with
their earning power doubled, their ability
to work in many cases trebled, the great
crusade against the hookworm in Porto
Rico constitutes one of the brightest
pages in all colonial history. Here pub-
lic medicine has been put to the test, and
the most enthusiastic promises of the
sanitarian and exponent of preventive
medicine has seen his dreams come true.

A TERRIBLE PICTURE

That Porto Rico under Spain was little
different from Central America today is

shown by a prize-winning essay that was
published at the big centennial celebra-
tion of 1897- — an essay that was awarded
the prize by the Spanish authorities on
the island themselves. In that document
the essayist declared :

"Only the laborer, the son of our fields,
one of the most unfortunate beings in the
world, with the pallid face, the bare foot,
the fleshless body, the ragged clothing,
and the feverish glance, strolls indiffer-
ently, with the darkness of ignorance in
his eyes. In the market he finds for food
only the rotten fish or meat, codfish cov-
ered with gangrenish splotches, and In-
dian rice ; he that harvests the best coffee
in the world, who aids in gathering into
the granary the sweetest grain in nature,
and drives to pasture our beautiful young
beef animals cannot carry to his lips a
single slice of their flesh ; coffee is to him
a prohibited luxury, and he can use only
sugar laden with impurities."

230

Photo from W. II. Holmes, U. S. National Museum

A REPULSIVE IDOL

This curious stone was found in a corn field a few hundred feet from the station at
Xico. in Mexico. An animal figure with a hurrian head is carved in high reHef on the
houlder to which it seems to be clinging. Some idea of its size can be gained from the
little Mexican hoy who is shown alongside it.

The picture which then fitted Porto
Rico now fits Central America. The
laborer of Porto Rico, who then got less
than 20 cents a day for his work, was
even better off than the present laborer
of Guatemala, who now gets nine cents
a day for his. Then, seven out of nine
Porto Rican laborers were barefooted ;
today nine out of ten wear shoes, while
in Central America six out of seven are
barefooted.

Lest it seem to appear that in compar-
ing Porto Rico with Central America the
comparison is an unfair one, let Cuba
be taken instead. Cuba has an area
somewhat smaller than Guatemala and a
population ap])roximately equal, and yet
it enjoys a foreign trade 13 times as

large. It has an area one-fifth as great
as that of all of the six Central .\merican
republics, including Panama, and yet its
foreign commerce is three times as great
as that of all six republics together.

GOOD GOVKKX-MEXT SPELLS PROSIM-KITV

Jamaica, a British possession, has an
area only one-twelfth as great as that of
Nicaragua, and yet it has a foreign trade
three times as great. One might go on
with these enumerations indefinitely, the
lesson of them all being that prosperity
cannot exist where good government does
not. On the other hand, it is equally
demonstrated that poverty cannot exist
in the Caribbean region where good gov-
ernment is foimd.

231

•a-o

biO

ctf

232

THE COUXTRIES OF THE CARIBBEAN

233

GUATEMALA

A trip through the countries of the
Caribbean is a trip of remarkable con-
trasts. In some ways Guatemala is the
most interesting of them all. Guatemala
contains a larger proportion of pure-
blooded Indians than any other of the
republics.

In northern Guatemala one sees many
tribes of Indians who have never felt
the rude touch of an outside civilization.
They are not even acquainted with Span-
ish, and still speak the uncorrupted
tongues of their Aztec and Alayan an-
cestors who ruled the country before
Columbus discovered America. They are
an honest and cleanly race. They will
not tolerate loose women among them,
and in their transactions with outsiders
their word is as good as old wheat in a
granary.

A little illustration of this it was my
good fortune to see when I was in Guate-
mala City with Secretary Knox. Indians
from every part of the republic were
compelled lO go to the capital and par-
ticipate in the big parade. \Miile calling
on Consul General Bucklin, a ]\Irs. Owen,
who has spent 30 years among them,
brought in two typical San Cristobal In-
dian girls to be photographed. One of
them had a very unique set of native-
wrought silver ear-rings, which I bought
from her, and also a silver ring sur-
mounted with a little spread-winged dove.
Then she had another ring which I
thought was a hand-carved gold one.
She replied that she would not sell it,
since it was not gold. Mrs. Owen as-
sured me that she has never known one
of them to misrepresent anything in
order to efifect a .sale.

Yet it is these splendid types of people
who become slaves to the Guatemalan
cofifee planters and are forced to work
their lives away trying to pay their debts
on a wage of less than nine cents a day.

WHAT AN AMKRICAX CORPOR.\TIOX DOKS
FOR Tllli; INDIANS

It is in Guatemala that one begins
])roperly to appreciate the great civilizing
influence of a much-maligned .American
corj^oration — the l^iited h'ruit Com])any.
That corporation has many thousands of

acres of banana plantations along the
lowlands of the Motagua River and ex-
tending to the Caribbean Sea. It pays
its laborers a dollar in gold a day, eleven
times as much as the laws of Guatemala
say shall constitute a day's wage. One
readily can imagine what a boon this is
to poor Indians who have formerly been
paid only nine cents. Yet the United
Fruit Company voluntarily pays this
wage, and is able to give work to every
Guatemalan Indian who applies for a job.
It is the advent of such organizations
as these — powerful enough to protect
their own interests when disputes with
the local governments arise — that spells
the economic salvation of these countries
and promises an honest w^age to the la-
boring classes. I hold no brief for the
United Fruit Company, but it must be
said that that great corporation has done
more for Central America than all other
agencies combined.

HONDURAS IS VERY UNFORTUNATE

Honduras is in a very bad way from
whatever standpoint one views it. It has
a smaller population now than it had a
half century ago, and it has gone to
wreck and ruin to such an extent that
nothing but outside help can ever lift it
again to a plane where growth and de-
velopment are possible. And yet it is
rich in natural resources almost beyond
imagination.

With vast deposits of minerals of all
kinds ; with untold thousands of acres of
the finest tropical fruit and vegetable
lands in the world, and with vast areas
of magnificent grazing and cofifee lands.
Honduras is at our very doors. It is 700
miles nearer to Chicago than that city is
to San Francisco ; it is closer to Wash-
ington than Denver is ; it is farther from
New Orleans to Chicago than it is from
Puerto Barrios and Livingston to New
Orleans. A stable government for Hon-
duras, and it must become a kingdom of
plenty instead of a principalitv of pov-
erty !'

A KINGDOM OF PLENTY

Across the border is prosperous little
Salvador. It is as dififerent from Hon-
duras as night is from day. It has a
population so dense that if ours were of

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234

Photo from Mrs. Harriet Chalmers Adams

LAKE MARACAIRO, VENEZUELA

This is a great lake, quadrangular in shape, in western Venezuela, 137 miles long and
75 miles broad. It communicates with the sea by 13 channels, each obstructed by a sandy
bar, but for which the lake would be navigable for large vessels. The influence of the tides
is felt in the lower part of the lake, and the water is consequently brackish, but in the upper
half the water is sweet. A city and seaport, founded in 1571, of the same name stands at
the entrance to the lake.

equal density we would have a popula-
tion of 700 million in the continental
United States ; and although nearly half
of the country is mountainous, the peo-
ple are able to get their living out of
what they produce and still have a bal-
ance of trade amounting to about $3,500,-
000 a year.

The Salvadorean people are different
from those of any other Central Ameri-
can State. They have a middle class.
There are thousands of little farms not
much larger than a good-sized city block,
and yet it is here that the real prosperity
of Salvador is created.

In no other way could nearly 2 million
souls find subsistence on 7,225 square
miles of territory, nearly half of it moun-
tains. Salvador has had its revolutionary
troubles, too ; but they have been more
because of bellicose neighbors than be-
cause of internal difficulties. People who
cultivate their own lands have too much

at stake to start a revolution with every
change of the moon.

THE HOPELESS NICARAGUANS

Nicaragua is in the same condition as
Honduras. They have had revolutions
there since the memory of the inhabitants
runneth not to the contrary. There
seems to be little hope that they will ever
be able to give themselves a good govern-
ment. Here one sees a thousand oppor-
tunities for the development of great
wealth.

Virgin forests of all the precious
woods in the category extending for
miles on end ; coffee lands where millions
of pounds of splendid coft"ee might be
grown ; sugar lands which might yield
hundreds of thousands of sacks of sugar ;
and yet all stand idle. Why?

Ask the .\merican coffee growers of
the Alatagalpa district ; ask the cotton
growers of Campo Santo. The revolu-

235

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I'hoto and copyright by The Keystone N'icw Co.

WATCHING THE STEAMERS ENTERING PORT: LA GUAIRA, VENEZUELA

La Guaira is the chief port of Venezuela. It hes in a valley surrounded on three sides
hy high mountains. It is an unattractive town. The streets are narrow and badly paved,
and tlic houses ill-built. There are, however, a few tine public buildings and some handsome
churches. A winding railroad connects it with the capital — Caracas — some 23 miles distant.

tions come along and leave their coffee
to spoil unfathered and their cotton to
go to waste impicked. Ask the financier
from Xew Orleans who spent 20 years
of liardships there trving to gather to-
gether a com])etence, and who now finds
his husiness wrecked and in the hands of
receivers.

Given good governments, then no coun-
tries on the map would afford greater
opportunities for profitahle investments
than tho.se of Central America. With
such governments as some of them now
have, all their natural wealth cannot oft-

set the disadvantages of those govern-
ments, and an investment at 4 per cent
in the United States is often to be pre-
ferred to one yielding 100 per cent in
some of these countries.

A CENTRAL AMERICAN REPUBLIC WHERE
TIIEV DO NOT ll.W 1: REVOLUTIONS

When we come to Costa Rica things
arc beginning to be different, and Costa
Rica does not like to be reckoned in the
same 'class with Nicaragua. Honduras,
and Ouatemala. She has not had a revo-
lution in a generation. The country is

237

Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co.

STREET SCENE IN CARACAS

In the towns of Venezuela the most fastidious can always be certain of the freshness
of their milk. It is the custom to conduct the cow in person, often accompanied by her
calf, to the door of the customer, and the operation of milking is performed in the presence
of the purchaser.

SO occupied with foreign interests that
everybody is busy and revolutions are not
to be thought of, much less started.

Panama is blest with some very fine
farming and fruit lands in the region
next to Costa Rica ; but nearly all of the
Panamans have gone down to the canal
zone region for the time being. Some
of the most beautiful tier r a templada
lands in America are to be found in the
Chiquiri country, and when the people
of the United States get acquainted with
the possibilities there, some of them are
going to settle in that region and make

it a splendid example of the possibilities
of tropical America.

It is not improbable that one of the
results of the completion of the Panama
Canal will be the realization by the people
of the United States that its safety de-
pends in no small degree upon the good
conduct of the governments of Central
America. That will mean a demand for
a new order of things in these countries,
which in turn will mean safe investments
for American capital.

Then will dawn an era of development
and expansion in Central America com-

238

-'.^

//; 'l':ill!':r.:'^\ '!,ii;

Photo and copyright by The Keystone \'ie\v Co.

A H.WDSOME PI.AZA TX CARACAS, VEXEZUKI.A

The Plaza Bolivar is the center of Caracas, and contains the cathedral, the archbishop's
palace, and the national lil)rary. The streets cross each other at right angles, are all num-
bered, lighted by electricity, and generally well paved. The city was foimdcd in 1567, and
was almost entirely destroyed by a great earthquake in 1812.

parable to tliat wliich has taken place in
Porto Rico and in Cuba.

NEW YORK TO I'AXAMA T.V RAIL. IS IT
A UREA M ?

Then will the Pan-American Railroad
become a livincj reality instead of a
statesman's dream. Already, in antici-
pation of that day, Panama is preparing
to build from the canal to the Costa
Rican frontier.

The ga]) to the Costa Rican Railroad
is not a long one. and the connection
through to Nicaragua would not be diffi-

cult to build. From the national railway
of Nicaragua to the one now being built
by the United Fruit interests from the
lower i)art of Salvador through to a con-
nection with the Guatemala Northern is
only a short break, and then there would
be actual rail connection from Panama
to New York.

Of course the idea of through trains
or even through cars is little more than
a dream, since the roads are of varying
gauges, and it will be many a year before
it can even be hoped that they will all
be converted to standard gauge.

i39

Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co.

CARACAS, VENEZUELA

This city, the capital of Venezuela, occupies a beautiful site in a narrow valley at the
foot of the mountains, at a height of some 3,000 feet above the sea. Dominating the city
are the twin peaks of the Silla de Caracas, which rise to the height of 8,622 feet. The
climate of Caracas has been described as one of perpetual spring, with an annual mean
temperature of 66 degrees ; but there are very rapid changes, and the alternation of the dry
and humid winds is often very unpleasant.

As it is, it is now possible to travel
from Washington to the Guatemalan
frontier on a standard-gauge road ; but
who does it once will never do it again.

The trip across the great Mexican des-
ert is an experience not soon forgotten
or desired again. With the windows of
the Pullman cars down as if going
through a tunnel, still the alkaline dust
seeps in and makes the traveler feel that
he has been in the presence of a thresh-
ing machine for 24 hours.

Two OF THE MOST WONDERFUL RAILR0.\DS
IN THE WORED

If Central America expects to capi-
talize on the building of the Panama
Canal, it has no more ambitious hopes
in that direction than Venezuela and Co-
lombia. Although Colombia is still deeply
aggrieved over her failure to negotiate
a canal treaty with the United States,
that does not prevent her from expecting
much benefit from the operation of the

240

Photo from Mrs. Harriet Chalmers Adams

VIEW ON THE ORIXOCO RIVER, VENEZUELA

This great river, which is approximately 1,500 miles long, and is supposed to have 436
triljutaries, has never been properly explored, although in the days of the Spanish con-
quistadores it was the scene of many voyages of discovery in search of El Dorado. It
flows into the sea through a delta which is 700 square miles in area, and so little above
sea-level that great tracts of it are periodically flooded. The influence of the tides can be
seen in April, when tlie water is lowest, as far up the river as Ciudad Bolivar. ^Ji miles
"from its mouth. Although it presents a magniticent waterway, the Orinoco is but little used
for steamboat traffic.

big waterway. Already thousands of
concessions are being issued, and Colom-
bia, practically virgin territory so far as
dcNelopnient is concerned, promises to
be invaded by a great army of men whose
mission it will he to convert her latent
wealth into usable money.

X'enezueia considers herself a sort of
natural stopping ])lace for travel that
passes through the Panama Canal. With
two of the most wonderful railroads in
the world, leading from La Guaira and
Porto Cabello to Caracas, one of the most
charming of all the .Vmerican capitals, it
is certain that no i)lace can hold out more
attractions for the tourist.

On the one road the traveler must ride
23 miles to make seven, and that in itself
tells a story of a wonderful mountain
road, with zigzags and windings galore,
with high bridges, gorges thousands of
feet deep, and other touches of scenery

not surpassed in its grandeur and beauty
anywhere. On the other road there are
86 tunnels in less than 100 miles of rail-
way, and it would seem that a third of
the route was made up of bridges.

Caracas has a situation to be compared
only to that of Mexico City. It has a
climate such that no one has failed, it is
said, to sleep under a blanket since the
city was founded. If its climatic charms.
its beauty, and the attractions of its so-
ciety come to be fully appreciated, this
will be one of the ])laces to which the
tourist steamers of the world will carry
their ])assengers. Then there are mil-
lions of acres of splendid tro]Mcal farm-
ing land in \'enezuela. and rich deposits
of minerals and oil.

The West Indies also are getting ready
for the great boom in international trade
which the ccMiijiletion of the canal prom-
ises. The Danish government is prepar-

241

242

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

ing to spend millions of dollars in deep-
ening the magnificent harbor at Charlotte
Amalia, on the island of St. Thomas,
expecting that here will be a favored
spot for the calling of ships after the big
waterway is in operation.

Lying hard by the main shipway from
Europe to the canal and being a free
port, St. Thomas anticipates a great
boom. And it will almost certainly be-
come the Panama-hat distributing center
of the world. I have been in every coun-
try north of the Equator, and on this
island I saw the biggest Panama-hat store
I have ever seen. It is probably the big-
gest emporium of its kind in the world.

wherie; is coivUmbus burii;d?

Santo Domingo expects that it will get
a share in the great international com-
merce that will move through the Pan-
ama Canal. Not only will it afiford a
great highway for its exports and im-
ports, but will also constitute an impor-
tant port of call for many kinds of ships.

Here one may see the house of Colum-
bus, and if the conclusions of the priests
of Santo Domingo are to be believed, his
very ashes. It seems that Columbus, his
brother, and his son were interred in the
Cathedral. In after years it was decided
to remove the ashes of the Discoverer to
Havana. ^

When the Spaniards were fighting in
the Spanish-American war they took the
bones at Havana back to Spain and in-
terred them there. It is claimed that it
has since been demonstrated that those
are the bones of his brother.

The Santo Domingans afterward op-
ened up a leaden casket and in it found
the inscription "Cristobal Colon, First
Admiral." Other evidence substantiates
the claim and was strong enough to con-
vince Secretary Knox that the Domini-
cans actually do possess the real bones
of Columbus.

The casket was opened for our party.
There were srriall parts of the skull,
vertebrae, ribs, and femurs remaining;
but for the most part there was nothing
but dust. The bones still remaining un-
crumbled would fill about a quarter-peck
measure.

UNCLi; SAM AS A CUSTOM''S CLERK

Under the convention by which the
United States is overseeing the collection
of customs in Santo Domingo, remark-
able results are being achieved. When
the United States sent the receiver there,
the customs collections in their entirety
did not suffice to meet the needs of the
government and the republic was a bank-
rupt, defaulting on its interest and hav-
ing the warships of a European nation
at its door.

One of the early acts of the receiver
was to revise the tariff. Export duties
were cut in two and import duties were
lowered 14 per cent.

Under the old tariff champagne was
admitted with a nominal duty and beer
was heavily taxed ; silks came in almost
free and cotton goods bore a heavy bur-
den ; French sardines were admitted with
a low duty and rice was assessed with a
very heavy one. It put the burdens of
taxation on the poor masses and prac-
tically exempted the rich classes.

The revised tariff reversed all this.
And under an honest administration of
the tariff laws 60 per cent of the reduced
tariff gives the country more revenue
than 100 per cent of the old tariff. The
other 40 per cent goes to the liquidation
of the foreign debt of the country.

Haiti does not expect much from the
Panama Canal, for here is the one spot
in the New World where black rules
white, and to which the tourist tide will
probably never flow.

Here also there have been revolutions,
starting almost with each change of the
moon, for a generation or more. The
country is perhaps the most backward in
the New World. They never plant any-
thing. Haiti grows a considerable amount
of coffee, but it grows on trees which are
now the wild descendants of the trees
which were planted by the French colo-
nists.

Porto Rico feels that the completion
of the canal spells new prosperity for it.
Plans are on foot for a magnificent tropi-
cal hotel, to be built at San Juan. Being-
hard by the natural route for ships be-
tween the canal and Europe, it expects,
to profit by the traffic as Genoa profited

I'luito Ijy l.uis F. Cliibas

KOAD-MAKIXG IN CUBA, WITH KOUR-TON ROLLER, IX THE INTERIOR OF THE ISLAND

Cuba has always been handicapped by a lack of good roads, and one of the greatest blessings
of the American occupation was the initiation of an era of road-making

Plioti) from I'rederick J. Haskin

A HAVANA r.Ar.V EXJOVINf. ITS MinnAV LUNCH

This is by no means an uncommon sight in the poorer quarters of almost any Cuban
town. All through the tropics and particularly among the Latin peoples the goat is a do-
mestic animal of greater value thai\ the cow. Its milk is preferred for infant feeding, and
it needs less care and attention than the cow.

243

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THE WORLD'S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP

249

by the Alediterranean traffic before the
Turks took Constantinople.

Cuba also is expecting vast opportuni-
ties for development and expansion grow-
ing out of the operation of the canal.
The Cubans are so enthusiastic as to pro-
pose the cutting of a canal through the
island just west of Havana large enough
to accommodate all the shipping that
passes from the Atlantic seaboard to
Panama and vice "■ ^rsa.

It is not unrea onable to assume that
if the people o^ Middle America can
secure fair and pi ,;er governmental con-
ditions after the c inpletion of the Pan-
ama Canal, they Ct'.n do what Cuba has
done in the 13 years smce the first Amer-
ican intervention.

Since that time the umber of people
in the island able to read and write has
increased 140 per cent. The mortality
rate has been cut down from 33.68 per
thousand to 12.69, ^^"^ only Australia,
among all the countries of the world, can
make a better showing.

The balance of trade has risen from a
deficit of $27,000,000 a year to a surplus
of $^0,000,000. The mileage of macadam

roads has increased from 158 miles to
928. Some $350,000,000 has been spent
since then in the rehabilitation of the
country. And even then Cuba's govern-
ment has not been all that it might be,
nor is it at the end of its possibilities of
progress. Only a bare fraction of its
agricultural lands are under cultivation;
only a part of its mineral wealth has
been developed. It might easily be made
to quadruple its foreign trade.

But assuming that Central America cati
only be brought up to the standard of
Cuba today, its foreign trade would
amount to a full billion dollars a year
instead of a beggarly 65 million today.
It would have 10,000 miles of railroad
where it has less than 1,000 miles today.
It would have 5,000 miles of macadam
roads as compared with a few hundred
today. It would have a population of
11,000,000 as compared with 5,600,000
today.

This and more will certainly come to
Central America if good government
there comes apace with a completed Pan-
ama Canal.

IMPORTANT NOTICE TO OUR READERS

OWING to the very large increase
in the edition of the N.xtionai.
GiioGRAPHic Mag.vzine, the ca-
pacity of our printers, who have the
largest printing establishment in Wash-
ington, has been temporarily overtaxed,
with the result that the magazine is many
weeks late. In September, 19 12, we were
printing 140,000 copies, whereas the edi-
tion for January and February had leaped
to 210,000 copies. The present magazine
also makes a larger book.

This increased popularity of the maga-
zine is very gratifying; however, such an
extraordinary growth was beyond all cal-
culation.

Messrs. Judd & Detweiler, Inc., who
have so admirably printed the magazine
for 25 years, are now building a large
new plant, which will be entirely devoted
to the printing of the National Geo-
graphic Magazine. Meanwhile, new
presses are being installed in their old
building, and two shifts are working night
and day. Every effort is being made to
catch up with the calendar, and we hope
soon that the readers will receive the
magazine more regularly than has been
possible in the past two months. Mean-
while, the members may rest assured that
the increased edition will mean an even
more valuable and entertaining magazine.

250

PROGRKSS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

SOCIETY

The Reports for flic Year ipu of the Director and Editor, the Secretary, and

the Treasurer

RKl'ORT OF THE DIRECTOR AND EDITOR

THE results of the year 1912 were
most gratifying in all departments
of the Society's work. In the
variety and extent of researches and ex-
plorations by the Society ; in the number
of new members added to the rolls ; in
the popularity, influence, and educative
value of its magazine, and in the amount
added to the investment fund, the year
1912 surpassed all its predecessors.

The expedition which the Society, in
cooperation with Yale University, sent
to Peru, under the direction of Hiram
Bingham, made a careful study of the
wonderful Inca city of Macchu Pichu,
discovered by Mr. Bingham in 191 1. The
expedition stayed in this city for nearly
five months, mapping it in such detail
that a model can now be made of Macchu
Pichu. which is one of the most extra-
ordinary archeological finds in America
during the past 50 years. The city covers
the top of a high mountain, being one-
half mile long and almost as wide. The
buildings are built of blocks of pure
white granite, jnit together without ce-
ment. The publications by the Society
of the results of Dr. Bingham's expedi-
tion, which also made many other new
discoveries, illustrated profusely by the
remarkable array of photograi:)hs that he
brought back, will bring much honor and
credit to the Society for its share in the
work. (The April number of the Mag-
azine will contain Dr. Bingham's report.)

The expedition to Mount Katmai,
Alaska, to study volcanic conditions of
the mountain and neighborhood, was also
very successful. Prof. George C. Martin
has completed his report, which is illus-
trated by a marvelous collection of pho-
tographs showing the devastation caused
by the volcano. (Published elsewhere in
this number.)

The expedition to the east coast of

Hudson Bay, under the direction of
W. E. Clyde Todd, did good work, and
its biological and other studies should
prove valuable acquisitions to science.

The scientific volume of the Alaska
Glacier studies of 1909, 1910, and 191 1
was completed by the late Prof. Ralph S.
Tarr. of Cornell University, and Prof.
Lawrence Martin, of the University of
A\'isconsin. and delivered to the Society
late in the year. It will be published in

1913-

The present activity of the Society in
conducting explorations is most gratify-
ing when we realize that until very re-
cently the Society had no funds of its
own available to maintain researches.

THE NEW BUILDING OF THE SOCIETY

As the Society ha.'' no endowment, it
has been the policy of the Board of Man-
agers each year to add to the reserve
fund as large an amount as possible from
the annual receipts, in order that the
Society might accumulate a comfortable
surplus and thus be protected in times of
financial stress. The wisdom of this
policy is now apparent, when, owing to
the immense increase in the corres])on(}-
ence and business of the Society, more
accommodations are needed for its oftice
force than Hubbard ^Memorial Hall can
|)rovide, and the erection of a new ofiice
building for the Society has become im-
perative. In December, 191 2, the B>oard
of Managers authorized the construction
of a new building on the large proj^erty.
which the Scxnety had purchased at a
cost of about $44,000. adjacent to Hub-
bard Memorial Hall.

The Finance Committee, which the
Board charged with the duties of pre-
paring ])lans. is now actively at work on
the designs for the new building, which
will be convenient, well-lighted, and a
handsome annex to the beautiful home
given to the Society by the family of its

251

252

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

first President. It is expected that ground
will be broken for the new building about
April I, and that it will be ready for
occupancy before November i, 1913. The
building and equipment will cost approxi-
mately $150,000, exclusive of the land.

When the new structure is completed
Hubbard Hall will be restored to the
original purposes for which it was in-
tended — a meeting-place for geographers
and travelers, for the research and other
committees of the Society, and for the
accommodation of a useful geographical
library of ready reference. The Society
has several thousand standard geograph-
ical books, but owing to the crowding of
its present quarters, the volumes are for
the most part stored in packing-boxes.

Fourteen years ago an able-bodied man
could walk ofT with the entire month's
edition of the magazine on his back,
whereas today seven freight cars are re-
quired to carry the paper for printing
the current number of the magazine. The
number of the magazine which contains

this report would fill a book-shelf ly^
miles long. This really extraordinary de-
velopment of a magazine which prints
no fiction has been made possible largely
because of the belief of the old and new
members in the object of the Society and
of the loyal support which they have
given to its policy of popularizing geo-
graphical knowledge, particularly as ex-
pressed in its magazine.

During 1912 there was a uniform
growth in new members and in receipts
of approximately 60.5 per cent over the
preceding year, the largest percentage of
increase that the Society has attained
during the past six years. I give below
a table showing the progress of the So-
ciety in its membership, in its receipts,
in its earnings, research expenditures,
and investment for each of the last six
years. It is there shown that the mem-
bership, the receipts, and the earnings
for the year 1912 were practically four
times the corresponding figures for the
year 1908.

Members.

Receipts.

Surplus after

payment of all

expenses of

the year.

Appropriated
for research.

Invested.

I9I2

160,565

102,051

74,018

53,333
38,698

31,272

1369,829.34
224,927.12

168,863.43

127,275.70

84,083.54

80,707.29

164,564.31
43,886.96
36,872.00
25,466.07
16,898.00
19,013.00

S'3,740.76
5,200.94
8,766.00

5,746.39
None

1,729-15

150,823.55
38,686.00
28,096.00
19,719.68
I 6 , 898 . 00
17,283.85

iqil

I910

iqoq

IQ08

1907

Total

1206,700.31

135,183.24

1171,507.08

Total investments and cash of the Society (December 31, 1912) 1 177, 060. 00

This increased growth of the Society
will provide fimds for an even more val-
uable magazine in 191 3 than the So-
ciety has yet been able to publish. Sev-
eral new maps and panoramas, including
another wonderful mountain panorama
by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, and several
colored features will appear in early
numbers of the magazine. Each number
of the magazine will contain splendid
articles by eminent authorities, and an
average of from 125 to 150 of the mar-
velous illustrations which have gfiven the

magazine its unique reputation for inter-
est and instruction.

The magazine has been purchasing
material in almost every part of the
world and has today one of the most
valuable collections of photographs in
the United States. The Society has also
a large equipment of machines, etc.,
which have been purchased during the
past several years and none of which
appear on the books of the organization
as assets. The Society has a collection
of copper plates worth many thousand
dollars, also not carried as assets.

PROGRESS OF THE XATIOXAL GEOGRAIMIIC SOCIETY 253

There were published by the Society
during 1912 1,705,000 copies of the mag-
azine, the average monthly edition for
the year being 142,083, a gain of 48,666
per month. The average edition in 191 1
was 93.417; in 1910, 68,833; i" 1909,
52,833; in 1908, 41,000.

The Society is today the largest patron
of the post-office in Washington, exclud-
ing the government departments. Dur-
ing the past year about 1,200,000 letters
and 50,000 postal cards were dispatched
from our office. Approximately 225,00c
remittances were made to the Society.
only a very small percentage of which
were of a greater amount than $2. Forty-
eight thousand changes in the addresses
of members were made, more than 150
for each working day, and approxi-
mately 2,250 mail-bags of magazines
were sent out each month.

The condition of the advertising de-
partment of the magazine is most prom-
ising for the current year. Our policy
has been to limit the number of advertis-
ing pages and to refuse much advertis-
ing which we did not think desirable.
For instance, advertisements of certain
medicines, foods, real estate, etc., though
carried by standard magazines, are not
printed in the National Geographic
Magazixk.

The fact that the magazine has been
built up out of membership fees and sub-
scriptions, and has not been dependent
on advertising receipts, has enabled us
to be independent ; furthermore, we have
not had to maintain an expensive adver-
tising staff.

Our policy is to limit the number of
pages of advertising to be carried by the
magazine to not more than 50 pages per
month. Owing to the exceptional value
of the advertising i)ages in the National
Geograptiic Magazink, there is now be-
ginning to be a great demand for them,
and we expect shortly to command a
much more remunerative price per page
than has heretofore been obtainable.

The success of the Society in develop-
ing a poi)ular magazine for the dififu-
sion of geographic information monthly
makes me believe that the Society should
now undertake the publication of the

ideal, or standard, books of travel. It
seems to me that our aim should be to
encourage a new tyi)e of geographical
literature, just as we have encouragcil
and established a new type of geograph-
ical magazine. Our facilities for illus-
trating books of travel and for distribut-
ing them are unequaled. The market is
flooded with books of travel every year,
most of which are rubbish and not
worthy of even a line of note in our
periodical. They have a very small sale,
because so many poor books of travel
are published that the very rare good
book is hidden in the mass of worthless
material.

If the Society adopts the policy of
printing exceptional studies of foreign
peoples, such as "Farmers of Forty Cen-
turies." by the late F. H. King, we shall
undoubtedly receive applications from
authors of such volumes who will want
to have us undertake their publication
because of the distinction that a work
approved by the Society will merit from
the public. We have such a tremendous
field of readers that the Society ought to
do all that it can to place useful geo-
graphical information before them.

Our aim is to make the magazine a
source of desirable and useful geographic
information to every intelligent familv
in the United States, and we believe that
this ambition can be realized.

If the Society through its magazine
can get the average man and woman in
the United States to read articles like
the one on "The Wonderful Canals of
China," in the October (1912) number,
we shall be doing an educational work
which in importance cannot be overesti-
mated.

The magazine is thus becoming one of
the greatest forces in the world for a
better understanding and a])preciation of
other peoples, and for the ])romotion of
international good will. And in this con-
nection I quote from an editorial in the
Boston Herald as follows :

"The National Geographic Society of Wash-
ington, D. C. is doing a work, througli the
montlily publication of its magazine, which no
intelligent man or woman can afford to remain
ignorant of. Geography by itself is ordinarily
thought a dry subject. Geography, on the con-

<u Vh S _ ^

254

PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRArillC SOCIETY

255

trary, based on geology or the vivid presenta-
tion of the great physical features of the earth
on which depend all civilizations, customs,
avocations, sciences, and literatures, easily be-
comes one of the most fascinating of studies,
or even of mere cursory skits of reading.

"Strange to add, in its bearing on such af-
fections of the heart as ardent love of country
and patriotic pride in its great foreordained
destinies, here is an agency the force of which
cannot be overstated. Indeed, the modern in-
novation of hatching chickens by incubators
instead of hens is simply nowhere compared
with the system of hatching patriots of the
stamp of William Tell by geological geography,
as exemplitied in the faith and works of the
National Geographic Societv of Washington,
D. C.

"This is no wild paradox. In truth, have
not the gravest historians insisted that the rea-
son why there is no such thing as the existence
of patriotic sentiment in China is solely due
to the fact that the human heart is incapable
of loving 400 million fellow creatures one
knows nothing about? They are a pure nu-
merical abstraction to a man. Of their lives,
languages, aspirations, joys, and sorrows he is
ignorant of every concrete item, unless that
they all wear the national pigtail ; and so, even
this dangling appendage is not potent enough
to bind the people together in the chords of
universal love.

"Just the same used to be asserted of the
United States of America. The States were
too big, too broadly dispersed, too divergent
in interests, for any one to be capable of lov-
ing their multitudinous populations as fellow
countrymen. All this, however, at any rate in
the eyes of the National Geographic Society of
Washington, is now rapidly being done away
with. It is getting eflfected through a vivid
appeal to the visual imagination which is en-
abling us all to see, in the mind's eye, our
whole country at once and as a whole. The
stupendous national enterprises already com-
pleted, or about to be inaugurated, are fast
annihilating all lines of geographical division,
and enlisting the minds and hearts of the scat-
tered millions in vast undertakings in which
all share a common interest and common pride."

In conclusion, you will permit me to
call your attention once more to the fact
that, notwithstanding the wide range of
geographic subjects included in the maga-
zine, covering archeological, geological,
political, and historical themes, the stan-
dard of accuracy of fact has always been
maintained. It is the reputation of the
magazine for its unquestioned reliability
and impartiality that is largely respon-
sible for its popularity.

The great success of the year would
not have been possible without the cor-

dial cooperation and help of the assistant
editor, Mr. John Oliver La Gorce ; the
assistant treasurer, Mr. F. B. Eichel-
bergcr ; the assistant secretary, Mr.
George W. Hutchison, and all the other
members of the office force, to whom
grateful acknowledgment is hereby made.
Respectfully submitted,
Gilbert H. Grosvexor,

Director and Editor.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

The year 1912 shows a large increase
in the membership of the National Geo-
graphic Society and a general improve-
ment in its condition and work.

The number of members December 30.
191 1, was 102,051 ; the number added
upon their own application from Janu-
ary 2 to December 31 was 59,161 ; the
losses by death, by resignation, by non-
payment of dues was 5,876. There was
also a net gain of 8,029 "^ the number oi
subscribers, making a net increase of
58,514 members and subscribers during
the year and the total membership, in-
cluding life members and subscribers on
December 31, 1912, 160,565.

Fifty-five new life members were
elected during the year, making the total
life membership 505.

The membership is distributed through-
out all the States and Territories of the
Union, and includes about 3.100 in the
District of Columbia and between 1,300
and 1,400 in the Philippines, Hawaii,
Porto Rico, and Alaska. The member-
ship in foreign countries is 3,550, and
represents 50 different countries, includ-
ing most of the European countries.
Egypt, India, China. Japan, Australia.
New Zealand, and the various Central
and South American countries and sev-
eral West Indian islands.

The membership in Canada is 1.550.
in Mexico 550. in Cuba 350, in Europe
2,300, Central and South America 350.

In January. 19 12, Mr. James Bryce.
the British Ambassador, was elected an
honorary member of the Society.
Respectfully submitted,

O. P. Austin,

Secretarv.

256

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

REPORT OF the; treasurer of the

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
SOCIETY

Por the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1912

RECEIPTS

Cash, as shown by statement of

December 31, 1911 $42,876.92

Dues 264,499.74

Life memberships, 55 at $50 2,750.00

Magazine subscriptions and sales... 28,243.08

Lectures 7.238.96

Advertising 41,446.43

Interest on investments 3.458-85

Interest on deposit in bank 687.87

Pubhcations 20,251.02

Sundry 1,355-39

$412,808.26

DISBURSEMENTS

Magazine, paper, printing, articles,

etc $167,138.89

Pound- rate postage on magazine... 13,000.00

Postage on letters, etc 24,867.00

Salaries and services 54,331-90

Printing and stationery 16,036.67

Lectures 9.643 . 52

Hubbard Memorial Hall 1,769.53

Publications, scenes, panoramas,

maps, etc 28,863 . 08

Research :

Alaskan glacier expedi-
tion, 191 1 $759 . 28

Alaska volcano expedi-
tion 1,500.00

Peruvian expedition,

1912 10,000.00

Hudson Bay expedition,

1912 500.00

Instruments, research

expeditions 976.83

Sundry 4.65

• 13,740.76

Advertising commission 2,376.33

Library 208.20

Investment account, purchase of
bonds, and real-estate notes se-
cured by first mortgage 49,961 .99

Equipment :

Furniture $1,177.75

Machinery 1,912.48

3,090 . 23

Sundry 4,647 . 69

Cash balance in the Washington

Loan & Trust Company 23,132.47

$412,808.26

ASSETS

Investments, General Account

5% notes, secured by first mortgage

on real estate $47,300.00

Bonds :

10 $500 bonds, Capital
Traction Co., 5%, at
purchase price $S,5i8.75

8 $500 bonds, Washing-
ton Gas Light Co.,
5%, at purchase price 4,438.75

10 $500 bonds, George-
town Gas Co., 5%, at
purchase price 5,427.50

4 $1,000 bonds, Po-
tomac Electric
Power Co., 5%, at
purchase price 4,135.00

19,520.00

Real estate :

Lot 45, square 183, at
purchase price $11,338.95

Lot 46, square 183, at
purchase price 16,145.22

Lot 47, square 183, at
purchase price 15,876.00

43,360.17

Investments, Life Membership Fund

5% real-estate notes secured by
first mortgage $22,000.00

Publications on hand, cost price... 21,750.00

Cash in the Washington Loan &

Trust Company 23,130.47

Total assets year ending De-
cember 31 $177,060.64

Total assets December 31, 1912.... 177,060.64

Total assets December 31, 1911. . . . 126,237.09

Increase in assets in 1912 $50,823.55

LIABIEITIES

None.

Respectfully submitted.

Jno. Joy Edson,

Treasurer.

rBerrSHTidPii

Vol. XXIV, No. 3

WASHINGTON

March, 1913

TME

ATEOHAIL

©(SJIAIPIHIILC

MBAM]

OYSTERS: THE W^ORLD'S MOST VALUABLE

WATER CROP

By Hugh M. Smith

U. S. Deputy Commissioner of Fisheries

Author of "Making the Fur Seal Abundant," "Federal Fish Farming," "Our Fish
Immigrants," "America's Most Valuable Fishes," "The Pearl Fisheries of
Ceylon," "King Herring," "Some Great Fishes of the Sea," "Brittany, the
Land of the Sardine," etc., in the National Geographic Magazine.

OYSTERS are the most popular
and most extensively eaten of
all shellfish ; economically, they
are the most important of all cultivated
water products and, with the single ex-
ception of the sea herrings, the most
valuable of all aquatic animals. Zoolog-
ically considered, oysters are lamelli-
branchiate mollusks of the genus Ostrea.

In at least 35 countries oysters support
a special fishery, and in various other
countries enter into the food supply. On
the shores of all the temperate and tropi-
cal oceans and seas, oysters occur in
greater or less abundance ; but the supply
in the North Atlantic exceeds that of all
the other waters combined. Not less than
150,000 men and women are engaged in
the oyster industry ; and the capital in-
vested in vessels, boats, apparatus, oyster
lands, and cultural establishments aggre-
gates many million dollars.

The oyster crop of the world at the
present time amounts to over 42 million
bushels and is valued at nearly $25,000,-
000. Of this output, the share of the
United States is 88 per cent of the quan-
tity and 69 per cent of the value. Of
the remaining portion, fully 65 per cent
of the quantity and 50 per cent of the
value belong to France.

At least 100 species are known, with a
rather wide range in size, shape, habits,
flavor, and food value. Some excellent
species exist in the equatorial and sub-
tropical regions, but the best occur in
temperate climes. The northern limits
of their habitat are the Gulf of St. Law-
rence and southern Norway in the At-
lantic, and Hokkaido and Puget Sound
in the Pacific.

Oysters produce an immense number
of young in order to compensate for the
heavy mortality that occurs at all stages
of growth, but particularly in the early
months. It is an astonishing biological
fact that in some species of x)yster each
sex is represented by a dififerent indi-
vidual, as in the oyster of the Atlantic
coast of North America : while in other
species both sexes are united in one in-
dividual — the male stage alternating with
the female, as in the common oyster of
the Atlantic coast of Europe.

After the oyster attains a size that is
visible to the unaided eye, it is incapable
of changing its position. This is in
marked contrast with the newly born
young, which is a free-swimming crea-
ture, floating about with tides and cur-
rents, and quite as likely to settle down
on a far-distant bank or bar as to rejoin
its progenitors.

2S8

riioto from Dr. Hugh .M. Snmli
VERY YOUNG OYSTERS ("SPAX") ATTACHED TO THE INSIDE OF AN OYSTER SHEIX
WHICH HAS BEEN "pLANTEd" FOR THIS PURPOSE

The planting of suitable material, such as old shells, gravel, etc., to which young oysters
may attach themselves after the free-swimming stage, is an exceedingly important branch
of the oyster industry, for any of the young falling on mud or sand are lost.

Of the millions of microscopic young
liberated by a single full-grown oyster,
only an exceedingly small percentage be-
come attached to a suitable bottom, form
a shell, and enter on a career that will
terminate on the table in two to four
years. When the temperature, density,
tides, and currents are favorable, the
young will settle on an existing bar or
bed, covering the shells of the old oys-
ters and any other hard surfaces or ob-
jects that may be present. All the young
that fall on a muddy or soft sandy bot-
tom, or on surfaces that are slimy, are
lost. Oyster culture therefore aims pri-
marily to conserve the free-swimming
young, which it accomplishes by sowing
clean oyster-shells or other "cultch" to
Avhich the "spat'' can attach, or by col-
lecting the young on tiles or brush raised
above the bottom or suspended between
surface and bottom (see pages 269 and
274).

CHIN.V AND ITALY CULTIVATED OYSTERS
2,000 YEARS Af.O

Oysters have been under culture longer
than any other shellfish and, indeed, than
any other water creature. A simple type
■of cultivation, with the formation of

artificial beds, flourished in China at
a very remote period and probably an-
tedated by some centuries the inception
of oyster culture in Italy, about the year
TOO B. C. With the advance of civiliza-
tion and the increase in population, oys-
ters were in greater demand and of ne-
cessity came under cultivation in all the
important maritime countries of Europe,
where, at the present time, fully 90 per
cent of the output represents oysters that
have undergone some kind of culture.
In other parts of the Old World the
growing of oysters by artificial means
has become an important industry, while
in the Western Hemisphere oyster farm-
ing has progressed to such a point that
the annual crop now exceeds the total
product of the rest of the world.

Oysters are thus become the most ex-
tensively cultivated of all aquatic ani-
mals, and the yearly product of the oyster
farms is many times more valuable than
that of all other aquicultural operations
combined.

The cultivation of oysters is made
necessary by the exhaustion of the nat-
ural beds ; it is made possible by private
ownership or control of oyster-producing
bottoms ; and it is greatly facilitated by

259

ANATOMY OF THE; OYSTER

Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith

"It is an astonishing biological fact that in some species of oyster each sex is repre-
sented by a different individual, as in the oyster of the Atlantic coast of North America;
while in other species both sexes are united in one individual — the male stage alternating
with the female, as in the common oyster of the Atlantic coast of Europe" (see text,
page 257).

the peculiar susceptibility of oysters to
increase and improvement by artificial
means.

THi; OYSTER HAS MANY ENEMIES

The human animal is not the only one
that looks with favor upon the edible
qualities of the oyster. At every stage
in its career it is attacked by a horde of
dangerous enemies, some of which are
most destructive after the oyster has put
on its stoutest armor and would seem to
be almost invulnerable. Before it be-
comes attached, the delicate oyster, fry is
extensively consumed by adult oysters
and various other shellfish, as well as by
fishes like the menhaden, which are able
to strain their food from the water.
When the oyster attains its shell, a new

set of shellfish enemies, provided with
drills, begin their attacks and extract the
soft parts through minute holes made in
valves. In some localities various snail-
like mollusks do immense damage to the
beds of oysters in their first year.

The oyster growers of Long Island
Sound and adjacent waters suffer large
losses from the inroads of starfishes,
which come in from deep water and
move in waves over the bottom, devour-
ing every oyster in their path and some-
times destroying several hundred thou-
sand bushels of marketable oysters in
one State in a single season. It is re-
markable that a weak creature like the
common starfish should be able to prey
on an animal so strongly fortified as an
oyster. The starfish acts by attaching;

260

THE WORLD'S AIOST VALUABLE WATER CROP

261

itself to the lips of the oyster-shell and
exerting a steady and long-sustained
traction with each of its numerous small
suckers. After a time the powerful ad-
ductor muscle of the oyster becomes fa-
tigued, the valves open, and the starfish
inserts its stomach and devours the help-
less oyster at leisure.

Other enemies of the grown oyster are
fishes with powerful jaws armed with
crushing teeth. On the Atlantic coast
the most destructive fish is the black
drum, a school of which may literally
clean out an oyster-bed in one night. On
the Pacific coast a species of stingray is
the chief offender, and to stop its rav-
ages the oyster growers have been
obliged to inclose the beds by stout pali-
sades.

Further damage is done to oysters by
the encroachments of mussels, barnacles,
sponges, etc., which sometimes occur so
densely on the shells as to cut off food
and oxygen, and thus greatly retard the
growth of the oysters.

OYSTERS ARE CHEAPEST AND MOST POPU-
LAR IN THE UNITED STATES

In any consideration of the world's
oyster industry the United States neces-
sarily receives first and most prominent
mention, for there is no country in which
oysters occupy a more important place.
The output here is larger and more valu-
able than elsewhere, and the relative im-
portance of oysters compared with the
total fishery product is greater. Further-
more, among the leading oyster-produc-
ing countries the cost of oysters to the
consumer is least and the per caput con-
sumption is greatest in the United States.
Additional evidence of the conspicuous
position held by the oyster is seen in the
facts ( I ) that it is taken in every coastal
State except one; (2) that in 15 States
it is the chief fishery product, and (3)
that it is the most extensively cultivated
of our aquatic animals.

The annual oyster output at this time
is about 37.000,000 bushels, with a value
to the producers of nearly $17,000,000.
The yield has increased 70 per cent in
quantity since 1880. Under the favor-
able conditions now prevailing, the out-
put is becoming larger year after year in
the country as a whole. The limit of

production has perhaps been practically
reached in certain States, but in most
States the industry is capable of great
expansion. In recent years the South
Atlantic and Gulf States have experi-
enced a noteworthy augmentation of
yield as a result of increased apprecia-
tion of the oyster re-^ources and in-
creased encouragement given to oyster
culture.

The seven leading oyster States at this
time are Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
York, New Jersey, Maryland, \'irginia,
and Louisiana, in each of which over a
million bushels of oysters are marketed
annually. \'irginia is the ranking State
as regards production, with over 6 mil-
lion bushels, followed by Maryland, with
over 5^ million bushels, and Connecti-
cut, with about 4 million bushels. As
regards value of oysters taken. Connec-
ticut and New York lead, with over 2^/2
million dollars each, followed by \ ir-
ginia and ^Maryland, with about 2^4 mil-
lion dollars each. In other words, an
average bushel of oysters in Connecticut
and New York brings the oysterman 80
cents, while a bushel in Maryland and
\'irginia brings less than 40 cents.

CHESAPEAKE BAY IS THE WORLd's GREAT-
EST OYSTER GROUND

The body of water which produces
more oysters than any other body of
water in the L'nited States or, in fact, in
the whole world is Chesapeake Bay. The
latest statistics of the oyster industry
show the preponderating importance of
the bay: an output of over 11 million
bushels, valued at more than $4,250,000,
or 30 per cent of the quantity and 25 per
cent of the value of the entire oyster
crop of the L^nited States for 1908.

While the oyster yield of Chesapeake
Bay and tributaries in all recent years
has been considerably, less than formerly,
nevertheless the industry today is in a
healthier condition than ever before.
This apparently jiaradoxical statement is
explained by the fact that whereas in
earlier years a very large proportion of
the product was obtained from public
beds, whose depletion had already begun
and whose ultimate destruction was in-
evitable, now an annually increasing pro-
portion of the oyster output is taken

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262

THE WORLD'S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP

263

from grounds under private control and
represents an actual aquicultural crop.

In \'irginia about 50 per cent of the
value of the State's oyster industry is
contributed by grounds under cultiva-
tion, and in Maryland an increasingly
large proportion is from private beds — a
condition which 25 years ai^o would have
been regarded as almost impossible, for
at that time these States were firmly
committed to the policy of making their
oyster industry depend on public or nat-
ural beds and restrictive measures, and
discouraged the general inauguration of
oyster planting on public oyster grounds.

This policy was in strong contrast with
that in the next most important oyster-
producing region, namely, Long Island
Sound, where the States of New York
and Connecticut had cut loose from the
old fetish of the sanctity of public oys-
ter grounds, had leased or sold those
grounds for planting purposes, and had
assumed the front rank, although their
natural advantages for oyster growing
were much inferior to those in Chesa-
peake Bay.

OYSTER CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

The rank early attained by the United
States in the oyster industry was due to
the great area of the oyster-beds ; but
the maintenance of that rank depends on
the general adoption of oyster culture as
the only certain means of insuring a
yearly increasing crop that will keep
pace with the increasing demand.

Of the oysters marketed last year, 50
per cent came from private or cultivated
grounds. Owing, however, to the im-
provement in the quality and shape of
oysters by cultivation, the product of the
private beds represented 70 per cent of
the total value of the yield of market
oysters. While the quantity of oysters
taken from cultivated grounds in the
United States is larger than in all the
remainder of the world, yet the propor-
tion of such oysters to the total output
is much smaller than in any other im-
portant oyster-producing country.

Wherever the fishery is active and the
demand great, the necessity for artificial
measures to maintain the supply sooner

or later becomes manifest. Some of the
States long since ceased to place reliance
on natural beds as sources of supply, and
encouraged oyster culture by leasing or
selling all available grounds to prospec-
tive oyster farmers, and each year other
States are falling in line for progressive
methods.

The American oyster industry ha?
been greatly retarded in one of the most
important regions by the failure of the
States to adapt themselves to existing
conditions and by their deep-seated prej-
udice against innovations based on mod-
ern conceptions and experience.

Nowhere in this country is there any
excuse for continuing to rely on public
oyster grounds as sources of supply, and
the proposition to discourage or prohibit
individual control of land for agricul-
tural purposes would not be less absurd
than to prevent or retard the acquisition
of submerged lands for aquicultural pur-
poses.

The prosperous condition of our oys-
ter industry at present is directly due
to the more general acceptance of more
rational standards as regards oyster cul-
ture, and it is only a question of a few
years when there will be unanimous rec-
ognition, as an orthodox fact, of what a
short time ago would have been regarded
as the rankest economic heresy, namely,
that natural oyster-beds as a general
proposition are to be considered nui-
sances, whose perpetuation delays prog-
ress and impairs the prosperity of the
oyster industry.

Reduced to its simplest terms, oyster
culture in the United States consists in
(i) acquiring suitable submerged bot-
tom, (2) cleaning and preparing that
bottom for the growth of oysters, (^)
sowing thereon shells or other material
("cultch") for the attachment and
growth of the young oysters, (4) insur-
ing the production of larval oysters by
the proximity of natural or planted beds
of adult oysters, (5) protecting the oys-
ter beds from enemies, (6) transplant-
ing as occasion requires to prevent over-
crowding and to facilitate growth and
fattening, and (7) culling and sorting
for market.

Photo from Dr. Hugh ]\i. Smith

oyste;r growing on a pipe;

The oyster is so large and the pipe so small that at first sight it would hardly seem
possible that the oyster grew from a little disc only about one-twentieth of an inch in
diameter. While the young oysters are in the free-swimming stage they are even smaller,
being about i/isoth part of an inch long and almost transparent.

pi.oate;d oysters may be; dange;rous

A prevalent practice among oyster
growers in some sections is to transfer
oysters from salt water to brackish or
less dense water for a short time before
shipping to market, with the object of
making them take on an illusive appear-
ance of fatness by the rapid absorption
of fresher water, while the more saline
fluids in the tissues slowly pass out. This
process, known as plumping, floating, or
fattening, results in a swelling of the
oysters to the full capacity of the shell,
but adds nothing to their nutritive value
or flavor. On the contrary, it extracts
certain nutritious ingredients and re-
places them with water. Chemical tests
have shown that this sadly misnamed
process of "fattening" deprives the oys-
ters of lo to 15 per cent of their food
value, while increasing their weight from
10 to 20 per cent. A similar result is
seen when oysters are placed in fresh
water or brought into contact with melt-
ing ice after removal from the shell.

More serious, however, than the loss
of nutritive properties is the danger
from contamination by pathogenic bac-
teria when the floats are situated within
the range of sewers or other sources of
pollution. It is well known that oysters

imbibe disease germs with their food, and
such germs may be taken into the human
body with their vitality unimpaired and
give rise to sickness. Epidemics of ty-
phoid fever have been definitely traced
to "floated" oysters which were un-
doubtedly innocuous when taken from
the Salter water.

It will thus be seen that this feature
of oyster growing is not commendable,
and is necessarily prejudicial to the besti
interests of the industry. The growth
of the practice has been due to the igno-
rance of the public; its continuance after'
its undesirable nature has frequently
been shown is a sad commentary on our
intelligence.

OYSTKRS ON the; PACII^IC COAST

While the entire east coast of North
America has but a single species of oys-
ter, the Pacific coast has five or six
native species, and has been further en-
riched by the one from the Atlantic.

The most abundant of the native spe-
cies, found in all the Pacific States, is
very small and has a strong flavor. It
is never served on the half shell, but is
eaten in bulk, one hundred or moret 1
oysters often being a "portion" for oneil
person. The largest and best occur in
Willapa Bay, Washington.

264

JiooT

During the past 40 years immense
quantities of Atlantic oysters have been
transplanted to the Pacific coast, and a
large business has sprung up which sur-
passes that in the natives.* It is neces-
sary, however, to renew the supply an-
nually, particularly in Oregon and
Washington, where the water is of too
low a temperature to permit the eggs of
the transplanted oysters to develop.
This difficulty may eventually be over-
come, and an oyster fully equal to that
of the Atlantic be produced, by the ac-
climatization from the coast of Japan of
a large oyster that is able to spawn in
relatively cold water. Experiments to
this end have been undertaken with
promising results.

Tn the warmer water of San Fran-
cisco Bay the conditions for oyster cul-

ture are dififerent. and there a very
extensive and peculiar kind of oyster
farming has sprung up. The grounds
are surrounded by stockades, principally
for the purpose of protecting the beds
from the inroads of strong-jawed sting-
rays, which at times enter San Francisco
Bay in schools, and would crush and de-
vour large quantities of marketable oys-
ters unless excluded by the stockades.
Within the inclosures the planting, trans-
planting, growing, gathering, and culling
are done under ideal conditions.

A large oyster, similar to our Atlantic
species, grows in great abundance in the
Gulf of California, and is eaten in lim-
ited quantities in the adjacent parts of

* See Nation.m, Geographic ]\rAGAzi.\K. June.
1907. for a fuller account of the transplar.tini^
of Eastern ovsters on the Western seaboard.

26s

Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith

OYSTERS ENCUMBERED WITH A MASS OE EGGS OE THE WHELK

When the eggs hatch, the young whelks will devour young oysters by boring through the

shell

Mexico. The grounds are virgin, and are
capable of supporting a large industry.

HOW OUR GOVERNMENT AIDS THE OYSTER
FARMERS

The Federal government, as repre-
sented by the Bureau of Fisheries, does
not hatch oysters artificially and dis-
tribute them by the billion for the stock-
ing of public and private waters as it
does food fishes. A much more potent
way to increase the oyster supply is the
one that has been followed for many
years, to the entire satisfaction of the
oyster-growing communities.

This consists in practical aid to the
States and cooperation with them in de-
termining the physical and biological
characters of the oyster grounds, in sur-
veying and plotting those grounds with
a view to their allotment for oyster cul-
ture, in conducting .experimental and
model planting operations, in recom-
mending oyster legislation, and in giving
disinterested expert advice on the
various problems that arise in the devel-
opment and administration of the oyster
fishery.

Assistance of this kind has been ren-
dered to every coastal State, and offi-
cial requests for additional aid have of
late been so numerous that the facili-
ties of the Bureau of Fisheries have
been overtaxed with respect to both
funds and trained men for the work.
The most recent surveys, experiments,
and inquiries have been in Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, Alabama, Missis-
sippi, Louisiana, and Texas, in several
of which States the Bureau of Fisheries
and the Coast and Geodetic Survey have
joined forces in the accomplishment of
special plans.

The beneficial results of the govern-
ment's efforts in behalf of the oyster in-
dustry of the various States have been
conspicuous and lasting. The recent re-
markable increase of the oyster output
in the Gulf States is directly attributa-
ble to those efforts.

Especially noteworthy has been the
outcome of certain experimental plant-
ing operations in Louisiana. In Bara-
taria Bay, where there had previously
been no oyster industry, experimental
beds laid out by experts of the Bureau

266

I'liolo from Dr. Hugli M. Smith

STARFISH ATTACKING AN OYSTER

"It is remarkable that a weak creature like the common starfish should be able to prey
on an animal so strongly fortified as an oyster. The starfish acts by attaching itself to the
lips of the oyster-shell and exerting a steady and long-sustained traction with each of its
numerous small suckers. After a time the fowerful adductor muscle of the oyster becomes
fatigued, the valves open, and the starfish inserts its stomach and devours the helpless oyster
at leisure" (see text, pages 260, 261).

of Fisheries yielded marketable oysters
at the extraordinary rate of 1,500 to
2,000 bushels per acre in two years from
the time the cultch was deposited on bar-
ren bottom. The natural consequence
has been that all available oyster-grow-
ing land has been leased by the State,
and a great impetus has been given to
oyster culture.

The oysters thus produced on l)ottoms
never before utilized are of high quality
and meet with ready sale in New Or-
leans, where the "raccoon" and other
oysters from the natural beds can hardly
be sold at one-fourth the price.

In further pursuance of its paternal
policy of promoting the oyster industry,

the Bureau of Fisheries has sought to
make known to fishermen. State officials,
and legislatures the methods and condi-
tions of oyster fishing and oyster culture
in all parts of the world. To this end
inquiries have been made in all foreign
countries having important oyster re-
sources. Si^ecial reports thereon have
been issued and distributed broadcast,
and, so far as its powers and facilities
have permitted, the government has ap-
plied the knowledge gained abroad and
at home to the particular requirements
of the individual States in pointing out
the way for the most successful utiliza-
tion of the oyster grounds.

267

THE WORLD'S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP

269

THE FRENCH OYSTER INDUSTRY

France, which is the only rival of the
United States in the oyster industry,
has the distinction of maintaining the
most perfect and thorough system of
oyster culture in the world, although the
methods pursued are not adapted to con-
ditions in the United States or even in
some countries contiguous to France.

The native oyster of France is the
same species that occurs in England, Hol-
land, and other countries of northwestern
Europe. There is another species, how-
ever, which has been introduced into
France and elsewhere, and has become
very important on account of its hardi-
ness, prolif icness, and rapid growth ; this
is the Portuguese oyster, which in spawn-
ing habits and other characters is related
to the American oyster, but is inferior
in quality.

Oysters are cultivated along the entire
coast of France.

For the handling of .the native oysters
the great centers of the industry are
Cancale, on the north coast, and the dis-
tricts, of Auray, Sables-d'Olonne, He
de Re, He d'Oleron, Alarennes, and
Arcachon, on the Bay of Biscay. Culti-
vation of the Portuguese oyster is most
extensive in the last four of the locali-
ties just mentioned, and, in addition, at
Rochelle and Rochefort.

The number of oyster-cultural estab-
lishments in some sections is so large as
to suggest that practically the entire
shore-line must be occupied by pares,
claires, and viviers, as the various en-
closures are called. Thus in the Ma-
rennes district there were in 1907 over
11,300 independent establishments for
growing the native oysters and 5,400 for
the Portuguese oysters. According to
1907 statistics, issued by the French gov-
ernment. 21,900 oyster farms, with a
superficial area of 6,860 hectares, were
devoted to the growing of the indigenous
species, and 20,500 others, having an
area of 5.150 hectares, were concerned
with the introduced Portuguese oyster.

Oyster culture in France is of com-
paratively recent origin. Up to the mid-
dle of the last century the natural oyster
banks were, like there of the Chesapeake,

deemed inexhaustible, and dredging op-
erations thereon were practically unre-
stricted. Then the government awoke to
the gravity of the situation, and by
stringent regulations endeavored to save
the few remaining oysters.

The leading advocate and exponent of
the possibilities of oyster culture was
Professor Coste, who, after investiga-
tion and successful experimentation,
rnade a report which embodied a propo-
sition to restore the oyster banks of the
entire coast. Obtaining a government
grant through the interest of Napoleon
III, Coste began extensive experiments,
but was unfortunate in his choice of
sites, met with unfavorable weather con-
ditions, and failed in his entire under-
taking, and he died blind, in disgrace,
and regarded as a charlatan. Neverthe-
less, Coste's work was of the utmost im-
portance, and it was his pioneer efiforts
that were directly responsible for the
present^ advanced status of the French
oyster industry.

Oyster culture in France has several
distinct phases or branches in which the
culturists specialize. The tidal oscillation
leaves extensive flats exposed or nearly
exposed twice daily, and this greatly
facilitates the various procedures, the
w^ork being done in a horizontal plane,
whereas in Italy and other countries
where the tidal movement is slight the
cultural operations are conducted under
water and in a vertical plane.

The first essential step in the French
method is to arrange on the shores, be-
tween high and low water, series of
earthen tiles or wooden trays coated with
lime cement, on which the floating oyster
fry are collected. When the young have
reached the size of a finger nail, usually
by October, they are detached from the
collectors by means of a short knife, the
plaster being easily separated from the
tile or wood. This work is done by
women, who become very skillful in hand-
ling the thin-shelled seed oysters, of
which as many as 20.000 or more may be
detached by a woman in a day.

The young are then placed in wire
gauze baskets and transferred to en-
closed ponds or pares, where growth
may take place without danger from nat-

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271

the; oyster i^leET at cancaee, erance

Cancale is situated in Brittany, not far from St. Malo. During the summer months it
is frequented for sea bathing; but the wealth of the little town depends upon its oysters,
for which it is famous.

ural enemies or from suffocation by
mud, sand, or silt. For two to three
years the oysters are thus protected, re-
quiring frequent overhauHng, thinning
out, and transfer to other pares or bas-
kets as their size increases, this part of
the work also being done by women,
clad in short skirts and having heavy,
square shoes on their bare feet. An-
other phase of cultivation is the placing
of the oysters, now of marketable size,
in special enclosures or claires where
there is an abundance of food, so that
they may become fat and plump before
sale and also acquire the condition of
greenness that the trade requires.

Green oysters in America are often
regarded as diseased or unwholesome,
and our oyster-growers strive to prevent
their occurrence; but green oysters in
France are in greatest demand. Ma-
rennes has long been celebrated for its
oysters of a green or bluish-green color,
and special efforts are there put forth to
"make the ovsters take on the maximum

intensity of color in the shortest time.
The claires at Marennes swarm with the
minute plants, whose color is imparted to
the gills and mantle when the oysters
consume them in excessive quantities.
Marennes oysters command the highest
price in the market because of their ex-
quisite and inimitable flavor, which con-
noisseurs say is dependent on their green
color.

French oyster-growers in 1907 pro-
duced upwards of 1,450,000,000 oysters,
having a market value of ^/i million
dollars. In addition, there was a small
product taken from bottoms laid bare
at low tide, which were not under culti-
vation, and from deep-water public
grounds. Over 22,000 men, women, and
children were engaged in gathering such
oysters, and their aggregate take was
about 175 million oysters, for which they
received less than one-tenth of a cent
apiece, whereas the cultivated oysters
brought nearly three times as much.

272

WIRE-GAUZE TRAYS FOR REARING OYSTERS: BELGIUM

"The young are then placed in wire gauze baskets and transferred to inclosed ponds or
pares, where growth may take place without danger from natural enemies or from suffoca-
tion by mud, sand, or silt. For two to three years the oysters are thus protected, requiring
frequent overhauling, thinning out, and transfer to other pares or baskets as their size in-
creases, this part of the work also being done by women, clad in short skirts and having
heavy, square shoes on their bare feet" (see text, pages 269, 272).

ENGLAND S ANCIENT OYSTER INDUSTRY

As early as the year 50 B. C. the fame
of the British oyster had extended as far
as Rome, and Sallust seems to have been
more impressed by the oyster than by
any other feature of the country, for he
wrote: "The poor Britons — there is some
good in them after all — they produce an
oyster." In 80 A. D. oysters were ex-
ported from the Thames estuary to
Rome, and ever since that time England
has had an oyster industry of respect-
able proportions, although for many
years the supply has been inadequate to
fill London's gigantic maw, and importa-
tions from the United States, Holland,
and France have been necessary.

In both quantity and quality the Brit-
ish product has been noteworthy from
early times, and while the natural oyster
grounds have been greatly depleted by

excessive dredging the quality of the
■yield has not only been maintained, but
has probably been increased by cultiva-
tion. To augment the supply of native
oysters, seed is brought from America,
France, Holland, and other European
countries, and after being transplanted
for variable periods is placed on the local
market.

It is noteworthy that American oys-
ters deteriorate when taken to England
and placed on the grounds to grow
and fatten ; they grow rapidly, but the
flavor becomes metallic and their creamy
white color turns to leaden gray ; fur-
thermore, they will not reproduce.
French seed oysters, on the other hand,
when transplanted for three years in the
English estuaries, take on the shape and
flavor of the "natives," and are annually
sold as such at great financial profit to
growers and dealers.

273

oyste;r culture in i^ormosa

The soft muddy bottom all along the coast renders the cultivation of oysters a difficult
matter. To obviate this natural disadvantage stones have to be laid in regular rows, to
which the young oysters can attach themselves.

BIRTHPIvACE OP OYSTER CULTURE

Although Italy was the birthplace of
modern oyster culture in Europe and in
early times had a large oyster trade, at
present the oyster is not of great impor-
tance. Interest in the Italian oyster
comes from its historic associations and
the pecuhar methods of culture which
have been practiced with little change
for 2,000 years.

The cardinal feature of oyster cul-
ture here is the keeping of oysters sus-
pended between the bottom and the
surface. To this end the spat is col-
lected on bundles of twigs hanging from
ropes stretched between the stakes at the
corners of the squares ; the brush, with
the oysters attached, is woven into huge
ropes, 10 to 20 feet long, which when
suspended utilize the entire volume of
water, and the oysters that become de-
tached and the full-grown ones are
placed for final growth, fattening, and
storage in suspended baskets. It is re-

ported that on a rope 14 feet long about
2,000 marketable oysters may be reared.

OYSTERS IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Holland has a rather extensive in-
dustry, which ranks after that of France
among the continental countries. The
natural oyster grounds were practically
wiped out by overdredging, and the in-
stitution of artificial measures has been
so wisely undertaken by both govern-
ment and private citizens that the Dutch
have come to be regarded as the most
successful administrators of the oyster
industry. Efforts to restore the depleted
grounds in the Zuyder Zee have been
futile, and the industry now centers in
the Schelde estuary, in Zeeland. The
bottoms suitable for oyster culture have
been carefully surveyed and plotted, and
the government receives a large revenue
from their lease. Zeeland oysters are
in great demand in Holland, and are also
shipped to England and other countries

274

T^'

LOW TIDE OX A JAPANESE OYSTER FARM

"Owing to a rise and fall of the tide of from lo to 15 feet, an immense area of bottom
suitable for oyster growing is exposed twice daily, and the cultural operations are thus con-
ducted under conditions that do not exist in America or various other countries" (see p. 281).

for immediate consumption or for trans-
planting.

The oyster grounds of Germany are
restricted to a small section of the coast
of the North Sea near the Danish fron-
tier. The banks have for three centuries
been the property of the Crown, and are
leased for terms of years. The govern-
ment exercises strict supervision, to pre-
vent the de])letion of the natural beds
and at the same time to induce the maxi-
mum production therefrom.

The oyster industry of Belgium cen-
ters at Ostend, where claires or reser-
voirs for fattening oysters have been in
constant use for more than a century.
The Belgium oysters are highly esteemed
for their flavor, and Ostend is one of the
great oyster depots of Europe. The
physical conditions on the Belgitim coast
are not favorable for general oyster cul-
ture, and the industry consists for the
most part in fattening and conditioning

oysters from other countries. Foreign
oysters transplanted in the Ostend reser-
voirs for a short time acquire a new
flavor, and are then sold at home and
abroad as "Ostends."

Denmark has an interesting oyster in-
dustry, restricted to the Lim fjord, an
irregular arm of the sea that extends en-
tirely across Jutland. The oysters are
the property of the Crown, and the priv-
ilege of taking them is now sold to the
highest bidder, who enjoys a monopoly,
with restrictions imposed by the govern-
ment fixing the annual output and the
maximum price that may be charged.
The Limf jord oysters are nearly circular
in outline and have large, plump meat of
excellent flavor. Xo form of cultivation
has ever been applied, and the supply is
maintained by liiuiting the production.
The ovsters are gathered by means of
steam vessels, using dredges, six of which
are hauled simultaneously.

275

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276

IXSPECTING A JAPANESE OYSTER CROP

The great rise and fall of the tides in Japan is of considerable advantage to the oyster
mer.
growth.

1 ne greai rise anu laii oi me iiues iii jdymi is oi cunsiui „ .

farmer, enabling him to keep his crop under direct observation during the entire period of

IX THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

The oyster resources of the lands south
of the Equator are comparatively unim-
portant. In South America and South
Africa efforts at cultivation are under
way, but the most promising field is
Australia. The oyster industry has at-
tained some proportions in all the Aus-
tralian States, but New South \\' ales sur-
passes all the others combined. Under
a system of leases, several thousand oys-
ter planters have been granted littoral
and dee])-\vater grounds, and the fore-
shores already taken up are nearly 400
miles in length. The 03'sters grown un-
der the peculiar conditions prevailing are
of excellent quality and have an average
value to the producer of more than $3 a
bushel.

japan's curious methods of culture

The oyster industry of Japan is not of
great importance in itself, the aggregate
output being valued at less than a quar-
ter of a million dollars ; but it is of in-
terest because of the cultural methods

adopted and the possibility of establish-
ing and cultivating Japanese oysters on
the Pacific coast of the United States.

Oysters of several species are widely
distributed in Japan, but the business of
growing and marketing oysters attains
its greatest development in the famous
Inland Sea, near the large city of Hiro-
shima. At least as early as 1720, and
probably much earlier, the growing of
oysters by artificial means was under-
stood and practiced there, and long be-
fore the descendants of ^layflower pil-
grims had realized the desirability of
and the necessity for oyster culture, the
Japanese had grasped the situation and
made provision for an enlightened ad-
ministration and utilization of oyster
grounds, such as some American States
have not yet come to appreciate.

The Japanese are so original in their
aquicultural practices that their peculiar
and effective style of oyster farming
need occasion no surprise. Some ex-
perts have pronounced their methods tlie
simplest and most practicable of all, and

277

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280

GREECE AND MOXTEXI{GRO

281

it behooves western countries to become
acquainted with those methods even if
there is no opportunity for their adop-
tion in their entirety.

Owing to a rise and fall of the tide of
from 10 to 15 feet, an immense area of
bottom suitable for oyster growing is ex-
posed twice daily, and the cultural oper-
ations are thus conducted under condi-
tions that do not exist in America or
various other countries.

The distinctive feature of Japanese
oyster culture is that the very young
oysters are not allowed to settle on
shells or other forms of cultch com-
mercially employed in America, but are
collected on bamboo stalks to which the
branches and leaves are attached. Prior
to the spawning season, each oyster
grower sets out an immense number of

prepared bamboo stalks ; these are thrust
deeply into the soft bottom, and are ar-
ranged in definite lines or groups so as
to intercept the floating spat. After re-
maining attached to the bamboo brush
for one to two years, the oysters are
planted on prepared bottoms, where
growth and fattening are completed.
The oysters are marketed when two to
three years old.

The individual Japanese oyster farms
are of comparatively small size and are
separated from one another by bamboo
fences or hedges. When viewed from a
distance at low tide, the exposed bottom
and the innumerable upright pieces of
regularly arranged bamboo strongly sug-
gest an agricultural rather than an aqui-
cultural crop.

GREECE AND MONTENEGRO

By George Higgins Moses

U. S. Minister to Grkece and AIgntenegro, 1909-1912

F THE four allied Balkan States
who have made history so rapidly
in the past few months, two —
Bulgaria and Servia — are contiguous ;
and two — Greece and ^Montenegro — are
isolated ; isolated not only from each other
and from their allies, but isolated practi-
cally from the rest of the world.

Like a clenched hand thrust down from
the sturdy arm of the Balkan Peninsula,
Greece, blocked, hitherto, from direct
communication with that portion of the
world which its people so curiously insist
upon calling "Europe," has made the sea
its highway from classic days : while
Montenegro, perched in the rocky fast-
nesses of grim Cernagora, both defies and
invites invasion with its magnificent sys-
tem of highways so delightfully easy of
passage in time of ])eace and so superla-
tively simple of defense in time of war.

Behind the stern barrier of the Lovcen,
towering 6,000 feet above the smiling
waters of the P>ocche di Cattaro, and
crowned with the simple tomb of Peter
II, the Montenegrin saint and lawgiver,

who begged to be laid there that his spirit
might survey the land he loved so well,
dwell the old Lion of Montenegro and
his people — he the last of the patriarchs
in this modern world and they a race of
warriors whose origins lie back in those
misty days ere the first faint swirl of
the never-ceasing flood of Slavic blood
had made its way southward to sweep
across the valleys and the plains from
the Black Sea to the Adriatic.

WHY THE MONTENEGRIN WEARS A BL.\CK
HAT BAND

Thither, upon the final overthrow of
the ancient glory of the Serb upon the
fatal field of Kossovo — in memory of
which to this day the Montenegrin's cap
is banded with a rim of black — thither
retreated a handful of valiant souls to
seek asylum with the \'oivode of the
Zeta. A few years later, abandoned by
their ruler — who preferred a life of ease
at \^enice — they turned to their bishop,
made him also their i)rince, and with him
retreated still deeper into the hills and

282

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

there set up that long line of the Vladikas
which did not end until well into the last
century.

There for 500 years they have main-
tained freedom, which "of old has sat
upon the heights" ; and, with sufferings
indescribable, with courage illimitable,
won from the great English apostle of
Balkan freedom those words of undying
praise, in which he gave it as his "de-
liberate opinion" that "the traditions of
Montenegro exceed in glory those of
Marathon and Thermopylae and all the
war traditions of the world" ; and in-
spired in Tennyson what he regarded as
the finest of his sonnets, inscribed to the

" . . . smallest among peoples ! rough rock-
throne
Of freedom ! warriors beating back the swarm
Of Turkish Islam for 500 years,
Great Cernagora ! never since thine own
Black ridges drew the cloud and broke the

storm
Has breathed a race of mightier mountaineers."

Ascending the marvelous zigzag road
which leads up from Cattaro, one ap-
proaches the stern and gloomy defile
which forms the portal to this historic
stronghold of freedom in the Balkans.

A wonde;rpul road

Splendid engineering is this road. Built
for post and military uses, it clings to the
face of the sheer rock and weaves back
and forth in a multitude of "hairpin
curves" which the chauffeurs of the post
automobile treat with that contempt
which familiarity alone can breed.

Up and ever up, one goes. Below
stand forth the dusky cliffs, which jut
into the southern fiord; nestling beneath
them, and hemmed in with the massive
battlements of those giants of an earlier
day who stretched out the lion of St.
Mark's from the Lido to the Bosporus,
lies Cattaro — Italian in appearance, Aus-
trian in allegiance, but Serb in feeling,
its heart ever in the Highlands. Beyond
smiles the Adriatic, and above tower the
gaunt gray rocks, against which the road
seems a veritable ladder laid upon a wall.

Threading at last a narrow defile,
whose walls are pierced with caves
where lurk the fables of the moun-
taineers, and crossing a pass too often
swathed in clouds, one turns a corner

and comes face to face with the ancient
realm of the Vladikas.

The smile of the soft blue sea lies be-
hind, and before stretches a wild, turbu-
lent ocean of rock, rising and sinking in
angry gray waves flecked with white,
which seem to leap and rage and battle
together like a sea lashed by a storm.
Stones, rocks, and crags, nothing else ;
not a tree, not a blade of grass ; scarcely
even a tuft of brushwood to relieve the
dreary scene of desolation.

At the creation, so runs the Monte-
negrin legend, an angel was sent forth
to pick up the superfluous stones on the
earth's surface. He placed them in a
bag, which burst as he was flying over
Cernagora — and certainly the landscape
bears out the tale.

And yet the scene cannot be said to
lack charm— the charm of majesty al-
ways to be found among the hills. And
while Cernagora at first sight — gaunt,
gray, and drear, an arid wilderness of
bare rock — tells in one blow of the suf-
ferings of centuries, pity does not long
endure ; it passes almost at once to praise
for a people who have preferred liberty
in this desolation to slavery in fat lands.

THi; CRADLE OE THE ROYAL HOUSE

From the Austrian border to Cetinje
one encounters but one village, Niegush,
nestling in a little cleft in the hills and
claiming attention as the cradle of the
Petrovich dynasty, which for more than
two centuries has ruled the destinies of
the land. Here was born not only Da-
nilo I, progenitor of the line, but most
of his successors, including the present
king, whose tiny villa is the show-place
of the town.

Founded more than four hundred
years ago by a band of refugees from
the Herzegovina, Niegush cherishes the
curious legend that one of its sons, wan-
dering even farther afield, found him-
self one day in Abyssinia, where he be-
came possessed of power and trans-
mitted to his successors the title of
Negus, in memory of his Montenegrin
birthplace.

Here we halt for the customs exam-
ination — a formality which is soon over,
even for those who do not possess a

i'hoto iroiu is.atiicc Aicolson
A MONTENEGRIN IN THE DOORWAY OF HIS HOME

diplomatic laisscr passer — and after re-
freshing ourselves with a coffee at the
Grand Hotel, which the town possesses
in common with every other in Europe,
we begin the ascent from the pocket of
Niegush, and an hour's climbing brings
us to the top of the pass, and we behold
Cetinje.

WHERE THE COXOUERlxr. TURK HAS
NEVER TROD

The distance as the crow flies is short ;
but the winding road multiplies the miles,
and we have ample opportunity to survey
the tiny capital which boasts itself- —
albeit somewhat inaccurately — that its

I'hoto from Katrice Nicolson
TWO MONTENEGRIN OEElCKRS IN NATIONAL COSTUM:^
Note the double eagle over the door bearing the royal cipher (N. I.) of Nicholas I

284

Photo from Katrice Xicolsuu
SOME OF THE MONTENEGRIN VETERANS OF 1860

streets alone of all the Balkan capitals
have never echoed to the tread of a con-
quering Turkish host.

Two broad, parallel streets, connected
by irreti'ularly laid out cross streets, com-
prise the town, whicli lies hemmed in on
every side by the stern hills. The green
fields, the elms, the buttercups by the
roadside, and the steep gables of the
houses, which often lie banked to their
eaves with winter's snows, reminded me
always of my own White Mountain vil-
lages — an im])ressi(:)n which was indeli-
bly fixed in my mind on the first morn-
ing that I ever saw Cetinje.

I had reached the capital late on a
Saturday evening. The next day was
set for the inauguration of the new Na-
tional Theater, and the people were out
in force to cheer their ruler as he went
from the palace. The hotel at Cetinje
stands at the head of the main street,
which was filled with Montenegrins in
national garb, and as I stepped upon the
balcony after my coflfee and looked down
upon the throng of red-jacketed moun-
taineers, I thought for all the world that
T was in some New England iiill town
on the day of a firemen's muster.

Kuropean dress has made slight in-
roads in this part of the world. The
army now, thanks to Russian generosity,
wears khaki : but the guard of honor

which accompanied mc to the palace
when I presented my letters of credence
were ir Zvlontenegrin garb, and the pal-
ace attendants still wear it. It is the
habitual dress of both King and Oueen,
the latter having pointedly refused the
suggestion of her daughters-in-law that,
together with the royal title, she should
take on modern gowns.

COSTI.V HIS HABIT AS II IS TURSE CAN BUY

A Montenegrin's habit is as costly as
his purse can buy, and there the apparel
proclaims the man. The baggy blue trou-
sers are the same for the King or the
peasant, as is the gaily colored sash
wdiich holds the invariable revolver. But
from the red jacket, whether it be em-
bi-oidered with black or with gold, and
from the redingote. whether it be of dark
green or a dehcate blue, one connotes
whether the w^earer be a man of sub-
stance and conse(|uence or not.

Among the women there are slighter
distinctions. All wear a simple dark skirt,
a more or less elaborate blouse, and a
redingote of blue, though for the peas-
ants the outer garment is likely to be of
a coarse woolen stuff of home manu-
facture.

Men and women alike wear the black-
banded red cap, the crown embroidered
for the women with some fanciful de-

285

286

GREECE AND .MOXTEXEGRO

28:

vice in gold, while the men proclaim their
fealty to Nicholas I by ornamenting their
caps with his cipher in Cyrillic characters
surrounded by five semicircular rows of
gold braid to typify the five centuries of
Montenegrin independence. 1 can fore-
see, in 1984. unless the fashions in the
Black Mountain have meantime changed,
that a hatter's monopoly in Montenegro
will be well worth having.

Montenegrins are nearly all giants and
they stride as though each wore seven-
league boots. Indeed, when a Monte-
negrin wants to go anywhere in a hurry
he walks, not using the splendid roads
with which his mountains are threaded,
but taking the old short cuts among the
hills.

A HUMAN TELEGRAM

Last spring, when Danilo the Crown
Prince was hurriedly despatched to Paris
to seek the aid of his brother-in-law, the
Grand Duke Nicholas, for the conflict
which has since ensued, an important
document was found to have been left
behind, and no automobile was at hand
to send with it to Cattaro.

It was suggested to the King that one
Michel, a runner of repute, was about the
palace, and that perhaps he could over-
take the Prince before his steamer had
sailed. So the paper was given to Michel,
and the King, who was giving a state
luncheon that day, went to the dining-
room. Passing through the corridor to
his study after the meal, the King saw
Michel sitting there and upbraided him
for not having gone to Cattaro. "I have
just come back, Gospodar," answered
Michel. "Ah. then !" exclaimed the King,
"you are Michel the Telegram." And
Michel the Telegram he now is in ^lonte-
negrin speech.

These Montenegrins are a race of war-
riors, and for years they have sat about
in the coffee-houses bemoaning their lot.
"What a life for a man !" they have said.
"Thirty years without a war ; nothing for
a man to do."

But there seems to be always plenty
for the women to do, and the women of
Montenegro, so alert and graceful in their
youth, soon lose their good looks and be-
come bent and bowed and ugly ; for — but

I will give it in the language of General
Martinovitch, jtresident of the council of
ministers, minister for foreign aftairs,
and minister of war, and commander of
the southern column of the .Montenegrin
army which has been operating against
v'^cutari. Martinovitch was not always
the Poo Bah that he now is, but at the
time of which I speak he was minister of
war and had arranged a review of troops
in honor of the King of Italy, who was
visiting his father-in-law.

WOMEN THE PRODUCERS

I dined at the palace that night and
took occasion to compliment the minister
on the appearance of the soldiers. I asked
how many were his effective strength and
he said that he could put 50,000 men in
the field. I expressed incredulity and
said that that number would be one-fifth
of all the people in the kingdom — more,
I added, than could be spared from the
productive pursuits. "Productive pur-
suits, indeed !" cried Martinovitch. "Don't
you know that the women do all the work
up here anyway?"

And yet the Montenegrin is a man of
capacity and when taken from his belli-
cose environment of his mountain home
becomes one of the best of workers.

In our own Xorthwest there have been
many of them in the mines where they
toil industriously as against that day
when, with the 10.000 crowns which will
make them rich, they may return to their
beloved Black Mountain.

His 500 years of freedom have given
the ^Montenegrin a fine sense of order,
and it is a current saying along the Dal-
matian coast that when a Montenegrin
applying for a job is asked what he can
do he invariably answers, "Superintend."

The externals of Montenegrin life are
simple. In Cetinje there are but two
buildings of three stories, and neither of
them is the ])alace ; they are the legations
of Austria and Russia, whose rivalry in
the X^ear East extends, it would seem,
even to the housing of their representa-
tives.

The palace is an unpretentious struc-
ture, built some 60 years ago. and, though
the famous ])lane tree before its door
beneath which King Nicholas for so many

Photo from Katrice Nicolson

A GROUP 01^" monte;ni;grin boys

Note the military salute, a sign of the early appearance of the warlike spirit in these

unconquered mountaineers

years dispensed a quick and shrewd jus-
tice to his people has disappeared, the
master of the house remains the same
father to his people that he always has
"been.

Tut DE^MOCRATIC KING

Access to him, now that he has be-
come a King-, is slightly more difficult
than in the olden days ; but every after-
noon he may be seen driving- about the
streets of Cetinje in a low phaeton, the
Queen or one of the princesses with him,
and frequently he stops to exchange
greetings with one of his intimates or to
give to one of his people that highest of
all Montenegrin privileges — that of kiss-
ing the sovereign's hand.

Wherever he goes he finds the evi-
dences of his rule. As I have said, all
Montenegrins bear his cipher on their
caps. The same initials, formed of cap-
tured Turkish cannon, stare out from the
gable of the huge barracks of Cetinje;
within sight of his study windows rears
the bulk of the new sfovernment house

which he has built; across the street are
the guest house and the home of his
second son ; from his own garden he can
stroll to that of the Crown Prince and
thence to the public park which he has
created.

Close to one of his gates stands the old
Billiardo, whose name is shrouded in
mystery ; for none can declare with cer-
tainty whether it is because the building
once had at its corners little towers which
looked like the pockets of a billiard table,
or because in one of its rooms was in-
stalled the first billiard table in the king-
dom. In this little building Nicholas was
voted his royal title, and there the Coun-
cil of State has its apartments.

On another corner of the little Place
du Palais is the long, low dormitory of
the old monastery. In its upper rooms
Danilo II taught his chiefs to read and 1
write, while further on, at the base of 1
a high hill, stands the monastery itself,
the most interesting building in Monte-
negro, for here were made the desperate
defenses asfainst the Turks which have

288

i'lioto fruni Katricc Micolson

SOME FELLOW-TRAVELERS IN MONTENEGRO

With their pistols in their belts, they were rather fierce looking, but they proved to have the

kindest hearts possible

enriched the ^Montenegrin legend with so
many tales of bravery.

A NATIONAL SHRINE

This venerated stronghold and sanctu-
ary of faith and freedom in the lilack
Alountain stands on the spot where, in
1484, Ivan the Black established himself
upon moving his seat of government
from the shores of the Lake of Scutari
to Cetinje, and where he established the
first Slavonic printing press, whose four
hundreth anniversary was celebrated

with much rejoicing a few years ago.
A century and a half later it succumbed
to the Turks, but was soon retaken by the
Montenegrins, who descended in force
from the Lovcen, whither the invaders
had been unable to follow them. Two
centuries and a quarter ago it was blown
up by the monks themselves, who per-
ished with their precious books and doc-
uments rather than see their sacred walls
again degraded by the Moslem foe.

But again and again the structure has
raised its benignantly defiant front. In

ago

Photo from Katrice Nicolson
WHEX PRINCE NICHOLAS BECAME KING NICHOLAS I THERE WAS GREAT REJOICING

AMONG THE PEOPLE

its present appearance it dates only from
the i8th century ; but its quaint clock
tower and shaded cloisters give it an im-
pression of a much greater age.

Here rest many of the Madikas ; here
are to be found the cannon captured from
the foe on many an historic field ; here is
preserved a page from the first gospel
issued from the famous press (wr.jse
type were afterward melted down to
make bullets), and it is little wonder that
the jMontenegrin peasant making his way
to market at Cetinje pauses as he glimpses
the shrine from afar and crosses him-
self devoutly as he whispers a prayer for
the Black ^Mountain and its Gospodar.

GRIM RELICS OF THE PAST

Above rises the Tower of the Skulls,
the old-time citadel of the monkish de-
fenders, which takes its name from the
fact that up to within a short time it bore
grisly fringes of Turkish heads impaled
upon its ramparts. These grini reminders
of a gory past were dear to Montenegrin
veterans, and many were the murmurs
of disapproval when the Gospodar con-
cluded to remove them.

TJfe in Montenegro centers in the
King, who is greater than the ministry,
the chamber, or the constitution, who
all owe their creation and preservation

to his grace. jNIore than any other sov-
ereign of whom I know he fits his legend.
Nicholas I, "King and Gospodar of free
Cernagora and the Rerda," is the most
picturesque and remarkable figure in the
southern Slavonic world, to say the least.
Descended from a long line of heroes —
the heir of the XHadikas — he has. like
them, distinguished himself in many a
hard-fought conflict.

As a lad he was with his father. Mirko.
the "Sword of Montenegro," at fateful
Grahovo, and like Mirko, too, he has
written lyric odes and ballads. Like his
ancestor, Peter II, he has composed his-
torical dramas and given laws. and. like
all his line, he has at all times displayed
a courage and a capacity fitting every
occasion.

THE nation's type AND HERO

The inheritor of a splendid tradition,
a warrior and a bard, gifted by nature
with a fine physique and a commanding
presence, he personifies and embodies all
that appeals to the imagination of a ro-
mantic and impressional)le people, to its
martial instinct, its ]ioetic temperament,
and its yearning for long-vanished glo-
ries.

He is a statesman at once bold and
cautious, a diplomatist of many talents.

291

292

GREECE AND -MOXTEXEGRO

293

a capable administrator, and a thought-
ful reformer. Again and again he has
repressed the war-hke ardor of his
mountaineers, and has led them to battle
only when no other course was possible.

But whether he has fought or remained
tranquil he has always profited. Like
his royal cousin at Sofia. Nicholas of
Montenegro is a skillful international
trader ; and as I have seen him in stormy
times negotiating now with the revolu-
tionary Albanians and now with the
Turks, I have often wondered if his in-
tellectual inheritance was not as much of
the White as of the Black Mountain.

He was but yet a boy when the as-
sassin's bullet brought him to his uncle's
place, to the place of that uncle who
had launched the nolo c pise o pari at the
heads of his astonished people, but whose
marriage remaining childless has seen the
crown pass in its usual succession from
uncle to nephew, so that if Nicholas shall
give place to Danilo it will be the first
time m Montenegrin history that a son
has followed a tather upon the throne.

WHAT NICHOLAS HAS DONE; FOR HIS LAND

N^icholas was then a little lacking of
19 years, but his education in Paris and
his experiences at home had given him
wisdom beyond his years, and his tiny
land has profited by it mightily.

He has already doubled his territory,
and now expects to gain much more.
He has added two Adriatic ports to his
possessions. He has organized minis-
tries, the courts, finance, and all the de-
partments of government. Where, when
he came to the throne, only a few diffi-
cult trails threaded the hills, today a
splendid network of roads connects all
the principal points of the kingdom, and
it may be said of Montenegro alone
among nations, I hazard, that wherever
one may go at all in a wheeled convey-
ance one may go in an automobile.

He has established posts and tele-
graphs, so that whereas once a Monte-
negrin mobilization was effected by sten-
torian hallooing from peak to peak,
Cetinje is now constantly in touch with
all parts of the country and with the
outside world.

He has codified the laws, a task already

begun by his predecessor ; and while he
has modernized procedure in a degree,
there yet remain many quaint survivals
of the days when the Vladikas made law
by whim or wrote into the statutes the
superstitions of the people. For exam-
ple, by law in Montenegro the eating of
a hedgehog is regarded as an offense
against nature, and not long since a peas-
ant was imprisoned for it.

Respect for age is enjoined by law,^
and in the articles regulating public con-
veyances it is provided that the traveler
may have the seat indicated by his ticket,
but it is added, "The deference due by
youth to age requires that the former
yield the better place to their seniors."
Another article declares the equality of
all before the law. and lays down the
democratic principle of the universal
ownership of land and equal right of all
to hold office.

Another allows a man who is struck
to kill the striker, provided it be done
at once. If he delays, it is murder. In
short, the Montenegrin code aims to be
the embodiment of that "civil and re-
ligious liberty" which, it avows, is "the
reward of valor."

THE PRINCE BECOMES A KING

Probably Nicholas himself would
count the chief among his achievements
the assumption of a kingly title upon
the com.pletion of 50 years of rule. The
jubilee, the royal honor, and the king's
golden wedding were coincidently and
joyfully celebrated at Cetinje.

Those were splendid days for the
Petrovitches, who gathered in force. Pre-
eminent among them, of course, was the
beautiful queen of Italy. With her were
the two stately grand duchesses of Rus-
sia and the Princess of Battenberg.
whose marriage had led the King to re-
tort to one who had taunted him that
Alontenegro had no exports, "Sir, you
forget my daughters." There, too. was
the son of the King's dead daughter, the
Crown Prince of Servia, and the three
princes and two charming princesses
who make up the royal group at home.

Thither came the Tsar of the I'ulgars
and the Crown Prince of Greece. The
Sultan sent a special embassy, but other

Photo from Katrice Nicolson
SHALLOW WATE^RS O:^ SCUTARI LAKE)

nations contented themselves with send-
ing letters of felicitation by the hands
of their ministers in residence, and
among them the American alone was
able to hail Nicholas as King, for Mr.
Taft had taken care to address his great
and good friend as His Majesty, and
Nicholas has never forgotten that the
American President was the first chief
of state who addressed him as King.

There, too, were the deputations from
all the clans of the Black Mountain, and
as they passed before the palace and
made their obeisance to the Gospodar
one was struck with the instinctive and
natural grace of these Highlanders,
whose courtesy is the fruit of their cen-
turies of freedom.

MOTOR CARS ARE) SCARCI)

Nicholas alone of Balkan monarchs
lives among his people — an undertaking
which is rendered easier by the limits
of his kingdom. At every considerable
town there is a royal villa, and among
the delights of life at Cetinje is the priv-
ilege of automobiling with the King to
spend the week end at Rieka, Krusovac,
Niksic, or Antivari.

Practically the only motor cars in
Montenegro are those in use by royalty,
and as the machines purr along the splen-
did roads all the peasants working in the
fields, even the most distant, straighten
themselves and make a deep obeisance -
as the car passes, and at every halting!
place the people swarm up to see if they
may have the privilege of kissing the
royal hand.

It has been my good fortune to make
frequent excursions of this kind, and
once, as we went to Niksic, we were less
than two hours from Cetinje when we
entered upon the territory which Nich-
olas himself had taken from the Turks
during the Russian war. Passing north
from Podgoritza, we soon passed the
old Turkish stronghold of Spuzh. Spuzh
is a perfectly conical hill set in the mid-
dle of the meadows of the Moraca River.
It had been a fortress in Venetian times,
and their old battlements, as strength- I
ened by the Turks, still crown its
heights.

As we bowled along the King de- I
scribed the campaign which resulted in |
the capture of the fortress. On every
hand were the reminiscent landmarks.

294

Photo from Katrice Nicolsoa

PASSENGERS ON SCUTARI LAKE

Over this hill he had dra.c^ged his cannon
with men and ropes. Upon that height
was Suleiman Pasha with 30,000 troops.
At this spot was a Montenegrin brigade.
From this the assault was ordered.
"And what is there now, sir?" I asked.
The King drew himself up and answered
solemnly, "Seven million Montenegrin
cartridges !" And it is worth noting that
the only manufacturing establishment of
consequence is the cartridge factory.

"an ATTILA WITH MACHINE GUNS"

South of Spuzh lies Podgoritza. once
Turkish, and still retaining the minarets

and the unkempt Moslem cemetery to
point to the order that has passed. It
is the most considerable town of the
kingdom, yet it has no more than 6.000
inhabitants.

The Albanian frontier lies but a short
distance to the east, and during the Al-
banian revolution of 191 1. as we sat in
the square before the dismal hotel sipping
our evening coffee beneath the mulberry
trees, we could watch the twinkling camp-
fires of Torgut's column moving ui)on
the rebellious Malissori — "like an Attila
with machine guns," as Miss Durham
used to say.

295

Photo from Katiice Nicolsoij

SOME MOUNTAIN WOMEN IN MONTENEGRO

From Podgoritza north one passes
Danilograd, where the King has estab-
Hshed a flourishing agricultural experi-
ment station which will probably be
found of use to his people, now that
their thirst for blood has been slaked,
and an asylum for the insane, which is
almost tenantless.

Next comes Niksic, another of the
spoils of the last war, where the King
has built a villa directly facing the old
Turkish fortress which he had captured
and from whose ramparts he proudly
flies the royal standard when he is in
residence. Next to the villa stands the
church, a fine structure, designed by
Nicholas and erected to the memory of
the heroes of the war of ^"JJ. Here, too,
is the principal prison of the realm,
whose inmates are allowed great free-
dom, and the one symbol of progress of
all the world — a brewery.

Between Danilograd and Niksic lies
Ostrog, the famous mountain monastery
and stronghold, whither withdrew, two

centuries ago, St. Vasili, Metropolitan oi
the Herzegovina, and founded the shrine'
so often besieged and so valiantly de-
fended — once by only 28 men, under
Mirko, King Nicholas' father, who held
at bay 10,000 Turks for eight days and
then succeeded in making his escape at
night.

THE PORT OE MONTENEGRO

Antivari, the chief seaport, is a thriv-
ing place. Taken by Nicholas himself
during the Russo-Turkish war, he has
built a new town directly on the shore,
two miles or more from the old Turkish
city, up among the Albanian foothills.
Here is one of the numerous royal villas,
and here the Italian concessionaires have
poured out their lire in making a port
and building a railroad which zigzags up
the hills and darts through a tunnel near
the summit before beginning its tortuous
descent to the Lake of Scutari beyond.

There is little commerce and almost
no manufactures in the Black Mountain.

296

Photo by Kmma G. Cunimings
GREKK PEASANT STANDING BEFORE HIS HOUSE, P-ETWEEN BRAI.O AND DELPHI

The tobacco is excellent, and an Italian
company has its monopoly. A few
coarse stuffs are woven at Podgoritza,
but practically everything is imported.
Duties are high and prices are extortion-
ate.

Happily the people's wants are simple ;
but to bring even a scanty living from
the reluctant soil requires unremitting
industry. Everywhere, in sheltered nooks
and upon the gentler slopes, the earth
has been painstakingly gathered up be-
hind retaining walls, and the gray hill-
sides are dotted with these little patches
of green, most of them no larger than a
tablecloth.

Near the Lake of Scutari the vine
grows luxuriantly, and it is one of the
King's hopes that some day, when perma-
nent peace shall have fallen upon the
lUack Mountain, the fertile meadows may
l)e drained and cultivated and that Mon-
tenegro may become the granary of that
portion of the world.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION

The established religion of the land is,
of course. Orthodox Greek. The clergy,
headed by the ]\Ietropolitan of Cetinje.
are a splendid lot of men in physique and
character. The Catholics, numbering
some 13.000, have their own archbishop

297

o
ft

2gS

GREECE AXD MONTENEGRO

299

at Antivari, and the few Mohammedans
possess a Grand Alufti.

Perhaps the most striking testimony
to Nicholas' tact as a ruler is to be found
in these three religious groups dwelling
amicably together and all possessing and
professing a like affection and honor for
their Sovereign.

Education is not advanced. The schools
are few in number and most elementary
in character. At Cetinje there is the In-
stitute for Girls, founded by the Empress
Marie Feodorovna of Russia and main-
tained by Russian bounty. Here several
score of girls are trained in domestic
arts, music, and the studies which with
us are preparatory to high-school work.
This school has had a large influence
upon Montenegrin life, and. thanks to it,
the position of woman is becoming each
year more tolerable.

Another Russian establishment is that
for the training of cadets, and indeed it
would be difficult to find any Montene-
grin activity where Russian influence is
not exerted. A Russian subsidy main-
tains the army, and two years ago from
Russia came arms, uniforms, tents, can-
nons, saddlery, and the complete equip-
ment for 50,000 men. A Russian mili-
tary commission has been busy at Cetinje
for years, and the Russian military re-
gent has long been a most conspicuous
figure in Montenegrin life.

WHERE RUSSI.W INFLUENCE FAILED

Yet Russian influence was unable to
restrain the Montenegrin initiative in the
present war, and King Nicholas never
showed to better advantage than when
he informed the spokesmen of the Great
Powers that they had come too late.
Within an hour from that declaration he
had sent the Turkish Minister his pass-
ports, and the next morning we heard
the first gun in the war whose results
have so astounded the world.

If I have seemed to give too large a
share of my allotted theme to the consid-
eration of Nichola'^ and his Black Moun-
taineers, my excuse is that the other por-
tion of it is measurably familiar.

To separate the life of modern Greece
from the splendors of its classic or Byzan-

tine days is not easy, and the Greeks
themselves would be the first to resent it.
They, of a truth, deem themselves the
direct descendants of the worthies of
classic days, and certain it is that their
life has shown a persistent continuitv
which warrants the claim.

Whether their land has been ruled by
a Roman emperor, a Prankish duke, a
Venetian baillie, or a Turkish pasha, the
thread of Hellenic existence has remained
unbroken. In the monasteries have been
preserved their religion, their tongue,
their traditions ; mothers have taught
their children the glories of the Greek
heritage, and today the Greek people
stand forth in character, at least, exactly
as they did in days of yore, as Aristoph-
anes pictured them, as St. Paul described
them, and as every classical scholar has
learned to regard them.

THE PARIS OF THE LEVANT

In many ways Greek life remains un-
changed from its classic aspects. ^Modern
Athens, to be sure, is a brilliant capital
well worth its title, "The Paris of the
Levant." Less than a century ago it
])assed finally from Turkish possession,
and it was then a small collection of mere
hovels huddled beneath the Acropolis.

Today it is a city of wide and gav
streets, dotted with small parks and
adorned with many handsome public
buildings, most of them the gifts of rich
Greeks who have delighted to spend in
the mother country the fortunes which
they have earned abroad.

To such generosity Athens owes the
noble group of building.s which comprise
the university, the National Library, and
the fine classic reproduction which houses
the Academy of Science, and above all
and to my mind the most interesting, the
noble stadium, built u])on the old foun-
dations and along the old lines and in-
geniously carrying in its fabric every
fragment of the old structure which could
be found.

In the midst of all this modernity stand
the remnants of the golden days c.{
.Vthens sedulously preserved, and open to
inspection and study with a freedom no-
where equalled. The focus, of course, is

300

riioto by Emma G. Cummings
PEASANTS AND FLOCK, NEAR EPIDAUKAS, GREECE

the Acropolis — incomparable even in its
ruins — its cliffs and grottoes still the
home of legend and of fable.

All the cycles of Athenian life are rep-
resented. The classic temple of Theseus,
best preserved of all the ancient monu-
ments, recalls the days of Pericles. The
Stoa of Hadrian speaks of that distant
day when a Roman conqueror ruled the
violet crowned city.

While the early Christian era finds
its survival in the beautiful Byzantine
churches, the most striking of which is
that of St. Theodore set down in the
midst of one of the great business streets
of the city and scrupulously guarded
from encroachment. Of Turkish days
there remain few traces, though the ba-
zars, as typified by the Lane of the
Little Red Shoes or Hephaestos street,
the home of the coppersmiths, are more
oriental than Hellenic or European.

In this land of changing allegiance the

marks of \'enetian rule were set deep
and strong. Corfu today, in its externals
at least, is more Italian than Greek, while
Nauplia, Patras. and many of the island
seaports still find useful the battlemented
fortresses erected by the Latin rulers.

"a grave n.vtional hemorrhage"
As of old. the Greeks swarm the seas.
The Piraeus is one of the busiest of
Mediterranean ports — indeed, it is the
center of transhi])ment for all the East —
while the Corinthian Canal, after many
financial vicissitudes, now seems to be in
the way of becoming each year a more
and more useful route between the Ion-
ian and the yEgean Seas.

The Greeks are a town people. One-
tenth of the population is to be found in
Athens and the Piraeus. The drain of
emigration from the rural districts is
enormous. In the words of a Cabinet
Minister, it constitutes "a grave national

301

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GREECE AXD MOXTEXEGRO

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hemorrhage." Indeed, in some villages
in the Peloponnesus there remain scarcely
enough men to fill the offices.

In one sense, however, the emigration
has been of benefit to the country, for
large sums of money are sent back each
year, especially from America, to the
families who remain behind, and to this
may be traced the gradual appreciation
in the Greek paper currency, which, as
against a depreciation of some 40 per
cent, is now, and has been for several
years, at par or better.

I remember that my bankers, in 191 1,
were able to buy Xapoleons at 99 and
a fraction in Greek money, and it was at
this time that the wife of one of my
colleagues complained that, owing to the
high price of the drachma, she felt un-
able to keep an automobile.

Country life in Greece remains in many
of its aspects as it has been for ages.
Within two hours" drive of Athens I have
seen peasants plowing with a crooked
stick exactly as they did, I imagine, in
the days of Homer. The shepherd boys
of today manage their flocks with a crook
that bears the lines of that carried by
Corydon. And in Thessaly one sees the
solid-wheeled cart which has come down
without substantial change from the days
of Jason. The distaft' remains as the
chief instrument in preparing the wool
for the hand-looms, and is rarely absent
from the busy fingers of the older dames ;
and the women gather at the fountains
for their washing as did X'^ausicaa and
her maids did on that day when Odysseus
came to port.

THE GREEK I.IVES IN THE OPEN

In a land of much sunshine, as Greece
is, life is followed much in the open.
The oven is almost invariably to be found
in the courtyard, and it is heated with
dried twigs, almost the only fuel of the
country, which are brought in huge piles
upon the backs of the patient little don-
keys, who vie with the goats in being the
most useful members of the household.

Market day, of course, brings all the
community together, and is generally an
occasion of much gaiety, while the feast-
days, which are numerous, are literally
observed. On these occasions there is

always dancing, the most famous to be
seen at Megara during the feast of Easter
week. ]\Iegara prides itself upon being a
pure Hellenic community in the midst of
the Albanian strain, which predominates
in Attica, and its Easter dancing was
once a famous marriage mart. It no
longer serves this purpose, because, as the
maidens sigh, so many men have gone ofif
to America.

At Megara the native costume appears
at its best. It is rarely seen anywhere
nowadays, and has almost wholly' disap-
peared from the cities. Rut for the
Evzones, or household troo])s. the fusta-
nella would be as rare a sight in Athens
as the classic garb, which is worn only
by Americans.

The church plays a large part in Greek
affairs, and rightly ; for it was the church
which kept the national spirit alive dur-
ing the long night of Turkish rule. It
was from the famous monastery at Kala-
vrita, that the Archbishop Germanus un-
furled the flag of rebellion in the war
for independence, and this famous shrine
has been more lightly dealt with than the
most of the monastic establishments,
which have now come under strict gov-
ernmental supervision. Another favored
monastic group is that at Meteora, in
Thessaly, where the quaint buildings,
perched upon their needles of rock, af-
ford a fascinating risk to the venture-
some visitor.

THE ORACLE AT DELPHI SPEAKS AGAIN

It is not yet easy to go about in Greece.
The railroad lines are meager, the roads
are not good, and the hotels leave much
to be desired. The most accessible of
all the great centers of classic life is
Delphi, a fitting shrine for an oracle, with
its massive cliffs and majestic hills.
Here the French have brought to light
the ancient city with its treasures, its
wonderful Castalian spring, its theater,
and its sacred way.

That it still retains its oracular powers
I can testify; for when I was last there,
about a year ago. my Dutch colleague
stood upon the spot where I'aedeker told
us the tripod and the priestess had sat.
"Who will be the next President of the
United States"? I asked, and the oracle
said solemnly: "The best man will win."

Photo by Emma G. Cummings
PEASANT WITH DISTAEE, SPINNING AS SHE WAEKS

The Greek royal family are claimed
as the best looking, the most charming-
mannered, and the best behaved royalties
in Europe. I believe it to be true. Court
life is democratic and simple, the late
King much preferred his life as a farmer
at the Chateau of Tatoi to that of the
palace at Athens. Queen Olga and the
princesses devote themselves to good
works, and the princes have so recently
given such good account of themselves
on the field of battle that words of mine
are needless.

My chief criticism of modern Greek
life would be that the young men of
good family and of fortune have not
turned themselves to the economic de-
velopment of their country. Manufac-
turing and agriculture have been almost
wholly neglected, and all that one wears
and much of what one eats is brought
from abroad. The owners of estates
have considered them chiefly useful as a
foothold for a seat in Parliament — that
one-chambered and often turbulent body
where have centered the chief defects in
Greek development.

POEITICS THE CURSE OF THE GREEKS

To speak the truth, the curse of poli-
tics has overlain all Greek activities
since the establishment of the kingdom.
And politics in Greece has meant a sor-
did thing. There are no questions of
principle which divide parties there.

Economic conditions demand high tar-
iffs; on foreign questions there is no
division; sociological problems have not
developed along party lines — and so it
has happened that parties have now
grown up with well-defined lines of
cleavage in policy, but have arisen from
time to time in accordance with the am-
bitions or political necessities of individ-
ual leaders — and the struggle has been
wholly between the ins and the outs.

Thus it has happened that maladmin-
istration has been the rule. I have never
inclined to the belief that Greek admin-
istration has been dishonest. In fact,
the modest budget forbids graft on any
scale to be really dangerous, but waste-
fulness and poor service have been com-
mon to all ministries.

I speak of this in the past tense, be-

304

Photo by £)nima G. Cununings
SITE OF THE ROYAL TOMBS, DISCOVERED BY SCHLIEMANN IN T876. WHICH CON-
TAINED AN EXTRAORDINARY QUANTITY OF GOLD AND OTHER ORNAMENTS

The circular space in which these were found was inclosed by a double circle of upright
stone slabs, covered with horizontal slabs

cause I believe that a new day has
dawned for Greek public life. The
bloodless revolution of 1909. which had
its origin in the determination of a group
of officers to purge the army and the
navy of their political ills, has gone much
farther than its authors had foreseen,
and as a result Greek hopes now center
in one man, who, brought to Athens
from turbulent Crete to rescue the Mil-
itary League from the depths of the
parliamentary muddle into which they
had fallen, became in 10 months the
prime minister of Greece, and in three
weeks thereafter had demonstrated him-
self the master of a situation which had
baffled all of his predecessors.

A GREEK BISMARCK

This man, Eleutherios \^enizelos. is a
Greek of the Greeks, with a long line of
distinguished Hellenic ancestry. Edu-

cated at the University of Athens and
in Switzerland, he was established him-
self as an attorney in Crete, and was
active in the revolution movements
which brought on the Greco-Turkish
war of 1897.

Upon the establishment of the High
Commissioner's regime in Crete. \'eni-
zelos and Prince George were not in ac-
cord, and the prince's withdrawal from
the island followed — an incident which
led the court party in Athens to regard
A'enizelos as an arch-revolutionary and
to render his task the more difficult.

The Greek people, however, have
never wavered in their support of him.
He is their idol — and he justifies their
idolatry. Summoned to the prime min-
istry much earlier than he had believed
himself ready for such power, and
knowing full well that he owed his pre-
ferment in a large measure to the wishes

30s

Photo and copyright by H. C. White Co.

SHIP CANAi,, ivOOKiNG e;ast : ISTHMUS 01'' CORINTH, gre;e;ce

The idea of a canal through the Isthmus of Cormth dates from Roman times, when the
Emperor Nero started excavations in the year A. D. dy, but the project was soon abandoned,
and not until 1893 was the canal actually opened. It is nearly 4 miles long, some 70 feet
broad, and 26 feet deep, but the strength of the current running through it, together with its
narrowness, impedes its full usefulness.

of the old political leaders, who had con-
ceived the notion of choking him to
death with power, he has confounded
his enemies, amazed his friends, and jus-
tified all the fond hopes of the people,
who regard him as the embodiment of
their future and who have never ceased
to hail him as the savior of Hellenism.
Twice his ministry has been forced to

appeal to the electorate — once by his own
wish to test Greek public opinion and
once because the constitutional limit had
run against his government. In each
case he has been swept back into office
with a majority of cumbersome propor-
tions — and he has rightly counted him-
self as a man with a mandate to reor-
ganize Greece.

306

Photo and copyright by H. C. White Co.
MEDIEVAL FORTIFICATIONS OF THE ACRO-CORINTH : CORINTH, GREECE

Under his guidance the constitution
has been revised, the chamber has been
liberated and set in the way of con-
structive legislation, while the electorate
has been given a wider privilege of
choice of their representatives. The
courts have been given tenure and re-
moved from political control.

The ministries have been reorganized
and purged and the civil service has been
set, upon a merit basis. Agriculture and
commerce have been taken under the
charge of a new ministry. ^Municipalities
have been granted new rights and charged
with new duties ; and a general quick-

ening and efficiency have been infused
into all branches of the administration.

THE ORIGIN OF THE B.\LKAN LEAGUE

Emphasis, however, has been laid
upon the work of reorganizing the army
and the navy, and French and English
commissions have respectively under-
taken that task. How well they have
succeeded was foreshadowed at the
joint maneuvers of last spring and dem-
onstrated beyond question in the engage-
ments of the war which is now drawing
to its close.

To \'enizelos, more than to any other.

307

Photo and copyright by H. C. White Cc.
MONASTERY OF HAGIA TRIAS (hOLY TRINITy), ON THE MARVELOUS METEORA ROCKS,

NORTHERN GREECE

is due the Balkan Federation. His was
the initiative that opened the negotia-
tions, and it was his controlHng pohtical
genius that shaped the entente in most of
its details. The powers of Europe and
its diplomats were staggered by the news
of his success. Though well warned by
frequent rumor during the year and a
half that the negotiations were in prog-
ress, they refused to think it possible
that two races who had dealt with each
other as ferociously as the Greeks and

the Bulgars in Macedonia could be
brought into accord, no matter how
great the stake.

Yet nothing was more obvious than
this, and from the moment that Venizelos
came to power in Greece and called to
his side that talented statesman, so well
known, from his service in the United
States as Minister of Greece, it was evi-
dent that the long-cherished ideal of
Balkan statesmen for an effective agree-
ment toward an amelioration of the lot

308

GREECE AND MONTENEGRO

300

of the subject Christian peoples in Euro-
pean Turkey was in the way of reaHza-
tion.

A 15alkan federation has long been
dreamed of, and the first steps toward its
attainment were taken some 30 years ago
by the then Prime Minister of Greece,
Charilao Tricoupis, of whom it is said by
the ardent \'enizelists that he was an
earlier Venizelos, while the Tricoupists
refer to \'enizelos as another Tricoupis.
That attempt failed, and for nearly a
generation the Balkan entente was rele-
gated to the realm of academic discus-
sion.

In the meantime the Turkish policy
"Divide and rule" had set the Greeks
and Bulgarians at each other's throats,
and there had ensued an era of blood in
IMacedonia, wherein the province was
ravaged by marauding bands of Greeks.
Bulgars, and Serbs, who waged a war of
extermination against each other.

This barbarous policy had carried it-
self nearly to exhaustion when Venizelos
came to power at Athens, and to him it
was suggested that an attempt at a def-
inite agreement be made among all the
nations having racial pretensions in Ma-
cedonia and Albania.

A beginning was made at once, the
first exchanges being purely unofficial.
It was soon found, however, that formal
undertaking were possible, but it was
nearly a year before any effort was made
to reduce to terms the basis of agree-
ment.

Tllli: MONROE DOCTRINE OF THE BALKANS

It was thought best to simplify the
first declarations, and the same counsel-
lor who had first engaged \'enizelos' at-
tention to the subject advised that the
Allied States should unite in a promulga-
tion of a Monroe doctrine for the Balkan
States. For this policy the lamented Milo-
vanovitch, then Prime ^linister of Servia,
became the spokesman, and one of his
last — as it was surely the most impor-
tant — of his public utterances was a
speech in the Skuptchina at Belgrade de-
claring the doctrine of the I'alkans for
the Balkan peoples.

Nearlv coincident with this came the

transfer of Mr. Coromilas from the min-
istry of finance at Athens to that for
foreign affairs, and the negotiations took
an immediate impetus from his active
persistence. The early summer saw their
completion, and for the first time the
Balkan States were in position to present
a united front to their traditional enemy.

The Balkan Federation was not, how-
ever, predicated upon immediate war.
Greece, at any rate, felt herself unready,
The work of national reorganization un~
der \'enizelos' lead was far from com-
plete. The finances, to be sure, were in
excellent condition. Indeed, Greece alone
among the allies had any considerable
sum of money on hand when hostilities
began. But much remained to be done
with the army, and the navy was await-
ing the new battleship for which the con-
tract had only just been awarded. And,
on the whole, the allies preferred a peace-
ful solution of the difficulty if it could
be had.

Their fundamental desire was to se-
cure tranquillity and good government in
Macedonia and Albania, believing that
with this the evolution of time would
bring to them their natural zones of in-
fluence, even as eastern Rumelia had
been added to Bulgarian territory. They
calculated not a little upon the fetich of
the status quo, which had always been
before the eyes of the Great Powers,
and they reckoned that an eff'ective in-
tervention would prevent their coming to
grips now.

A NEW ERA FOR THE NEAR EAST

Their plan in brief was to mobilize
and to present an identical note to the
Porte demanding immediate reforms in
Macedonia and Albania, at the same time
notifying the powers of their action and
of the terms of the note. Their expecta-
tion was that the powers, fearful of the
long-dreaded ex])losion in the Balkans,
would then stej) in and enforce the major
portion of the demanded reforms.

It must be admitted that the allies had
no considerable confidence in the results
of these reforms as administered by
Turkish authority, and that they felt that
conditions would again be beyond en-

310

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

durance after a few years ; but by that
time they knew that they would be ready
for war, and were content.

The general lines of this program were
carried out. The powers, as so often be-
fore, failed to meet the expectations of
the allies and drafted an ultimatum to
the Balkan governments, the terms of
which were almost immediately made
ridiculous by the fortunes of war. The
rest is now history ; and when the treaty
of London is finally cast into enduring
terms, it will be found that the Balkan
allies have remade the map of Europe as
none have done for a century.

Will it prove that they have also put
an end to the specter which has so long

lurked behind every aspect of the Near
Eastern question ? That they have found
tranquillity for lands long harassed?
That they have, to use the words of
Lloyd-George, extended the boundaries
of liberty and good government? That
they have brought deliverance to the
oppressed?

That they have, in short, opened a new
era in the Near East, in the course of
which those long in terror and subjuga-
tion may enjoy life, liberty, and the pur-
suit of happiness, and in which a plente-
ous prosperity shall reign in a region
where desolation and poverty have so
long held sway?

They so believe, and I with them.

MEGASPELi^ON, THE OLDEST MONASTERY IN

GREECE

By Carroll Storrs Alden

With Photographs taken by the Author

I REMEMBER the consternation with
which, when a small boy, I heard
my uncle observe that Americans
were overrunning Europe, and that in a
few years there would be not even a
village they had not visited and made
common. The doom of Europe was thus
pronounced. With dismay I realized that
when I became a man and traveled like
my uncle, Germany, Russia, and all other
lands would be completely tamed ; I
would see them but as Chicago (my home
city) repeated again and again.

However, Europe is like one of those
old home-spun garments which, though
slightly faded, is extremely durable ; and,
as patching is not an easy process, most
of Europe still remains Europe. Ameri-
cans are far from being everywhere, and
on going to Greece in a recent summer
I wandered for several weeks through
city and village, and outside of Athens
met just three of my countrymen — one
man and two college women.

LTnder such conditions the sociable man
is likely to feel intensely lonely, and it
is curious how he will sometimes en-

courage himself, as he might a child,
appealing to his pride ; thus, if I did not
emphatically approve, at least I made nc
remonstrance as the solitary young Texar
I met at Tiryns denounced our country^
men as poor creatures of convention,*
traveling only where thousands had pre-
ceded them, and shrinking timidly when
they encountered the least hardship.
"They're even afraid of dirt," he con-
temptuously concluded. It was plain that
he was not, and I presume that I also
bore the dark badge of courage.

THE MONKS IN -THE CAVES

One of the places in Greece fairly easy
of access, yet rarely visited by Ameri-
cans, is the monastery of Megaspelaeon.
As the name signifies, it is the monastery
of the Great Cave, and the cave-dwellers,
though not belonging to prehistoric times,
are like a relic of the middle ages.

It is the oldest of Greek monasteries,
tradition affirming that it was founded
in the fourth century ; probably the real
date is about i,ooo years later; it is also
the richest, for it has extensive holdings

Photo by limma G. Cuminings
ROCK MONASTKRV OF MKGASPEL-^ON, THE MOST IMPORTANT IX GREECE, OX THE

SIDE OF A GREAT CLIFF

The buildings date from 1640. The monks derive their income from extensive lands in the
neighborhood and also from houses in Smyrna and Constantinople

in Elis and other States, and with the
growing prosperity of Greece these lands
are rapidly increasing in value, making
Megaspelccon one of the richest monas-
teries in all Europe. About 140 monks
at present live here, not including those
whose duties, such as collecting the rents,
keep them much of the time away. They
have a government like that of a republic
and they elect their own abbot.

Half way between Corinth and Patras
I had left the main railway and took a
cog-road that winds its way up a rocky
gorge to Kalavryta, on the northern edge
of Arcadia.

"FJs ton Mcgaspclccon?" [For ^Nlegas-
peUxon?] I inquired, as I looked into the
already crowded combination car. (Dur-
ing my stay in Athens T had an Eng-
lish-Greek lady dictate 20 or 30 con-
venient phrases, which I had conned

until I could utter them with some glib-
ness.)

"Xai, nai" \ Yes, yes], was the answer,
and a youth of 20 crowded some rustics
over so as to give me the best that could
be had in the second-class compartment.

I tried to enter upon a conversation,
but between my limited vocabulary and
the strong reserve of the youth the at-
tempt failed. However, as the train be-
gan to wriggle up one of the most pictur-
esque valleys of the PelopcMinesus, the
youth showed he had not forgotten me
by catching my arm and pointing to the
unusually fine view as the mountain tor-
rent burst through the sharply cleft rock.

WII.VT IS THE RAILROAD ETIOL'ETTE?

Two enthusiastic young Greeks in the
next seat also gave me some attention.
They were from .\tliens, on a holiday

311

Photo by Carroll S. Aldeii
THE MONASTERY OF MEGASPEIv^ON SEEN FROM A DISTANCE, SHOWING THE VERDANT

GARDENS AT ITS EOOT

. "On retracing the path leading to the valley, I turned and caught my last glimpse of the
monastery, in the distance no longer dirty and dilapidated, but thoroughly picturesque as it
hung half way up the cliff like a huge swallow's nest" (see page 323).

312

I'lioto by Carroll S. Aldcn

PATH LEADING TO THE MOXASTERY OF MEGASPEL."EOX

"The monastery is 3,000 feet above sea-level, on th.^ face of a large cliff. It rises out
of a leafy bower and seems to be plastered against the bare gray rock of the mountain" (see
page 315).

313

.,.^**i#*^«^^^"S^

Pliotu liy CaiTol! S. Alden

MOXKS KILLING TIME AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE ^vIONASTERY

"I could not help thinking what a miserable life is that of the monks of Megaspelson.
They send out no missionaries or preachers to the neglected people; they go through their
services with considerable indifference; they haA^e no interest in study; they write no books,
nor do they, like certain orders in the Roman Church, care for the sick and the poor" (see
text, page 323).

314

THE OLDEST MONASTERY IX GREECE

:^.l

trip, and spoke a little French. Although
my French is as uncertain as that of a
girl at a boarding-school, we exchanged
some ideas.

Later, as they opened a lunch-box, they
offered me at intervals, first a sandwich,
next an egg, later wine, grapes, and a
pear. I began by declining, but the re-
served youth at my side again manifested
his interest in me. He had not been in-
cluded in the luncheon party, but he
plainly disapproved of my course of re-
fusal. At each offer he would assure
me. "Yes, good." and when I still re-
fused, he became so earnest and insistent
that I suspected that he was attempting
to save me from a seeming discourtesy.

On leaving the train. T secured a
donkey at a khan near by. The little beast
proved of value, for the monastery is
3,000 feet above sea-level, in the face of
a large cliff'.

Soon I caught my first glimpse of the
monks' home, apparently rising out of a
leafy bower and plastered against the
bare gray rock of the moimtain. The
winding path the donkey followed was
not a little romantic, at times completely
shut in by trees and shrubs, and later
emerging and affording an extensive pan-
orama. The tiny brook that crossed the
path again and again, or the several
brooks, I know not which, made pleasant
music in a country where the soil is rocky
and the rainfall slight.

HOW IBRAHIM PASHA OVERREACHED
HIMSELF

The i)ath as it approached the monas-
tery became steeper and api)ealed strongly
to the imagination ; for this was the spot
where the great Turkish commander,
Ibrahim Pasha, had been kept so long at
bay. During the war of independence,
nearly a century ago, it was the monks
from this vicinity who had first urged the
people to throw off the hated yoke.

Naturally when Ibrahim Pasha had re-
conquered much of the Peloponnesus he
thought in passing he would take the
monastery of ]\Iegas])elaeon and possess
himself of its treasures; but the warlike
monks, re-enforced by a few Pallikars.
placed two cannon on the cliff above and
eft"ectually barred the progress of the

Turkish army up the steep and narrow
path.

However, Ibrahim, being a man of
iron, was not to be thwarted. .\fter
spending some weeks in vainly trying to
reach the monastery by the path, he sent
a force whicli with great labor succeeded
in gaining the heights above. One can
fancy what then must have been the
terror of the women and children who
had taken refuge with the monks and the
exultation of Ibrahim.

But a surprise came when his men be-
gan to roll down rocks from their vantage
l)oint and discovered that the monasterv
clings so closely to the overhanging cliff
that the huge missiles fell wide of their
mark. Doubtless as the boulders went
crashing down the mountain-side thev
drove more than one startled and angry
Turk to shelter.

A lIOSPITAr.LE WELCOME

As I approached by the path, I came
up directly underneath the monastery,
whose huge wall rose 50 or 60 feet, with
six stories of wood superimposed on this.
A large bell rang to announce my arrival,
and many a curious head peered down
on me.

I slid off my donkey on reaching a
platform before the monastery, and a
lean, hungry-looking youth, bristling with
a four days' beard, took my bag and led
me up the stone steps into a building
adjoining the monastery. The Xcnodo-
chos, a monk whose duty it is to provide
entertainment for pilgrims and visitors,
greeted me and soon had brought good
cheer in C(^ffee, Turkish style — nuiddy
with pulverized grounds and very sweet.
yiost travelers are fond of it.

"Anglos?" he asked.

"Oclii [Xo], Amerikanos." It was not
a long conversation, but both of us were
pleased at having exchanged an idea and
by common consent lapsed into silence.

The large room into which I had been
shown on arrival had eight coverless
couches, which I supposed I was to share
for the night with six Greek pilgrims,
who had come to this their holy place.
My supper was served in this room, but
not with that of the pilgrims. I feasted
in the august company of my own .soli-^

Photo by Carroll S. Aldea

ne;ar vii:w of rut monastjjry, showing th^ huge; i^oundation waIvIv and the:

WOODEN STRUCTURES BUIET ABOVE IT

tary self, banqueting on lamb (pot roast),
rye bread, ripe olives, goats' milk cheese,
and red wine.

Later I was conducted to another and
smaller building, placed over the monks'
little terraced gardens, on the steep slope
of the mountain. As I discovered, I was
the guest of honor and had a whole house
to myself.

HOSPITALITY A NECESSITY, NOT A VIRTUE

Hospitality is a virtue common to
Greek monasteries, doubly to be appreci-
ated since the inns are wretched and in
the villages are often entirely lacking.
This hospitality a century ago was not
a virtue, but a necessity, for the monas-
teries had thus to satisfy the Turkish
government to avoid being plundered.
Happily the tradition persists long after
the requirement has ceased.

The lean, unshaven youth who had first
met me — he was not a monk, but acted
.as porter and kitchen boy — said some-

thing which I guessed to be the reassur-
ing information that his name was Geor-
gios, and that, having served as butler in
an Englishman's family in Athens, he
could talk English; the latter confidence
he communicated with great pride.

I promptly hailed him joyfully as a gift
of the gods, but our friendship was dis-
appointing. Snobbishness, particularly in
the wilderness, is not an American vice,
yet I could not find that the ex-butler
and I had much in common.

My objection to Georgios began early,
as I inquired how many monks were then
living at the monastery and received the
answer, "Yes, oh yes."

"But how many, how many, monks are
there here?" I asked, speaking very
slowly.

"Yes, yes ; oh yes."

I made one more attempt, reversing
my question, and in conclusion asked if
there were "50, 100, how many?"

He hesitated for a moment, looked

316

Photo by Carroll S. Aldon

TTIE GUEST-.MASTKK. OR X KXODOCIIOS, WHO PROVTDKS FOR THE ENTERTAINMENT OE

STRANGERS

"The Xcnodochos, a monk whose duty it is to provide entertainment for pilgrims and
visitors, greeted me and soon had brought good cheer in coffee, Turkish stvle— muddv with
pulverized grounds and very sweet" (see text, page 315).

317

Photo by Carroll S. Aldcn
MONKS WITH THEIR BREAD AND WINE". NOTE WINE-SKINS HANGING ON THE WALLS

puzzled, and I became hopeful as I saw
calm following the severe mental effort ;
but his answer was the inevitable "Yes.
yes indeed; oh yes, oh yes."

WHY A SI.EKPING-RAG IS A COMFORT IN
GREECE

The bed in the house assigned me had
for covering a blanket and one sheet;
the latter had grown gray with service,
but it compared favorabl}' with accommo-
dations elsewhere ; for outside of Athens
and three or four other places frequented
by tourists, beds in Greece have a bad
rejnitation. Whether in hotel or in pri-
vate house, they are commonly possessed
by small devils. However, a light sleep-
ing-bag I had with me kept out intruders,
and I have only pleasant memories of
slumbers at Megaspek'eon.

The very atmosphere of the ])lace is
sleep, and with my windows flung wide,
admitting the cooling breath of the moun-
tain. I did not waken till 7 the next morn-
ing, when there resounded the pounding

of a mallet on a heavy vibrant board —
the summons to prayers.

It was Sunday morning, and the half
dozen pilgrims who had spent the night
at the monastery had been joined by 30
peasants from the country near by. The
chapel, 30 or 40 feet square, was crowded
near the door and the people were stand-
ing. This, the nucleus of the monastery,
is, as of old, in a cave, only the chapel is
so well walled in and roofed over that I
did not at first notice the peculiarity of
its construction.

A hundred candles were burning, and
the richly jeweled hearts and the some-
what garish ornaments with which the
altar screen and walls were studded
caught up the gleams. The service to the
stranger was dreary and monotonous,
nor did the harsh, droning voice of the
monk who furnished the music make it
less so.

There is at Megaspelseon an object
greatly venerated by all devout Greeks, a
])ainting almost black because of its age

319

i'liulu ijy Canull S. Aldcn

A MONK RETURNING FROM WORK ON THK MOUNTAIN FARM

and its exposure for centuries to smoky
candles. It is of the Virgin and Child.
and is ascribed to Saint Luke, for tradi-
tion says that Luke was a painter as well
as a physician, and that this picture he
made from life.

Some of the Greeks affirm that the
images in this marvelous picture spoke
plainly to them during the war of inde-
pendence, weeping at times of defeat
and encouraging them with the promise
of ultimate victory. It is certain that the
painting is very old ; Murray in his
Handbook dates it from the 8th or 9th
century.

After the service a man whose duties
were about the same as Georgios' showed
me over the monastery. As he was not
an accomplished linguist like Georgios,
we got on well together. He understood
my explanation of what my camera was
for, and he took me down long jiassages,
dark as night, past the monks' cells, up
a crazy, creaking stairway that uttered a
long complaint of old age and weariness,
until we reached the very top.

A young monk who had one of the
better rooms happened to pass, and my
cicerone induced him to play the host.
Dionysos (the young monk had the most
pagan name) was scarcely more than a
boy, perhaps 17, and his beard — the in-
variable sign of the Greek priest and his
chief pride — was just beginning to ap-
pear. His cheeks were thin and lacking
in color, and his long hair gave him al-
most a feminine appearance. His coun-
tenance expressed, as I fancied, some-
thing of sadness and disappointment, but
as I told him T wanted a picture of him
and his room it lighted up responsively.

I saw him for only a few moments,
but if the first impression is to be relied
on the lad possessed rare qualities ; he
needed only inspiration and a great pur-
pose to bring them out.

THE WINE TUNS OF TIIE MONASTERY

Having been to the summit of the
monastery, we next proceeded to the very
depths, catching a glimpse in passing of
the library, a small room with one

321

DIONYSOS IN HIS CELI.

Photo by Carroll S. Alden

gloomy window, as I judged but little
used; but if the monks have nothing of
a library it may be remarked that books
and learning are not their specialty. Af-
ter groping along a pitch-dark passage
we descended into a huge, cobwebby cav-
ern in the mountain, where water was
dripping in a dozen places from the rock
ceiling and the sides.

Here I saw what certainly could not
be regarded as commonplace, for there
were gigantic tuns of wine that would
have been a credit to Heidelberg. It is
in their wine cellar that the monks of
Alegaspelseon excel, and as I watched
two monks who had brought the pilgrims
down here and heard them explaining
what I could easily guess was the extra-
ordinary capacity of the tuns and the ex-
cellent quality of the wines, I observed a
flash^ of pride and enthusiasm such as
nothing else had elicited.

On the stairs we had met the keeper
of the cellar — a rough, square-built fel-
low — carrying on his shoulder a wine-

skin which he had just filled and was
taking up for the morning's distribution.
In the hall above, where there hung a
row of 15 or 20 wine-skins, old and new,
the wine was doled out, each monk re-
ceiving his pitcher full and also a loaf of
rye bread.

The Greeks eat scarcely half what the
northern European nations require. The
II o'clock breakfast was the first meal
of the day, and at the monastery con-
sisted of the same articles as I ate for
supper the preceding evening. While for
this vicinity it was a sumptuous repast,
it would have seemed like Spartan sim-
plicity to a hungry German.

When breakfast was about to be
served I made a move to join the pil-
grims at a large table, for I sought inti-
mate acquaintance with their life. But
no, the Xenodochos was a stickler on
class distinction, and again I had a room
and a table all to myself, where I might
eat with great dignity and loneliness.

322

THE OLDEST MOXASTERY IX GREECE

323

CLASS DISTIXCTIOXS AND PHOTOGRAPH V

After breakfast I gathered the pil-
grims and people who had come up for
the morning service for a picture. Most
of them were as pleased as children, and
they joked and jostled one another as
the}' took their })laces, as any American
holiday crowd would do under the same
circumstances. But again I ran counter
to prejudices based on class distinctions;
three women, somewhat better dressed
than the others, together with the aristo-
cratic Georgios. unmoved by my excla-
mation, "Pliotograf^hia!" refused to be
taken with the peasants. However, they
were not nearly so interesting and pic-
turesque as their humbler coimtrymen,
and their absence meant no loss.

It seems almost ungrateful for one
who has enjoyed the hospitality of the
monks of Megaspelreon to speak a word
in criticism, yet if the truth be told they
are an idle lot and have a bad reputation
for honesty.

A striking commentary on the place
and the people is that I found each of
their little terraced gardens strongly
hedged in or fenced off from the main
path and from the neighboring gardens.
They were to be entered only by gates
and the gates were padlocked. Similarly,
even in remote parts of the monastery,
the rooms were securely locked. What
must be the conditions when the faithful
have to take such extreme care to guard
their possessions from their own num-
ber!

TTIR XEGLECTED STATE OF MEGASPEL-TIGX

Further, the shabby, neglected state of
the monasterv gives the visitor an un-

pleasant nnpression. A century ago.
when the monks were under the scrutiny
of the Turks, there was reason for their
simulating poverty ; but now the ruinous
condition of their main building, in sharp
contrast to their reputed wealth, gives
their indifference the character of sac-
rilege.

A British minister. Sir Thomas W'yse.
who visited Megaspelaeon in 1858, well
characterized it as a "great dormitory of
religious commonplace, sleeper succeed-
ing to sleeper." Their building may be
taken as an index of the general life of
the mona.stery; all is today much as it
has been for centuries, while the sun, the
rain, and the winter storm have slowly
carried on their work of destruction,
making no slight havoc on the miserable
wooden upper structure, in the repair of
which the inactive monks have employed
only the merest makeshifts.

On retracing the path leading to the
\alley. as I turned and caught my last
glimpse of the monastery, in the distance
no longer dirty and dilapidated, but thor-
oughly picturesque as it hung half way
u]:) the cliff like a huge swallow's nest. T
could not helj) thinking what a miserable
life is that of the monks of .Megaspekeon.
They send out no missionaries or preach-
ers to the neglected peo])le : they go
through their services with considerable
indiff'erence ; they have no interest in
study ; they write no books, nor do they,
like certain orders in the Roman Church,
care for the sick and the poor.

AMiat a living death ! Dionysos' pallid
face, his sad. yearning expression, and
his quick hiuigry response to a few words
of interest still linger in my memory.

324

MYSTERIOUS TEMPLES OF THE JUNGLE

The Prehistoric Ruins of Guatemala

By W. F. Saxds
FoKMKRLv American- ]\Iixister to Guatemala

WITH the opening of the Ouiri-
gua ruins in Guatemala a most
important addition is being
made to the material now available for
study of the races which once occupied
the low, hot coast land between Copan,
in Honduras, through the Guatemala
littoral, Peten, and Ouintana Roo to
Yucatan.

Master races they were as were once
the Brahmans in Indo-China. They con-
quered in easy battle the fever-ridden
natives, and lived thenceforth upon the
country and its population.

They taught them nothing of their
higher civilization, but ground them back
to the earth, until inbreeding, idleness,
and fever took their toll, and in their
turn they were overthrown and perished,
leaving nothing but the elaborate monu-
ments and massive buildings which, cov-
ered with the mould of centuries of quick
springing and quick decaying tropical
forest, form the "Indian mounds" so
plentiful in this region.

A RACE OF PRIESTLY CONQUERORS

The theory of an alien sacerdotal aris-
tocracy, claiming divine descent because
of superior development, and ruling an
untutored conquered race, while it offers
no suggestion as to origin, may at least
explain why no memory of their rule
remains among the inhabitants of these
regions today. Knowledge of every kind
was kept from the subject races, and with
the downfall the slave fled from the an-
cient holy places, and the symbols of ar-
rogance, cruelty, and power were shimned
for centuries as an abomination.

It is not necessary to hold with Bras-
seur de Bourbourg that all these coun-
tries (the "Hinterland" of .\tlantis) were
submerged when the island-continent was
destroyed, although his theory is im-
mensely attractive, and that after remain-
ing under the sea for an unknown period
they rose once more and were peopled
from the highlands.

It is simpler to imagine, as long as we
have nothing definite to go on and one
man's tale is as good as another's, that
some such catastrophe took place as is
so charmingly suggested in Sir Hugh
Clifford's "Tragedy of Angkor," and that
the degenerate rulers of the coast were
shown suddenly to their subjects by some
attack of the hardier mountain tribes to
be no longer irresistible, no longer divine,
but only very feeble men. and so were
wiped out as utterly and effectually as
would have been the first weak settlement
on our own shores without succor from
the mother country.

AN ENVOY WHO FAILED TO FIND HIS GOAL

Perhaps none of the ruins of America
is more accessible now to Americans
than those of Quirigua; and yet. though
frequently visited, they are among the
least known.

John Stevens, in his gossipy "Travels
in Central America, etc.," in 1839, has
left an excellent account of both Quirigua
and its neighbor. Copan, during his wan-
derings in search of a Federal govern-
ment sufficiently stable to receive his cre-
dentials as American Minister.

Failing in the object of his official mis-
sion, he returned north through the
Guatemalan highlands, visiting also the
ruined cities of Quiche, and so up the
ridge of the Cordillera, through Chiapas
to Palenque and down to Chichcn. Itza.
and Uxmal. in Yucatan — a wonderfully
beautiful journey and not in any way
difficult for a saddle-hardened rider.

Stevens left a valuable record ; but his
real treasure (aside from the personal
reminiscence of the astonishing Carrera,
who from a particularly brutal swineherd
became a demi-god and one of the ablest
rulers Guatemala has known) is the
series of admirable drawings by Cather-
wood, who accompanied him. of all the
monuments in both Quirigua and Copan,
which remain unexcelled even by pho-
tography.

325

I'buiu by Valdeavellano & Ci.

THE BEAUTIJ^UL SITUATION OF OUIRIGUA

"The ruins lie on low, flat land, flooded and renewed each rainy season by the Motagua's
overflow — rich, inexhaustible alluvial soil, and ideal for banana-growing. A more inspiring
spot can hardly be imagined. Under the immense ceiba and other coast trees (70 and 80
feet to the lowest branches, each as big as a 30-year maple and hung with orchids or Spanish
moss) has grown up a thicket of palms and fern trees, forming, when the underbrush is
cleared, arching forest galleries impossible to describe" (see text, page 331).

Many travelers have passed through
since the completion of the railway ; but,
with the exception of Maudslay, none
has attempted to give more than such a
description as I am now writing. At
present all men are equal, for no one has
succeeded in deciphering the historical
writings of Quirigua.

the; site; of quirigua cleared

In the spring of 1910 the tract of land
surrounding the monuments, on the left
bank of the Motagua River, was opened
for planting by the United Fruit Com-
pany of Boston, and a park left about
the principal ruins. The company gen-
erously supplied labor and many other
facilities for clearing this park of under-

brush and cleaning the stones, so that at
last an organized study was made possi-
ble, under the guidance and supervision
of Prof. Edgar L. Hewett (Director of
the School of American Archeology, at
Santa Fe, New Mexico) and of Mr. Syl-
vanus Griswold Morley (see article by
Mr. Morley, pages 339 to 360).

Both of these gentlemen have spent
many months in exploration and detailed
examination, and under Mr. Hewett's
able direction the institute has an oppor-
tunity for study hardly paralleled in the
history of American archeological re-
search.

Quirigua should become the starting
point, the workshop, and the school for
beginners in this branch until the gradual

326

I'hoto by \'alrleavclIano & Co.

GREAT BANANA TREES NEAR QUIRIGUA
Of i8 monM^r^q^ trees grow to the height of 40 feet, attaining this growth in a period

vLetiHon p'r. 1\}^^-^^^''V^\ '°'^ °^ ^^^ P'^'" "PO" ^hich Quirigua stands that the

vegetation here grows at the incredible rate of one-half inch everv 24 hours

327

328

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

development of the country makes or-
ganized extension possible into Peten
without the hardships and risks to health
and life to which sojourners in that beau-
tiful but treacherous country are now
subject. Quirigua is free from all these
drawbacks, and nothing could be easier
than its approach.

The steamer that brings the traveler
from New Orleans is only one entire
day out of sight of land. The run down
the Mexican coast and along the cays
ind islets of British Honduras is beauti-
ful, with tiny villages white against the
forest line and the "Cockscomb" jagged
range stretching blue in the distance.
From Belize, the capital of the crown
colony, it is only a few hours to the
Guatemalan border and to the mouth of
the Rio Dulce.

This historic waterway (Cortez' road
on his superhuman raid from Mexico
City to the Honduras coast) opens deep
between miles of high wood-hidden cliffs
into a vast tide lagoon stretching 30 miles
toward the mountains of Vera Paz, "The
Land of True Peace" of Las Casas, con-
quered by him and his Dominican friars
when years of fierce fighting had resulted
in unvarying disaster and defeat to the
Spanish troops at the hands of the war-
like Indians.

WHAT the; coast towns are IvIKE

Livingston, a Carib town, lies clean
and white on a low bluff at the entrance
bar, and just opposite, a few miles away
by sea,, is the real port (Puerto Barrios)
more important, but far less sightly, than
its neighbor.

Livingston receives the coffee trade
from the German plantations of Vera
Paz, does a bit of "free trade" on its
own account, filibusters and fishes. The
soul of the Spanish Main still lives there,
and all the game fish of Tampico or
Catalina Island are to be found about
Puerto Cortez, the next little town, be-
yond the Motagua River in Honduras,
or in the great lagoon above the shady
stretches of the Rio Dulce.

Puerto Barrios has a railroad termi-
nal, tank and turn-table, a customs shed,
a group of buildings belonging to the
United Fruit Company, a barrack for

a half company of Carib infantry, and
a rotting wooden hotel, all set in a swamp,
bridged from house to house by board
walks, and made altogether unendurable
by mosquitoes. Fortunately one is not
obliged to remain in this singularly unat-
tractive place, for the daily train to the
capital starts as soon as the passengers
are through the customs, and, long before
the sun is high, has plunged into a jungle
so thick that a dozen paces from the rail-
road embankment the sun is invisible.

This dense brush is filled with gameij
the small deer common to America and'
Asia, herds of peccary (the small wild
pig always cited as a model of fierceness
in all the good old books of travel and
adventure of our boyhood), tapir, an oc-
casional jaguar, and birds of all kinds
some related to our own game birds.

Monkeys were common enough, bu1
the natives say that they died by the
hundred, not a great many years ago, oi
smallpox. I do not vouch for the diag-
nosis, but I always visit the jungle with
a receptive mind.

A few miles beyond this forest prime-
val villages begin to line the track, which
now follows the Ad^otagua River ; groups
of huts built of four walls of split bam-
boo stems set upright in the earth, with
a floor of split bamboo laid cross-wise
and a roof of palm-leaf thatch ; some of
them are set on the damp and soggjij
ground and some slightly raised to allo'^
for drainage.

Among these appear others more tidily
and securely built of whitewashed plank*
inhabited by negroes who come here front
the West Indies, Belize, and our owil
Southern States, attracted by the good
pay ofifered by the fruit company and the
railroad. A fair sprinkling of escaped
criminals and "bad men" from New Or-
leans gives to all our American negroes
an undeservedly evil reputation on the
coast.

the; gre;at banana plantations

These villages cultivate a little corn,
a little fruit, and some gaudy flowers
about the huts; but in spite of any at-
tempt at neatness or decoration, they
convey only a strong impression of _im-
permanency. Along this part of the river

Photo by \'aldcavellano & Co.

A FALLING MONUMENT

These preat monoliths, some of which are as much as 26 feet high, were quarried from
the foothills two miles west of the city, and were probably transported thither on rafts
during the rainy season, when the greater part of the valley is submerged by the overflow
of the Motagua River (see text, page 354).

329

\ alijcaveilano & Co.

w]e;i,l-pre;se;rved hierogIvYphics

"Each figure is crowned with a tall feather head-dress ; is belted with a short embroid-
ered skirt like the sacrificial apron worn by Korean eunuchs in the Heaven sacrifice — naked,
with heavy ornaments at wrist and ankle. On the sides of the stones are columns of glyphs,
until now undeciphered, but nearly all plain and well preserved, and, when the clue shall have
been found, easily legible" (see text, page 331).

330

M\STKR1(JL'S TlCAll'LES OF TI11% JL'XC.LE

between the bank and a ridge of hills,
covered partly with tropical growth and
partly with sickly pines, the banana plan-
tations of the Boston company cover
18,000 acres, mostly develojjed in the last
five years.

In place of the jungle belt, through
which I passed on my first visit to
Guatemala, are well-ordered sections or
"farms" tapped by spur lines of the rail-
way, each fed in its turn by Decauville
roads. Each farm is overlooked by the
superintendent's house, built like those
designed for the Panama Canal work-
ers, well above the ground, with broad
porches, screened and mosquito-proof.

The company has of late preferred
young college graduates as farm super-
intendents, and the station name often
indicates the founder's school. In the
center of all, set in a too-luxuriant rose
garden, surrounded by labor villages,
shops, storehouses, offices, and "bach-
elors' quarters," lies the big, comfortable
house of the young manager, under
whom this extraordinary growth has been
attained.

A few miles beyond, 57 from Puerto
Barrios and 2j^ from the railroad, to-
ward the river, lie the ruins of Quirigua,
from the beginning of last year open
country like that below, planted with
banana "eyes" like a vast potato field,
WMth a lively camp of some 1,800 la-
borers preparing still more acres.

Tlllv BEAUTIFUL SITUATION OF OUIRIGUA

The ruins lie on low. fiat land, flooded
and renewed each rainy season by the
]\Iotagua"s overflow — rich., incxliaustible
alluvial soil, and ideal for banana-grow-
ing. A more inspiring sp(5t can hardly
be imagined. Under the immense ceiba
and other coast trees (70 and 80 feet to
the lowest branches, each as big as a 30-
year maple and hung with orchids (ir
Spanish moss) has grown up a thicket
of i)alms and fern trees, forming, when
the underbrush is cleared, arching forest
g?.!Ieries impossible to describe.

From the ceiba and mahogany trees
droj) long, leafless, snake-like black vine
stems — one, the "water-vine," containing
a quar'- of clear, pure w^ater to every
foot, which spurts forth in a refreshing

stream when cut. It is a real, thirst-
quenching water, drawn up from the soil
and filtered through the pores of the
plant ; not a saj), as one might suppose.
As is generally the case, this vine grows
thickest where the surface water is least
drinkable.

Through the arches of the palms sud-
denly appears a group of mounds, still
overgrown with masses of foliage, and
beyond these an avenue of great stones,
carved monoliths, leading to some — as
yet — invisible altar (M- temple. From each
pillar stares — impassive, gloomy, or sul-
len — a gigantic face. Each figure is
crowned with a tall feather head-dress ;
is belted with a short embroidered skirt
like the sacrificial apron worn by Korean
eunuchs in the Heaven sacrifice — naked,
with heavy ornaments at wrist and ankle.

On the sides of the stones are columns
of glyphs, until now undeciphered, but
nearly all plain and well preserved, and,
when the clue shall have been found,
easily legible. The faces are well carved,
of a heavy, full type, with thick Wps,
narrow eyes, and tliin, carefully pointed
Egyptian beards, like the Sargent l^ha-
raoh in the Boston library. Several show
a remarkablv cruel strength, which
lessens with each set of pillars to a
weak, purposeless, degenerate type —
loose - lipped, chinless, and imbecile.
Among them is to be found the most
perfect pieces of carving I have yet seen
among American antiquities (see pages
333 and 342).

CFXTKKS OF A GRFAT CINILIZATIOX

It is not to be supposed that either this
place or Coi)an was an isolated gr'>up of
temples, it is more likely that they were
centers, and that more similar, if less
perfect, remains will be uncovered in the
near future in the course of deforestation
preliminary to banana planting.

There is no reason to suppose that the
aboriginal dwelling was in any way su-
])erior to the bamboo and thatch struc-
tures I have described above — than which
nothing could well be more ])erishable.
The Motagua \'alley and adjacent terri-
tory may have been and probably was
denselv populated about these sacrificial
foci ; but with the overthrow and savage

f. - '-^.s

'C^^St*^^^

■1.

.,-2?..

A MAYA CAIvE:nDAR

Photo by Valdeavellano & Co.

At the close of each hotun, or i8oo-day period, at Quirigua, one of these monuments was
erected. The hieroglyphics carved on the sides probably record the principal events of the
corresponding period in each case.

332

THE CURIOUS EGYPTIAN TYPE

"The faces are well carved, of a heavy, full type, with thick lips, narrow eyes, and thin,
carefully pointed Egyptian beards, like the Sargent Pharaoh in the Boston library. Several
show a remarkably cruel strength, which lessens with each set of pillars to a weak, purpose-
less, degenerate type — loose-lipped, chinless, and imbecile" (see text, page 331).

333

a c.

^ c.

Z E

334

-MVSTHRIUUS TE-MPLES OF THE TUXGLE

38o

annihilation of the last of the priest-
kings and the tliglit of their emancipated
but terrified subjects to the higher valley
of the same river about Gualan and
Zacapa, no trace would remain of any
but the most substantial buildings, the
temples and palaces. "Indian mcnmds"
are frequently reported in all this region
and have been known for many years to
the adventurous spirits who have pros-
pected for gold, railroads, mahogany,
game, or "treasure" in these iminhabited
forests.

These lie, according to such statements,
along the river and in the hills toward
the Rio Dulce and the lagoon, with a
general trend from Copan to Peten.
Some lie in the upper Alotagua \ alley
as far as the foot-hills above Zacapa.
The railroad crosses the Alotagua a few
miles above Quirigua. forced to the right
bank by the line of low hills it has fol-
lowed from the coast.

Almost from the crossing the coun-
try begins to change. It becomes less
swampy ; the river bed grows rocky and
no longer flows through deep banks of
black earth ; it acquires the greenish tinge
of mountain streams ; and the foliage on
the banks, while not less thick, is drier
and shows a less feverish green.

Above Gualan (perched picturesquely
on a hilltop) the valley opens into a rain-
less, dusty, cactus-grown plain like north-
ern ^Mexico or Arizona, surrounded by
high bare mountains and watered by two
fine rivers — the Motagua still and an
aftluent, the Zacapa. It is well popu-
lated ; corn and cotton grow well, and
cattle appear to prosper.

Yellow fever, having once got a hold
upon this region, has become endemic,
but I know of no place whence it might
more easily be banished, and. cleaned
thoroughly, these towns should be as
healthy as any.

The inhabitants are of the 'Xadino"
class, the Si)anish-Iti(lian hybrid, which
has, in the course of centuries, become
a fixed type. They have a good idea of
the possible value of their land, dry and
dusty as it is, and will not sell at any
price ; nor are they in error. Barrage
and pumping works installed in the Za-
capa River — far beyond the power of

native capital, it is true, but of easy con-
struction for some American syndicate —
would make of this plain the richest
sugar region in the world. Cane needs
heat and unlimited water, but neither
wind nor rain. The burning Zacapa
plain is sheltered from both, and has ar
inexhaustible supply of water from tlu
rivers.

A rREHISTOKIC MIXING CENTUR

There is every indication that this re-
gion was once as thickly peopled as any
part of the country. Records of the mis-
sionaries who came after the Spanish
conquest tell of large towns here and
flourishing villages, and it may be that
gold or silver workings gave to the over-
shadowing range the name it bears, of
"Mountains of the Mines." Whether or
not this upper \ alley of the Motagua was
peopled from below might still be de-
termined from the relics which remain.

These investigations, however, should
be undertaken promptly before the de-
velopment of all this country by invest-
ment of American capital and intensi\e
cultivation has so altered its face that all
record is lost. A connection between the
upper and the lower Motagua Valley —
that is. between the Zacapa V'alley and
the coast — seems to me to be more logical
and natural than a relation between this
region and the highlands.

Of the plateau cities destroyed by
Alvarado sufficient record is still avail-
able to make com])aratively easy an ex-
haustive study of the Quiche, Kakchiquel,
and other tribes or nations of the moun-
tains and of the Pacific coast. Rulers
and people seem to have been of the same
stock, and after their overthrow by the
Spaniards and their Tlascalan allies, the
survivors did not disappear ; they ro^^e
again and again and fought their con-
querors as long as there remained a chief
to lead them.

DO THE IXDIAXS I'RESKRVE THEIR
TRADITIONS?

The traditions of the ancient people,
their religion, and their feeling of na-
tionality may still live in the heart of the
Quiche Mountains, and might be easily
studied by one who would devote a num-

Photo by Valdeavellano & Co.

THIS MONUMENT, STELA E, IS ONE OE THE MOST BEAUTIFUL OE ALL THE HOTUN-

MARKERS AT QUIRIGUA

It is 2-^ feet high above ground and is elaborately carved from top to bottom. It records

the date 9.16.10.0.0.1 Ahau 3 Zip of Maya chronology, or approximately 490 A. D.

336

SIDE VIEW OF THE MONUMENT CALLED STELA K

The hieroglyphic inscription shown here records the date 9.18. 15.0.0.3 Ahau, 3 Yax of
Maya chronology, or approximately 535 A. D. Stela K was the last of the great monuments
to be erected at Quirigua, the following hotun. or 5-year period (540 A. D.) being marked
by the erection of Temple A.

327

338

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

ber cf years of his life to acquiring their
language and observing their customs and
their prejudices, and who would make it
his first care to treat them like human
beings rather than savages (which, dis-
tinctly, they are not), or like beasts of
burden. They are not emancipated yet
from their martyrdom of centuries; since
Bartolome de las Casas they have had no
protector. The republic has done nothing
for the Indian, yet they are the finest
stock in the country and in them lies the
future of Guatemala.

To help him the student will find many
treasures in the government archives and
valuable historical documents in private
collections. Much has found its way out
of the country, and it is to be hoped that
it is in the hands of some one who will
realize the importance to history of these
old manuscript books and records and
will give it to the world.

The climate during the dry season (on
the high plateaus, from October or No-
vember to March) is delightful ; the high
mountain valleys, pine and corn clad,
with their soft-toned, well-shaded vil-
lages and towns ; the true hospitality and
gentleness of the people (once one has
gained their confidence and affection)
make an ideal setting for a winter's work.

The roads are only navigable for bul-
lock-carts, it is true, but a mule or a
good native pony will pass anywhere, in
spite of bottomless ruts and spring holes.
With a good animal, road traveling in
Guatemala is, in my experience, unsur-
passed for beauty except by the moun-
tain paths of Korea.

There is also a dry season on the coast
of which advantage may be taken, and
will be taken, I hope, for several years
to come, to complete the Quirigua work.
When the mud has dried and the ever-
vigorous underbrush has been cut from
the park surrounding the monuments, a
few weeks spent among them is not only
not dangerous, but not unpleasant and
would certainly be immensely profitable.

e;xploring, but in touch with
civiuzation

As I have attempted to point out, the
student is not lost in primeval jungle, but
works near a camp which is the center
and headquarters of the United Fruit
Company's operations. He has but to;
follow their axemen every morning as;
they open new territory, and is at all
times within easy range of tobacco, clean
linen, magazines, good food, and, at the-,
worst, of pills, American doctors, and
hospitals.

With the cooperation of the govern-
ment of Guatemala lies open to the In-
stitute a work of vast importance to
American archeology, under conditions —
I was about to say- — of luxury, and I
think that the expression is well justified
if comparison be made with any other
American work of this character.

Nothing should be spared, in funds or
men, to make Mr. Hewett's undertaking
a complete success and establish the work
in Guatemala upon as permanent a basis,
as that of San Juan Teotihuacan, in
Mexico.

EXCAVATIONS AT QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA

Bv Sylvan us Griswold Morley

Assistant Director Ouirigua Expedition, 191 2

THE ruins of Ouirigua are located
in the Republic of Guatemala, Cen-
tral America, 57 miles from the
Caribbean Sea. The heart of this ancient
city, its civic and religious center (see
map on page 349), covered about 75.
acres, surrc^unding which on every side
for a distance of several miles were the
dwellings of the common people.

Ouirigua was one of the older centers
of the great Maya civilization, which
flourished in southern Alexico, Guate-
mala, and northern Honduras during the
first 15 centuries of the Christian Era.
Judging from the dated monuments (see
page 33/ ) which were erected in its sev-
eral courts and plazas, this ancient Amer-
ican metropolis was abandoned during
the first half of the 6th centurv A. D.

Toward the close of the 6th century
the Alayas moved out from the older
centers of their civilization in the south
and migrated northward into Yucatan.
Here in the stress of colonizing a new
and unfamiliar land the remembrance of
their former homes graduall}- faded, until
Ouirigua, along with many another south-
ern city, became only a memory, a tra-
dition. Finally, long before the discov-
ery of America, even the tradition of its
former existence had passed from the
minds of men.

OUIRIGUA lost for CENTURIES

Hernando Cortez, the conqueror of
Mexico, must have passed within a few
miles of Ouirigua in 1525. on his memo-
rable marcli to the Golfo Dulce, but he

I'hulo Uuin SjKaiiUs C .Moilty

THE FIRST STEP IN EXCAXATING TEMPLE A WAS TO RE.MOVE THE SURFACE STONE

A line of native workmen are here shown passing the fallen huilding blocks down to the dump
car. .^n assistant stands at the car to see that no sculptured stones are thrown away

330

340

Sylvaiuis G. Morley

liXCAVATIXG TKMPLl:: A
Exposing the southeast corner after it had been buried for more than 15 centuries

makes no mention of the fact, and it
was not until over 300 years later, or in
1840. that the site was again made known
to the world by Stephens and Cather-
wood.*

Dtiring the centtiries which had elapsed
since its abandonment a dense tropical
vegetation (see page 348) had overgrown
the city, overthrowing its temples and
palaces and reducing them to shapeless
mounds of fallen masonry.

The jungle had won its way into the
diflferent courts and plazas ; and these
public squares, once teeming with the life
of a populous commimity, had become
the haunt of the tiger, peccary, monkey,
ant-eater, and the infinite host of the
tropical forest. The jungle had again
reclaimed its own.

In 1909 the United Fruit Company,
incidental to the purchase of a large tract
of land in this vicinity for a banana plan-
tation, acquired title to the site, and in
the following year, through an arrange-
ment with the School of American Arclie-
ology, the systematic study of the ruins

* "Incidents of Travel in Central America,
Chiapas, and Yucatan." John L. Stephens.
Harper & Brothers, 1840.

was undertaken under the direction of
Edgar L. Hewett.

DIFFICULTIES IX CLFARIXG THE SITE

The archeological investigation of
Ouirigua presented many new and diffi-
cult problems. Before digging could be
commenced, it was first necessary to fell
the all-enveloping jungle.

Giant trees, often exceeding 150 feet
in height, had to be removed occasionally
from the midst of a cluster of elaborately
sculptured monuments, where a single
blow from a falling branch might have
shattered the high relief and done ir-
reparable damage.

In such delicate cases the trees first
had to be cabled, and then, while they
were being cut. gangs of native lal^orcrs
ptilled them away from the endangered
monimients.

.\11 this preliminary work consumed
much time, and it was not until Febru-
ary of last year that the actual excava-
tion of the site was commenced.

The place selected for the first season's
digging was the south side of the temple
court, at the points marked .\ and 1' on
the map, on page 349 ; and at .\ a trestle

341

Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr.

THIS IS one: oif the; be;st-pre;se:rved monuments at quirigua and is known as

STELA D

The relief is very slightly weathered and looks as though it had just left the sculptor's
chisel. The Egyptian type of face, with its characteristic little beard, shows very distinctly
in this monument. Compare, also, the monuments shown on pages 333 and 334.

342

"TPT 11

^•*

:^J^.

'f^..

'^««war-'

I'lioto from Sylvanus G. Morlcy
DKTAII, SHOWING A HEAD AND HEAD-DRESS OX ONE OF THE LARGE MONUMENTS
The "cross-bone" decoration on each side of the head-dress is a common motive in Maya art

343

344

345

■ Ht^

i€!.

Photo from Sylvanus G. ]\Jorley

A MATAPALO TRE;]J

This tree when young grows around some other tree, clinging to it for support. As it
grows it gradually surrounds the tree supporting it, and finally ends by choking it to death;
hence the name matapalo, or "kill-tree." It is no uncommon sight in the vicinity of Quirigua
to see two entirely different foliages emerging from the same trunk. The matapalo illus-
trated here has succeeded in entirely surrounding the tree which originally gave it a helping
hand upward.

346

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
SCULPTURED FRAGxMENTS OF STONE FOUND AROUND THE BASE OF TEMPLE A: NOTE
THE CURIOUS VARIETY OF BIZARRE DESIGNS

and tramway were built for carrying off
the excavated material (see page 339).

Surmounting the broad and spacious
terrace which forms the southern side of
the temple court was a large mound. A
(see page 348), which, from its size and
location, seemed to be the remains of a
very important construction.

Fragments of sculptured stone, human
and grotesque heads, hands and feet,
feather-work and geometric forms, and
parts of a hieroglyphic cornice strewed
the ground on every side (see page 352),
and the first trenches brought to light
much additional material of the same
character.

AN IMPOSING TEMPLE FOUND

As the work of excavation proceeded
there gradually developed from this
mound of earth and fallen stone the
ground plan of what had originally been
an imposing temple. This temple (see
the ground plan on page 355) was found
to be 105 feet long and 29 feet wide.

It is composed of seven chambers, sym-

metrically arranged, the three larger ones
of which, those opening to the outside,
are 14 feet long and about half as wide.

The four interior chambers, alternating
with the preceding, are somewhat smaller,
being only 9 feet long by 5 feet wide.
The floors of the smaller chambers are
in every case a foot and a half higher
than the flooring of the large chamber
from which they are entered ; and, sim-
ilarly, the floors of the larger chambers
are again 2 feet higher than the floors of
the spacious doorways giving into them.
In the latter case the rises of the steps
are sculptured with hieroglyphics, draw-
ings of which are shown on page 356.
Successive stages in the excavation of
the middle chamber of Temple A are
shown on pages 350 and 351.

This chamber originally had three
heads tenoned into its back wall at a
height of 53^ feet above the floor (see
bottom row on page 354).

This unusual feature of decoration
doubtless indicates a chamber of corre-
sponding importance, which its central

347

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>

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w 5

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1^ §

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bo

348

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5 "S^^ .,

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D <

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— I 5 3

349

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley

e;xcavating the: chieip sanctuary o^ TEMPI.E a: (i) clearing the doorway

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
EXCAVATING THE CHIEF SANCTUARY OF TEMPEE A: (2) THE SANCTUARY PARTIALLY

CLEARED

The back wall of the sanctuary has been partially uncovered and the threshold cleaned
out, exposing the hieroglyphic step (see page 356). The three heads in the bottom row o±
the picture on page 354 were found in the layer of dirt on the floor of this room.

350

"cji:. r:vBrxsii»j- tmt j / / , /.rrr.

(3)

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
THE SANCTUARY AFTER

EXCAVATING THE CIIIEE SAXCTUARY OF TEMPLE A:

FINAL REPAIR

Note that the wall to the left has been relaid in cement, and the third hieroglyphic, part
of which is missing in plate 2, on page 350, has been repaired, the missmg part havmg been
found in the debris on the floor of the doorway.

position in the building further corrobo-
rates. Indeed, it is more than Hkely that
this chamber of the tenoned heads was
not only the chief sanctuary of this par-
ticular temple, but of the whole city as
well.

A SHRINE FOR HUMAN SACRIFICE?

It requires but little effort of the imag-
ination to picture once again the rich and
varied scenes which had this temple for
their background. White-robed priests,
with jaguar skins hanging from their
shoulders, ascend the stairway to the
sanctuary. Garlanded victims in the
shadow of death tremble at the altar.

Gorgeously plumed chieftains ]iace the
broad terraces or press around the cov-
ered dais of the city's ruler, while below,
thronging the stone seats along the sides

of the court, the multitude, in ignorance
and awe as always, awaits the sacrifice.
All the pomp and pageantry of the by-
gone days again fill the court under the
magic spell of the romantic surroundings.

Curiously enough, the excavation of
this sanctuary failed to bring to light a
single specimen, not even a ])otsherd. al-
though the interior chamber adjoining it
on the right yielded a generous return.

Among the specimens recovered from
this latter room were two very fine Hint
spear-heads, each over 6 inches in length,
and the fragments of a dozen or more
pieces of jjottery, which show a variety
of pleasing shapes and designs. In gen-
eral, the Quirigua ware is red, or red and
vellow, and of a basin-like shape. Many
pieces have three legs, the legs being
made of balls or inverted cones of clay.

351

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
FRAGMENTS OF THF MFDIAIv AND UPPER CORNICES OF TEMPLE A

In the foreground appear several blocks from the hieroglyphic cornice, which divided
the facade into two horizontal bands. Behind are blocks from the upper cornice, showing
the leaf or feather pattern.

Decoration was largely confined to the
exteriors, and was effected by fluting,
painting, and incising. It has been sug-
gested that the first of these was de-
rived originally from the calabash, which
abounds in the vicinity. The yield of
specimens from the other chambers of
lemple A was rather meager, all com-
bined being less than the cache just de-
scribed.

THE TEMPEE CONFORMS TO MAYA TYPE

The fagade of Temple A, like that of
all Maya structures, was divided into two
parts by a cornice which passed around
all four sides of the building half way
between the top and bottom.

In Temple A this cornice was com-
posed of a band of hieroglyphics which
began at the northeastern corner and ex-
tended clear around the building. Below
this cornice the fagade was plain, being
without sculptural decoration of any kind.

This severe treatment of the lower
panel offered a striking and effective con-

trast to the upper panel, which was com-
posed of an elaborate mosaic of sculp-
tured stones finished at the top with
another cornice showing a leaf motive.

Unfortunately the upper part of the
building has suffered most, having fallen
at every point, carrying with it all of this
sculptured mosaic, not a single stone of
which now remains in its original posi-
tion. This appears very clearly in the
picture on page 357, which shows the
front or north side of Temple A.

The walls up to the hieroglyphic cor-
nice are perfectly plain. At the left,
where the inscription begins and where
the sequence of the first 15 or 16 hiero-
glyphics is known, the cornice has now
been restored to the position it originally
occupied.

SOME HIEROGEYPHICS DECIPHERED

The hieroglyphic inscription presented
on the exterior cornice and on the rises
of the steps in the three exterior door-

352

Plioto by George N. Ltucklin. Jr.
VlliW OF THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE TEMPLE COURT AFTER EXCAVATION: CONTRAST
WITH THE VIEW SHOWN ON PAGE 348

ways of this temple is of unusual inter-
est. The text on the cornice records the
date 9.19.0.0.0:9 Ahau, 19 Mol of Maya
chronology, which corresponds approxi-
mately to the date 540 A. D.*

This date doubtless indicates the time
at which Temple A was erected or at
least dedicated. It marks the close of
Katun 19 of cycle 9 of the Maya eraf
and is the latest of all dates yet discov-
ered at Quirigua.

The first two hieroglyphics in the east-
ern doorway (a and b, on page 356)
record the date 9 Ahau 18 Mol. which
is exactly 40 days in advance of the date

♦Authorities differ as to the exact correla-
tion of Maya and Christian chronology. The
correlation used here is that proposed by the
writer.

t The Maya Katun contained 7,200 days, or
approximately ig}4 years. There were 20
katuns in a cycle, which was very nearly 400
years long. Cycle 9 of Maya chronology was
the first historic period of the Maya civiliza-
tion.

presented on the outside. The third
hieroglyphic in the middle doorway (c,
on page 356) expresses this distance of
40 days, and the fifth and sixth hiero-
glyphics, e and /. the date 9 Ahau 18
Mol, recorded also on the cornice outside.
Finally, the seventh and eighth hiero-
glyphics in the western doorway, g and
h (page 356), declare that this day, 9
Ahau 18 Mol, was at the end of Katun
19 of cycle 9, thus repeating the infor-
mation given on the exterior of the build-
ing.

WHAT DO THE HIEROGLYPHICS HIDE?

It will be seen from the foregoing that
the only Maya hieroglyphics which have
been deciphered up to the present time
are those which deal with some phase of
the calendar, such as day, month, or
period, signs, and the like.

Indeed, all told, the meanings of not
more than 50 dift'erent characters have
been worked out, leaving in the neighbor-

353

Photo from Sylvanus G. Moiiey

SCULPTURED stone; heads found during the excavation of temple a

These heads, with the exception of the three in the bottom row, were found in front
of the temple. Originally they had been fastened to the facade by rough stone tenons pro-
jecting from their backs. The large grotesque head in the second row was over the middle
doorway, and the two heads in the third row were over the eastern and western doorways
respectively. The three smaller heads in the bottom row were fastened to the back wall of
the sanctuary, sYz feet above the floor-level.

hood of 150 which are still indeterminate.
These undeciphered hieroglyphics prob-
ably treat of the events which occurred
on the corresponding dates; or, in other
words, they probably deal with the sub-
ject-matter of Maya history.

The frame- work of Maya history—
that is, its chronology — no longer pre-
sents serious difficulties to the student;
but the more human side of this great
aboriginal civilization, the records of its
wars and conquests, its religious and so-
cial movements, its rise and fall, still re-
main a sealed book.

The building material used in Temple
A is sandstone, which was quarried from
the foot-hills two miles west of the city
and probably transported thither on rafts
during the rainy season, when the greater

part of the valley is submerged by the
overflow of the Motagua River.

In this way the building material could
be floated right up to the base of the
temple substructure. The blocks were
finished — that is, either sculptured or
faced — as occasion required, after they
had been laid in the wall.

This accounts for the remarkable ac-
curacy with which the lines of a design
are carried from one block to another
without a perceptible break in the com-
position. This is particularly true of the
hieroglyphic cornice, which could have
been sculptured only after the blocks
were laid in the wall, so perfect is the
fit of the lines in the details of the char-
acters.

In addition to the temple just de-

354

scribed, one other build-
ing (Structure B) was
excavated at Quirigua
this year (see B, on p.
349), The relation of
these two structures ap-
pears very clearly in the
view of the temple court,
shown in the photograph
•on page 353. This struc-
ture B can hardly be
classified as a temple, but
more readily falls into
the dwelling or palace
type of Maya structures.

It is built on the level
of the temple court and
-does not rise from a sub-
structure, like the other
buildings surrounding
this inclosure, which fact
somewhat detracts from
its dignity and impress-
iveness. Its ground plan
is irregular.

Tlere are no large
open chambers rendered
further conspicuous by
unusual features of deco-
ration, as in Temple A.
Instead, the rooms are
small and dark, the en-
trance, shown on page
358. being the only ex-
terior doorway in the en-
tire building.

All of the doorways
are provided with pairs
of stone hooks for hang-
ing curtains. These are

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
ONE OF THE STONE HEADS WHICH FORMERLY 0RX.\MENTED
THE FACADE OF TEMPLE A

C.KOUXn 1>I..\N OF TEMl'LE A

Note the proportion of wall space to room space in this building. The walls, which are of
solid masonry, occupy nearly three times as much space as the rooms

355

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w
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oi

<^"- X
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Photo by George N. Buckiin, J r.

NORTH FACADE OF TEMPLE A

This view shows the tremendous amount of repair work which necessarily accompanied
the excavation of Temple A. When the walls were uncovered they were found to be in an
extremely ruinous condition. Most of tl^; building blocks had to be relaid in cement, and
all of the walls had to be finished off with a waterproof cap to shed the lars;e annual rainfall.

set in niches in the walls, two hooks on
each side of a doorway — one at the floor
level and the other 4 feet above. By
means of these the door-hangings could
be secured in four places and prevented
from flapping in the wind.

The exterior of Structure B was deco-
rated with the curious sculptural mosaic
shown on page 359. This design occurs
at each of the four corners and in the
middle of the back and side walls. It is
a variation of the grotesque head motive
found throughout the Maya area.

A PREHISTORIC ROOSEVELT PORTRAIT

In this particular example the incisor
teeth are as prominent as Colonel Roose-
velt's, and the first tourists who saw the
head immediately called it the original
Roosevelt grin. Under this name its
fame rapidly si)read, until it became the
chief point of tourist interest in the an-
cient city.

The yield of specimens from the

smaller structure exceeded that from
Temple A in both quality and quantity.
Indeed, the finest specimen recovered
during the entire cour.se of the excava-
tions — the effig}' vase shown on p. 359 —
came from this apparently insignificant
building. When discovered, this vase
was broken into a score or more of small
l^ieces. and it was not until after these
had been put together that its true char-
acter was revealed. It is 7 inches in
height and 3 inches in width at the i;op,
flaring slightly at the bottom.

The body of the vase is a rich cream
or buflf in color, decoration being con-
fined to the fluting already mentioned.

The grotesque head which ornaments
its front is truly remarkable as an ex-
ample of free-hand modeling, the fea-
tures being rendered with a verisimilitude
rarely encountered in any aboriginal art.

The eyes, ear-rings, fillet, and mouth
are painted a dull bluish-white, the beard
and fillet decorations being done in a rich

357

Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr.

VIEW OF structure; b after excavation

"In the deep twilight of a tropical jungle the crumbling remains of this once proud city
lie forgotten, its builders unknown, and its very name lost in oblivion— a melancholy com-
mentary on its vanished glory" (see text, page 360).

shade of red. When discovered, this
vase was in fragments on the floor of a
back room, in a dark and inconspicuous
corner.

WHY WAS QUIRIGUA ABANDONED?

In finding such an unusual specimen
one is prompted to ask. What dire cir-
cumstances could have necessitated its
having been left behind? Was it aban-
doned in the extremity of sudden flight
or overlooked in the confusion of an
equally hurried sack? Or, again, could
some general death or universal pesti-
lence have laid low all the hands which
might have borne it off?

The number of conjectures possible is
as endless as such guessing is idle. Such
questions by their very nature are des-
tined to remain unanswered until the
end of time.

In its dark corner, shattered and for-
gotten, this gem of Maya ceramic art
slept undisturbed throughout the cen-

turies, only to be awakened in another
day and age by the archeologist's shovel.
Decidedly the most unique article re-
covered during the course of the work
was a series of small worked hematites,
found near the efligy vase above de-
scribed. For the most part these were
hexagonal in shape, about 1/16 of an
inch in thickness and not over an inch
in width between any two points. One
side was very highly polished in each
case, the other being ground smooth.
The edges were beautifully cut. and in
some cases finished off round, as thougb
such pieces had formed the border of
some mosaic. The use of these curious
little stones is unknown.

THE AGE OF THE BUILDINGS
One important point which the excava-
tion of Temple A and Structure B settled
beyond dispute was the relative ages of
the two buildings. After the southern
side of the temple court had been par-

358

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley

REMAINS OF A GROTESQUE HEAD ON THE SOUTH FACADE OF STRUCTURE B

The resemblance of the teeth to Colonel Roosevelt's incisors earned for this head the title
"the original of the Roosevelt smile" (see page 357)

Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley
EFFIGY VASE FROM STRUCTURE B
This vase was found in a dark back room. It had been broken into about 22 or 23
pieces, all of which were recovered, with the exception of two very small fragments not
exceeding a quarter of an inch in any dimension. It is unquestionably one of the tinest
examples of the Mava ceramic art that has ever been discovered (see page 357'-

359

36o

S.WlXc; TlIK DL'CKS AXU GKESK

;5i)l

tially excavated, it became apparent that
the small building in the southwest cor-
ner — /. c, Structure li — belonged to an
earlier epoch than the imposing temi)le
which towered above it. Indeed. Struc-
ture 15 is almost entirely surrounded by
the platform of the larger building, which
indicates that it was already standing
when the foundations of Temple A were
laid. This ap])ears very clearly in the
illustrations on pages 357 and 358. where
Temple A is seen to be on top of the
terrace built around Structure J'>. Ex-
cept that it was erected at some time
prior to Katun 1 ij ( the date inscribed
on Temple A), no definite conclusion as
to the age of Structure B can be reached.

However, since the very earliest date
at Quirigiia only jjrecedes Katun ig by
87 years, it is probable that Structure B
was built some time during the century
preceding Katun 19. or during the period
..UO-540 A. D.

The excavation and rei)air of the two
buildings above described constituted the
work of the present year at Quirigua.
When these ancient structures were
finally uncovered, it was found necessary
to make extensive repairs in order to
preserve them from speedv deterioration
and decay.

The building stones had to be relaid
in concrete and the walls plumbed and

finished oft' with a waterproof cap of
cement to shed the enormous annual rain-
fall. These permanent improvements
however, neces.sarily consumed much
time, and scarcely had been brought to
a close before the rainy season set in.
putting a sto]) to all work, excavation as
well as repair.

Till-; ki;.\i, WORK yet to be done

So far as the possibilities of the site
are concerned, the ground at Quirigua
may be regarded as having been little
more than scratched. The temple court
alone has four other buildings surround-
ing it, to sa\- nothing of the remaining
courts and plazas of the city.

It is the purpose of the School of
American Archeology to continue exca-
vations here until an exhaustive stud\ of
the site has been made: for only through
systematic investigations extending <)\er
a nunil)er of years can these great centers
of the ?klaya civilization be made to tell
their interesting story and contribute
their quota to the record of man's prog-
ress and development.

^^eanwhile. in the deep twilight of a
tropical jungle the crumbling remains of
this once proud city lie forgotten, its
builders unknown, and its very name lost
in oblivion — a melancholy commentary on
its vanished glorv.

SAVING THE DUCKS AND GEESE

By Wells W. Cooke

BiOEOGiCAi. SiRxEv, U. S. Dei'aktmext of Agriculture

Author of "Birds that I'ly from Pole to Pole." in the Xational Geographic

Maciacinc

WHEX the first settlers came to
the United States they found
the country teeming with wa-
terfowl ; the district along the Atlantic
coast seemed to have an inexhaustible
supply of ducks and geese. Ikit in later
years, when emigrants pushed westward
and crossed the Mississippi, they discov-
ered that the flocks of the coast were as
nothing to the countless thn^ngs that

passed each spring and fall over the
Western prairies.

The younger generation living toda\
in Towa and Wisconsin can have no idea
of the abundance of ducks and geese
found there 50 years ago. at which date
their original innnbers had been scarcely
diminished.

Ducks and geese are by nature prairie,
marsh, and swamp-breeding birds. .V

MAP SHOWING THK BE;ST BREIEDING GROUNDS OF WII.D DUCKS AND GE;e;SE

"All the lightest shaded area within the United States has now been brought so thor-
oughly under cultivation that it can never amount to much as a nursery for young ducks.
The next heavier shading includes much of Minnesota and North Dakota, where there are
still a great many lakes and marshes too large ever to be drained. . . . The most heavily
shaded part in the northern United States and southern Canada represents what is left of
the 'ducks' paradise'" (see text, page 363).

few species, such as the wood-duck, mer-
ganser, and golden-eye, nest in hollow
trees ; but those which are the most im-
portant from the standpoint either of
food or sport — the Canada goose and the
mallard, pintail, teal, redhead, and can-
vasback — breed in the open country.

DUCKS pre;fe;r the; west for nesting

The whole region east of Indiana and
north of the Potomac River, including
also all of Canada east of Lake Huron
and Hudson Bay, has never had more
than a few small tracts suitable for breed-
ing grounds. Only one species — the black
duck, or black mallard — nested there com-
monly, and that in numbers insignificant
as compared with those of its nearest
relative, the common mallard, in the Mis-
sissippi Valley.

In fact, the settlement of this eastern
part of the country has decreased the
acreage of duck-breeding grounds so little

that if the black mallard was allowed
proper protection, it would still nest in
goodly numbers throughout this entire
area.

No other duck seems to have cared tcj |
nest in any numbers east of Hudson Bay,' '
and the enormous flocks of ducks re-
ported by the early settlers, in the fall
migration, were not eastern-bred birds,
but were travelers from the interior of
the North American continent, where
tracts of country furnishing exactly the
conditions desired by ducks and geese
were to be measured by square miles in-
stead of acres.

The so-called "prairie region" of the
United States then extended into Illinois
and northwestern Indiana, and so much
of it as was occupied by lakes and
marshes — northern Indiana, a wide strip
of northern Illinois, another strip of
northern Iowa, and thence northward to ■
the Arctic Ocean — was crowded with ;

362

SAVIXG THE DUCKS AND GEESE

363

breeding ducks and geese. The map (see
page 362) shows the aj^proximate out-
lines of this area.

It is noticeable at once that much of
the lower half of this vast region, for-
merly held in undisturbed possession bv
wildft)wl, is now an almost continuous
farm and garden, and the millions of
waterfowl have been replaced by several
millions of human beings.

WHKRE THIC ducks' PARADISE IS POUND

The prairie districts of central Canada,
comprising large portions of Manitoba.
Saskatchewan. Alberta, and ^Mackenzie,
have been and still are the "ducks' para-
dise." Almost equally attractive to them
are the northern part of North Dakota
and much of northwestern ^linnesota.
the whole forming a tract 200 miles wide
and 400 miles long, abounding in lakes,
ponds, sloughs, and marshes, which fur-
nish ideal nesting conditions and a plenti-
ful supply of food : and 50 years ago
every available nook was preempted by
waterfowl.

But the "paradise," too, has been dis-
turbed. The Northern Pacific and other
railroads cut across its southern border
in Minnesota and North Dakota, a north
and south line was run to Winnipeg, and
other shorter branches were built.

A still more severe blow was dealt the
waterfowl when the Canadian Pacific
Railroad crossed, between \\'innipeg and
the Rocky Mountains, the finest duck-
breeding grounds on the continent. Dur-
ing the decade just ended their last
stronghold has been invaded by the new
Grand Trunk F^acific Railroad, and soon
the great colonies of northern Alberta
and northern Saskatchewan will be things
of the past.

It is evident, therefore, that in a few
years neither the L'nited States nor south-
ern Canada will have any large breeding
places of those species of ducks which
are most highly valued for sport and for
the table.

The map on page 362 shows the exist-
ing status of the breeding grounds which
have been enumerated. All the lightest
shaded area within the United States has
now been brought so thoroughly under

cultivation that it can never amount to
nnich as a nursery for young ducks.

The next heavier shading includes
nuich of Minnesota and North Dakota,
where there are still a great many lakes
and marshes too large ever to be drained.
Though the number of ducks through-
out this area has been greatly diminished,
yet in the aggregate a good many broods
are reared each year.

The most heavily shaded part in the
northern United States and southern
Canada represents what is left of the
"ducks' paradise," and nesting ducks are
still present in large numbers over the
whole area.

THE FUTURE IS liV Xo MEANS HOPELESS

Owing to two facts, the future of the
ducks and geese of North America is
not so gloomy as some are inclined to
think. First, there is a rapidly awaken-
ing interest in the preservation of game
of all kinds, and, second, there is an over-
looked area in North America of con-
siderable size, which is well adapted for
the breeding grounds of ducks and geese,
and is so far north and has .so severe a
climate that it never will be used to any
great extent for farming. Indeed, the
places best adapted to the waterfowl —
the great marshes — are too wet and cold
even in mid-summer ever to be available
for agriculture.

The largest and best of these districts
lies in the neighl)orhood of .\thabaska
and Great Slave lakes. It includes the
whole of the Slave River, the lower hun-
dred miles of the Athabaska River, and
the region to the westward for distances
varying from 50 to 250 miles.

Here are some 30.000 square miles that
with even moderately good protection
during the breeding season will produce
annually a liberal croj) of the most valued
kind of ducks. To the northward lies
another district, including the delta of
the ^[ackenzie and the .\rctic coast east
to Franklin liay, that supports each year
a large waterfowl population, including
the mallard, green-winged teal, and sev-
eral species of gaese, but is too far north
for the gadwall. blue-winged teal, red-
head, crid canvasliack (see map, p. 3'^>4).

MAP SHOWING the; ALMOST UNDISTURBI;d BREIEDING GROUNDS OF THE DUCKS AND

GEESE IN NORTHERN CANADA

Which will prevent the extermination of these waterfowl if they receive adequate protection
in the United States (see text, page 363)

Eastward a third area fringes Hudson
and James bays on the west and extends
from the south end of James Bay to 100
miles beyond Cape Churchill.

Many ducks have nested from time
immemorial throughout this region and
have been practically undisturbed by man,
and it seems probable that this condition
will continue for years to come.

These three districts are the best, but
throughout the whole immense inter-
vening area — lightly shaded on the map
shown above - — are innumerable small
lakes and marshes, each well adapted to
support a few pairs of ducks and geese.
Moreover, by suitable legislation, south-
ern Saskatchewan, nearly the whole of
Manitoba, and the contiguous parts of
the United States can be made to produce
perennially their present large crop of
aquatic game birds.

WHY PROTECTION PAYS

Some birds are protected because of
their diet, as the wood-peckers and fly-

catchers ; others for their song — thrushes
and mocking-birds : others for esthetic
reasons — gulls and terns ; while the pro-
tection of ducks and geese is purely utili-
tarian ; they furnish a highly prized food,
and the sport of hunting them involves
an outdoor life and exercise which is
worth far more to the individual and the
community than the dietary value of the
game secured.

Twelve years ago the national govern-
ment recognized the need of preserving
the ducks and geese as part of the na-
tional resources and they were included
in the "Lacey Act" — the national law for
the preservation of game. The enforce-
ment of this law was put in the imme-
diate charge of the Bureau of Biological
Survey, and the facts contained in this
article were gathered mainly in the course
of investigations connected with the carry-
ing out of the provisions of that act.

Under that law wild ducks and geese
are the property not of the individual on
whose land they happen to nest or alight,

364

MAP SHOWING BREEDING GROUND, WINTER HOME, AND CURIOUS MIGRATION ROUTES

OF THE WHITE-WINGED SCOTER

'•'Its breeding grounds cover an immense area in Canada. ... In the fall some of
these scoters go west and southwest to winter along the whole Paciric coast of the United
States. . . . But most scoters in the fall take an easterly flight, and they are particularly
abundant in winter on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to southern New Jersey, especially
in the neighborhood of Long Island Sound" (see text, page 367).

but of the whole people, as represented
by the State, and the modern doctrine of
the conservation of natural resources re-
quires that the laws be so framed that
the State — /. e., the people — shall receive
the largest practicable return ior each
bird.

Experience of the last few years has
shown conclusively that a duck killed for
the home consumption of the gininer,
or, as it is ordinarily called, "killed for
sport," yields a manifold larger rettu'u
to the State and to the community than
one killed by a market gunner as a means
of obtaining a livelihood : or. to put it in
the baldest way. a market gunner adds
nothing to the wealth of the community
and obtains his living by an unnecessarily
high drain on the State's assets.

WHAT IS THE MOST URGENT NEED?

Hence the most urgent need at this
time is to forbid bv law, at least for a

time, all purchase or sale of domestic
game birds. With this as the universal
law in Canada and all of the United
States — as it is already in 19 of the
States — the business of the market gun-
ner is gone ; he need no longer be taken
into account, and it seems probable that
this single restriction will be sufficient to
stop to a great extent, if not entirely, the
present falling off in our waterfowl
census.

To impress this idea on the general
community is the most important single
item in the struggle for game protection.
It gives a solid cash basis to the appeal
for restrictive laws, and when once the
public come to see this matter in its true
light, the fight for game ])rotection is
won.

Some birds protect themselves. For
instance, the abundant and well-known
white-winged scoter — or white-winged
"coot," as it is more commonlv known

365

366

THE BREEDING GROUND AND WINTER HOME OF THE ROSS GOOSE

"From its breeding grounds on the high Arctic Islands it comes south through the Mac-
kenzie Valley; but instead of turning to the southeast, to winter on the Gulf coast with the
other geese and ducks which have been its traveling companions, it parts company with them
at the national boundary line, goes south into Montana, and then strikes westward, crossing
the lofty ranges of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains and winters in California" (see
text, page 368).

on the Xew England coast — is probably
as common now as it was 50 years ago,
in spite of scant protection by law. The
reason for its escape from the woeful
fate of its relatives is found in the re-
gions chosen for summer and winter so-
journ and in its iniique migration route
or, rather, routes.

Its breeding grounds (see map, page
365) cover an immense area in Canada
and are mainly in a district which is still
sparsely inhabited and is likely to remain
so ; at least, it will hardly have population
enough to interfere with the nesting of
the birds. In the fall some of these
scoters go west and southwest to winter
along the whole Pacific coast of the
United States. Here they have not as
yet been much molested, owing to the
small market demand and the difficulty
of getting within shot range, as they both
feed and sleep on the ocean.

But most scoters in the fall take an
easterly flight, and they are particularly
abundant in winter on the Atlantic coast
from Cape Cod to southern Xew Jersey,
especially in the neighborhood of the
eastern end of Long Island Soiuid. Here
100,000 and more liaAe been seen in a
single day; but as they. too. remain con-
tinually on the ocean, they are less easily
killed than are birds which feed closer
to land.

CURIOUS MICKATroX ROUTKS

Another peculiarity is the migration
routes of these Atlantic Ocean wintering
])irds. Although few, if any. nest in the
Labrador Peninsula, yet in Atigust they
become abundant as migrants along the
east coast of southern Labrador, showing
that they must have come 1,500 miles
almost due east from their nearest breed-
ing grounds in Canada. In the late fall

367

Principa/ winter /}ome o/'ihe c/ac^s and qeese^
o-f the eastern Unitec/ States.

Special distt.cts where great r?umbersofcfucftsand
ffeese congregate during the winttr.

'-'%

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MAP SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL WINTER RESORTS OF THE WIED DUCKS AND GEESE

they repair to the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and gradually work south on the advent
of winter to the southern New England
coast.

The following spring, instead of re-
tracing the round-about fall migration
route, the main flight of coots takes a
short cut west in Long Island Sound to
the mouth of the Connecticut; up the
valleys of the Connecticut and Hudson
rivers to the valley of the Ottawa, and
thence west and northwest to the breed-
ing grounds. Thus during their fall
migration they aie passing through a
■country almost entirely uninhabited, while
their spring flight over the thickly popu-
lated parts of Connecticut and New York
is made for the most part by night.
Under these circumstances it is not sur-
prising that the scoter succeeds in holding
its own.

Another species that has an equally
peculiar migration route is the Ross snow
goose. It is one of the very rare geese
-in North America and is also the smallest,
about the size of a mallard duck. From
its unknown breeding grounds on the high
Arctic Islands it comes south through the

Mackenzie Valley ; but instead of turning
to the southeast to winter on the Gulf
coast with the other geese and ducks
which have been its traveling companions,
it parts company with them at the na-
tional boundary line, goes south into
Montana, and then strikes westward,
crossing the lofty ranges of the main
chain of the Rocky Mountains and win-
ters in California (see map, page 367).

WHEN SHOULD THESE BIRDS BE
PROTECTED ?

The problem of waterfowl protection
has four distinct phases corresponding to
the four seasons of the year. The sum-
mer or the breeding season is acknowl-
edged to be the time when the shooting
of ducks and geese is most pernicious.
Practically all our States and Canada are
agreed that hunting should cease abso-
lutely during the weeks when the birds
are nesting.

Only a little less disastrous is hunting
during spring migration, when the lucky
survivors of the winter's campaign are
on their way to the nesting grounds. Just
now the struggle for game preservation

368

MAI' SIIOWI XC, Till-; ].(K\T1(»\ ol- 40 OLT OJ- Tl I K 56 NATIONAL I'.IKD Ki:si: R\"AT l( ).\ :
The other 10 are located in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico (see text, page 375)

ill the United States is centering around
the proposition to abolish all spring shoot-
ing. This has already been done by sev-
eral of the States which are most en-
lightened in their treatment of wildfowl
preservation ; but enormous numbers are
still shot in Iowa and especially in the
bottoms along the Illinois River.

It is confidently expected that in the
near future the good sense of the general
comnuuiity will recognize how short-
sighted and wasteful it is to lose a large
fall supply of well-fattened fowls for the
privilege of obtaining earlier in the year
a much smaller quantity in poor condi-
tion.

Some advocates of spring shooting
claim that hunting can safely be allowed
until the ducks begin to pair ; but the
l)airing season with some species is very
early in the year ; the wood-duck begins
nesting in early February, and some of
the other species are paired by the middle
of the month. Any attempt to make
sei)arate laws and dates for the different
species would prove unsatisfactory, and
the only practicable way is to prohibit
all spring shooting.

WHY A SHORT HUNTING SEASON IS MOST
PROFITABLE

Admitting that both spring and sum-
mer shooting are utterly indefensible, the
question is at what time may himting
properly and profitably be allowed. The
matter of game protection should be
handled from a rational business stand-
point, like the handling of any agricul-
tural product. There is some one time
in the growth of a crop when its yield
will be of the highest market value, and
the wise agriculturist waits for that time
and then harvests in a few days the otit-
l^ut of the whole year. Moreover, he is
careful to save enough for seed, so that
the crop of the following year may be
at least no less bounteous.

Every one will admit that the greatest
number of waterfowl of the highest value
individually can be obtained yearly if all
the shooting is done — /. c, the year's crop
is harvested — in the fall, after the young
are fully grown and while the birds are
on their fall migration trip. If birds are
absolutely undisturbed by human agencies
from the time they reach their winter
home until they have completed the molt

369

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370

S.WIXG THE DLCKS AND GERSE

371

the following fall, they will rear the The map ( see page 368) shows the

largest proportion of the largest-sized general area of the principal winter homes

families and furnish the greatest amount of the ducks and also the special feeding

of food and sport. I)laces where they congregate.

WIXTliK SllOOTIXG IS DISASTROUS

To understand the importance of pro-
hihiting the winter hunting of waterfowl
in the L'nited States it is necessary to
know something about the districts in
which the birds are found at this season
and the conditions surrounding them
there. Ducks must have open water, and
hence winter in the Stnithern States. They
retire southward slowly in the fall, as
they are driven away from their feeding
l)laces by the advancing ice. Many do
not reach their real winter haunts before
December and some not imtil the end of
that month. Though the outside boun-
daries of this winter home include a large
area, the birds concentrate themselves on
that very small fraction of the area which
offers good physical conditions and plenty
to eat.

For instance, Arkansas contains 53.000
square miles, but Mississippi County,
with less than 900 square miles, is more
important as a duck winter resort than
all the rest of the State. In other words,
during the winter the majority of the
•ducks of Arkansas are collected on less
than I ^6oth of the State's area. Ob-
viously, under such conditions, the bag-
ging of a great many at one time and
place is a comparatively easy matter ;
hence the market hunter seeks out these
favorite feeding spots and shoots there
all winter.

.Vccomac. .\'()rtham])ton. and Princess
.\nne coimties. in \ irginia. with an area
■of less than 1 .000 sc|uare miles, send to
market more ducks than a;ll the other
32.000 square miles of the State put to-
gether. In fact, if the shi])ment or sale
of ducks was prohibited in these three
counties, it would have more effect in
checking the present dejjlorable decrease
of ducks there than would absolute pro-
hibition of Inniting in all the rest of the
State.

Evitlentl} . then, if the ducks can be
protected during the winter in such fa-
vored localities, the progressive reduction
of the duck population would change
speedilv to a progressive increase.

WHY TllK C.\.\V.\S1!.\CK I.EI-'T CHKS.M'K A KT.
V.W

.Among the latter. Chesajjcake IJay is
not marked, although f)0 years ago it was
one of the most important wintering
])laces for ducks in the United States,
usually spoken of as a winter resort,
though really there was a time during
most winters when the ducks were forced
by the ice farther south for a few days
or weeks.

Persistent per.secution by gunners from
early fall to late spring has almost an-
nihilated the myriads of fowls of the
finest varieties that used to blacken the
surface of the bay. Here was the i)re-
ferred winter home of the celebrated
canvasback. whence many hundred thou-
sand dollars' worth of the birds have been
shipped to the northern markets. Today
a canvasback is almost a rarity in Chesa-
peake liay. and the few survivors spend
the winter farther south, on the .\orth
Carolina coast.

Chesapeake l'>ay was formerly the nat-
ural goal of a large proportion of the
canvasbacks and redheads which nested
in central Canada. They had a peculiar
migration route. Nesting in the lake re-
gion of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. the\
found stretching thence southeastward
an almost continuous chain of lakes suj)-
l)lying an abimdance of food and esi)e-
cially favorable conditions to tempt a
journey in that direction. This flight
led. naturally, to Chesapeake Bay. which
used to provide an almost unlimited
c|uantity of their greatest delicacy — wild
celery — and otherwise was admiralily
adapted for a fall, winter, and spring
sojourn, except during an occasional
week or two of unusually cold weather.

This southeast and northwest route is
still used by most of the thousands of
ducks that winter on the entire .\tlantic
coast from \"irginia southward, and the
now almost deserted waters of the ujjper
Chesapeake would be repojudated to a
large extent if wise restrictive legislation
were in force.

The south shore of Tong Island. \. >'.,

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372

THIv WARD-MC ILHENNY AND THE LOUISIANA REFUGES FOR GAME BIRDS

"Two gentlemen— C. W. Ward and E. A. Mcllhenny— purchased some 50,000 acres and
hired game wardens at their own expense to patrol the district and prevent all shooting.
Later they deeded 13,000 acres to the State of Louisiana to serve as a perpetual bird refuge"
(see text, page Zll)-

Ctirrituck Sottnd, X. C, and the neigh-
borhood of Georgetown, S. C, are now
the most important ducking grounds on
the Atlantic coast. Gunning clubs have
obtained possession of most of the best
hunting places on these coasts, but the
market gunner is still quite notably in
evidence.

Many ducks winter on the Texas coast
near Galveston and some even venture
south to the Mexican coast, at Tampico.
Fortunatelv in these localities the market

hunter has ceased to be an important
factor of the question, for Texas has
prohibited absolutely all shipment of wa-
terfowl out of the State for sale.

The northeastern corner of Arkansas,
around Big Lake, is one of the special
danger spots from the ducks' standpoint.
A constant succession of flocks occupy
the region during a protracted fall mi-
gration and most of the time throughout
the winter. The conditions are favorable
for their easy slaughter, and almost un-

373

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374

S.WIXCx THE DL'CKS AXD GEESE

375

helievable stories are told of the thou-
sands of mallards sent to market by single
gimners.

wiikre; the greatest slaughter takes

PLACE

There remains for consideration the
coast of Louisiana, which at present is
the leading factor working for the ex-
termination of those species that have a
high market value. The whole coast
from the mouth of the Mississippi to the
Texas border abounds with lakes and
marshes and offers most alluring winter
attractions for ducks.

Here congregate thousands and tens
of thousands of mallards, accompanied
by teal, widgeon, shovelers, and red-
heads, with a large number of geese of
several species. The best feeding is in
a comparatively narrow strip along the
coast, and this region fairly swarms with
waterfowl.

Here are collected on a few hundred
square miles the ducks that during the
breeding season have been scattered over
many hundred thousands of square miles.
They begin to arrive early in the fall,
remain until late in the spring, and
throughout this whole long season they
are the easy prey of the market hunter,
for the State game law allows duck shoot-
ing during the entire winter.

It is extremely difficult to make the
inhabitants of southern Louisiana grasp
the idea that such conditions are excep-
tional, or that there is any possibility that
their winter sport can endanger the game
supply of a continent. Yet a careful
census in 1910-1911 of the ducks killed
in Louisiana during that one winter
totaled so many hundreds of thousands
as to be almost unbelievable.

Is it any wonder that spring after
spring the hunters in the upper Missis-
sippi Valley report the migrating flocks
as becoming smaller and smaller?

So loth are ducks and geese to relin-
quish their choice feeding places that they
return there day after day in spite of
incessant shooting, and it is estimated by
good authority that at every shooting
ground frequented by market hunters,
both on the North Carolina coast and in
southern Louisiana, at least 50 per cent

of all the ducks that winter there are
killed before the remnant depart in the
spring.

Xo class of birds can stand such
slaughter, especially when there is added
to this 50 per cent all those .shot during
the spring and fall migrations.

r.IRl) KKSKRVATIONS WILL SAVE THE
WATERFOWL

The immediate end to be sought is the
stopping at once of any further inroads
on the already badly depleted ranks of
the ducks and geese. To effect this, reg-
ulations should be made which will
• shorten' the open season and eliminate
the m^^rket hunter. . Later the task will
be to restore the old-time abundance of
waterf6\vl, at least as far as is consistent
with the development of agriculture.

Fortunately this work can be turned
over to the ducks and geese themselves.
They have high reproductive powers in
natural, undisturbed surroundings, and
take kindly to any good oft'ers of safe
nurseries for ducklings. Hence has arisen
the idea and ])ractice of setting aside
certain parts of the national domain as
bird refuges or bird reservations.

The first of these — Pelican Island,
Florida — was established by the execu-
tive order of President Roosevelt. March
14, 1903, and in the nine years to Feb-
ruary 21, 1912. 56 such reservations had
been segregated (see map. page 369).
They are scattered over the possessions
of the United States, from .\laska to
Porto Rico and from Florida to Cali-
fornia and Hawaii. They vary in size
from Hog Island, Wisconsin, which con-
tains only two acres — the home of a large
colony of gulls — to the Hawaiian Island
reservation, which extends over more
than five degrees of longitude and in-
cludes the breeding grounds of more than
a million sea birds.

Some reservations — Breton Island,
Louisiana, for instance — serve for the
winter protection of waterfowl : others,
as the two in Xorth Dakota, are in the
center of the best duck-breeding grounds
still left in the United States. The Yu-
kon Delta reservation includes the largest
breeding colonies of ducks and gee.se in
Alaska, and with its several hundred

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376

SA\ IXc; THE DUCKS AND GEESE

thousand acres covers more territory than
the entire lake region of North Dakota.
Shooting, trapping, or disturbing the
birds in any manner is prohibited on all
these reservations, whether they are to
be nesting places in summer or refuges
from man's attack during the winter.

GAME REFUGES IX LOUISIANA

The results of such local protection are
often immediate and striking. In the San
Luis \'alley, Colorado, the safety af-
forded ducks on an artificial pond fed
by an artesian well has induced the birds
to resort there in larger and larger num-
bers every winter.

At Palm Beach, Florida, wdiere no
hunting is allowed within a mile of the
town, ducks have become so tame that
they will come for food within a few
feet of a person (see cut. page 370),
while outside the mile limit these same
birds are so wild that it is difficult to get
within gunshot range of them.

Private enterpiise and generosity have
joined forces with the national and State
governments in extending protection to
the birds. One of the most striking ex-
amples is the Ward-McTlhenny Game
Refuge in southern Louisiana, in the very
heart of the region already designated as
the greatest winter home of ducks on the
North American continent.

These two gentlemen — C. W. Ward
and E. A. IMcHhenny — purchased some
50.000 acres and hired game wardens at
their own expense to patrol the district
and prevent all shooting. Later they
deeded 13,000 acres to the State of Lou-
isiana to serve as a perpetual bird refuge
(see map, page 373). This district had
long been a favorite with the market
gunner, and its 15 miles of now protected
shore-line cannot fail to be a safe abiding
place in winter for innumerable water-
fowl.

Here is the princi])al winter home of
the blue goose, one of the rarest and most
interesting of North American geese (see
cut. page 2>7-^^- Going northward in the
spring, their pathway can be traced until
they reach LIudson Bay. There they dis-
appear ; the nest and eggs have never
been found, and no white man has ever
reported seeing a blue goose in the sum-
mer.

By exclusion and from the testimony
of the natives, it is almost certain that
they breed in the unexplored interior of
the Labrador Peninsula. In the fall they
reappear and move slowly south to the
coast of Louisiana, where they are sub-
ject to increasing persecution. The Ward-
jMcIlhenny Wildfowl Refuge, in the cen-
ter of their winter range, will offer a
welcome and much-needed shelter and go
far toward preventing the total extinction
of this rare species.

DOMESTICATION PROVED POSSIBLE

Artificial propagation is worthy of con-
sideration. That this is feasible has been
strikingly shown by J. W. Whealton. of
Chincoteague Island. \'irginia, who has
been raising the Canada wild goose for
more than 50 years, and some of his
oldest and best pairs are well beyond the
half-century mark ; in fact, have had their
golden weddings ( see pages 378 and

379)-

The homing instinct has become suffi-
ciently develojied for them to be trusted
to feed at liberty, and the fiocks, now
numbering several hundred, forage on
neighboring islands even 15 miles distant.
No runaways have been known, and
many pairs which spend the fall and
winter on adjacent islands return reg-
ularly every spring to their breeding pas-
tures and their old nests.

Even the black mallard, one of the
wildest and most untamable of all water-
fowl, has become semi-domesticated and
has shown remarkable powers of repro-
duction ; 1,200 ducks were raised in three
years from a beginning of only 80 pairs.
Mr. Whealton has also succeeded in
breeding the greater snow goose, al-
though its nest and eggs in the wild state
are almost unknown.

THE NEW FEDERAL LAW

The closing hours of the last Congress
were marked by the i)assage. late in Feb-
ruary, of the .\rcLean Hill for the pro-
tection of migratory game birds. This
bill declares all migratory game birds "to
be within the custody and protection of
the government of the Ignited States."
and authorizes and directs the Depart-
ment of .\griculture to prescribe and fix
close sea.sons for their protection.

<«

37P

rhoto from Wells \V. Cooke

CANADA WILD GOOSR SITTING ON NEST AT THE BREEDING FARM OF J. M. WHEALTON :

CHINCOTEAGUE ISLAND, VIRGINIA

This goose and her mate are over 50 years of age, and have come back to this nest vohni-
tarily, spring after spring, for nearly half a century

This is easily the most important piece
of game legislation that has ever been
enacted. As the law does not go into
effect until the first of July, the depart-
ment has not yet promulgated its rules
and regulations ; but the curtailment of
slaughter that is sure to follow this na-
tion-wide attempt at game conservation
cannot fail to have a marked effect in
preserving and ultimately increasing the
present remnants of the waterfowl.

It is exceedingly fortunate that this

protective legislation has been taken in
hand, for the ]\IcLean law will save our
ducks and geese from the fate which has
so unfortunately overtaken the passenger
pigeon, which formerly existed in enor-
mous numbers all over the country. To-
day this bird is entirely extinct, the last
survivor dying in the Zoo at Cincinnati
a few days ago.

J. J. Audubon, in his great work. "The
Birds of America," in Vol. \'. page 26,
writes :

379

380

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

"The multitudes of wild pigeons in our
woods are astonishing. Indeed, after
having viewed them so often and under
so many circumstances, I even now feel
inclined to pause and assure myself that
what I am going to relate is fact. Yet
I have seen it all, and that, too, in the
company of persons who, like myself,
were struck with amazement.

"In the autumn of 1813 I left my house
at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio,
on my way to Louisville. In passing over
the barrens, a few miles beyond Hardens-
burgh, I observed the pigeons flying from
northeast to southwest in greater num-
bers than I thought I had ever seen th^m
before, and feeling an inclination to count
the flocks that might pass within tl.^
reach of my eye in one hour, I dis-
mounted, seated myself on an eminence,
and began to mark with my pencil, mak-
ing a dot for every flock that passed. In
a short time, finding the task which I had
undertaken impracticable, as the birds
poured on in countless multitudes, I rose,
and counting the dots then put down,
found that 163 had been made in 21
minutes. I traveled on and still met more
the farther I proceeded. The air was
literally filled with pigeons; the light of
noonday was obscured as by an eclipse;
the dung fell in spots, not unlike melting
flakes of snow, and the continued buzz
of wings had a tendency to lull my senses
to repose.

"Before sunset I reached Louisville,
distant from Hardensburgh 55 miles.
The pigeons were still passing in undi-
minished numbers and continued to do
so for three days in succession. The
people were all in arms. The banks of
the Ohio were crowded with men and
b)oys, incessantly shooting at the pilgrims,
which there flew lower as they passed the

river. Multitudes were thus destroyed.
For a week or more the population fed
on no other flesh than that of pigeons
and talked of nothing but pigeons."

FURTHER TESTIMONY

So, too, Elliott Coues, writing in 1897
in his "Key to North American Birds,"
Vol. II, page 712, comments on their
threatened extinction thus :

"We do not now have the millions that
the earlier writers speak of in the eastern
United States, and no contract for serv-
ice has for many years included a clause
that the hireling should not be fed too
often on wild pigeons or salmon ; but I
remember one great flight over Washing-
ton, D. C, when I was a boy, about 1858,
and I witnessed in 1873 another, of count-
less thousands, on Red River of the
North. The greatest roosts and flights
we now (1897) hear of are in the upper
Mississippi Valley, though some of the
birds may still breed in various wooded
places all along our northern border and
northward to Hudson's Bay. The wild
pigeon seems now a passenger to happier
hunting-grounds than it or the Indian
has ever found in this country in the
wake of the bison and the fur seal. It
has been often subjected to merciless and
almost wanton destruction by hundreds
of thousands at a single roost in a single
season; and, if it is not entirely extermi-
nated soon, it will be only because there
are too few left to pay for persecution."

From su;h a fate the McLean law has
saved our ducks and geese, and, as its
administration will be in the hands of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, it
is certain that adequate steps will be
taken to conserve and increase what is
undoubtedly a great national asset.

WANDERING ISLANDS IN THE RIO GRANDE

By Mrs. Albert S. Burleson

THE migratory habits of certain
small bodies of land inhabiting
the Rio Grande and known as
"cut-offs." or "bancos," have been the
occasion of protracted diplomatic corre-
spondence and discussion between the
L'nited States and Mexico.

Their refusal to remain permanently
attached to one or the other of the river's
banks deprived them of a fixed legal
status as either [Mexican or American
territory and brought about their partici-
pation in many illegal and unrighteous
adventures, which in turn led to mis-
imderstandings between the two coun-
tries.

Inherently weak by reason of a loose,
sandy soil, they are an easy prey to the
power of the Rio Grande, a river of un-
usual and striking characteristics and
revolutionary action.

Xo one with an intimate knowledge of
a great river will wonder at the homage
so frequently offered it by early peoples.
Its personality is so real to those who
have lived by it and on it and know some
of the many things it can do that they
come to have a feeling akin to the blind
fear and admiration expressed toward
certain rivers in many acts by primitive
races.

A RIVER OF UXSF.TTLKD H.KCITS

In no river is spirit more evident than
in the Rio Grande. From its birthplace
in the snows of Colorado to where its
flood meets the tides of the Gulf of
Mexico, it seems a sentient intelligence,
laden with messages for the country
through which it passes.

Its power to do good or to withhold it
is ajiparent in the creation of rich allu-
vial valleys, or when it plunges through
rock-boimd canyons, leaving the country
for miles on either side a voiceless desert.
Throughout its length it seems to brood
over the land for good or for evil, .\long
its sinuous route below Rio Grande City
it i)ushes its way through miles of level
sand in its final reach to the Gulf, twist-

ing and doubling upon itself like a great
sea serpent.

For centuries it had coiled and un-
coiled and straightened it.self again in the
yielding sands of the semi-arid region,
with none to heed its vagaries, until
Mexico and the United States, by the
Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, in the
year 1848, fixed upon it as the boundarv
line between the two countries and there-
by brought it under international super-
vision. Its unsettled habits were recog-
nized, however, and in the earliest con-
vention on the boundary question every
effort was made to provide against future
misunderstandings arising between the
two countries because of them.

The boundary was to be the "middle
of the river, following the deepest chan-
nel." This seemed clear, and took practi-
cal note of the river's shifting current,
and neither side foresaw that it would not
prove broad enough to cover the good
intention of each to the other.

But the Rio Grande possessed char-
acteristics that had not impressed them-
selves upon the framers of the conven-
tion as possible causes of friction between
the people living along its banks. In ad-
dition to its eroding power, exercised
through long months of low and mean
water, it could during flood periods leap
with torrential force across a narrow
neck of land at the base of one of its
long loops and cut for itself a new
channel.

WHAT .\. l'..\XCO IS

Through such avulsive action of the
river, Texas soil would sometimes be-
come [Mexican, and on occasions a plan-
tation occupied by jacals and Mexican
citizens would over night find itself a
part of Texas — and behold a banco !*

To meet this condition a new conven-

*A banco is the non-descriptive term — elud-
ins? translation, but whose nearest Enghsh
equivalent is cut-off — applied to those portions
of the territory thus separated from the main-
land bv the river.

381

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.S82

WANDERING ISLANDS OF THE RIO GRANDE

383

tion was negotiated, providing that no
such avulsive action of the river should
be permitted to change the boundary line
as determined by the original survey, but
that the line should "continue to follow
the middle of the original channel bed,
even though this should become wholly
dry or be obstructed by deposits." Each
banco, or cut-off, therefore, though un-
moored from its mother country, was to
be regarded as a part of it, with no
change of allegiance or jurisdiction.

But the river still held revelations for
the treaty-makers, and the carefully
framed articles, which had considered
natural changes in the boundary line due
to "slow and gradual erosion and deposit
of alluvium," and also to avulsion, '*by
the abandonment of an existing river bed
and the opening of a new one," had not
reckoned with the result of a combina-
tion of such changes.

\\'hen, after forming a banco, or cut-
oft', the river, by wearing into the oppo-
site bank, would enlarge the banco by
accretion, the ownership of the new land
would immediately become the subject of
dispute.

To whom should it belong? To the
owner of the banco, or to the man whose
land formerly faced the river and was
now separated from it by an intruder
from the other side, but whose country
claimed jurisdiction to the middle of the
river's channel?

HOW A RIVER WORRIED STATESMEN

An example will serve to show both
the extraordinary actions of the river and
the difficulties in the way of any satis-
factory adjustment of conflicting inter-
ests.

In the year 1851 a certain Josiah
Turner began to farm the Galveston
Ranch, on the Texan bank of the Rio
Grande. In 1859 '"^^ ^^'^^ greatly sur-
prised when 221 acres of Mexi:an land
suddenly came across the river and at-
tached itself to his ranch. An arrange-
ment was effected by which he became
the owner of this land, which is now
known as the Soliseno Banco. The river
was tranquil until 1865. when it cut off
a piece of ]VIr. Turner's land and took
it to Mexico, and there jiart of it re-
mains tn this dav. The other part was

gradually washed away; but in 1886 the
river made up its mind to repay the
farmer for what it had taken from him
21 years before, and so carried back into
Texas a piece of land far larger than the
tract originally lost. But. unfortunately
for the good intentions of the river, the
land it restored belonged to owners on
the Mexican side, and although it had
attached itself to Mr. Turner's land and
had apparently become an inseparable
part of it, the Mexican owners claimed
possession.

So great was the confusion of boun-
dary lines, the disturbance of private and
public titles to lands, and so many were
the conflicts of jurisdiction between the
two governments following upon such
freakish actions of the river, that a new
convention, dealing with the questions
under dispute, became necessary. To
hasten action upon these and other mat-
ters related to the boundary line and
threatening the amicable relations of the
two countries, it was found advisable to
create a boundary commission clothed
with authority to investigate and de-
termine the merits of each contest.

Composed of two members, one aj)-
pointed by each country, the only limit
placed upon its discretionary power was
the privilege, reserved by each govern-
ment, to object within 30 days to its find-
ings. Any question upon which the com-
missioners failed to agree was to be re-
ferred to the state departments of their
respective governments, to await final
disposition through the slow process of
diplomatic correspondence.

In view of the extended authority re-
posed in this international court and the
importance and delicacy of the questions
brought before it, many of them com-
plicated by ill-feeling upon the part of
the complainants, it is fortunate for this
country that President Cleveland's choice
of the United States Commissioner should
have fallen upon Brigadier General .\n-
son Mills, U. S. Army — a man eminently
fitted to perform the duties of the posi-
tion. To his fine discrimination, patience,
and tact we owe the final .solution of the
banco problem. It seems simple, now that
we have it, but when General Mills took
up its consideration he found it a maze
in which the diplomats of both countries

Present course ^^
Course in 1898 :=-=^^
An old course =zz'~--

MAP TO ii^lustrate; thf, wande;rings of the RIO Grande; and of the old

BOUNDARY

had been hopelessly wandering for years.
The initial case brought before him
and his Mexican colleague in their ca-
pacity as commissioners was typical of
all the others. Mexicans had been im-
prisoned on the American side and Amer-
icans had been imprisoned on the Mexi-
can side; troops of both countries had
been ordered out to protect its citizens ;
both sides claimed their laws to have been
violated ; neither was willing to yield
jurisdiction to the other. The next step

might be riot and bloodshed. This state
of things, with endless variations, but
always underlying it the probability of
clash between the two peoples, prevailed
throughout the banco region from Rio
Grande City to the Gulf.

Small in area, rarely attaining to 500
acres in extent, not always arable, and
rarely inhabited, many of them, indeed,
mere sand banks, these bancos are yet
rich in mystery and romance. About
them has raged for years border conflicts

384

WANDERIXG ISLANDS OF THE RIO GRANDE

:-5S5

that have crowded the dockets of the
Texas Federal courts and piled high our
official correspondence with Mexico.

Oftentimes surrounded by a deep
bayou, which marks the lazy trail of the
river as it followed the line of least re-
sistance through the loose soil, the banco,
like a moated castle of medieval days,
has become a stronghold for murderers,
thieves, and smugglers. Here criminals
have been able to defy the operation of
the laws of both countries. Convictions
are rarely possible when witnesses are
always at hand ready to swear that the
banco belongs to either Mexico or the
United States, as the exigencies of the
case may require.

The zeal of a revenue officer oftener
than not only means new difficulties —
fresh strain on our relations with Mex-
ico, with the silent work of the stiletto,
perhaps, added to complicate the affair.

HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED

A resur\^ey of the river made by the
engineers attached to the boundary com-
mission showed these "cut-offs"' in every
stage of existence. Some were still sur-
rounded by water ; around others the
old bed of the river, though dry, could
be plainly followed ; while still others
showed scarcely a trace of the old chan-
nel, which had filled up with alluvium
and become in some instances covered
with brush or heavily timbered. Many
of the bancos appearing on the map of
the original survey made in 1853 were
gone ; many new ones and some in pro-
cess of formation appeared in the new
survey.

To follow this devious line and mark
it as the boundary between the two coun-
tries, according to the latest treaty stipu-
lation, would entail upon both a pro-
tracted and costly work.

Thoroughly familiar, from boyhood,
with the Rio Grande and having also in
later years given it the careful study of
an engineer, General Mills knew that in
the course of another 50 years the great,
stealthy river would make still a different
map — obliterating old bancos and form-
ing new ones, sweeping away many of the
boundary monuments and necessitating a
repetition of the whole laborious work.

It was here that the General drew his

pencil through the troublesome little "cut-
offs" and sent in his recommendation to
the department that they be forever elim-
inated from the boundary line, all those
occurring on the right of the river to pass
to the jurisdiction of Mexico, those on
the left bank to that of Texas. The in-
habitants, if any, should retain their citi-
zenship in the country from which they
had been so suddenly and violently de-
tached, or they might acquire the na-
tionality of the country to which the
banco would now belong. .\ny cut-off
exceeding 650 acres in area and having
a population of over 200 souls was not
to be considered a banco, and the old bed
of the river should remain the boundary.

AN EFFECTIVE AND EQUITABLE DECISION

By this arrangement neither country
suffered any appreciable loss of territory,
for the bancos migrate with great im-
partiality from one side or the other.

The effectiveness of this plan was so
apparent that it was promptly approved
by our State Department. In Mexico the
proposition, though heartily indorsed by
the Mexican Commissioner, was held up
upon the constitutional ground that the
^Mexican State Department had no right
to cede any portion of Mexico's territory
to another country, and it was referred
to a Senate committee for consideration.

But legislative action followed so slowly
that it was several years before ^Mexico,
having in the meantime exhausted every
possible effort to find a dift'erent way out
of the difficulty, agreed to the elimination
of the bancos. A convention was finally
negotiated and sent to the United States
Senate for ratification. There it was met
by a protest from citizens of Texas living
in Brownsville : and although this proved
upon investigation to be nothing more
than the cry of some questionable char-
acters, whose activities in the field of
smuggling would thereby be curtailed, it
succeeded in delaying action upon the
treaty for two years.

During the closing days of the 60th
Congress the convention was at last rati-
fied by the United States Senate. Two
days later the Mexican Senate confirmed
it. Today it stands in both countries as
the supreme law on the much-agitated
boundary question.

During the five years that have elapsed
since the conclusion of the treaty a com-
mission of American and Mexican engi-
neers has been constantly at work sur-
veying the river, locating new bancos,
and, on the basis described above, de-
termining to which country they belong.

At the end of December, 1912, the
commission had located, surveyed, and
mapped 89 bancos situated in the lower
reaches of the river between Rio Grande
City and its mouth. On each of these

bancos a permanent monument has been
erected, by means of which and the maps
which have been prepared any given
banco can now be identified, no matter
what the action of the river may have
been in the meantime.

Thus the great turbid, silt-bearing river
is left to pursue its way untrammeled;
but the terrors so long synonymous with
its name have through the operation of,
this equable arrangement become a par
of the storied, romantic past.

Photo by A. Y. Tugarinoff, Curator Krasnoyarsk Museum, Siberia

A hlV^ SABI^K IN tut MUSEUM AT KRASNOYARSK^ SIBERIA

Mr. Frank N. Meyer, an agricultural explorer of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
suggests that it might be a profitable venture for Americans in the northern Rocky Mountain
region tp import a few pairs of the dark-skinned sables from the Krasnoyarsk district, Si-
beria, with a view to breeding sables in America, just as blue and silver foxes are now bred
successfully in eastern Canada. The opinion among Russian hunters and fur dealers is that
the sable is not a difficult animal to manage, though it is reputed very fierce, cruel, and blood-
thirsty. Owing to the great decrease in the number of sables captured, the price of the skin
has mounted very rapidly, and now ranges from $20 to $154 per skin. The Russian govern-
ment has become so alarmed at the rapid decrease in the numbers of sable in Siberia that it
has prohibited the hunting or trapping of this valuable anirr.al for three years.

f PICCHU '

912, under the auspices of the
d canyon of the Urubamba, on
aids. For further information,

...»,,,H.»,ita;'S^^^^^^ CAPITAL, MACHU PICCHU

kncun lo .he .S|,an,a,di. I-or further .nformnl.oD. see Ur. Bi„ghan.s arlicle in Ihis number of ihe Na.ionol Gcofniphic Alagaz,

Vol. XXIV, No. 4

WASHINGTON

APRIL, 1913

/TTl

THE

ATTOHAL
©(SmAIPMII<
A(SAEI

/rnl

IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU

The Work Accomplished by the Peruvian Expedition of

1912, under the Auspices of Yale University and

the National Geographic Society

By' Hiram Bingham, Director of the Expedition

Prof. Hiram Bingham's explorations in South America, iQo6-igi i, and par-
ticularly his discoz'crics in iQi i, were so important that z>.'he}i he zvas seeking funds
for another Peruvian expedition in 1912, the Research Committee of the National
Geographic Society made him a grant of $10,000, Yale University contributing an
equal amount. His preliminary report to the Xational Geographic Society and
Yale University of the zvork done in iqij is printed herezvith, and forms one of
the most remarkable stories of exploration in South America in the past 50 years.
The members of the Society are extremely gratified at the splendid record z>.'hich
Dr. Bingham and all the members of the expedition have made, and as z\.'e study
the sjo marvelous pictures zchich are printed zvith this report, zve also are thrilled
by the zvonders and mystery of Machu Picchu. What an extraordinary people the
builders of Machu Picchu must have been to have constructed, zvithout steel imple-
ments, and using only stone hammers and zvedges, the zvonderful city of refuge on
the mountain top. — Editor.

INTRODUCTORY The director, osteologist, and the two

THE Peruvian Expedition of 1912, assistant topographers left New York

under the auspices of Yale Uni- ^^ay 16. and were followed three weeks

versitv and the Xational Geo- later by most of the others. The geolo-

graphic Society, was organized with the
specific purpose of carrying on the work
l)egun by the Yale Peruvian Expedition
i)f 1911. It was not intended to cover
such a large area as had been done the
year before. l)Ut to do intensive work in
a part of the field where only reconnais-
sance work had been previously at-
tempted.

The staff of the expedition consisted
of the following: Prof. Hiram Bingham,
director; Prof. Herbert E. Gregory, ge-
ologist ; Dr. George F. Eaton, osteologist ;
Mr. Albert H. Bumstead, chief topogra-
pher: Mr. Ellwood C. Erdis. archeologi-
cal engineer: Dr. Luther T. Xelson. sur-
geon : Messrs. Kenneth C. Heald and
Robert Stephenson, assistant topogra-
phers, and Messrs. Paul Bestor. Osgood
TTardy. and Joseph Tvittle, assistants.

gist was not able to leave until .\ugust ;
but as the plans for his work called for
a study of a comparatively small region,
the three months that he was able to
spend in Peru were sufficient for his
needs. Practically the entire party re-
turned to New York in the latter part of
December, after an absence of seven
months.

With one exception, the members of the
expedition enjoyed fairly good health
during their stay in the field. An occa-
sional acute gastritis or enteritis resulted
from indiscretions in diet. Assistant
Hardy and the soldier who accompanied
the topographical i)arty suffered a slight
attack of malaria, but this was soon over-
come by quinine.

In making a reconnaissance of the ex-
tremely inaccessible and primitive ruins

ROUTE MAP OF
THE PERUVIAN EXPEDITION OF 1912

UNDER THE AUSPICES OF

YAJ^E UNIVERSITY & THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

HIRAM BINGHAM, DIRECTOR

MAP OF REGION EXPIvORED BY YAEE-NATlONAE GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY EXPEDITION

The dotted lines indicate the routes taken by various members of the expedition and
show how thoroughly the country was covered during 1912. The shaded areas indicate the
extent of the careful topographical surveys. The black spot on the little map of South
America in the corner indicates the location and extent of the route map.

on the mountain of Huayna Picchu, As-
sistant Topographer Heald was so un-
fortunate as to lose his foothold on the
verge of a precipice, and had a very
narrow escape from death. This acci-
dent resulted in a rupture of the liga-
ments of his collar-bone, which later in-
capacitated him for some time and pre-
vented his accomplishing the reconnais-
sance work in the Pampaconas Valley
which had been planned.

Assistant Bestor had the misfortune
to contract amoebic dysentery while on
a journey in the interior. Very proba-
bly he was infected by drinking unboiled
water from the Apurimac River at
Pasaje. His condition failed to improve
after seven weeks of treatment, and he

was obliged to return to the United
States. He was kindly received at
Ancon Hospital, and was there put on
the road to complete recovery.

We found an epidemic of smallpox
and typhoid fever raging in the towns
of Anna, Puquiura, and Lucma. These
towns of 150 to 200 inhabitants had had
a death toll of 40 and 50 people each.

There was very little opportunity for
medical work among the native Indians,
but the more educated Peruvians were
extremely glad to come to the free
clinics.

There are no physicians in most of
the villages of the interior ; consequently
the owners of the large plantations have
to rely entirely on their own efforts at

388

l^liolo by iluam iiiiigliaiii

STRAW liOATS UX THE BEACH AT PACASMAVO, PERU

On their waj' to southern Peru the members of the expedition touched at various ports,
including Pacasmayo, where the fishermen use a pecuHar form of canoe. These canoes, or
balsas, are made of rushes and have to be dried out each time they are used. The picture
also shows a typical fisherman's hut made of split bamlioo.

Pliuto by Hiram Bingham

A I•ISIIl•:R.^rAX AXl) HIS CATCH AT SA^.AVI•;RR^■. PERI'

Another port at which the expedition touched was Salaverry. Here they met a fisher-
man and his burro bringing in two large skates, called rayas, which they were taking to sell
in the Salaverry market.

389

IN FRONT OF THF CATHFDRAI, : UMA_, PElRU

Photu by Hiram Cinghani

The first part of the expedition arrived in Lima just in time to witness the annual
procession of Corpus Christi. Starting from the cathedral, shown at the right, the pro-
cession, made up largely of little children in attractive costumes, passed around the four
sides of the principal plaza and returned to the cathedral. This picture, taken before the
procession started, shows the military band and escort, and the carpet of flowers and green
leaves over which the procession was to pass.

Photo by Hiram Bingham
CORPUS CHRISTI PROCESSION : LIMA, P^RU

On one of the corners of the plaza a temporary altar, elaborately decorated, had been erected,
■ and here the Corpus Christi procession stopped while Benediction was given

390

curing diseases among the In-
dians in their employ. Very few
Peruvians are properly vacci-
nated.

STRANGE MODE OF VACCIXATIOX

The Indians believe that vacci-
nation with pus from the lesions
of a patient who has died with
smallpox confers immunity from
the disease. They practice this
sort of vaccination, with the re-
sult that many who are thus in-
oculated die from the disease.

There is no attempt made to
isolate the smallpox or typhoid
patients. Neighbors mingle freelv
in the huts where the diseases
exist, and at the funeral of the
dead they have feasts in which
every one partakes, many using
common cups and dishes. The
clothes of the dead are washed
in the same stream from which
the people in the villages get their
drinking water. There are no
windows in the highland huts.
and there is no attempt at clean-
liness in the dark interiors. Of
course, fumigation is unknown
and vermin abound.

On many of the large plan-
tations conditions are better.
There the owners of the estates
vaccinate their Indian tenants
and laborers. In some of the
villages a priest will vaccinate a
few during his annual or semi-
annual visit, so that some do get
the benefit of protection from
smallpox. In the cities, on the
other hand, while many are vac-
cinated, there are many who are
not, so that even in Cuzco small-
pox was raging during our stay ; and.
furthermore, practically no attempt was
being made at isolation or any other
measure to prevent the spread of the
epidemic.

Notwithstanding many hardshii)s and
the presence of a considerable amount
of illness in southern Peru, all the mem-
bers of our party worked hard and faith-
fully, and the general results of the ex-
pedition were highly satisfactory.

i'huto by Hiram Bingham

CORPUS CHRISTI PROCESSION : LIMA, PERU

After Benediction had been given on the corner of
the plaza, the procession moved slowly toward the
cathedral. The "conflict of old and new" is vividly
emphasized in this picture, where the repair wagon of
the trolley line is seen at the right only a few feet from
this religious procession so redolent of the middle ages.
The towers of the cathedral are made of plaster and
lath. In this land of earthquakes it was not considered
safe to huild them of stone.

RESULTS ACHIEVED BY THE EXPEDITIO.X

The work actually accomplished may
be grouped under the following heads :
(i) Machu Picchu; its archeology and
osteology, and the topography and for-
estration of the surrounding region (see
pages 402 to 517).

(2) The Cuzco region; its geology,
osteology, and topography, with special
reference to the age of its vertebrate re-
mains (see pages 400 to 50<"i)-

391

392

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393

394

Plioto by H. Iv. Tucker

A TYPICAL rHRLA IAN I'LAZA

The llamas are loaded with rock-salt. The open sewer in the center of the street is char-
acteristic of manv mountain towns

(3) A contour map from Abancay to
Puquiura, completing the topography of
the cross-section from Camana, on the
Pacific Ocean, to canoe navigation on the
Urubamba, begun in 191 1 (see map,
page 388. and pages 506 to 510).

(4) The topography and archeology
of \'itcos and vicinity (see pages 51 1 to
5^0).

(5) The identification of ancient Inca
])lace names of Vilcabamba that occur in
the Spanish chronicles, but do not appear
on any known mai)s (see page 520).

(6) An archeological and topographi-
cal reconnaissance of the hitherto-unex-
plored Aobamba A'alley (see pages 520

to SU)-

(7) A reconnaissance of the northern
route to Choqquequirau and a brief oste-

ological and archeological reconnaissance
of that city (see pages 544 to 561).

(8) An anthropological study of the
highland Indians of southern Peru, in-
cluding the careful anthro])ometric meas-
urement of 145 individuals (see pages
561 to 564) „

(9) The taking of weather observa
tions on the road and in the camps and
the establishment at widely different ele-
vations of four meterological stations
along the 71 st meridian west of Green-
wich (see pages 564 and 565).

(10) The collection, wherever practi-
cable, of paleontological, osteological.
ethnological, and archeological material
(see page 567).

The following report takes up these
subjects in the order named.

395

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396

I'hutu by U T. .\lUuii

A GROUP OF IXDIAX ALCALDES: SOUTHERN PERU

Near Checcacupe Station was a group of Indian Alcaldes bearinii their staffs of office
decorated with bands of silver. The Alcalde is the native Indian official who stands between
the local government magistrate and the natives of his village, or of his section of a city.
They do no manual labor, but frequently have anything but an easy time.

i;l<l.\Gl.\G I.N TlIK SllEAXKS: CUZCO, I'KKU

iiii Itingliaiii

Nearlv all of the manual labor in southern Peru is done by native Indians who speak
Quichua. the language of the Tncas. Here they are seen harvesting a barley crop, taking
the sheaves to the threshing floor, where cattle and horses are still used in treading out the
corn.

397

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A scene; at SICUANI station, southern FiiKL

Photo by L. T. Nelson

At the railway stations between Lake Titicaca and Cuzco there were invariably groups
of picturesquely clad Indians nearly always wearing a poncho, and sometimes felt hats, but
more often the gaudily decorated reversible pancake-hat characteristic of this part of Peru.

A l-OLk-ll()K.\EL) sheep: cuzco, PERL'

Photo by Hiram IJingham

In the Cuzco \'alley may be seen many flocks of sheep. Most of them are of poor
quality and they do not compare favorably with the blooded stock in Argentina. A not
f.ncommon sight in the Cuzco herds is an occasional four-horntd ram.

399

A TYPICAL mountaineer's HUT

Photd by Hiram Bingham

SOUTHERN PERU

It was sometimes necessary to camp very close to the Indians' huts, as there was so
little aSable flat land in many of the valleys. In such cases a family group was almost
ure to gather and satisfy their curiosity as to the ways of these visitmg explorers.

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Photo by Hiram Bingham
GROUP OE MOUNTAIN INDIANS: SOUTHERN PERU
The Mountain Indians were always interested in our work and usually were content to
silently watch the passage of our caravans, or quietly speculate on the activities ot the topo-
graphical engineer. Once, however, the chief topographer was attacked by a dozen excitea
Indians who thought that he and his assistant were working some devilment with then
strange instruments. Fortunately by diplomatic means they were dissuaded from doin^
any harm. Note the bare feet of the women at this great altitude, which is over 14,000 leet.

400

I'hoto by llirain liingliar.

CARRYING ADOBE BLOCKS! SOUTHERN PERU

The modern method of building a house in Cuzco and in the uplands of Peru is to
begiii by making a sufficient number of adobe bricks (sundried mud mixed with straw or
rubbish). They are made just about as large as can be conveniently carried by one work-
man. In this case they were intended for the local magistrate's new house near Choquetira.

Photo by U T. XcUuii
A TVI'ICAL PERUVIAN INDIAN WOMAN AT OUIQUI.TANA. SOUTHERN PERU

Indian women in Peru are never idle. Even when walking along the roads they are
almtist always engaged in spinning with old-fashioned whirl-bobs and spindles such as their
ancestors used over a thousand years ago.

401

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Photo by Hiram Bingham

CROSSING THE APURIMAC RIVER

Among the many hardships encountered by the expedition was the difficulty of fording
the rivers under adverse circumstances. In this case, at Pasaje on the Apurimac, there was
no wood in the immediate vicinity available for rafts, and it was necessary to wait several
hours before the local ferryman, who lived more than a mile away on the wrong side of
the river, could be aroused by firing of shots to bring his ancient raft to our assistance.

Even

Photo by Hiram Bingham

TROUBLES WITH THE TRANSPORT : SOUTHERN PERU

after we had the raft our troubles were not at an end, for our mules strenuously|
objected to jumping off the rocks into the deep and rapid current

402

IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU

403

the; city of machu picchu, the; cradle;
OF the; IXC a e;mpire:

In 191 1, while engaged in a search for
\'itcos, the last Inca capital, I went down
the Urubamba Valley asking for reports
as to the whereabouts of ruins.

The first day out from Cuzco saw us
in Urubamba, the capital of a province,
a modern town charmingly located a- few
miles below Yucay, which was famous
for being the most highly prized winter
resort of the Cuzco Incas. The next day
brought us to Ollantaytambo, vividly de-
scribed by Squier in his interesting book
on Peru. Its ancient fortress, perched
on a rocky eminence that commands a
magnificent view up and down the val-
ley, is still one of the most attractive
ancient monuments in America.

Continuing on down the valley over a
newly constructed government trail, we
found ourselves in a wonderful cafion.
So lofty are the peaks on either side that
although the trail was frequently shad-
owed by dense tropical jungle, many of
the mountains were capped with snow,
and some of them had glaciers. There is
no valley in South America that has such
varied beauties and so many charms.

Not only has it snow-capped peaks,
great granite precipices, some of them
2,000 feet sheer, and a dense tropical
jungle ; it has also many reminders of
the architectural achievements of a by-
gone race. The roaring rapids of the
Urubamba are frequently narrowed by
skillfully constructed ancient retaining
walls. \Mierever the encroaching preci-
pices permitted it, the land between them
and the river was terraced. With pains-
taking care the ancient inhabitants res-
cued every available strip of arable land
from the river. On one sightly bend in
the river, where there is a particularly
good view, and near a foaming water-
fall, some ancient chief built a temple
whose walls, still standing, only serve to
tantalize the traveler, for there is no
bridge within two days' journey and the
intervening rapids are impassable. On a
precipitous and well-nigh impregnable

cliff, walls made of stones carefully fitted
together had been placed in the weak
spots, so that the defenders of the valley,
standing on the top of the clitT, might
shower rocks on an attacking force with-
out any danger of their enemies being
able to scale the clifif (see pages 405 and
419)-

The road, following in large part an
ancient footpath, is sometimes cut out of
the side of sheer precipices, and at others
is obliged to run on frail brackets
propped against the side of overhanging
cliffs. It has been an expensive one to
build and will be expensive to maintain.
The lack of it prevented earlier ex-
plorers from penetrating this canon. Its
existence gave us the chance of discover-
ing ]\Iachu Picchu (see pages 405, 420,
421, 423).

On the sixth day out from Cuzco we
arrived at a little plantation called Man-
dorpampa. W^e camped a few rods away
from the owner's grass-thatched hut, and
it w:.s not long before he came to visit us
and to inquire our business. He turned
out to be an Indian rather better than
the average, but overfond of "fire-water."
His occupation consisted in selling grass
and pasturage to passing travelers and in
occasionally providing them with ardent
spirits. He said that on top of the mag-
nificent precipices near by there were
some ruins at a place called Alachu Pic-
chu, and that there were others still more
inaccessible at Huayna Picchu, on a peak
not far distant from our camp. He of-
fered to show me the ruins, which he had
once visited, if I would pay him well for
his services. His idea of proper pay-
ment was 50 cents for his day's labor.
This did not seem unreasonable, although
it was two and one-half times his usual
day's wage.

Leaving camp soon after breakfast 1
joined the guide, and, accompanied by a
soldier that had been kindly loaned me
by the Peruvian government, plunged
through the jungle to the river bank, and
came to a shaky little bridge made of
four tree trunks bound together with
vines and stretching across a stream only
a few inches above the roaring rapids.

404

Photo by Hiram Uingiiam
A BIT OF THE ROAD NEAR MACHU PICCHU : URUHAMBA RIVER
The surroundings of Machu Picchu are remarkably wild and the scenery is inexpres-
sibly beautiful. The city lies above the precipices which show m the distance '" tnis Pic
ture. The road in the foreground was constructed a few years ago f^ f eat exPense y
the Peruvian government. Early explorers being obliged to avoid this pornon o t e
Urubamba X'alley by the absence of any road were unaware of ^^e vvherea )outs o^^^
Picchu. although rumors of its existence had reached the ears of a French explorer torty
years ago.

405

Photo by Hiram Bingham

the; urubamba canon

A part of the Urubamba Canon as seen from the top of Machu Picchu Mountain, 4,000

feet above the river

406

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407

THK TEMPIvE OF THE THREE WINDOWS

Phuto by Hiram Bine
MACHU PICCHU

It was this extraordinary temple, whose most characteristic feature is three large win-
dows, a unique occurrence in early Peruvian architecture, that led us to the belief that
Machu Picchu might be Tampu Tocco, the mythical place from which the Incas came when
they started out to found that great empire which eventually embraced a large part of
South America (see also pages 410, 414, 431, and 489).

On the other side we had a hard chmb ;
first through the jungle and later up a
very stiff, almost precipitous, slope.
About noon we reached a little grass hut,
where a good-natured Indian family who
had been living here for three or four
years gave us welcome and set before us
gourds full of cool, delicious water and
a few cold boiled sweet potatoes.

Apart from another hut in the vicinity
and a few stone-faced terraces, there
seemed to be little in the way of ruins,
and I began to think that my time had
been wasted. However, the view was
magnificent, the water was delicious, and
the shade of the hut most agreeable. So
we rested a while and then went on to
the top of the ridge. On all sides of us
rose the magnificent peaks of the Uru-
bamba Canon, while 2,000 feet below us
the rushing waters of the noisy river,
making a great turn, defended three sides
of the ridge, on top of which we were
hunting for ruins. On the west side of
the ridge the three Indian families who
had chosen this eagle's nest for their
home had built a little path, part of

which consisted of crude ladders of vines
and tree trunks tied to the face of the
precipice.

Presently we found ourselves in the
midst of a tropical forest, beneath the
shade of whose trees we could make out
a maze of ancient walls, the ruins of
buildings made of blocks of granite,
some of which were beautifully fitted to-
gether in the most refined style of Inca
architecture. A few rods farther along
we came to a little open space, on which
were two splendid temples or palaces.
The superior character of the stone
work, the presence of these splendid edi-
fices, and of what appeared to be an
unusually large number of finely con-
structed stone dwellings, led me to believe
that Machu Picchu might prove to be the
largest and most important ruin discov-
ered in South America since the days of
the Spanish conquest.

A few weeks later I asked Mr. H. L.
Tucker, the engineer of the 191 1 Expe-
dition, and Mr. Paul Baxter Lanius, the
assistant, to go to Machu Picchu and
spend three weeks there in an effort to

408

partially clear the
ruins and make such
a map as was possi-
ble in the time at
their disposal. The
result of this work
confirmed me in my
belief that here lay a
unique opportunity
for extensive clear-
ing and excavating.
The fact that one
of the most impor-
tant buildings was
marked by three
large windows, a
rare feature in Pe-
ruvian architecture,
and that many of the
other buildings had
windows, added to
the significant cir-
cumstance that the
city was located in
the most inaccessible
part of the Andes,
inclined me to feel
that there was a
chance that Alachu
Picchu might prove
to be Tampu Tocco,
that mythical place
from which the In-
cas had come when
they started out to
found Cuzco and to
make the beginnings
of that great empire
which was to em-
brace a large part of
South America.

AX AXCIEXT IXC A
TRADITIOiX

A story told to
some of the early
Spanish chroniclers
in regard to that
distant historical
event runs some-
what as follows :

Thousands of
years ago there lived
in the highlands of
Peru a megalithic
folk who develo])cd
a remarkable civili-

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409

zation, and who left, as architec-
tural records, such cyclopean struc-
tures as the fortresses of Sacsahu-
aman and Ollantaytambo. These
people were attacked by barbarian
hordes coming from the south —
possibly from the Argentine pam-
pas. They were defeated, and fled
into one of the most inaccessible
Andine caiions. Here, in a region
strongly defended by nature, they
established themselves ; here their "^
descendants lived for several cen-
turies. The chief place was called
Tampu Tocco. Eventually regain-
ing their military strength and be-
coming crowded in this mountain-
ous valley, they left Tampu Tocco,
and, under the leadership of three
brothers, went out of three win-
dows (or caves) and started for
Cuzco.*

The migration was slow and de-
liberate. They eventually reached
Cuzco, and there established the
Inca kingdom, which through sev-
eral centuries spread by conquest
over the entire plateau, and even
as far south as Chile and as far
north as Ecuador.

This Inca empire had reached its
height when the Spaniards came.
The Spaniards were told that
Tampu Tocco was at a place called
Pacaritampu, a small village a day's
journey southwest cf Cuzco and in
the Apurimac Valley. The chron-
iclers duly noted this location, and
it has been taken for granted ever
since that Tampu Tocco was at Pa-
caritampu.

THi; significance: of "windows"

Tampu means "tavern," or "a
place of temporary abode." Tocco
means "window." The legend is
distinctly connected with a place of
windows, preferably of three win-
dows, from which the three broth-
ers, the heads of three tribes or
cjans, started out on the campaign
that founded the Inca empire.

So far as I could discover, few
travelers have ever taken the trou-

*See Markham's "Incas of Peru,"-
Chapter IV.

410

411

412

riioto by II. I,. Tucker

THE RUINS OF PI SAC

A nearer view of part of these remarkable ruins, which resemble in the care and exquisite
finish of the stone-cutting the best ruins at Machu Picchu and in Cuzco

oto by II. L,. Tucktr

LLAMAS IX THE VUCAY VALLEY

The llamas are carrying bundles of fire-wood. The total cargo of each llama is worth
about 20 cents. The llama is valued at about $3.00. Back of the trees on either side of the
road are fruit orchards interspersed with acres of strawberry fields. This valley is the
garden spot of southern Peru. The climate is like that of California.

413

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A BIT OF OLIvANTAYTAMBO, SOUTHERN PKRU

On top of the crag, which overlooks the Httle village of Ollantaytambo, the Incas and
their predecessors built a remarkable fortress. Some of the single stones used in the con-
struction of this fortress weigh over eight tons.

ble to visit Pacaritampu, and no one
knew whether there were any buildings
with windows, or caves, there.

It was part of our plan to settle this
question, and Dr. Eaton undertook the
reconnaissance of Pacaritampu. He re-
ports the presence of a small ruin, evi-
dently a, kind of rest-house or tavern,
pleasantly located in the Apurimac Val-
ley, but not naturally defended by na-
ture and not distinguished by windows.
In fact, there are neither windows nor
caves in the vicinity, and the general
topography does not lend itself to a ra-
tional connection with the tradition re-
garding Tampu Tocco (see page 415).

The presence at Machu Picchu of
three large windows in one of the most
conspicuous and best-built structures led
me to wonder whether it might not be
possible that the Incas had purposely de-v
ceived the Spaniards in placing iampu

Tocco southwest of Cuzco when it was
actually north of Cuzco, at Machu Picchu.
The Incas knew that Machu Picchu,
in the most inaccessible part of the Andes,
was so safely hidden in tropical jungles
on top of gigantic precipices that the
Spaniards would not be able to find it
unless they were guided to the spot. It
was naturally to their advantage to con-
ceal the secret of the actual location of
Tampu Tocco, a place which their tra-
ditions must have led them to venerate.
The topography of the region meets the
necessities of the tradition : The presence
of windows in the houses might readily
give the name Tampu Tocco, or "place
of temporary residence where there are
windows," to this place, and the three
conspicuous windows in the principal
temple fits in well with the tradition of
the three brothers coming out of three
yvindows.

Photo by G. b'. Jiaton
THE RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, NEAR PACARITAMPU

A small ruin pleasantly located in the Apurimac Valley. This is the principal ruin of
the little group which the Incas made the Spaniards believe was the home of their an-
cestors. The surrounding country is not naturally defended and the ruins are not dis-
tinguished by windows. In other words, this ruin does not fit in with the traditions as
described in the text (see pages 409, 410. and 414)-

Photo by G. F. Eaton

AXOIIIKU VIEW OF MAUCALLACTA

The interior of the principal building at Pacaritampu. Notice the holes cut in the door-
posts, to which a bar intended to close the door might be fastened

41S

wondi;rfui, masonry at machu picchu

Photo by Hiram Bingham

Two of the windows in the remarkable three-windowed temple at Machu Picchu, which
furnishes part of the convincing evidence that Machu Picchu and not Pacaritampu was the
home of the ancestors of the Incas (see pages 409, 410, and 414).

The interest in this historical problem,
connected with the fact that at Machu
Picchu we had a wonderfully picturesque
and remarkably large well-preserved city,
untouched by Spanish hands, led us to
feel that the entire place needed to be
cleared of its jungle and carefully studied
architecturally and topographically.

difp*icui.tie;s o^ the; approach to

MACHU picchu

We decided to make a thorough hunt
for places of burial and to collect as
much osteological and ethnological ma-
terial as could be found. Our task was
not an easy one.

The engineers of the 191 1 expedition —
H. L. Tucker and P. B. Lanius — who
liad spent three weeks here making a
preliminary map, had been unable to use
the trail by which I had first visited
Machu Picchu, and reported that the
trail which they used was so bad as to
:make it impossible to carry heavy loads
over it.

We knew that mule transportation was
absolutely impracticable under these con-
ditions, and that it was simply a question
of making a foot-path over which Indian

bearers could carry reasonably good-sized
packs.

The first problem was the construction
of a bridge over the Urubamba River to
reach the foot of the easier of the two
possible trails.

The little foot-bridge of four logs that
I had used when visiting Machu Picchu
for the first time, in July, 191 1, was so
badly treated by the early floods of th
rainy season that when Mr. Tucker went
to Machu Picchu at my request, two
months later, to make the reconnaissance
map, he found only one log left, and was
obliged to use a difficult and more dan-
gerous trail on the other side of the ridge

Knowing that probably even this log
had gone with the later floods, it was
with some apprehension that I started
Assistant Topographer Heald out from
Cuzco early in July, 19 12, with instruc-
tions to construct a bridge across the
Urubamba River opposite Machu Picchu,
and make a good trail from the river to
the ruins — a trail sufficiently good for
Indian bearers to use in carrying oui
60-pound food-boxes up to the camp and
later, our 90-pound boxes of potsherds

416

Photo by Hiram Bingham
PART OF THE SACRED PLAZA: MACHU PICCHU

One of the gable ends of the three-windowed temple. Notice the tremendous size of
the granite blocks in the lower part of the wall. The small ventilating window, of which
there is one in each end of the building, is not visible when the structure is looked at from
below, and does not affect the striking character of the three large windows in the east wall
of this building (see pages 408, 431, and 489).

and specimens down to the mule trail
near the river.

SOME RAPID BRIDGE BUILDING

At the most feasible point for building
a foot-bridge the Urubamba is some 80
feet wide. The roaring rapids are di-
vided into four streams by large boulders
in the river at this point. The first reach
is 8 feet long, the next nearly 40 feet,
the next about 22 feet, and the final one
15 feet.

For material in the construction of the
bridge Mr. Heald had hardwood timber
growing on the bank of the stream ; for
tools he had axes, machetes, and picks — •
all made in Hartford — and a coil of
manila ro])e. For workmen he had 10
unwilling Indians, who had been forced
to accomj^any him by the governor of
the nearest town. For "guide, counsellor,
and friend" he had an excellent Peruvian
soldier, who could be counted on to see
to it that the Indians kept faithfully at
their task. In describing his work, Mr.
Heald says :

"The first step v/as the felling of the
timber for the first two reaches. That

was quickly done and the short 8-foot
space put in place. Then came the task
of getting a stringer to the rock forming
the next pier. My first scheme was to
lay a log in the water, parallel to the
bank and upstream from the bridge, and,
fastening the lower end, to let the current
swing the upper end around until it
lodged on the central boulder. On try-
ing this the timber proved to be so heavy
that it sank and was lost.

"We next tried building out over the
water as far as we could. Two heavy
logs were put in place, with their butts
on the shore and their outer ends pro-
jecting some 10 feet beyond the first
span. The shore ends were weighted
with rocks and cross-pieces were lashed
on with lianas (sinewy vines), making
the bridge about 4>4 feet wide, as far
as it went. Then a forked upright 10
feet high was lashed and wedged into
place at the end of the first pier (see
Fig. I. page 422).

THE CROSSING ACIIIEVI-D

"A long, light stringer was now pushed
out on the Cf)mpleted part and the end

417

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Photo by Hiram Bingham

A PICTURESQUE PART OF THE GRAND CANON OE THE URUBAMBA ON THE ROAD TO
MACHU PICCHU, SOUTHERN PERU (SEE PAGE 4O3)

419

Photo by Hiram Bingiiam
A GOOD MUI,!^ ROAD IN SOUTHERN PERU
A view of the road in the bottom of the canon near Machu Picchu (see page 403)

420

I'huto by lliram Bingham

THE ROAD IN THE URUBAMBA CANON NEAR MACHU PICCHU

If it had not been for this new government road cut at great expense in the face of the
precipices of the Urubamba Cafion, it would not have been possil)le for us to have reached
the vicinitv of Machu Picchu with our mules and supplies. This ancient city is in the heart
of a region most wonderfully defended by nature; the most inaccessible part of the Andes
(see page 403)

421

B,ock Mo. J.

Hock No. 2.

figure; I. THE FIRST STAGfi IN MAKING THE) BRIDGE BY WHICH WE CROSSED THE
URUBAMBA RIVER TO REACH THE FOOT OF THE .PRECIPICE NEAR MACHU PICCHU

Ilock No. 2.

FIGURE 2. "a EONG STRINGER WAS NOW PUSHED OUT ON THE COMPLETED PART
AND THE END THRUST OUT OVER THE WATER"

FIGURE 3. THE FINAE STAGE IN GETTING THE HEAVY TIMBER ACROSS THE RAPIDS

(see PAGES 417 AND 423)

422

:Amv-'

Photo by Hiram Ijiiigliani

HKALD s bridge: machu picchu

The completed bridge over the rapids of the Urubamba, showing the forked upright
still in place. The great difficult}- in building this bridge lay in the fact that the timber was
of such density that it would not float.

thrust out over the water toward
rock Xo. 2, the end being held up
by a rope fastened around it and
passing through the fork of the
upright (see Fig. 2, page 422).

"This method proved success-
ful, the timber's end being laid on
the rock which formed our second
pier. Two more light timbers
were put across this way, and then
a heavy one was tried, part of its
weight being borne by the pieces
already across by means of a yoke
locked in the end (see Fig. 3).
This and another piece were suc-
cessfully passed over, and after
that there was little trouble, cross-
pieces being used to form the next
and shorter span.

"( )n the second day of work we
finished the bridge about noon and
started making a trail up the hill
under the guidance of a half-
breed who lived in the vicinity.
After the first quarter mile the
going was very slow. Not only
did the steepness of the slope and
the tangled condition of the cane
jungle retard us. but the men were
very much afraid of snakes, a fear
which proved itself justified, for
one of them was very nearly bit-
ten by a little gray snake about 12
inches long.

"The second day's work on the

Photo by Hiram Bingham
THE EXPEDITION EN ROUTE TO M.VCHU PICCHU:
URUBAMBA CANON

A newly repaired part of the government road
and a portion of our caravan en route to Machu
Picchu.

423

trail took us to the
city. The path was
still far from being
finished, though.
There were many
places which were al-
most verticaljin which
we had to cut steps.
Up these places we
now made zigzags, so
that there was com-
paratively little diffi-
culty in climbing.

"On the first day I
had set fire to the
cane in order to clear
the trail. This fire
did not clear much,
however. On the
second day I was
about a quarter of a
mile behind the work-
men, or rather above
them, when suddenly
Tomas (the Peruvian
soldier mentioned
above), who was with
m.e, said : 'Look, they
have fired the cane.'
Sure enough, they had
started it, and in a
minute it had gained
headway and was
roaring up toward us,
the flames reaching 1 5
or 20 feet into the air.

e;scape; i'rom fire; in
the; jungivi;

"There was nothing
for us but to run, and
we did that, tearing
through the jungle
down hill in an effort
to get around the side
of the fire. Suddenly,
on one of my jumps,
I didn't stop when I
expected to, but kept
right on through the
air. The brush had
masked a nice little
S-foot jump-off, and
I got beautifully
bumped. In a minute
there came a thump,
and Tomas landed be-

424

Surveyed by Robert Stephenson ^
Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead ™

MAT OF MACiiU TICCHU AND VICINITV

This relief map of Machu Picchu and vicinity gives a good general idea of the relative
position of Heald's bridge, the ruins, and the two peaks — Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu.
It also shows the location of the two trails up from the Uruhamba River and enables one
to form some conception of the extent of the ruins. The map is misleading in that the
precipices are flattened out as they would be if one we.e looking down upon them from a
balloon.

side me. It amused me so much to
watch him that I forgot all abotit my
own jolted bones. There was nothing
broken, however, and we made our way
without much more trouble around the
fire and fell upon the peons, who were
gathered in a bunch, speculating as to
where we might be."

Three days later I reached Machu
Picchti in company with Dr. Eaton, our
osteologist, and Mr. Erdis, who, as arche-
ological engineer, was to have charge

of the general work of clearing and ex-
cavating the ruins.

Mr. Heald was at once relieved from
further duty at Machu Picchu, where he
had just begun the work of clearing, and
was askcJ to see whether he could get to
the top of the neighboring peak, called
"Huayna Picchu," and investigate the
story that there were magnificent ruins
upon its summit. The same Indian who
had originally told me about the ruins at
Machu Picchu had repeatedly declared

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Photo by Hiram Bingham

EXCAVATING AT MACHU PICCHU

Commencing the work of excavating in the Chief Temple at Machu Picchu. Lieutenant
Sotomayor, at the right, in charge of the gang of Indians

that those on Huayna Picchu were only
slightly inferior. Mr. Heald's report of
his work on Huayna Picchu runs in part
as follows :

"Huayna Picchu. lying to the north of
Machu Picchu, and connected with it by
a narrow neck, rises some 2,500 feet
above the Urubamba River, which runs
around its base. On one side, the south,
this elevation is reached by what is prac-
tically one complete precipice. On the
other, while there are sheer ascents, there
are also slopes, and, according to the
account of one Arteaga, who claims to
have explored the forests which cover a
good deal of it, was once cultivated, the
slopes being converted into level fields
by low earth terraces (see page 424).

ATTEMPT AT SCALING HUAYNA PICCHU

"This mountain is, like Machu Picchu,
cut from medium-grained gray to red
granite, which accounts in part for its

sharp, craggy outlines. The lower slopes,
where there are any, are covered with
forest growths of large trees. A peculiar
thing in this connection is one solitary
palm tree, which rises above the other
vegetation. Near the top the large trees
give place to cane and mesquite, while
many slopes have nothing but grass. This
last is due more to steepness and lack of
soil than to any peculiarity of elevation
or location, however.

"My first trip to reach the summit of
Huayna Picchu and to ascertain what
ruins, if any, were on it. ended in failure.
The only man who had been up (Ar-
teaga), who lives at Mandor Pampa, was
drunk, and refused to go with me; so I
decided to try to find a way without his
help. I knew where his bridge crossed
the Urubamba River and where he had
started up when he went the year before.
With these two things to help me. I
thought that I could very likely find as

427

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A BURIAI. CAVE AT MACHU PICCHU

The first burial cave discovered at Machu Picchu containing a human skull. The
picture was taken after partial excavation, showing the skull still in place. In all, more
than 100 such caves were opened and a large quantity of skeletal material secured.

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THE SAME CAVE FROM A DISTANCE OE 20 FEET : MACHU PICCHU

It was extremely difficult to find these caves. Here is a picture of cave No. i from a
distance of only 20 feet. The entrance to the cave is near the center of the picture. It
may be imagined that not the least portion of our difficulties was the cutting of paths through
this dense tropical jungle and the transportation of material from the caves in which it was
found. This cave was on the side of the mountain about 800 feet below the city of Machu
Picchu Csee pages 446 and 447).

428 -^m

Photo by lliram Ijingham

A LARGE BURIAL CAVE: MACHU PICCIIU

A flashlight view of cave No. 9, one of the larger burial caves, in the floor of which a
number of skeletons were found. On the ground among the rocks were pieces of beautiful
large pots, which may have been destroyed at the time of burial (see pages 446-447).

riiuto by Hiram Bingham
COLLECTING THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS: MACHU

PICCIIU

A flashlight view of the interior of cave No. 11, showing the osteologist, Dr. Eaton,
and his Indian helpers during the excavation of a human skeleton. The man at the right
is a soldier kindly loaned to us by the Peruvian government to assist us m securmg laborers.

429

Photo by Hiram Bingham

the; largest cave; at machu picchu

A flashlight view of the interior of the largest cave, at the base of one of the great
precipices of Huayna Picchu. The cave is nearly go feet in length and is partly lined with
cut stones. It had long been known to the Indian treasure-hunters of the neighborhood,
and consequently yielded no results (see pages 446-447 ')•

Photo bi" Hiram Binghair

the; ce;nter of the best coleEcting district : machu picchu

Archeological Engineer Erdis standing near one of the boulders within the city of
Machu Picchu, in the vicinity of which he made the discovery that articles of bronze were
likely to be found 2 or 3 feet underground (see page 449).

430

THE TEMPLE OF THE THREE WINDOWS

Piioto by Hiram Bingliaiu
MACHU PICCHU

The floors of the principal temples yielded little, but on the terraces beneath the walls
of the three-windowed temple, here shown, we found potsherds and artifacts to a depth of
four or five feet (see pages 440 and 449).

much as he had. Accordingly, I started
with four peons and Tomas Cobines, the
soldier, to have a look.

"The river was passed easily on the
rather shaky four-pole bridge, and we
started up the slope, cutting steps as we
went, for it was almost vertical. About
30 feet up it moderated, however, and,
after that, while it was steep, we seldom
had to cut steps for more than 20 to 30
feet on a stretch. The greatest hindrance
was the cane and long grass, through
which it was hard to cut a way with the
machetes.

"Our progress, slow at first, got abso-
lutely snail-like as the men got tired ; so,
getting impatient, I resolved to push on
alone, telling them to follow the marks
of my machete, and charging Tomas to
see that they made a good trail and did
not loaf.

"I pushed on up the hill, clearing my
way with the machete, or down on all
fours, following a bear trail (of which
there were many), stopping occasionally
to open my shirt at the throat and cool
off. as it was terribly hot. The brush
throuirh which I made mv wav was in

great part mesquite, terribly tough and
with heavy, strong thorns. If a branch
was not cut through at one blow, it was
pretty sure to come whipping back and
drive half a dozen spikes into hands,
arms, and body. Luckily I had had
enough practice to learn how to strike
with a heavy shoulder blow, and for the
most part made clean strokes, but I didn't
get away untouched by any means.

A NARROW ESCAPE

"Finally, about 3 p. m., I had almost
gained the top of the lowest part of the
ridge, which runs along like the back-
plates of some spined dinosaur. The
trees had given way to grass or bare
rock, the face of the rock being practi-
cally vertical. A cliff some 200 feet high
stood in my way. By going out to the
end of the ridge I thought I could look
almost straight down to the river, which
looked more like a trout-brook than a
river at that distance, though its roar in
the rapids caine up distinctly.

"I was just climbing out on the top of
the lowest 'back-j^late' when the grass
and soil under my feet let go. and I

431

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434

i'i'., t.i by lliiain liingham

A STAGE IN THE CLEARING OF MACHU PICCHU

Our first camp is just visible at the top of the picture. The buildings in the foreground
belong to what was called the Ingenuity Group. The picture was taken during the prelimi-
nary clearing.

435

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Photo by Hiram liiiigliaiu
one; of the MAGNIFICEXT precipices which made the city of MACHU I'lCCHU

IXVULXERAP.LE (see PAGE 453)

437

dropped. For about 20 feet
there was a slope of about 70
degrees, and then a jump of
about 200 feet, after which it
would be bump and repeat
down to the river.

''As I shot down the slop-
ing surface I reached out and
with my right hand grasped a
mesquite bush that was grow-
ing in a crack about 5 feet
above the jump-off. I was
going so fast that it jerked
my arm up, and, as my body
was turning, pulled me from
my side to my face; also, the
jerk broke the ligaments hold-
ing the outer ends of the
clavicle and scapula together.
The strength left the arm with
the tearing loose of the liga-
ments, but I had checked
enough to give me a chance
to get hold of a branch with
my left hand.

"After hanging for a mo-
ment or two, so as to look
everything over, and be sure
that I did nothing wrong, I
started to work back up. The
hardest part was to get my
feet on the trunk of the little
tree to which I was holding
on. The fact that I was wear-
ing moccasins instead of boots
helped a great deal here, as
they would take hold of the
rock. It was distressingly
slow work, but after about
half an hour I had gotten
back to comparatively safe
footing. As my right arm was
almost useless, I at once made
my way down, getting back to
camp about 5.30, taking the
workmen with me as I went.

"On this trip I saw no sign
of Inca work, except one
small ruined wall. . . ."

succe;ss at the) third

ATTEMPT

Five days later Mr. Heald
judged that his arm was in
sufficiently good shape so that
he could continue the work
and he very pluckily mad

438

another attempt to reach
the top of Iluayna Picchu.
This hkewise ended in fail-
ure ; but on the following
day he returned to the at-
tack, followed his old trail
up some 1,700 feet, and,
guided by the same half-
breed who had told us
about the ruins, eventually
reached the top. His men
were obliged to cut steps in
the steep slope for a part
of the distance, until they
came to some of stone
stairs, which led them prac-
tically to the summit.

The top consisted of a
jumbled mass of granite
boulders about 2,500 feet
above the river. There
were no houses, though
there were several flights
of steps and three little
caves. No family could
have wished to Hve there.
It might have been a signal
station.

After Mr. Heald had left
Machu Picchu we set our-
selves to work to see
whether excavation in the
principal structures would
lead to discovery of any
sherds or artifacts. It did
not take us long to discover
that there were potsherds
outside of and beneath the
outer walls of several of
the important structures,
but our digging inside the
walls of the principal tem-
ples was almost without
any results whatsoever. We
did find that the floor of
the principal temple had
been carefully made of a
mixture of granite gravel,
sand, and clay, laid on top
of small stones, and these
again on top of a mass of
granite rocks and boulders.
When the temple was in
use this clean, white floor
must have been an attract-
ive feature.

439

Photo by Hiram Bingham
THE WESTERN TERRACES AND THE STEEP WINDING STAIRWAY : MACHU PICCHU

It was difficult to feed the thousands of people who at one time may have occupied
Machu Picchu, and everj^ square foot of available land was terraced off to provide a place
for the crops of Indian corn and potatoes, which were their chief resource. These terraces
were all connected by stairways, sometimes steep, narrow, and winding like the one on the
left, at other times consisting of a row of projecting stones in the face of the terrace, as is
the case in the second terrace below the lowest line of niches in this picture (pages 454-459).

THE FIRST EXCAVATIONS

Our workmen excavated with a will,
for the tests made with a crowbar gave
such resounding hollow sounds that they
felt sure there was treasure to be found
beneath the floor of the ancient temple.
In places the excavation was carried to
a depth of 8 or 9 feet, and practically
the entire floor of the temple was exca-
vated to a depth of 3 or 4 feet ; but all

this back-breaking work ended only in
disappointment. There were many crev-
ices and holes between the boulders
under the floor, but nothing in them —
not even a bone or potsherd.

Digging in the temple of the Three
Windows had a similar negative result,
but digging outside on the terrace below
the three windows resulted in a large
quantity of decorated potsherds. Most

440

AX AXCIHXT SIC.XAL STATION OX MACIIU

Photo by 111
I'ICCllU MOUNTAIX

On the very summit of one of the most stupendous precipices the Incas constructed a
sisnal station from which the approach of an enemy could be instantly communicated to the
city below Bv looking verv carofullv the terraced walls of this signal station may be seen
ju'^t below the'figurcs who arc standing on an artihcial platform (see pages 44-' ^md 433)-

441

442

Plioto by Hiram liingliam

THE TOP OF MACHU PICCIIU MOUNTAIN

Another portion of the mountain-top, showing a skilfully laid retaining wall on the
very top of a precipice overhanging the canon. If any of the workmen who built that wall
slipped, he must have fallen a thousand feet before striking any portion of the cliff.

443

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THIS DRY MOAT OF THE DKFJJNSES 01? MACHU PICCHU

Just outside the inner walls of Machu Picchu the builders constructed a dry moat which
ran directly across the hill. In this picture of the moat the city walls may be seen above
on the right and the agricultural terraces on the left (see page 453)-

444

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445

of them were 2 to 4 feet under
the surface. It seemed as though
it had been the custom for a long
period of time to throw earthen-
ware out of the windows of this
edifice.

At the end of a week of hard
and continuous labor we had not
succeeded in finding a single skull,
a single burial cave, nor any pieces
of bronze or pots worth mention-
ing. We did not like to resort to
the giving of prizes at such an
early stage. A day or two spent
in hunting over the mountain side
with the Indians for burial caves
yielding no results, we finally of-
fered a prize of one sol (50 cents
gold) to any workman who would
report the whereabouts of a cave
containing a skull, and who would
leave the cave exactly as he found
it, allowing us to see the skull ac-
tually in position.

the; se;arch for burial, caves

The next day all the workmen
were allowed to follow their own
devices, and they started out early
on a feverish hunt for burial
caves. The half dozen worthies
whom we had brought with us
from Cuzco returned at the end
of the day tattered and torn, sad-
der and no wiser. They had
hewed their way through the
jungle, one of them had cut open
his big toe with his machete, their
clothes were in shreds, and they
had found nothing.

But the Indians who lived in
the vicinity, and who had un-
doubtedly engaged in treasure-
hunting before, responded nobly
to the offer of a prize, and came
back at the end of the day with
the story that they had discovered
not one, but eight, burial caves,
and desired eight soles.

This was the beginning of a
highly successful effort to locate
and collect the skeletal remains of
the ancient inhabitants of Machu
Picchu. Fifty-two graves in and
near this ancient city were exca-
vated by Dr. Eaton, our osteolo-
gist, and fully as many more were

446

afterward located and ex-
plored under the supervision
of Mr. Erdis, the archcologi-
cal engineer. The greatest
number of these graves were
in caves under the large boul-
ders and projecting ledges of
the mountain side, and the
method usually followed by
the osteologist in exploring
them was, first, to photograph
the entrance of the cave from
without, after which the grave
was opened and its contents
carefully removed. Measure-
ments w^ere taken and dia-
grams were made to show the
position of the human skele-
tons and the arrangement of
the accompanying pottery, im-
plements, ornaments, and
bones of lower animals.

In a few instances it was
possible also to photograph
the interiors of graves.

CONTEXTS OF THE BURIAL
CAVES

In some of the caves only
the most fragmentary skeletal
remains were found ; in others
only the larger bones and a
skull or two ; wdiile others con-
tained not only nearly com-
plete skeletons, but pots in
more or less perfect state of
prescrs-ation, and occasionally
pieces of bronze. In this w^ay
a large and valuable collection
was made of human skeletons,
pottery, and other artifactsof
various materials, including
some of the tools probably
used by the Inca or pre-Inca
stone-masons in the more in-
tricate parts of their work.

Before dismissing the sub-
ject of the ancient graves, it
may be noted that the custom
seems to have been, whenever
possible, to bury the dead in
the sitting position, with the
knees raised. In a very few
instances bodies were interred
in crudelv fashioned "bottle-
shaped graves." While en-
gaged in this work the collec-

447

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448

Photo by Hiram Binghan.

THE MAIN ROAD TO MACHU PICCHU

A nearer view of the graded approach to Machu Picchu; part of the principal road which
connected the cit}' with the outer world

tors were greatly annoyed by the veno-
mous serpents of the region, and several
of these serpents were killed and pre-
served in alcohol.

The burial caves occur generally on
the sides of the mountain below the
ruins. As they are in well nigh inacces-
sible locations and more or less covered
with dense tropical jungle, the work of
visiting and excavating them was ex-
tremely arduous, and it is most highly to
the credit of those engaged in it that so
many caves were opened and so much
material gathered. Practically every
square rod of the sides of the ridge was
explored. The last caves that were
opened were very near the Urubamba
River itself, where the ancient laborers
may have had their huts.

It is too early as yet to give any gen-
eralizations with regard to the anatomi-
cal characteristics of the ^lachu Picchu
people; as evidenced by their skeletal re-
mains. A few of the skulls show de-
cided marks of artificial deformation,
but most of them are normal.

Mr. Erdis eventually made the discov-
ery that by digging at least i8 inches
luiderground, at the mouths of small

caves, under large boulders, within 200
yards of the Three Window Teiuple, he
was almost sure to find one or two ar-
ticles of bronze, either pins, tweezers,
pendants, or other ornaments.

Selecting two of the most reliable
workmen and ofifering them a sliding
scale of rewards for everything they
might find of value, he succeeded, in the
course of four months' faithful atten-
tion to the details of clearing and exca-
vating, in getting together about 200 little
bronzes, a lesser number of pots, and 50
cases of sherds. The nattu-e of the more
interesting finds can be better under-
stood by the accompanying photograph
(see page 573). This material is now all
in X'ew Haven, where it is to be arranged
by Dr. Eaton and ]\Ir. Erdis.

WHAT CLKARING THK JUXCI.K REVKALKn

The change made in the appearance
of Machu Picchu by the four months of
clearing and excavating is graphically
brought out by comparing the pictures
on pages 404, 424, 432. and 499 with
those on pages 433, 434, 490. 498, and
512. the one set taken either before the
work began or early in its stages and the
latter taken at the end of the season. It

449

Photo by Hiram Bingham
THE DEF]SNSES OF THE CITY : THE NORTHERN TERRACES, MACHU PICCHU
On the north side of the city there was little danger of attack, but in order to strengthent
the nearly impassible diffs and precipices, narrow terraces that could be used both for
agricultural and defensive purposes were constructed (see page 453)

450

Photo by lliram Biiigliam

A STAIRVVAV OX THK MAIN STREET l.\ MACIIU PICCHU

Within the city an extensive system of narrow streets and granite stairways made inter-
commiinication relatively easy. This stairway is on the main cross street which connects
the vicinity of the Sacred Plaza and the chief temples with tlie east city (see pa^es 456-450).

is most sincerely to be hoped that the
Peruvian government will not allow the
ruins to be overgrown with a dense for-
est, as they have been in the past.

Although the buildings are extremely
well built, there is no cement or mortar
in the masonry, and there is no means
of preventing the roots of forest trees
from penetrating the walls and even-
tually tearing them all down. In several

cases we found gigantic trees perched
on the very tips of the gable ends of
small and beautifully constructed houses.
It was not the least difficult part of our
work to cut down and get such trees out
of the way without seriously damaging
the house walls (see pages 452. 453).

Considering all the pains that we took
to preser\e the ruins from further spo-
liation by the dense vegetation, it was

451

|tff|. ;-'**"*^=»-a&v»»T' ;'■""; .

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A TYPICAL DWELLING HOUSE OE THE BETTER CLASS: MACHU PICCHU

One of the most striking characteristics of Machu Picchu architecture is that a large
majority of the houses are of a story and half in height, with gable ends. These gables
are marked by cylindrical projecting stones, carrying out the idea of the wooden rafters,
which have disappeared. In the case of these two adjoining houses, the southern gables
alone are still standing, the northern gables having been knocked off either by earthquakes
or owing to the destructive forest vegetation. Had we not cleared the jungle and cut off
the forest trees, the right gable would soon have gone with the weight of the tree that was
perched on its peak, and whose roots can still be seen in the picture (see pages 455-456).

with frank and painful surprise that we
read in the decree issued by the new
Peruvian government, in connection with
giving us permission to take out of Peru
what we had found, a clause stating that
we were not to injure the ruins in the
slightest particular, and that we must
neither deface nor mutilate them. I
could not help being reminded of the
fact that we had spent two days of one
workman's time in erasing from the
beautiful granite walls the crude char-
coal autographs of visiting Peruvians,
one of whom had taken the pains to

scrawl in huge letters his name in thirty-
three places in the principal and most
attractive buildings.

We were greatly aided in the work of
clearing the ruins by having with us for
two months Lieutenant Sotomayor, of
the Peruvian army, whose presence was
due to the courtesy of President I^eguia.
Lieutenant Sotomayor took personal
charge of the gang of Indians engaged
in clearing the jungle and drying and
burning the rubbish. As long as he was
allowed to remain with us he did his
work most faithfully and efficiently. It

452

was with regret that we found he
was reheved from chtty at Macliu
Picchu in Septeniher.

AN IDKAI. PLACE OF KKFUGK

Ahhough it is too early to speak
definitely in regard to the civiliza-
tion of JMachu i'icchu. a short de-
scription of the principal character-
istics of the city may not be out
of place.

Alachu Picchu is essentially a city
of refuge. It is perched on a moun-
tain top in the most inaccessible
corner of the most inaccessible sec-
tion of the Urubamba River. So
far as I know, there is no part of
the Andes that has been better de-
fended by nature.

A stupendous canon, where the
principal rock is granite and where
the precipices are frequently oxer
I, OCX) feet sheer, presents difficul-
ties of attack and facilities for de-
fense second to none. Here on a
narrow ridge, flanked on all sides
by precipitous or nearly precipitous
slopes, a highly civilized people — -
artistic, inventive, and capable of
sustained endeavor — at some time
in the remote past built themselves
a city of refuge (pp. 436, 437).

Since they had no iron or steel
tools — only stone hammers — its
construction must have cost many
generations, if not centuries, of
eflfort.

Across the ridge, and defending
the builders from attack on the side
of the main mountain range, they con-
structed two walls. One of them, con-
stituting the outer line of defense, leads
from precipice to precipice, utilizing as
best it can the natural steepness of the
hill (see pages 438 and 439).

Beyond this, and on top of the moun-
tain called Alachu Picchu, which over-
looks the valley from the very summit of
one of the most stupendous precipices in
the canon, is constructed a signal station,
from which the approach of an enemy
could be instantly communicated to the
city below. Within the outer wall they
constructed an extensive series of agri-
cultural terraces, stone lined and aver-
aging about 8 feet high. Between these
and the city is a steep, dry moat and the
inner wall (see pages 441, 442. 444, 450).

Phuto liy Iliiain Bingham

A DECORATED GABLE: MACHU PICCHU

A slightly different view of the gable end of one
of the better houses, bringing out the location and
size of the projecting cylindrical blocks.

When the members of an attacking
force had safely negotiated the precipi-
tous and easily defended sides of the
moat, they would still find themselves
outside the inner defenses of the city,
which consisted of a wall from 15 to 20
feet high, composed of the largest stones
that could be found in the vicinity —
many of them huge boulders weighing
many tons. This wall is carried straight
across the ridge from one precipitous
side to the other. These defenses are on
the south side of the city (pp. 445-447).

THE TOWN WAS IXXTLN'ERABI.E

On the north side, on the narrow
ridge connecting the city with Huayna
Picchu, strong defensive terraces have
been strategically placed so as to render

453

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454

riioto by Hiram llinghani
TIIK WKST GABLE IX Tllli BEST HOUSE OF THE KIXGS CROUP
•^howino- the second storv window, a small ventilating window above it, the usual pro-
lectina cvlindcrs, and tlie location of four ring-stones to which the rafters were tied. 1 lie
Ting-stones are located at regular distances. The holes in the stones ^vere probably bored
by means of pieces of bamlioo, sand, water, a pair of good hands, considerable time, and a
■g'reat deal of patience (see page 456).

455

I'lioto by Hiram Bingham
ANOTHER MONOIvITHIC STAIRWAY : MACHU PICCHU

In this case not only the steps of the stairway, but
also the balustrades, were cut out of a single stone.
Imagine the patience required to do this, when the only
tools at hand were hard cobble stones that had to be
brought up from the river 2,000 feet below.

nil the danger of an attack on this side.
Difficult to reach at best, the city's de-
fenses were still further strengthened by
the construction of high, steep walls
wherever the precipices did not seem
absolutely impassable (see page 450).

Inside the city the houses are crowded
close together, but an extensive system
of narrow streets and rock-hewn stair-
ways made intercommunication comfort-
able and easy.

On entering the city, perhaps the first
characteristic that strikes one is that a
large majority of the houses were a
story and a half in height, with gable
ends, and that these gable ends are

marked by cylindrical blocks pro-
jecting out from the house in
such a way as to suggest the
idea of the ends of the rafters.
The wooden rafters have all dis-
appeared, but the ring-stones to
which they were tied may still be
seen in some of the pictures,
notably that on page 455.

These ring-stones consist of a
slab of granite, about 2 feet long
and 6 inches wide by 2 inches
thick, with a hole bored in one
end, and were set into the slop-
ing gable wall in such a way as
to be flush with the surface, al-
though the hole was readily ac-
cessible for lashing the beams of
the house to the steep pitch of
the gables. There were usually
four of these ring-stones on each
slope of the wall. Dr. Eaton
found this to be also a feature
of the Choqquequirau architec-
ture, only in that city the num-
ber of ring-stones is larger per
gable.

A CITY OF STAIRWAYS

The next most conspicuous
feature of Machu Picchu is the
quantity of stairways, there be-
ing over 100, large and small,,
within the city. Some of them
have more than 150 steps, while
others have but 3 or 4. In some
cases each step is a single block
of stone 3 or 4 feet wide. In
others the entire stairway — 6, 8,.
or 10 steps, as the case might
be — was cut out of a single
granite boulder (see pp. 451, 454, 457-9).
Again, the stairway would seem almost
fantastic, being so narrow and wedged
in between two boulders so close together
that it would have been impossible for
a fat man to use the stairway at all. In
no case were the stairways intended for
ornament. In every case they are useful
in getting to a location otherwise difficult
of access (page 458).

The largest level space in the city was
carefully graded and terraced, so as to
be used for agricultural purposes, on the-
products of which the inhabitants could
fall back for a time in case of a siege.
It seems probable that one reason why-

456

Photo by llirain lliiigliaiii
rilK STlCEl'IiST STAIRWAY I \ MAlllU PICCHU
Stairway is one of tlioSe connoctiiiK tlie various ar,ricultural tt-rraces, and as it was

in a position where it was not needed to be used for constant traffic, as in the streets of the
city, it was left to follow the extremely steep natural declivity of the hill

457

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llie city was deserted was a change in
climate, resulting in scarcity of water
supply. At the present time there are
onlv three small springs on the moun-
tain-side, and in the dry season these
could barely furnish water enough for
cooking an(l drinking jnirposes for 40 or
50 people. There could never have been
very much water here, for the a::eqiiias,
or water channels, are narrower thail any
we have ever seen anywhere else, being
generally less than 4 inches in width.

THE FOUNT.MXS ON THE STAIRWAY

We were able to trace the principal
aceqiiia from the vicinity of the springs
along the mountain-side for a distance
of perhaps a mile, across the dry moat
on a slender bridge, then under the city
wall, along one of the terraces, and finally
to the first of a series of fountains or
baths, located on the principal stairway
of the city (see picture on this page).

This stairway is divided to admit the
entrance of one of the fountains, of
which there are 14 or 15 in the series.
Each basin is about 2}^> feet long by ij/
feet wide and from 5 to 6 inches in
depth. In some cases the basin and the
tloor of the bath-house, or fountain, is
made of a single slab of granite. Gen-
erally holes were drilled in one of the
corners of the basin to permit the water
to flow through carefully cut under-
ground channels to the next basin below.

The Peru\ians call these fountains
'"baths."' It does not seem to me likely
ihat they were used for this purpose,
but rather that, by a careful husbanding
in basins of this sort, the water-pots of
the inhabitants could the more readily
be filled by any one coming to one of the
fountains.

Many of the houses are built on ter-
races on the steep sloping hillsides. In
such case their doors face the hill and
the windows look out on the view. Most
of the houses are well provided with
niches, the average size being about 2
feet in height by 1^4 feet in width. In
some interiors projecting cylindrical
blocks are found alternating between the
niches. In a few houses we found evi-
• lence of stucco, but in most cases the
mud plaster had entirely disappeared
( see page 463).

Possibly the most interesting conclu-
sion brought out as a result of our ex-
tensive clearing and excavating is that

I'hoto l)_v Hiram IJiiighain
Till': STAIRWAY OF THE FOUNTAINS:
MACIIU PICCHU

The longest and most important stairway
is so arranged as to admit the entrance of
fountains, of which there are 14 or 15 in
a series. .A.s they had no pipes, the builders
conducted the water in skilfully made stone
conduits, carrying the stream from basin
to basin, sometimes under the stairway and
sometimes at its side (see pages 460-461).

459

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Photo by Hiram Bingham

TYPICAL, INTERIOR OF SMALI. CHAMBER IN BETTER CLASS HOUSE". MACHU PICCHU

Most of the houses are well provided with niches, the average size being about 2 feet
in height and a foot and a quarter in width. These niches took the place of closets, ward-
robes, shelves, and tables. They were usually symmetrically arranged and offered a pleasing
break in the dull finish of the solid walls.

, vj^'.'^'T'*'™'

Photo by Hiram Bingham

ANOTHER TYPICAL INTERIOR: MACHU PICCHU

In many of the houses there are round or square stones projecting between the niches.
In some cases these were used to support an upper story, while in other cases they are either
for ornament or merely convenient hooks on which to hang ponchos, slings, ropes, etc.

462

I'liotoi by lliraiii JJiuKliaiii

STUCCO STILL IN POSITION: MACHU I'ICCIIU

Some of the houses were lined with such beautiful stone work as to require no otlicr
finish. In others it seems probable that the roughl)- finished stones were covered with somt-
kind of mud or plaster. The picture shows the only house in Machu Picchu where consid-
erable portions of this plaster still remain on the walls (see page 471).

1 1 irain ISingliain

.\N UNUSU.\L (iKOL'I' Ol- NICIIKS: .M.XClir I'ICCIIU

In this house, or temple, the niches are of unusual form. The picture shows three, each
one of which contains three little niches, and also has devices whcrcl)y it could have been
closed by a bar fastened to the corner stones.

463

the city was at one time divided
into wards or clan groups (see page
468). Each one of these groups
has but one entrance, a gateway
furnished with the means of being
solidly fastened on the inside. None
of the doors to houses or temples
have this locking device, but all the
entrances to the clan groups have it,
and the same device occurs in the
principal gate to the city.

INGENIOUS BOLTING OF THE GATKS
TO THE CIvAN GROUPS

The doors have disappeared, but
probably consisted of rough-hewn
logs of hard wood. They seem
to have been fastened by two bars
crossed at right angles. The up-
right bar was probably tied at the
top to a ring-stone set in the wall
and projecting from it above the
stone lintel of the doorway (see
page 465). It could have been fast-
ened at the bottom by being set into
a shallow hole in the ground. The
cross-bar was lashed to stone cyl-
inders about 6 inches high and 3
inches in diameter, set into lock-
holes in the door-posts (pp. 466-7).

This ingenious device varies in
different groups, but in general the
principle is the same. The more
common method of making these
locks was to cut a hole out of the
top or corner of one of the larger
blocks in the door-posts and set the
stone cylinder into saucer-shaped
depressions below and above. Thus
the cylinder would be so firmly
keyed into the wall that it would
be able to resist at least as much
pressure as the hardwood cross-bar
which was lashed to it.

Each one of the clan groups has
certain distinctive features. In one
of them, characterized by particu-
larly ingenious stone-cutting, the
lock-holes were cut in the center
of solid granite rectangular blocks
(see pages 470, 471). The picture
on page 471, taken after the top
block had been removed, shows the
saucer-shaped depression cut into
the upper stone. It also explains
how the ingenious architect had
carved the cylindrical block and the

464

Photo by lliiain HiiiBliaiu

Till-: CITY C.ATi: : MACllU I'lCCHL'

The doors to the houses had apparently no means of heing fastened. Init tlie entrances
to the clan groups and the main city gate, whose interior is here shown, had lock-holes con-
taining granite cylinders to which' a strong bar could he fastened l)ack of the gate (sec
pages 466 and 467). The ring-stone above the stone lintel at the top of the picture was used
to secure tlie upright bar (see pages 464 and 466).

465

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469

Photo by Hiram iiingliani

THE MOST INGENIOUS EOCK IN MACHU PICCHU

The gateway to Ingenuit}' Group had lock-holes dififering from those of other groups
(see pp. 464, 466-467), m that they were cut out of smgle blocks of stone and had the stone
cylinder not set mto, but forming part of the whole block (see also page 471).

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A TYPICAL HOUSE DOOR: MACHU PICCHU

The doors of the houses were carefully made and are all narrower at the top than at
the bottom. The lintels are usually made of two blocks of stone. The Indian boy in the
picture is carrying the kodaks and a large map, in ten sheets, on which are shown all the
houses.

470

lock-hole all out of one piece,
thus making it much stronger
than the average.

(^iranite houlders in the tioor
oi the i)rincii)al house in this
grouj) liad their tops carved into
kitclien utensils for grinding corn
and frozen potatoes (see page
469). In this group also we
found the only case of houses
lined with stucco or plaster made
of red clay (page 463), and here
is the only gabled building di-
vided into two parts by a party
wall rising to the peak and
pierced by three windows.

SOMK KXOUISlTl'; STOXEWORK

Another group was distin-
guished by having its own pri-
vate gardens on terraces so ar-
ranged that access to them could
be had only by passing through
the small collection of houses
constituting this particular clan
group. In another ca.se, the en-
trance to a group notable for its
very elaborate and exquisitely
finished stonework, the upright
cylinder in the lock-hole is
brought flush with the surface
of the stone and is a part of the
block itself (see pages 478 and

Another grou]) is distinguished
by having monolithic lintels for
the doorways ( see page 477). In
this group also the gables are
unusually steep (see page 478).

Nearly all the groups had what
seemed tt) be a religious center,
consisting of a more or less
carved granite block in position, against intruders.
In several cases caves had been

excavated under these rocks, and in one knew it. and every time we saw it it gave
case the cave was beautifully lined with us a thrill of joy.

finely cut stonework (483-485). In this The detailed study (p. 488) of wliere

last cave a semicircular tower was con- the wall joins the next house wall shows
structed on the top of a boulder (485 how ingeniously the blocks were con-
and 496) and connected with it by the structed. so as to form a brace which
finest exam])le of masonry in Alachu would prevent the house and wall froiii
Picchu (485 and 496). leaning apart and thus causing cracks

This beautiful wall, shown on ])ages to a])pear in the wall. The i)recision of
487 and 488 and also on ])age 4(p. was line, the symmetrical arrangement of the
made of specially selected blocks of beau- blocks, and the gradual gradation in the
tifully grained white granite, and was tiers, with the largest at the bottom and
constructed by a master artist. \\'e grew the smallest at the to]), combine to pro-
more fond of this wall the longer we duce a wonder fullv beautiful etifect.

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THK -MliCliANISM 01^ THE LOCK

The left-hand lock-hole, shown in the upper picture
on the preceding page, after its stone covering had l)een
raised, showing the saucer-shaped depression in the cap-
stone. enal)ling it to strengthen the stone cylinder of the
lock. It was not only an ingenious, but a patient and
devoted workman, who would take the trouble to make
such a cimtrivance for securing himself and his family

471

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THE entrance; to a clan group: machu picchu

The exterior of the gateway to Ingenuity Group,
showing the steps leading to it and the re-entrant angles
in the door-posts, characteristic of nearly all the gate-
ways to clan groups.

THE PROBABEE use OE SNAKES EOR
AUGURY

As will be seen from the photograph
(see page 491), the wall is not perpen-
dicular, but inclines inward at the top.
This angle is characteristic of nearly all
the vertical lines in the ruins. Doors,
windows, and niches are all narrower at
the top than at the bottom.

In the semicircular tower which con-
nects with this fine wall the ingenious
cutting of stones in such a way as to fol-
low a selected curve reaches a perfection
equaled only in the celebrated wall of
the Temple of the Sun (now the Do-
minican Monastery) , in Cuzco. Like that,
it is a flattened curve, not round (p. 485).

One of the windows in this
tower (see pages 492-494) has
several small holes near the bot-
tom. These were found to con-
nect, by very narrow channels,
barely large enough for a snake
to crawl through, with circular
holes within the wall, where the
snakes might have constructed
their nests.

There are still many snakes at
Machu Picchu. There are also
snakes carved on several rocks,
(page 497). Lizards are not
common, and the holes within the
wall are much too large for liz-
ards' nests ; but they are of the
right size for a comfortable
snake's nest — for a small snake.
It seems tome possible that in
this wall the priest of this clan
group kept a few tame snakes
and that he used their chance
exits out of one hole or another
as a means of telling omens and
possibly of prophesying.

The so-called sacred plaza is
the site of two of the finest
structures at Machu Picchu. One
of these — the Temple of the
Three Windows — has already
been referred to; the other is a
remarkable structure, about 12
feet in height, built around three
sides of a rectangle some 30 feet
long and 18 feet wide. A de-
scription is hardly necessary, as
a better idea can be gained from
the pictures (pp. 409, 501, 502,
503, and 512) than from any
words of mine. Suffice it to say that it is
marked by a very pleasing symmetry, by
the use of tremendous blocks of granite,
three of them being over 12 feet in
length, and by the projection in an ob-
tuse angle of the ends of the sides.

"THE PIvACE TO WHICH THE SUN IS TIEd"

On top of the beautifully terraced hill
(pp. 498, 507, 508), behind this temple,
is a stone, generally agreed to be an inti-
huatana stone, or sun-dial — the intihua-
tana being the "place to which the sun is
tied." Similar stones were found by the
Spanish conquerors in Cuzco, Pisac, and
Ollantaytambo. An idea of this stone
may be gained from the picture on page
509-

472

'■ J Photo by Hiram Bingham

A REST DURING PRELIMINARY CLEARING : MACHU PICCHU

A corner of Ingenuity Group, showing the entrance on the left to a subsidiarj- group and on
the right to the house that has the stone mortars in its floor (see page 469)

Owing to the location of Machu Pic-
chu in this extremely inaccessible part of
the Andes, to its clearly having been a
city of refuge, easily defended and suited
for defensive purposes ; owing to the
presence of a large number of windows
in the ruins, and particularly to the pres-
ence of three large windows in one of
the principal temples. I believe it to have
been the original Tampu Tocco, from
which the Incas caine when they started
on that migration which led them to con-
quer Cuzco and to establish the Inca
Empire.

The difficulties of life for several cen-
turies in the \'ilcabamba region would
have been likely to have developed this
ingenious and extremely capable race and
given them strength of character. The
influence of geographical environment is
no small factor in developing racial char-
acteristics. I hope at no distant future
to prepare an exhaustive report of this
wonderful city, whose charm can only
dimly be realized from these pictures.

The beautiful blue of the tropical sky,
the varying shades of green that clotiie
the magnificent mountains, and the mys-
terious charm of the roaring rapids thou-

sands of feet below cannot be portrayed
and can with difficulty be imagined.

THE PANORAMIC VIEW

The beautiful panoramic view of Ma-
chu Picchu. which accompanies this arti-
cle as a Supplement, gives a good idea of
the grand Caiion of the Urubamba as
seen from Machu Picchu, of the sacred
Plaza, and Intihuatana Hill, and of the
East City.

Unfortunately, it was impossible to
take a picture that would also include
the other half of Machu Picchu. includ-
ing the remarkable Upper City, with its
rows of houses, each one on a separate
terrace, the beautiful buildings of the
Princess Group, and the splendid stone-
work of the King's Group. All of these
are behind and to the right of one look-
ing at this panorama. And still further
behind are the agricultural terraces, our
camp, and Machu Picchu :Mountain ; but
these are all shown in separate views.

The Incas were, undeniably, lovers of
beautiful scenery. :\rany of the ruins of
their most important places are located
on hill tops, ridges, and mountain shoul-

473

474

Photo by niiam Ringhain

A DISTANT VIKW OF OUR FIRST CAMP: MACIIU PICCIIU

A view looking over the tops of two of the houses of Ingenuity Group toward our camp
and sonic of the agricultural terraces. The beams on top of one of the houses were placed
there recently by one of our Indians, who thought this might make a good modern dwelling,
but he found it too large for comfort. The huts of the modern Indians are much smaller
than these houses and have no windows. It is possible that this may indicate that the climate
has grown colder as well as dryer.

47!

Photo by Hiram Bingham

HAVING DIFP'ICULTIES WITH A TRIPOD : MACHU PICCHU

A distant view of Ingenuity Group, with Private Garden Group above it, as seen from
the vicinity of the semicircular tower. In taking these pictures, it was frequently neces-
sary to put the tripod on the shaky peak of a ruined gable, a process not always easy.

Photo by Hiram Bingham

Typical masonry: machu picchu

The outside wall of another group which was distinguished by having its own private
gardens on terraces so arranged that access to them could be had only by passing through
the houses of the group. These houses are built on a terrace whose retaining wall consists
of large blocks of solid masonry. The smaller wall on top of this is merely a screen for
defensive purposes. Notice the end of the stone conduit in the lower left-hand corner, en-
abling the courtyard of this group to be properly drained.

476

ders, from which particularl} beautiful
views can be obtained.

Remarkable as is the architecture of
Machu Picchu, and impressive as is the
extent of the stone-cutting done by a
people who had no steel or iron tools.
neither of these things leaves more im-
pression on the mind of the visitor than
the inexpressible beauty and grandeur of
the surroundings.

A reconnaissance of the forestration
of the immediate vicinity and a large
scale map of Alachu Picchu and its vi-
cinity were made by Assistant Topog-
rapher Stephenson. From the map we
hope some day to be able to construct a
model which will give those not fortunate
enough to visit this marvelous place some
idea of its character and beauty.

FORESTRATION OF THE REGION

In regard to the forestration of the
region, Air. Stephenson reports that tree-
growth begins about midway between the
source and the mouth of the Urubamba
River. Forests frequently interrupted by
open areas occupy the lower half of the
valley. The open bottoms are moist, un-
timbered, and used for agriculture. In
these the soil is a deep sandy loam, rich
in humus and having abundant moisture.

The valley is very narrow, with many
tributaries, and rough precipitous sides
frequently broken by cliffs. The lower
slopes have fairly rich soil and abundant
moisture. They extend for several hun-
dred feet above the river. Above them
the soil is regularly dry and poor. Al-
though rainfall is abundant, the sunny
north slopes have a dry rocky soil.

The forest in the Machu Picchu re-
gion is made up of subtropical hard-
woods, with probably more than 30 spe-
cies in the stand. Good growth is con-
fined to the valley bottoms and the lower
slopes. On the shaded slopes the forest
sometimes extends to a point 2.000 feet
above the river, and in narrow, protected
valleys even higher; but on the upper
slopes the trees are of poor form, gnarled
and stunted.

On the ridges some trees occur, but
they are very scrubby and do not form a
canopy. Timber-line here is at elevation
of about 10.000 feet above sea-level. The
elevation of the river near Machu Picchu
is about 6.!;oo feet above sea-level.

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THE FINEST DOORWAY AT MACHU PICCHU

One of the monolithic lintels in the group
distinguished also by having unusually steep
gables. In the other groups the houses almost
invariably had duolithic Untels. but the chief
of this clan determined to overcome the me-
chanical difficulties involved in placing a solid
block weighing three tons on top of his door-
post and fitting it accurately to them. As he
had neither cranes nor pulleys, but only levers
and inclined planes, it must have required a
prodigious amount of patient effort. This
group we named the King's Group on account
of the extraordinary solidity of the stonework.

Owing to the large number of species,
the quality of the timber varies greatly.
Manv of these species produce hard, dur-
able wood of fine texture that takes good
polish. Other quick-growing species pro-
duce woods of inferior quality — soft,
brittle, quickly decaying, and of little
value for anything but rough lumber.

477

478

riiotd by Ilir:;ni I'.ingliani
THlv SAMK AI-TKK KXC.WATI XC.

Another view of tliis hallway after excavation had shown a monolithic stairway at the

end of it

479

Photo by Hiram Bingham

IN THE king's group: MACHU PICCHU
A portion of the interior of this group, showing the great care exercised in the stone-fitting

NOTES ON THE TIMBER

All species are infected with parasites
and all ages of trees seem to be subject
to them. The worst damage is done to
the fast-growing young trees.

In the bottoms the trees are tall, clean,
and straight, running up to over lOO feet
in height and 3 feet in diameter. The
average is about 18 inches in diameter
and 80 feet in height. On the lower
slopes the growth is more uniform, with
a slightly lower average size. There are
a few healthy patches of timber, but they
are only of occasional occurrence and
limited to a few areas.

The timber in the valley bottoms aver-
ages 5,000 board-feet per acre, with a
maximum of 10,000 over limited areas.
On the slopes the average is 3,000 board-
feet, with little variation. These are con-
servative ocular estimates.

The rugged character of the country
makes logging of any but timber in bot-
toms impracticable. Trails are few and
very bad ; labor is scarce and uncertain.
Should a railroad enter the valley as
planned it will be possible to carry on
profitable logging operations with port-
able mills. There is a good supply of
timber for ties.

The next thing to be done would be
to make a collection of samples, so that
the qualities of the various hardwoods
might be tested. Such tests would bring
out definite facts about their value. Some
of them are undoubtedly woods of high
technical qualities as well as of beautiful
grade and color.

Mr. Stevenson's map of Machu Picchu,
the result of a three months' survey, is
on a scale of i inch = 20 feet, with a
contour interval of 10 feet, and consists

480

'^^

A SACRED rock: machu picchu

I'lioiu by Hiram Bingham

Nearly all the clan groups had what seems to have been a religious center, consisting of a
granite boulder or ledge carved into seats and platforms

^-W^^
^i^ ^?^

.^r^<? ^^-^^-T-'^

ANOTHER SACKED ROCK : MACHU PICCHU

Pliut'j by liiraiu Uiiigl

One of these sacred rocks is only 2 feet in thickness, although 15 feet high and 30 feet

in length (see page 471)

481

riioto by liiiam JJinghain

THE INTERIOR oF A CAVE UNDER A tJACRED STONE: MACHU TICCHU

Under the sacred stones frequent!}' caves were constructed and in some cases lined with
l)eautifully cut stones. This is a flashlight of such a cave underneath tlie semicircular tower
(see' page 471, and pictures, pages 484, 485, and 496).

of i<> lar^-e sheets. It should ]irove Yei_\
tisefiil in lielpiiii;' us to g'ain a correct
idea of this wonderful city, which seems
to have escaped the notice of the Sj^anish
c()nc|uerors and to have remained prac-
tically unknown until it was first visited
by the present writer in Jul}', kjii.

OTHER IMPORTANT INCA RUINS

It is still too early to make definite
statements in regard to the importance of
this discovery ; in fact, such o])inions can
only be passed by archcBological experts
after the full re])ort of the work at
Machu Picchu has been prepared and
l)ublished. This mttch. however, can be
said in regard to the superiority in ex-
tent and interest of ]\Iachu Picchu over
])reviously discovered Inca rtiins :

The most im]x>rtant Inca ruins here-
tofore discovered are in the city of Cuzco,
the town and fortress of Ollantaytambo,
Pisac. and on the islands of Lake Ti-
ticaca. There are. besides these, on the
coast a number of localities like Pacha-
camac. Xazca. Ancon, Trujillo, and the
country of the Grand Chimu. where the
chief interest lies in the extensive find-

ings of mummies, pottery, textiles, and
metal ornaments, including gold, silver,
bronze, etc. All of these places, how-
ever, were known to the Sjianish Con-
querors, and have been ransacked l)y
treasure hunters from the earliest times.

Cuzco, the most imi)ortant place of all.
was a(k)pted by the Spaniards as their
most im])ortant city outside of Lima.
They entirely remade the city, using large
quantities of the ancient Inca walls to
build their own palaces and churches.
.\lthough the city still has many Inca re-
mains and retains a great charm for the
tourist and the archaeological student, it
is more of a Spanish colonial city than
of an Inca city.

The same is partly true of Ollantay-
tambo. The ruins of Pisac and many
others in the vicinity, of which it is not
necessary to give an account here, have
repeatedly been ransacked by treasure
hunters. The long palace at \'itcos.
identified in i(>ii as the last Inca cajiital.
has been almost com])letely destroyed bv
these treasure hunters, (^f the 30 beauti-
ful door of ctit granite, only two or three
remain intact.

483

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Photo by Hiram Bingham

IN THE PRiNciiSS group: MACIIU PICCHU
(on thf H^K\ ^fn\^^ ?^ Princess Group, showing the relation of the semicircular tower
hoLrfn Machu P ?.l. ^-T^' °/ '^'' ^''°"P- ^" '^'^ ^^"t^'- °f the picture is the only

pSrrecoS^he?r^.'°"r''"^^°^ ''^° ''T^' ^"d ^ '^^If- The stairway shown in the
picture connects the hrst and second stones of this house.

486

I'liotip !)>• IJirain Jliiigliaiu

AX KXAMl'Li: or IvXTkAORDlXARV STOX K-C L"l Tl XC. : MACllL' PlCCllU

Connected with the semicircular tower is an ornamental wall made of specially selected
blocks of beautifully grained white granite. Tlie interior of the wall was ornamented by a
series of symmetrical niches, between each one of which is a projecting stone roughly
squared (see page 471).

KKMAKKAliLK XICllKS AT MACllf I'lCClU'

Anotlier portion of the interior of the ornamental wall. Bear in mind that
builders had no T squares nor right lines, and could approach straight lines (
skill of a trained eye (see also page 4«^^).

the
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'•' 1 Ijy Hiram Bingham
A SIGHTLY tower: MACHU PICCHU

The corner of the Princess Group where the ornamental wall joins the semicircular tower
is one of the most sightly spots in the city and commands a magnificent view of the great
canon. Within the tower was a sacred rock, which has been partly destroyed by fire.

WHY MACHU PICCHU IS AX ARCHEOLOGI-
CAI. TREASURE

On the other hand, Machu Picchu not
only is larger and contains more edifices
than any other ruin discovered in Peru
(except Cuzco) ; it has the additional ad-
vantage of not having been known to the
Spaniards, of not having been occupied
by their descendants, and of not having
been torn to pieces by treasure hunters
seeking within the walls for the gold and
silver ornaments that were not to be
found in the floors.

In other words, Machu Picchu is not
only more extensive than any previously
discovered Inca city outside of Cuzco.
but it is in a remarkably good state of
preservation, and its architecture has not
become confused with Spanish efforts to
build churches and villas.

If the theory here propounded is cor-
rect — that Machu Picchu was the orig-
inal "Tampu Tocco." from whose "three
windows" set out the tribes that eventu-
ally founded Cuzco — the importance of
Machu Picchu as the cradle of the later
Inca race will, of course, be increased.

It is not very profitable to speculate on
the habits of these ancient people until

we have had more opportunity to study
the finds made in the burial caves and to
compare these with finds made in other
parts of Peru. We know that they were
masters of the art of stone-cutting.

We know that they knew how to make
bronze, and that they had a considerable
artistic sense, as evidenced by their work-
manship. One of the bronze pins found
at Machu Picchu has for a head a minia-
ture reproduction of the head of a hum-
ming-bird, including a long, curved bill.
One bronze knife is decorated with the
head of a llama ; another with an Indian
boy, lying on his stomach, with his heels
in the air, playing tug-of-war with a
large fish on the end of a little bronze
rope.

The workmen of ^Machu Picchu not
only had skill, but originality and inge-
nuity. Their pottery is varied in form
and attractive in its ornamentation. They
understood how to plan great architec-
tural and engineering works and to carry
them to a satisfactory conclusion.

The soil of the terraces is extremely
fertile, and the Incas utilized every
square yard of available land within a
radius of several miles. The two or

489

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three Indian families who have been
Hving at jNIachu Picchu for the past
four or five years have had no diffi-
culty in raising good crops of sweet
potatoes, corn, peppers, onions, to-
matoes, and certain native vegeta-
bles LUiknown in this country. The
only difficulty they have found is
in keeping down the superabundant
troi3ical vegetation, which con-
stantly threatens to suffocate their
crops.

As an instance of how rapidly
this vegetation grows, terraces cov-
ered by bamboo cane which we
cleared in September had to be re-
cleared in November, when most of
these pictures were taken. In the
intervening two months some of the
cane had attained a height of five
feet.

It is my hope to prepare a special
monograph on Machu Picchu for
publication by the National Geo-
graphic Society.

DISCOVERY OF the: CUZCO BONKS
IN I9II

Another discovery made in 191 1
was of the so-called Cuzco bones.
The age of certain human and other
bones found interstratified with
glacial gravel near Cuzco was pro-
visionally estimated by Prof. Isaiah
Bowman, the geologist of the 191 1
expedition, as from 20,000 to 40,000
years. These bones were brought
to New Haven and submitted for
examination to Dr. George F.
Eaton, osteologist of the Peabody
Museum.

In describing them in an article
in the American Journal of Science
for April, 191 2, he says in his con-
clusion : "It is clear that no proof
of great antiquity can be drawn
from the characters of the human
skeletal parts submitted to me,
agreeing, as they do, in all essential
respects with the bones of a recent
people. Until additional skeletal
material is obtained, showing char-
acters more primitive than those al-
ready noted, the burden of proof of
great antiquity must rest on geolog-
ical and paleontological evidence."

490

THE PKIXCESS croup; MACIIU i'lCCllU

A general view of the ornamental wall and the semicircular tower, together with the
second story of the adjoining house, looking toward the principal agricultural terraces and
our camp in the distance ('see page 471).

Stich i^edlogical evidence as we had
been a1)le to collect in the limited time at
our disposal was presented by Professor
r>owman in a paper published at the
same time. Professor Bowman had re-
ported several years before finding evi-
dences of man's existence in the central
Andes in late Glacial or early post-(ila-
cial times. He was led to believe that
the actual remains of man fotmd in tiie
Cuzco basin were embedded in gravels
of a still earlier date.

DKTKKMI.VIxr, THi-: .\GE OF THESE BONES

In his interpretation of the geological
and geograjjhical evidence he reached the
conclusion that the beds belonged to a

Glacial series, and that the age of the
vertebrate remains might be provisionally
estimated at from 20 to 40 thousand
years.

But he called attention to the weakness
of the case, lying in the following facts :
( i) that certain of the bones could not
be sharj^ly differentiated from those of
modern cattle, and (2) that it was within
the limits of possibility that the bluff in
which the bones were found might be
faced by younger gravel, antl that there-
fore the bones had been in gravel veneer
deposited during later periods of partial
valley-filling.

He experienced grave doubts as to his
own conclusions, liecause we were only

491

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492

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ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SNAKE WINDOW
Showing very clearly the holes in the wall for the admission of snakes

493

i'liijto Dy 1 Uram Bingham ■
THE SNAKE WINDOW FROM WITHIN

There were several means of exit from each snake nest, and it is possible that the priest
of this temple attempted to fortell the future by noticing from which holes the snakes
chanced to come out (see pages 472 and 493).

494

^mmg^^

riidto iiy llirain llingluim

Tllli IXTKRIOR OK THK SKM ICIRCULAR TOWKR XKAR Tllli; SXAKK WINDOW
The cracks in the walls were probably caused by a great conflagration centuries ago

495

able to spend a very few days m
Cuzco after the find was made, and
concluded his report with these
words :

"Further excavation is needed, for
the same body of gravels may yield
material that will put the conclusions
upon a more solid foundation. If
later studies should yield evidence in
favor of the conclusion that the ma
terial belongs to the Spanish period,
we shall have still the fact of inter-
stratification as a starting point, and
the conclusions based upon that fact
will have almost equal interest with
the conclusions here stated, as to the
Glacial age of the material. Changes
of such magnitude indicate a swing
of the climatic pendulum but little
short of remarkable."

Since further examination of the
Cuzco gravel beds and a comprehen
sive study of their age seemed essen
tial, this was one of the chief objects
of the 1912 expedition, and it was
with this particular end in view that
Professor Gregory and Dr. Eaton
were asked to go to Cuzco.

idi;nti5^ying thi; "bisonic" bone

Among the bones Dr. Eaton had
noted three fragments of bones be-
longing either to cattle or bison,
whose specific identification was be-
set with almost insuperable difficul-
ties. After examining skeletal bison
remains in various museums and
comparing them with these frag-
ments and with similar bones of a
number of North American domes-
tic cattle, he found that one of the
bones, a fragmentary bovine rib, was
of a form which appeared to be
characteristic of the bisons and dif-
ferent from the forms seen in North
American domestic cattle.

Dr. Eaton had said in his pub-
lished report : "It cannot be denied
that the material examined suggests
the possibility that some species of
bison is here represented, yet it
would hardly be in accordance with
conservative methods to differentiate
bison from domestic cattle solely by
characters obtained from a study of

496

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SNAKE rock: MACHU PICCHU

i'..,jL^ by li;

On top of one of the boulders near the Sacred Plaza there are several snakes carved
into the surface of the rock. The carving of snakes on rocks seems to have been common
among prehistoric peoples all over the world (see page 472).

Photo by Iliram Bingham

SUN rock: MACllU PlCCilU

another curiously broken stone is carved a sun, several small snakes, and a few
undecipherable figures

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Photo by II. h. Tuckci
A PrCTURlC OF THE SAME PART OE THE CITY OE MACIIU PICCHU AS SHOWN IN THE
PRECEDING ILEUSTRATION, P.UT PHOTOGRAPHED THE YEAR BEFORE

The comparison of these two pictures shows in a very striking manner the immense
amount of labor and energy expended by members of the expedition m 1912 m clearing the
ruins, so that the members of the National Geographic Society could obtam a good con-
ception of the city (sec also page 449).

499

Photo by Hiram Bingham
A CORNIER OF THi: THRIIE-WINDOWElD

TEMPLE

In the walls of the temples on the Sacred
Plaza are several extraordinarily large granite
blocks. In the hole in the upper left-hand
corner of the picture rested one end of the
beam which supported the roof on the west
side of the Temple of the Three Windows.
The women are wives of our workmen. The
one on the right was wearing a green skirt
with a red waist and blue stripes ; the one on
the left had on a blue skirt and a red blouse
with black dots.

the first ribs of a small number ot in-
dividuals."

Consequently his first interest on reach-
ing Cuzco was to secure specimen ribs
of Cuzco domestic cattle. The very first
one that we were able to procure from a
local butcher shop told a new story.

Dr. Eaton reports as follows: "The
plans for osteological work included the
dissection of the carcasses of beef ani-

mals reared in the high altitudes of the
province of Cuzco. This study revealed
the fact that, under the life conditions
prevailing in this part of the Andes, and
possibly due to the increased action of
the respiratory muscles in the rarefied
air, domestic cattle can develop first ribs
of 'bisonic' form.

There is, therefore, no reason for sup-
posing that the bovine rib found with the
human bones in the Ayahuaycco Que-
brada in 191 1 belongs to some species of
bison, and any theory attributing great
antiquity to the 'Cuzco man' based on
such a supposition is untenable.

VALUABLK SPECIMENS EXCAVATED IN
CUZCO VALEEY

"Systematic search in the Cuzco Val-
ley for ethnological and paleontological
material was carried on. Laborers were
employed and excavations made in the
terraces beneath the walls of the Sacsa-
huaman fortress ; in the gardens of the
Inca palace near the fortress and among
the ruins of the near-by hill called Pic-
chu. Several ancient graves on the hills
overlooking the village of San Sebastian
were explored. Much valuable material
was collected, including human skeletons,
belonging presumably to both the his-
toric and prehistoric periods, together
with the bones of contemporaneous lower
animals, implements and ornaments of
stone, bone, metal and shell, and pottery.
The so-called "ash deposits" of the city
were examined, and specimens were ob-
tained that will probably show that these
deposits do not go back of the Hispanic
period.

"Two days were spent making a re-
connaissance of fossil beds near Ayus-
bamba [near Paruro], about 30 miles
southwest from Cuzco, and the results
of this brief visit gave such promise that
later in the season another trip was made
to this interesting locality in company
with the geologist and two topographers.
Although the locality had already been
visited several times by amateur collect-
ing parties, it was still possible to obtain
a considerable amount of vertebrate ma-
terial that will probably yield very satis-
factory results."

GEOEOGICAE INVESTIGATIONS

The geological examination of the
Cuzco Valley undertaken by Professor

500

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THE ALT.\R OF THE CHIEF TEMPLE OF MACHU PICCHU

The interior of the Chief Temple on the Sacred Plaza, showing the cracking caused by
the settling of the east wall. Notice the care with which the size of the stones is made to
decrease gradually in each ascending tier. The main altar stone is 14 feet in length and a
little over 5 feet in height.

Gregory consisted, in the first place, of a
study of the gravel deposits near Cuzco
and the relation in age and position of
these gravels to the remains of men and
other animals discovered in them, both on
the present and on the former expedition.
In a preliminary stmimary of his investi-
gations Professor Gregory says: "The
gravels were found to be portions of an
extensive alluvial fan of Glacial age, but
the human relics embedde 1 in them are
probably of much later date." These de-
posits will be described fully in a paper
on the Cuzco gravels to be published in
the near future.

In regard to the other parts of his
work, Professor Gregory reports as fol-
lows :

It consisted of "an examination of the
structure, stratigraphy, and physiography
of the Cuzco Valley with a view to se-
curing the data for a geologic map of the
area tributary to the Huatanay River.
The region was found to consist chiefly
of sedimentary rocks of pre-Tertiary,
Tertiary, and Pleistocene age. Basic
igneous intrusions are present and five
intrusive masses of andesite ( ?) are rep-

resented by outcrops. During Glacial
times a lake occupied the upper part of
the valley. Fossils from Mesozoic and
recent strata are sufficient to determine
the relations of at least part of the for-
mations. The results of the geologic sur-
vey, including stratigraphic and petro-
graphic maps, are to be embodied in a
report dealing with the area as a whole."

Professor Gregory also made a survey
of Ayusbamba, on the Apurimac River,
the locality from which fossil vertebrates
were collected by Dr. Eaton. The strata
at Ayusbamba are clays and sands de-
posited in an ancient lake perched high
above the valley floors at an altitude of
over 1 1 ,000 feet.

The Island of the Sun. in Lake Ti-
ticaca, Bolivia, was studied by both Pro-
fessor Gregory and Assistant Topogra-
pher Heald, with reference to its coal
deposits. A collection of carboniferous
fossils was secured.

THE TROUBLES OF A CARTOCR.VPHER

Owing to a most unfortunate mi.sunder-
standing, occasioned by the difficulty of
getting messages transmitted in an un-

501

502

i'hoto by lliiam iJuighaiu

TYPICAL INDIAN VVOMI;N AT MACHU PICCHU

The

largest stone in the east wall of the Chief Temple on the Sacred Plaza and the wives

of two workmen

Photo by Hiram Bingham
THE HEAVIEST STONE BLOCK IN A MACHU I'ICCHU WALL

The interior face of the same stone and tVie ornamental niches in the east wall of the
Chief Temple. The hole in the upper right-hand corner was undoubtedly for the admission
of the beam which supported the roof of this temple.

503

Photo by Hiram Bingham

AN INTERESTING CORNER: MACHU PICCHU

Back of the Chief Temple and adjoining it are
the ruins of a small house probably occupied by the
High Priest. The picture shows a portion of the
exterior of its western wall. Part of this wall is
made of a single stone, which is cut into 32 angles
and corners.

The photographer thought that
the map looked rather badly with
all these pencil-marks on it, and a
telegram was sent to the director,
requesting permission to erase all
pencil-marks. This telegram was
received six weeks later, on my re-
turn from a difficult journey into
the interior.

It was then too late to save Air.
Bumstead's work, for the photog-
rapher, impatient at the delay, and
not receiving permission to clean
the map, had gone ahead on his
own responsibility and erased what
a month of careful field-work could
not replace. As Mr. Bumstead says
in his report :

". . . Only one who has seen
his patient and painstaking work
destroyed can imagine mv feelines
when I returned to Cuzco witnm
about a week of the time when the
new Peruvian government said we
must stop all our work — weary and
almost discouraged from a trip that
had ended in profitless waiting in a
leaky tent for a cold rain to stop
and permit the work to proceed
through a region where the rainy
season had set in in good earnest —
only to find that all the above men-
toined penciling on the Cuzco Val-
ley map had been completely and
absolutely lost."

inhabited region, quite a little of Mr.
Bumstead's work was unintentionally de-
stroyed. It was necessary for him to
leave the Cuzco Basin and work on the
Andine cross-section before the Cuzco
map was completed. This was occasioned
by the rapid approach of the rainy sea-
son. Arrangements were made with the
chief engineer of the Southern railways
to have the map photographed. The
permanent contour lines were inked in,
but all streams, roads, ruins, terraces,
plane-table locations, and many geograph-
ical names and all elevations were left on
the sheet in pencil.

HAMPERED EOR LACK OE TIME

The new Peruvian government
had stipulated in their decree that
all the work of excavating and ex-
ploring must cease on the first of
December, and the local authorities were
directed to see to it that this order was
carried out. In the limited time that re-
mained it was impossible to finish the
map of the Cuzco Valley as carefully as
it had been begun.

It was decided, however, that it would
be much better to map the area needed
by the geologist as well as it could be
done before the day set by the govern-
ment for the conclusion of our work.
Accordingly, great pains have been taken
to show the true character of the topog-
raphy.

S04

Photo by Hiram Itingham

THE HIGH PRIESTS HOUSE: MACHU PICCIIU

This picture of the interior of the priest's house gives a better idea of the stone of the
22 angles. Not onlj' were portions of two niches cut out of this stone, but in a spirit of
freakish ingenuity the builders carried a small portion of the stone around the corner, so
that a part of the corner itself is in this extraordinary block.

I'liMto liy Ilirain Bingham

THE HIGH PRIEST S COUCH

Another view of the interior of the priest's house, showing the long bench, or platform,
which was probably used as a couch. Notice the care with which the stones were selected,
cut, and symmetrically arranged.

505

Photo by Hiram JJingham
AN E^XAMPLE; 01" REMARKABLY SYMMETRICAL
MASONRY

Another view- of the interior of the oriest's house
and the sacred rock back of it. Note the steps cut
in the rock to enable the priest to get on top of it
and salute the rising sun are just visible in the pic-
ture.

The scale of the Cuzco Valley map is
I inch to the mile, and the contour in-
terval is loo feet. The map covers in
all 174 square miles. It includes nearly
all the territory that drains into the valley
of the River Huatanay, which rises in the
mountains back of Cuzco, flows through
the city and under part of it between
walls constructed by the Incas, crosses
the bed of an ancient lake, and finally
joins the upper waters of the Urubamba,
called at this point the Vilcanota or Vil-
camayu.

Peruvian rivers have a habit of chang-

ing their names every few miles,
and this particular river is no ex-
ception. It is called at various
times the Vilcanota, the Vilcamayu,
the Rio Grande, the Urubamba, the
Santa Ana, and finally unites with
other rivers to form the Ucayali,
one of the great branches of the
Amazon.

Mr. Bumstead's map of Cuzco
Valley shows the elevations and
relative positions of Cuzco, the
great cyclopean fortress of Sacsa-
huaman, and the four historic
roads leading out of the ancient
Inca capital. It also aims to bring
out clearly the chief topographic
and physiographic features that are
characteristic of the locality. It
will be used by Professor Gregory
and Dr. Eaton as a basis for their
reports on the geology and oste-
ology of this region. If extensive
scientific archeological work is evei-
permitted in this region, this map
will be of great service in deter-
mining the geographic influences in
the location of the ruins.

Ill

MAP-WORK OE THE EXPEDITION

The map-work was under the di-
rection of Mr. Albert H. Bumstead,
for nine years a topographic engi-
neer in the United States Geolog-
ical Survey. Mr. Bumstead's work
was seriously handicapped by the
fact that the seasons seem to be
changing in Peru, and an unex-
pectedly large amount of rain was
encountered in what is technically
known as the "dry season." Further-
more, the difficulties of making maps iti
a lofty plateau, where, for example, the
bottom of the Cuzco Valley is more than
twice as high as the top of Mount Wash-
ington, can hardly be appreciated except
by those who have tried to do field-work
at similar elevations.

In 191 1, owing to lack of preliminary
reconnaissance and excessively hard local
conditions, the topographer of the expe-
dition had been unable to do an3'^thing on
the most difficult part of the cross-section
map. This work was now undertaken by

S06

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A \Vi.LL UU11.T STAIRWAY ; MACHU I'ICCHU

Near the priest's house is the most carefully constructed stairway at Machu Picchu,
each one of whose steps was originally a single block of granite. This leads from the
Sacred Plaza up to the top of the Sacred Hill (see pages 472, 508, and 509).

Chief Topographer Bumstead and As-
sistants Hardy and Little.

A route map was completed along a
rarely used trail from Abancay. the capi-
tal of the department of Apurimac, across
the Apurimac Valley via Pasaje to
Lucma, this being the portion of the map
not comi)leted in 191 1. Mr. P)nmstead's
map is on a scale of i inch to the mile,
with a contour interval of 200 feet. It
covers apjiro.ximately 500 square miles.
Frequent latitude and azimuth observa-
tions were made all along the route, and
an occultation of a first-magnitude star
was observed in connection with time
sights on the moon and Jupiter imme-
diately afterwards (see page 388).

The route covered by this map is about
100 miles in length and passes through
a great variety of very heavy mountain-
ous country. The elevations here range
from about 4,000 feet up to more than
19.000. The most imprrtant features
represented on this map are the glaciers
of that part of the Mlcabamba Cordillera
between Choquetira, Arma. and Lucma.
A large part of this country was under
glaciation at no very distant date, and
great pains were taken to bring out the
glacial forms.

This map will be of great value in
giving proi)er understanding of the physi-
ography of the central Andes, and will
be published in connection with Profes-

507

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THK SL'N dial: MACHU PICCHU

Photo by Hiram liiiigliam

On top of the sacred hill is a curiously carved stone called an Intihuatana stone, or sun
dial, or sun circle. "Inti" means "sun," and "huataiia" a "rope," in Quichua, the language
of the Incas. liitihuataita stones are found also in Cuzco and in Pisac and Ollantaytambo
(see pages 472 and 507).

Photo by Hiram Bingham

A GEM OF INCA ARCHITECTURE
The little temple on top of the sacred hill near the Intihuatana stone

509

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General view of Machu Picchu, showing (reading, fro
the principal cross street in the city and one of the fines
the beautiful outer wall of the King's Group, and finally t

sor Bowman's account of the geo-
logical cross-section made in 191 1.
In describing his work on this
map, Mr. Bumstead says :

"With such meager control as
time and bad weather permitted, I
endeavored to make a map of as
wide a strip of country as possible,
that would first of all convey the
same impression of the topography
upon the person who should use
the map as I had at the time that I
made it; that is, I wanted my map
to accurately describe the char-
acter of each mountain and valley
shown. This I kept ever in mind,
and frequently reached out five or
six miles with estimated distances
to sketch features as I saw them,
knowing that even though their
positions and elevations were far
from right, the picture brought to
mind by the use of the map would
be far better than nothing at all.

"In the main, however, the map
is fairly well controlled, and in the
snow-and-glacier-covered m o u n-
tains around Choquetira and Arma
I took very great pains not only to
show a good picture of this won-
derful region, but to make an ac-
curate and dependable topographic
map as well, and I got good loca-
tions and elevations on all the peaks
and many other points besides.

"In making this map we followed
the route of Professor Bowman in
191 1. He expected the work to be
done in 21 days. I think it could
have been done in 30 days of good
weather, and done even better than
I did it, though I took three months,
as I was hampered by fog and rain
and snow almost continually from
the time we left Abancay. It was
aggravating in the extreme to catch
glimpses of the wonderful scenery
as the clouds would lift or settle
and then have the peaks disappear
from view before they could be lo-
cated and sketched,"

It was hoped that Mr. Bumstead
would be able to locate and get the
elevation of Mount Salcantay while
on this trip, but it remained cloudy
during: the entire time.

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THE LAST IXCA CAPITAL

VITCOS .

A map of the vicinity of
the last Inca capital of Vitcos,
including the present-day vil-
lages of Puquiura and Vilca-
bamba. was made on a scale
of 3 inches = i mile, with
I GO- foot contours.

This country is of great in-
terest to students of historical
geography. It is in the midst
of a wonderful labyrinth of
tropical valleys and gl. cier-
clad mountains. Readers of
Prescotfs "Conquest of Pe-
ru," a book whose charm is
as fresh today as it eve ■ wai.
will remember that Pizarro
selected ]\Ianco, a son of a
former Inca, as the most avail-
able figurehead in whose name
the Spaniards could govern
Peru. He was crowned Inca
in 1534. but he had too much
good red blood in his "^'ein? to
submit to Spanish tutelage, so
he escaped, raised an army
of faithful Indians, besieged
Cuzco unsuccessfully, retreat-
ed to Ollantaytambo, and
thence made good his escape
into the fastnesses of this An-
dean labyrinth.

He found it easy to defend
himself in this practically im-
pregnable region called \'ilca-
bamba, and he was able occa-
sionally to make raids on
Spanish caravans bound from
Cuzco to Lima. A large part
of the road over which he
must have passed in making
these raids was mapped for
the first time by .\rr. Hum-
stead, and is included in thc-
Andean cross-section map re-
ferred to above (page 507).

The young Inca Manco
lived at a place called X'itcos
for K) years. Here he actu-
allv received and entertained
Spanish refugees. One of
these, a hot-headed fellow, fell
out with the Inca over a game

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of bowls (some writers
say it was chess), and in
the quarrel that ensued
the Inca was killed.

Two of his sons ruled
in turn in his stead, so
that for 35 years the coun-
try about Vitcos was gov-
erned by the Incas, and
was all that was left to
them of their magnificent
South American empire.

PREVIOUS se;arches for

VITCOS

When the famous Pe-
ruvian geographer, Rai-
mondi, visited this region
about the middle of the
19th century, no one seems
to have thought of telling
him that there were any
ruins hereabouts. H e
knew that the young Inca
Manco had established
himself somewhere in this
region, and he also knew
that interesting ruins had
been found at Choqque-
quirau, and described by
the French explorer, Sar-
tiges, in the Revue des
Deux Mondes in 1851, so
Raimondi concluded that
the ruins of Choqque-
quirau must be those of
the last Inca's long-lost
capital.

Raimondi's proofs of
the coincidence of Choq-
quequirau and the Inca
capital are very vague, but
as long as the only ruins
reported from this region
were those of Choqque-
quirau, nearly all the Pe-
ruvian writers, including
the eminent geographer,
Paz-Soldan, fell in with
the idea that this was the
refuge of Manco,

The word "Choqque-
quirau" means "cradle of
gold," and this lent color
to the story in the ancient
chronicles that the Inca
Ah

512

jManco had carried with him from
Cuzco great quantities of gold
utensils for use in his new capital.

Personally I did not feel so
sure that the case was proven.
The ruins did not seem fine
enough for the Inca's residence.
Consequently I was very glad that
it was possible in 191 1 to cairy an
exploring expedition into the Vil-
cabamba Valley, and still more
delighted when we found interest-
ing ruins at a place called Rosas-
pata.

Near Rosaspata was an extraor-
dinary monolith, called "Nusta
Espana." By reference to the
Spanish chroniclers, we found
that it was recorded that near
Vitcos, the last Inca capital, was
a temple of the Sun, in which was
a white rock over a spring of
water. Furthermore, that Vitcos
was on top of a high mountain,
from which a large part of the
surrounding region could be seen,
and, moreover, that in the palace
of Vitcos the doors, both ordinary
and principal, were of white mar-
ble, beautifully carved.

WHY the; nusta espana is the;

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION
OE VITCOS

All of these points of descrip-
tion fitted the Rosaspata locality.
Within half a mile of Rosaspata
are the ruins of an ancient build-
ing which might have been the
temple of the Sun, and in which
is found a huge white rock, over-
hanging a spring of water (see
pictures, pages 550-554). The
ruins of Rosaspata are on top of
a conspicuously high hill, from
Avhich the view in all directions is
fine.

Finally the ruins of Rosaspata,
unlike those of Machu Picchu
and Choqquequirau, are noticeable
because there are two kinds of
doors, ordinary and principal
ones, and that the door-posts are
made of stones carefully carved
out of white granite. (Strictly
speaking, there is no marble in

513

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THK WESTERN precipices: machu picchu

Forest trees growing wherever there is a foothold have usually been found in this
region to cover ancient agricultural terraces, and they probably do in the cases shown in
this picture. The western trail to Machu Picchu climbs out of the canon in the lower right-
hand corner and winds up the precipice until it passes over the shoulder near the top of
the precipice.

517

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i^Uolo by llirain iiingliani

THE PLAZA OF SAYI.LA : CUZCO VALLEY

In the Cuzco \'alley, as well as on all the roads in the uplands of Peru, whenever an
Indian passes through a village he stops to get a drink of chicha, the native beer, a large
glass of which may be purchased for about two cents. When it is cleanly made, it is not
disagreeable.

I'lioto by Hiram Uinglij
A CORNER OF THE SAN FRANCISCO I'LAZ.V : CUZCO

In the market-places of Cuzco and other Peruvian cities pottery made by the Indians in
vicinity is usually to be bought for prices ranging from live to fifty cents. It is hand
made, baked in primitive ovens, and rudely decorated with variegated designs.

519

Photo by Hiram Bingiiam

A GRAVEL BANK CONTAINING BONES AND POTS-
HERDS : cuzco (pages 500-501)

There are many places near Cuzco where in the
stratified gravel banks bones and pieces of pottery
may be found interstratified with the pebbles. Dr.
Eaton and Lieutenant Sotomayor, on one of our first
walks out of Cuzco, located a number of these.

Magazine for October, 191 2, and in
more extended form in the Pro-
ceedings of the American Anti-
quarian Society for April, 1912.

Returning to this location in Au-
gust, 191 2, I drained the marshes
that partly surround the rock at
Nusta Espana and excavated as far
as was practicable. To our sur-
prise and mortification we were un-
able to find any artifacts whatever
and only a handful of rough pots-
herds. We did uncover an inter-
esting priestly throne containing
nine seats. The work of excavat-
ing and the results may be seen ouj
pages 553 and 554.

INCA

PEACE

NAMES IN THE VILCA-
.MBA REGION

this region.) Furthermore, the rock at
Nusta Espana bears in its carvings marks
which indicate that at one time in the
remote past it was unquestionably an
•object of veneration.

This evidence made me believe that at
K^usta Espana was the principal shrine of
the ancient people in this entire region,
-and that the neighboring ruins of Rosas-
pata were in reality the ruins of Vitcos,
the last Inca capital. An account of the
discovery of these places and a statement
of the proof on which we have based our
•conclusions may be found in Harper's

A problem which particularly oc-
cupied my attention was the identi-
fication of ancient Inca place names
referring to the Vilcabamba coun-
try and occurring in the Spanish
chronicles, but not appearing on any
known maps.

Before leaving New Haven I had
an index prepared of all the places
that are referred to in the available
chronicles. A copy of this list was
taken with me in the field wherever
I went, and owing to the courtesy
of the managers of various planta-
tions and of local government offi-
cials, the most intelligent and re-
liable Indians were carefully ques-
tioned in regard to these places.

By this means it is believed that
a considerable body of geographical
nomenclature has been assembled,
and it is hoped that in the future it may
be possible to write a report that will
elucidate and interpret some of the more
difficult passages in the chronicles.

EXPLORATION OE THE AOBAMBA VAELEY

As part of our plan to cover the area
included between the Urubamba and
Apurimac rivers, an archeological and
topographical reconnaissance was made
of the hitherto unexplored Aobamba
Valley. Assistant Topographer Heald

520

Photo by II

11 Ki

THE OSTEOLOGIST AT WORK: CUZCO VALLEY

In the north bank of the Huatanaj^ River, a mile below Cuzco, Dr. Eaton found a human
skeleton interstratilied with clays and gravels 8 feet underground. Since the time when the
bones were deposited there, the entire field of coarse gravels had been laid there above them,
and in the succeding centuries the river had cut down the bank until it finally laid them
bare (see pages 500 and 501).

undertook to approach this problem from
the mouth of the valley at the junction
of the Aobamba and Urubamba rivers.
He met with almost insuperable diffi-
culties.

Although the work looked easy as far
as we could see from the mouth of the
valley, he found that 4 miles from the
mouth, up the winding stream, the jungle
was so dense as to be almost impassable.
There was no trail and the trees were
so large and the foliage so dense that ob-
servations were impossible even after the
trail had been cut. During a hard after-
noon's work in jungle of this kind, with
four or five men aiding in making the
path, they succeeded in advancing only
one mile.

Reconnaissance work in this type of
jungle is extremely discouraging and un-
profitable. Furthermore, there are occa-
sionally some dangers — as, for instance,
the following from Mr. Heald's account
of his reconnaissance :

"On the way back to camp one of the
men had a narrow escape from a snake,
being grasped and held by another of the
peons just in time to prevent his stepping
on it. It was a small, dust-colored snake,
about 10 inches long, and on being ex-
amined was found to possess two small
poison fangs far back in the jaw. The
fangs differed from tho'^e of most poi-
sonous snakes in that they slanted back
very little, coming almost straight down
to the lower jaw."

THREE NEW CT^OUPS OP RUINS REPORTED.

There was little of archeological inter-
est in the portion of the valley which ]Mr.
Heald succeeded in reaching. Quite un-
expectedly, however, I got into the up-
per reaches of the valley about ten davs'
later and found some interesting ruins
and hrd an unexpected adventure. It
ha])])enec on this wise:

The largest and richest estate in the
Urubamba \'alley, Iluadquina, is owned

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522

Phutu by lliram liiugliam

GOATHERDS AND SHEPHERDS : CUZCO VALEEY

The shepnerds of the Cuzco Valley are usually small boys who, like David of old, spend
their early years with slings in their hands tending their flocks

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t^holo by Hirain Bingham

A ROMANTIC SHEEP PASTURE: TIPON, NEAR OROPESA

Frequently their sheep graze on ancient Inca terraces near carefully built retaining
walls, or in the midst of interesting ruins about whose history we know practically nothing.

523

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THE RUINS OF RUMI CCOLCA

A short distance east of Piquillacta are the ruins called Rumi Ccolca. It is impossible
to say positively whether this was merely a wall which guarded the entrance to the Cuzco
Valley, or whether it was an aqueduct that once carried water to the city of Piquillacta.

Photo

Iliiigham

AN ARCHITECTURAL PUZZLE: RUMI CCOLCA

A nearer view of Rumi Ccolca shows the junction of two entirely different kinds of
stonework. The original wall is of rough stones laid in mud, but the gateway is lined with
cut stones fitted together without mortar after the best Inca style. It may be possible that
a later race cut a gate through the ancient aqueduct and lined it in their own fashion with
their best stonework.

529

i-'hoto by Hira .n Bingham

THE FINEST STONEWORK AT RUMI CCOI.CA : CUZCO VALI^EY

A detail of one side of the gateway at Rumi Ccolca, which shows stone blocks cut with
as much precision as the best work at Machu Picchu. The projecting nubbins left on these
rocks are an echo of similar marks left on the stone inside the priest's house near the Sacred
Plaza in Machu Picchu (see the picture on page 529).

by the Sefiora Carmen Vargas, who in-
herited from her father about 1,000
square miles of land lying between the
Urubamba and Apurimac rivers. Some
of the land is occupied by sugar planta-
tions ; other parts are given over to the
raising of sheep and cattle, while a large
portion is still tropical jungle. Sefiora
Carmen has always received us most
hospitably and done everything in her
power to further our efforts.

Her son-in-law, Don Tomas Alvistur,
an enthusiastic amateur archeologist, took
a considerable amount of interest in our
work and was quite delighted when he
discovered that some of the Indians on
the plantation knew of three localities
where there were Inca ruins, so they
said, that had not previously been visited
by white men.

Don Tomas invited me to accompany
him on a visit to these three groups of
ruins, but when the time came to go he
found that business engagements made
it impossible for him to do more than
accompany me part of the way to the
first group. He went to the trouble,

however, of securing three Indian guide;
and carriers and gave them orders to
carry my small outfit whenever it was
impossible for the pack-mule to be used
and to guide me safely to the three ruins
and home again.

They did not greatly relish these or-
ders, but as they were all feudal tenants,
holding their land on condition of ren-
dering a certain amount of personal serv
ice every year in lieu of rent, they were
constrained to carry out the orders of
their overlord.

After Don Tomas departed I was left
to the tender mercies of the Indians and
of my faithful muleteer, Luis. The In
dians had told us that one could visit all
three ruins and return the next day. This
information, however, did not prevent
me from putting in supplies for at least
a five days' journey, although I little
anticipated what was actually going t
happen.

The end of the first day's journej
found us on top of a ridge about 5,oo(
feet above the place where we ha(
started, in the midst of a number o

530

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533

primitive ruins and two or
three modern huts.

IvIvACTA PATA^ the; RUINS OF
AN INCA castle;

This place was called Llacta
Pata. We found evidence
that some Inca chieftain had
built his castle here and had
included in the plan ten or a
dozen buildings. They are
made of rough stones laid in
mud, with the usual symmetri-
cal arrangement of doors and
niches. It would be interest-
ing to excavate here for three
or four weeks and get suffi-
cient evidence in the way of
sherds and artifacts to show
just what connection the peo-
ple who built and occupied
this mountain stronghold had
to the other occupants of the
valley.

After measuring the ruins
(see plan, page 556) and tak-
ing a few photographs (see
page 555), I asked the Indians
how far it was to the next
group of ruins, and was told
it was "two or three hours'
journey."

Possibly it could be done by
an Indian runner, with noth-
ing to carry, in four or five
hours, but we had three mules,
that is, our two saddle-mules
and the one pack-mule, whose
load, weighing about 100
pounds, included a small tent,
cooking outfit, blankets, and
enough provisions for five
days.

Although I had selected for
this journey one of the best
and strongest p a c k-m u 1 e s
which we possessed, and al-
though his load was not much
more than a third of what he
could comfortably carry on a
good road, he found it impos-
sible to carry this load over
the trail that we found be-
fore us.

During the first two or three
hours the trail passed through
a dense tropical jungle. We

534

i'iioto by Hiram Uingliaiu

A SMALL CHAPEL ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF ADANCAV

With characteristic hospitality when I left Abancay on my way to Cuzco, I was accom-
panied this far by the prefect and his aide, and was sent on my way rejoicing and riding one
of the prefect's best horses, while my own mule had a day off. It is this generous spirit of
friendly courtesy that makes the work of exploration pleasant in a region where nature has
done all she could to make it difficult.

repeatedly had to make detours to avoid
deep sloughs, and occasionally had to
stop in order to have hranches cut away
so that the mules might get through.

DIFFICULT GOING.

The trail grew rapidly worse, the
pack-mule fell down four or five times,
and finally became so frightened that he
refused to attempt a place in the trail
Avhere it was necessary for him to jump
up about four feet on a slippery rock.
It was consequently necessary to unload
him and distribute the cargo among the
Indian carriers, and get all hands to help
pull and push the mules over the bad
spots in the mountain foot trail. This
went on at intervals during the remainder
of the day.

.As a result we found ourselves at night-
fall on a grassy sloi)e on the side of the
mountain about 15,000 feet above sea-
level. A little shelter here and the pres-
ence of a small sj^ring made the Indians
prefer to pass the night at this point.

The next morning we crossed a high
pass and descended rapidly into a steep-

walled valley, containing one of the
upper tributaries of the Aobamba. The
lower slopes were covered with a dense
forest, which gradually gave way to
scrub and grass up to the snow-line.
About 2 o'clock in the afternoon we
reached the valley bottom at a point
where several smaller tributaries unite
to form the principal west branch of the
Aobamba. The place was called Palcay.

Here we found trwo or three modern
Indian huts, one of them located in a
very interestin.g nuned stronghold called
Llacta. As the location of the strong-
hold in the bottom of a valley was not
easily defensible, a wall about 12 feet in
height surrounded the quadrangular ruin.

The stronghold was about 145 feet
square anu divided by two narrow cross-
streets into four equal quarters. Two of
these quarters had been completed, and
consisted of five houses arranged around
a courtyard in a symmetrical fashion.
The third quarter was almost complete,
while the fourth, quarter had only the be-
ginnings of two or three houses. Each
one of the four quarters had a single en-

535

536

liiram Bingham

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE STOXE HOUSE: RUMIHUASI

Showing the cell where some people suppose a hermit passed his time, while his life was
devoted to painfully decorating this boulder bj- the means of such rude stone implements as
he had at hand.

trance gate on its north side. This will
be more readily understood by consulting
the plan on page 559.

The characteristics of the buildings
are distinctly Inca and resemble in many
ways those fotmd at Choqqneqtiirau in
1909. The stronghold was made of
blocks of stone laid in mud, the buildings
of symmetrical pattern, with doors nar-
rower at the to]) than at the bottom ; no
windows, but interior ornaments of niches
and projecting cylinders alternating be-
tween the niches. Whenever the wind
did not. blow, the gnats were very bad,
which made the work of measuring and
mapping the ruins extremely annoying.

DESERTED BY THE INDIAN GUIDES

I should like to have continued the
journey the next day, but the Indians
objected, saying that it was Sunday and
that they needed the rest. This "rest"
gave them an opportunity for concocting
a plan of escape, and on Monday morn-
ing, when I was ready to start for the
third group of ruins, there were no guides
or carriers in sight.

Neither Luis nor 1 had ever been in

the region before. We could of course
have gone back on foot over the trail on
which we had come, but it was very
doubtful whether we could have stic-
ceeded in getting our mules over that
trail, even though we had abandoned our
outfit, and we knew that a loaded mule
could not possibly go over the trail with-
out constant assistance and a number of
helping hands.

To aid us in our dilemma there came
a little Indian who inhabited one of the
huts near the ruins. He offered for a
consideration to guide us out of the valley
by another road, and said that it went
near the other ruins. He also said that
it might not be possible to use this road
"if the jjass had much snow in it."

We talked to him with difficulty, for,
like most mountain Indians, he had no
knowledge of Spanish, and our own
knowledge of Quichua was somewhat
limited. However, there was nothing
for it but to follow our new guide, and
by distributing the cargo on the three
mules make it as easy as possible for the
poor beasts to use the foot-])ath, or goat
trail, which was indicated as our "road."

537

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THE OTHER IMPORTANT CARVED ROCK AT COXCACHA ( SEE PAGE 536)

Called Piedra Labrada, which is simply the Spanish for "carved rock." It was once one
of the most extraordinan^ monoliths in South America. But within the past forty years it
has been terribly mutilated. Remains of the animals and strange figures are still to be seen,
but most of the heads have been destroyed either through superstition or caprice. Its present
state is a glaring example of the necessity for preserving the ancient ruins of Peru, and for
sending properly equipped expeditions to study these ancient sites before the historical evi-
dence they contain is lost owing to ignorance or greed.

We had not gone more than half a mile
Ijefore an abrupt ascent in the trail ind
a huge sloping rock barred the way for
the mules for over half an hour. This
•difficulty being surmounted, we went on
for another mile, only to find our way
crossed by a huge avalanche of gigantic
granite boulders and glacial drift, which
liad come down from the slopes of Mount
Salcantay during the past year. A couple
of hours were spent in negotiating the
trail across this landslide.

We then found ourselves near the
ruins of a village. Judging by the primi-
tive appearance of the ruins, it could not
liave been a place of much importance

and it is impossible to say whether it had
upied since the Spanish connuest

and it IS mipossible to say whether it had
been occupied since the Spanish conquest
or not.

THE DISCOVERY OF TEN M.\GNIFICENT
GLACIERS

Climbing up the valley beyond this
ruined village and turning a corner, we
came into full view of 10 magnificent
glaciers — eight of them in a cirque in
front of us and two on the slopes of
Salcantay behind us. As the guide was
very well informed as to the names of
diflferent parts of the valley and could
give names for most of the peaks but
none for any for the glaciers, I have
named these as follows (pp. 560, 563-5 ) :

539

540

Photo by Hiram Bingham

MAP MAKING IN THE APURIMAC VALLEY

Chief Topographer Bumstead working at his plane table making the map between Aban-
cay and Pasaje. The difficulties of map making in canons, varying from 4,000 to 10,000 feet
in depth, can scarcely be appreciated except by practical engineers (see pages 506, 507).

( I ) Hadley Glacier, in honor of the
President of Yale University.

(2) Gannett Glacier, in honor of the
President of the National Geographic So-
ciety.

(3) Grosvenor Glacier, in honor of the
Editor and Director of the National Geo-
graphic Society.

(4) Brycc Glacier, in honor of His
Excellency James Bryce, the British Am-
bassador, whose interest and enthusiastic
support has greatly stimulated our work.

(5) Harkness Glacier, in honor of Ed-
ward S. Harkness, Esq., of New York,
whose generous assistance was largely re-
sponsible for making possible the expe-
ditions of 1911 and 1912.

(6) Alfreda Mitchell Glacier, in honor
of my wife, without whose cooperation
none of this work could have been done.

(7) Taft Glacier, in recognition of the
courteous assistance we received from
the United States government.

(8) Leguia Glacier, in recognition of
the courteous assistance we received
from the Peruvian government.

(9) iM or kill Glacier, in recognition of
the courteous assistance we received
from the Peruvian cor])oration.

(10) Yale Glacier — for obvious rea-
sons ( see pages ^f)0, 5'^)3-5''>5 ) .

While we were enjoying the wonder-
ful spectacle and wondering whether any
civilized being had ever seen the glaciers
before, a magnificent gray deer with eight
prongs to his horns sprang out of the
grass near us, gave us a long look of in-
terested interrogation, and then dashed
ofif to find his friends.

Our little guide was more interested
in the looks of the pass than in the deer,
and although he shook his head as it
came into view, it seemed to us that we
were most fortunate, for there appeared
to be no snow whatever on the trail all
the way to the top of the pass. But we
neglected to take into account the fact
that we were ap])roaching the pass from
the north or sunny side, and that there
might be snow on the trail on the other
side of the pass, on the south or shady
slope.

THE GRANDEUR OF THE SCENERY

All thoughts of this, however, were
temporarily swept aside by the magnifi-
cent view of Salcantay, which we now
had on our right hand. The picture on
p. 563 gives but a faint idea of the gran-
deur "of this mountain. In many ways it
is an ideally beautiful peak, rising as it
does to a sharp point, with its sides cov-

S4I

Photo by Paul Bestor

THi: FERRY AT PASAJE) : APURIMAC VALLEY

The Director crossing the Apurimac River on a raft at Pasaje. The Indian ferryman is
looking back in astonishment that a "gringo" should know how to use a paddle

ered with snow and ice, and lifting its
head so magnificently thousands of feet
higher than anything else in the vicinity.

Our own elevation at the time was a
little over 16,000 feet, and a conservative
estimate would place the top of the moun-
tain at least 5,000 feet above us. It was
a very great disappointment that we were
unable, owing to the bad weather, to get
the mountain triangulated, so that its
height still remains an unknown quantity.

The American mining engineers at
Ferrobamba believe it to be the highest
peak in the Andes, and Mr. Stevens, the
superintendent of the mine, which is
nearly 100 miles away from the moun-
tain, told me that he had seen it from so
many distant points of the Andes that
he felt confident it must be the highest
mountain in South America.

Just before getting to the top of the
pass we turned aside for a few moments
to see the remains of a hole in the
ground where it is said that there was
once an ancient gold mine.

A few specimens of rock brought from
the talings appear to contain small quan-
tities of silver and copper, but the altitude

is so great and the surroundings so
difficult that it is not likely that this mine
will ever be a profitable working propo-
sition.

THE MULES STAMPEDE ON A SNOW SLOPE

Our joy in the scarcity of snow on the
north side of the pass was instantly re-
duced to despair when we reached the
summit and looked down a precipitous
slope covered with snow for a distance
of at least 1,000 feet below us.

The sandal-shod mountain Indians,!
whose occasional huts are the only signsl
of human habitation hereabouts, had!
made a zig-zag path in the snow byi
means of tramping down the upper crust
with roughly cut stumps of stunted
mountain trees. The path was about
eight inches wide.

Our mules had never been in the snow
before. At first our Indian guide de-
clared he would not go down with us, as
he was afraid of snow blindness, but he
was persuaded to accompany us.

Our mules took a few steps on the little
path, then decided that the white snow
field looked more inviting and left the

542

Photo by Uiraiii Jiingluiin

A VIEW OF PAXTA MOUNTAIN'

Between Pasaje on the Apurimac and Lucma lies a remarkable mountain region of
glaciers and snowy peaks, of which the finest is Panta Mountain. Tlie making of the map
in this vicinity was accompanied by great hardships and innumerable difficulties.

path, fell into the soft snow up to their
ears, floundered around and atteinpted to
stampede, and rolled down the side of
the mountain. It was nearly half an
hour before we got them safely back on
the trail again, where they stood trem-
bling- and unwilling to attempt the de-
scent. Coaxing and curses were equally
of no avail. Pulling, hauling, and beat-
ing were alternately resorted to.

Somehow or other, chiefly because our
trail lay down hill, so that when they fell
and floimdered off the path they always
landed a little nearer to their goal than
when they had started, we eventually got
the mules to the foot of the declivity, but
onlv after several narrow escapes and
three hours of hard work. As we looked
back up the trail it seemed that perhaps
1,500 feet would be a more exact esti-
mate of the height of the snow-covered
slope.

Just at dusk we reached the first hut in
the valley, and found that we were in one
of the upper branches of the Chamana
River, a trilnitary of the Urubamba,
which Mr. Tucker, of the 191 1 expedi-
tion, had reconnoitered the preceding
vcar.

DISCOVERY OP THE PICTOGRAPHIC ROCK.

In this valley was the third group of
ruins which we had been told about.
Their most unusual feature lay in the
fact that the Incas, desiring to save as
much of the upland valley floor as pos-
sible for agricultural purposes, had
straightened the bed of the meandering
stream and inclosed it in a stone-lined
channel, making it practically perfectly
straight for nearly three-quarters of a
mile.

The valley is still used to a certain
extent for raising and freezing potatoes.
The owner of the hut near which we
camped entertained our Indian guide in
compensation for his assistance in spread-
ing potatoes to be frozen that night some
distance below us in the valley bottom.
The next day our guide took us back up
the valley and out through a smaller
tributary, where we crossed the divide
between the I'rubamba and Apurimac
vallevs and descended toward the town
of Limatambo.

This was one of the most fortunate
accidents of the trip, for had we decided
to go down the Chamana over Mr. Tuck-

543

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544

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545

"' - ■ ' . ■' ._ Photo by Hiram Bingham

EXPI^ORING ONI,Y 13 DEGRE;SS I^ROM THIJ EQUATOR

The caravan crossing a pass near Panta Mountain. The elevation here is about 15,000 feet;

the latitude is 13 degrees S.

er's route and return quickly down the
Urubamba to our starting point, we
should have missed seeing a most inter-
esting rock which lay alongside of the
little path we followed on this day's jour-
ney.

Neither the guide nor the muleteer
had their eyes open for petroglyphic or
pictographic markings, and so did not
notice that they had passed close to the
only rock so far discovered in the de-
partment of Cuzco that contains petro-
glyphs. Others have been reported by
vague rumor, but none so far have been
located except this one, whose existence
was known to one or two cowboys on
a neighboring ranch. The photograph
gives a better idea of the markings than
can be expressed in words (see page 566).

The character of the petroglyphs is es-
sentially savage. They remind one of
some of the gh^phs used by our own
western Indians. It seems to me possi-
ble that these marks were left on this
rock by an Amazon Indian tribe who
came thus far on the road to Cuzco. In
the vicinity there were a few groups of
stones which might indicate the former
presence of rude huts, but imtil a com-
parative study can be made of all the

pictographs and petroglyphs in Peru and
in the Amazon basin it will be difficult tc
speak very definitely about this new dis-^
covery.

That night I was most hospitably en
tertained at a small ranch house and the
next day made a forced march to Cuzco,
reaching there shortly before midnight,
This journe}^, which began so inaus-
piciously and might have ended in dis-
astrous failure, actually produced more
results in the discover}^ of hitherto un-
described ruins than any other part of
the work.

VII

CHOOQUEOUIRAU.

In 1909, owing to the courtesy of the
Peruvian government and at their ur4
gent invitation, I had visited the ruins;
of Choqquequirau. An account of thi
visit was published in the Americm
Anthropologist for October-December,!
1910 (pages 505-525), and also in my'
Across South America, pages 291-323.'

A French expedition had visited the
ruins about 60 years before and had
reached them from the north, over a
path that has turned back several expedi-

546

I'lioto by llirain llingliani

EXPLORING FIVE HOURS I.ATl-R

Five hours after crossing the snow pass shown in the last picture we were going through
a dense tropical jungle at an elevation of lo.ooo feet above the sea. This proximity of the
Arctic regions to the tropical is one of the most striking and at the same time one of the
most trying features of the work of Peruvian exploration.

547

tions since then. In 1909, owing
to the existence of a small tempo-
rary bridge, I was able to reach
them from the south, but had not
found it possible to spend more
than four days there.

That bridge disappeared some
time ago, and as it was now deemed
advisable to attempt a further re-
connaissance of those celel.-iated
ruins, I asked Mr. Heald to see
whether he could not reach them
from the n.::rt.'- across the Cordil-
lera of Vilcabamba. Ai. enthusi-
astic young German merchant in
Cuzco had attempted this feat two
years before, but failed to get more
than half way from Yanama, the
nearest settlement.

Knowing Mr. Heald's pluck, I
felt sure that he could get there if
anybody could, but that if he failed
the only alternative must be to re-
construct the bridge over the Apuri-
mac. The latter would have been
a serious undertaking, as the river
is over 200 feet wide and the rapids
are strong and very dangerous.

Mr. Heald not only succeeded in
reaching Choqquequirau, but visited
the place three times, made a passa-
ble trail, and was able to conduct
thither Dr. Eaton and Dr. Nelson.
Their stay was limited by the very
great difficulties which they encoun-
tered in securing laborers to accom-
pany them, and in carrying suffi-
cient food for themselves and the
laborers over the extremely rough
country.

A HARD day's WORK

As a sample of the difficulties en-
countered, let me quote the follow-
ing from Mr. Heald's account of
his first day out from Yanama :_

". . . After a three hours' climb
we reached a spot well above 14,000
feet and had a splendid view of the
country. From here I could get an
idea of the kind of traveling I
would encounter, and it did not look
very inviting. Where the jungle
was not thick the mountain-sides
were steep and rocky. I could see
the course of the Apurimac, some-
where near which was Choqque-

548

OUR CARAVAN CROSSING THE PASS BETWEEN ARMA AND PUOUIUKA : THK I'ASS oi-

CHUCUITO

i'liutu by liiraiu ijiiigliaiii

THE HOUSE OF ANDREAS OUINTANILLA : I'UOUIURA

A typical hut at Puquiura, in the Vilcabamba Valley, where we were hospitably enter-
tained for several days during the preliminary work of excavating the monolith and shrmc
at 5Justa Espana, near Vitcos.

549

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551

Photo by Hiram Bingham

ROCK CARVING AT NUSTA ESPANA

A detail of some of the carving on the great monolith at ftusta Espana. These project-
ing stones remind one of Machu Picchu, where they are frequently in evidence, and seem to
have been used for practical as well as ornamental and religious purposes.

quirau, and the green cane fields in the
province of Abancay, on the other side.

''From a purely artistic point of view
the country was wonderful, with its
splendid ranges of gleaming white peaks
all covered by glaciers, and the dark
green of the jungle below leading down
into straight-sided valleys with streams
white with foam running down them.
From the point of view of one who had
to travel through it for the purpose of
getting to a place, location unknown, and
making a trail to that place, it was any-
thing but lovely.

"After looking my fill and taking com-
pass readings on Yanama and various
prominent points, we started down. There
had been condors swinging above us ever
since we had reached the high point, and
now one flew quite close. I fired at him
with the 22 Winchester automatic, and
for a moment thought he was going to
fall. He recovered his balance, however,
and went sailing off; but after traveling
about half a mile he suddenly collapsed
and fell, turning over and over and over
into the brush, where, after quite a hunt,
we found him, dead.

"He was a splendid bird, spreading a
little over 9 feet 6 inches and measuring

4 feet from bill to tail tip. This shot
showed both the hitting power of the
little 2.2 and the wonderful vitality of the
condor. The mushroom bullet had gone
through breast and breast-bone, lungs,
liver, and intestines, lodging against a
thigh-bone. Tomas carried the bird back
to the hacienda, where the prowess of
the little rifle caused much admiration.
We took off the skin and spread it to
dry on one of the frames built to jerk
meat, of which there were several in the
yard. Next morning it was nowhere to
be seen, and, as the mayor-domo said
that it was no use looking for it, I sur-
mised that he knew where it was and
agreed with him. . . ."

trouble; with bears and jungIvE plies

Dr. Eaton's party had some trouble
with hungry bears, which broke open a
food box and devoured a quantity of pre-
cious provisions. These bears belong to
the spectacled-bear genus, and, although
plentiful in this region, are extremely shy
and hard to get a shot at.

The perils of the trail were many, but
the most serious handicap, as every ex-
plorer has found in this region before,
and the most annoying thing they had to

552

endure, was the ever-present
swarms of green jungle-flies. Mr.
Heald says in his report :

"They are little fellows, but the
way they bite is not the least in
proportion to their size. Every
place they bite they leave a blood-
spot the size of a pin-head, and this
burns and itches for two or three
days. There were swarms of them,
and soon we were all swelling. The
only thing we could do was to grin
and bear it. When we stopped to
rest we made a smudge, but while
traveling the best we could do was
to slaughter as many as we could.

". . . W^ith the coming of dark
the flies had left us, but they left
us in very bad shape. Xot a man
of us could bend his wrists, they
were so swollen ; the knuckles on
the hands were invisible, and our
eyes were mere slits that it cost an
effort to open enough to look out
of. Still, there was a lot to be
thankful for. There was lots of
dry wood where we stopped, and
we soon had a fire going, which
warmed and dried us. The night
was clear, so there was no danger
of being gotten out of bed by rain.
I had i-hot a jungle duck, and the
inner man was perfectly satisfied.
What bothered me most was that I
was afraid the peons would try to
run away, and I very much doubted
my ability to carry enough food to
enable us to find Choqquequirau
without their help. . . ."

Photo by Hiram Bingham

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE MONOLITH NEAR VITCOS

The east end of the monolith at JS'usta Espana
overhangs a spring. Near this was what appeared
at first to be a stone platform. The pictures on page
554 show wiiat our excavations revealed at this point.

THE SCARCITY OF WATER AND SUFFERING
FROM THIRST.

Their most serious diffictilty, however,
was the lack of water and the height and
steepness of the mountains, which cut
them off from any possible water supply.
Here is a sample of what they suffered :

"The next morning, when I went to fill
my canteen with water, I found that there
was none. The men said that they had
drunk it, but I felt pretty sure that they
had poured it out, believing that then we
would have to turn back. I would have
done so (though no farther than the
spring we had imcovered the day before),
but the Director had told me there was

a spring easily found at Choqquequirau,
and I was confident that we must be near
the place.

"In front of us rose a sharp ridge. I
was sure that if we gained its top we
would see the city on the other side.
The fire had cleared the ground, so going
was not hard ; it had also cleared out
the flies. After about two hours of
climbing we stood on top of the lowest
saddle of the ridge. This had been
reached after some rather ticklish clift'-
climbing. On looking over the other side
we were tremendously disapjiointed, for
instead of a city there was an impassable
ravine. All the morning we worked along

553

Photo by Hiram Dingham
COMMIiNCING EXCAVATIONS AT NUSTA ESPANA NEAR PUQUIURA, NEAR THE STONE
PLATFORM SHOWN IN THE LAST PICTURE

Photo by Hiram Bingham

THE RESULTS OE EXCAVATION AT NUSTA ESPANA

The seats near the spring at :N^usta Espana after excavation. They are cut out of large
rocks, so that the platform on which they rest, the seats themselves, and the lower portion of
the back are all part of the same rock. Thus only three or four large rocks were used for
the_ entire row of seats. The excavations here yielded no results in the way of potsherds or
artifacts (see page 520).

554

Photo by Hiiain Bingliain

C CORl H U A YRAC H I N A

The ruins of Ccorihuayrachina, in the Urubamba Valley, are very primitive and were
visited for the first time in 1912. Inside of one of the houses here shown is a solitary square
projecting stone, the only thing that diflferentiates these ruins from mnny others.

I'liot . hy 1 1 iram IJingiiaiu
\.\(*Tin:R CROUP OF RELATIVELY UNIMPORTANT RUINS VISITED FOR THE FIRST TIMK
IN 191 2 WAS AT LLACTA PATA IN THE AOBAMBA VALLEY

Corners of two of the smaller houses are shown in this picture as well as the type of
tent used by most of our parties. It has only a single pole and may be easily put up by one
man in five minutes (see text, page 534).

555

red fay H.ram Bin^hai

by Albert H Bumste<

PLAN OF THE RUINS OF LLACTA FATA NFAR HUADQUINA, DISCOVKRFD BY HIRAM

BINGHAM IN 1912

This plan shows the more important group of ruins at Llacta Pata, but does not show
any part of those illustrated in the preceding picture. As in all Inca ruins, the marked
characteristic is the symmetrical arrangement of niches within oblong buildings (see also
text, page 534).

Photo by Hiram Bingham

FSTANCIA IN PALCAY

The most important group of ruins discovered in 19 12 was that at Palcay, a hitherto
unreported locality, where I found an extraordinary square fortified stronghold resembling
in architectural details the ruins of Choqquequirau, described in my "Across South America,"
Chapter XXIII (see text, page 535, and plan, page 559).

SS6

Measured by Hiram Bingham
fcDrawn by Albert H. Bumstead

RUINS OF ESTANCIA IN PALCAY

This ruin of a small isolated group of buildings at Palcay probably represents a temple
and the residence of the priest. The presence of huge rocks, the careful character of the
construction, and the absence of other buildings all point to this conclusion.

the knife edge of ravines, hoping that
the city would come into view, and al-
Avays disappointed.

"By noon we had come to where the
ridge merged into the mountain pro]ier
and were working along its sides. After
the stop for lunch the men refused to go
any farther. They said if they did it
would be merely to die of thirst : that the
city of Choqquequirau was non-existent,
and that they did not wish to die just
because I did.

EXTRIvMK MEASU''.'i;S BECOME NECESSARY.

"I knew we c<Hildn't make them work,
"but T thought we could force them to
travel. Giving the 22 to Tomas, I told

him to shoot any man who tried to bolt,
but to do it carefully, around the edges.
Then, taking a machete. I started ahead,
cutting the way, and told them to fol-
low. .\s Tomas stood between them
and the back trail, they decided to do so,
and for two hours we went ahead in that
way. By that time I was just about ex-
hausted, as we were working through
thick cane and I was going at top speed.*
"Coming out on a little shoulder, I
thought I saw some ruins on the next
spur ahead. Looking through my glass

* Tt should not be forgotten that all this time
Mr. Heald was suffering from the effects of
his accident on Huayna Picchu, which had
partially disabled his right arm (pp. 431, 43^).

i-'lioto by Hiram Bingham

A CORNER OF the; RUINS OF LLACTA IN PALCAY

Showing a niche and a projecting cylindrical
stone, and the chief Indian guide, who deserted with
his fellows two days' later and left us in the lurch.

confirmed it. Then I pointed them out
to the men. They too saw them, and
after that there was no trouble. They
were as anxious to get there as I was,
for we were all suffering from thirst, and
I had told them there was a spring there.
"Two hours of hard work placed us on
the spur, though still high above the ruins.
From there we could see several stone
houses and two thatched huts, which had
been left by the treasure-hunters who
had come from Abancay two years pre-
viously. Just at dark we reached these
huts. They showed signs of the old oc-
cupancy. There were two or three skulls
lying around. A table-stone or two were
in evidence and in one corner was an
old Inca pot.

". . . While four of us were
fixing camp I sent the other two
out to look for water. In an hour
they came back with the news that
there was none to be found. By
this time we were all very thirsty,
but there was nothing to do but
grin and bear it.

WATUR HARD TO FIND

"About midnight I was wakened
by a man crying and pleading. It
was Tomas, who was having a
nightmare. This in itself would
not have been serious, but it ex-
cited the superstitions of the peons.
They said the Incas were angry be-
cause we were there, and they
wanted to be gone at daylight. I
thought it best to spend some time
making a search for the spring ; so,
as soon as it was light, we started
and for an hour hunted in the
jungle, but without result. The
best we could do was to get water
from air plants and chew certain
bulbs which contained much mois-
ture. This was not such a small
help as it might seem, for many of
the air plants had a good swallow
of water in them, though of course
we got it drop by drop at a time.

"Giving up hopes of finding a
spring near the city, we took the
back trail. We were all pretty
weak, but we made very fair time.
Reaching the ridge, we climbed
down by a new way, marking our
trail with piles of stones, and also
followed a new trail back to the draw
in which the spring was, striking the
draw a good deal higher up. This turned
out to be a better road ; also it led us to
the discovery of a series of stone-faced
terraces, and at one point in them the
spring broke through, so that with a little
fixing we could get all the water we
wanted, and that was a good deal."

They later found water within an
hour's walk of Choqquequirau, and had
a plentiful supply for the work of ex-
cavating as long as their provisions lasted.
They had hoped to accomplish a good
deal of map- work, but, owing to the great
amount of rain and the almost continuous
prevalence of fog and mist, little could
be done besides making a route map.

558

measured by Hiram Bingha
Jrawn by Albert H. Bumstead

PLANS OF THE RUINS OF LLACTA IN PALCAY DISCOVERED IN I912

The most remarkable feature of this fortified stronghold is that the cross-streets repre-
sent as nearly the exact cardinal points as it was possible for men working with crude tools
to effect. These ruins are in the Southern Hemisphere, so the North Star is not visible.
The ancient Peruvians did not know the use of the compass, and if they had the buildings
would have been arranged according to the magnetic north and not according to true north.
So exactly do the streets follow the local meridian and parallel that the exact orientation
can hardly be said to be an accident (see pages 535 and 537).

ACCIDENTS AMONG THE INDIANS.

The Indians suffered quite as much as
the white men on this journey. One of
the bearers, who was carrying a food-
box weighing 60 pounds, sHpped on a
steep bank and fell 20 feet ; the box,
which fell with him. oi)ened his head.
The man was not killed, but of course
had to be sent home, and as laborers
were extremely scarce, his presence was
seriously missed.

.\nother Indian ran a stick into his
foot and blood-poisoning ensued. .\ third
slipped off a precipitous rock and fortu-
nately was saved by the rope which had
been tied to his waist when passing this

dangerous part of the trail, although he
had a toe-nail torn off and suffered con-
siderably from blood-poisoning.

The results of these hardships were
the route map — the first ever made of
this section of the Andes — the discovery
c^f a ninnber of hitherto unknown Inca
engineering works, including ditches and
agricultural terraces, now buried deep in
the jungle and practically inaccessible,
and a few boxes of archeological and
osteological specimens.

Because of the scarcity of labor, the
terror of the Indians, and the small quan-
tity of provisions that could be carried
over the extremely difficult trail, the party^
was only able to spend five days at Choq~

559

's6o

IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU

561

quequirau. Under Dr. Eaton's direction
1 1 graves were examined and such skel-
etal material and pottery collected as four
men could carry on their return march.
No metal objects were found in these
graves.

The method of burial was similar to
that observed at Machu Picchu, except
that the construction of bottle-necked
graves was far superior at Choqque-
quirau, and this style of grave apparently
more in vogue than at ^Nlachu Picchu.
It may be noted here as significant that
apparently the best example of the bot-
tle-necked grave at Machu Picchu was
found in a house closely resembling in
its architectural details the buildings at
Choqquequirau.

This route had only been used three
times previously : ( i ) bv the French ex-
plorer Sartiges in 1834 (2) by the Pe-
ruvian explorer Samanez in 1861, and
(3) by the Almanza brothers in 1885.
It was used successfully this year for the
first time since 1885. Great credit is due
yir. Heald for his courage and persever-
ance.

VIII

AXTlIR0P01,0CxCAL STUDIES.

The anthropological study consisted
chiefly in the taking, v/ith extreme care
and marked regard for scientific accu-
racy, of a number of anthropometric
measurements.

The blanks used for the measurements
were ])repared by Dr. H. B. Ferris, of
the Yale Medical School, and the results
and photographs have been turned over
to him for the preparation of a report
on the anatomical characteristics of the
IMountain Indians of Southern Peru as
rei)rcsented in the data obtained by the
expedition.

(^wing to the habit that the Mountain
Indians have of frequently visiting Cuzco,
the principal center of population, we
were enabled to secure measurements of
representatives of many villages and
towns that we did not visit. I'esides
Cuzco, anthropological measurements
were taken in Huadquifia, Machu Picchu,
and Santa Ana.

At Machu Picchu we had our own

workmen to draw on, while at Santa
Ana and Iluadquina the managers of
the large sugar plantations kindly placed
their laborers at our dispo.sal. In Cuzco
it was necessary to employ force. 1 lad
it not been for the willingness of the
Peruvian government to assist us. W3
should have failed in our object.

The method followed was to have the
officer or soldier who was assigned to us
go out on the streets and arrest any In-
dians that seemed to be of pure blood
and who proclaimed by their costumes
and general appearance that they were
typical ]\Iountain Indians.

On being arrested, the unfortunate
subjects were brought to the doctor's
room at the hotel. Many of the Indians
thought that they were being recruited
for service in the army, and not a few
shed tears a . the thought ; others were
only curious. All were much relieved
when they were set free and given a
five-cent piece with which to buy chic ha
(native beer made from maize).

Thirty-eight measurements were taken
of each subject — measurements of head,
face, ears, and nose, as well as of height
standing, kneeling, sitting, and others.
Many other data were also recorded con-
cerning any peculiarities or deformations,
color of eyes and hair, and other facts of
anthropological interest.

One hundred and forty-five Indians
were thus studied, and a front and side
view photograph taken of each. They
represented 16 provinces and 60 towns.
]Most of these were men. Photographs
of many Indian women were also taken
in Cuzco and at the stations between
Cuzco and Mollendo. making 433 photo-
graphs in all taken for this study.

Some of the Indians were greatly
frightened at the procedure. To one aged
Indian military honors appealed, and he
took his measurements with a smiling
face, .\nother Indian, when he fount' he
cculd have his picture taken free, dressed
in his Sunday clothes. The next dav he
returned to see the photograph. When
he was shown the negative he refused to
believe that it was his picture, because
he couldn't see the colors and the span-
gles that decorated that Sunday coat he
wore.

562

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

CONCLUSIONS re;ache;d f-rom the meas-

UREMENTS AND EXAMINATIONS.

At Huadquina the Indians were or-
dered to a room to be measured. One
subject objected strenuously and made it
as difficult as he could for any measure-
ments to be taken. He would not stand
straight, nor sit straight, nor assume any
position correctly. Finally, when the
measurements were all taken, he was
offered the usual medio for his trouble.
This small coin, with which one could
purchase a large drink of native beer,
was usually gratefully accepted as a quid
pro quo, but in this case the Indian de-
cided he had been grievously insulted,
and he threw the coin violently to the
ground and strode off in high dudgeon.

Remarkably few cranial deformations
were found, these being all slightly acro-
cephalic. The following facts were no-
ticed about the Indians : The leg and back
muscles are markedly developed, while
their arm muscles show very meager de-
velopment; their work consist .- largely of
carrying heavy loads upcii their backs
over mountain trails ; t'ne Indians do not
become bald, and their hair seldom loses
its pigment ; their teeth are also remark-
ably well preserved, except on the sugar
plantations, where they suck the sugar-
cane and eat coarse brown sugar {chan-
caca).

An interesting custom which still pre-
vails was observed as being practiced
about two miles outside of Cuzco, as one
goes north toward the Urubamba Valley.
At a point in the road where one gets a
last look at the city the Indians have a
praying place.

THE INDIAN PRAYING PIvACE ABOVE CUZCO

I This road is one of the principal high-
ways in Peru, and hundreds of Indians
pass up and down going in and out of
Cuzco daily. The view of Cuzco lying
below in the green valley is truly a beauti-
ful one, but it is something more than a
sense of beauty that makes the Indians
stop, and, with uncovered heads, some
kneeling and some standing, offer a
prayer as they look toward their Mecca.
It is noticeable that those who are on
a journey going away from Cuzco pray

for a longer time than those who are
approaching the city. Possibly they fear
the dangers of the roadside more than
those of the city streets.

Another Indian custom which adds a
picturesque touch to the roadsides be-
tween Cuzco and Machu Picchu is the
presence of quaint signs indicating what
is for sale in the Indian huts.

A small bunch of wheat or barley tied
on the end of a pole and stuck out in
front of the hut indicates that there is
cJiicha (a native corn beer) for sale
v/ithin. A bunch of flowers on the end
of a pole also has the same significance.

A green Avreath means that there is
bread for sale, while a piece of white
cloth or white paper waving in the breeze
indicates that the wayfarer may here
purchase aguardiente, a powerful white
rum made of cane juice and containing
a large percentage of raw alcohol.

It is sincerely to be regretted that more
Indians could not have been measured,
but as this work was entirely in charge
of the surgeon of the expedition, Dr.
L. T. Nelson, and as his first duty was to
attend to the health of the members of
the expedition, the anthropological meas-
urements had to take second place. The
exigencies of the work necessitated his
spending a large part of his time where
there was little opportunity for making
anthropological measurements.

NO MEASUREMENTS PERMITTED IN
AREQUIPA

In Arequipa he found that local senti-
ment prevented the government from as-
sisting him. Arequipeiios would resent
any action compelling an Indian to sub-
mit to measurements, even though the
subject were paid for his time. Further-
more, as practically the only pure-blooded
Indians now in Arequipa are transients
who come in for commercial purposes,
driving their llama trains loaded with
produce, the merchants of Arequipa
would resent anything which might in-
terfere with business. These difificulties
made it impossible to secure any meas-
urements in Arequipa.

On the trip to Choqquequirau, where
the surgeon's presence was necessary.

Photo by Hiram Bingham

MOUNT SALCAXTAY AND THE YALE GLACIER AT THE HEAD OF THE AOBAMBA VALLEY

This peak, one of the most beautiful in the Andes, is probably 21,000 feet above sea-
level, and has never been climbed or triangulated. It was cloud-covered so much of the time
that we have hitherto been unable to triangulate it. Clouds may be seen gathering m front
of the glacier, and two minutes after this picture was taken the entire mountain was envel-
oped in cloud, and nothing more than partial and fleeting glimpses were had of it during our
stay in the vicinity (see pages 539, 541. 560, 564-565)-

56.1

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owing to the great risks of send-
ing the members of the expedi-
tion over a dangerous mountain
trail, it was necessary to cut the
equipment down to any such
surgical instruments as might be
demanded, and it was not possi-
ble to take along any of the
equipment for making anthro-
pometric measurements.

Finally, owing to the presence
of smallpox and an epidemic of
typhoid in Arma, Puquiura, and
the neighboring villages, the sur-
geon was obliged to stay with
the topographical party all the
time that they were working in
that region. Their work was
greatly hindered by adverse wea-
ther conditions, and so much val-
uable time was lost.

The extent of the smallpox
and typhoid fever epidemics pro-
hibited the surgeon from carry-
ing on anthropological work
there, on account of the danger
of bringing the contagion to the
camp. To be sure, the white
members of the expedition had
been vaccinated, both for small-
pox and typhoid, by our medi-
cal adviser, Dr. H. S. Arnold, of
the Yale Medical School, before
leaving this country ; but it would
have been wrong to have had
them run unnecessary risks or
to have subjected to the danger
of contagion the muleteers, engi-
neering assistants, and the other
native members of the party who
ihad not been so vaccinated.

WEATHER OBSERVATIONS

From May 28, the day of our
departure from Panama, until
the arrival of the vessel off the
town of Mollendo, on June 8, a
full series of weather observa-
tions was taken daily at the
hours of 8 a. m., 12 m., and 8
p. m. The data recorded cover
the following phenomena : Air
temperature (dry-bulb thermom-
eter), temperature bv wet -bulb
thermometer, barometric pres-

564

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sure, clouds, precipitation, wind,
sea, and surface temperature of
the ocean.

On the return voyage from
Mollendo to Panama a full series
of weather observations was
taken similar to that recorded
when outward bound.

A complete series of weather
observations was taken at Alachu
Picchu and during the cross-sec-
tion map-making. Arrangements
were made with Mr. Burt Col-
lins, the manager of the Inca
Mining Company, and with Mr.
Claude Barber, of the Santa
Lucia mine, to undertake the es-
tablishment of four meteorologi-
cal stations at widely different
elevations along the 71st merid-
ian w^est of Greenwich. One will
be at an elevation of nearly 14.-
000 feet, another at an elevation
of about 6,000 feet, another on
the edge of the Great Plains, and
still another on the River Madre
de Dios.

Self-registering barometers,
thermometers, and rain gauges
have been supplied for these sta-
tions. Mercurial barometers and
sling psychrometers have also
been provided. Both Mr. Collins
and Mr. Barber have agreed to
look after the maintenance of
the stations for a period of five
years.

The instrumental equipment
for these stations was in part a
loan from the Harvard Observa-
tory through the kindness of
Prof. E. C. Pickering, and in
part due to the generosity of
Mrs. Alfred Mitchell, who placed
at our disposal a special fund for
the purchase of instruments.

The results of the work should
prove most illuminating a n d
ought to be of particular value
in connection with the observa-
tions made some years ago by
the Aleteorological Department
of the Harvard Astronomical
Observatory at Arequipa.

56:

Photo by Hiram Bingham
THE FIRST PUTROGLVrHIC ROCK DISCOVERED NEAR CUZCO

At Maranyocc near Liniatambo, on the trail from Mount Salcantay to Cuzco, a small
boulder was discovered covered with petrogl3'phs. The right-hand figure is seated near the
boulder (see text, page 544)-

Photo by Hiram Bingliain
A NEARER VIEW OF THE PETRCGLYPHS NEAR EIMATAMBO

A partial view of the Maranyocc boulder covered with petroglyphs. .Their significance
is not known, and there is no tradition in the vicinity to account for their presence here.
The picture was taken by arranging the tripod so that the camera pointed .almost directly
down. It is barely possible that this rock, which is carved in a manner -unlike any other
hitherto found in the Department of Cuzco, represents the story of an Indian raid froiti the
jungles of the Amazon into the heart of the land of the Incas.

k66

COLLECTIONS M.\DIC BY THE EX-
PEDITION'

Our collections have all safely
reached New Haven. They con-
sist in large part of the bone^ of
the people who built and lived
in Machu Picchu. of the pits-
herds, pots, and bronzes found
there, and of the geological, oste-
ological, and paleontological ma-
terial collected in the vicinity of
Cuzco, of geological specimens
from other parts of Peru, and
of 2.500 photographs taken with
the 3A Special and No. 4 Pana-
ram Kodaks.

In a broad geographical sense
the results of Dr. Eaton's col-
lecting is one of the most im])or-
tant and interesting features of
the expedition. In the vicinity
of Cuzco Dr. Eaton secured the
skeletons of probably 20 individ-
uals. At J\Iachu Picchu more
than 60 individuals were exca-
vated, and at Choqquequirau ten.

With these ancient denizens of
southern Peru were found a
number of bronze metal objects,
including pins, knives, forceps,
and some very attractive pieces
of pottery. Although Dr. Eaton
was technically the osteologist of
the expedition, his work lay in
a variety of fields.

Invertebrate fossils were col-
lected from the hills overlooking
the town of Payta, Peru, and the
site of an ancient cemetery at
Pascasmayo was visited.

Vertebrate fossils were obtained from
sedimentary gravels in the Huancaro
Quebrada.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments are due to the
United States government for kind of-
fices in connection with securing requi-
site privileges in Peru and for the loan.
on the part of the Army, of a detached
service chest, which enabled us to have
the use of an abundant supply of medi-
cines and of a complete set of surgical
instruments :

To the Peruvian governm.ent for many
favors and courtesies, including the free

THE SAN FRANCISCO PLAZA: CUZCO

A corner of the Cuzco market, showing venders of
vegetables and fire-wood. Dr. Xelson, the surgeon of
the expedition, took many photographs of men and
women in the market-place and on the streets of Cuzco
(see text, pages 561, 562).

entry of all our equipment and supplies,
the assignment to our party of members
of the Army whenever necessary, and
the permission to bring all of our collec-
tions to this countrv.

To Mr. W. L. Aiorkill and the other
ofificials of the Peri.v'ian corporation and
the Southern Railway of Peru for many
courtesies, including the free use of their
railway and telegraph lines.

To the President and Faculty of the
University of Cuzco, who aided us in
numerous ways and whose many cour-
tesies included not only hospitable en-
tertainment at houses of the professors,
but assistance in finding interesting

S67

Photo by iliram Bingha;

A favorite; spot for freezing potatoes: near CHINCtlFROS

One of the commonest vegetables sold in the market-place is called "chunu," potatoes
dried in the sun by day, frozen at night on selected spots of the high plateau, and pressed
the next morning by the feet of hard-working Indians

Photo by Hiram Bingham

SOUFFZING THF JUICE OUT OF THAWING POTATOES

A "cjuimi" maker treading the juice out of the piles of little potatoes that were spread
out at night and frozen. Potatoes so prepared keep well, but lose their flavor and arc ex-
tremely msipid. The usual method of preparing them for the table is to grind them on a
stone mortar and use the powdered "chiinu" to thicken soup

568

Photo by Hiram liingham

A ROADSIDE SCENE NEAR CHINCIIEROS

Looking toward the Uriibamba Valley from a point near Chincheros. There are almost
no wire fences in this country, the place of barbed wire being taken by thorny hedge plants
which include cacti, thorn bushes, and agaves, or century plants, as shown in the picture.

THE ENGIXHERS' C.\MI' XE.\K PUOUU'RA

Photo by L. T. Nelson

Owing to the prevalence of an epidemic of smallpox and typhoid in Puquiura, one
engineering party, that had the misfortune to lose its tent by fire, made its camp in a
cave said by the natives to have been an Inca prison. It was not very comfortable, but it
was dry and it was sanitary.

569

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Photo by Hiram liuigiia;
rOTTHKV FROM .MACIIU PICCHU (SKE PACKS 446 TO 449)

points whose whereabouts was not gen-
erally known.

To -Messrs. Cesar Lomellnii & Co., of
Cuzco, who for two years have acted
as our agents and have placed at our
disposal their excellent facilities for
handling the difficult situations which
arise in connection with the organization
and administration of an exploring ex-
pedition, and all without charging us any
commission or any rent, although we oc-
cupied a large room in their warehouses
as our headquarters for many months.

To Messrs. W. R. Grace & Co., whose
unique position in Peruvian commerce
enable them to assist us in unnumbered
ways, beginning with the ])rocuring of
our supplies and ending with the carry-
ing home of some of our collections in
their steamers, without charge for any
of their services. It is not too much to
say that the work of the last two years
could not have been accomplished as it

has been without the continual friendly
offices of this company, whose enlight-
ened policy in regard to assisting scien-
tific endeavor might well serve as an ex-
ample to other companies engaged in
carrying on foreign trade.

In conclusion it gives me great pleasure
to acknowledge a large debt of gratitude
to the officials of Yale University and of
the National Geographic Society for their
sympathetic cooperation during both the
preparation and the progress of the ex-
pedition.

To them and to the members of the
expedition I should like to take this op-
portunity to express my own personal
thanks for the loyal support which has
been accorded me from the beginning.
The end is not yet, for it will take many
months of patient and laborious effort
to bring out the ultimate scientific results
of the Peruvian Expedition of 191 2.

573

BUDDHIST MONKS PRINTING

The art of printing is. in the West, a comparatively recent discovery, but in China and
T?-i?^ o^"^^'' P^rts of the East it has been known for ages. In manv of the monasteries of
1 ibet and Siberia the Buddhist monks still print in the manner which has been handed down
irom generation to generation. Movable type is not used, but each page is carved upon a
solid wood block, and thus, whenever a new book is printed, entirely new blocks have to be
made. Several of these blocks can be seen in the picture, and from them the shape of a
1 ibetan book can be easily imagined. The printing press is an enormous stone which has
to be raised and lowered by hand as each sheet is printed, and the production of a book is
consequently a process requiring much time and labor.

574

Vol. XXIV, No. 5

WASHINGTON

May, I9I3

(rH

fr^

THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

Bv David Fairchild

In Charge; of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Department of

Agriculture

Author of "Our Plant Inrniigrants," "Xczv Plant Immigrants," and "Madeira, On
the Way to Italy," in the Xational Geographic Magazine

Y TASK is to open to the
readers of the National Geo-
graphic Magazine a door into
a world as full of romance as the fairy
tales of Grimm or Andersen.

But first I must tell you how it came
about that an agricultural explorer should
dare to present a theme so far removed
from the one with which his life has been
associated.

I sat down one Sunday afternoon to
write a story for my little boy about the
creatures which he Avas finding around
my laboratory in the woods. He was
hunting for them with the same enthusi-
asm that a big-game hunter stalks his
game in the jungle, and the thought
flashed into my mind, why shouldn't we
hunt them with a camera just as Shiras
and Dugmore and others have done. It
is true our monsters were small, while
theirs were big; but then theirs were as
much too large for the photographic plate
as ours were too small. They w^ere
forced to reduce the image of each beast
to the limit of a five by seven plate, while
we would be forced to enlarge ours to
the same dimensions.

The collection of photographs which
has grown out of this idea is a miscel-
laneous one and has been made without
any thought of what would be done with
it later, and it was not. therefore, until
I accepted the invitation to publish some

of them that I really began to look into
the vast storehouses of literature which
describe the life histories of these crea-
tures.

The facts which I have been able to
find out about them represent not my
own observations, but those of hundreds
of trained observers who, working quietly
for years and some of them for a life-
time, have studied out the habits of these
various forms, most of which are so diffi-
cult to study that months of patient wait-
ing have been required to find out some
significant fact about their ways of life.

I had thought, in my ignorance of the
subject, that all of my beasts had names,
for they were caught within a stone's
throw of my house ; but my entomological
friends of the Department of Agriculture
and of the Xati(inal Museum found diffi-
culty in identifying some which I thought
must be common ; and now, since I have
read more fully of the vastness of the
world which I had entered, I wonder
that with only the mummified specimens
which I had preserved they could name
so many of them.

In fact, almost the first sentence in the
first text-book I opened made the aston-
ishing statement that "insects are the
most numerous in species and individuals
of all land animals. It is estimated that
about 250,000 si)ecies have already been
described and have had scientific names

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THE MONSTERS OF OL'R I5ACK YARDS

579

given to them, and it is considered that
this is probably only one-tenth of those
that really exist."

I must explain that all the creatures
shown are not insects ; for. strange as it
may seem to some of my readers, spiders
are not insects, for they have eight in-
stead of six legs and no feelers or an-
tennae. It is a pleasure to present these
monsters to the public as a showman
might, on a level with the eye and not
looking down on them as they are so
often shown in text-books on entomology.

THE KIXG GRASSHOPPER (PAGE 5/6)

The young king grasshopper is prob-
ably 20 days old, and its wings have not
developed, but it can jump a hundred
times its length, whereas man can
scarcely cover three times his length at a
leap. When its wings grow and its in-
ternal air sacs fill with air it can sail
away for miles. One representative of
this great family can sail for a thousand
miles before the wind, and they go in
such numbers that they make a cloud
2,000 square miles in extent.

Its great front lip hides a pair of jaws
as etTective as a hay-chopper, and it has
an appetite as voracious as that of a hip-
popotamus. This voraciousness and
these jaws are what have made several
of its relatives the plague of mankind.
They multiply in such numbers as to
baffle all calculation, and every living
green thing for thousands of square
miles disappears down their throats,
leaving the country they infest desolate.
The great famine of Egypt, mentioned
in the book of Exodus ; the grasshopper
years of Kansas, which ruined thou-
sands of families on our plains, and
more recent devastations in Argentina
and South Africa are exami)les of the
tremendous effects which the migratory
locusts have had upon the happiness of
mankind.

As this young king grasshopper stands
looking so inquiringly at one with his
varicolored eyes, each of which is com-
posed of hundreds of facets. I cannot
help thinking that he represents a crea-
ture quite as fascinating and actually
more dangerous than the East African
monsters of our school geographies.

A BABY GRASSHOPPER (PAGE 577)

A baby creature, scarcely two weeks
since it issued from a grasshopper egg,
and yet with two moults behind it — two
bright green l)aby skins cast oft' !

Imagine looking forward, as this baby
creature does, to the day when the pads
on its back shall have grown so long and
l)archment-like that it can leave its hop-
ping terrestrial existence and sail away
across the fields. Until that time, how-
ever, it must be content with its six
springy legs, pushing its way among the
blades of grass, tasting everything green
and eating what it likes, and hiding from
its enemies when moulting time comes
round.

A young chick finds itself shut inside
the egg-shell and must work its way out
alone, but the young grasshoppers when
they hatch out find themselves — the
whole nestful — shut in a hardened case
in the ground made by their mother, and
it takes a half dozen of them working
together to dislodge the lid which shuts
them in.

vouxG grasshopper's skeleton

(PAGE 578)

AMien the young grasshopper emerges
from the egg, it is very small indeed —
a wingless, helpless little creature, all legs
and mouth.

It passes through successive ages, or
stages, as they are called, each one of
which is separated from the other by a
moult or casting of its outer shell.

These moults take place at fixed pe-
riods, and as the insect finds itself re-
strained by its firm, inelastic skeleton, a
longitudinal rent occurs along the back,
and the insect, soft and dangerously help-
less, struggles out of the old skin in-
closed in a new but delicate cuticle, which
takes some time to harden and color up.

Some people go to great trouble and
expense to keep the baby portraits and
even the baby shoes, and T cannot help
wondering whether a full-grown grass-
hopper, leading a life in the open air. is
ever interested in observing the baby
skeletons which sh(^w its five stages of
terrestrial life.

What an interesting collection could

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

583

be made of these insects' skeletons, pho-
tographed large enough so that we could
see and study them !

A GREEN GRASSHOPPER (Dickromorplia
Z'iviilis), PAGE 580

Whether this creature has a person-
ality or not may be forever extremely
difficult for humans to decide. Its eyes
that look like cows eyes really cast a
thousand images on a special kind of
brain, so different from our own that we
cannot untlerstand it, and then besides
these great big eyes it has three others
scarcely visible in the picture. Its short-
ringed horns are not horns at all, but
sense organs of so complicated a nature
that we do not yet know certainly
whether they are organs of smell or not.
and it is supposed that they may be the
seat of sense organs that we humans do
not have.

In front of the great thighs embedded
on each side of the body, but hidden in
the picture by the second leg, are the so-
called ears, tuned no doubt to catch vi-
brations of the air far too delicate or
too frequent for our ears.

The jumping legs of the creature are
filled with powerful muscles, which
when they expand can hurl it through
the air and enable it to escape from its
enemies. On the inner side, along the
lower rib of the wing, is the musical in-
strument. It is a row of hard, bead-like
projections, which are very highly de-
veloped in the males, but not at all in the
females. \\'hen the edge of the wing is
scraped over these projections, a musical
sound is made. It would seem to be the
case, as with so many of the birds, that
only the male can sing, the female being
mute.

THE K.MVDiD {Scuddcria fiircata).
I 'AGE 581

How marvelously equipped such a
creature as this is to live! The great
eyes, with many facets, enable it to see
by night as well as by day. Its long,
slender antenucC catch the faintest odor,
and probably are sensitive to a host of
perfumes that we do not know. In the
front of each fore leg, just below the

knee, is a dark sunken area, the ear, with
which it can probably hear sounds too
faint for our cars, and by moving them
can tell from which direction the sounds
come. Its long muscular legs enable it
to jump great distances, and its wings
not only enable it to fly well, but in the
males are provided with an apparatus
near their base for making a musical
sound.

In fact, if it is any comfort for sleep-
less ones to know it, the katydid is one
of the noisiest creatures of its size in the
world. It is only the males which call
their •"Katy-did, Katy-didn't, she did,
she didn't," and they are calling to their
mates.

THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH (Gryllus

Pcnnsylvanicus) , page 582

Through the ages, who knows if not
from the times of the cave dwellers, this
friendly visitor of the fireside has rubbed
his rough wings together over his head
and sung man to sleep. The European
form seems quite as domesticated as the
cat or dog, leading nowhere a truly wild
life, and it may be questioned whether
any living creature has become more a
part of human life than the cricket on
the hearth.

The carrying power of their song is
extraordinary ; there are species whose
strident notes can be heard for a mile,
although their little bodies are scarcely
more than an inch in length. The males
alone are musical, and it is reasonable
to suppose, since the females have ears
in their fore legs, that they are singing
to their mates and not to mankind.

As one listens to their friendly song it
is hard to appreciate what fighters they
are among themselves, the larger ones
even turning cannibals when food is
scarce, although a glance at the photo-
gra])h shows how well equipj)cd they are
for battle. Their great black eyes only
shinier black than their coal-black ar-
mored necks, their jointed palpi with
which they feed themselves, their thick,
leathery wings pressed against their sides
like a box cover, and their strong, mus-
cular spiny hind legs, with which they
jump a hundred times their own length,

584

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586

THE MONSTERS OF OUR HACK YARDS

587

do none of them contribute to beauty,
though quite in keeping with their ar-
mored war-horse appearance.

Two long tiexible circi protrude Hke
tails behind, but the task of finding out
what they are for has been too difficult
for man. Perhaps the strange nerve-end-
ing hairs which they bristle with may be
sensitive to vibrations of the air, of
which we yet know nothing.

THE STOXE OR CAMEL CRICKET (CcutllO-
pliilus ulilcri), page 584

It would not be a good idea to let the
children think that creatures such as
this were prowling round the house at
night — that is, unless you assure them
that it is only a harmless, tawny yellow
stone-cricket from the shady woods,
where it generally hides under stones
and damp, decaying logs.

It seems strangely equipped for its
night life, for it has antennse as long as
its body. I cannot help wondering if
these help it to jump in the dark. Fabre.
the great French entomologist, has tried,
as others have, to find out just how the
insects use their antennae and what they
are really for. He says at last "our
senses do not represent all the ways by
which the animal puts himself in touch
with that which is not himself ; there
are other ways of doing it, perhaps
many, not even remotely analogous to
those which Ave ourselves possess."

THE COCKROACH (Blatclh gcrmanica).
PAGE 585

In carboniferous times this was a
dominant creature, crawling over the
giant club mosses and tree ferns which
composed the marshy vegetation of the
young world. Today it crawls over the
cracker-box and makes its way through
every crevice in the kitchen and is of all
the creatures of our houses the most de-
tested. This is the German cockroach,
an importation from Europe, which has
spread around the world and which Xew
Yorkers know as the croton bug.

Its long, spiny legs are built for the
scurrying for which it is noted, while its
slippery body enables it to squeeze
through crevices and holes. It carries
its head tucked under its bodv, as if

looking for food, and its whip-like an-
tennae, always in motion, detect at long
range the presence of anything edible
which can be crammed into its capacious
croj).

Housewives may be surprised to learn
that a cockroach can live five years, and
that it takes a year to develop to ma-
turity from the egg. The female lays
her eggs in a horny capsule like a spec-
tacle case, which she carries about with
her until she is ready to deposit it in
some suitable place. Later she returns
to help her cockroach babies out of their
shells.

Like the crickets, cockroaches love the
night and shun the daylight. They can-
not tolerate cold weather, and though
there are 5.000 species they mostly in-
habit the tropics, where they are the
plague of domestic and ship life. It is
said that "ships come into San Fran-
cisco from their long half-year voyages
around the Horn with the sailors wear-
ing gloves on their hands when asleep in
their bunks in a desperate effort to save
their finger-nails from being gnawed oflF
by the hordes of roaches which infest
the whole ship" (Kellogg).

And now a rumor comes to us that the
cockroach carries cancer.

THE CICADA (Cicada sayi), page 586

The coming of the swallow is scarcely
more significant to Americans of the
Southern States than the arrival of the
cicada. Its song is the noisiest song in
the insect world. Darwin describes how
on the Beagle, while a quarter of a mile
off the coast of South America, he heard
a tropical cicada singing. Whether we
like their note or not. it is one of the
shrillest and most peculiar sounds in the
world. It is made in a curious way. by
the stretching and relaxing of a corru-
gated drum-like memlirane in the side of
the abdomen of the creature under its
wings. This is done bv means of spe-
cially strong muscles. The sound is con-
trolled in rhvthmic cadences by means
of semicircular discs or covers to the
drums, which can be closed and opened
at the will of the insect.

This noisv song, which the male alone
can sing, he doubtless sings for his mate

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

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and not for us, although entomologists
are not agreed as to how his partner
hears his song, as she seems to have no
ears. Although this is not the strangest
species of this wonderfully interesting
genus of creatures, the story can be told
here of that weirdest of all the insects —
the Rip Van Winkle of the insect world,
as David Sharp has called it, the 17-year
cicada.

From a tiny egg laid by its mother in
a twig of your back-yard shrubbery
there issues a creature which is as unlike
this monster as it can be, with soft white
body and mole-like front legs. It hurries
to the ground and disappears beneath its
surface sometimes to a depth of a hun-
dred times its length — 20 feet it is said.
For 17 years it digs its way around in the
absolute darkness of this underworld,
and then, as though by some prearranged
agreement, it comes to the surface to
join in a marriage revelry of a few brief
weeks in summer with its kinsmen of
the same generation who disappeared as
it did into the darkness 17 years before.
But somewhere while beneath the ground
the mole-like creature has become trans-
formed from the lowly larva to the
strangest actively walking pupa imag-
inable, and when it issues from its grave,
as it were, and climbs to some conspicu-
ous branch or tree trunk, it is a full-
fledged creature of the air, though en-
cased still in grave-clothes of parchment ;
but it soon splits these up the back, pulls
itself out, dries its powerful wings, and
flies away with the whirr of an aero-
drome.

Most insects live for a few months
only, and one, indeed, the male at least,
for only 15 or 20 minutes; but the 17-
year cicada, the oldest of the insect world,
lives as long as a cat or a dog. But what
a life ! Seventeen years of it in the dark
and a few weeks in the sunlight. And
yet, compared to the life of an angle-
worm, condemned to the darkness for-
ever, what an interesting career.

When the cicada's shrill song disturbs
you, then remember how brief is the
pleasure of its existence.

This species in the photograph is more
fortunate than the 17-year one, for it is
condemned to only two years of dark-
ness.

THE JUNE BEETLE LARVA (Allorhiua

nitida), page 588

How is it possible that this fat crea-
ture, with eye-like breathing pores along
its body, whose legs are worthless, and
which is so helpless that it has to turn
over on its back to wriggle over the
ground, can change into the emerald-
green June beetle which wings its way
like an aerodrome across the meadow?
This is the apparent miracle of meta-
morphosis which has well-nigh baffled
the intellect of man to explain.

Though the reasons why are still un-
known, modern research has shown us
how this incredible change has taken
place.

When this creature, which has grown
a hundred times its size since it was born,
has reached the age for this great change,
it doubtless feels the impending trans-
formation coming, and instinct tells it to
crawl away into some protected nook or
corner and pupate underneath the pro-
tection of a silken cover-lid of its own
spinning.

The change begins ; each organ goes to
pieces, disintegrates, becomes a mass of
disconnected cells, so that the body filled
with these becomes, as it were, a bag of
mush. This mushy fluid has been likened
by entomologists to the disintegrated tis-
sues which inflammation causes in our
own bodies. If, then, you should slit it
open at this stage, you would find no
alimentary canal, no salivary glands, no
muscles, simply a thick fluid, with here
and there a thicker lump, that is attached
at certain places to the inside of the sac
wall. These lumps are formed of groups
of active cells which were not disinte-
grated in the general breakdown of the
muscle tissue, and these form the nuclei
around which the new creature is to be
built. These groups of cells grow rap-
idly, feeding on the fluid mass of broken-
down tissue much as a young chick in-
side the egg, feeds on the yolk, and builds
up the whole complicated structure of the
winged beetle, which seems to have no
possible relation to the white grub out of
whose body it was made.

It is as though the insect hatched
twice, first from the almost microscopic

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR HACK YARDS

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egg its mother laid and from wliicli it
emerged as a tiny little creature in the
image of this grub, growing and manu-
facturing from the leaves it eats enough
nitrogenous matter so that when it
emerges again from the yolk-like sub-
stance of its cocoon it will be a full-
grown beetle, for it must be remembered
that once made the beetle never grows.
This wonderful process is the same
which is gone through by every flying
insect that has a grub or caterpillar stage.

ONE OF THE TwiG-PRUNERS (Blaphidiofi
atomaricum) , page 589

The long-horned beetles, as they are
called, are remarkable for the length of
their antenuce and their eyes of many
facets, which almost encircle the anten-
nae at their base. They have, like other
beetles, two lives, so to speak, and their
grub-life is spent inside some twig or
branch, burrowing and living on the
juices which their stomachs extract from
the sawdust made by their jaws. They
kill the twig they burrow in, so that the
wind blows it to the ground, and they
go through their transformation on the
ground. The story is told of a long-
horned beetle, belonging to a different
species, that lived for years in its larval
stage, burrowing patiently into the dry
wood of a boot-last or shoe-stretcher,
trying vainly to get enough nourishment
out of it to make a beetle of itself.

THE PREDACEOUS GROUXD BEETLE {Chlcc-
nins ccstk'Hs), page 590

This creature almost any one will
recognize as a beetle. It is built for run-
ning, and its jaws are made for fighting.
You have only to catch one and watch it
open and shut its jaws to realize that it
would bite you if it could. But for all
that it is a great friend, for it is what the
entomologists call predaceous, and at
night or at twilight it hunts everywhere
for the larvse of insects which attack the
plants we live on. Tn its larval state, in
which it looks for all the world like a
centiped without the "ped," it burrows
in the ground in search of the plant de-
stroyers, which think to escape notice by
getting under the cover of the soil. They
are by nature, then, opposed to the vege-

tarians, the herbivores, and hunt them
wherever they are likely to occur.

When you see a black or dark-br9wn
beetle running swiftly from under some
stone or log which you have just turned
over and which makes faces with its jaws
as though it would chew your fingers
when you pick it up, you can be quite
sure in eight times out of ten that it is
one of these carabidse or predaceous
ground beetles, and if you let it drop
from your fingers you may be saving the
life of a friend, because some day it may
eat the worm which, lying close to some
pet flower of yours, had planned to cut
it off beneath the ground.

It is the hardest thing in all the world
to understand how balanced is this scale
of foe and friend. One year there is a
wiping out of our insect friends through
frost or floods or microscopic disease,
and, freed thus from the check which
kept their numbers down, the foes to our
plants can multiply to such an extent that
nothing we can do will save our crops
from total failure. Next year perhaps
the parasitic beetle, finding such a wealth
of food to live upon, increases and holds
well in check the pest which last year ate
up all our plants. Each wave of insect
pests could be explained, no doubt, if all
the facts were known, and nowadays no
one who knows what modern agriculture
means will fail to reckon on the risks
from losses caused by these pests.

OXE OF THE JUNE-r.UGS OR M.\Y BEETLES

(Lachnostcrna quercus), page 592

Of the wild creatures of our back
yards, none is better known than this
hard-shelled buzzing creature, which
whirrs into the circle of light around
your lamp and commits suicide, if you
will let it. by flying into the flame.

It is one of the so-called June-bugs, or
May beetles, which every boy and girl
knows, and is not the June hectic of
which the larva was shown j^reviouslv.

Its hard, pitted skeleton covers it com-
pletely, and it is most interesting to watch
it open its wing covers with great de-
liberation, unfold the wings which are
carefully stowed away beneath them, and
holding its wing covers elevated so they
will not interfere, start the transparent

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK \ARUS

597

wings into motion and fly away with the
whirr of a miniature aerodrome. Indeed,
it was this resemblance which caused the
members of the aerial experiment asso-
ciation to name one of their tirst aero-
dromes after it. and the first trophy ever
given for an aerodrome flight was won
by Curtiss" "June Bug."

This creature's first life is spent be-
neath the sod of your lawn, where it
curls up around the roots of the grasses
and clover and other plants which you
do not want it to eat, and the first year
of its subterranean existence it is the
white grub, with the brown head, which
everybody knows. At the end of the
second summer of its life it changes to
a soft brown beetle, which throughout
the winter is hardening its shell prepara-
tory to coming out in late spring as a
winged creature to feed upon the leaves
of trees. The beetle which is walking
toward you lives upon the oak.

THE DRAGOX FLY ( PAGE 593)

No dragon of legend could be more
bloodthirsty or terrible than this. With
four wings like the supporting planes of
an aerodrome, it can fly as fast as a rail-
way train. With thousands of eyes
crowded together like cells in a honey-
comb, forming eye masses that cover
most of its head, it can see in all direc-
tions at once. With massive jaws and
teeth as sharp as needle points, it can
pierce and crush the strongest shell of
its prey. With its long- jointed spiny
legs held out in front like a basket, it
rushes through the air, catches and de-
vours its prey and lets the carcass fall
to the ground, all without slackening its
terrible speed.

It is hard to realize, as you watch this
swiftly moving dragon of the air, that it
has spent the first stage of its life as a
slowly crawling ugly water monster, ly-
ing in wait among the reeds and grasses
for some unsuspecting water fly or larva
to pass by.

The female, as she skims the surface
of some pool, drops into the water her
clumps of dragon eggs, a thousand at a
time, and from these are born the ugly
water-dragons which, when come of age,
grow wings and, crawling to the sur-

face, split their old skins open, unfold
and dry their closely packed wings, and
dart away into the sunshine to prey
upon the other creatures of the air.

ONE OK THE BEE-FLIES (SparnopoHus
brcvirostris), p.vge 594

No butterfly or any other creature of
the air could be more beautiful than this
dream of early summer. Its black velvet
body, into which the sunlight sank and
disappeared; its fringe of golden hairs
along the sides; its steel gray, myriad-
facet eyes, of which its head was made,
and its delicately formed wings, so thin
that the light in passing through them
was refracted into rainbow tints, made
it seem to me more beautiful than almost
any of those gorgeous forms of insect
life which sometimes fill the clearings in
Brazilian forests.

It does seem strange that such a thing
as this should live its other life a para-
sitic grub, within the larva of some cater-
pillar or in the egg-case of some grass-
hopper ; but so it seems to do. It spends
its childhood as a disease and its mating
days as a dainty fly among the nectar-
bearing flowers.

OXE OF THE AXOPHELES MOSQUITOS {AtW-

pJieles punctipennis), page 596

The malarial mosquito, so called, has
spotted wings, but otherwise it looks
quite like this harmless form from ]\Iary-
land. This whole tribe of Anopheles dif-
fers from the Culex in the length of its
mouth feelers, which project from the
base of the proboscis and appear in the
photograph almost as long as the pro-
boscis itself, whereas in a photograph of
the Culex it would appear so short as to
seem merely a thickening of the base of
the proboscis.

The wildest fancy of the .Arabian
story-teller is lacking in imagination
compared with the story which the facts
of modern science have woven about
these liny representatives of the flv
family.

\\^ho could imagine that just because
the lady mosquitos. tiring of their usual
meal of ripe bananas and plant juices,
acquired the habit of sucking blood. va.st
regions should be devastated and beings

598

THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

599

millions of times their size should die
by thousands. And this, too, not through
any real fault of the tiny creatures them-
selves, but just because some of the per-
sons whose blood they sucked had mi-
croscopic wiggling things living in their
blood corpuscles, which crawled into the
soft throat glands of the mosquito and
waited there for a chance to get out into
the blood channels of some other human
beings.

When one pictures the grief of deso-
lated homes, death-bed agonies, of toss-
ing fever patients, the quarantined ves-
sels at anchor in tropical harbors, yellow
flagged with crews dead or dying, the
streets of deserted houses, from which
all life has gone forever through yellow
fever and malaria, there is something
ghastly in the picture of the winged lady
mosquitos flitting airily from pale-faced
patients to ruddy-cheeked happy people,
unwilling carriers of death.

THE HORSE-FLY (Tabauus atratus),
p.\GE 598

The head of the horse-fly appears to
be all eyes, and it is no wonder that we
can so seldom take them by surprise.

Below the oblong compound eyes are
the sharp mouth parts, which in the fe-
male are provided with lancets, which
enable her to puncture the skin of warm-
blooded animals and suck their blood.
It is curious that the female should have
such habits, while the males are content
to lap up nectar from the flowers.

This jet black, loud-buzzing creature
flew into my laboratory and made so
much noise that I was forced to kill her.
This photograph of her is nine times her
real diameter.

She belongs to a large and important
family of flies, whose females make the
lives of men and animals miserable in
many parts of the world by their bites,
which form most annoying wounds.

THE WORKER BUMBLEBEE (Bombus VQ-

gans), page 600

This is the real worker of the hive, an
undeveloped female, a clumsy rover, her
hind legs laden with a mass of pollen
from the flowers she has visited.

TiiK POOR M.VLE BUMBLEBEE (Bombtis
americanorum), page Coi

It was late in October before I no-
ticed, flying low here and there across the
clover tops, large bumblebees, which
seemed to be more covered with golden
hairs than those which I had watched
throughout the summer-time. At first I
thought them queens, but as their number
multiplied I felt I must be mistaken, and
one of my insect-knowing friends ex-
plained that they were only males, and
that with the approaching days of winter
they were all doomed to death. Already,
he pointed out. their wings were battered
and frayed from flying against tiie au-
tumn winds.

The importance of the males! Could
there be a weaker argument against
woman's suffrage than that of a noted
statesman of the times, in which he said
that throughout nature the duty and the
right of protection rests with the male?
Perhaps the drones do fight among them-
selves ; but, as in most other fighting of
the males, it is not to protect the nest or
young from perishing, but merely to de-
termine which one of them shall win the
queen's attention. They are stingless.

In this world of the clover field all the
work of the society is done by the queen
herself or by the workers, which are in-
fertile females, and apparently few males
are wanted in the colony until late in the
season, when for a brief period they are
tolerated in considerable numbers as the
necessary courtiers who accompany the
young queens of late summer in their
marriage flight. This takes place before
the winter comes to kill all but a few
fortunate queens, which find safe shelter
in some crevice in the rocks or under-
neath some old decaying log.

THE PORTRAIT OF THE BALD-FACED HORXET

{Vcspnla maculata, Linn.), p.vge 602

I wish I could convey to you my sen-
sation when, in hunting for the focus on
my ground glass, this creature burst upon
my sight. It was as though, exploring in
some strange land, I suddenly stood face
to face with a beast about which no
school book had ever taught me anvthing.

It peered at me out of the gloom of

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

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imperfect focus, and it took me some
time to realize that I was looking into
the eyes of a bald-faced hornet, and that,
instead of being an enemy, she is of all
the fiy-destroyers which frequent the
house perhaps the most efficient, pounc-
ing upon the flies with murderous vo-
racity, tearing off their heads and legs
and wings and macerating their bodies
to a pulp to feed the hungry grub-like
baby hornets which are hatching out in
the paper nest over the front door.

Does this picture represent, I wonder,
one of the nightmare visions which haunt
the dreams of baby flies?

There is no wild creature in the north-
ern United States that a man will run
away from so fast as from a bald-faced
hornet.

At the tip of her flexible armor-plated
abdomen is the poison- fed stiletto with
which she paralyzes her prey or drives
off enemies from the nest.

Her six powerful legs are spined to
help her. no doubt, in climbing over the
smooth surfaces of flowers and twigs.
She has two kinds of eyes — three lens-
shaped ones on top of her head and two
marvelous compound ones composed of
hundreds of little lenses, which take up
half the head. Just what she uses each
kind for is still unknown.

From her forehead hang ringed anten-
nae, which doubtless are the organs with
which she scents the presence of her
prey, and they may also help her find her
way about.

Her massive jaws lie below her eyes
and look like shears with jagged edges ;
they are meant for crushing, not for
grinding, and with these she tears to
pieces bits of wood and cements the parti-
cles together with the sticky secretion of
her salivary glands, making thus the
combs and shelter of her wood-pulp pa-
per nest.

She is an undeveloped female, but with
the professional care of a baby's nurse
she tends her sister hornets in the nest.
On the wing, from daylight to dark, she
scours the country for the flies and other
insects with which to feed the young.

Her life is ended by the autumn, for
she feels the cold as all our insects do,

and it is left to a few of the young queens
to carry on the species.

There is something fascinating in the
picture of the young queen hornet, after
mating is over and all her relatives are
dead, crawling away beneath some log to
pass there the long cold winter, and then
alone, when sj^ring has come, emerging
from her sleep, the only survivor of her
race, to build, unaided even by her mate,
the beginning of a nest just large enough
to hold her first-laid eggs. From these
hatch out the grubs, which later, after
days of feeding, emerge as workers, un-
developed females, and help build up
around her a colony of hundreds of busy
hornets.

THE YELLOW j.ACKET (VespQ Carolina),
PAGE 604

All the readers of the N.\tion.\l Geo-
graphic Magazine have probably had
a more intimate acquaintance with the
creature shown on page 604 than I can
possibly give by any picture. It is the
ordinary yellow jacket of our fields.

THE SOLITARY LEAF-CUTTIXG BEE (MegO-

chile brevis), pages 606 and 607

The sting or "stinger" of a bee is in-
deed a most wonderful piece of mechan-
ism. At the base, inside the body of
the bee, lie bars or levers, operated by
muscles, which push the darts out and
draw them in. The poison sac lies just
behind this mechanism and pours the
poison into a set of cup-like valves, from
which it escapes into the wound along
longitudinal groves in the sting like
grease along the piston of an engine.

The sting itself is not, then, hollow,
like the spider's poison fang.

Unlike the social honey-bees, this bee
leads a solitary life. With her strong,
saw-like jaws the female makes her bur-
row in soft wood and lines it with bits
of leaf which she has cut in circles from
the roses and other plants ; then, making
a ball from the pollen and nectar which
she has gathered, she puts it at the bot-
tom of the burrow, lays an eg^g upon it,
and with a wad of leaves securely shuts
it in ; over this again lays down another
food ball, with its corresponding egg, and
so on until the burrow is full.

6o4

THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

605

A COMMON RED ANT (fonuica Sp.),
PAGE 608

There are probably five times as many
species of ants in the world as there are
species of birds in the whole of North
America. There must be hundreds of
times as many individuals. "They are
undoubtedly the highest, structurally and
mechanically, of all insects and at the
same time the most efficient." Their so-
cial organization has been the admiration
of human beings from the earliest times,
because the interest of the individual is
merged so completely into that of the
colony ; but, as Wheeler remarks, their
organization must strike the individualist
with horror. It is an organization of
females, too. The workers are females,
the soldiers are females, the nurses are
females, and there is one queen mother
for them all, who lays all the eggs of the
colony. \\'here are the males, those rep-
resentatives of society, those voters of
our human colonies? They do not exist
as such, for the males of ant colonies
are but mates for the young queens.
Together with them they leave the nest
on their marriage day and together make
the marriage flight, but as soon as this is
over they die and the colony gets on
easily without them. To man. who is
the most rapidly evolving organism on
the earth today, it is a strange thought
that the most highly developed insect
which the world has produced, and w^hich
has not changed materially since the
Tertiary epoch, has relegated the males
to the short-lived function of reproduc-
tion, leaving him no work to perform
and getting rid of him as quickly as pos-
sible. Why did the ants, wnth their mar-
velous instincts, fail to conquer the
world? Why have they stood still for
thousands of years after they had per-
fected their social organization? Did
they go as far as evolution could go
when it leaves the male out of account ?
It is perhaps a comfort to think that,
after all, they have failed and the man-
guided organization of human beings has
surpassed them in its development.

FORE PART or A BROWN BUTTERFLY (-/r-

gynnis cyhcle), page 610
It is hard to realize that this is the

portrait of the head and fore part of a
beautiful brown buttertly.

Its head is almost all taken up with
the gigantic eyes, which are composed
of thousands of tiny facets. The long,
trunk-like mouth with which it sucks the
nectar from the flowers is coiled up like
a watch spring. Like shingles on a roof,
the scales are fastened in tiers over the
broad surface of the wings stretched
over the stitf ribs or frame-work.

The white spots are made by hundreds
of white scales and the brown blotches by
brown scales, and what these scales are
for nobody seems to know. Perhaps
they help to grip the wind, for they have
running lengthwise of them deep and
parallel corrugations so small and fine
that were a single scale as large as a
lady's opened fan these corrugations
would represent its sticks.

The caterpillar from which this splen-
did creature came is black, with branch-
ing spines and feeds at night on violets
and other plants.

The graceful beauty of the butterfly,
its seemingly happy existence, its life
among the flowers, where it sips the
nectar that the flowers provide, are all a
part of common knowledge.

The real life of the butterfly, however,
is not so pleasant as we think. Have vou
ever found a butterfly hanging beneath a
leaf on a cold summer morning drenched
Avith dew and stifif with cold ? Have you
ever seen one trying to cross a field in a
rain-storm and observed it vainly at-
tempting to navigate the conflicting air
currents ? Where do they roost at night
and on rainy days ? Where do they conie
from and what becomes of them ? These
are matters which it has often taken men
years to find out. and even now there are
many thousands of species of butterflies
which are known only by a preserved
specimen caught in its flight by the net
of some collector.

It is easy to tell any butterfly from a
moth by the clubs which it has on its
antennre. and although the entomologists
have decided that this classification is un-
scientific, it is quite as uneducated to call
one of these beautiful creatures with
club-shaped antenuc-e a moth as it is to
call a mouse a rat or a lizard a snake.

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

609

Of the butterflies, so called, which flit
across our lawns and flutter from the
grass as we brush through it, nine out
of ten are moths with feathery or pointed
antennae.

It is said of certain species of yellow
butterflies that the males give off a pleas-
ing, aromatic odor which is exhaled from
the front wings through hundreds of
minute, slender scales — scales quite dif-
ferent from those with which the wings
and body are covered. This scent, which
is so strong that it can be detected by
even our blunted olfactory organs if we
rub the wings between thumb and fore-
finger, is supposed to attract the females
in some way that is little understood. As
among these particular butterflies the
male seeks out its mate, it is difficult to
understand why it should be the male
which has the perfume, since it does not
serve to tell the female where her mate
is to be found. The inference is that
in some way the perfume charms the
female.

In some species it is the females which
give off an odor, and in either case the
distances over which these odors extend
and are detected by the males or females
respectively are analogous to the incon-
ceivable reach of wireless telegraphy.
And who knows but the mechanism of
these creatures is set to respond to the
swifty traveling ions which make wire-
less telegraphy possible.

The Doctor Jaeckel and Mr. Hyde is
so complete between the butterfly which
flits over the cabbage patch and the vel-
vety green worm that eats holes in the
leaves of the cabbages that it is no won-
der that for centuries no connection be-
tween the two careers of these creatures,
seemingly so far apart, was suspected.
In general it is true that no moth or
butterfly is injurious to plants except in
its larval stage, and herein has laid the
clever deception which has doubtless pro-
tected these gay mating creatures of the
air from the systematic attacks of man
until quite recent times.

L.\RV.\ OF THE SW.\LLOW-T.\TI. BUTTERFLY

OF THE SPICE-BUSH (PapU'w troUiis) ,

PAGE 6ll

Is this, I wonder, an insect make-be-
live, a caterpillar mask, as it were, to

frighten away enemies? The black and
white eye spots are not real eyes, but to
a bird they doubtless seem so. Its real
eyes are inconspicuous jjoints at each side
of the head, too small to appear in the
photogra])h.

Few of us stop to think as the beauti-
ful swallow-tailed butterfly, gorgeous in
its black and yellow painted wings, flits
by us that it is made of sassafras and
spice-bush leaves gathered together and
ground up. This monster is a leaf-eating
creature, its purpose being the accumula-
tion of food material out of which is
made inside of it the gorgeous swallow-
tail butterfly. It feeds on sassafras and
spice-bush leaves, and when the time ar-
rives makes a nest for itself by fastening
the edges of a leaf together. In this nest
it passes the winter. When spring comes
it breaks open the gray shell of the chrys-
alis, unfolds a pair of black and gold
wings with long tails to them, and flies
away in the sunshine in search of flowers
and a mate. It is then no more like this
monster than an eagle is like a hippo-
potamus, yet after it has flown about,
sucking nectar through its long beak, it
mates and lays a mass of eggs, out of
which hatch again these strange, weird
beings.

A BUG THAT IS ALWAYS WALKING AROUND

(Brochymena arhorea, Say), page 612

This is, as my friend Dr. Schwartz
says, just one of those bugs that is al-
ways walking around on plants, and no-
body seems to know just what it is doing.

A queer UNWORLDLY MONSTER (Cory-

nocoris distinctiid) , page 613

Could anything be more antediluvian
and unworldly than this old broken-
down creature, with six crooked legs, a
pair of i)opping-out eyes, two shining
ocelli which look straight up into the air.
and a long stout beak that is i)artly hid-
den behind one of the fore legs?

A discussion of how such a fright of
a thing came into existence leads one
into the realms of evolutionary science,
and there we should perhaps find it sug-
gested that it is so ugly and looks so
much like the bark of the trees on which
it roosts that birds have passed its an-
cient forefather by, and through the

6io

LARVA OF A SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTLRFLV

It would be interesting to discover whether to a bird or other enemy the black and
white eye-spots, which make of this caterpillar a fit subject for a nightmare, appear as
monster eyes and frighten it away. The true eyes are small, invisible ones at either side of
its light-gray head (see page 609).

weird workings of that little-understood
law of heredity this thorny, spotted crea-
ture has waddled along year after year,
keeping up in the race for hundreds,
perhaps thousands, of centuries. I can-
not help exhibiting a little of the show-
man's pride in it ; for, as Barnum would
say. this is positively the first real ap-
pearance of this century-hidden, hoary
monster before the every-day public.

According to the books, this species
belongs to a strange family, in which are
even more remarkable-looking creatures.
They are all, however, characterized by
having the femora of their back legs cov-
ered with knobs or spines. One of the
species is so spiny all over its back that
the male makes use of it to carry around
the freshly laid eggs of the female.

THK S(>u.\SH-L!ur, (.liiosa trisfis). pack
614

The smell of the squash-bug is known
to every country boy. The odor is emit-
ted through openings in the abdomen
from special stink glands, which vary
with each species.

The tough external skeleton explains
perhajis why no spray is strong enough
to kill the fully grown insects without
also injuring the yotmg squash and
])umpkin vines, and why the best method
of prevention consists in screening the
young plants with a wire screen until
they have grown large enough to be im-
mune from attack. If you can find the
yoting insects which are not yet encased
in such a hardened shell, spraying with
a 10 i)er cent kerosene emulsion will stop

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THE MONSTERS OF OL'R IJACK YARDS

615

up their breathing pores and asphyxiate
them.

The one in the picture is an old speci-
men, preparing to go into winter quar-
ters under the leaves and wait for the
tender squash and pumpkin vines to ap-
pear above the ground.

It is surprising how quickly they find
these juicy shoots, which they pierce
with their sucking beaks and upon which
they lay the eggs which in a few days
hatch out into a brood of small but vo-
racious squash-bugs.

It is ditihcult to realize that the species
to which this creature belongs is only
one of 5.000 distinct species known in
North America, or to fully comprehend
the force of a remark made by David
Sharp, the English naturalist, that "if
anything were to exterminate the ene-
mies of the true bugs, we ourselves
should probably be starved in the course
of a few months."

In other words, it represents an or-
der of sucking insects of many strange
shapes which, although directly connected
with the welfare of the human race, has
been, until recently, the most neglected
of all the great orders of insects.

To this order belong the chinch-bugs,
the cause of an estimated loss to grain-
growers of 20 million dollars a year ; the
great Phylloxera, which destroyed the
vines on 3 million acres of French vine-
yards, and the San Jose scale, which has
spread during the past ten years through.
every State and Territory in the United
States and become a menace to the fruit-
growing industry.

AX ORr.-WE.WIXG SPIDER (P.\GE 6l6)

This creature has eight four-jointed
legs of varying lengths, covered with
large bristles which are hollow and sen-
sitive. Hidden behind these legs is the
head, with eight eyes, strong jaws, poi-
son fangs, and a pair of palpi which
look like extremely short legs and seem
to serve as hands. The hairy body is
filled with thousands of eggs and con-
tains also a marvelous reservoir of liquid
rope opening into spinnerets on the under
side of the body.

Before you are up on a summer's
morning, this wonderful creature will

ha\c manufactured what would be
e(iui\alent to- two miles of elastic and
sticky rope if she were as large as a six-
foot man. With the skill of an experi-
enced hsh-net maker, she will in a few
hours construct a net as large as a cart-
wheel, with tough, dry, radiating spokes,
between which are looped sticky, elastic
threads, which no little tlying creature
can strike against without running the
risk of sticking fast.

A VAC.Ar.o.XD SPIDER {Pardosa milz-ina),
PAGE 617

This is a vagabond of the spider world,
building no nest or web, content to use
her marvelous silk in the construction
only of a sac in which to lay her eggs.
This sac she carries about with her until
the eggs have hatched and the spiderlings
are strong enough to take care of them-
selves, and then she rips open the sac
along a distinct seam on the edge and
turns her babies loose to shift for them-
selves.

These voracious little cannibals have,
however, already learned to forage, as
the struggle for existence in many spe-
cies of spiders begins in the egg sac, and
it is only the strongest who emerge. In
other words, they eat each other up.

They do not grow to be more than
half an inch in length, but they are
among the most active of all sj^iders,
and in the United States alone there are
r.early a score of species of these little
soldiers of fortune living nowhere and
roaming the damp fields in search of
prey.

A JUMPIXG SPIDER (Pliidippiis oiidax),

PAGE 618

We are so accustomed to beasts with
two eyes that it is hard to realize that all
around us. though hard to see. are little
monsters with luany eyes of various
sizes.

This one has eight eyes, four of which
are invisible from the front. The eyes
are diurnal, enabling the creature to hunt
only by day. Its eight stout legs fit it
for jumjMug forward or sideways with
great ease. In comparison with its size,
its jumping ])owers are incredible. If it
were the size of a tiger, it would be a

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS

619

beast of prey which could clear a quar-
ter of a mile at a bound.

It can sit on a branch and throw out
an elastic dragline behind strong enough
to bear its weight, and by this means it
is able to jump at and catch its prey on
the rty. regaining its position by climb-
ing up the dragline. Add to this that it
possesses a pair of powerful hollow
fangs, into which poison sacs empty, and
a voraciousness which often leads it into
cannibalism, and you have a fair picture
of this jumping spider, which is one of
a thousand species of little creatures
found everywhere except in the polar
regions. They range in size from a
third to a half an inch long and live
undei stones and sticks, spending the
winter in a silken bag of their own
manufacture, but never spinning a web.
The males of some species have been ob-
served to dance before the females,
holding up their hairy legs above their
heads to show off their ornamentation.

THE WOLF-SPIDER {Lycosa carolinensis) ,
PAGE 620

This is not the photograph of a polar
bear, but that of the wolf-spider, with a
battery of eight eyes on the top of its
head and poison fangs hanging below.

Behind and above the fangs and hid-
den in their shadow is the creature's
mouth — toothless and made for sucking
only. W'ith his fangs this wolf-spider
kills and crushes his victim ; then he
sucks the body dry and throws away the
carcass.

Seen here and there above the body
hair are black spines, hollow inside and
connected with the nerves of touch. Of
his eyes, the two in the center in front
are supposed to be for use by day, while
all the others are nocturnal, enabling
him to stalk his prey at dusk. It is the
wolf-spider that often appears at night
within the circle of lamplight searching
for nocturnal insects.

The nocturnal eyes are remarkable or-
gans, with reflecting structures so placed
behind the retina that the light entering
the eye traverses the retina twice, and it
is supposed that this reflecting structure
increases the effect of any faint light, en-
abling the creature to "see in the dark."

This is a hunting spider, chasing its
prey through the grass or lurking under
stones, especially in damp places.

It does not spin a web, but lives in a
silk-lined hole 6 or 8 inches deep, which
it digs in the ground, and around the en-
trance to which, out of sticks and grass,
it builds a turret or watch-tower, from
which it can see its prey more readily
than from the ground. These spider
holes are common in the meadows of
Maryland.

In form and color the wolf-spider re-
sembles the famous tarantula of south-
ern Europe, the bite of which was sup-
posed to cause the tarantella, or dancing
madness ; but it is as harmless as a but-
terfly, and indeed Dr. Comstock, who is
the authority on spiders, believes that no
spiders in the Northern States are poi-
sonous to man.

SKELETON OF A WOLF-SPIDER {LycOSa

punctulata) , page 622

This photograph is the outer skeleton
or shell of a small wolf-spider which I
found clinging to the focusing cloth of
my camera after it had been lying on the
grass.

W'xih us the bony skeleton is internal
and grows as we grow. With spiders the
skeleton is a tough, bony structure, which
cannot change ; so that the young, rapidly
growing spider soon finds his shell too
tight for him, and. like a crab, he bursts
his shell and i)ulls his soft body from
each leg and complicated cavity.

This process seems marvelous, but is
really comparatively simple when we re-
alize that before the old shell is cast off
it is loosened from the new skin by the
moulting fluid which is excreted from
glands opening through this new skin.

After the old skin is loosened it splits
along the sides of the body and in front
of the eyes, the slit being just above the
legs and jaws, and that portion of the
old skeleton which had covered the back
is lifted off like a lid. The new skin, at
first elastic enough to accommodate the
increased size of the body, soon becomes
hardened like the old, and must in its
turn be shed.

Imagine, if you can. the surprise of a
wolf-spider who in running through the

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Copyright by National Geograplilc Society, 1913. Photo by David Fairchild
ALL THE MONSTERS PICTURED ON THE PRECEDING PACES, AND MANY MORE, IM-
PRISONED IN ONE MUSEUM CASE

They are all pinned in the liox and have dried out and changed almost beyond recognition,
but the impression which their portraits have made will, 1 hope, be lasting

grass shotikl stumble over his own out-
grown skeleton, so like his former self in
all its details that he could scarcely fail
to recognize it as his own ; for even the
transparent cornea of the eye is a part of
this outer skeleton and is shed with it.
as well as the jaws, sensitive spines, and
hairs.

A MALE SPIDER (PAGE C^2T,)

The long legs and low-swung body of
this creature fit it i)eculiarly for running,
and the curious structure of its short
front legs, or palpi, show it to be a ma-
ture male.

A SPIDER FROM A ELv's POINT OF VIEW

(Dolomcdcs tciicbrosus, Htc),
p.\CE 624

A spider from the fly's point of view
is a terrible monster indeed. Its claws
of polished chitin, sharp as sword points,
each with an aperture leading to a sac
filled with deadly poison ; its array of
eyes of different sizes, its mottled, hairy
skin covered with hollow sensitive bris-
tles, and its powerful leg-like palpi must
strike terror to the heart of any tly or
cockroach which may happen in its
neighborhood.

625

U26

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

It is hard for man, who has con-
quered all the beasts of the forest by his
superior intelligence, to realize what a
struggle for existence is going on about
him in the grass beneath his feet. Im-
agine being pursued on every hand by
enemies like this, and having to be on
the alert every instant of your brief ex-
istence lest you fall into the clutches of
some absolutely merciless monster.

Having conquered the beasts which he
can see and shoot, man is turning his at-
tention to these minute monsters and is
coming to realize their gigantic impor-
tance to the human race. Species of

* Although perhaps not customary in an ar-
ticle of this character, I wish to publish my
indebtedness to those who have helped to make
its preparation possible; to Dr. N. A. Cobb for
blazing the way by his house-fly photographs,
published in the ISIationai. Geographic Maga-
zine, May, 1910 ; to Dr. L. O. Howard and his
•colleagues of the National Museum for naming
the insects; to Scott Cline for developing all
the negatives and making all the prints ; to
L. C. Crandall for making valuable sugges-

beetles no larger than a bird-shot have
destroyed more forests than all the forest
fires, and bugs no larger in size have
caused an annual loss of 200 millions of
dollars to the grain-growers of a single
country. The fence corners, the old logs,
the stone piles, the stumps, and the v/eeds
everywhere are breeding-places for these
strange creatures, and you can no more
maintain a vegetable garden or run a suc-
cessful orchard without making provision
to protect your plants from them than a
man can raise chickens in an African
jungle without a dog-tight fence to pro-
tect them from the wild beasts.*

tions ; to Mr. and Mrs. Alexander Graham
Bell, and Mr. Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago,
for their enthusiastic support ; to Miss. C. J.
Aldis and Mrs. F. A. Keep for revisions of
the manuscript, and to the members of the
Entomological Society of Washington for their
kindly criticisms during its first reading.

Although the personal pronoun has been
used throughout the article, I wish to make it
clear that Mrs. Fairchild is quite as responsible
as I am for the taking of these photographs.

THE MONARCH OF THE CANADIAN ROCKIES

The Robson Peak District of British Columbia and Alberta

By Charles D. Walcott

Secretary oe the Smithsonian Institution

ROBSON, the most majestic peak
of the Canadian Rockies, is situ-
ated northwest of the Yellow-
head Pass, through which the Grand
Trunk Pacific and the Canadian North-
ern railways have been building their
lines to connect the great interior plains
and granary of Canada with the Pacific
coast. Known to trappers of the Hud-
son Bay Company and a few hardy ex-
plorers who have penetrated the region
in search of a practicable trail to the
Pacific, the region remained almost a
terra incoc/nita to the outside world until
Dr. A. P. Coleman described his attempts
to scale Robson Peak.

Messrs. Milton and Cheadle, in their
search for the "Northwest Passage by

Land," * give the first graphic descrip-
tion of Robson Peak as they saw it
from the Fraser River.

"On every side the snowy heads of
mighty hills crowded round, whilst, im-
mediately behind us, a giant of giants,
and immeasurably supreme, rose Rob-
son's Peak. This magnificent mountain
is of conical form, glacier-clothed, and
rugged. When we first caught sight of
it, a shroud of mist partially enveloped
the summit, but this presently rolled
away, and we saw its upper portion
dimmed by a necklace of light feathery

*-"The Northwest Passage by Land," by Vis-
count Milton and W. B. Cheadle. Page 257.
Published by Cassel, Petter and Galpin, Lon-
don. 1865.

Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk r
OUR FIRST rear: THE SKIX AND SKULL ARE XOW IX THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

clouds, beyond which its pointed apex of
ice. ghttering in the morning sun, shot
uj) far into the bltie heaven above, to a
lieight of probably lO.ooo or 15,000
feet."

Thirty-three years later (1898) Mr.
James \IcEvoy, of the Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, made a reconnaissance
from Edmonton west over the Yellow-
head Pass and saw Robson Peak from
the south. Me fixed its geographic po-
sition and assigned it a height of 13,700
feet, stating that it has the distinction of
being the highest known peak in the
Canadian Rockies. ^IcEvoy also made
some geological observations, and on his
map of 190 1 includes the Robson region

north of the Eraser River \'alley as Up-
per Cambrian or Castle ^Mountain group.

niE FIRST ASCENT OF THE MOUNTAIN

In 1907 and 1908 Dr. A. P. Coleman,
of the University of Toronto, began ex-
ploration with the purpose of attempt-
ing to ascend the jieak. He fountl it
impossible (1907) to climb from the
south, where precipitous cliffs rose ter-
race on terrace from the valley of the
Grand Forks 9.000 feet to the snow- clad
summit.

The following year (190S) Dr. Cole-
man, guided by an Indian, went up
Moose River and over the i)ass to the
Smoky, reaching the foot of Robson

627

Photo by R. C. W. I,ett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk Pacific Railway
PREPARING SKINS OF SMALL GAME; ON A RAINY DAY

Peak on the northeastern side. He there
made two attempts to climb the moun-
tain, but was driven back by storms and
returned after enduring many hardships.

He was accompanied by Rev. George
Kinney, who returned the following year
(1909), and on August 13, with Donald
Phillips, ascended the peak. When they
reached the summit, fresh snow began
to fall and soon night was gathering. It
was only after incurring great risks for
seven hours on the storm-swept ice and
rocks that they finally descended to a
place of safety and told how they had
carried their flag to the highest peak in
the Canadian Rockies.

Dr. Kinney later wrote that on the
summit it was too cold to stop, and on
the way down the danger was so great
that they could not stop. Twenty hours
of strenuous work brought them "to their
camp in the valley of. Berg Lake.

Friends have asked how I happened
to take up geologic work in the Cana-

dian Rockies. The reason is a very sim-
ple one.

As a boy of 17 I planned to study
those older fossiliferous rocks of the
North American Continent which the
great English geologist Ad