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11 


THE 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 


AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY 


Editor 
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Assistant Editor 
JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE 


Associate Editors 


A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’! U.S. Army 
C. HART MERRIAM DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


In Charge of Agricultural Explorations, 
ept. of Agriculture 


HUGH M. SMITH 


Member National Academy of Sciences 


O. H. TITTMANN 
Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geo- 


detic Survey Commissioner, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries 
ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN N. H. DARTON 
U. S. Geological Survey 
WALTER T. SWINGLE FRANK M. CHAPMAN 


Vol. XXIV—Year 1913 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 


SMITH SONAR 


NOV 9 1981 
LIBRARIES 


WASHINGTON, D. C. 
PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. 
1913 


CopyvrRIGHT, 1913, BY THE 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D.C. 


ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Beacons of the Sea: Lighting the Coasts of the United States, by Grorce R. Putnam. I 
The Discovery of Cancer in Plants: An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by 
Pee Se Vena ritent cb A PRICUILULEGs cou jcc cies oe cigs cele Gum w cs bas cw clas Gee's oss dha 53 
iBaonl “|erusdlen to Aleppor by: JOHN 1D. WiITING. 60.025... c cece cee cceciccesene 71 
aU CREN ea SEIMCIS CRM ANI (CAG eo cc siecle < GPs orate wis oe Sb udia's va sceesimiewsueccscevcs 113 
Map of Central America, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Islands of the Caribbean Sea.... 131 
The Recent Eruption of Katmai Volcano in Alaska, by Grorce C. MArTIN.......... 131 
Do Volcanic Explosions Affect Our Climate? by G. C. ABBOTT. .............c0ccecceee 181 
The Changing Map in the Balkans, by FREDERICK MOORE..............c0cceccccceeees 199 
The Countries of the Caribbean, by WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER.............0200008 227 
RNIN AIEEE SCs. GS QRICT Gs, Mei ice nx Ge Cee ain cinie discal «eid dn cela cd coe cesses Gvcsvenceus 251 
Oysters: The World’s Most Valuable Water Crop, by Hucu M. Smiru./............ 257 
Greece and Montenegro, by GEorGE HIGGINS MOSES............0ccsceucccscccccceecs 281 
Megaspelzon, the Oldest Monastery in Greece, by Carrot, Storrs ALDEN...........- 310 
Mysterious Temples of the Jungle: The Prehistoric Ruins of Guatemala, by W. F. 
NE cA cs PMI Eg lhc Fe atl Sic sneer cite vs Gi giatte oiare Uiwicis oeis seks whe 325 
Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala, by SyLvANus GriswoLpD MorLEY................ 339 
Saving the Ducks and Geese, by WELLS W. CooKE................--0- Ridin Ste ee 301 
Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande, by Mrs. Aupert S. BURLESON...........2.0000- 381 
“In the Wonderland of Peru—The Work Accomplished by the Peruvian Expedition of 
1912, under the Auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society, 
py UMrAM bincHam, Director.of the Expedition. .... 0.5.0... cs0 cas oestaroe less’ 387 
Panorama of Mount Robson Peak and Glaciers, 16x 44 inches, by Cuaries D. 
EE TCE MME MT cc: SOND. - cla Ne ets a os ya « suem Mec hiksMwn ts ca dape es culY ne 575 
eemerers Gr our Gack Yards, by DAvip’ FAIRCHILD. ..... 2.2.0.0 ccc e cs wcacccecceccas 575 
The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies, by CHARLES D. WALCOTT..............0.0005 626 
ne Lamas Motor Car, by Eieran C.Le MUNVON.......-cs.00..ccveccecccccccances 641 
Seer NC AIC VEMIENT «- ; olla aia Ciaid’s- «x Stlod so say @elad ws dss aaaa cducmolawedecacd 667 
Bereme Oca. YS OL. Farid anit (OTrematd oon cc ncss+sneavenssccaseveaceccevcreuse 669 
Birds May Bring You More Happiness than the Wealth of the Indies, by FRANK M. 
nr ACO, Pee eae Ee cree Po. oc ce gi cv Gem bce balegiv ale ou oubun cues 699 
ES ESIMTEGSS TA) (Wty Cs oa a es era re chek aale aes Sree 715 
arti SM teal yy, PAMESRERYGE aL son Cox face cee ccccedvcscucdeacieabesae tee vs 717 
memes ceies tm Out-or-thie-way PE ldGeSs... 2. e ccc ce wecscccccsctcrcdeccocecuccs 751 
Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by Day and by Night, by Grorce SHiRAs, y 
| UE OR ES yoct NU GRE RRS Soe ee ee in ce 763 
Seronrenvoutia. py Cmannes Hi Bante YP, oo sicccckseussclsscdlscdesccvasecccactacas 835 
eee eC WaANt PIACCS iso nlye do ss a cnld's cauu cosas so2 dan deg @iudscewseecbity 854 
The Ascent of Mont Blanc, by WALTER WoopBURN HYDE..........c0.ccceccccccccecs 861 
Seemus Of the\{talian Lakes, by AmtHur Etis MAVER..........0ccscsacceccccccvecees 043 
The Resurrection of Ancient Egypt, by JAMES BAIKIE..........¢.0cccsccccceecceccs 057 
Reconstructing Egypt’s History, by WALLACE N. STEARNS...............sccceecccece 1021 
The Sacred Ibis Cemetery and Jackal Catacombs at Abydos, by CAMDEN M. Copern.. 1042 
Rumania and Her Ambitions, by FREDERICK MOORE............--cccceccccccceccceces 1057 
An Island in the Sea of History, by GrorcE KENNAN..........-.0cccceeccccccseccces 1087 
The Mysterious Life of the Common Eel, by Hucu M. SMITH...............00e0008 1140 
I a a se a a 1146 
The Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands, by DEAN C. WorcESTER........ 1157 
Religious Penances and Punishments Self-inflicted by the Holy Men of India, by Rev. 
I PS eg cas Whe 2 5.o cosa doin bidig'b-0 0.0 Oe w'o'h Dingeyo ga BOM" we kv ews wre 1257 
mine Martiage of the Gods, by JoHN J. BANNINGA.......cc0cc0eeeccccsceccccssens <tI3td4 


eee rat ear eestrsiate, by IN; Fit, DARTON. . <4. caeinesccass+ssdssescccccscesecedans 1330 


oo, pe ee ie a 


INDEX FOR 1913 


(ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES) 


Page 
Abancay, Peru, 

Curious rocks near, ilus..........0.06. 536, 537 
Abbot, C. G., 

Do volcanic explosions affect our climate?.. 181 
Abu Simbel, Nubia, 

Rock temples at, illus...... 1006, 1007, 1008, 1010 
Abydos, Egypt, 

Entrance to Jackal cemetery at, illus...... 1051 

Examples of primitive burial at........... 1041 

This and Jackal catacombs at.............. 1042 

SU CEMICLET Ya city Mw llnaSe icles ais cia steve’) sins ele») 1045 

Lines of pottery excavated at, illus........ 1030 

Oldest necropolis in the world............ 1050 

Temple atyoety Ly AUS... Ss baie cic cieieis 1028 
Acapulco, Mexico, 

METER PE URIEELELIS el mesic c eiaiee Bieta ole efeteraia) 6 sieveter tiers y 248 
Aiguille du Dru, Switzerland, illus............ 873 
Akhenaten, King, 

Stich We Ot GISCOWEEEE s s)</a1e)0.5 010 siviejeelseiaie 999, 1000 

Decline of Egypt under................ 996, 999 

HOPI eTOMS EL OLMIS! OF <fe's ola ele eis dleleie Sale = e\er= = 996 
Alaska, 

Map showing ash fall from Katmai Volcano. rae 
Albania, 

PEPICAUES CIN IIS atte a etele wets a 'a/x diac. s aiel erelae(e 0 856 

Ma SIpT RENAL COT TNLTAS 5 sc ets s/a/a\el'aletele{di sahara oTslere sin 210 
Albertus Magnus, 

Pisewiews von 1 tie Gel: cs 6.5.2 < sce «0 owes olaie's II4I 
Alcaldes, 

Group of Indian, Peru, illus........2..... 397 
Alden, Carroll Storrs, 

Megaspeleon, the oldest monastery in Greece 310 

_ Aleppo, Syria, 

DM ENOUGH AES TEAC EU LEA 6 a te(Ghats ies fail siete eisnc © crate a. 112 
Alfalfa in Texas, 

PRECIO ERAT LIS tals ctste cies b srstareie:cece’s 'yieio/ele\avs\e 1351 
eer SELINA AOU es sve wale’ 0c bce we aw ole 1327, 1329 
Milaimborm, Switzerland, illus... 2.2.66... c8 eee 904 
a valley, - Views of, illus....... 907, 916, 918, 925 

ps, 

Cloud effects in the, illus............... 920, 921 

ema Ct MEAUIC OL WO. .c. 60 sjan nce oe 924, 92 
Amalik Bay, Alaska, 

Ash falls and pumice in, illus....... riz cept AsalG Ae) 
SCM EASE, AUIS: oicd cs c'o ot See ons ac ieelese ee 41, 45 
Amenhotep II, 

Mummy and tomb of, discovered.......... 989 
Amenhotep III, 

emir Or tat WyixOr Use a sees sue onic a 9908 

res and. Character ;Ol ci.+4,s410 6s ese eso 991, 996 
Amenhotep IV. See Akhenaten. 

Amundsen, Roald, 

At National Geographic Society Banquet, 

TS) ae A Cte ae CROC oe MLO OC PR CPR te 120 

First meeting with Admiral Peary, illus.... II4 

Special gold medal for, illus............... 128 

onored by National Geographic Society. 113, 129 
Ananur, Caucasus, 

MSRAEEEEUT OE. -TULIS tc diaysie etaie a s1s/ars) 8 sige sys igiel w 1092 
MMIII Oe  MLNIIG = aimsteiet a¥etasas sie 0/0) S)a\aie ier siewraie'.sie 1336 
Annam, Costume of Mandarin in, illus........ 757 
Ant, Common red, 

ER OMAD ET Tecra c, cleye fyecotbiave Sates) ala\alavs bate 605 
gen P 

REM DUISUAC ELON + ocho, Bibra alain die) on wirraveiay sys 1048 
Aobamba Valley, Peru, i 

WADLOLATION OF 6 5c «+401 MM risiene 520, 521, 530, 546 

Glaciers Of, GISCOVECE 2.6 c'eeys o syesis ee o> 539, 541 

MONG Ladd, RUS rime/olsy6 or ciploiaie'« sis'siere.s 560, 564, 565 
Appenzell, Switzerland, 

Religious procession in, illus.............. 926 
Apurimac River, Peru, 

REISE MIE TILT src dios # whe?ai w/e ec ater « 'eoy's, avait 402 

Re eat eOi) Oily SUIS mols eects oie iaisiets's ate 540 
Architecture, 


Dravidian, Examples of, illus.... 1322, 1323, 1324, 
1325, 1326, 1327, 1329 


Spanish mission, examples of, illus.... 1331, 1337 
Argentiére, Switzerland, 

RU enraaT es CONSTELIRIG. 0-1-0 oie) arene ale 'o)e a7ett «5 f!9\ 0 ie 864 
Arm-rests, " 

Used by Hindu ascetics, illus..:...... 1288, 1289 


Page 
Armenians, 

RAPIER ORG UUR tao d s/h Sisls.0ln isla lole Niels 's.s)s.au es 6 1128 
ARMY VERSUS A BACILLUS, OUR........ 1146 
Artesian well’in Texas, illus... s. 0.50.0 ccc cscece 1345 
Axenstrasse, Switzerland, illus................ 914 
Ascetics, 

Effects of, on Hindu thought.............. 1287 

Pemaler ie TUS Jtwleieieie siciaisioreceloe 68 o's 1275, 1302, 1303 

EX GHEE ON UMS tinier icielcisis sicvererarsike = ic siave.a waa: 1283 

PEACHIEES ROL sisl crea staretelsielelalcietaisicivers* aisaw sie ee 1257 
Assouan, eynt. Dam Atevicecs yc0sccw cna - 1021, 1022 
Aten, Ss Lhel wPpyptian® Gelty ss. 0.00/00 seis e100 0's 996, 999 
Athens, Greece, described..........-...20 see 299 
AStin,, -DExaS, GESCrIDEMs siccmcnnics cleeec cece ces 1359 

cL Bd 
Baalbek, Syria, 
IDES Crap ect OL arm water wis ise!o) 5(0) s/miviehel« ateie 6.9168, 99, 101 
Witeorsirmirttn Ss ta bevsrclerststireterinpe cts Fins 86, 87, 88, 90, 
OI, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 
BACILLUS, OUR ARMY VERSUS A........ 1146 
Baikie, James, 

Resurrection of ancient Egypt, The....... 957 
Balkan League, 

(Ove Tae ln Soy AAS cierh One EE DOC aOR Or 307 
Balkan States, 

Wai WO Rarer teat cpolens kid Veiaie sie inial lates is}ats cipleie sie 22 
BALKANS, THE CHANGING MAP IN THE. 199 
Balmat, Jacques, 

Birch ascends, Mont, Blane (2. sy.jct.s.cisinfels.0 871, 873 
Banana trees, 

LEIS Ta yon NCR ad foliar’ cls bas Ee eee 327 
Banco, A, 

PLC DEM tices eeiilers wikis wees arets iegap ners 9 5es5 ists. sp love 381 

Formation of a new, illus.........2.60000- 382 
Bandai-San, Japan, 

SEVP ELOR MOK a cain vey sia) ceodeleidiarwschalcustoraieis: eye s)6,5 IQI 
Banninga, John J., 

Marriage of the Gods, Thess... 0.10. sieces 1314 
Barabaras, 

LSC at Seu ASEAGE aiaceats wip <laccisistotaie.cie es 144 
Bartlett, Charles H., 

Wototred “Birra. cntcer see ais: Sete mapa erase 835 
Bathing festival, lind: 10S. sel miecsseims acs « 1312 
EEDA IN Sn CED Al Eye Be hate) aitiai ci eicksiai swiss cis eis « I 
Beaver that photographed itself, illus.......... 803 
Beaver dam, 

Wiew) of, alizs Sos si: Rreardrar ste oh gave haat ate oleae se 802 
Beaver HOUSE ul UG rvevsiciara le leferelere > aleiaieiehataena 2,3. %.0 Sor 
Ge Mvp ESCH DEM asatatalaxdiecets setae wierstalcventi «ia; see's 597 

BUT EUS Mate ater aioy ctanteieicus isters mera role Yereaniace otats wisp) ols 594 
Bee, leaf-cutting, 

TDYafey elt sft ler Sk SRR AS AATIOLOT IIT Dios ete ae 603 

IRENE cay ce anata eich oust nel maneieie’ ete Coal ae ards a rte 606, 607 
Begging-bowl, 

Eien dis: ASCetiG: (with od Ss icisis.< aisielslaie e.steae.s 1262 
Bellagio, Italy, 

NVESCEIDEION MOGs wack trwicai hela sap alah) nie.clere es ews 943 

IRE Obige LLIN 27a) ict aicinl ot arctera:ctetaweelstoteoaie i Mixiase 949 
Benaresi Pulerimgseats TUS." sv siainins am ale wieiee «we 1276 
Benghazi, Tripoli, 

Pilgrims embarking at, illus.............+. 857 

So Ee MOA RISEN AS oie tose-4 <1 eiealaiein,o5e sie ereceld 8.» 254 
Bhowreeah, 

Defined and illustrated............... 1296, 1304 
Bingham, Hiram, 

In the Wonderland of Peru............... 387 

POLtralGr OF MAUS vibe sles aes spleen wm he os ee 516 
ar pir Ene OAT: Ayr SLLLLO' o:c)'e take ele oi lsia ears ste 6rd 713 
Bird reservations, 

TRAC HtEOIY OLG.-.c ac cfarecs ofhole cae staraseiale sis von 375; 377 

Map showing location of............s0008- 369 
Birds, 

COU CIIG SO WAlE, Os «aia nclaicarcate ortiniacae eo x0 669 

Wiarton celatiOn £0 dyna c seciet o.'s(2 ele ate ws oS layers 707 

Wever-ralling CHATMUOL ss 1cwo aesideiss- dlere ness 699 

That photographed themselves, illus...... 804, 805 

(Mieirsplace) int Matures ts! e's ecole ap ia-00> v<ia16.0 701 
BIRDS MAY BRING YOU MORE HAPPI- 

NESS THAN THE - WEALTH OF THE: 
1s (1D) SRS Ras ae ee ae a Gee oor 6909 


VI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
BIRDS OF FARM AND ORCHARD, FIFTY 
COMMMOUINT Son aon anges coo oUaOnonOoeCoOUaD 669 
Bishareen boy and girl, illus..........++-+eee- 987 
Bittern, Least, 

(Oy seats, WEL S Seb nes oop oaoooon oon Ubon 712 
Blackbird, Brewer’s, 

Described and illustrated.............++-++> 684 
Blackbird, Crow, 

Described and illustrated..........-.-.++- 683 
Blackbird, Red-winged, 

Described and illustrated...........+-.+--- 685 
Bluebird, 

Deseribed and illustrated. .....-......-.0- 673 
Boats, Peruvian straw, illus...............+..- 3890 
Bobolink, 

Described and wWlustrateds jcc... ce ecw 686 
Bob-white, 

Described and illustrated..............---- 695 
Borromean Islands, Italy, 

IDsKemMinxl jooagocsucansoonsdd andocoooddas 956 

Wem Oy meso goonbooopDedoouGonuRoOND 952, 953 
Bosnian peasants, illus: ..........00.-.-------= 223 
Boston Light, 

IDESORINRG. dacccaeococuuoDU CUO OUD OSD DDO.CdOD 6,9 

INNES sdansnaccsogcoaamooaupoaoDaDOdoGOH 4,5 
Brahminical thread, 

Ascetic wearing the, illus................. 1264 
Bread 4,000 years old, illus................... 1021 
Breithorn, Switzerland, 

Sisorenke Ou, MES shoongnoocospeecouonesouo 906 
Brévent, Switzerland, 

Sram Obey AL LESio ney crstevatzt= te tovels: coersietsucl el iensyene 869 
Bridge, Pontoon, 

UTS cay ela aaa tatray ebay oh avecerevenal ay cpeieisvarst sits avateizelc iSgeve (erate 1334 
Brienz, Switzerland, 

SERGE CHAM UILAS RO pa sevar cies tecersy setters Siaucecrmyaveisveueks 903 
Brochymena arborea, 

Meson bedupaeunteteomererwstsucievemeterverc io: Aete cur ers 609 

MMT rsa ere caters coh aaPate va etepeneyerel eae wasteroiarnees 612 
Brownsville, Texas, - 

irSmavvats mls ince, Wh os6c05cubeocdo6 1333 

Witldiicramesimear- sil lisesi sericea 1342 
Bryce, Ambassador James, 

Rarewellspeechitolrm incites eet 117 

ihe mNation se | Capitalcpemcen ccc she sete 717 
Buddhist monks printing, illus................. 574 
Bucharest, Rumania, 

IAP Henle timmmat pe iltisHes tay ere ee ai rereie eee 1076 

Country teamsters in, illus................ 1066 

Described .....- Nev Uorsksteneueitneres siete ud als S 1079, 1080 

Binudt venders of milltise as eis. here ene ene cnohe 1066 

Government savings bank at, illus......... 1076 

Opemans Cane thay MSS oocnocuncdososuoogo 1071 

Reculanicoachmenvsammllisee ee eee ene nee 1080 

PPGTZLELS One MINITS eis ver euan Madieiene ers ererlane See 1068 

Romanpwolteat,adbirersnl lise mieres ene 1058 

dypicalschurches at. iluseee ness eens 1078, 1079 
Buck, white-tailed, 

INKitE TAs HbERS Ort, «ls sos se sguoeeuodaeccs 767 

Takes its own portrait, illus............... 764 
Buddha 

ISSCOMMNES Bia ESesnte, WMS, os odccocscansouda 1274 
Burleson, Mrs. Albert S., 

Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande..... 381 
Bulgaria, 

UNM Dit ONS” Of: s.ssysis ceessra ee RE Sale ES 220 

Union of, proposed with Rumania......... 1075 
lnxelleavaenal joecass, MULES. soacascudesauaocenace 213 

Peasants: sal lis: cc, mcicenaeNe Ue n earn Cue 222 
Bullsmoose and) calves; ilushes.: 955506005 4e 822 
Bumblebec; male, 2 

ESCTI DE: 6h. separ ans eeicy eer eens ot pee 5 
Tice SM ccs se UR esas Sane oo 
Bomblebes: worker, 
EsCmbed *\2rat.ocyimis cae eee ee 
4 ius. Sos hnlielialenels’ ofayestidassin seen ot cueter sts ee 2eo 
Ghecyl eins, lense, Wil. 55445545 c@AG. Hay 
BURMA, UNTOURED.... 000. A a “eee 
fat a Coyewanrayy rolls, WES, sooccounsneesae x ‘ A 842 
ech Saal ahareZ cM, oo As ongu ood ees 8 
Butterfly, fy Wn oomoonsndoduoonUGod as 838 
escribedss sfemsie cesta ee 

lead vob sills rei ec tincic ae en ae 
Ney, Swallowtail, 9 9 8 

ELA Oi, GREECE. can anacaccoudecesaacen 609 

UIE Mar crea te are taran mia atecerye at pac une 611 

eo (627 
Sacre, eullivated, 
jel INESEIS KE ooh eae ae 
Cava ae, ee eee eee ae 1348 
inacowiss village: illus)... ces ae ee 902 


Page 
Camels, 
Mongolian freiciits illus. -perelteletielereneteneneee 645 
Camel cart, Mongolian, 
BUNS S. .s:sieie ce tenets, auctate ateleler shelcireieterere tee aeons 654, 667 
Camera, The, 
In the conservation of wild life............ 834 
CANADIAN ROCKIES, THE MONARCH OF 
TERE, (esse Sieve otis acs sinvstole wletetovere Serene eee 626 
Cancale, France, 
Oyster fleet: at; illus... 23a. seer 272 
CONCER IN PLANTS, THE DISCOVERY 
OE: pce ace eies cieisle tussle ree slalerelaran ene eee 53 
Canyon -Dexas.illussonceeie cate eee Bobo! OSs 
CAPIDAL, DEE) NATIONS Ss. aseeeeeeie 717 
Capitol, Washington, D. C., illus........ 747, 748, 749 
Caracas, Venezuela, : 
Dieserib ed ran oie: 5 scsce se: ete sore « ietevey enero eee 241 
Scenes! any, alls. > <lncistoetereer eee 238, 239, 240 


CARIBBEAN, THE COUNTRIES OF THE.. 227 
Caribou that photographed themselves, illus.... 817 


Cartagena, Colombia, Views in, illus......... 246, 247 
Cape Ann, Massachusetts, 

Tights: Omnis. vs botece che cone: Cale) o once etetee eee 27, 28 

PTT So, ieire revelers shia) o' = eveh oro eba) tel eilclel een eee Reenter 37 
Cape Charles, Virginia, 

LA hts OM! cave c 5, ole faveiciis « aielel Seen eee 23 

LOU i erroneretotinn dhombancooc cc oscd 28 
Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, 

Eights; ony lus scp e nore ettoneeteeete se D7 
Cape Henry, Virginia, 

Lighthouse and fog signals................ 27,47 

BUTS.) <2 saisecietis pore is clans Jane euctiototienctoekekeee ean Bits 
Cape Mendocino, California, 

Light on, alls) jen. ettea-oe lero eRe 29 
Car, Hindu processional, 

Deseribed! c55c)e ciendianegsissiyeisletoreheyer et conor 1315 

IUCR ae acrcnce doomacdc6 oc 1318, 1319, 1321 
Cat takes its own photograph, illus............ 807 
Catbird, 

Described and illustrated... .... 20s. see 677 
Caucasian 


Costumes, Varieties of, illus.... 1100, 1101, 1123, 
1126, 1128, 1130, II31 


Dance;, ‘described ie ici.s Mocs crenrersteeioe eee 1107 
Highlanders, Types of, illus.... 1122, 1124, 1125, 
1127, 1130 


Villages, Characteristic, illus.... 1113, 1114, 1115, 
I116, 1118, 1119, 1120 


Caucasus, 
Characteristic scenery in, illus....... 1088, 1089, 
1094, 1102, 1108, IT09, L112, 1113, 
1134, 1135, 1137, 1138 

Hastern isc sic b.08amiswtossve sbaclee Cee eee 1087 

Map S08 ais ucis aia ietaiete, scietsucin ras olsun cnet ee eee 1086 

Primitive bridges of, illus....... 1098, 1102, 1103 

Racial types: Of ts2<..)5 tcccctonse a een I12I 

Statistics concennine theses ee ene 1086 
Cauliflower farming 

In’ Texas, als)... a. .0su cick ataent Geno 1346 
Ccorihuayrachina, Peru, 

Ruins. at, ilusiscccs.ctn delineate eee 555 
Cetinje, Montenegro, described................ 285, 

LE WSi rds sy085 exetete POE 286, 290, 291, 292 
Chalets, Swiss, View of, illus.................. QoI 
Chamonix, France, 

Pastory (Of sncas4 bac cose eee eee 865, 

UC Senne ee een RENE nec aicinidS G.0.d co 863. 
Chandeleur lighthouse, Virginia, 

WS.) inc eesti 8 pete ee oe 31 
Chapman, Frank M., 

Birds May Bring You More Happiness than 

the Wealth of the Indies............... 699. 
Charles, King of Rumania, 

Blectionvot to) thelthrone seers 1066, 1069 
Charleston, S. C., 

lnlenelyone Ibyelonts Gri TRE. on eaccoanmoconoccec 30: 
Chart showing range of lights on Atlantic coast. 6 
Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, 

Canvasbacls ducks) leaves eee eee eee 371 

Oyster: bedsiotsa« jaw ane se ence en eee 261 
Chickadee, 

Described and illustrated............ i a sheastete 675. 
Chillon, Switzerland, 

@astlesofe Dhewalliisee eer eee ene gI2 
Chimney, Climbing a, on the Eiger, illus....... 909 
Chinese 

Cofhinis:: alll tis. ta essa Bete ee 647 

Gtaves: villussacacst sos ae ee ee 651 

Pris" las: Ae Soils eae cea nee 650 

Women, allushececs: seniscne ooo eee 652 


~~". - 


INDEX FOR 19135 


Page 
MBITIS Uy PES (OL, LILISs ojo siecle «cisions s sis 01 e066 846, 849 
Cicada, 

ER rx DO Ge ote etatatotcte aici iotayainimelaie wieya:ereKapeleva\w jal 587 

INLET peerterate ar ecataiaisistaca ish ntecalicha | Ghia she eral sieve: esa’ 586 
CLIMATE, DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 

AFFECT OUR..«..........0esee seer eee eees 181 
Cloud effects in the Alps, illus.............. 920, 921 
Pee ENOSIS (OF, 10. LOXAS. . 10. coe dees eiseceees 1349 
Coast-line of pereied States, 

Weenohlt 1Of« «ans. er aerate, chalk latevejeters'-sia Zipp: ae: © I 
Cobern, mice M., 

The sacred Ibis cemetery and Jackal cata- 

ETS OE ADS CLOG siele br aietas's aisles! sivie isi e's!) = 1042 
Cockroach, 

RIB EUG tes acts Scere le wiciw cine a/a.ctels's a! aes si diets 587 

CLUDE: SE Sigh AS BIO Hio CaN OnLy CDaIeIRE REO Ora 585 
Coffins, 

PORTE SEEM UULIS 2 2 «cleats ‘ant alsie.c 6. wicra oi<is suis ea oe 647 
Colima, Mount, Mexico, 

Erppting, BRAS et ne aete teen 198 
Colossi of Memnon, Egypt, illus............... 982 
SRO EADISMUOMDI DL centeca cies ccs cls ae ccecnee ne 242 
Conacha, Peru, 

Meee ROCK aby MTS exe,s/bie'eig sew em a)n Scions 539 
Cooke, Wells W., 

Saving the ducks and geese............... 361 
Coons that photographed themselves, illus... 795, 797, 


798, 799, 808, 809 
Cordouan, Phare de, France, j 


CIDE ter ata ccs ore clare ion wfnle}e) salts sare 3/0le 17 
thy pe oes ARO ae Sen OCR UP IaIS MEISeIer Is ietars 8 
Corinth, 

Medievel fortifications of, illus............ 307 

‘Sireyty Gerri Jae Se Ge ae ae rene aca Ere 306 
Corynocoris distinctud, 

TERN g)G ds Jo Coca Gog Go ERS OD GROIe aoe 609 

fare eet pabateueys, a¥ohare ciate, ssa cysyie\c<0\'s.9/ 001s. <(0/a}ers ays 613 
Costumes, Caucasian, 

Varieties of, illus......... I100, IIOI, 1123, 1126, 

1128, 1130, 1131 
Cotton, 

Amount grown in Texas......... 1343, 1345, 1347 
RPE rAETCMMUV TLC SLLLATS cfetc fare) cielo: 6,s.0je-0.0 ‘cietejls'e.a/éve.ecace 1342 
Creeper, Brown, 

Described and illustrated...........0.e000. 676 
Crevasses, 

Rea eEERTENC ISON a sale ss tae clerk ia atslece mine. d\s lore erase! oon 885 

@a Mont Blanc, illus. ..)5.. 6.0008. 881, 887, ae 

Tragedies of those on Mont Blanc......... 
Cricket on the hearth, 

FECTED Eats Oh tet eh ote le iat is (hho slaiey'ele loco tases 583 

Peseta etc etnie! tha e Nc isha awe lay eiaia‘eae se sys(araleie os 582 
Cricket, stone, or camel, 

PRG EEE Cin tate is is cls cveteraiedetaiona iariaia foi aiveisya tera eee 587 

RICE reer ral watts bh avivatatet waste sia Sa spvieieysatia eiele's 584 
Crow, Common, 

Described and illustrated..............00:- 686 
Cuba, 

ERS EGO rate io nt wn Patavere wuatcvwisl dvahets, occ lavfoxsy eve ce 249 

Road-making in, illus..... ro eRRIarcsatace se ereenas 243 
Cuckoo, Yellow-billed, 

Described and illustrated...............0.- 691 
“Cuzco Bones,” The history of..... 490, 491, 496, 500 
Cuzco, Peru, 

WAS ITATAS MEER ALE Oa O oie FOOD Oe 519, 567 
Cuzco Valley, Peru, 

DRE LOR Vea O bas eicie's crcicpete a (aiaynraaceialavsio cs seh ars 501 

ns es 
Waghestan, The highlands of..........-<.c2.-: 1087 
Dallas, Texas, IDESERIDELOM HOT sclera. one cise, civic ee 1353 
Mance.. GalicaSlan COUNTY, TUlUSiises ice sce tae’ 1131 

ERIC ee LELSIOUS ye LLALS sheie'elaiptnic eb w'ass 4.4 ae'ale's 1279 
Danube, 

Pree GEO OL, WLS crores ue ete eid © cua ate vs. 0'u 3 wee 1063 

View on, Sura A SON SON coy See Po toesc sims doe 1062 

PRUE ALOLE OL, PULUS .\5 stare: Ava cla/e ots ava\e,b' ais 1075 
ponel, Pass of, pe eneeene, 

HEWS 11, PALS, j\p('00 . I091, 1094, 1096, 1097, 10 
Darton, N. H., e Berar 

Texas, our TAT RES = SUAtO: wlaisra:e'o's'a Sista e's os iare 1330 

Jee Theodore ates r 
iscoveries of, in sypt Banca sae eisve-e 989, 999, 1036 
Bat ROO Ole fie aere.c didlo wik-s eg wih latersrere adie a a LOAS 

Deir-el- Bahari, Egypt, | 

Recent excavations at.,..... 980, 1023, 1038, 1039 
Temples at, described....... 980, 981, 1023, 1027, 
1038, 1040 
Temples at, illus....... «se- 1022, 1024, 1025, 1026 
_ Tomb of the kings discovered at........... 986 


Vil 

Page 
Devil dance, Mongolian, illus............2-0.00. 761 
Djordjadzi, Prince, 

Grossesithe ‘Cav@asusinivss is oo 0s 1103, 1104, 1105 
Dobrudja, how obtained by Rumania....... 1073, 1075 
Does, 

Pictures taken by, illus........ 765, 768, 769, 770, 

Wily 772 
Dolomedes tenebrosus, 

PNCS OPI EC te rtarel ciate tated eA ofe< a wiain Bis sald aS wie 625 

ANUS 6s sere re eteeater sta cre Glare ai sore Siar hia w afale a a:b o 62 
Douglas Village, Alaska, 

Vi CHa Cone Sat Rt TTNtES vee rate bin iste aeiecae ass ses 142 
Dove, Mourning, 

Described and allustrated .......20.0..-0.00~ 694 
Dragon-fly, 

DESCEIBER cag mets uo ame hin fer piktnicia'nd) o/s ie’ ecsieieisiw 5 597 

DLT pereye rr pat ake oteiekatcia oe aia ee sieiere vss lasie’ied ce iere 593 


Dravidian architecture, 
Examples of, illus.... 1322, 1323, 1324, 1325, 1326, 


1327, 1329 


DUCKS AND GEESE, SAVING THE........ 361 
Uh eg 

Eagles in China, Hunting with, illus........... 716 

Eddystone light, illustration of.......... 10, 12,13, 17 

Edson, John Joy, Treasurer National Geo- 
MLAPBIC OOCIEETs: IRCDORE Oli a iahete e nccyoeheys 2 ee eles 256 

EEL, THE MYSTERIOUS Pine -Oe ELE 
CLORMIN MOUS Hie SEN AS er Sane SEA OLACR eT neg r 1140 

Eel, 

MESEEUCHIV-Em MAD IGS Olt sieietare cetera: sis) ors /0her «evs che 1146 

Grow thy obsemllisn seo etaets saticclele live orsre eos 1145 

Tmiportance Ok 1S SCaléss <5 15sc0'e sions te ccje 1144 

Waeval.s -dlllteeiars o<c:atc)careiccae a wesw ace pikiedeiers eas 1145 

OM RiaiSy (hojareiajnaehrloies, Sse Sear os SOO BUG II4I 

Sealesots rulllisn cc.o Sehr cactetetetd craeicde. dare eb 1143 

he xComMOo fis ills ae oe wAk cea ase tle sd chal esov ster are 1141 

Where and how it breeds........ 1142, 1143, 1144 
Egypt, Ancient, 

Bard and sAriteale PUG ANNs isys9 0:01 6)oie  « aatre 1042 

Chronology of, Views concerning.......... 965 

Marlera ess Oe seer ererereinrensies aves (ets yeretMeione ol'uis\sleie 976 

Basth dynasty Of): sis.s ss sistersieie s So aye aievelaree « 973 

Evaenttute. OfcOMIDS elites ats misono as wigs) so ee 963, 999 

SWE rey pies stlevetanatetclelshersien clo steete gaietata fells 985 

Marriage customs in............. 1009, IOII, IOTS5 

DVSLCMIN Ole SUCCESSION LN shiva tala assisiclepsiel Sinie ole 1003 

Wndertakers;. (Guilds: OF, : 11) sie cei) ovate! - alate erwin « 1043 

Value of recent discoveries concerning..... 1022 
Egypt Exploration Fund, Work of the..... 980, 1021, 

1038, 1041, 1042 
EGYPT’S HISTORY, RECONSTRUCTING... 1021 
Gye eee Ee RESURRECTION OF AN- 
COTES 4 Se ee 8 be Parana Ree, ee 957 
Kiger, Switzerland, 

Climbing a chimney OP ULL rere eth aieik see 2 909 

Mite We Ontye ARLIES 205) ayaa a) e ands Inala ial stata larbis! sa x's" 936 
El Castillo, Yucatan, 

Pyramid tem plevat,, iuSnstaiaeis'wid ale eb </s ele 228 
Blephantsy ten ple, sUlAS. jac, cetcteveloesivedilec'oinie a's. 1315 
Elk, Bull, that photographed itself, illus........ 831 

Cow that photographed itself, illus......... 832 

Near Yellowstone Lake, SIGS E ak Oris foibles 830 
E1 Paso, Texas, 

DESerip tio te Olciteith hare sibiee as) 2 safela sais u'0le cle 1357 
El Tajin, Mexico, 

Pyramid temple at; iWlas. icc. 6 sic cscs 229 
Emperor Falls, nad da, 

Vi gate BUN ORR Re eer Oe MOL OE IT 636 
Eng-daw-yd Pagoda, Burma, illus.............. 837 
England, 

Gy StEr INGUSEry, Ole cis'e oo cy ace eholelS oe aik: ps0 273 
Erpate, 

Princés of ancient Egy pts sc1c. 6 eset a 1003 
IKACUS MRE MOL ENE 5 a4 otelbiaiaiase cs¥e¥le'5, 5. cae vinta ots 1020 
ey 

Fairchild, David, 

The monsters of our back yards........... 575 
Felt-covered houses, Mongol, illus............. 667 
Ferdinand of Bulgaria. ..% 00 ccc. sc cecc seve ccs 1077 
Finger-nails, Abnormal growth of, illus.. 1288, 1297, 

1306, 1308 
Fiji Islands, 

CAME tle LUNIA s 5, x)! cha aint «/ Wie wrackistaa a alors gree 760 

ae apparatus for wild-game photography, 
SSS hn a nL Ue ee 772,773 
Flashlight photography of wild game........... 763 


VIII 
Page 
Flicker, 

Described and illustrated........-.--++> 690, 707 
Fog-signals, ’ 

Coast and maritime..........-22eseeeeeees 47 
Formosa, 

Oyster culture in, illus..... eee eee eeeene 274 
Fort of Second Dynasty, Egypt, illus..........- 1044 
Fort Worth, Texas.......-..esesees eres encees 1355 
France, Oyster industry of.......-.- aotene lass sisvoke 269 
Funeral in Yunnan, China, illus.............-- 758 

XE 
Galveston, Texas, 

IDESBaINHO Cis ooo gpeoooDbauceuseoonG 1357) 1359 

@atiseway ats WS ee eee oes ee eiets eee 1338 

Residential section, illus.............+---- 1341 

Shipping cotton at, illus..........---+-++-- 1339 
Game, Wild, 

Flashlight photography of........-...--+-. 763 
Game refuges, Louisiana, 

Wei) G5 So quc Doo OnoodoonuEHOosoaoooub Son 373 
GEESE, SAVING THE DUCKS AND........ 361 
Geese, 

Grea SoG mle osaosscsccoossdscc000n 378 

Wael jolie, mits so nacesoclooaoagsecgsndeda 372 

Wild Canada, 

Momlesticatlormo lent r iri latewereileteiinerrce: 377 

TUIIbIGhe AA eee ee ect Gas Reet rameters 360, 376, 379 
Georgia military road, illus...-.....4..-.-:-.-- 1091 
Georgian 

Beapias, MlhiS.ccaccssognscb0s9Goabocooene 1100 

Women in national costume, illus..... 1100, 1123 
GEOGRAPHIC ACHIEVEMENT, A......... 667 
Glacier des Bossons, Mont Blane, illus....... 876, 877 
Glacier du Géant, Mont Blanc, illus........... 874 
Glaciers, 

Measuring movements of..............-.-- 889 

Oya! WioKemin TRO WSO Secoouccocudoocunocd 638, 639 
KelissadeteAt rallluis telitencnc, ccanaesarerieneyorencis steers _ 874, 910 
GoatyAmsorat frlllsig.) 5 cssve eve. doneernaceoiesest ee ries 1336 
Gobi Desert, A trip across, by motor-car....... 641 

Wesenibedi carci adarac tor io ccustserieya succes eicenelers 647, 653 

shelegraphwacroOsseticet-astaicieterteuicessi-rstoer ee ae 653 
Gopurams, 

Defined and illustrated.......... UA, USA, Ta 
Grand Mulets, Mont Blanc, illus........... 882, 884 
Grasshopper, Baby, 

Deserih edi raat hasta crisbacvearaelei eee terete hele 579 
Milla Se asec hate ies css ovavchawerstciiatecciteni neassetpe ea secveccues 577 
Green, 
Mescribediys sce orcas ei oe ne 583 
ADAG ete yeraycNenciteae mistrniskents Pakectesicinre ereteieie/< 580 
Ene, 
eSCrib caer pt suse ee sik tuciyace tee 
MUTI chtievssucis sabrotectarahiarvescuche waters ae 

Skeleton, 

Desert elit vciews heramtateon rede nese wucae eee take 579 

HLTA Sivaneter rae iad ese behe tietats Ins ors C sane 578 
GREECE AND MONTENEGRO.............. 281 
Greece, 

Soldiers in royal body guard, illus......... 210 
Greek peasant types, illus...... 297, 300, 301, 302, 304 
Grindelwald, 

Chunchwataerllis: Lee errr eee ees: 916 

Msiajfeiaojoines Zi, WMGS., 55 6000nn000becsnsoon 808 

BAVauterspontsmatscillisee saree eerie 934 
eoenele Alton G., 
bbe Bian (TUG B loeveullle®. oq55quencanueoa 
Grosbeak, 2a 
Black-headed, described and illustrated..... 680 


Srapiic, Societys Report oleenne sane 
Ground-beetle, Predacious, a 
Describedsancalltstrated ae eeeeae eee 595 
Grouse, Ruffed, 

a ee AUaS). Sai erstissisycue oes ee ae 700 
escnibedwand allmstratedu ye ieee eee een 
‘Guatemala, me 

Cond itiomt Of) oan, 2.:ton te mee Oe 233 
: Heres One quae (NiO S EO oon 325, 361 
uglea, Hdmondo de Amicis, illus...:i........ : 
Gull, Franklin’s, a 
Wescnbedsandiillustrateds eee eee eee 607 
Ewa, Ritelser, abhi soho nooceecon se 1069, 1070 
“ET? 
Hama, Syria, Water-wheels at, illus 
Ha-Noi, Tonkin, Market at, illus............ Ree 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
Hathor, 
Shrine of, at Deir-el-Bahari............... 1040 
Shrine and statteor, alltts ier teltsetetiitennans 1027 
Hatshepsut, Queen, 
Her reign and tereatnlesstr i) mnel-teteleteleterenenets 1036 
Portrart (ob, WlwS nee eieke tener cretion ieee 1023 
Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari...... 980, 1027, 1039 
Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari, illus.......... 1022, 
1025, 1026 
Havana, Cuba, 
(Goat sackiin'e shelby wills rsternet-ei tree eee 243 
Hawara, Egypt, 
Pyramid of Amenemhat III at............ 983 
Hawk, 
Cooper’s, described and illustrated......... 604 
Red-tailed, described and illustrated....... 693 
Sparrow, described and illustrated......... 693 
Erroneous ideas concerning............... 670 
Hay, John, 
What might have happened to............. 1095 


Henshaw, Henry W., 
Fifty common birds of farm and orchard.. 669 


Herefords, White-faced, illus.................. 1354 
Hieroglyphics, 

Prehistoric, at Quirigua, illus............. 356 
Talila jorenesig, Iebunchbi, Nils; obo acodaaccnonscoes 1313 
Hinduism, 

ANSCELLCISIN: 410 Mee eisjeus. ses relent ste eee 1357 
Hogs, razor-back, that photographed themselves, 

MNGi, 2 okbtocadeo dé coconn aon maser ete oreoepeeroetete 815 
Tel@iney swan, WEIS Ofoaocosscoscscpooduccc- 98, 100 
Flondtirass Condition ots ieieieie eee eee 233 
Hook-swinging, 

At Elindu! festivals 77.) . s.1 <t1raeten tele aernee 1267 

MNES Gas oDanOs oo ooo OCoGao oO boOnD OOS I310, 1311 
Hornet, bald-faced, 

Deseribed -.iis). ives eens, oes eC Ie Renee 599 

Llp re nmr Sr Smrtinocoa ooo 6 Gob oS 602 
Horse-fly, 

Dieseribed: oc s.ceicgsa wid eicheverele eee eee 599 

NOU Toit, Sree Ce ic am AAG OTS’ LISS do ca oc 598 
Hospodars of Wallachia and Moldavia..... 1063, 1065 
Houston, Texas, Description of........... Tacs. gine 
Huayana Picchu Mountain, Peru, 

NSCONE. (Of 5: rstarcieiers sche siouenmareerene 427, 431, 438, 439 

West side of,) iltsi....c.. sc « aires sermons 418 
Hyde, Walter Woodburn, 

The ascent of Mont Blancs. 861 
lnbysols IDapakiciay the IEA WOES ooobouncscocancocos 985, 986 
Con? 

IBIS CEMETERY AND JACKAL, CATA- 
io AT ABYDOS, THE SACRED...... 1042 
is, 

Cemetery at Abydos, illus................. 1045 

Mirmamiy,,, illasi. oc 525.00, sy accietcue nie crane eee 1049 

Wrappings of embalmed.................. 1046 

Syabolvon ho the asc ceeitet eer ere 1046 

Wr BUG) OL ss jo oie avs. ave one 2) shane rele y a otCNeT TCRR 1044 
Inea place names. ccs. ves doen een 520 
Indians, 

Group of mountain, Peru, illus............ 400 
Interlaken, Switzerland, 

House in, dWbasic..y.c.ce< aeisacinecra selene 927 
Irrawaddy, Rice boat on, illus................. 839 
Isis, Temple of, at Phil, illus............ 1016, 1017 
ISLAND IN THE SEA OF HISTORY....... 1087 
Isola Belllay Mtaly,, Views Otani caeierl eee 952, 953 
ITALIAN LAKES, GEMS OF THE.......... 043 

Scie 
Jackal, 
Cemetery of, described and illustrated.... 1042, 
1047, O51 

SaAched simancient JE ov p Esse eee 1048 
Jains, 

Waveliena seSleneyGIS lOGK io conaccacuccacnoeose 3 1275 
Janssen, Dr., 

Builds observatory on summit of Mont 

Blane as lsid hiss dis lews die tee ICO O ee 895 
Japan, 

Oyster farms in, illus.......... 275, 276, 277, 280 

Oyster industrysiotece eee eee eee 277 
Jassy, Rumania, yee 

Iba Une sonerelesis ie, alli. Go ocanccanncceucas 1073 


a 
5 


INDEX FOR 1915 


Page 
Jay, : : 

Blue, described and illustrated.......... 687, 708 

California, described and illustrated........ 687 
JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO, FROM.......... 71 
ews, 

J MPEGUTE Oto EE) IN UITATHES os ivs'e ois eos eles8. 6 0's ere 1080 

PETIA. SELLS Gielc is austeaw scien e\s/eue sieve a sieve se 1072 
Jhuttadarees, 

Wenned sand illustrated... .. 6 sc. ee esiecies 1304 
Jigatofka, 

PeeCacian Gham (ALLACIS. sic a secre's a tleesiie ee 1105 
June-beetle larva, 

Sve) eS EPS SSS SS SEIS RI 591 

ULIRMUR ES, aievalaieleis a's ccis-stale es 'so'e)e she’ signe wis) aip' 588 
June-bug or May-beetle, 

MMERCSENESPECL Oe -£ a 31 piel ahs cis) 6 0) vliafe ‘ails 10:00 alaretw nyernie 595 

SI RIMP ek Dihavce c.eleaybislelaiesalesn save efoto rare sieie 592 
Jujube tree, : 

Serco california, WSs sc waslere cee we'e 123 
Jungfrau, Switzerland, 

BUTVOR MCE TLL Se tiara eaves aielsia.e caters aivte ols Wms 936, 937 

o “ed 
Kachin wedding, Burma, illus................. 843 

RESET ANT OTL a cr orm to's [0 'a1a.(0f ew G0 a al win) e''e 10) wie vie 848 
Kahun, Egypt, 1 

Importance of discovery of...........++0+- 985 
Kalgan, China, 

eee MERE ER eee tes Lov are) a oe afc ie a¥avs-o4)'eie a 'eijn ia. 8 640 
Kalgan Pass, China, 

PENTOSE ILLS vids vic csja,c,s\ 01 sie siecrdtlelsteee sani 646 
BMT INICN SOUGESS. «cole slew cece sce cee ecce 1314 
Karma (retribution), 

SERIE GO CET ITI 1 OEins oicic.0'c ott: aie ne sa/a0 010, cusleree'e 1284 
Karnak, 

Avenue of Sphinxes at, illus.............. 990 

Gateway of Ptolemy Euergetes at, illus.... 988 

Hypostyle hall at, illus......... 992, 993, 994, 995 

Pylon of Tahutmes III at, illus........... 907 
Katmai village, Alaska, 

Perm rate ANLIGh ysis s. < sie eais cio.s's le sf'0 +18 aygereie 146 

MARAT DATIICTAG RES LTOMM s 0:61 elena eis jdjeye eteval sions. aia 189 
KATMAI VOLCANO IN ALASKA, THE RE- 

See E OIE ELON OB ye a cnc aces de see wes 131 
Katydid, 

PERSE AEC acicievover cleus Sia a1 oe aislete) wteibhe,e a S%eicia ve 583 

ASN rela a ocy aalere atsiaia neha @ vieke e/npele on sidle'e 581 
Kavadis, 

Defined and illustrated............... 1278, 1279 
Mervassess Albanian, Wis... csc ccc cece cre caw 309 
Kennan, George, 

‘An Island in the Sea of History.......... 1087 


Khafra, King, builds Second Pyramid... 


‘ : c 958, 961, 964 
Khartikhunski Ravine, Caucasus, 


CCDS SILELS oc) n4c).0/ctarave we cictola: sb. eisist ie 6 winaate 1108 
Khevsurs, Caucasian tribe, 
Described and illustrated......... cxohatasraysvaie 1093 
Khondadatel Ravine, Caucasus, 
MRMECRRL TELUS) Vaiora ec ic cca Sines slaterb-e bios yee lels I1I2 
Khufu, ene, 
Balas Great Pyramid. 36 ..0cdwesss 958, 961, 966 
RPIEGOBRACUS (OL, WIS. Al2-cve f siecreCvisie! nd atwrard.sie 969 
Khiyut, Caucasus, 
Pires UNTTITLE ats TTS 5 tots eis: oa. estan aiele ane II10 
Killdeer, 
Wesetibed and illustrated ..../.)..0...0cecacue 606 
Kingbird, 
lescribed and illustrated.........sc.sese0s 689 
Kingbird, Arkansas, 
Pscmbed and wWlustrated.....5.. j<0cecsnnces 688 
Kingfisher 
Meeeaving its Nest, gluSs 5). 31 adciac icine a0 ee oe 701 
Kinglet, Ruby-crowned, 
, Described and illustrated............e0e0+ 674 
_ Kkenko, Peru, 
Carved rock at, illus........ siclatcunthter ds ates 533 
Kleinglockner, Switzerland, 
REC G ETA UN TS. etait eid ol ose teie-cla sin nis omc é 942 
Kodiak, Alaska, 
BROCE OSs CLUPEION, tiers o/c! are enieidu cles «4:9.» 154,179 
Ash fall at, illus.. 153, 156, 157, 159, 162, 173, 190 
BEI RARE SAULLAA 0a) steer c ae sist cca vier s a(t vl oa 149 
EGE cuit clare, 6 wistas ciate eoig0,50s, oe vid cena . 134 
Onigspitze, Austrian Tyrol, 
BUENO SED TLE sd dus o'sis w creed wie oi b.s-s.e: = cece a O41 
Krakatoa, 
RRETENCIORE 8 OS) fee tee wo, 0 ot his adn lo\e,eleue sete 161, 165, 189 
shevo, Macedonia, 
Destroyed by Turks, View of...........- < sate 
umbakonum, India, 
Mahamadkham festival at, illus.. 1312, 1313 


Wie 


eh WAY 


Ix 
Page 
teint 
La Guaira, Venezuela, 

WTC WOS OIE ULI s «ius diata widiareiistc’ aia’ ee <\aie 9,9 6:6 236, 237 
Lake Como, Italy, 

PIER CUU I i eetarea Sk oval cabeke ereys/k\cis ages oe be 943, 946 

VAG RECIRIGCTIL Ca aiecharta nis els-c\sies'e' cles 948, 949, 950 
Lake Lugano, Switzerland, 

ee ne en se 946 

EWS Ime TNR ere. Gitte 's ci c'eiciels nis k c's.e:0 951, 994, 
Lake Maggiore, Italy, = atta 

MERC TIME ea tetetatalc catstairrets is cf ois, <0 cle a,o cle eece 956 

WAG WSO N CS TINGS 7s, sr o:c e/ejasin’ave'e cies cree 945, 952, 953 
Lamas, Mongolian, 

MG ich rea CLETE, Ohne trata icy eut fale a/eierare ols iets © sve:e xo." 655 

PAGAL WIS Aine aaa ease haicleisecs wesc cats ee 653 
ANAS MOTOR CAR; THE... foc. .c cece ses 641 
Lark, Horned, 

Described and! sllustrateds...... 0st. ccc cee 688 
La Union, Salvador, 

[BATE TACKSRA TALUS ee, eats e naidieielsicls ales © en se ae 245 
Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland, 

Ne WOk o MMLAIS Rete tard or ae) iaiie' oN acle'Scevtla ie’ aleie wisi ve 918 
Lebanon, Cedars of, 

MUN OE Ciclet ale cupecrminraletal kciele fais ie sai Wvs\aie 81, 82, 84, 85 
Leh, Kashmir, 

VAG WHO Ls ine visited oe Binixialaveleie'n aiclald aera e Bie ms 854 
Le Munyon, Ethan C., 

sues sy etratas LOLOL Gath ac ner s'otre ce see ee ste 641 
Leptocephali (larval eels)...........-. 1142, 1144, 1145 
Lighthouses, 

Wenses and cehectOrs: in. s..c cece eee cca e wc 36 

(Bensrused ane tallasite ato te dares cigs didie wae’ 42, 43 

Number of, in) United States... sc. sce I 

Staten Island, New York, depot, illus...... 2 

Service, U. S., personnel and work of..... Fe Sg 
Tiedt reac te Spsha ctatelel el clei alatonalaeeveloreinateratersve ce ere’ els 4! 

ASOD ota savers alae istwin algo leteoata thems acetate , 46, 47, 48 
near Peru, ee a Ba 

orpus risti procession at, illus....... 90, 391 
Lipovans, The (Russian sect) <a 

Described and illustrated... 2.0. cccecccere 1080 
Little Afognak, Alaska, 

BUTCH aks MUG Seeryel aria emsatcersie mae divistowo me ove I5I 
Llacta in Palcay, Peru, 

Ritu S pa ty MULES ste revelalt tse celeiela dciel cietoust eee wisielere 58, 55 
Llacta Pata, Peru, eS 

RAFTS AC, ALLIS scare de teietalaleleue O's cle ietoves ete eves 555, 550 
Llamas, 

Pictures of... 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 398, 413, 518 
Lolo women, Yunnan, China, illus......... 759, 1155 
Louisiana, 

Game PELUPES IU ats stele si ciciaceleiacis Same ese. 377 
Lucerne, Switzerland, 

[Willecncielbaly WUih(se Ape rrse ty a56 ciate eae 935 
Lugano, Lake of, 

WMaews on; las. jo. 3. s, <c0ce ate lisuneierere 944, 947; 951 
Arm DEL ANGUStry.t 1 a CRAG« sic, o\d.ete Seles so detec 6 oe 1347 
Luxor, ; 

Colossi of Rameses II at, illus........ IOOI, 1002 

Court of Amenhotep III at, illus.......... 998 

<se? 
McLean (Wild Bird Protection) Act........... 377 
Machu Picchu, Peru, 

Agricultural terraces at, illus........... 515, 516 

Altan vain: chief temple; illus ic:cicisse0 oie auernie 501 

Ancient stucco still in portion, illus....... 463 

IATIDMOALD IEOlsis siareig us elvis oisly eae siete 403, 408, 416 

Archeological importance, itS..........eee. 489 

Bird’ s-€ye* view OL, tl5; . cccnte cele v.cise ss 404 

(UTPAls GAMOS ely LIN USia) orci iv cnslele'eie wield 428, 429, 430 

Grae es, PILL tere, cra: d.ciereim'éi0:5/5,0 erslnlwicie’e.b ele 

CLageeraups st, AS. civ a wielees wiwivta < 

Cradle of the Inca Empire, The 

Detenses of Gs. o's ive/egs o's 5 s.ctee oi Re 

Detail of Sacred Plaza at, illus.....:s0c.«s 

PNSHOVEDW ‘Oveciasc 6 atelclaslapewe a cislawatares, «7 

Effects of clearing at, illus.... 432, 433, 434. 435, 

498, 499 

Entrances to clan group at, illus........ 472, 473 

POXC VAAL ALS icicle a aid ase <iore, Wels sia\ele 440, 446, 447 

Pxcavaling At, AUS > oslea icine sees as se 427, 429 

Wit Gte nti pats: ISy 5,6 0 'elapcsie’s ook oe. 8 Ris.o nim ate 475 

Forestration of region near........s.e+- 477, 480 

OUT AIIS 10> TLS <loiog one pia eie > eae rin ae 460, 461 

Gables, house, illus............ 452, 453, 455, 478 

Gates of arid: their. bolts, scs/ess siseiesccn0¥e 464 

General. view of, illus... 0... scesrcscesoese 514 

High priest’s house at, illus............- 504, 505 

Poner City wally MUS... a ccieavvccecice 439, 445, 446 


Interior of houses at, illus..... 462, 469, 480, 495 


x THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Machu Picchu, Peru, Face 
Intihuatana Hill, illus..........+-.eee rere 50 
Kitchen utensils, illus....-... sees ee cceeeeees 469 
Locks and locking devices, illus.......- 466, 467, 

470, 471 
Main road to, illus..........--eeeeeeeeeee 449 
Miap Ofsiececace es ccc cere rumen entine sects 425 
IN oes Cony wllhbGe Oo acaeropoogue Ceo OnGd moO 444 
Niches in house at, illus........ 487, 495, 503, 505 
North view of, illus........+2-- seer eres 511 
Outer city wall, illus.......+.--eee ee ee ees 438 
Pottery from, illus.........-++eeeeeeeeeee 573 
Precipice near, illus......--++-+eees-eesee 437 
Princess Group at.....+++.++seeee- 486, 491, 496 
Ridge on which it stands, illus............ 436 
Sacred Plaza at, illus............... 409, 498, 512 
Sacred rocks at, illus...........+-.-- 481, 482, 497 
SiG. OS Ga coe dabUu eo SOO RO OU oOo D Cero coun 453 
Snake window in, illus............-- 492, 493, 494 
Stairways in, illus......... 451, 454, 456, 457, 458, 

459, 507 
Stone settee at, illus...........------+--- 469 
‘Sora Ghall are, wdlltSsosccascoacanaccos goagooad 509 
Temple of the Three Windows at, illus.... 408, 

418, 431 
Tower, Semicircular, at, illus....... 489, 490, 401 
Typical doorways at, illus...... 470, 4775 478 479 
Typical houses in, illus...........-.---- 464, 480 
Typical masonry at, illus..............-.-- 476 
Wang siniplhy Gist sceeéoooso0ng0oboD0daos 459 
\WESe wie Oy allltiso san boaneeooooooedIa00D 510 


Wonderful masonry at, illus.... 416, 484, 485, 487, 

488, 490, 502, 503, 504, 506, 509 

Workmen employed at, illus............... 426 
Machu Picchu Mountain, Peru, 


Signal station on summit of, illus... 441, 442, 443 


Madagascan Queen and her court, illus........ 0) 
Magdalena River, Colombia, Scene on illus..... 232 
Madura, India, 

(Greeeie ineraaqols Ene, WES. 6556c0onacoqc0doDe00 1326 

im Gaetestiva lS wate ser-tlerdeeleiaeirrsiiiiarn P2575) LOLs. 
Mahabaratha, 

SHORES iO MSs ocncoKosdsgbocuscod 1269, 1270 
Mahamadkham, Hindu festival, illus....... 1312, 1313 
Mai-Mai-Chen, 

Business capital of Mongolia.............. 660 
Makapuu, Hawaii, 

ILiclCESS air, aUiGeeacbagoasoooodsoonsb OG 41 
Weiler, wecabtaes) wlkeSsggapoocbouacooodseadood 366 
Manetho, History of, verified................. 958 
Manu, Laws of, relating to ascetics.......... oo "g@2 
Map 

Obs the; Cavicasusiaietcrccs cis oan evevers eunaisvcte eager 1086 

One achumeichup mee ntierr er intariaisercr rere ielers 425, 

OF ikon Eye Olevaeiey oaobcodoonKoonooooaeO 349 

OPM eas Misiueyaie re ercts, custereiolesy Chaves soars @eeietine UIE URIS 

Showing breeding grounds and migration of 

IRQSS POOSE ara etevais 6 srelensicteslet ed shat sheila: epaveter ere 367 

Showing breeding grounds and migration of 

the white-winged scoter................. 365 
Showing breeding grounds of wild ducks 

AM AWS CESEH err ceseereieeenccaemedestoevein eslersic gies 362 
Showing Canadian breeding grounds of 

ducksrand3eeesecracnce nein ue ee eine 364 
Showing Nile from mouth to first cataract. 972 


Showing region explored by Yale-National 
Geographic Society I}xpedition to Peru... 388 
Showing U. S. bird reservations.......... 369 
Showing wanderings of the Rio Grande.... 384 

Showing winter resorts of wild ducks and 
SER Cras cKO Gis CIO OIE iain oi Rar I eG 368 


131 
Martin, George C., oe 
The recent eruption of Katmai Volcano in 
IGEN CV PCIE 4.4 Hy. Sine Seeemeys am ale Beers 131 
Martin, Purple, 
Desenibedsandellistrated see eee eee 680 
ESI Sir Gaston, 
iscovers tomb of the Kings.............. 986 
Mastaba, A, described and illustrated.......... 1055 
Matapalortrees Al illus) Ss ae oe ee eee 346 
Matterhorn, sea Switzerland, 
AWAD Corse Ub peeninicnoisio bad 06.00.60 6 8 
Maucallacta, Peru, Be ane 
Tneaertinswatesillise eee Ane ert ee 415 
eeauestea 
CSCHIDECieetcete tte ccs ot sae eee ae 
Tt Sao eee terae ce 4s acs oe ee ae 


Page 
Mayer, Arthur Ellis, 

Gems of the Italian lakes................. G43 
Meadow-lark, described and illustrated......... _ 685 
Medinet Habu, Egypt, 

Pavilion of Rameses III, illus............. 1012 

Pylon in temple of Rameses III at, illus... 1013 

Temple of Rameses III, illus.............. 1OI4 
Meenachi, Hindu goddess................. 1314, 1315 
MEGASPELAON, THE OLDEST MONAS- 

TERY DIN - GREECE o..6 oc eee 310 
Magaspeleon, Views of the Monastery, illus... 311, 


314, 316, 318 


Memmnon, Colossi of; illus. 22... 2 = eieieiletoneenererene 982 
Memphis, Egypt, Statue of Rameses II at...... 984 
Menaggio, Italy, 4 

Described i... ac 0\s e's ee ce ere oe eee 946 

View of; ilusi. os os 232s neces oe 951 
Menkaura, King, 

IByervkals; “Wowiaal IeAyeapewGl Gag GaacanedoscnKs 958, 961 
Mentuhotep I, King, 

Templar OF ci.cyeteracuc stsrsterenietoeeotere 980, 981, 983, 1023 
Mentuhotep II, : 

Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari.......... 1022, 1024 
Mer de (Sees: Where Wilewae, wlES5s505cce- coc 866, 867 
Merenptah, Pharoah of the Exodus, 

Date of the Exodus under................ 1020 

Miarmimiys ona discovered rr ieritsit tienen 980, 991 

Portrait of, illus..¢ 1... caso ee eee 102 
Metchnikoff, Eli, 

Discovers the phagocyte. .... 2.2... II47 
Meteora, Greece, 

Monastery, atest llitiSjrceicrctercaeierereiene ne neneneneneene 308 
Min-lin-min, King of Burma, 

Tomb. of, ilusvaii.les vars tee eeeeeeeee 844 
Mink that took its own picture, illus.......... 786 
Minots Ledge, Mass., 

Wighthouse) O15 toy «ees ea eee 18 

TU aS. 5-55 fans ccm ay clad cub, autueteiecs poles ere nee I4, 15 
Mission architecture, Spanish, 

lBsehan oles City WhiSoag0ccnnocacoconce> 1331, 1337 
Mocking bird, 

Described and illustrated............----6 678 
Moldavia, 

Hospodars), Of cc iieiac =< cie ci veeeete 1065 

Wnttes) wath) Wallachiasensn eee eee 1066 
Monastir, 

Turkish soldiers leaving, illus............. 211 
Monch, Switzerland, 

View of, illus. . seis sca cceeielle eee erate 936 
Mongolia, © 

Capital iC fan tin vin deters Gee ee 641, 661, 663 

Commercial metropolis of...........-...--. 660 

Ceneralidescription Of 4. seein 669 

Mieditim! of exehange an... sees ees iene 669 
Mongolian horsemen, illus.................- 656, 657 

Well, dWlus..cc05 as aes eter eee 651 

Women, Types of, illus........ 658, 659, 664, 665 
Mongols, 

Mieat=eatine habits) oles eerie eee 669 
Monks, Greek, 

AUADES: Clty SINISG Sob on oachoosdoos 317, 319, 321, 322 


MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS, THE.. 575 
Mont Blanc, 


At the Seracs of the Junction, illus........ 878 
Grevasses tons illuses eee eee 881, 887, 888 
Mone) du (Gouterm illic here ieee eee 886 
Barly, attempts sto ascend selene 867 
General ew Ot illus)... 8 Sh ee eee 5 Soe 

aciers of, illus....... 870, 871, 874, 876, 877, 87 

Grand ivinlersinllitse eee aces i ae ae 882, 884 

Grand Plateausalliisee nee ecient 896 

How to ascend .....h. 0c scuoe cet e een 879 

Flistory Os, <0: sje level ave'ors eens Ase ee eee 895 

Janssen Observatory on..:...0-.ssseeeueee 8907 

Thus. Of nesodihes wccomtaee Se ee 897 
Blistory Of. sis Scat eee 895 

Sige: Ori, WES cosooerboosoos 890, 892, 896, 897 

Wrorstaccident oneemerete eae earns ‘Saeate 891 
Mont Blane du Tacul, 

TUS aspauetesoee ahecs sim ere (ols eee ence Ret Reel 874 
MONT BLANC, THE ASCENT OF.......... 861 
Monte Caprino, Switzerland, : 

Wiew if; il tists <isreraicke crouse teteeeueteioroe Serene 944 
Montenesningsoldienss ements 214 

abyss, wlilciss oSoacocoee 283, 284, 286, 289, 290, 296 

Weteranserulllitstanrotranen mere iucteisteneiees * 285 
MONTENEGRO, GREECE AND............. 281 
Montreux, Switzerland, The quay at, illus..... 913 
Moore, Frederick, 

Changing Map in the Balkans, The........ 199 

Rumania and her ambitions..............- 1057 


Moose, illustrations of............. 823, 824, 826, 828 


INDEX FOR 1915 XI 


Page 
Moose cow that photographed itself, illus..... » +B 
Moose Pass, Canada, View of, illus........... 630 
Morley, Sylvanus Griswold, 
Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala....... 339 
Moses, George Higgins, 
reece and Montenegro........se.esseees 281 
Mosquito, Anophales, 
POEEEG LU ARG ant ie aterdia Stal ara, eaters sinre exh a 6 597 
Gs, olf ARMA RRS oe See Ais Cena 596 
Motor car, A trip across the Gobi Desert by... 641 
Mount Robson, Canada, 
EPEEEIEEPIES LO GLIITD ©) 0:5) eVavainie.d's 0 6 0\c%e/oseis 0.0: 627, 628 
RRECIDEC is elcia ei vids idcs Mev tis ae os ae Cine, ore 626, 635 
Glaciers on, described 6... 0 sccecjecect ee 638, 639 
Pageersr ON AllUSs.c% 4701s ares ss slaieie 632, 633, 634 
Maire Nanorama Ole «cence wae secu 629, 635 
UTERO Ee ULIS wiz cicpstay aa sy aa soo: » o's 0.6 eve'e Sia 8a 631 
Mujal, Central Caucasus, 
MCNEELY Sc herrcie aia Kata etme we'ce vivitere mve.eve. 9 6 1139 
Mummies, 
PeMECIDIE COMM, UWS. \s.c0 2 ccc cece ces ences 1054 
Of dogs and monkeys, illus............. 979, 980 
Mfreats found at Abydos, illus... ......... 1040 
MIRE WEAD DINGS (OE, U1lUSaeleieslss e's ot o.cisie anc 1046 
Mummy, 
MPPMSC HUET UILUES Set ive 's gia nlevdioae seis: «, a \ee'sieerd aie 1036 
MINS MBAT ETI E aeET a Hea to, a) a¥ajo,e a eieinie ate seie ove e erates os 1049 
Mummy-case, 
MPA renbseryptrariy! UltSs kis sc/iew's b.ciesiseve sie ce 1037 
Muskrats that took their own pictures, illus.... 777, 


778, 780, 782, 783, 784, 785 
SPRetae HOMES. and HAbltS).ic ss. teee cclt ce eles 781 
MYSTERIOUS TEMPLES OF THE JUNGLE 325 


bled 
MEMES SHES CNTS > ns) 5/0'o.a oe. oidciaiel side s/elave 43> 45 
National Geographic Society, 
PaMaUI ALMA UCE Obi eis el eve;a aed Gis ave sta cere 113, 130 
BITE CEOSSTITEPOLL, TLOT2s se sieccc occ wells teh as 251 
BEMBEGUIOLINTO DELI ois cele elteiciern stanteln ee eno 116 
Map work done by.... sor, 504, 506, 507, 510 
RULE SOL rte ciate Patel. is)chereic ardverbicisateio-s © 387 
Results achieved by. ...- 0.05. 0.0e ses 391, 395 
STEHT, OER) Stes SIGRID IACI 387 
Lecture program, 1913-1914.........+-+e00% 1360 
ocation or home (of, Wlus so... cece css 740 
Mew upundings fOr. WG... wiele ced ben o's 126 
SRLEAGUICED GeTePOTt,  EGQT2:0<joice sce acesic ne « 256 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, 
UP VOIDS ST OD Se eee 251 
Navesink, N. J., 
WAPUEMOMSE) AL, IIIS s.0 cele ale vis'sie'e'sive es d.eele.s 33, 39 


Naville, Edmond, 


Excavations of, in Egypt.... 980, 1031, 1037, 1038 


Necklace, Ancient Egyptian, illus...... Behe enacts 981 
Nefertari, Queen, 
Portrait statue of, at Luxor: illus.......:. 1003 


at Abu Simbel, illus.... 


1010 
New Guinea, 
Pee MELOTS SCIIUD 1 AIS. sore oye, oo. oid wo ek a 762 
New Hebrides, 
Meetanoo SionS! in, illus... iene aes sed pe eels os 751 
mtedpias Condition Ofc... i/aasciess sects obec 235 
icholas, King of Montenegro, 
CRICVEMENtS Of... cree ccsecrcscacsvecs 293 
ReEpaITS OTs LIT ccas i= stat sc bree alera daa 291, 292 
Nighthawk, 
mewescribed atid’ illustrated. ..:....0.00.e0200 680 
Mee T ME OL aie dc'ckic cid isiess oe ne'eaebns 972 
usta Espana, Peru, 
eee AaLTOM Nate TUS. cceiela diese isiein wes oveve F 554 
Nuthatch, White-breasted, 
Described and illustrated.............00. san 675 
Jf @ is 
Meee Deposit of, in Texas... .c.ccccrccescevcs eae 
Ollantaytambo, Peru, its 
mncient fortress near, ilus....0s.sccccc0s 407 
MRS URC CULE as tol ain’ 6: s\eial, d'nles 'e)s/nreiaiase cela o\.3 mire 414 
Oporto, Portugal, 
RP TESMOLE MEINIS s circ n Webinie'o otis ete et 6 ua 2 752 
Opossum that photographed himself, illus..... ah) SOEX 
tia, Switzerlan 
_ Church at, SRAL i oie hit cach cokes steahate 947 
Tinoco River, Venezuela, 
MRI PRIGLON ALLE elaig ate ein’s)valeicis s)v'siesai «ie ssi wale 241 
Oriole, Bullock’s, 
Described ‘and illustrated...........000%6 684 
Orontes River, Asia Minor...........cceeee ase. ‘509 


Page 
Osiris, 
Ancient Egyptian deity, illus.............. 
God of the dead.. 
Osireion, Abydos, 


1034 
+ I04I, 1045, 1046, 1052, 1056 


IV StER Vin tT LOE cimis/ale.¢, cleisie sio)e ae) wal sareele 1052, 1056 

Clearing entrance to, 10S... oc .siss cece wee 1031 

IRS ROSY CUT Ag Se BOC EC EEC CIOE Ee 1032 

SlOpING MasSARe IN, TUS. cw cs wisaceea cas 1053 
ven Mind. wall Ge wetdcarcreu atctastae wale tba)vieis win s/s wya'e 711 
Owl, 

Barn, described and illustrated............ 692 

Screech, described and illustrated......... 692 
Oyster, 

ATIACO NT Yar Ciel UIUCS are anita wecta eta aie.c\sia.s seis 06 260 

Aittackeduby Starhsh, WSs. 0 cr copia wee sre’ 267 
OYSTERS, THE WORLD’S MOST VALU- 

PATE Be Ey Rene IOEY ra clacia uraista’ae creisis/sis.0 ae 257 
iy Ad 
Pagan, Burma, 

av Od asmatanen rcs eat cleneteia dict cit a naleisrew.c noes se 850 

EN ISaRIS Tcl Davee ante ate: er arala Metter aie area cisiele ovale, Sueiwie ioe 843 
Palaung women, Burma, illus........... 840, 841, 851 
Palcay, Peru, 

RR G eat L Ui Sis ie eialstate dielelels sfotelele S'arm eye ta'ste 556, 557 
Ban AGIGMCANWECALITOA Cs cc's chess oie, 0: 0 cyersit eve wie Teale ore 239 
Panhandle tor of exaceicacatifoe sterc\o ecapatacd scan eee eye 1337 
Panta. Mountain ee ertay TliS:orcclstele cic sole cra ere 543, 544 
Papandayang, Java, Eruption of............... 165 
Pavlof Volcano, Alaska, 

WiewiiOhe cicsisociies ss a ai SA ON OOD OCR TET Ce 138 
Passenger pigeon, 

ORLEDIMMALLOUN OL cers cicle¥e co sou civ orsirieacesn e's 379 
IBEACOCKE SW DIte GINS fein vacisaie sre sets sete see 954, 955 


Peary, Admiral, 
First meeting with Capt. Amundsen, illus. . 114 
Peasants, Rumanian, illus...... 1064, 1065, 1067, 1073, 
1074, 1082, 1083 


WIGS U]MSik steele ie nxel0's 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933 
Pelée, Mont, 

PEM UIGID DE crs. cistelers wjero cacistad Musk oel eee mw erate's 192 
Pelicans, A breeding colony of, illus........... 820 
Penances, Hindu, 

PASCOMCG AMO yee etal ovale era: play's Goiciecs Grays) eadusyote vers ‘s 1257 

ralancine sn liSateics.< "cele lars oa, 3 aeten tee 1285, 1298 

Bed of thorns, illus........ 1268, 1269, 1270, 1297 

Buried alivies MLSs <rcyaveeteie, cvtale ©. bale seit Save 1281 

ree TIS rele spe ccoltretens loceteusrete ine wat aeeaa Ss os 1286 

Hanging head downwards, illus........... 1295 

PROM Te PINES: rararerg a, ctstaas tis sss ekinia’s Ue whee 1284, 1291 

MPIKEd) SHOES. 115% «ice s/ayeyelaieiets «tele cereale e 1328 

BLOOMING oe IS res claire oiaye.a Rrcrerembelen celptneaists 1206 

REISE AS sratate re ldvrenstereidiertee s «ta hactenl ove 12890 

Unvaried postures, illus.... 1290, 1293, 1294, 1306 

Weight bearing, illus...........-. Yah SS eee 1292 

Wierrht carmyine, lis... ccc s use we 2 oars sare 1280 
IREGSTAN, co VDICA ALlUSe sideiets) selec leila bis saie capilele 1126 
iloc: IN THE WONDERLAND OF........ 387 

eru, 

Anthropological studies in........... 56, 562, 564 

Work of National Geographic Society in. 116, 387 

RginS7 LINPOLtAN ty 1h. sa/e's cece n/c oicielels » o.0fe 483 

See also Machu Picchu, 

Weather observations in...........e0e+- 564, 565 
Recvyias eae women, 

VDESLOL: “TUMISS stores « esa 401, 500, 503, 522, 570, 571 
Petit Manan, The 

eae trate MULAG feyartnctss aka cielo estes scartacieie.c 24, 271 
Petrie, Prof. Flinders, 

Excavates Tell-el-Amarna.......secccceens 999 

Views of, on Egyptian chronology......... 065 

Work Of An Be yptiic coc s occ.ne 0c 973, 983, 985, 999 
Petroglyphs, 

TP r bet uliSe ttle bat atawil s,s, 9.5 oeeriscs se Uae 567 
Petroleum fields of Rumania......... 1081, 1082, 1083 

_ Petroleum, 

Amount produced in Texas...........00++ . 1347 
BHACOCT CEP LIISCOVELUUGE fieiv ni’ clvic|« x ers) s/ags'e Sinai. ois 1147 
Phile, Egypt, 

Court of the Birth House at, illus......... 1017 

Great colonrnade at,  WUG sw clare os sis cian'a 0-0ig'n 1018 

Pylon of Temple of Isis at, illus.......... 1016 

View of, when submerged, illus............ 1019 


Pilgrims, Hindu, illus.... 1259, 1260, 1261, 1271, 1312, 
1313, 1316, 1317, 1320 
Pigeon, passenger, 


PrRtieietIOT wOie scale 6 < wieleleitoieraih ew tiers <i e 379 
Pigeon Point, California, 

SH EeONee IH UB i Wwis ca nip oe WE Sait coiew'e ceue 25 
PIGEON WHISTLES, CHINESE........-..+. 715 


XII 

Page 
Piquillacta, Peru, illus............++-+- 526, 527, 528 
Pisac, Peru, 

ibalecbogbehes) Clq lll Ciao eiGeomniod Or come Ooo 412, 413 
Piz Palu, Alps, 

Wares em ll ticirctercleverelavele sisters slstelere)«(-faKelaielevcl O41 
Plants) (Gancer ines «jee sc: css ccm e meee ws mips RS 
Plevna, Rumanian successes at, 1877..------+++: 1071 
Plover, Upland, 

Described and illustrated............-.---- 696 
POLICEMEN OF THE AIR, OUR........... 698 
Pontoon, bridge, illus...........-..-+--- ano.gox 1334 
Porcupines that photographed themselves, illus. . 74 

775, 81 

Tree barked by, illus. ......cccees++ ee === 776 
Porto Rico, 

IDRIS. OFs oodgoonedoompTsoOMGeDaDeaGoOD 227 

Tobacco plantation in, illus.............-. 244 
Pot burial, 

Ancient Egyptian, illus............... 1038, 1039 
Potomac River, 

Wiens Gal, dhs sooaoosnconspunodncces0 722723 
Pottery, Peruvian, illus..............--++.000- 519 
Prayer wheel, Mongolian, illus..............-- 670 
Procession, Hindu religious, illus..... 1318, 1319, 1321 
iPrqoyicinkonal Cus yielel jovinl5 jag oooacndecnoubdDG 368, 377 
Ptolemy Euergetes, 

Gateway of, at Karnak, illus.............. 988 
Pueblo, 

“Gvieeil Wlopm, WKS, cooacnoodneGdod00000G0 1139 
Pucara, Peru, 

MnIGAMLOGEGESS) ats) dlls) raletelersreicteieteytaisnaisieve) tet 532 
Punt, 

Expeditions to, from ancient Egypt....... 975, 


Putnam, George R., 


IBeaconswOlmtheyy Sear paveteieiisie oreiecoe rence isi ers I 
Pyramids, ; 
Memb wildercwotmMe a. j-sabaeetevcrenciene asceucieneret ccs 970 
Pyramids of Gizeh, Egypt, 
Zk) Sein wheOianl Teniie, WSS sank oeoosooad6 eee 960 
Pint dersiyo Wapcticte. cheats mccvonn weirs eek ere a ate 958, 961 © 
(SerrenalisviewiiOLan cite o iow feta anees 961 
Great Pyramid, 
ADIT PASSAGE erekeycley sieicieteic/ c! Grae couspeneleea ve tare 968 
Sepuleherchaimperanniey veel 969 
WWieWiS Pale at sii vers cai tecstiellsicte cavotouey see orators 966, 967 
Wonderful construction of............ 973 
Second Lyra dewemerveiekeraae ee eters 964 
Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt, illus.........:.... 959 
See 


Quail, Florida, take their own photographs, illus. 806 
QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA, EXCAVATIONS 


PACT AM pat yeh pei Snetteksr aera ayo be a cue ere a terstnber sotstoteneiuictees 339 
Quirigua, Guatemala, 

Excavations Elf casocosoorssco0deosbendnS 1056 

Excavating, illus.......... 339, 341, 347, 348, 350, 

s ‘ 351; 353, 358 

Forest WEReiEhnora meehn, ills G46 GuGGo cb 65 326, 327 

Prehistoric monoliths at, illus...... 324, 329, 330, 

cae 333, 336, 337, 342 

Rabbishim)equsalemynllttshee eee en era 7S 

Rabbit, Habits of the northern................ 787 


788, 


89, 790, 791 
Racine Reef, Lake Michigan, Tenia ee 
ight *onwilliis mere seen eee 29, 34 
Ramesseum, The, 
At Thebes, Egypt, illus 


Re me ee rie 1004, 1005 
Colossi Oi, air Ijiewer, Wht. 5e4asoconcc IO00I, 1002 
WARE TOR ee ey onsale ae eee ae Real Re 1002 
Portrait statues of at Abu Simbel, illus.... 1006, 

1007, 1008, 1010 
SHEARS Chin Gib WINNS, og oanod0ccndsaanaoc 984 
Wainelonyaoty ies can ere ee ne IOOI 

Rameses III, 

Pavilion of, at Medinet Habu, illus........ I0T2 


1013, 1026, 1029, 


1032, 5 5 35> 
RELIGIOUS PENANCES AND? PUNISH 


MENTS SELF-INFLICTED BY ; 
HOLY MEN OF INDIAT ee 


see eee 


C2 ee meee sere r ee ene 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
Rimpfischhorn, Switzerland, illus.............. 905 
RIO GRANDE, WANDERING ISLANDS IN 
TIED ES. es yavtis lo stetjeiay syeus, sieenee scent cdoty then tet eee ates 381 
Robert College, Constantinople, Influence of, in 
the: Balkans). (oi achieve eitiereicy sere snc cued eee 1081 
Robin, described and illustrated............... 673 
IRojovran Ehavel saeeie, WhISS oo doncogadoanuocaneouKs 706 
Rock temples at Abu Simbel, Nubia; illus...... 1006, 


1007, 1008, 1010 
Rock tomb, Thebes, Egypt, 


Intention of a), illus). <criteckcueeh eaten eieeae 977 
Roosevelt, Col. T., 

Prehistoric’ portrait) Of). 4.1. inert 357 

Tllusy: jas eide abso gead 3 eee ots cin che ene eee 359 
Rosary used by Hindus, illus............. 1285, 1306 
RUMANIA AND HER AMBITIONS......... 1057 
Rumania, 

Education and military service in.......... 1085 

Products and trade of........ "Lana aueletemeeaeene 1083 

INevonalasaproyesnecs) Oleg guoanagcoconceuscgcouce 1078 
Rumanian 

Gypsies, ilus's, 22 tias iiss o.ckempeee ee eee 1069, 1070 

Peasants, illus....... 1064, 1065, 1067, 1073, 1074, 

1082, 1083 

Solleheirs, wUlGiSs 5o4cccanccnc$ 1060, T061, 1064, 1077 

Veterans, allusit .eciesiceis a2 ot cde eee 1059 
Rumi Ccolca, Peru, c 

Rarinsvati sills. sieisus erctel ener 528, 529, 530 
Russia, : 


Influence of, in Rumania... 
Russo-Turkish War, 1877, 
Rumania’s action in........ 


1065, 1066, 1073, 1075 


I057, 1069, 1071, 1073 


SSS?? 
St. Georges Reef, California, 

Light on, illusiic. sack «<3 Aeron 18, 23 
St. Johns River Light, Florida, illus........... 27 
Ss ihn SiigtteSygoggugosccdnceHboccoce 1267, 1314 
Sables Ruassiane allltsiceieteeiinietee eee eee 386 
Sacshuaman, Peru, Inca fortress at............ 534 
S@ehwwis; lalsmGltl SOCHOS|o6ucccgdcocnsouono ones 1257 
Salaverry, Peru, 

Hishermani (of. alldsmeee occ eens 389 
Salcantay Mountain, Peru, illus............... 563 
Saloniki, Street sweepers of, illus............. 220 
San Antonio, Texas, 

ANilewoney, ANNES FR, MUNN Gooconccoscosesnoccr 1331 

Description lof-ceces ose ee eee 1349, 1353 

Plazaor themAtdam ota lltisereeisieereee 1332 
San Blas, Mexico, Scene in, illus............. 250 
San Francisco, California, 

Oyster bedshotealiiche eee ee eee eee 270, 271 
Sankaracharya, 

Work and sinnldentc €) ote ee eee eee eee 1272 
Sannyasis, 

Contemplativesascebicseer ee eeer eee 1309 
Sam Saihvalor, Comehtiioim ORs 555000c0cesancccue 233 
Sand Island, Alabama, 

TAgHE, OM. ys cckeisreyarsieve dos oseee ee eee ee 29 

TUS estes ess. c.0:% 3.5 esglaecunescenteeie bee eee 32 
Sands, W. F., 

Mysterious temples of jungle.............. 325 
Spravelyy Unlove Ine lnii Moris ooocacbcaccauncoasacns 5 
Santa Caterina del Sasso, Italy, illus.......... 945 
Sehaiio) Ionia, IPGfAeSsS Oko anno ncosccosnsnce 242 
Santa Maria, Guatemala, Eruption of.......... 192 
Sapsucker, Yellow-billed, 

Deseribed and allustratedm mee cee eeereeieneene 690 
Saqqara, Egypt, 

Idestepynamicateedlliseeeiererseeeieieeteenteierts 959 

TombsvorusacnedsbtillSmataepreierecer ieee 970 


Saussure, H. B. de, 
Stimulates ascents of Mont Blanc.. 867, 868, 875 
Saylla, Peru, 


View sin, allusey, oso ao ek tue dee eee nee 519 
Scatipy wvaldilesserssaillds sere eee eerie 370 
Schreckhorn, Switzerland, 

View of the; allas' 22 <scietiec ccs ele cre iepcrerrene 939 
Scoter, white-winged, Habits of......... 365, 367, 368 
Scutari, Lake of, 

Views on, illus...... i uous taeettece tate werey si euee 204, 295 
Sect-marks, Hindu, 

Examples of, illus..... 1272, 1273, 1307, 1316, 1317 
Sekhmet, ; 

Ancient Egyptian deity, illus.............- 1034 
Self-torture of Hindu ascetics................. 1257 
Seon Hormel, sNSs oauceccaoceonennsodccar 858 


Seneval inativiess allisemm scene nce mieten 756 
Seraes, ats. sieic cet seh cs huere ere, stetereut icv meee 867, 876, 878 


Sieh Th Ae 


INDEX FOR 1913 XIII 


Page 
Servia, 
SELON MEN aoa telewra.& «6, shereta vere 201, 293, 309, 1057 
RURSEUS MC) er Maletareteta: ales Glen sia: eiaisa hfe! esis) are¥eloisre 224 
Servian, 
eMPMEPT AEA So SULTS :oy5 (afailsial ss hiajxtave'e 6.0 lore es 208 
SS CUIINE 5} Gill RS Poe are rer a awe 200, 201 
Sety I, 
AVES STrATEL COE MMII wie dy iota ts axalerninl otlere erie: my aikiie e's « 1036 
ortrait.of, in reliet, ‘alus. oe ueciie cece 1035 
OCIICE PSHOWIORS WMS os ccs ccaeled aonb se 1050 
Reliefs showing after-life of, illus......... 1033 
Temple of, at Abydos, illus............... 1028 
Seville cigarette maker at work, illus........... 859 
Shans, Types of....... SMR Tosi ala avecarouenialy re 845, 847 
REAL TANG, U1LUS:.\a'5 o steis ors) 0/ cs.s eieie are ere 0% 77 
Shishaldin Volcano, Alaska, View of........... 137 
Showalter, William Joseph, 
The countries of the Caribbean............ 227 
Shiras, George 3rd, 
Wild animals that took their own pictures 
ByeGaveand: Dy. MISE. . ciec.ciye c's peice seine ss 763 
Shrine, Loggerhead, 
Wescribed and’ Wlustrated..5.....0c2sc00ece 679 
Shumet-es-Zebib, Egypt, 
Necond, Dynasty fort.at, Ws). cc. cee ewess 1044 
miberia, Boys school in, ilus.....0..ceece ese 1153 


Silistria, Province of, obtained by Rumania.... 1062 
Sinaia, Rumania, 


TEPAIEAV2(20 371) 2401 UO Re 1081 
Sisikon, Switzerland, 

TRC MT ULI SET So) <alet 1a; a myo) ¢ niuicits. w)ec0) isle \e\.0.%6 915 
peat este AVACW (OT ok. 6 «cc oveie wes eps Suede ov 136 
Siva, Hindu deity, 

IDEN Giiey an ighe 0G ss a A 1263 

BUTE ESEEG CUnCh Dele Pre ich o tsl'ch a s\ariv sa c a/er'kre ca\'sy Rl etal ers 1314 

SVM ESETS TINO direc e¥s)a1a satel 0: 6.¢)5) ese 0 01s)0 oiler s'oi0 9) 8 dase 1272 
Skaptar-Jokull, Iceland, 

SFeICELENUD LUM Meio sire eee msecele ate avecsrae e\elelayaie 165, 186 
Ski-jumping at Grindelwald, illus.............. 898 
Skins, Preparing for U. S. National Museum, 

USES d cr he Sea Ris fo de boto 7a: Suniaiwlet sia’, wiaieiete'e 628, 629 
Skoptsi (Rumanian sect), 

Described and illustrated............... Stee OBO 
Skunks, 

BINMICPARVENLUTES WICH sc crcrs 2 <0e eres eiyeraie.oe a0 790 

That photographed themselves, illus..... 702, 793; 

: 2 794, 796, 812, 813 
midve Ouestion, Meaning Of. 55. ccc. s tec ecece 225 
Smith, Erwin F., 

IDISeOvers plant (GANCED. 5 .si. 0s wane aura ers «ons 57 
Smith, Hugh M., 

The Mysterious Life of the Common Eel.. 1140 

Oysters, the World’s Most Valuable Water 

Raed ER raved trate TAS ah oes ta AUss = se Slasehs a, minal ov 257 
Soiroccha Mountain, Peru, illus..:............ 545 

ombrero Key, Florida, 
MSAD h eo talra qe erie bie tole, wip oll ave w bbls .erene 4 0m, wis epary 22 

Tete Arsiaye iets, Sinise. © akties Neiidie-siave ais onicate 25 
South Pole, 

Wiscoverer Of thé... cic aeicjeie we care oe 127, 128, 129 
Sparrow, 

Chipping, described and illustrated......... 682 

English, described and illustrated.......... 683 

Song, described and illustrated.......... 681, 704 
§ White-crowned, described and illustrated... 682 

pat 

Growing on oyster-shell, illus.............-. 259 
Speicher, Swiss, 

mebennedsand wlustrated yc... sin. ole «ee ee 930 
Spider, 
‘isa aed 
PSC DEG) ttl vic ua ctpinbioiess wieiereispeiereiereiaccte 615 
TUULISS fene oc: SR OS Ane SEER Oe 618 

Male, 

PUES UAE ct tae cies Antlers txistw eleiie ate eiene 625 
TARR Ee, OT Ses Chali yen iat SE 623 

Orb-weaving, 

WIBECEXDEG ooo leie rstere (ais Grete tote sie" one,s syeuehe 615 
BS eres re Meh Vee oc ars Mee tnte ire stove pte Grn as 616 
HL OU HITG METIS’: rere onesie icles os o.0 lun dia. 621 
Vagabond, 
PO GHCEWMIGO snr reeity oe Sivas aisiple a with Ske x alae 615 
URES etal s coalesce teravele ate afavares aruh ashe eve% 617 
o 
TP ts eee a 619 
IRM citat scala cr cure italaccherst ste. te" i: s"'n alal arora 620 

Wolf, Skeleton of, 

PPEGIADEC ests farsa eianedele soete ere Tata te wer 619 
ULE: mete wate eh alain Pivteres Givi 6 Teas scoala aie ete 622 
Serica Dey ery nt tl tiStro.cyrse ere, oiaiess,«/ obo 010.66 «> 962 


+ Page 
Sphinxes, Avenue of, at Karnak, illus......... 990 
Squash-bug, 

PIPRGTINEG em cteteis's: arlasis wi ae alah 6 os/ekia ae Sove 611 

LULL eee teeMcasiscata a's sieitteteteln aie’ sik wi cis sale:s. ue-ale 614 
Squirrel, Gray, takes its own photographs, illus. 810 
Standard Rock light, Michigan, illus. of........ 15 
se as a 

SVENC SE TURRET eek orgies cbs: e¥sye'a pitas. e's les a-siia Toi d2e 335.30 
Stearns, Wallace N., ae. ae 

Reconstructing Egypt’s history............ 1021 
Strawberry farming in Texas, illus............ 1350 
WME OM Velen el clvce shivia tect eae «v0.0 ks Rb wei Bt, ha 
DUGAIDEE ESTs CAMCEE IN ates at's oc tisiesie sisi sei we abs 56 
Sume, Mongolia, 

Waist Ota te epercte, ope a-tia's) ARIE 6, aha rniale mis's wis ais15 55 

MTC US OL INSate cai ero tie siarpik sesNoistnis wie 660, 661, 662 
Sun, 

lowes eat 1s measured’. .'.0)..sc6i 22. sciles 183 
Swallow, Barn, 

Described! and illustrated: . 0.0... serie 0s eee 679 
SS THAIN TY GETIN Clerayereie ie cteyerere velo bus sere Gejewreleieyeiats 1266 
Swiss cattle, with cow-bells, illus.............. 924 

PAINS, ea cp eiai ik iel alone 22, 923, 925, 928, 929, 936 

Peasants, Types of, illus........... 928, 929, 930, 

: by of 931, 932, 933 
Syiias Ratlroad: expansion! ats «5 eiern «(ls a elels oye ne 75,78 

Cy Nad 
ERA OOM SiS TIS hod LT Set eesecec choy ra oie o%s ele psleiate re: albie ahers Dix 751 
hanhPeak. Canada, View Of, WluSacices..ae<se 630 
Tahutmes I, 

Obelisk ofa at eisanmalkyalluse pe « sseres os overs 993 
Tahutmes ITT, 

Pylon ote ateisaniale UtttS)<o5 <'a 2st ain! oa ales ei 997 
Tampu Machai, Peru, 

Rantais ass WLS ercre toes aleh stele einteretcts cheat occiele’ sare © 531 
Tampu Tocco, 

Machu Picchu, identified with....... 409, 410, 414 
Tanks, Hindu temple, 

HS AMIp eS iOLie ai <areis ore stares 's av'aleole she Vans, 142251327 
Tasha Lama, : 

Religious and political head of Mongolia... 641, 

663, 664 
TaetarseeDypeS, Of; elu cies. so ceievelets a hisio's I104, 1130 
Tateski, Caucasus, 

WOMASEe yaa taelUliser. chelasiAciclose.sis eo ewiatinl as sis 1106 
Peale Blize-win ee Ge alUSiic.. sar eis ole eplese\aintiele ie sie 374 
Tell-el-Amarna, Egypt, 

ERXCAVAIOMGH Abs are sive ojoibuel a capes elowhone Sena '* 999 

IREGOTAS “ISCOVELEO “At d sjela sjetaivicete isle Sic 4:0 0is.0 991 
Temple of the horse near Kalgan, China, illus.. 644 
Tern, Black, 

Deseribed and illustrated’... ccnp en wi vteje crore 607 
TRA AS OUR SVARGE SID SACD Byers. slacieaic se 1330 
Texas, ; 

GRIST sures Oltae eo. s.ceia fey vem ustic <a ue aneteriy 1331, 1333) 1335 

IMI iene retrace tne a peel) stuck are 1353, 1355 

Bo pilatianOrs.woera es etits s @teie pacer scsys e-ass)0s </si0 1343 

RAUF ORGS cOtiete eater enansie sisiyos ele ayareveciaye eve o = abe 1360 

UIVErSIEYs Ole viaielelcleteieivemtenen into sls diaterave 6a ae 1359 
Thebes, Egypt, 

Colossi of Memmnon near, illus...:5....... 982 

RAMESSEUIIM Abs -LILGG ies .c) cp over e)e sayeth ere sie 1004, 1005 

Interior of rock tomb at, illus............- 977 

Tiombs' of the Sings at, illus.......cssseue 974 
Thimble Shoal, Virginia, 

ea EO TEMA Siete wie lel aiae dia ge anole a) naniie a av o.6i6se 33 
Thorns, as instruments of penance, illus... 1270, 1297 

Bed of, Hindu penance, illus.......... 1268, 1269 
Thoth, Egyptian deity, 

RE TEICGTIMOD asa eie cain ic fovea ect intniete edtes «iain 1044 

Tippee ACL tevtiee Sate inte ls! arate rears. io manele: svelnie torn 1046 
Thrasher, Brown, 

Described and illustrated... ....00.0..se0us 677 

MTS te eter eae eMeiavale araleivracre arity ranbiw aidcarewie <0 709 
Thrush, Russet-backed, 

Described and illustrated...........-++.+0%- 674 
PRTG VVOOGs ILLS pic ss 5% «12d wiete vw olovate aren aivheid 703 
Thuaa, father of Queen Tyi.........2.e+eereee 999 
Tibet, Little, 

Bensdnts Of, UUs. vale v wap ewinundle ace oe soca ms 855 
Tillamook Rock, Oregon, 

Wighthouse™ Os) ico cc mws wala s nyele wien. amas 64 16, 17 

Meare Oe te doacd, ctateid'y cold nine biwielet eveiper a aumiacn e's 21 
Timbuctu, 

Mi acleety Mes AILS: vi aicie omrndte, 4 tie.s'm nieceiaere © pasts 754 

Tuareg chiefs at, illus.........-0.eseseen 755 
Tipon, Peru, 

Geeta ace twas Ve ae esree a erage 524, 525 


XIV 
Page 
Tirupurankundram, India, 

Temple and sacred rock at........-+-+++:: 1257 

illrce “Sscodeoo ado Go BenoolooGooo Ueard root 1258 
Titlis, Switzerland, 

Summit of, illus........-.c0ccseeenseneces 938 
Tomboro, Java, 

Great eruption Of.......+---eseeee ee eeeee 165 
Trinity, the Hindu........--..-.+-+- 1272, 1273,.1314 
Tripoli in Syria, 

WALSAG Halactas Coots lobo coda Oo ob OC Ul aon 74, 79, 80 
Troy, Shepherds of, illus........+-.+++eeeeeeee 208 
Tsame festival, y 

Groups of actors at, illus..........-+--++-- 761 
Tuareg chiefs, illus.......-2--se seer eee ee cere 755 
Turkey, 

istileran AtEhe ubtigg goo aGUbod oO DO OOoOOOD 200, 211, 214 

Barly history of............-.---- 199, 201, 1063 

Russo-Turkish war of 1877.....- 1069, 1071, 1073 
Turkish troops, illus........... 202, 203, 204, 206, 207 


Turtle, Land, that photographed itself, illus.... 814 
Twig-pruner, 


Dasari! SogopoucnsasobdcoonpoooduoEDEdO 595 

Ullkig; coacoaoousubovscapanoudosooRcaaou GUD 589 
Typhoid fever, 

Germ of, discovered....... atte Oca 1147 

Vaccination against....................-- 1146 
Typhoid vaccination, 

Introduced in America...........-.++----- 1148 

Made compulsory in the Army........ 1149, 1150 

MigineG@l OF WMNPS>soccabsoasonocogscacdpQ008 II51 
Tyi, Queen of Egypt, 

Deeds and character of...........----+-+: 991 

Thole) Glee nomics ao. Oncaea OODason nao woe od 999 

Necklace found in tomb of, illus.......... 981 

ROA aP ERE Ore, MINES 56505 ndgaccagg5500000 978 

eeTa22 
United States, 

Boundary of, with Mexico settled.......... 383 

IL realness TMS) CORIRUS Cig oaadacdoccGnoqca0 ae I 

OxStemicul eumeuiileraveneetrerciieiieielscor tetetenetere 263 
Urga, Mongolia, 

WMesen beds eiactevedevsktcrereuyerersieverve 641, 661, 662, 663 

Piravier-wileel mir taS eerste ti lensvsicielsieycie steseh=le 670 

Summer palace at, illus................-.- 668 

Merman ples its etl tis a avieycvopeusteuehsy slaved evecoteyehererso cers 666 
Uri-Rothstock, Switzerland, 

Wie whole illicit 1.tteteierayeitsieretomveretote cictecvens 915 
Urubamba Cafion, Peru, 

Picturesque view in, illus............... Tele aed LO 

ARoaG ana Nlirs eye pats crate veretetawts(ere ieraenelores wrstoneete 421 

WH Wahl mae tetatster suaicletcl etatievev Overs tsuei crane seaavaraterehs, 406 
Urubamba River, Peru, 

IBrid cevacrosssmilllaSs/jerscljsiieeiei a creerererelers 422, 423 

IBRid cine Ohh e tre cite eyeree chat Mois atece tees 417, 423 

oadWaloneside ys alltish cpr cetesirei cis siete ieee 405 
Urubamba Valley, Peru, 

Cuzcomoardeinemalltitse emcee eer ineiee 410 
Ushba, Mount, Caucasus, 

Wiewsaots lliise si. n% navies clo ereleie detete 1132, 1133 
Ushabtis, Ancient Egyptian, illus.............. 975 
Uskub, Servia, 

Marketplace sll iseereeieeemie mci 218 

5 CON) 
Vaccination 

againstaty pO seis. cm meroneertoenre eat ecioehs T1146 

DURES: orc cB EOS OREO a OE Le oe are II51 

Peruvian ladiansepractice jeeeeeeeeeennee 3901 
Val Bondasca, Italy, 

Wawro tigillltt Sint. rcucrrcde ate saseuier a nae ence 907 
Venizelos, Eleutherios, 

“3 Boos Se Cenc OES HOC BOREAS Ro ate Kcicueeete 305 
iaduct, enerearsbecosnmlcexaswmllis seme 
Visp River, Switzerland, ase 
pee Ncane:-Hermapemalliuceeecae ence eon 8909 
Maleos, Peru, 
ASEOTY! VOLE cearsicretertra, Serene see ev pee ee II 

Mocationpotaras cece ce eee ee ee ae Bra) 613, ee 

_ Sacred rock mear, illus. ..222).: HNO Sixty RRS Es 
Mivekananday (Gwamit inane eae Me 1266 
Washni Aidevoteelotmallisce seen eemeie 1282 
Volcanoes, 

alse (OL eruphonsen eae en eenae eee 
INH? Oe, Oa Chime. .o-cnvccasccesbaconne oe 
ETUPHONS (OL ase ee eee 131, 161, 186 
my Alaska). oti pacrcds ci erie ea ea 3 5 ‘ 135 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
Volcanic ash, , 
Wiles Ort, szillitoers Go aaneoohoomnooddd 153, 154, 155 
CONN ?? 
Wiacos Wexasiyeieysreveinie) ucleraleyeteloneteloyeiat=talcteien=Reteieiranens 1359 


Walcott, Charles D., 
The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies..... 626 


Wallachia, 

IBIOR NONI Oaanccasodcoosodnsdbabob odor 1065 

Winitest with Moldavia crmcneitetatletet eter 1066 
Wallachianmtypessmalltiseieyer)-tte)-)ereietehel tek teneteretetete 221 
Wallis archipelago, 

Curious) rock inthe. allasery eee ieee 1156 
Warbler, Myrtle, 

Described and illustrated.................. 678 
Washington, D. C., 

General view of, illus.................. 718, 740 

SeenthesNationsss Capital soe eet tte 717 

Streets of, illus....... 724, 725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 


732; 733, 734, 736, 741 
Water-wheels, 


WaTreest im cwiOsdl deyeereeerereeteelertteeiene 104, 109 
Westcar papyrus, 

Discovery and contents of..............-. 073 
Wetterhorn, Switzerland, 

Climibine thes alls herve rere eee 908 
Wengernalp, Switzerland, 

Simin cha Utes eo gsocsenoasonodcuoooccocc 919 
Wheat field) in Mexass allisaeea rete ieieioeieis ete 1352 
WihttePatherss shies illtsirerreien-t-teiteneteteteteteeratetene 753 
Whiting, John D., 

From Jerusalem to Aleppo.............-.. 71 


WILD ANIMALS THA TOOK THEIR 
OWN PICTURES BY DAY AND BY 


INTGEAT ise ie siiiwis ais oleic le sssepoleen ait kere ROS 763 
Woman, 

Position of, in ancient Egypt............. 1000 
Woodcock, Stroking a, illus.................-- 705 
Woodpecker, 

Downy, described and illustrated.......... 601 

Red-bellied, wWlusi. cies hee cia c= eisyele « sapeneeenens 710 
Wren, House, 

Described and illustrated.................. 676 
Wright, Sir Almoth, 

Introduces typhoid vaccination........ 1147, 1148 

COW : 
Vale Navional Geographic Society Expedition to 

eru, 

Map-work done by......... 501, 504, 506, 507, 510 

Report OF 5 «os ibis sis ere cuavsysiavas crore Goetenenee eee 387 

Sta tl Of 33. seisveislansd)siece iste. va oe erator ae 387 

Results#achwievedmbya eee eerie 391, 395 
Yaqui River, California, 

Oyster beds of, Wlldses eco eer eienenenenener ere 268 
Yellow hammers, pair of, illus................ 707 
Yellow jacket, 

DeSCribDe dd) occ & asia ate atelove.e ade orcs ape 603 

TSF oe foe eae, wa etanniteVoanniersis ole eie Se IO nee 604 
Yellowstone Lake, Map of...................- 818 
Yellowstone River, 

View ons: tltsi Ons Sioa saap Gere ao eee 810 
Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming, 

Moose and other game in...............-- 808 

‘Ey pical wiew, in) dllUseee eee nee 821 
Yoga, : : 

TD EfMItONS OL. heicla stores /alerereee Peon eretre 1265, 1298 
Yogi, 

Definition, OF. tajcs solaris sleaetele eles eee toe 1265 

IBGE Olin Ssgncccoce 1265, 1266, 1274, 1308, 1309 
Yuaa, 

Mother of Queen Tyi............ Seo voc 999 
Yucay, Peru, 

View OL iis) aisle aaaceide oes eee eC eee 4Il 
Yunnan, China, : 

Wolo%stotee Whe veercoere starter ast orausteiee II55 
Whee, Wiciasoll, wikis sooanosboaacds cate ole lane heehee 667 
O72) 

Zermatt, View near, illus........... sre ict eevers ate 899 
Zoomorphs at Quirigua, illus....... + 334, 340, 344, 345 


Zumbro, Rev. dh 
Religious penances and punishments self- 
inflicted by the holy men of India...... 


VOL. XXIV, No. 1 


WASHINGTON 


JANUARY, 1913 


MAGA ZINIE 


BEACONS OF THE SEA 
Lighting the Coasts of the United States 


By Georce R. Putnam, ComMmMIssIoNER OF LIGHTHOUSES 


HE sea-coast line under the ju- 
risdiction of the United States is 
48,881 statute miles, measured in 
three-mile steps. The general govern- 
ment provides lighthouses and other aids 
to navigation along all this coast, with 
the exception of the Philippine Islands, 
11,511 miles, and Panama, where the 
marking of the coasts is maintained by 
the local governments. In addition, the 
United States provides lights along the 
American shores of the Great Lakes, 
4,020 miles, and on interior and coastal 
rivers, 5,478 miles. 

The United States Lighthouse Service 
thus maintains lights and other aids to 
navigation along 46,828 miles of coast- 
line and river channels, a length equal 
to nearly twice the circumference of the 
earth. In this distance it has 12,824 aids 
to navigation of all classes, suficient to 
place one every two miles around the 
equator. 

In respect to territory covered and 
aids maintained, it is much the most ex- 
tensive service of its kind under a single 
management. There are 1,462 lights 
above the order of river-post lights, and 
there are 762 lights having resident 
keepers, 51 light-vessel stations, and 438 
lighted buoys. The total lighted aids of 
all kinds is 4,516. There are in all 933 
fog signals, of which 510 are fog-signal 
stations, 43 submarine bells, 124 whist- 


ling buoys, and 256 bell buoys. There 
are 6,281 unlighted buoys, and 1,474 
daymarks, or unlighted beacons. There 
are also 516 private aids to navigation, 
maintained at private expense, but under 
government supervision. 

This service is carried on through an 
organization of 19 districts, under a cen- 
tral office in Washington. Each district 
is in charge of a lighthouse inspector 
and has a local office and one or more 
supply depots and lighthouse tenders. 
In all, there are 46 of these small vessels 
which carry the supplies to the stations 
and place and maintain the buoys and 
light vessels. 

About 5,500 men are required for the 
lighthouse work, of whom 211 are in 
the executive, engineering, and clerical 
force, 1,733 are keepers of lights and de- 
pots, 1,570 care for post lights, 1,516 are 
on vessels, and 489 are in the construc- 
tion and repair force. 

The entire personnel is under the civil- 
service rules, and appointments and pro- 
motions are on a strictly merit system. 
This is of great importance for the main- 
tenance of good organization and rigid 


‘discipline in a purely technical service, 


on the efficient conduct of which is di- 
rectly dependent, the safety of all the 
lives and all the property carried on the 
seas and the navigable waters of this 
country. 


UISeq IY} Ul Slopus} pur sdiys-jysi, pue “yop sy} WO sfonq 194}0 
-pue sKonq svS JO AjolseA 94} 9J0N “P24S94 pue ope snjeiedde jelsods pue ‘poseyoind sorjddns pue sAonq ‘pottedet eto 948 s[assoA assnoyjyys’] 


YOINVE MMOA AVIN “ANVIST NYLVIS NO LOdAd ASNOMLHOIT IVIANAD AHL 


ie 
EN i 


fter a Medalin the collection 
of the Marshe! d’ Estres. 


LIGHTHOUSES OF ANCIENT TIMES, AS PICTURED ON 


A lighthouse is mentioned as early as 660 B. C.; 


Latin Light. nouse, sfte found at Apomes. 


ROMAN MEDALS 


the Pharos, at Alexandria, built about 


260 B. C., was one of the “seven wonders” of the world, and is estimated to have been about 


400 feet high. 


The annual maintenance cost of the 
entire service is close to $5,000,000, and 
in addition in recent years there has been 
expended about $1,000,000 a year on 
new lighthouse works and vessels. This 
service is supported by appropriations 
out of the general revenues, and no spe- 
cial light taxes are collected from ship- 
ping, as is customary in other countries. 

At all important light stations there 
are from two to five keepers, who main- 
tain a continuous watch of the light at 
night and of the approach of fog at all 
times. At less important stations there 
is but one keeper, or sometimes a single 
keeper cares for several neighboring 
lights. The average pay of keepers is 
less than $600 per year, but they receive 
also a ration allowance and usually quar- 
ters and fuel. The maximum salary at 
difficult offshore stations is $1,008. For 
the care of a post light along the rivers 
about $1o a month is paid, but this re- 
quires only a small amount of work each 
day. 

At the general lighthouse depot on 
Staten Island, New York harbor, shops 
are maintained for the repair and manu- 
facture of special lighthouse apparatus. 
‘This is also a general supply station for 
the service, supplies and equipment being 
purchased and tested and experimental 
and designing work being carried on. 
Many of the lighthouse vessels are over- 
hauled or outfitted here. There are em- 


ployed in this depot and offices 
persons (see page 2). 

Light stations and vessels are inspected 
four times a year, and the districts and 
offices are themselves inspected from 
time to time by a general inspector and a 
traveling auditor. 

An accurate cost keeping system has 
recently been introduced for the entire 
lighthouse service, so that at the end of 
the year the principal items of cost for 
each feature can readily be ascertained 
and compared. The following are aver- 
age annual costs of operating various 
features of the service: Large lighthouse 
tender, $40,500; light vessel on exposed 
station, $15,300; important light station, 
with fog signal, $4,200; same without 
fog signal, $3,000; river-post light, $90; 
gas buoy, $100 to $300, according to size 
and type. 


253 per- 


FAITHFUL LIGHT-KEEPERS 


Although the pay is small and the life 
often lonely, the work attracts as a rule 
an excellent class of faithful men, willing 
to take large risks in doing their duty 
and also in helping those in distress. 
There are many cases of faithful service 
and bravery, of which the following are 
a few instances: 

The hurricane of September, 1906, did 
serious damage to lighthouse property 
along the Gulf coast and a number of 
lives were lost at Sand Island and at 


OLD BOSTON LIGHT (FROM A RARE PRINT OF 1729) 


The first lighthouse built in North America, several 
times attacked, and finally destroyed in the Revolu- 
tionary War. The “great gun” on the right was the first 
fog signal in America (see page 7). 


Horn Island light stations; at the latter 
the keeper, his wife, and daughter being 
drowned. ‘Twenty-three lights were de- 
stroyed by this storm. On October 3 
the inspector of the eighth district made 
this report: “The employees of the 
Lighthouse Service have, as was to be 
expected, maintained its credit. I have 
heard stories of gallant actions, and I 
have witnessed the uncomplaining man- 
ner in which they and their families have 
taken their great losses and deprivations, 
also their cheerfulness in beginning all 
over again.” 

The keeper of post lights on the St. 
Johns River, Florida, after being se- 
verely injured, went on with his work, 
as he tells in this report, in May, 1912: 
“I arrived at the light at 9.30 a.m. I 
took the lamp out, and as I went to blow 
it out it exploded and knocked me off the 
light (22 feet), and I did not know any- 
thing until 12 m. When I came to I 
found the lamp gone. I crawled back to 
the boat (250 feet), got another lamp 
and put it on the beacon and lit it. Then 
came home (8 miles). Injury: broken 
leg just above the ankle and severe 
bruised shin and bruised arm and lick 
on head.” 

There is a pathetic story of the keeper 
of Key West light, who after 35 years 
of service became so absorbed in his duty 
that he would not leave his task, even for 
a short vacation, laboring under the de- 


lusion that no one but himself 
could properly care for the 
light. On: “a. certamieimeny 
stormy night a ship was. 
wrecked near the fort at Key 
West. The keeper, then nearly 
70 years of age, excited by the 
storm and the prolonged whis- 
tle blasts of the unfortunate 
vessel, insisted that the wreck 
was due to the front-range 
light being out, although it had_ 
just been examined by his son. 
and found burning properly. 
In spite of his feeble condition 
he procured a lantern and, re- 
sisting efforts to detain him, 
went on foot in the storm to 
the range light and_ satisfied. 
himself that it was really burn- 
ing. He died not long after-. 
ward. 

The keeper of Van Weis Point light, 
New York, died recently at the age of 
93 years, having tended this light for 52 
years. 

At present there is no provision in this. 
country for the retirement of light-keep- 
ers on account of age, long service, or 
disability resulting from their work. 

The keeper of the most distant light 
in Alaska—Cape Sarichef—returned re- 
cently, his first absence in three years. 
At this station there is sometimes an. 
interval of five months between mails, 
and the keepers’ only neighbor is a trap- 
per, 10 miles away. A light-keeper on. 
the Columbia River, Oregon, has taken 
only two days leave in 23 years, and one 
of these two days was for the purpose 
of being married. 


WOMEN LIGHT-KEEPERS | 


There are a number of women light- 
keepers. One of these, the keeper of 
Angel Island light in San Francisco Bay, 
reported that after the machinery of the 
fog signal was disabled on July 2, 1906, 
she “had struck the bell by hand for 
20 hours and 35 minutes, until the fog 
lifted,” and that on July 4, when the ma- 
chinery was further disabled, she “stood. 
all night on the platform outside and 
struck the bell with a nail hammer with 
all my might. The fog was dense.” 

A widely known woman light-keeper 
was Ida Lewis, who died about a year’ 


THE PRESENT BOSTON LIGHT 


Built in 1783 by Massachusetts and ceded to the United States in 1790 (see page 7) 


SANDY HOOK LIGHTHOUSE, NEW YORK 


This and Cape Henlopen lighthouse, both built in 1764, are the oldest existing lighthouse 
towers in this country. The walls at the base are 7 feet thick 


un 


Lighthouse preseerceceegeeras se e —Cloucesteyg-® CapeAnn 
Light Vessel -=---------—-—--~~—-wy : = SG as 
Fixed White ie Se aro B Lyn fassachusetts 
Fixed Red a = BOSTON 2 2)! ‘ Aa = = a 
White Flash he Un ai aea ea a / Na 
Redihlasht@-="--sne Se a = / \ 
The circles indicate the ranges of visibility a i, ye noe ‘ 
and characteristics of important lights. A= % | | 
== =O Plymouth’ Cape Cod 5 
iS \ larconi Towers 
tS = \ Bay Nauset 
—— PROVI T=S Re 
= = ‘New Bedford ape 
= 2g 
~ 
N N=E G Nantucket Sd. 
= 4 | e \ 


S=jNew Haven 


i *o Sankaty Hd. ] 
y Nantucket J. 


/ 
— 
So BA 2 
Pater 
= / x 
/ \ 
WNantucket} 
Fy \ Shoal 
D yg Ambrose Chan. WiFireld, / » Na 7 
Navesink 
—— \ / 1G 
~ Trenton=&- \ A N 
S225 ee iE 
\ = U7) SeaGirt  / CG 
jee) = 
Ege 5 a! O 
Le = Lay \ 
=~ Barnegek | © 
&y / » 
—— - Z Ne 
= / 
=Alantie Gy Swi + 
S = Ses Me 
yy = < 
BSN + Ge ay 
3 ‘S; y~ A 
AY \ 
N} Z| 
ys {_\> é bus 
C Henlopen, oo 
\ 
\ 
Fenwickwar 
al Nautical Miles 
/ re —— ———r ————— 
742 0 10 505) 522 2 Hl 70° W.E.J. 


CHART SHOWING THE LIGHTS THAT MARK THE APPROACHES TO THE GREAT HARBORS 
OF BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND PHILADELPHIA (SEE PAGE 15) 


Note the overlapping of the arcs of visibility of lights on an important coast. The lights 
differ in character and thus may easily be distinguished : 


ago. She lived at Lime Rock lighthouse, 
on a ledge in Newport harbor, for 57 
years, her father having been appointed 
keeper when she was 12 years old. She 
was keeper of the light for 32 years. 
There are reports of her having rescued 
13 persons from drowning. On one oc- 
casion, it is said, she saved three men 
who had swamped while attempting to 
pick up a sheep, and then she rescued 
the sheep also. 


Because of the difficult life, keepers at 
isolated stations are granted shore liberty 
and leave 72 days a year, and crews of 
light vessels 90 days a year. 


THE BOSTON LIGHT WAS THE FIRST 
AMERICAN LIGHTHOUSE 


The first lighthouse on this continent 
was built by the province of Massachu- 
setts, in 1715-1716, on an island in the 
entrance to Boston harbor. In 1713 a 


a 


<a. SS 


AN ENDORSEMENT BY PRESIDENT WASHINGTON, IN HIS OWN HANDWRITING, ON A 
LIGHTHOUSE DOCUMENT 


Showing the caution exercised by the first President in approving a contract for making a 
chain for a buoy (see page I0) 


committee reported to the General Court 
on ‘‘the most convenient Place for Erect- 
ing a Light House, which will be of 
great Use not only for the Preservation 
of the Lives and Estates of Persons de- 
signing for the Harbour of Boston and 
Charlestown but of any. other Place 
within the Massachusetts Bay,” and the 
court resolved “that the Projection will 
be of general publick Benefit and Service 
and is worthy to be encouraged,” and 
that the want of such a lighthouse “hath 
been a great Discouragement to Naviga- 
tion by the loss of the lives and Estates 
of several of His Majesties Subjects.” 
In 1719 the keeper petitioned the Gen- 
eral Court “that a great Gun be placed 
on Said Island to answer Ships in a 
Fog.” The court voted the gun, and it 
was probably the earliest fog signal es- 
tablished in this country (see page 4). 
The light was supported by light dues 
of one penny per ton, levied by the re- 
ceiver of impost at Boston on all incom- 
ing and outgoing vessels except coasters. 
This lighthouse was an object of attack 
during the early part of the Revolu- 
tionary War, and was burned by the 
Americans and finally blown up by the 
British in 1776. A new lighthouse on 
the same site was built in 1783 by Massa- 
chusetts, and this, with various altera- 
tions, is the present Boston light. 
Although candles and even coal fires 
appear to have been used in lighthouse 


illumination in England to a much later 
date, Boston light was probably illumi- 
nated from the first by oil lamps. In 
1789 the light was produced by 16 lamps 
in groups of 4. Crude lenses and re- 
flectors were fitted in 1811, and also re- 
volving mechanism, it having previously 
been a fixed light. In 1838 Boston light 
is described as “a revolving light, con- 
sisting of 14 Argand lamps, with parabolic 
reflectors,” the lamps being “of about 
the volume of similar lamps in family 
use.” In 1839 large reflectors 21 inches 
in diameter were fitted to this light. 
Boston light was provided with a Fresnel 
lens in 1850. 

Apparently the gun was the only fog 
signal at this station until about 1852, 
when a fog-bell was installed. A me- 
chanical striking bell was installed in 
1869, in 1872 a fog trumpet, and in 1887 
an air siren. 


THE ESTABLISHMENT OF OUR LIGHT- 
HOUSE SERVICE WAS ONE OF THE 
FIRST ACTS OF THE FEDERAL 
GOVERN MENT 


Several other lighthouses were built 
and maintained by the colonial govern- 
ments. On the organization of the na- 
tional government, at the first session of 
Congress, an act was passed, approved 
on August 7, 1789, providing that all 
expenses “in the necessary support, main- 
tenance and repairs of all lighthouses, 


(ZI HOvVd AAS) AONAISIXH NI MON ASMOMLHOI'I La¥MS-VUS LSHCIO WH : CANAL/IV 
IONIS (NV I1IQI NI GHIa‘Id WOO ‘NVAOGYOD Hd AAVHd “MONVAA AO TSVOD AHL NO ASQOHLHOTT TOAIOVAd AHL FO NOMOWS GNV A\HIA 


beacons, buoys and pub- 
lic piers erected, placed, 
or sunk before the pass- 
ing of this act, at the 
entrance of, or within 
any bay, inlet, harbor, or 
port of the United States, 
for rendering the navi- 
gation thereof easy and 
safe, shall be defrayed 
out of the Treasury of 
the United States.” Thus 
the Lighthouse Service 
was one of the earliest 
established by the Fed- 
eral government, though 
it has been conducted 
under several different 
forms of administration. 
The maintenance of 
lighthouses, buoys, and 
other navigational aids 
was, at the organization 
of the government,placed 
under the Treasury De- x 
partment, and the details 


Newborn mn 


Sach the. baspers of biyhtibon. 
~ te haved Be Ltt) Mpc 
ditread of) remusnegy, ee) 
es «hen 
~ tise U HheX i pamame’ eae 


Lo ee 


wlherrk G Prec emagt Gp | 


fe] 


of lighthouse work were = ¢ Qh : i | 
directed personally by i ‘ 3 4. os. 
ime, oecretary of: the —~ 
Treasury — Alexander AN ENDORSEMENT BY PRESIDENT JEFFERSON, IN HIS OWN 
Hamilton — by whom HANDWRITING 


many of the earlier pa- 
pers are signed. This 
work was during two 
later periods placed under the Commis- 
sioner of Revenue. 

In 1820 the administration of the light- 
houses devolved upon the Fifth Auditor 
of the Treasury, who was _ popularly 
known as the general superintendent of 
lights. Mr. Stephen Pleasonton dis- 
charged these duties for 32 years. In 
1852 Congress established the United 
States Lighthouse Board, composed of 
three naval officers, three army engineers, 
and two civilians, with the Secretary of 
the Treasury as ex-officio President of 
the Board. The Chairmen of this Board 
were Admirals in the Navy, with the 
single exception of Prof. Joseph Henry, 
who was Chairman from 1871 to 1878. 
In 1910 the present Bureau of Light- 
houses was established by Congress, 
under charge of a Commissioner of 
Lighthouses and other executive officers 
appointed by the President. The Light- 
house Service is now a part of the De- 
partment of Commerce and Labor, to 


Expressing his opinion of the responsibility of lignt-keepers (see 


page I5) 


which it was transferred from the T’reas- 
ury in 1903. 

Under the act of 1789, 13 lighthouses 
were ceded to the United States by the 
several States, though apparently but 
eight of these were in actual operation 
at “the date of the act (these are the eight 
first named in the list). The following 
are the lighthouses ceded, most of w hich 
are standing at the present time, although 
much altered: 

Portsmouth Harbor, N. H. 

3o0ston, Mass. 

Plymouth (Gurnet), Mass. 

Brant Point, Nantucket Island, 

3eavertail, Newport, R. I. 

Sandy Hook, N. Y. 

Cape Henlopen, Del. 

Charleston, S. C. 

Portland Head, Maine. 

Newburyport Harbor, Plum Id., Mass. 

Cape Ann, Thatcher Island, Mass. 

New London Harbor, Conn. 

Tybee, Ga. 


Mass. 


for the cession of any light- 
house like compensation 


be made to this Commonwealth 
by the United States, for the ces- 
sion of the Light Houses afore- 
said, in proportion to their re- 
spective values.” 

There are many interesting 
documents in the early archives 
of the service showing the atten- 
tion given by high officers of the 
government to matters of light- 
house detail. President Wash- 
ington personally approved such 
contracts as these: for the pur- 
chase of spermaceti oil for Cape 


THE FIRST EDDYSTONE LIGHT, OFF THE SOUTH 
COAST OF ENGLAND 


The Eddystone is the most famous lighthouse in 


the world. 


The oldest of the existing lighthouse 
structures in this country is the tower 
at Sandy Hook, New York, built in 1764. 
The lighthouse at Cape Henlopen, Dela- 
ware, was completed the same year. 
These are similar in design—massive 
structures of stone and brick, with walls 
7 feet thick at the base (see page 5). 


PERSONAL ATTENTION GIVEN BY PRESI- 
DENT WASHINGTON TO LIGHT- 
HOUSE MATTERS 


Massachusetts, in ceding her light- 
houses, showed her caution with respect 
to the new government by providing 
“that if the United States shall at any 
time hereafter neglect to keep lighted, 
and in repair, any one or more of the 
lighthouses aforesaid, that then the grant 
of such lighthouse or lighthouses so neg- 
lected shall be void and of no effect ;” 
and also, “that if the United States shall 
at any time hereafter make any compen- 
sation to any one of the United States 


Four towers have been built on this 
dangerous rock. This, the first one, of fantastic 
design, was completed in 1699 and destroyed in the 
great storm of November, 1703, and the keepers and 
the engineer who built it were lost (see page 17). 


Io 


Henry lighthouse, “‘to erect, sink, 
and build a well for water” for 
Cape Henlopen lighthouse, and 
for making “a mooring chain for 
one of the Floating Beacons of 
the Delaware Bay.” On the last 
document appears the endorse- 
ment, all in Washington’s hand- 
writing, “April 27th, 1793, Ap- 
proved, so far as it respects the 
new chain; but is there an entire 
loss of the old one? G°. Wash- 
ington.” ‘There is a proposal for 
Tybee lighthouse “for a hanging 
stair c2se for the sume of £160,” 
or “should a plain square stair 
case be preferred,” for £110, with the 
endorsement, “Approved with the plain 
stair case. G®°. Washington.” 

During the earlier administrations the 
salaries of lighthouse-keepers were fixed 
by the President, and appointments of 
keepers were approved by him. The 
following document is of interest as 
showing the salaries then paid: 


“UNITED STATES, July 18th, 1793. 

“By the President’s command T. Lear 
has the honor to inform the Secretary 
of the Treasury, that the President hav- 
ing duly considered the Representation 
of the Commissioner of the Revenue and 
the other documents relative to the com- 
pensations of the Keepers of the Light 
Houses, which were put into his hands 
by the Secretary, approves of the altera- 
tions of certain compensations as sug- 
gested by the Secretary, viz: 


“tTst. For the Keeper of the Light Houses 
on Thatcher’s Island per annutn, 2662/3 doll. 


“2. do. Boston Bay, 266 2/3 


3. do. Plymouth, 200 doll. 
“4. do. Portland Head, 160 


. do. Conanicut, 160 doll. 
“6. do. New London, 120 


“7, do. Sandy Hook, 
266 2/3 doll. 


“To commence from 
the ist day of the present 
Month.— 

“The President thinks 
it proper that the Keeper 
of the Light House at 
Portsmouth be informed, 
that he must reside on 
the spot where the Light 
House is, if he continues 
in that office, and that he 
will not be permitted to 
employ a deputy to take 
care of the Light House, 
unless upon some special 
occasion. 


“TOBIAS LEAR, 
“Secretary to the Presi- 
dent of the United 
States.” 


The Commissioner of 
the Revenue in 1797 
writes to the Secretary 
of the Treasury regard- 
ing salaries of keepers: 
“In the case of Major 
, there are the ad- 
vantages of plenty of 
fuel, without expense, upon the public 
land, the opportunity to fish for his tam- 
ily use, or even for sale, a boat to fish in 
will be furnished for passing to the main, 
there is a little land for tillage and grass, 
and for a plentiful garden. The place is 
represented to be very healthy. I 
have been thus particular because the 
salaries of keepers appear to have been 
subjected to some miscalculation on their 
parts from the unnecessary degree of 
former standing, which some of the can- 
didates have had. It is plain at first 
view, that the above duties are not in 
their nature adapted to the standing of 
a field officer, or of a Major of Brigade.’ 

A recommendation of a person for 
appointment as keeper in 1809 stated that 
the applicant “being by occupation a 
mason will engage to keep the Light 


The keepers in turn are allowed shore liberty. 
difficult to land at a wave-swept lighthouse 


II 


je 


LANDING THE RELIEF AT THE EDDYSTONE 


It is often 


House white washed, should he receive 
the appointment, free from any expense 
to the Government as long as he is its 
Keeper.” 


THE PETITIONS OF EBENEZER SKIFF, 
KEEPER OF GAY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE 


The keeper of Gayhead lighthouse in 
1805 made this petition for an increase 
of salary: 

“Gayhead, October 25, 1805. 

“Sir: Clay and Oker of different col- 
ours from which this place derived its 
name ascend in a Sheet of wind pened 
by the high Clifts and catch on the light 
House Glass, which often requires clean- 
ing on the outside—tedious service in 
cold weather, and additional to what is 
necessary in any other part of the Mas- 
sachusetts. 


THE FOURTH AND PRESENT EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, COMPLETED IN I881 (SEE 
PAGE 17) 


A SECTION OF THE BASE OF THE EDDYSTONE 
TOWER 


Showing how the stones are dovetailed so as to 
withstand the terrible buffeting of the sea 


“The Spring of water in the edge of 
the Clift is not sufficient. I have carted 
almost the whole of the water used in 
my family during the last Summer and 
until this Month commenced, from 
nearly one mile distant. 


“These Impediments were neither 
known nor under Consideration at the 
time of fixing my Salary. 

“T humbly pray you to think of me, 
and (if it shall be consistent with your 
wisdom) increase my Salary. 

“And in duty bound I am your’s to 
Command 

“EBENEZER SKIFF, 
Keeper of Gayhead Light House. 


“ALBERT GALLATIN ESQUIRE 
“Secretary of the Treasury.” 


In consequence of this letter Presi- 
dent Jefferson approved of increasing 
his salary by $50 to $250 per annum. 

Ten years later the same Ebenezer 
Skiff petitions for an increase of salary 
on these grounds, some of which have a 
familiar ring, although the spelling has 
somewhat changed. The letter is quoted 
in full, as of interest in showing the life 
of a light-keeper at that date: 


“To Samuel Smith Esquire Commis- 


12 


sioner of the Revenue 


“Str: Clay ochre and earth of various 
colours from which this place derived its 
name ascend in a sheet of wind from the 
high clifts and catch on the glass of the 


light-house, which glass requires to be 
often cleaned on the outside :—Tedious 
service in cold weather and not so com- 
monly necessary in any other place in 
the Massachusetts, nor in any of the 
New England States. 

“The Spring of water in the edge of 
the clifts, by means of their late caving 
has become useless. I cart the water 
used in my family more than half a mile, 
necessarily keep a draught horse and 
carriage for that purpose and frequently 
have to travel in a hilly common extend- 
ing five miles to find the horse. Truely 
I catch some rainwater and it is as true 
that many times I empty it coloured as 
red as blood with oker blown from the 
clifts. 

“My firewood is brought from the 
Mainland and, there being neither har- 
bor nor wharf here, is more expensive 
than in seaports. Keepers in some places 
get their wood with little cost; but here 
the native Indians watch the shores to 
take all drifts. 

“The lately constructed light with a 
stone revolves by a clock which is to be 
stopped every time anything is. done to 
the fire, which, in cold weather, must be 
kindled the sun an hour high, or sooner, 
and recruited until eleven o’clock, or 
after, when I have to trim the lamps and 
wind up the weights of the clock and 
can go into bed at nearly midnight until 
which a fire is kept in the dwelling-house 
consuming more wood than when I 
tended the former light. 

“It is about eight miles from here to a 
gristmill and in the common way of pass- 
ing are creeks not fordable at all seasons. 

“The business respecting the light is, 
mostly, done by me in person, yet I oc- 
casionally leave home to procure wood 
and many other necessaries; previous to 
which I have to agree with and instruct 
some trusty white person to tend the 
light in my absence: If my salary would 
admit I would hire some person to live 
constantly with me lest I should be sick— 
I have no neighbors here but Indians or 
people of colour. 

“Tending the former light might be 
deemed a simple business if compar’d 
with the tendance of the present compli- 
cated works and machinery, which re- 
quires much time care &c. 

“Almost any man or lad under my 
wife’s care could light the former lamp 


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THE INTERIOR OF THE EDDY- 
STONE LIGHTHOUSE 


Showing the foundation, dovetailing of stones, 


13 


and interior arrangement 


PRESENT STONE LIGHTHOUSE ON MINOTS LEDGE, MASSACIIUSETTS: NOTE THE 
BREAKING SURF 
This structure ranks among the difficult lighthouse engineering works of the world. 
During the first summer only 130 working hours were obtained on the rock, and after three 


years work only four stones of the foundation had been laid. Commenced in 1855 and 
completed in 1860 (see page 18). 


and do the business a short time; but the 
case is not so now. 

“When I hire an Indian to work I 
usually give him a dollar per day when 
the days are long and seventy five cents 
a day when the days are short and give 
him three meals: Now supposing the 
meals worth twenty-five cents each they 
amount to seventy five cents which is 
seven cents more than the wages for my 
service both a day and night (while I 
board myself) only sixty eight cents, 
computing my Salary (as it now is) at 
two hundred and fifty dollars a year and 
the year to consist of three hundred and 
sixty five days. 

“T have the use of two acres of land 
intersected with buildings, the use of a 
small dwellinghouse and a small barn. 

“T refer you to Capt. Winslow Lewis 
Superintendent of the Lamps &c. for the 


14 


truth respecting all of the above particu- 
lars that he is acquainted with—and be- 
fore I forward this Application shall lay 
before the Selectmen of Chilmark, which 
adjoins Gay Head, for their inspection ; 
And in duty bound I humbly pray you to 
take this Matter into your wise consid- 
eration and afford me relief by granting 
an increase to my Salary. 

“Gay Head 2nd November 1815. 

“T am Sir with all possible respect 
yours to command, 

“EBENEZER SKIFF.” 

As a result of this letter, President 
Madison approved of a further increase 
of $50 in his salary. 

CHARACTERISTIC ENDORSEMENTS BY 

JEFFERSON 

On a recommendation to appoint Jared 

Hand as keeper of Montauk Point light 
Rm 


4 


STANNARD ROCK LIGHT, 


MICHIGAN 


Built in 11 feet of water, 24 miles from the 
nearest land, it marks the most dangerous reef 
in Lake Superior. It is the most distant from 
shore of any lighthouse of this country. 


to succeed his father, President Jefferson 
wrote this endorsement : 


“T have constantly refused to give in 
to this method of making offices hered:- 
tary. Whenever this one becomes ac- 
tually vacant, the claims of Jared Hand 
may be considered with those of other 


competitors. “’[‘7oMAS JEFFERSON.” 


In a matter respecting the conduct of 
the keeper of Cape Henry lighthouse he 
wrote: 


“T think the keepers of light houses 
should be dismissed for small degrees of 
remissness, because of the calamities 
which even these produce; and that the 
opinion of Col. Newton in this case is of 
sufficient authority for the removal of 
the present keeper. 


06 9 


AND CONSTRUCTION OF 
HOUSES 


66 4 - 
‘Dec. 31, Tu. JEFFERSON. 


LOCATION LIGHT- 


The first-class light and fog-signal sta- 
tions are located at the more prominent 


15 


SECTION OF MINOTS 


Showing fastening 
arrangement. It is 
summit. 


LEDGE 


of stones and 
107 feet from 


LIGHTHOUSE 
interior 
base to 


and dangerous points along the seaboard, 
and on a well-lighted coast such stations 
should be sufficiently close that a coast- 
ing vessel may always be in sight of a 
light. The smaller lights are placed to 
mark harbors, inside channels, and dan- 
gers. Along the navigable rivers numer- 
ous post lights are maintained to indicate 
the channels. 

For New York harbor and immediate 
approaches alone 268 aids to navigation 
are required, including 46 shore lights, 
2 light vessels, and 36 lighted buoys 
there are 192 buoys of all classes and 37 
fog signals, including sounding buoys. 

A chart of New 4 ork harbor in 1737 
shows not a single aid to navigation 
there at that time. One may imagine the 
difficulties of Henry Hudson when in 
1609 he sailed into New Y ork Bay in the 
Halfmoon. ‘The diary says: “We found 


16 


BUILDING THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT STATION, OREGON 
Open to the sweep of the Pacific Ocean and one of the most exposed stations: in the world; completed in 1881 (see page 21) 


it to have 2a yer 
shoald barre before 
it; and, again, | te 
mouth of that land 
hath many shoalds.”’ 
Boats were repeatedly 
sent ahead to sound 
as the Halfmoon 
worked her way into 
the harbor and river. 
The natural altera- 
tions in channels and 
coast lines, the prog- 
ress of improvements, 
and the changes in the 
trend and character of 
commerce and_ ship- 
ping make numerous 
modifications neces- 
sary in the aids to 
navigation, so that this 
is a work that will 
never be complete 
while nature and man 
are active. During the 
past year notices have 
been published of 
about 1,600 distinct 
changes in aids to 
navigation maintained 
by the United States 
Lighthouse Service. 
Among the light- 
houses of the country 
may be found ex- 
amples of great engi- 
neering skill and of 
dignified and simple 
design. Some of the 
tall lighthouse struc- 
tures are of beautiful 
architecture, suited to 
the purpose, and set 
off by picturesque lo- 
cation on headland or 
rock overlooking the 
sea. “The tower must 
be built to give the 
light a suitable height 
above the water, and 
hence tall lighthouses 
are required on low- 
lying coasts. 
A light must be 
about 200 feet above 
the water to be seen 
from the deck of a 


THE TILLAMOOK 


The seas here are terrific. 


ROCK LIGHT COMPLETED 


On October 19, 1912, a wave broke a pane of the lantern 132 


feet above the sea (see page 21) 


vessel 20 nautical miles distant ; beyond 
that distance the curvature of the earth 
would prevent a light at this elevation 
being seen. The light and lens are pro- 
tected by an outer lantern of glass. 

At the principal stations provision is 
made either in the tower or in separate 
buildings for the mechanical equipment 
connected with light and fog signal, for 
storage of oil and supplies, for quarters 
for keepers and their families, boats, etc. 

Various materials have been employed 
in lighthouse construction—stone, brick, 
iron, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete, 
and wood; in new work, however, the 
latter is now little used because of the 
desirability of permanency. 

The Lighthouse Service at present 
owns 1,186 distinct pieces of land; be- 
sides this, many lights stand in the water, 
and post lights along the rivers are on 
temporary sites not purchased. 


WONDERFUL SEA-SWEPT LIGHTHOUSES 


Lighthouse construction on the land 
is usually comparatively simple, except 
when there is difficulty of access to the 
site. But often it is important for the 
protection of shipping that lighthouses 
be erected either on rocks or reefs ex- 
posed to the sea or actually in the water, 
on sand or rock bottom. Such work has 
called forth the greatest skill of engi- 
neers. 


17 


Numerous types of construction have 
been used. Where the foundation is ex- 
posed, even at the lowest tides, masonry 
towers have been, with great labor and 
often danger, fitted to the bed-rock; 
otherwise the structure has been erected 
on iron piles driven, screwed, or pumped 
into the sand or coral, or on caissons 
floated to the site and set on the bottom 
or.sunk deeper by the pneumatic process, 
or by the use ‘of coffer-dams, within 
which the masonry tower has_ been 
erected; smaller structures have been 
placed on rip-rap foundations. 

The earliest example now existing of 
a sea-swept lighthouse is the beautiful 
tower of Cordouan, built in 1584 to 1611. 
on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the 
Gironde, on the west coast of France. 
This lighthouse has since been altered 
and raised in height. The original struc- 
ture was elaborately decorated, and one 


floor was occupied by a chapel (see 
page 8). 

The most famous of the sea-swept 
lighthouses is the Eddystone, 13 miles 
from Plymouth harbor, England. This 
was completed in 1699, after four years 


of work. During the first year all that 
was accomplished was drilling 12 holes 
in the rock and fastening irons them. 
This lighthouse, with the keepers and the 
engineer who built it, disappeared in the 
great storm of November, 1703, and since 


BUILDING THE LIGHTHOUSE ON ST. GEORGE REEF, CALIFORNIA 


The rock is so exposed that the workmen were obliged to live in the schooner, moored beside 
the rock, and were carried back and forth by a traveler ona cable (see page 23) 


ST. 


that time three other lighthouses have in 
succession been erected on the Eddy- 
stone (see pages 12-13). 


MINOTS LEDGE LIGHT 


The earliest lighthouse built in this 
country in a dangerous position, exposed 
to the open ocean, was that on Minots 
Ledge, a reef off Boston harbor which 
had long been a terror to mariners. This 
was an open-work iron-frame structure, 
supported on wrought-iron piles wedged 
into holes 5 feet deep, drilled in the rock, 
which was bare only at low water. It 
was completed in 1848 (see page 14). 

There was a great gale in April, 1851. 


GEORGE REEF LIGHT, CALIFORNIA, COMPLETED: 
A DIFFICULT AND EXPENSIVE STRUCTURE 


“The light on the Minot was 
last seen from Cohasset on 
Wednesday night at 10 o'clock. 
At 1 o’clock Thursday morn- 
ing, the 17th, the light-house 
bell was heard on shore, one 
and one-half miles distant; and 
this being the hour of high 
water, or rather the turn of the 
tide, when from the opposition 
of the wind and the tide it is 
supposed that the sea was at 
its very highest mark; and it 
was at that hour, it is generally 
believed, that the light-house 
was destroyed; at daylight 
nothing of it was visible from 
shore, and hence it iS most 
probable it was overthrown at 
or about the hour named.”’ Two keepers 
were in the tower and were lost, and 
this extract from the official report tells 
the story of one of the great lighthouse 
tragedies. 

The present massive stone lighthouse 
was built on the same site on Minots 
Ledge, commenced in 1855 and completed 
in 1860. It ranks among the difficult 
lighthouse engineering works of the 
world. During the first summer only 130 
working hours were obtained on the rock, 
and after three years’ work only four 
stones of the foundation were laid. The 
reef rock was prepared to fit the stones 
of the lower courses and the latter were 


cut to interlock. Dwellings for the 
keepers’ families were built on the shore, 
accommodations for the men only being 
provided in the tower. 

Longfellow visited Minots light in 
1871, and in a letter thus describes it: 
“The lighthouse rises out of the sea like 
a beautiful stone cannon, mouth upward, 
belching forth only friendly fires.” 


SPECTACLE REEF AND STANNARD ROCK 


Spectacle Reef lighthouse, built on a 
teef near the northern end of Lake Hu- 
ron, is a stone tower standing in a depth 
of 11 feet of water, 10 statute miles from 
land. It is ina position exposed to heavy 
ice action. A coffer-dam was constructed 
at the site, the water was pumped out, 
the bed-rock was leveled off, and the 
lighthouse was constructed of cut stone, 
securely fastened. It was completed in 
1874, and is a notable engineering work. 
The first year it was well tested by the 
ice. When the keepers returned to the 
tower in the spring of 1875 they found 
the ice piled against it to a height of 30 
feet. As this was 7 feet above the door- 
way, they had to cut through the ice to 
enter. 

Stannard Rock light, 24 statute miles 


19 


TUG TOWING A CAISSON TO BE SUNK FOR A LIGHTHOUSE FOUNDATION (SEE PAGES 
20 AND 20) 


from the nearest land and marking the 
most dangerous reef in Lake Superior, 
is the most distant from shore of any 
lighthouse in this country. It was com- 
pleted in 1882, constructed in a manner 
similar to that on Spectacle Reef, and 
stands in the same depth of water—r1 
feet (see page I5). 


WHITE SHOAL LIGHT 


White Shoal, a dangerous spot in Lake 
Michigan, at the entrance to the Straits 
of Mackinac, was marked for 19 years 
by a light vessel anchored over it. On 
account of the ice, this vessel could not 
be kept on the station during a portion 
of the season of navigation in the spring 
and fall. As the unmarked shoal was a 
serious menace to navigation at these 
seasons, an appropriation was made for 
building a lighthouse, and this was com- 
pleted in 1911 at a cost of $225,000. 

A timber crib 72 feet square and 18 
feet high was built on shore and floated 
out to the site, where the depth of water 
was 22 feet. The bottom, which is of 
coarse gravel, was covered with 2 feet 
of rock, and the crib was filled with stone 
and sunk. Above this was built a con- 
crete pier, which supports the lighthouse. 


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CAPE HENRY FOG SIGNAL, VIRGINIA 


This fog signal is an air siren driven by oil engines. 


ward to prevent sand drifting into the sirens. 


States consist of sirens, wiecles. 


reed trumpets, aerial “bells, and submarine bells. 
and whistles are operated by compressed air or steam, and trumpets by compressed air. 


The trumpets are curved down- 
“The fog signals now in use in the United 
Sirens 


To 


furnish air, compressors driven by internal combustion engines are used, and for steam signal 


boilers are employed. The larger fog bells, up to 4,000 ‘pounds, have 


a weight and clockwork” (see page 47). 


The light is of 1,200,000 candle power, 
flashing white every 8 seconds. In ad- 
dition to the compressed air fog-whistle 
there is a submarine bell signal, located 
in 60 feet of water three-quarters of a 
mile from the station. This bell is sup- 
ported on a tripod standing on the bot- 
tom of the lake, is operated by electric 
power transmitted through a cable from 
the light station, and strikes “23.” 


OF THE 
THE WORLD 


TILLAMOOK ROCK—ONE 
EXPOSED IN 


MOST 


Two lighthouses involving great diffi- 
culties have been built on rocky islets off 
the Pacific coast—Tillamook Rock, com- 
pleted in 1881, and St. George Reef in 
1891. ‘Tillamook is a high, precipitous 
rock south of the Columbia River and 
about a mile from shore. It is exposed 
to the sweep of the Pacific Ocean. Land- 
ing on the rock was very dangerous, and 
the foreman was drowned the first day 
a working party was landed. There was 
serious difficulty in providing any protec- 


hammers actuated by 


tion on the rock for the workmen. It 
was necessary to blast off the top of the 
rock to secure sufficient room for the 
lighthouse (see pages 16-17). 

This light station is one of the most 
exposed in the world. The tower is 136 
feet above high water, but the keepers 
reported that in a storm in 1887 the seas 
broke over the building, some going 
above the tower, and serious damage was 
done. In another storm a mass of con- 
crete “filling weighing half a ton was 
thrown over the fence into the enclos- 
ure,” at a level of 88 feet-above the sea. 

Here is the keeper’s report of a storm 
in October, 1912, at “Tillamook light. The 
lighthouse tender, on account of weather 
conditions, was not able to reach the 
rock for 7 weeks after this storm: 

“T regret to state that on the evening 
of the 18th, or morning of the 19th, we 
lost a portion of the west end of the 
Rock, water and rocks coming over with 
so much noise we could not tell when, 
and did not know it had departed before 


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THE OLD AND THE 


NEW LIGHT TOWERS AT CAPE CHARLES, 


VIRGINIA 


The tower on the right was built in 1864, but was abandoned in 1895, as the site was 


destroyed by erosion of the sea. 
in 1863 for the same reason. 


surrounded by iron framework (see page 28). 


next morning when the sea went down 
so that we could go outside. 

Bab 12 :357a, m, on the roth the sea 
came up and broke one pane in of the 
middle section of the lantern (132 feet 
above the sea), which also put the light 
out and flooded the watch-room, as well 
as down-stairs. ‘To add to it all the soot 
and ashes came out of the stove in the 
kitchen. 

PAt 12:50 a. m. we had the light 
burning and storm pane in for the rest 
of the night. 

“Siren was running until the crash 
came, but making no regular blast on ac- 
count of the water filling the trumpet too 
fast. After getting the light burning we 
closed down the fog signal, as the wind 
hauled to westward and cleared the at- 
mosphere somewhat. Shortly afterward 
when taking siren out to clear it I found 
it filled partly full with rocks; therefore 


23 


The previous tower, built in 1827, had been discontinued 
The new tower, shown on the left, consists of an iron cylinder 


the water could not get out of it (siren 
horns are 95 feet above the sea). 

“\Vill also state that every one under 
my charge worked hard and faithfully, 
regardless of water and glass, everybody 
being drenched to the skin.” 

Before the location of the lighthouse, 
this rock had been a favorite resort of 
sea lions, who completely covered its 
slopes; these at first were hostile and 
disposed to object to other use of the 
rock, but finally retired to other resorts. 


SI. REEF LIGHT, CALIFORNIA 


St. George Reef light is built on a 
rock lying 6 miles off the northern coast 
of California. The rock was so exposed 
and swept by the seas that workmen 
could not safely live upon it, and it was 
necessary to moor a schooner near the 
rock to provide quarters for the men, 
who were transported back and forth by 


GEORGE 


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THE PIGEON POINT LIGHTHOUSE, ON THE RUGGED PACIFIC COAST, CALIFORNIA 


This light gives each 10 seconds a flash of 4 seconds’ duration and 160,000 candle power. The 
fog signal is a first-class air siren, giving each 30 seconds two blasts in quick succession 


a traveler on a cable. The total cost of 
the work at St. George Reef was about 
$712,000, making it the most expensive 
lighthouse that has been built in this 
country. These two exposed light sta- 
tions on the Pacific coast are the only 
ones having five keepers (see pp. 16-18). 

Of lighthouses built on piles in the 
water, the original Minots Ledge struc- 
ture has been mentioned. j 
Shoal light, in 6 feet of water in Dela- 
ware Bay, completed in 1850, was the 
first in the United States built on iron 
screw-piles. These were bored down 6 
feet into the sand bottom, the broad 
screws at the ends of the piles also fur- 
nishing additional bearing surface; this 
structure has stood 62 years, but now 
must be rebuilt on account of the piles 
having been damaged by the ice. 


LIGHTS ON THE FLORIDA REEFS 


Five pyramidal iron skeleton light- 
houses have been built in the water along 
the Florida reefs ; these are supported on 


Brandywine. 


LS) 
on 


iron piles forced about 10 feet into the 
coral rock or sand. The piles are driven 
through large cast-iron discs, with a 
shoulder bearing on the disc; these discs 
are about 8 feet in diameter and give a 
broad support for the structure. 
Sombrero Key, with its light 142 feet 
above the sea, is the tallest of these reef 
lighthouses (see page 22). The keepers’ 
quarters are carried within the skeleton 
tower, and they thus live 37 feet above 


37 
the water. 

LIGHTS BOTTOM—THE 
LIGHT 


ON SAND 


BANK 


14-FOOT 


The first lighthouse built in the sea 
distant from the land and not on a rock 
foundation was the Rothersand. This 
notable engineering work stands in 20 
feet of water, on a sand foundation, in 
the North Sea, 10 miles from the Ger- 
man coast, in the approach to LDremen. 
The first attempt to place a lighthouse 
in this position resulted in failure, but a 
structure was finally completed in 1885. 


A POST LIGHT ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 


Post lights are maintained on about 5,500 miles of rivers in the United States 


A caisson of boiler iron 36 feet wide, 
46 feet long, and 61 feet deep was built 
in port. This caisson was towed to the 
site and sunk in position. Eight feet 
above the lower or cutting edge of the 
caisson was a diaphragm, forming a 
working chamber, from the center of 
which rose a cylindrical shaft with an 
airlock. The caisson was sunk by the 
pneumatic process to a depth of 73 feet 
below low water, the sand being removed 
from the working chamber by a sand 
blast; the caisson was filled with con- 
crete and masonry and the light-tower 
erected on this foundation. 

Two years later, in 1887, the first light- 
house in the United States built on a 
submarine foundation and sunk in a 
sand bottom by the pneumatic process 
was completed on Fourteen-foot Bank, 
Delaware Bay, in 20 feet of water. A 


26 


timber working chamber 40 feet square 
was built, with cutting edge 7 feet deep. 
On this was placed an iron cylinder 35 
feet in diameter and 18 feet high, built 
of cast-iron plates bolted together by 
their flanges. This was towed to the 
site and placed in position. It was sunk, 
by digging and blowing out the sand, to 
a depth of 33 feet below the surface of 
the shoal, the cylinder being built up 
until it was 73 feet high and filled in 
with concrete (see page 20). 

Cast-iron cylinders have been used 
also on other shallow submarine sites 
affording stable foundations or on rocks 
nearly awash. Wooden cribs floated to 
the site have been similarly employed, 
an example of which is Detroit River 
lighthouse. Recently reinforced concrete 
caissons have been used, sunk in place 
on the bottom, for minor light stations. 


Wi 


4 ti! ~ ny 
amet 


THE TALLEST LIGHT TOWER OF THIS COUNTRY, 200 FEET HIGH: THE CAPE HATTERAS 
LIGHTHOUSE, NORTH CAROLINA 
The spiral painting is to furnish a distinctive day-mark to mariners. “A light must be 


about 200 feet above the water to be seen from the deck of a vessel 20 nautical miles distant; 
beyond that distance the curvature of the earth would prevent a light at this elevation being 


seen. 
FAMOUS SHORE LIGHTS 


Cape Henry lighthouse, at the entrance 
to Chesapeake Bay, is an example of an 
iron tower built with cast-iron plates 
bolted together along their flanges. The 
old tower at Cape Henry, abandoned in 
1881, was the first lighthouse built by 
the United States government, being 
completed in 1791. There is a letter 
dated December 18, 1789, from Gov- 
ernor Randolph of Virginia to Presi- 
dent Washington, saying: “The State 
some years ago placed upon the shore at 
Cape Henry nearly a sufficient quantity 
of materials to complete such a light- 
house as was at that time thought con- 
venient, which have been in the course of 
time covered by sand. Measures are 
taking to extricate them from this situa- 
tion,” and offering to sell the materials 


27 


and cede the necessary land to the United 
States (see page 22 

Petit Manan lighthouse, Maine, is a 
granite tower 115 feet in height. On 
Thatcher Island, at Cape Ann, Massa- 
chusetts, are two handsome granite light- 
towers, each 124 feet in height. St. 
Johns River light, Florida, is of brick, 
Ro feet high (see page 24). 

The tallest light-tower in the United 
States is that at Cape Hatteras, on the 
low-lying coast of North Carolina, which 
is 200 feet from base to top of lantern. 
The highest light, however, is that at 
Cape Mendocino, on the coast of Cali- 
fornia, which is shown 422 feet above 
high water; it is on a cliff, the lighthouse 
itself being only 20 feet in height (see 
pages 27 and 20). 

The main channel range for the harbor 
of Charleston, South Carolina, is com- 


THR TWIN LIGHTS OF CAPE ANN, MASSACHUSETTS 


28 


The two fixed lights were established to furnish a distinctive aid, a purpose which now would be 


attained by a single flashing light (see pages 27 and 37) 


* 


granite towers, originally built in 1789. 


‘Two 


posed of two stations of historic 
interest, the front-range light be- 
ing on Fort Sumter and the rear 
light in the beautiful spire of St. 
Philips Church (see page 30). 


LIGHTHOUSE DISASTERS AND 
PERILS 


Many are the vicissitudes and 
tragedies that are connected with 
lighthouse history. Mention has 
been made of the destruction by 
storm of the first Eddystone and 
the first Minots Ledge lights, with 
the loss of all the keepers, and of 
the fact that the first Boston light 
was burned and finally blown up, 
incident to the operations of war 
(see pages 4 and 7). 

The danger of, nne wis enear 
There is a quaint report by Jesse 
Tay, inspector of customs, of the 
burning on November 7, 1792, of 
Tybee lighthouse, the first built in 
Georgia: “About 2 o’clock in the 
morning the negro that trimed the 
lites went up to trim them and he 
discovered the lanthorn in flames 
heteny ‘d out the litehouse was on 
fier i jump’d up and run up Stairs 

. the glass and sinders was 
fawling so thick and it was so 
very hot i was not able to tarry 
half a moment and i saw it was in 
vain to attempt to save it.” 

Lighthouses are sometimes un- 
dermined by the encroachment of 
the sea. From this cause three 
successive towers have been built 
at Cape Charles, Virginia. The 
first was constructed in 1827, 700 
feet from the then shoreline; this 
was abandoned in 1863, and the 
whole site has now been washed 
into the sea. 

The second was built in 1864, 
also about 7oo feet from the 
shore, but the sea continued to 
encroach until this now stands on 
the edge of the water. 

The present lighthouse was built 
in 1895, about 3,600 feet from the 
shore, and is an iron cylinder 9 
feet in diameter, surrounded and 
braced by an iron framework. 
This light flashes “45” every min- 
ute, four flashes in succession, fol- 


lowed by an eclipse, and then five 
flashes (see page 23). 

Hunting Island lighthouse is a 
tower of cast-iron plates, built in 
1859, about a quarter of a mile 
from the sea, on the coast of 
South Carolina. On account of 
the sea cutting away the end of 
the island, its position became un- 
safe, and in 1889 the lighthouse 
was taken down and reerected on 
a new site 1'4 miles distant. 

Sand Island lighthouse, with 
keepers’ dwelling, was built on a 
sand island at the entrance to Mo- 
bile Bay, Alabama. The hurri- 
cane of September, 1906, carried 
disaster along the Gulf coast, and 
this telegram was received from 
the lighthouse inspector: “Sand 
Island light out, island washed 
away, dwelling gone, keepers not 
to be found.” The tower re- 
mained, and one keeper had, for- 
tunately, gone ashore, but the 
other keeper and his wife per- 
ished (see page 32). 

Point Arena lighthouse, Cali- 
fornia, was wrecked by the great 
earthquake of April, 1906; it has 
been replaced by the first light- 
tower of reinforced concrete built 
in this country. 

The foundation of Chandeleur 
light, on the coast of Louisiana, was un- 
dermined and the tower thrown out of 
plumb by a storm in October, 1893. 

Thimble Shoal lighthouse, in Chesa- 
peake Bay, was run into by a schooner 
recently, the structure broken, and the 
house and light destroyed by the fire 
which resulted. This is the second time 
the structure has been destroyed by fire, 
and it has been rammed a number of 
times by vessels and tows (see page 33). 


TROUBLES FROM ICE, BIRDS, AND SAND 


Winter seriously increases the work 
of maintaining aids to navigation; the 
spray or sleet freezing may completely 
envelop the tower in ice, obscuring the 
light until the lantern is cleared. In 
northern waters, where there is floating 
ice, many of the gas buoys must be re- 
moved in winter and replaced by spar 
buoys, over which the ice may pass with- 
out serious damage to the buoy. The 


20 


THE CAPE MENDOCINO LIGHT, CALIFORNIA 


This lighthouse is only 20 feet in height, but it 
stands on the edge of a cliff, and the light is 422 feet 
above the sea, the most elevated in this country. 


spray freezes to bell buoys sometimes 
until the weight of the ice overturns 
them. 

Most of the lighthouses on the Great 
Lakes are closed during the winter 
months, when general navigation ceases 
on those waters. There is risk to men 
and vessels in taking off the keepers in 
the winter gales at the close of naviga- 
tion. In 1893 three lighthouses in Chesa- 
peake Bay—Wolf Trap, Smiths Point, 
and Solomons Lamp—were swept away 
by the ice. 

Sand creates difficulties at some light 
stations located among dunes or shifting 
wastes of sand. At Cape Henlopen the 
sand driven by the wind has cut deeply 
into the wood framing of the keepers’ 
dwellings, and has ground the window 
glass so that it is no longer transparent; 
but the lantern of the light is too high 
to be so affected. 

Even the flying birds make trouble at 


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VNIIONVO HLOAOS WOPUVH NOLSHTYVHO YOu SLHOIT AONVA HHL 


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30 


Ne 


THE CHANDELEUR LIGHT-TOWER, LOUISIANA, WHICH WAS ABANDONED AFTER BEING 
UNDERMINED BY A TORNADO IN 1893 


lighthouses, as the brilliant light so at- 
tracts them that they will fly directly for 
it, and striking the heavy glass of the 
lantern are killed and fall to the ground. 
At Cape Charles light the keeper has 
seen ducks fly directly through the lan- 
tern and fall to the floor cut and torn by 
the broken glass. Some lighthouses are 
fitted with bird-protecting screens around 
the lantern, as for instance at Mayo 
Beach light on Cape Cod. When Sabine 
Bank light, in the Gulf of Mexico, was 
increased in brilliancy by installing an 
oil vapor lamp, a bird-guard was found 
necessary because of the birds flying for 
the lantern, attracted by the more bril- 
liant light. 


FROM WOOD FIRES AND CANDLES TO OIL 
VAPOR AND ELECTRIC LAMPS 


The early lighthouses were lighted by 
wood or coal fires burned in open bra- 
ziers, and later by candles inclosed in 
lanterns; the resulting light was neces- 
sarily weak and fitful, and a large part 
was lost by being diffused in directions 
of no use to mariners. A coal fire was 
burned at the Isle of May light on the 
coast of Scotland up to 1816, and the 
famous Eddystone was lighted with 24 


31 


wax candles to 1811. Ojl lamps were 
early used in this country, if not from 
the first lighting of Boston light. Fish 
oil, sperm oil, colza oil, lard oil, and 
mineral oil were in turn burned, increas- 
ing expense in each case compelling a 
change. Circular wick lamps, with a 
central current of air, were invented by 
Argand in 1782. 

At the present time lamps with from 
one to five concentric wicks, and burn- 
ing a high grade of kerosene oil, are used 
in a majority of lighthouses. About 
610,000 gallons of oil are burned each 
year at the light stations of the United 
States, about 340,000 gallons of which 
are for lighthouse illumination. 

For the more important lights the in- 
candescent oil vapor lamp is now used, 
having been introduced by the French 
in 1898. In this lamp the oil is heated 
and then vaporized, and is burned mixed 
with air under a mantle which is made 
incandescent. This gives a much more 
brilliant light than the wick lamp, with 
a smaller consumption of oil. 

For instance, this change of lamps 
recently made at Cape Hatteras light 
has increased the brilliancy of the light 
from 34,000 to 160,000 candle power, 


Dae inten we 


Ee oe ee 


THE SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION, ALABAMA, BEFORE THE HURRICANE OF 
SEPTEMBER, 1906 


THE SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION AFTER THE HURRICANE 


This storm washed away the island with the keeper’s dwelling, and the keeper and his wife 
were lost (see page 29) 


32 


= ied 


THE THIMBLE LIGHT STATION AFTER A SCHOONER HAD COLLIDED WITH IT AND SET 
IT ON FIRE 


A temporary light is shown, pending the building of a more substantial structure, now 
under way 


while the consumption of oil has been 
reduced from 2,280 gallons to 1,300 gal- 
lons a year. 

Electric lights are used at a few light 
stations only. The expense is too great 
to warrant the employment of electricity 
at many important stations. For some 
harbor lights it can be used to advantage 
by taking current from a local source of 
supply, and a light can thus be main- 
tained in an exposed position and con- 
trolled from the shore. 


33 


The electric light at Navesink, on the 
highlands just south of New York har- 
bor, is the most powerful coast light in 
the United States. This light shows 
each five seconds a flash of one-tenth 
second duration estimated at 60 million 
candle power. Although, on account of 
the curvature of the earth, the light it- 
self cannot be seen more than 22 miles, 
its beam has been reported to have been 
observed in the sky at a distance of 70 
nautical miles (see page 39). 


THE RACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE, IN LAKE MICHIGAN, COVERED WITH ICE 


“Winter seriously increases the work of maintaining aids to navigation; the spray or 
sleet freezing may completely envelop the tower in ice, obscuring the light until the lantern 
is cleared. In northern waters, where there is floating ice, many of the gas buoys must be 
removed in winter and replaced by spar buoys, over which the ice may pass without serious 
damage to the buoy. The spray freezes to bell buoys sometimes until the weight of ice 


overturns them” (see page 20). 


34 , 


LIGHTHOUSE TENDER CROCUS JUST IN FROM WINTRY WORK ON LAKE 


END OF THE 


Most of the lighthouses on the Great Lakes are closed 
There is risk 
at the close of navigation” 


general navigation ceases on those waters. 
the keepers in the winter gales 


LIGHTS THAT BURN 


WITHOUT 


FOR MONTHS 
A KEEPER 

There has in recent years been a greatly 
increased use of gas as an illuminant for 
minor lights, such as unattended lighted 
beacons and lighted buoys; this is due to 
the facility w ith which gas may be stored 
or generated, the light burning for con- 
siderable intervals without attention. 
There are also a few coal or oil gas har- 
bor lights, supplied from local sources. 

There are in use a large number of 
acetylene gas-lighted beacons, supplied by 
tanks of gas of sufficient capacity to 
maintain a quick flashing light for five 
months without attention. In other 
acetylene lights the gas is generated from 
carbide at ‘the station or in the buoy. 
Oil gas under compression is also ex- 
tensiv ely used for lighted buoys, having 
been first employed ‘for this purpose in 


ERIE NEAR THE 


SEASON OF NAVIGATION 


during the winter months, when 
to men and vessels in taking oft 
(see page 20). 


1878. Some of the acetylene beacons 
are provided with a sun valve, which 
saves gas by automatically cutting off the 
gas supply during the time the sun shines. 

A gas beacon has recently been estab- 
lished on Richardsons Rock, a wave- 
swept rock west of the Santa Barbara 
Islands, California. It would have been 
very expensiv e to build a lighthouse with 
keepers’ quarters on this this 
flashing beacon was established to give 
present protection to vessels from the 


rock, SO 


danger. ‘This beacon, without atten- 
dance, will flash its warnings every 3 


seconds for 7 months (or over 6 million 
flashes) before it requires another charge 
of gas (see page 30). 

Ten years ago the first light in Alaska 
was established ; now there are 95 in that 
territory, and the rapid increase of recent 
years has been due largely to the facility 


on 


CALIFORNIA 


AN UNATTENDED FLASHING GAS LIGHT ON RICHARDSONS ROCK, 


30 


This would be a difficult and expensive site on 


which to establish a regular lighthouse with keeper’s quarters (see page 35) 


This light will flash every 3 seconds for seven months before it requires another charge of gas. 


with which flashing gas lights, un- 
attended, may be established in 
that region, where it would be 
difficult and expensive to main- 
tain keepers. At stations, how- 
ever, where there are fog signals, 
keepers must be stationed, as there 
is not yet available a practical 
automatic fog signal for land use. 


POWERFUL REFLECTORS, LENSES, 
AND PRISMS ARE USED 


In order to increase the effec- 
tiveness of illumination, reflectors, 
lenses, and prisms are used to con- 
centrate the light and throw it out 
either in a plane around the hori- 
zon or in a beam or limited arc, 
where it will be most useful. 
Parabolic: reflectors were intro- 
duced about 1763, and to show 
around the horizon or to render 
the light more powerful it was 
necessary to mount on a, chan- 
delier a number of lamps each 
with its own reflector. Thus in 
an early list of American lights 
the number of lamps is given, as 
Boston lighthouse 14 lamps, and 
Sandy Hook 18 lamps. 

The French physicist, Augustine 
Fresnel, beginning in 1822, revo- 
lutionized lighthouse practice by 
inventing a system of annular 
lenses, refractors, and reflecting 
prisms, all of glass and surround- 
ing a single central lamp. Various 
forms of lenses designed on these 
principles, with further improve- 
ments, are now universally used 
in lighthouse work, varying from 
the simple lens lantern, with a 
single annular lens, to the great 
first-order lenses, built of many 
pieces of beautifully cut and pol- 
ished glass. 

Of such a lens the distinguished 
lighthouse engineer, Alan Steven- 
son, wrote: “Nothing can be more 
beautiful than an entire apparatus 
for a fixed light of the first order. 
It consists of a central belt of re- 
fractors, forming a hollow cyl- 
inder 6 feet in diameter and 30 
inches high; below it are six tri- 
angular rings of glass, ranged in 
a cylindrical form, and above a 


crown of thirteen rings of glass, " 
forming by their union a hollow cage, 
composed of polished glass, 10 feet 
high and 6 feet in diameter. I know 
of no work of art more beautifully 
creditable to the boldness, ardor, in- 
telligence, and zeal of the artist.” 

With the most complete lenses 
about 60 per cent of the light is 
rendered useful, the balance being 
lost at the top and bottom and by 
absorption of the glass of the lens 
and the lantern. 

The first lens in the United States 
was installed at Navesink light in 
1841. The largest lens in this service 
is that at Makapuu Point light, Ha- 
waii, which is 834 feet in diameter. 
The introduction of more powerful 
illuminants and quick-flashing lights, 
with lenses concentrating more of 
the light, has rendered large diameter 
lenses unnecessary (see page 41). 


INGENIOUS METHODS TO DISTINGUISH 
LIGHTS FROM EACH OTHER 


It is important that lights be so 
distinguished from each other as to 
avoid the possibility of the mariner 
mistaking one for another. To this 
end lights are distinguished by their 


number, color, intensity, or time of b-- 


visibility. Before the introduction of 
flashing or occulting lights, in a few 
cases two or three light-towers were 
built close together to give a dis- 
tinctive combination, an example be- 
ing the two lighthouses on Thatcher 
Island, Cape Ann. This is an expen- 
sive method not now employed for new 
lighthouse work. 

Color distinctions, especially red, have 
been widely used, but are not suitable 
except for minor lights because of the 
great loss of power; with the best color, 
red, the loss is about 60 per cent. For 
lights to be seen at close range, two lights 
are sometimes shown, one vertically 
above the other. 

With the systems now available of 
flashing and occulting lights, it is possi- 
ble to obtain a great variety of clearly 
distinguishable characteristics. The first 
revolving light was installed in Sweden 
in 1763. The earlier slow revolving 
lights are now generally superseded by 
lights giving a flash or various combina- 
tions of flashes at shorter intervals, or 


every two seconds. 
tern automatically cuts off the light while the 
sun shines. 


AN ACETYLENE GAS LIGHT, THE FAIRPORT 


WEST PIER LIGHT, OHIO 


Gas tanks at base; light automatically occulting 
Sun valve to the left of lan- 


lights showing continuously except for 
short occultations. Quick-flashing lights 
were first introduced in France about 
1892. 

The most powerful flashing lights are 
arranged to have the entire lens revolve, 
the beam from each panel of the lens 
appearing as a flash as it sweeps past the 
observer. To obtain rapid and smooth 
revolution, the lense is mounted on a 
mercury float, and a lens weighing, with 
fittings, as much as 7 tons may make a 
complete revolution in 30 seconds. 

A recent example is the lens for Kila- 
uea light station, Hawaiian Islands, built 
in France and costing about $12,000, in- 
cluding import duty. The moving part 
weighs nearly 4 tons and turns on a mer- 
cury float, making a complete revolution 


37 


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38 


THE MOST POWERFUL LIGHT OF THIS COUNTRY, ESTIMATED 60,000,000 CANDLE 
POWER: THE NAVESINK LIGHTHOUSE, NEW JERSEY 
“The electric light at Navesink, on the highlands just south of New York harbor, is the 


most powerful coast light in the United States. 


one-tenth second duration estimated at 60 million candle power. 


This light shows each 5 seconds a flash of 
Although, on account of 


the curvature of the earth, the light itself cannot be seen more than 22 miles, its beam has 
been reported to have been observed in the sky at a distance of 70 nautical miles (see 


page 33). 


every 20 seconds and giving a double 
flash of about 940,000 candle power 
every 10 seconds. The light is suffi- 
ciently powerful to be visible 40 miles, 
but because of the earth’s curvature it 
can be seen only 21 miles (see page 42). 

Occulting lights are less efficient, the 
occultations being obtained by revolving 
a screen around the light, by a drop shut- 
ter, or by blank panels in a revolving 
lens. With gas lights, flashes or occulta- 
tions may be obtained by automatically 
interrupting the gas supply, a small pilot 
light still remaining. 

The earlier lighthouses all showed 
fixed lights, and were equipped with 
lamps giving only moderate candle 
power. There is always danger of mis- 
taking the identity of a fixed light, as it 
may be confused with other lights on 
shore or on vessels, or one lighthouse 
mistaken for another, and marine dis- 
asters have resulted from such mistakes. 


39 


All countries have, therefore, long since 
undertaken to change the fixed lights at 
important coast points and give them a 
distinctive characteristic, and also to in- 
crease the brilliancy of illumination. 

To indicate the steady progress made 
along these lines, during the past two 
years this service has changed 47 lights 
from fixed to flashing or occulting, and 
at 68 light stations has substituted in- 
candescent oil-vapor lamps for oil-wick 
lamps, the latter greatly increasing the 
brilliancy, with a diminished consumption 
of oil. 

DAY MARKS 


In addition to the lights, many other 
marks are provided to assist navigators. 
The light-towers themselves are painted 
and shaped to make good landmarks in 
the daytime, and special beacons and 
spindles are placed usually to mark 
shoals or other dangers. Nature and 
man also provide many landmarks valu- 


AN UNATTENDED FLASHING LIGHT AT THE ENTRANCE TO PRINCE WILIIAM SOUND: 
HE ZAIKOF POINT LIGHT STATION, ALASKA (SEE PAGE 35) 


ie 8 4 


ke 


‘ 
‘ 
: 
. 
“) 


a RE a 


Sige 


Es 
aad oni 
ees Z 


nt 


A LIGHT WHICH FLASHES EVERY 3 SECONDS FOR 5 MONTHS WITHOUT ATTENDANTS 


Many such lights have been installed to mark the inside passages in Alaska. ‘This one is 
placed at Point Retreat, Alaska 


40 


able to mariners, but which are 
not included in the official aids. 


LIGHT VESSELS 


All thus far mentioned are 
known as fixed aids to navigation, 
but it is frequently desirable to 
put marks in the water where the 
depth or other conditions do not 
permit of the building of a light- 
house or beacon. More than half 
the aids to navigation maintained 
by the Lighthouse Service are 
floating—light vessels or buoys 
moored in position. 

Light-ships are placed in loca- 
tions off the coast, where it would 
be impracticable or needlessly’ ex- 
pensive to build a lighthouse, and 
they usually mark the approach 
to a port or bay or the outer limit 
of an offlying danger. They are 
also sometimes used in _ inside 
waters. They may be moored in 
the channel or close to it, and they 
have the advantage over most 
lighthouses, that a vessel may steer 
directly for them without danger 
so long as collision with the light 
vessel is avoided, and also that 
they may be moved and moored 
in another position when change 
of conditions or necessity requires. 
On the other hand, a light vessel 
is more expensive to maintain, and 
there is the possibility of its being 
driven from its station, though 
this is reduced in recent years by 
improved vessels and moorings. 

The first light-ship, the Nore, was 
established in England in 1732, at the 
‘mouth of the Thames. The first in this 
country was stationed in 1820 in Chesa- 
peake Bay, off Willoughby Spit. Sandy 
Hook, now Ambrose, light vessel was 
established in 1823. A light vessel was 
placed off Cape Hatteras in 1824 and 
was driven ashore in 1827, and a ship 
was not established again in this dan- 
gerous position until 1897, after unsuc- 
cessful attempts had been made to build 
a lighthouse on Diamond Shoal. 

The United States maintains light ves- 
sels on 51 stations, and there are a num- 
ber of relief ships, so that the regular 
ships may be brought in for repairs. 
Some of these positions are of the great- 


eclipsed for 1% seconds each 9 seconds. 
Point Light, Hawaiian Islands. 


41 


THE LARGEST LENS OF THE U. S. LIGHTHOUSE 
SERVICE 


The lens is 834 feet in diameter, an occulting light 


Makapuu 


est importance to mariners, as, for ex- 
ample, the Nantucket Shoals light vessel, 
moored 41 miles from land, for which 
most of the transatlantic vessels steer 
in approaching America, and the Dia- 
mond Shoals light vessel, moored in 30 
fathoms of water 13 miles off Cape 
Hatteras and marking the most danger- 
ous locality on the Atlantic coast of the 
United States. ‘These larger ships are 
full-powered vessels, capable of return- 
ing to their station, and they each have a 
crew of I5. 

The latest ships are provided with 
powerful and distinctive lights and fog 
signals. They more nearly approach the 
lighthouse in design, having a heavy 
tubular iron mast surmounted by a lan- 


A BEAUTIFUL GLASS LENS AND MOUNTING RECENTLY BUILT IN FRANCE FOR THE 
KILAUEA LIGHTHOUSE NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


It will be the landfall light approaching the islands from Japan. The light will give a 
double flash of 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The lens and mounting “weighs 
nearly 4 tons and turns on a mercury float, making a complete revolution every 20 seconds 
and giving a double flash of about 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The light is 
sufficiently powerful to be visible 4o miles, but because of the earth’s curvature it can be seen 
only 21 miles” (see pages 37 and 39). 


42 


MA ceN 
Aone k 
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Bo ae 
oN 
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yx 
ot 
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Novy A 
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\ SSSR 
pees Se \\ 
. ASSAM 
ee 
ee SS SSE 
ae SS 
acy 
7 / / 
rity OMT, Se 
Ly LW, Sas Ppp tll y ayy \V\\ pa 
ately hey ey V7 Cite eee ANNAN AOS 
hse a, Sal al Fok plo \\ en 
aS Ce A / j| Vues 
erg: ered | | 
Gos 0" 
/ / / 
/ / / 
Ae a 
WS Reet foros 
Bene! if 
Cpe 
ics, 


A CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE LAMP OF THE LENS SHOWN ON PRECEDING PAGE, 
SHOWING HOW THE LENS DIRECTS ALL THE LIGHT OUT IN FOUR 
BEAMS, IN TWO GROUPS 


tern, sometimes with a revolving lens 
supported like a pendulum to hang verti- 
cally, so that the light beam will be kept 
near the horizon regardless of the mo- 
tion of the vessel. An example is the 
recently completed Milwaukee light ves- 
sel, which will show a double flash every 
10 seconds. This vessel has a fog signal 
giving two blasts each minute, with in- 
tervals of 7 and 46 seconds. 


LIFE ON THE LIGHT-SHIPS 


Life on a light-ship is somewhat dreary, 
but not without excitement. During ev- 
ery fog the crew on Nantucket ship know 
that numerous vessels are headed directly 
for them, and in a storm, anchored as 
they are in the open sea, they may be 
far from comfortable. The men in turn 
are allowed liberal leave ashore. There 
are often serious difficulties in getting 
coal and provisions to the ships on ex- 
posed stations, so that it is necessary 
that they carry sufficient supplies to last 
over stormy periods. 

In 1899 the Columbia River light vessel 


43 


was stranded near Cape Disappointment, 
and as it could not be gotten off into the 
sea again, it was hauled 700 yards across 
the land through the woods and launched 
in the Columbia River. 

The light-ships, being necessarily near 
the channel ways, are frequently collided 
with. In January, 1912, a schooner ran 
into Diamond Shoal light vessel. The 
master, in his report, describes the dam- 
age done and states that “the 6 seamen 
and also the cook worked manfully all 
night in trying to save the mainmast,” 
and that “repairs having been made, the 
light having been kept burning as usual, 
and the ship kept in right position, unless 
very severe weather sets in the vessel 
will stay here until relieved.” 

The directions of the Superintendent 
of Lights in 1829 to the master of a light 
vessel instruct him “not to slip or cut 
the cable, or suffer it to be done, in any 
event, and if the vessel should be likely 
to founder, to abandon her with his 
crew.” 


DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VESSEL, NORTH CAROLINA 


This vessel is anchored in 30 fathoms of water in the Atlantic Ocean 13 miles off Cape 
Hatteras, and occupies one of the most exposed and dangerous positions. The vessel is 
shown after being stranded in 1899. The diagram below shows the improved method now 
in use of mooring light vessels with a submerged buoy. 


In recent years some unattended light 
vessels have been established abroad. 
These are small vessels without any crew 
and with all the apparatus automatic in 
operation. The Barrow light vessel, on 


Notwithstanding the severe conditions, 
Diamond Shoal light vessel has in recent 
years been maintained on the station with 
little interruption. ‘The vessel is now 
moored with a 7,500-pound mushroom 


anchor and 150 fathoms (goo feet) of 
heavy chain. About one-third of the 
length from the vessel a submerged 
spherical buoy is attached to the chain, 
carrying a part of its weight and greatly 


the coast of England, with no crew, has 
an automatic flashing gas light with a 
revolving lens, a fog bell in the air, and 
a submarine bell, both actuated by the 
motion of the vessel in the sea (see 


easing the pull of the vessel. page 48). 


eee 


— 7500 Lb. Mushroom Anchor —— —_~ ; ; == = 


SSS S150 Fathoms Chain Cable — = = —— eae 
ee Ne = Sa eS en a SSS SS Sa 


DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MOORING ARRANGEMENT OF DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VESSEL 


Length of chain on buoy, 7!%4 fathoms; from the anchor to buoy chain, tos fathoms; from 
buoy chain to ship, 45 fathoms 


44 


? 


THE AMBROSE LIGHT VESSEL AND AN OCEAN LINER 


This light vessel is anchored off the entrance to New York Bay. Ocean passages are 
reckoned to or from this ship. ‘“Light-ships are placed in locations off the coast where it 
would be impracticable or needlessly expensive to build a lighthouse, and they usually mark 
the approach to a port or bay, or the outer limit of an offlying danger. They are also 
sometimes used in inside waters. They may be moored in the channel or close to it, and 
they have the advantage over most lighthouses, that a vessel may steer directly for them 
without danger so long as collision with the light vessel is avoided, and also that they may 
be moved and moored in another position when change of conditions or necessity requires. 
On the other hand, a light vessel is more expensive to maintain, and there is the possibility 
of its being driven from its station, though this is reduced in recent years by improved 
vessels and moorings” (see page 41). 


Le oe Fe cae: 


— = 


‘4 all 


ph 4 


agi a 


= BS tiny r sHah ts a5 


—— 


THE NANTUCKET LIGHT VESSEL, MOORED IN THE ATLANTIC 4I MILES FROM LAND 


Most of the transatlantic vessels steer for this vessel. “Life on a light-ship is somewhat 
dreary, but not without excitement. During every fog the crew on Nantucket ship know 
that numerous vessels are headed directly for them, and in a storm, anchored as they are in 
the open sea, they may be far from comfortable. The men in turn are allowed liberal leave 
ashore. There are often serious difficulties in getting coal and provisions to the ships on 
exposed stations, so that it is necessary that they carry sufficient supplies to last over stormy 
periods” (see page 43). 


45 


THE COLUMBIA RIVER LIGHT VESSEL, AFTER BEING STRANDED ON CAPE DISAPPOINT- 
MENT IN 1899, WAS HAULED THROUGH THE WOODS 700 YARDS AND 
LAUNCHED INTO THE RIVER (SEE PAGE 43) 


BUOYS 


Floating buoys are efficient and rela- 
tively inexpensive aids to navigation. 
They are used to mark dangers—as 
shoals, rocks, or wrecks—to indicate the 
limits of: navigable channels, or to show 
the approach to a channel. They vary 
in character according to their purpose 
or the distance at which they should be 
seen. The simpler forms are the wooden 
and iron spar buoys, and iron can and 
nun buoys. For warning in thick 
weather, buoys are fitted with bells, 
whistles, and submarine bells, all actu- 
ated by the motion of the sea. 

Some important buoys are lighted, 
usually by means of oil gas compressed 
in the buoy itself or acetylene gas com- 
pressed in tanks placed in the buoy or 
generated in it. The light is often flash- 
ing or occulting, for the purpose both of 
providing a distinctive mark and of pro- 


longing the supply of gas. The use of 
gas buoys has greatly increased in recent 
years, there being at present 346 in this 
country. ‘They are a very valuable addi- 
tion to the aids for the benefit of mari- 
ners, and often obviate the necessity of 
establishing much more expensive light 
vessels or range lights on shore. 

The buoy off the entrance to Ambrose 
Channel, New York harbor, at a height 
of 27 feet above the water, shows a light 


of 810 candle power, occulting every 10 


46 


seconds and visible 10 miles. This buoy 
recently burned for one year and four 
months without. recharging. The buoy 
is nearly 60 feet long and weighs over 
17 tons (see page 50). 

Buoys are painted and numbered to 
indicate their position and the side on 
which they should be passed. ‘To keep 
the 6,700 buoys of this country on their 
proper stations and in good order is a 
heavy work and is one of the principal 


THE COLUMBIA LIGHT VESSEL 
THE WOODS 


uses for the lighthouse tenders. Buoys 
may be damaged or sunk, or dragged or 
broken from their moorings by vessels 
or tows, or wreckage, or ice. 

Two buoys from the Atlantic coast of 
this country have been picked up on the 
coast of Ireland, and one from the Cali- 
fornia coast was found in the Hawaiian 
Islands, these having gotten adrift and 
been carried across the oceans by the 
currents. 

For use in mooring buoys and light 
vessels, the Lighthouse Service purchases 
annually about 15,000 fathoms of chain, 
a length equal to 17 statute miles. 


FOG SIGNALS 


~The most powerful coast lights may 
be rendered of little or no use to navi- 
gation by thick fog or rain. To assist 
vessels under such conditions, making 


47 


JOURNEYING THROUGH 


their course more safe or allowing them 
to proceed, fog signals of many sorts 
have been established. Of these the bell 
is the most common, and until about 
1850 the only signals in use were bells 
and guns. The ‘first fog signal on the 
Pacific coast of the United States was 
established at Bonita Point, San Fran- 
cisco Bay, in 1856—a fog gun to be fired 
each half hour. 

The fog signals now in use in the 
United States consist of. sirens, whistles, 
reed trumpets, aerial bells, and submarine 
bells. Sirens and whistles are operated 
by compressed air or steam, and trum- 
pets by compressed air. To furnish air, 
compressors driven by internal com- 
bustion engines are used, and for steam 
signals boilers are employed. The larger 
fog bells, up to 4,000 pounds, have ham- 
mers actuated by a weight and clock- 


4 


ie ‘ — 6 ee 


3 se 


SMM eLS 35 


THE MILWAUKEE LIGHT VESSEL, THE LATEST BUILT IN THIS COUNTRY 


It has a hollow steel mast, through which access is had to the lantern surmounting it. The 
lantern will be fitted with a revolving lens giving a flashing light (see page 43) 


AN UNATTENDED LIGHT VESSEL ON THE COAST OF ENGLAND 


It has no crew, and is equipped with flashing gas light, aerial fog bell, and submarine fog 
bell, all automatic. The bells are operated by the motion of the vessel in the sea 


48 


se 
on ay agit 
oe 


A BELL BUOY TAKEN ON BOARD LIGHTHOUSE TENDER 


Shows marine growth and the necessity for periodic cleaning and painting of buoys 


work. The smaller bells are rung by 
hand. Besides the above, there are vari- 
ous noise-making buoys; bells, whistles, 
and submarine bells are attached to 
buoys and are made to sound by the 
movement of the buoy due to the sea. 
There are also used abroad several 
other types of fog signals. The dia- 
phone, similar to the siren, explosive sig- 
nals, consisting of a tonite or other ex- 
plosive fired from the top of a mast, and 
recently there has been installed, experi- 
mentally, at several light stations in 
France apparatus for sending signals by 
wireless telegraphy, and a compass has 
been invented which from a vessel will 
give the direction of the sending station. 
Nearly all fog signals excepting those 
on buoys are operated to sound a charac- 
teristic signal so that they may be distin- 
guished, there being a succession of 
blasts or groups of blasts or strokes at 
regular time intervals, which are made 


49 


known for each station. Even adjacent 
buoys are differentiated by the use of 
whistles and bells and by variation of 
tone. 

A first-class fog-signal station requires 
powerful and expensive machinery and 
skilled attendance. Such a station may 
have duplicate engines of 20 horsepower 
each, and the signal may consume 100 
cubic feet of free air per minute. 

While aerial fog signals furnish a very 
valuable aid to navigation under weather 
conditions when assistance is most 
needed, yet they are far from the ideal 
of perfection. Sounds are transmitted 
through the air erratically, and some- 
times within a comparatively short dis- 
tance of a station the fog signal may be 
inaudible, while in other directions it 
may be heard for long distances. This 
is due to the effect of the adjacent land 
or to conditions in the atmosphere, the 
sound being reflected or the sound waves 


Spuodes OL A1aAO 
Butjpnos0 ‘UOIWIe OYA syJWOW OI JOF pou ApJWEde1 YOIYM ‘Ja}VM 9y} dAOGe Jooy Le ISI] YM soURIJUS YIOR MON YO Aonq Ses jeo1s oY], 


SVD TIO HLIM GHOUVHOUN ONIAd ‘MHANAL V ACISDNOIV AON SVD 


h's x al 
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50 


BEACONS OF THE SEA 5] 


deflected or retarded; the subject is one 
of importance, requiring further investi- 
gation. 

There is sometimes an unfortunate 
conflict of interest between the need of 
a loud and distinctive sound to aid the 
mariner in a fog and the quiet and com- 
fort of seashore residents in whose midst 
the fog-signal station may be located. 
Even the mournful note of the whistling 
buoy may bring complaints from the 
near-by shore residents. 

Keepers at fog-signal stations must 
maintain a continuous watch day and 
night, as the signal must be started 
promptly on the approach of fog. Some 
portions of the coast have little or no 
fog, as on the south Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts, where there are but few fog sig- 
nals; there are no fog signals in Porto 
Rico or in the Hawaiian Islands. Fogs 
and thick weather are very prevalent on 
the New England and the Pacific coasts. 
At the station at Seguin Island, Maine, 
there were, in 1907, 2,734 hours of fog, 
more than 30 per cent of the entire year. 


SUBMARINE BELLS 


Submarine bells were first regularly 
employed as fog signals in the United 
States in 1906. The bell is suspended 
in the water from a light vessel to a 
depth of 25 to 30 feet and is operated 
by compressed air, or the bell is mounted 
on a tripod on the bottom and worked 
by electric power transmitted from the 
shore through a cable, or it is suspended 
from a buoy and actuated by the motion 
of the sea, which moves a vane and winds 
a spring (see page 52). 

Sound from submarine bells is trans- 
mitted through the water more uni- 
formly and effectively than it is through 
the air from an aerial signal, but the effi- 
cient use of submarine bells requires that 
vessels be equipped with suitable receiv- 
ing apparatus attached to the hull on 
each bow and telephonically connected 
with the wheel-house; by comparing the 
loudness on the two sides the direction 
of the signal may be obtained. Subma- 
rine bells have frequently been heard 
through the water at distances of 15 
miles and more. 


LIGHTHOUSES MAINTAINED BY ALL 
COUNTRIES 


As of the surface of the earth 51,886,- 
000 square miles is land, as compared 
with 145,054,000 square miles of water, 
it is evident that a large part of the com- 
merce of the world will always be carried 
on this great water area. Lights and 
buoys and fog signals are essential to 
safeguard the ships as they approach the 
continents and follow the coasts, and 
these or other suitable guides will be 
needed for aerial traffic, should it ever 
develop. 

The proper lighting and marking of 
the coasts is an obligation assumed by all 
modern maritime nations. The lights 
protect not only the ships of the country 
maintaining them, but the vessels of other 
nations as well. The lighthouse, for in- 
stance, at Cape Maysi, on the east end 
of Cuba, is of great value to many ships 
which never call at a Cuban port. A 
lighthouse on Cape Spartel, Africa, at 
the entrance to the Mediterranean, is 
maintained jointly by the contributions 
of I1 nations, including the United States. 

But there is a great difference today 
in the manner in which the shores of 
different seas are lighted. The official 
British lists give a total of about 11,600 
lighthouses and light-ships for the entire 
world, but of these 8,900 are on the 
coasts of Europe, the United States, and 
Canada, while Asia, Africa, Australia, 
the remainder of America, and the islands 
of the sea have together about 2,700. 
South America has but 300 lights, and 
Africa 500. 

A region of interest to our shipping, 
much of which is badly lighted and 
marked, is the area including the Carib- 
bean Sea, the West Indies, and Central 
America. For example, the large island 
of Haiti has not a lighthouse at any one 
of its three prominent extremities. The 
only lights on Haiti are four harbor 
lights, which are marked in the list “not 
to be depended upon.”” A number of the 
lighthouses on the Central American 
coast are maintained by an enterprising 
steamship company. 

Around the entire shore line of Bering 
Sea there is but one lighthouse—that at 


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pure wi0}0q 2Y} UO pods} e 


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“eas ot} JO UOOW sy} Aq poyenjoe pue Aonq 


UO peJUNOU Ss! [Jaq oy} 10 ‘sre pessorduros Aq poyesrodo 


SIVNOIS DOA TI ANTEV 


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pue essed 4S] @ WOIy pepuedsns sr [Jed sulIeUIqns YT 


Was 


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52 


THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 53 


Cape Sarichef, Alaska—and some small 
lights near St. Michael; but this is a 
region where the commerce would not at 
present justify a costly lighting system, 
particularly as navigation is mostly con- 
fined to the season of no darkness at 
night. 

It seems almost incredible to find, only 
three centuries ago, powerful opposition 
to the establishment of lighthouses. In 
1619 a heroic Cornish gentleman, Sir 
John Killegrew, petitioned the king for 
permission to build a lighthouse on the 
Lizard, the southernmost point of Eng- 
land, where there is now an electric light 
whose powerful beam sweeps around the 
horizon. ‘The nautical board to whom 
was referred the petition advised the 
king that it was not “necessarie nor con- 
venient on the Lizard to erect,a light, 
but, per contra, inconvenient, both in re- 
gard of pirates, or foreign enemys; for 
the light would serve them as a pilot to 
conduct and lead them to safe places of 
landinge; the danger and perill whereof 
we leave to your majesty’s absolute and 
profound wisdom.” Notwithstanding the 
flattery, James I granted the petition. 

Next the local Cornish people opposed 
the work, as thus told by Killegrew: 
“The inabytants neer by think they suffer 
by this erection. They affirme I take 
away God’s grace from them. ‘Their 


English meaning is that now they shall 
receive no more benefitt by. shipwreck, 
for this will prevent yt. They have been 
so long used to repe profitt by the cal- 
lamyties of the ruin of shipping, that they 
clayme it heredytarye, and heavely com- 
playne on me.” The light was, however, 
completed and the fire kindled, which, 
wrote Killegrew, “I presume speaks for 
yt selfe to the most part of Christendom.” 
But it was impossible to obtain, for sup- 
porting it, the “voluntary contributions” 
from shipping which the king’s grant 
authorized. Finally the corporation of 
the town of Plymouth pulled down the 
lighthouse, which the shipowners con- 
sidered ‘“‘burthensome to all ye countrie,” 
and there was no light at the Lizard for 
132 years thereafter. 

Some of the early lights and buoys in 
England. were maintained by religious 
men. On a tradition of such a philan- 
thropy is founded Southey’s ballad re- 
garding the buoy on Bell Rock, where 
now stands a great lighthouse: 


“The good old Abbot of Aberbrothock 

Had placed that bell on the Inchcape Rock; 
On a buoy, in the storm, it floated and swung, 
And over the waves its warning rung. 


“When the rock was hid by the surge’s swell, 
The mariners heard the warning bell; 
And then they knew the perilous rock, 
And blessed the Abbot of Aberbrothock.” 


THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 


An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture 


With Photographs by Dr. Erwin F. Smith 


HERE is no disease to which 

mankind is liable more produc- 

tive of intense suffering than can- 

cer, and yet its origin is unknown and 

no certain method of cure has yet been 
discovered. 

In recent years, particularly during 
the last decade, the attention of experts 
in medical research all over the world 
has been more and more focused upon 
this subject. Thanks to the munificent 
coéperation of various public bodies and 
individual philanthropists, a number of 


splendidly equipped laboratories have 
been founded, and international con- 
gresses are held from time to time, at 
which investigators from all parts of the 
world submit the results of their re- 
searches. But, in spite of much patient 
and laborious investigation, no definite 
clue has been found, and we are still ap- 
parently far from a knowledge of the 
causes producing this disease. 

This is the more unfortunate because, 
if we may trust the statements of statis- 
ticians, cancer is becoming increasingly 


PLATE I. A MARGURITE OR PARIS DAISY IN WHICH PLANT CANCER HAS BEEN 
PRODUCED BY INOCULATION (SEE PAGE 61) 
“A sterilized needle is taken and dipped into the culture containing the bacteria and 


one or more small pricks are then made in the skin of the plant. After a few days nodules 
appear.” 


54 


THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 56 


common. According to the very care- 
fully prepared statistics covering the 
death rate in England and Wales, it ap- 
pears that while in every million living 
in 1871-1875 the annual death rate from 
cancer was 445 cases, in 1901-1904 the 
rate had risen to 861 cases. With an in- 
crease so appalling, the need of discover- 
ing the cause and cure of this disease is 
urgent. 


WHAT THE CELLS ARE 


Cancer is a disease of the cells of the 
body, and to obtain a clear idea of its 
nature it will be necessary to consider 
very briefly the cells as the living units 
of protoplasm, of which all bodies, both 
of plants and animals, are composed. 
For example, the human body has its 
origin in the union of two small cells, 
and the single cell thus produced divides 
in its turn into two, these two into four, 
each cell dividing upon an arithmetical 
maoetession of 2.4.8 .16.32.. 
with incredible rapidity. Some concep- 
tion of the diminutive size of these cells 
can be formed when we know that ten 
days after the union of the original male 
and female cells the cell-structure, which 
will ultimately develop into the human 
body, has attained the size of a pin’s 
head, yet it contains hundreds of thou- 
sands of cells. 

All cells act automatically and repro- 
duce themselves under internal’or exter- 
nal stimulus, but only in accordance with 
the needs of the body to which they be- 
long. Just what that stimulus is and 
how it is caused is still a matter of some 
obscurity, but recent researches by Dr. 
Alexis Carrel, of New York, and many 
others tend to show that all normal cell 
stimulation, as far as the human body is 
concerned, is due to secretions produced 
by certain cell-groups, such as the pan- 
creas, the thyroid, and other glands. 

So long as this automatic self-division 
of cells, or proliferation, as it is called, 
coincides with the needs of the body, a 
normal condition exists. 


HOW A CANCER BEGINS 


A cancer results from an abnormal 
proliferation of certain of these cells. 
When from some still unknown reason a 
cell is stimulated to abnormal, malignant 


~ 


proliferation it becomes the mother cell 
of the cancer and gives rise to daughter 
cells, which often multiply with immense 
rapidity and so on indefinitely. These 
abnormal cells also react upon normal 
cells and stimulate them also into rapid 
growth until the typical cancer is formed. 

A great number of theories have been 
put forward to account for this abnor- 
mal cell growth, the more important be- 
ing the following: Virchow’s theory, 
which attributes all tumors and cancer 
to the direct results of injury or irrita- 
tion; Cohnheim’s theory, which accounts 
for cancer by a supposition that during 
embryonic life certain cells are isolated 
or “displaced from their normal relation- 
ship or fail to undergo normal atrophy” 
(Adami, Principles of Pathology, vol. 1, 
p. 835), the result being that they lie 
dormant until roused into activity by 
some stimulus, and that, having the 
enormous power of proliferation which 
characterizes all embryonic cells, they 
outstrip the adult cells and a cancer re- 
sults. 

Those who maintain these and other 
theories of the non-parasitic origin of 
cancer, and they constitute at present the 
major part of all research workers in 
the field of cancer, have always main- 
tained that this disease cannot be para- 
sitic, not only because no one has ever 
been able to isolate or demonstrate any 
parasite, but also, they claim, because the 
cancer cell is itself the parasite. Cancer, 
as of rats, mice, etc., cannot be repro- 
duced, they have said, except by the in- 
troduction into the animal experimented 
upon of living cancer cells, usually from 
another animal of the same species. 


THE PARASITIC THEORY 


The parasitic theory, however, has en- 
thusiastic supporters, and is still a matter 
which excites keen discussion in medical 
circles. As will be shown later, it is 
along this line that present indications 
show the greatest promise of future re- 
sults. This theory holds that cancer is 
due to an abnormal stimulation pro- 
duced by some still undiscovered micro- 
organism, and its adherents point out 
that cancer, with its localized primary 
growth and widespread secondary infec- 
tions, bears a remarkable similarity to 


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SHINON OM GHHaAVYOOLOHA 181 AVOAS NO NOMVINOONI Ad GHoNdOUd SYXONVO 


INVId “Il 


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LVI 


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56 


THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 


certain other diseases which are known 
to be of parasitic origin. 

Dr. Borrel, of the Pasteur Institute, 
has found animal parasites (acarids) 
buried in the cell masses of certain can- 
cers of the face, and he conceives that 
possibly these parasites introduce an or- 
ganism or a poison much in the same 
way as the mosquito introduces the ma- 
laria virus into the system. Still more 
recently (1911-1912) Dr. Peyton Rouse 
has announced* that a chicken sarcoma 
(cancer) is inoculable in the absence of 
cancer cells, and that the tumor material, 
even when dried for six months, is still 
infectious. 


THE LATEST DISCOVERY 


But perhaps the strongest support of 
the parasitic theory of cancer has come 
from what at first sight would seem to 
be the most unlikely source, namely, the 
Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. This, how- 
ever, is not so remarkable when we re- 
member that cancer is a disease result- 
ing from abnormal cell stimulation, and 
that the cell is substantially the same in 
both plants and animals. 

Indeed it is to comparative pathology 
that we must look for the most striking 
results of our future investigation. 

For some nine years past Dr. Erwin F. 
Smith, the pathologist in charge of the 
Laboratory of Plant Pathology of the 
Department of Agriculture, and his as- 
sistants have been conducting a series of 
investigations into the origin and _his- 
tology of the crown gall. 

The crown gall is a plant disease which 
causes an annual loss to farmers of mil- 
lions of dollars and has become a serious 
problem to the agriculturist on account 
of the number of species of plants liable 
to its ravages. It is known to attack the 
daisy, the almond, peach, and other stone 
fruits, the apple, quince, raspberry, black- 
berry, the rose, the grape, red clover, 
alfalfa, cotton, hops, sugar-beets, and va- 
rious shrubs, hot-house plants, and shade 
trees. Up to the time that Dr. Smith 
undertook his investigations its cause and 
-character were entirely unknown. 


* Journal American Medical Association; 
American Association for Cancer Research; 
Journal Experimental Medicine. 


Or 
a 


A NEW BACILLUS FOUND 


He has proved the parasitic nature of 
this disease (Bulletin 213), and now 
states (Bulletin 255) that it is nothing 
more or less than a plant cancer, since it 
is due to parasitic stimulation going on 
within the cells and leading to abnormal 
proliferations essentially like those pres- 
ent in cancer of men and animals. 

While Dr. Smith has surrounded his 
conclusions with all those qualifications 
so dear to the modesty of the scientist, 
there is no doubt that he has made a dis- 
covery of the first magnitude in pa- 
thology, and has indicated a line of re- 
search which investigators of human 
cancer will be unable to ignore. 

In 1904 the Department of Agriculture 
received a number of margurites, or 
Paris. daisy plants, which were infected 
with gall-like growths on the stems and 
leaves. They were sent in to the De- 
partment by one of the large commercial 
growers in New Jersey, accompanied by 
the statement that the galls appeared, 
without apparent cause, both on plants 
grown in the open in summer and under 
glass in winter. 


HOW THE DAISY HELPED 


The first result obtained from the in- 
vestigations undertaken by Dr. Smith 
was the establishment of the fact that 
these growths were not due to insect in- 
juries. The next step was to discover 
whether the galls were due to infection 
by fungous growths, and this was de- 
cided in the negative after very conclu- 
sive experiments. The possibility of 
these growths being due to bacteria next 
presented itself and was investigated, 
but for some time the results obtained 
from the experiments were so inconclu- 
sive that the bacterial hypothesis was 
temporarily abandoned. Every effort 
was then made to produce the galls by 
mechanical injuries practised upon the 
plants in every stage of growth, but ex- 
periments in this direction were fruitless. 

More than two years of careful in- 
vestigation had been consumed before 
Dr. Smith and his assistants were able, 
by bacteriological culture-methods, to iso- 
late any organism which would reproduce 
the disease when plants were inoculated 


_< 
ON 


SOW 


Cy 
7 
7 


PLATE III. A CROSS-SECTION OF A PLANT SHOWING BOTH NORMAL AND DISEA 
CELLS (SEE PAGE 61) 


IN 


ca 2 
oe 


AND DISEASED CELLS 


SHOWING HEALTHY 


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SECTION 


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A LONGITUDINAL 


PLATE IV. 


PLATE V. THE EFFECT OF THE CONTINUED ABNORMAL GROWTH OF THE CANCER CELLS 
IS SHOWN IN THIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A PLANT STEM 


The tumor in course of formation is very apparent (see page 66) 


60 


2” THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS * 61 


with it. ° They finally succeeded in sep- 
arating a white bacterio-organism found 
in the ‘tumors which they discovered 
would produce the crown gall when in- 
troduced into a’ healthy plant. This they 
have named the Bacterium tumefaciens, 
or tumor-producing organism. 

Subsequent experiments showed that 
the most uniform success followed ex- 
periments upon young and rapidly grow- 
ing plants, it being often possible to ob- 
tain 100 per cent of infections. But 
eight years passed before they were able 
satisfactorily to stain the organism in the 
tissues so that it could be demonstrated 
under the microscope. 

Still further work was necessary be- 
fore Dr. Smith was convinced that the 
time had come when this disease could 
be properly described as plant cancer. 


THE PLANT CANCER DISCOVERED 


These results have been announced in 
two luminous bulletins of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Nos. 213 and 255, con- 
taining a series of admirable photo- 
graphs and photo-micrographs, which 
show the plant cancer in all its varia- 
tions. 

With the aid of some of these photo- 
graphs, we will follow Dr. Smith through 
one of his experiments, showing how the 
cancer is produced; how it sends out 
tumor-strands from the original point of 
infection; how secondary cancers de- 
velop from these tumor-strands ; also the 
different structure of primary and sec- 
ondary leaf tumors, and finally we shall 
see both the disturbance produced in the 
normal cell structure and the Bacterium 
tumefaciens, which is responsible for the 
trouble. 

In Plate I (page 54) we have one of 
the Paris daisies, or margurites, which 
served as the medium for very many im- 
portant experiments. A sterilized needle 
is taken and dipped into the culture con- 
taining the bacteria, and one or more 
small pricks are then made in the skin of 
the plant. After a few days nodules ap- 
pear, which finally grow into the pri- 
mary cancer, producing the malforma- 
tions shown in this plant at the points 
marked X, where the inoculations were 
made. From this point the cancer be- 
gins to throw out its roots or tumor- 


strands, which work their way up and 
down the stem and into the leaves, throw- 
ing off secondary cancers as they pass. 
These secondary cancers can be plainly 
seen at the points marked A and GC, 
where they have ruptured to the surface, 
while a number of them, still buried in 
the normal'tissues, are visible along the 
leaf E, with others. at D. 

In the -right-hand corner of’ the plate 
there is a cross-section of the stem taken 
at the.point marked 1, which shows how 


_a-large'tumor-strand (marked S) ap- 


pears to the naked eye. 


WHAT A TUMOR-STRAND IS 


This tumor-strand is of great impor- 
tance in determining the cancerous na- 
ture of the gall disease. In the Ency- 
clopedia Britannica, Dr. Louis Court- 
land says: “A cancer follows a course 
very different from that of an innocent 
tumor. Its growth has no appointed ter- 
mination, but continues with unabated 
vigour until death; moreover, it is more 
rapid than that of the innocent tumours, 
and so does not permit of the formation 
of a capsule by the neighboring tissues. 
In consequence such a tumour shows no 
well-defined boundary, but from its mar- 
gi fine tendrils of cancer cells make 
their way in all directions into the sur- 
rounding parts, which gradually become 
more and more involved in the process. 
Thus a cancer of the breast will attack 
both the skin covering it and the under- 
lying muscle and bone; a cancer of the 
intestine will eat its way into the liver, 
spleen and kidney, until these organs be- 
come to a great extent replaced by can- 
cer cells, and can no longer perform 
their proper functions.” 

In this tumor-strand, therefore, we 
find just exactly what we should expect 
to find in a plant suffering from cancer. 
The enormous rapidity with which plant 
cancers may develop is shown on Plate 
II, which exhibits two sugar-beets inocu- 
lated by needle pricks with pure culture, 
the photograph being made only two 
months after the roots were infected. 


WHAT CELLS LOOK LIKE 


We will now turn to Plate III and see 
how the tumor-strand disturbs the nor- 
mal cell structure. This plate shows a 


PLATE VI. THE CANCER ROOT OR TUMOR-STRAND AS IT LIES IN THE SURROUNDING 
TISSUE, SHOWING THE NUCLEI OR POINTS FROM WHICH CELL 
DEVELOPMENT STARTS (SEE PAGE 66) 


Note the black spots in this and the following photograph. ‘These spots are the nuclei or 
points from which the proliferation starts, due to the stimulation of the parasite 


62 


PLATE VII. AN ENLARGEMENT OF THE TUMOR-STRAND SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS 
PLATE, SHOWING A CLEARER VIEW OF THE NUCLEI 


Note the black spots, or centers of activity, are very prominent (see preceding plate) 


63 


PLATE VIII. THE CROSS-SECTION OF A STEM BETWEEN TWO TUMORS, SHOWING THE 
SMALL, TUMOR-STRAND (AT POINT X) WHICH CONNECTS THEM (P. 66) 


64 


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sees 
Baw 


2 


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cilia 
‘i i oe 
+ ae j 
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: a 
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“ m 2% 


PLATE IX. AN ENLARGED PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SMALL TUMOR-STRAND OF THE 
PREVIOUS PLATE 


Showing how the cells have been displaced from their normal relationship, which supports 
Cohnheim’s hypothesis (see pages 55 and 00) 


66 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


typical cell formation in the stem of a 
plant as it appears in a cross-section or 
looking down upon it from above. This 
is a photo-micrograph, and the tiny cells 
have been magnified until, taken collec- 
tively, they look like a cobblestone pave- 
ment; but we can now see how the cells 
look when they are subject to both nor- 
mal and abnormal stimulation. The 
great majority.of the cells shown here 
are behaving quite normally, but in the 
center of the picture, where the large 
pith-cells join the smaller wood-cells, we 
notice a little group of cells which seem 
to be different from the others and to be 
forming a little circular colony of their 
own. ‘These are the cells which, under 
the stimulus of the cancer bacillus, form 
the tumor-strand. 

Just how abnormally these cells are 
behaving will be immediately apparent 
when we view a tumor-strand in longi- 
tudinal section or in a front view as 
given in Plate IV. Here the cells in the 
tumor-strand, which is shown in the cen- 
ter of the plate and looks not unlike a 
sweetbread, have a markedly different 
appearance from those of the normal 
tissue surrounding them. ‘The effect of 
their continued abnormal growth is 
shown in Plate V, where a young tumor 
is developing, while a more detailed pho- 
tograph of a cross-section of a tumor- 
strand lying in the midst of less abnor- 
mal cells is shown on Plate VI. 


THE NUCLEUS AND ITS FUNCTION 


This is a particularly interesting plate, 
as it shows that the tumor-strand, just 
like many human cancers, has a strong 
affinity for the stain used upon the mi- 
croscope slide, and this shows especially 
quite dark. A series of small black spots 
at the edges of the strand, which appear 
will also be observed, very numerous in 
the cells in the tumor-strand and ap- 
pearing at intervals in a few cells on 
other parts of the plate. These spots are 
the nuclei or points from which prolif- 
eration starts, and the superabundant 
proliferation in the tumor-strand, due to 
the stimulation of the parasite, can be 
easily seen. 

An enlargement of the tumor-strand 
area is given in Plate VII, which affords 
a much clearer view of the nuclei. It 


will be observed that these points of pro- 
liferation are distributed all over the 
tumor-strand area, but are especially 
numerous at the edges. 

Plate VIII shows a cross-section of 
the stem of a daisy plant between the . 
primary and secondary tumors. The 
tumor-strand occurs at the point x, and 
the rest of the stem is quite normal ex- 
cept for a slight thickening of the ring 
of wood-cells at the point nearest the 
tumor-strand. 

An enlargement of this tumor-strand 
and the surrounding cells appears in 
Plate IX, the tumor-strand being at the 
junction of the small wood-cells above 
and the larger pith-cells below. Here in 
the tumor-strand we have the cells “dis- 
placed from their normal relationship,” 
referred to in Cohnheim’s hypotheses (see 
Pp. 55), the pitted portion being vessels 
(trachids) which have developed out of 
place and still contain nuclei which are 
absent from these vessels when fully de- 
veloped. They also show, by their feeble 
staining, that they are still in process of 
of development, as adult vessels of this 
type usually stain heavily. 


HOW PLANT CANCER DESTROYS TISSUE 


A cross-section of a leaf stalk in which 
a tumor has developed is shown in Plate 
X. The ravages of the cancer can be ap- 
preciated when we realize that the light- 
colored cells at the top and left are all 
that is left of the normal tissue. This is 
a secondary tumor developed from a 
tumor-strand which has pushed its way 
up from a primary tumor situated on the 
stem below, and consequently it has an 
imperfect stem structure, consisting of a 
central tumor-strand, which takes the 
place normally occupied by the pith. 
From it radiate in all directions woody 
plates (the dark rays in the picture), 
separated by enlarged pith rays (the light 
rays), the whole being inclosed by a ring 
of bark cells. The great excess of soft 
cells leading to rapid decay and the ab- 
sence of pith are the chief differences 
between this and a normal stem. 

The very striking contrast between 
such a secondary leaf tumor and a pri- 
mary leaf tumor can be seen in Plate XI, 
which is a cross-section of a primary 
leaf tumor produced from a pure culture 


PLATE X. A CROSS-SECTION OF A LEAF STALK IN WHICH ALMOST ALL THE NORMAL 
CELLS HAVE BEEN EATEN AWAY BY THE CANCER (SEE PAGE 66) 


PLATE XI. CROSS-SECTION OF A LEAF TUMOR PRODUCED IN THE LEAF FROM A PURE 
CULTURE BY A SINGLE NEEDLE PRICK (SEE PAGE 66) 


No normal cells remain; the whole body is a tumor composed of fleshy tissue and woody 
fiber 


68 


ee 
rmets 
, 
Py 
* 


wey 
=a 
7 ve 
a ee 
. 
% 


i) ” ok, . a 
=e . ‘ 
Ps / * 


PLATE XII. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF EIGHT LEVELS IN A CELL, SHOWING THE ROD-LIKE 
ORGANISM WHICH PRODUCES PLANT CANCER, THE Bacterium tumefaciens, 
AS IT APPEARS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 


These bacteria are from a daisy tumor 


690 


70 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


by a single needle prick on a healthy 
leaf. Here no normal cells remain; the 
whole body is a tumor composed of 
fleshy tissue and woody fiber, the minute 
dots all over the picture being the nuclei 
of the tumor cells, from which further 
proliferation will take place. 

It is not a simple matter to obtain 
photo-micrographs showing the bacteria 
actually in the cells, but on Plate XII we 
have photographs of eight different levels 
in a cell, and the irregular rod-like bac- 
teria are easily distinguishable. ‘These 
bacteria are described by Dr. Smith as 
follows: ‘““The galls on Paris daisy are 
due to a white schizomycete named Bac- 
terium tumefaciens. This organism is a 
short rod multiplying by fission and mo- 
tile by means of a polar flagellum. It 
can be grown in many sorts of culture 
media, but does not live very long upon 
agar. It forms small, round, white colo- 
nies in agar or gelatin poured plate.” 


HOW THE PARASITE WORKS 


The fight between the infected cell 
and the bacillus is most interesting, and 
shows how the cell responds to the 
stimulation and reproduces itself. This 
is how Dr. Smith conceives it to take 
place: 

“The relation between host and para- 
site in this disease may be regarded as a 
symbiosis (or condition in which two dis- 
similar organisms live together), in which 
the bacterium has the advantage. ‘The 
bacterium derives its food from the cells 
of the host and drives them at a break- 
neck speed. It gives to them in return 
its waste carbon dioxide for the use of 
their chloroplasts.” (Chloroplasts are 
the bodies in the cell which contain chlo- 
rophyll or green coloring matter, and are 
the most important bodies concerned in 
the making of starch from the water in 
the cell and the carbon dioxide of the 
air.) “The bacterium does not destroy 
the cells of the host, but only stimulates 
them into an abnormal and often exceed- 
ingly rapid division. 

“This stimulus, it would seem, takes 
place through the following delicate ad- 
justment of opposing forces: Within the 
host cell the sensitive parasite produces 
as one of its by-products an acid. As 


this acid accumulates it stops the growth 
of the bacteria and destroys a portion of 
them without, however, destroying the 
host cell. ‘The membranes of these dead 
bacteria, which have now become perme- 
able, allow the diffusion into the host 
cell of bacterial endotoxines.” (Endo- 
toxines are poisons produced by the bac- 
teria, but held within them while alive, 
and only escaping when the membranes 
of the dead bacteria disintegrate. ) 


THE CELL DIVIDES 


“The host cell now contains, of abnor- 
mal bacterial products, (a) these escaped 
endotoxines, (b) a certain amount of 
weak acid (acetic ?), (¢) some ammo- 
nia, and (d) an excess of carbon diox- 
ide. Under the stimulus of one or more 
of these poisons the nucleus (or point 
from which proliferation commences) 
divides by mitosis (the usual but more 
complex of the two methods by which 
cells multiply). In process of division 
the nuclear membrane (the envelope in- 
closing the nucleus) disappears and the 
contents of the nucleus flows out into the 
cell. The dormant bacteria under the 
stimulus of this nuclear substance renew 
their activities in the daughter cells until 
again inhibited, whereupon the daughter 
cells divide. By this rocking balance, in 
which first the parasite and then the host 
cell has the advantage, the tumor develops 
rapidly and independently of the needs 
of the plant.” 

This rapid growth of the tumor, inde- 
pendently of the needs of the plant, and 
the tumor-strand, which produces the 
secondary tumors with structure of the 
primary tumor, show very clearly the 
cancerous nature of the disease, and its 
development closely parallels what takes 
place in cancer in men and animals. 

Dr. Smith is very careful to point out 
that he considers that his discoveries 
have no absolutely direct bearing upon 
human cancer, and the following closing 
words are characteristic : 

“Nothing in this bulletin should be 
construed as indicating that we think the 
organism causing crown galls is able to 
cause human cancer, but only that we be- 
lieve the latter due to a cell parasite of 
some sort.” 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 


Being the experiences and impressions of the writer while making a trip starting 
from Jerusalem via Jaffa and Tripoli of Syria to the Cedars of Lebanon, 
through the Lebanon pass to Baalbek, and on to Homs, Hama, and Aleppo, 
during the months of August and September, 1912, and illustrated by photo- 
graphs taken specially on the trip by members of the American colony. 


By Joun D. Wuirinc, oF THE AMERICAN CoLony, JERUSALEM 


HE chief boatman at Jaffa called 

out Yalla! Yalla!” to his men, 

who were making their way de- 
liberately to the large row-boat in which 
we were seated. The steamer was soon 
to leave, and the call of the chief had the 
result of electrifying the men, and in a 
few moments eight brown, muscular 
boatmen were pulling us through the 
narrow opening between the rocks to 
which tradition states Andromeda was 
chained, to be eaten by a sea monster. 

These rocks have been the terror of pil- 
grims and tourists for centuries, but the 
Jaffa boatmen are renowned for their 
skill as well as courage and endurance. 

We were now able to compose our- 
selves and count our packages. We had 
only decided after dinner the evening be- 
fore to take the trip, and Mr. Larson 
and Mr. Baldwin, my two companions, 
were up all hours of the night getting 
ready. Yes, the pieces were there; thir- 
teen in all. 

It might seem strange for three men to 
need so much baggage, but the fact is we 
had only two small suit-cases between us, 
and the balance was photographic ap- 
paratus of all kinds and a couple of 
heavy boxes of plates. 

A few hours of slow steaming brought 
us round the promontory of Mount Car- 
mel, which figures so largely in Old Tes- 
tament history, and which, since Haifa 
during the past half century has grown 
so rapidly in importance, has become 
quite a summer resort. 

The sun was almost setting as the large 
barges were being filled and emptied as 
fast as possible by yelling Arabs, who 
can do no sort of work without exercis- 
ing their lungs as well as muscles. 


71 


THE SYRIAN EMIGRANT 


The lower decks of the steamer were 
packed with steerage or deck passengers, 
who, from the time we were nearing 
3eirut, occupied themselves in arrang- 
ing their toilet preparatory to disem- 
barking. 

From their appearance many could 
have been taken for Italians, but one had 
only to watch a few moments to see that 
they were Syrians who had been seeking 
their fortunes in America. Suit-cases 
and ponderous trunks were opened, dis- 
closing a mixture of old clothes, silk 
dresses, patent-leather shoes of distinct- 
ive American type, onions, garlic, bread, 
and the like, thrown in together with 
true Arab shiftlessness. Their attire and 
talk disclosed that they were just return- 
ing from various parts of America, and 
their gala dress and glad faces that they 
were nearing their native homes. 

The entire costumes of both men and 
women were of the Occident, while the 
head-gear just donned was that of their 
native land, to which they had been used 
from their youth, until laid aside, with 
their Oriental costumes, when they 
launched out to seek their fortune in a 
foreign land. They are extremely proud 
of returning clad in a foreign costume, 
but few, especially of the men, want to be 
seen by their countrymen wearing hats. 

Some landed at Beirut, while the 
larger portion waited to disembark at 
Tripoli. Some had been very successful 
in their enterprises and were talking of 
soon going again to the land of their 
adoption; some had made the trip back 
to Syria with the sole object of getting 
married and returning to pursue their 
fortune-making, while a few had been 


SMM 
sepin 


act 


TAT NSU VL 


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Zen 2 
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4 \ 
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== S 
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natal 


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200 300 miles 


MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAL TOWNS MENTIONED IN THE ARTICLE 


entirely unsuccessful and were now plan- 
ning to settle down to the simple life 
they had forsaken. 


TRIPOLI IN SYRIA 


While we were still quite a way out 
from the port of Tripoli a fleet of sail- 
ing boats glided swiftly out to meet us. 
The anchor dropped just as the sun set, 
and the cannon from the Crusader castle 
announced that the Mohammedan fast 
of the month of Ramadan had set in.* 


* The month of Ramadan is kept as a fast 
by all devout Mohammedans. During the en- 
tire day they abstain from food, drink, and 
even smoking, until sunset, when they may eat. 


72 


Tripoli (to be distinguished from the 
African Tripoli), called in Arabic Tara- 
bulus, is a twin city. The larger town 1s 
a little inland, nestled on the fertile plain - 
amid a great area of orange and lemon 
groves, forming a sea of green, and on 
this account called by the natives “Little 
Damascus.” * This town has grown so 
that its eastern edge has crept up the 
side of a low range of hills crowned by 


Another meal is taken just before dawn. In 
the towns a cannon is fired twice—once to 
announce that the fast is over for the day and 
again as the fast rebegins. 

* Damascus is noted for the verdant gardens 
which surround it. 


RABBIS IN JERUSALEM 


a large Crusader castle, which, at least 
outwardly, is well preserved and has long 
served as a barracks for Turkish troops. 


THE CRUSADERS’ INFLUENCE AT TRIPOLI 
Tripoli, like most of the towns in this 
part of the country, has a varied history, 
having been first dominated by the Phoe- 
nicians, and then successively by the Se- 
leucides, the Romans, the Moslems, the 
Crusaders, and now the Turks. 

It was during the five-years’ siege, be- 
gun by Count Raymond of St. Giles in 
A. D. 1104, that the Crusaders built the 
castle that overlooks the town to prevent 


NI 


os) 


any relief from coming from the outside. 
This fortress during our visit was evac- 
uated by the Turkish troops and the am- 
munition removed to a safer place fur- 
ther inland, in view of the war with 
Italy. It is a rather elongated building, 
the walls facing the ravine being higher 
and better protected (see page 79). 
From a Crusader’s point of view, the 
castle could not have been better placed, 
but with modern artillery it would be an 
inviting target to a man-of-war. 

The smaller town, called El Mina (the 
port), is located on the bay about two 
miles from the larger town, the space 


A MULE-DRAWN STREET CAR OF CURIOUS DESIGN RUNNING BETWEEN THE TWIN 
TOWNS OF TRIPOLI (SEE TEXT, PAGE 75) 


The traveler from the West is usually surprised to find how often the electric street car 
of American manufacture is found running merrily in the most unexpected places all over 


the East. The above type of street car is one which is rapidly giving way to the more 
speedy and comfortable competitor from the West. 


74 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 75 


between being a green expanse of orange 
orchards and mulberry trees irrigated by 
the mountain streams. The two towns 
are connected by a primitive mule-drawn 
street-car service (see page 74). 


RAILROAD EXPANSION IN SYRIA 


About a year ago a railroad was con- 
structed from Tripoli by a French com- 
pany to connect with their lines running 
from-Beirut and Damascus to Aleppo. 

Since. operations have begun on the 
Aleppo section of the German railway 
line from opposite Constantinople to 
Bagdad, Tripoli has become an active 
seaport for receiving rail and .railway 
materials, which are sent over the French 
line to Aleppo, thence to be reshipped to 
the eastern end of the line, which during 
our visit was nearing the Euphrates. 

On the coast near the railway station 
is an ancient fort, built in the middle 
ages and called by the Arabs Burj es 
Seba (Tower of the Lion). Our friend 
the station-master, who calls himself 
Monsieur Khies, informed us that it was 
built by Coeur de Lion, but the style of 
architecture is Arabic. 

It was one of a series of six forts 
built to protect the coast, only one other 
of which still exists, and it is in poor 
condition. The last one destroyed was 
to make room for the railway station. 
A petition has been sent to Constanti- 
nople, and, if granted, will also seal the 
doom of Burj es Seba, which, though 
fully worth being preserved as a relic of 
antiquity, is thought to be an obstacle in 
the way of the “iron road,” as the na- 
tives say (see page 80). 

The old saying, “The never-changing 
East,”’ should be modified to “The slowly 
changing East,” at least as far as Pales- 
tine and Syria are concerned. One can- 
not travel through these countries with- 
out constantly being struck with the inter- 
mixture of the very old and the new side 
by side. 


THE FAST OF RAMADAN 


After two full days at Tripoli, we 
were ready to start for our first goal, the 
Cedars of Lebanon. We woke while it 
was still dark, thinking Mohammed Ali, 
our muleteer, had come with the horses, 


but instead found it to be a man with a 
drum, which is beaten with a strap to 
awaken the sleeping fast-keepers to their 
early morning meal. The pealing of a 
cannon at this hour serves for this pur- 
pose, but it is supplemented by a number 
of poor men, each one of whom volun- 
tarily canvasses a given district with a 
view to receiving, on the feast at the end 
of Ramadan, presents of food and cash. 

The night was still, and the voice and 
drumming recalled memories of child- 
hood when living in the Mohammedan 
quarter of old Jerusalem. The crier 
stopped before each door, repeating short 
sentences, alternating them by a few flaps 
on his drum. His verse ran something 
like this : “Get up to your morning meal” 
(flap-flap-flap). ‘The Prophet has come 
to visit you” (flap-flap-flap). “Don’t be 
lazy” (flap-flap-flap). 

Mohammed Ali came in due time, and 
by the light of a small oil lamp in a 
smoked street lantern he loaded our 
heavy parcels on a mule, while the cam- 
eras were put on his mount in order to 
be more accessible en route. His small 
nephew, a boy of about 12, was taken 
along to drive the mule, which, however, 
he rode when the paths were not too 
steep. Mohammed Ali’s horses could not 
be said to be fine mounts, but they were 
good enough, while he himself made up 
all deficiencies by his good qualities as a 
muleteer. Unlike most muleteers, he ad- 
mitted his ignorance of the roads; but 
since one of us had been over this route 
once before, we were not anxious. 

In ascending the Lebanon range 
through the valley before us to Bsherreh, 
where we were to spend the night, we 
followed the right-hand side of the Wadi 
Kadisha (Sacred Valley) along a car- 
riage road, availing ourselves of short 
cuts now and then. The scenery was 
most striking. The entire hillsides were 

carefully terraced and planted with vines, 

from which hung large clusters of ripe 
fruit, unprotected except by a low stone 
wall. 


‘AMERICAN VILLAGES” IN THE LEBANON 


We had just lost ourselves in the 
beauty of our surroundings when, look- 
ing up, we saw a native approaching us. 


76 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


He was clad in a shirt and trousers of 
foreign make, supported by a broad pat- 
ent-leather belt. However, he wore na- 
tive slippers and head-gear and he swung 
a heavy club in his hand. He looked at 
us and the grapes inquiringly, but was 
soon reassured, and addressing us in 
Arabic, asked what we were doing here 
and where we were from. 

We were also inquisitive to learn 
something of his history, and took him 
to be one of the many natives who had 
been seeking their fortune abroad. So 
in reply to his query we said, “From 
the United States.” 

This hit the nail on the head; his face 
beamed as he began in broken English, 
“You all from United States? I Amer- 
icam)) livceal’ citizen. , 1 just come back 
for small time. I watch all those vine- 
yards. All those grapes mine. You go 
up to spring, rest little; me bring plenty 
grapes, countrymen. You from Amer- 
ica. Dat’s my country. This country 
no good. America good country.” 

As we ascended we were continually 
passing beautifully located villages, most 
of the houses being of a modern type, 
large and with bright red imported tiled 
roofs, while a few were of old style, with 
low, flat roofs, consisting generally of 
two or three rooms built in a row, with 
a porch of pointed arches ‘running the 
full length and surrounded by gardens 
of mulberry trees, with the leaves of 
which they feed the silk-worms. 

It was evident that here was a portion 
of the Lebanon from which the emigra- 
tion had not only been large, but also 
successful. It showed also how the 
money gathered in America was brought 
back here to be enjoyed. The glowing 
accounts of business sticcess brought 
back from America enkindle in the 
young people of this region the ambition 
to repeat the experiences of their elders. 

To those who have seen the miserable 
surroundings of these Syrians in their 
colonies in, say, Chicago, where they 
are huddled together in crowded rooms 
in dilapidated houses, gathering their 
money by peddling for large profits and 
spending very little, their glowing stories 
of their success and importance when 
there does not greatly appeal. 


However, the natives look up to them 
as merchant princes, and their small for- 
tunes avail here for much display. These 
“American villages” in the Lebanon, as 
they are sometimes called, are almost be- 
witching when viewed from a distance, 
but a nearer inspection brings disillusion. 
While the houses are comparatively 
clean, the streets are dirty and disor- 
derly. 


SOME “AMERICAN” GENTLEMEN 


From Ain Sindiani the mountain slopes 
grew very steep and the carriage road 
winds up in short turns, so that short 
cuts are resorted to by pedestrians and 
animals. In crossing one of these we 
came upon a number of donkeys heavily 
laden with grapes. Their drivers were 
dressed in the ordinary costume of the 
Lebanon working class, and on their 
shoulders each carried a hard-wood pole 
about 8 feet long and 1% inches thick, 
and which served the double purpose of 
urging on their patient beasts and of 
defense. 

We saluted them in Arabic and found 
they were going over the pass above us 
to sell their grapes at Aineita. ‘These in 
turn found out we were Americans, and 
one began, “I been all over America. I 
been to Michigan, Buffalo, and Detroit. 
That mighty good country. Where you 
from?” In reply, pointing to Mr. Bald- 
win, we said, “That gentleman comes 
from Philadelphia.” “Oh!” he broke in, 
“you see those gentlemen,” pointing to 
his fellow donkey drivers, clad in a sort 
of bloomer-like trousers reaching to 
about the knees, made of heavy blue cot- 
ton cloth, with tight-fitting vests, with 
long sleeves of the same material, over 
which they wore native coats of bright 
colors, “they come from Philadelphia. 
This country no good. Here walk every- 
where. In America ride train, go every- 
where. Donkey no good. I go back to 
America bye and bye. I got some prop- 
erties here, for that I come back.” 

We outstepped the heavily laden asses 
and were soon out of speaking distance. 
We had now attained a considerable 
height when we noticed a number of 
fossils, one mass being as large as a 
half-bushel basket and composed of fos- 


A FAT-TAILED SHEEP 


These large-tailed sheep are seen throughout the Lebanon. The people fatten them 
excessively by forcing mulberry leaves and other food down their throats, so that their tails 
become of an enormous size. To such a size do they grow that they often become an im- 
pediment to the animal’s movement. In these cases the natives build little wheeled trucks 
to which the tail is fastened, the sheep being thereby relieved of the weight, and freedom 
of movement is secured. Note the charm hung around its neck to ward off the evil eye. 


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78 


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WILSVO WaAavsSne, 


BUR] ES SEBA AT TRIPOLI, A RELIC OF ANTIQUITY DOOMED TO DESTRUCTION, TO MAKE 
WAY FOR THE “IRON ROAD” (SEE TEXT, PAGE 75) 


This fort was probably built about the year 1000 A. D. by the garrison which owed 
allegiance to the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who treated the city with great favor and made 
it the headquarters of a trading fleet. Local tradition mmakes the builder Richard Coeur de 
Lion, but the Arabian style of architecture proves that*it was not built by any of the Cru- 
saders. Its Arabic name, Tower of the Lion, probably accounts for the tradition regarding 
Richard the Lion-hearted. 


80 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 81 


silized shellfish of many forms, proving 
that these regions were at one time be- 
low the sea-level. 

We soon obtained our first view of the 
cedars beyond and above us, and passed 
through Hadeth and Hasrun and arrived 
at Bsherreh before sunset. 


THE PROVINCE OF LEBANON 


It will be recalled that the massacres 
of Christians in 1860 led t> European 
intervention, since when the Lebanon has 
been an independent Sanjak or province, 
governed by a Mushir, who must be a 
Christian and is appointed for five years, 
with the consent of the Great Powers. 
There is no compulsory Turkish military 
service, and there is a small local force 
of paid soldiers who do police duty. 
Taxation is light. Under this adminis- 
tration excellent roads have been built 
throughout the province, by which nearly 
all villages are reached and benefited. 

During the day the valleys were ob- 
scured by a haze caused by the heat of 
the day evaporating the moisture below, 
but in the cool of the evening, by twi- 
light, climbing the mountains quite a dis- 
tance above Bsherreh, a never-to-be-for- 
gotten view was obtained. Here nature 
seemed to have carved out a huge amphi- 
theater, terrace above terrace, the upper 
one being that whereon the majestic 
cedars stand, though not then visible 
from our point of view. Below, in the 
bottom of the valley, was a deep ravine, 
rock-bound by high precipitous cliffs of 
gray limestone, which contrasted strik- 
ingly with the green terraces of mulberry 
and vine that extended upward, one 
above the other, and which broadened in 
so doing. On our left the River Kadisha, 
which rises not far from the cedars, falls 
in foaming cascades down into the center 
of the amphitheater and loses itself in a 
silver line in the bottom of the gorge. 

Bsherreh is on the edge of a great cliff 
almost at the head of the valley, but a 
little to the left, as one looks down to- 
ward the sea. Its water-supply is an ice- 
cold stream flowing down from the re- 
gion of almost perpetual snow. 


THE CEDARS OF LEBANON 


We left Bsherreh at dawn and made 
our way up the steep and winding road 


towards the cedars. In some places it 
was difficult to pass the loaded animals 
coming or going. Having made all pos- 
sible haste, we reached the cedars just as 
the sun was sifting its first rays through 
the thick foliage—a sight calculated to 
make any heart beat faster. The grove 
numbers about 400 trees. With the ex- 
ception of a few stragglers, the grove is 
inclosed by a neat stone wall to protect 
the smaller trees from goats. In the cen- 
ter is a small Maronite chapel (see page 
82). 

To dwellers in Syria, where forests of 
tall trees do not exist, these majestic 
cedars must be overawing. A modern 
Syrian writer says of them, that they are 
“undeniably the most lofty of all the 
vegetable kingdom.” The fact is that 
they are about 80 feet high, which is 
more than the height of the trees of an 
average American forest. They are justly 
renowned for the size of their trunks, 
the girth of the largest reaching 47 feet. 

A striking peculiarity of these trees is 
the growth of their branches, which ex- 
tend straight out at right angles to the 
trunk and are furnished with exceedingly 
thick foliage, brown as seen from be- 
neath, but when viewed from the hill- 
sides their upper surface resembles a 
rich, dark-green lawn studded with cones 
standing erect. These latter are the size 
of large goose eggs. 


LEBANON NOW DENUDED 


In some other parts of the Lebanon 
there are cedar groves, but the trees are 
much smaller. Here we have a sugges- 
tion of what the Lebanon was in ancient 
times, when the now bare peaks and 
mountain sides must have been covered 
with these trees. 

It was here that King Solomon’s sev- 
enty thousand hewers wrought, with their 
three thousand six hundred overseers, 
besides those supplied by Hiram, King of 
Tyre, to get the cedar wood required for 
the temple at Jerusalem, and which was 
taken in rafts to Jaffa and thence car- 
ried up to Jerusalem. These trees were 
also used in the construction of David's 
house, and later in the building of the 
second temple. A white resin which they 


(1g WOVE “UNM AAS) LAT ANAYIXA AHL, NO TWdVHO WINOMVIN HL ONIMOHS “IAOND AVCHD PHL NI 


82 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 83 


exude served in the ancient process of 
embalming. 

These trees (Cedrus libani), called by 
the natives ‘“Arz,” are a local variety of 
a widely distributed species. ‘The wood 
is cream color and works up easily, much 
resembling soft pine. This grove stands 
on a small hill situated at 6,315 feet 
above sea-level, and above it rises ab- 
ruptly the lofty Jebal el Arz, whose sum- 
mit is seldom without snow. 

The Christian natives attach a sanc- 
tity to these trees, and here is held an 
annual feast, to which pilgrims flock 
from all directions. It also serves as a 
delightful summer camping place. At 
the time of our visit a number of fam- 
ilies were encamped among the trees, in- 
cluding some of the professors from the 
American College at Beirut, who, with 
their families, were here for their sum- 
mer vacation. 


WHEN DID SOLOMON LIVE? 


While sauntering through the grove 
we encountered the Maronite priest in 
charge of the chapel. He asked how we 
liked the cedars, and in reply we ex- 
pressed our admiration, but said it was a 
pity there were so few left. He replied, 
“So they have been for 4,000 years, and 
history tells us that they have been just 
as you see them since the flood.” “But,” 
we remonstrated, “Solomon got all his 
timber for the building of his temple 
from these mountains, so there must 
have been many more.” “It is true,” 
he said, “that Solomon got his timber 
here, but that was long before what I 
have just mentioned.”’ A peasant stand- 
ing by, regarding with awe the wisdom 
of the priest, added, “You see, khawaja 
(gentleman), these trees,” pointing to 
some of the smallest of the cedars, “have 
been growing since the days of Christ.” 

As we turned away we mused upon 
this new leaf of history, that Solomon. 
lived before the flood, and that it takes 
2,000 years for a cedar to attain a di- 
ameter of about 18 inches. 

Shortly after noon we reluctantly left 
the cedars, as between us and Baalbek 
there lay 10 hours on horseback, and we 
wished to deviate a little from the direct 
road, so we pushed on so as to shorten 
the next day’s work. 


Soon we came to the very steep ascent 
of Jebal el Arz (Cedar Mountain), 
which brings one to the top of the pass 
7,700 feet above sea-level, while to the 
north towers a higher peak, Dahr el Ko- 
dib, 10,050 feet. 

Both sides of this pass were covered 
with a thick layer of finely crushed 
stone, as if a gigantic stone-crushing ma- 
chine had been at work for ages. The 
upper part of the ascent had to be done 
on foot, as well as all of the descent, for 
the horses’ feet buried themselves in this 
loose mass, which kept slipping from 
under them at every step. This road has 
been described as akin to those encoun- 
tered in Alpine climbing. 


ON THE ROAD TO BAALBEK 


The view from the top was superb. 
Far below, to the east, lay Baalbek and 
the great plain on which it stands, like a 
raised map, terminated by the Anti- 
Lebanon and the snow-capped peak of 
Hermon. To the east, far down through 
the beautiful valley we had traversed, 
Tripoli and its bay were plainly seen, 
and all bathed in shades of transparent 
blue. 

Descending to Aineita, we spent the 
night in the priest’s house. It is a small, 
poor village, lying just on the upper 
edge of the timber-line. The houses, all 
but the little church and a couple of 
others, are built of small stones without 
mortar, with low ceilings and with roofs 
of rough timber covered over with clay 
to shed the rain. 

The house of the priest, which might 
be taken as a typical one, consisted of 
three rooms, two on one side and one on 
the other, connected by a roofed court. 
Native mattresses were spread for us on 
the floor and native quilts of exceptional 
thickness and weight served as covers. 
Everything was remarkably clean, and 
the night we had been dreading was 
passed comfortably. 


THE LAKE OF VENUS 


By dawn we were en route for the vil- 
lage of Yammouneh and the mountain 
lake of the same name. The latter in 
winter is large, but by the end of sum- 
mer has dried up, even though it is fed 


A TYPICAL CEDAR OF LEBANON, AS USED BY SOLOMON IN BUILDING THE TEMPLE 


“And Solomon sent to Hiram, saying, . . . Now therefore command thou that they 
hew me cedar trees out of Lebanon; . . . for thou knowest that there 1s not among us 
any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians. . . . And Hiram sent to Solomon, 
saying, . . . I will do all thy desire concerning timber of cedar, . . . My Servants 
shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea: and I will convey them by sea in floats 
unto the place that thou shall appoint me, . . . So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees and 
fir trees according to all his desire’ (1 Kings 5: 2-10). 


IN THE HEART OF THE CEDAR GROVE, SHOWING THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE OLD 
AND YOUNGER TREES 


The big tree in the center, while not the largest, is one of the oldest. These trees were 
much admired by the Crusaders, who attempted to introduce them into Europe. Some of 
these efforts were successful, and at Warwick Castle, in England, there are still some famous 
old cedars planted by one of the crusading earls of Warwick nearly 800 years ago. 


oO 
On 


THE SIX PILLARS THAT REMAIN OF THE GREAT TEMPLE 


“These lofty pillars do not taper as they appear to do when seen from below.” Behind the 
pillars is seen the Temple of Bacchus. The Great Temple was dedicated to Jupiter, identi- 
fied with Baal and the Sun, and with him were associated both Venus and Mercury, under 
whose triple protection the ancient city of Heliopolis was placed. The extreme license which 
ESE worship in this temple is often referred to by early Christian writers (see text, 
page 99). 


86 


ONE OF THE DOORWAYS LEADING FROM THE GREAT 
WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN FOR THE USE OF THE 


COURT INTO A SMALL ROOM 
PRIESTS: BAALBEK 


The ruins at Baalbek were first visited in modern times in 1507, by a German, Martin 
von Baumgarten, and again, in 1555, by a Frenchman, Pierre Belon, who wrote two books 
upon the subject. Much damage was caused by an earthquake in 1759, the disorder then 
occasioned remaining till 1901, when the German Archeological Institute intrusted the work 
of clearing and excavating to an expedition headed by Professor Puchstein, under whom 
admirable work has been done. 


87 


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88 


es 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 89 


constantly by numerous springs around 
its shores. ‘There is no visible outlet. 

The natives account for this in various 
ways. Some of them say that the water 
finds its way by a subterranean passage 
to the other side of the mountain range, 
where it flows out, forming the spring 
called Afka. They base this theory on 
the fact that the fountain increases its 
flow and also diminishes and ceases its 
flow simultaneously with the lake. 

On the shore of the lake.is a ruin, cen- 
sisting of large blocks of drafted stones, 
which is said to be the remains of a tem- 
ple of Venus. Local mythology claims 
this as the lake in which Venus, when 
pursued by Typhon, changed herself into 
a fish.* 

Shortly after leaving Aineita until we 
struck the Plain el Bika (the ancient 
name being Ccelesyria), the broad valley 
between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, 
these mountain slopes were covered with 
forests of wild oak, juniper, almonds, 
and pears. The latter were fu!l of fruit, 
and a proportionate number of small 
stones lodged among the twigs, thrown 
up by youngsters in their attempts to 
bring down the fruit. 

The forests are now denuded of about 
all their tall, straight trees, and those 
now left are short and gnarled. Seen 
from a distance, this low range looks 
black in comparison with the higher 
ridge, which is bare of trees and there- 
fore called in Arabic Ras el Akrah (the 
Bald Head). 


THE WONDERFUL RUINS OF BAALBEK 


From these forests to Baalbek on the 
other or eastern side of the plain there 
was little of interest, except large herds 
of camels and their young, until we came 
to the column of Yaat, which is an iso- 
lated shaft 65 feet in height, composed 
of 16 drums of limestone crowned with 
a Corinthian capital. Traces of an in- 
scription can be seen near the base, 
which, however, does not disclose its 
secret, and one can only guess why and 
by whom it was built. 

A half hour’s ride to the southwest 
brings us to the world-renowned ruins 


* History of Baalbek. Michael M. Alouf. 


of Baalbek, an adequate description of 
which would fill a volume. 

These ruins, properly speaking, are 
known as El Kalla (Citadel) and are 
composed of only two temples, and they 
do not cover a large area when compared 
with other ruins in Syria. They are, 
however, unique in their massiveness 
and in the great amount of both bold and 
delicate carving with which they are 
adorned, of which there is so much and 
in such variety as to make one’s first 
visit quite bewildering. 

Since these temples were built on a 
flat plain, it was important to raise them 
above the surrounding level to render 
them more imposing, and to that end 
there are vast substructures of vaults and 
passages supporting these shrines. 


THE GREAT TEMPLE 


The Great Temple, or the Temple of 
Jupiter, as it is called, had its main en- 
trance from the east. Here a wide flight 
of steps led up to the propylea, 19 feet 
above the gardens and orchards that now 
surround the ruins. This portico was 
open to the east the full width of the 
stairs, and the worshipers used to enter 
between rows of columns, on the bases 
of three of which are inscriptions stating 
that the temple was erected to the “great 
gods” of Heliopolis by Antoninus and 
Caracalla. At an early period the Arabs 
converted these temples into a fortress, 
and to a certain extent remodeled them. 
The columns mentioned were removed, 
the staircase taken up, and the material 
used to construct a solid wall where the 
columns had been. 

Next came the hexagonal forecourt, 
entrance into which was made by means 
of a central doorway, with a smaller one 
on each side. This small court was sur- 
rounded by a colonnade, and on four of 
the six sides by exedre. The Arabs have 
also blocked this three-fold entrance and 
converted the exedrz into fortifications, 
filling them with brick masonry. 


WORK OF THE GERMAN ARCHEOLOGISTS 


Since the visit of Emperor William to 
these ruins, in 1898, a body of German 
excavators were sent to Baalbek, who 
worked here from 1901 to 1904, and 


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QC 


ANCIENT MATERIALS FROM 


RUINS OF ONE OF THE MOSQUES AT BAALBEK, BUILT OF 
THE TEMPLES 


Although the population of Baalbek now numbers only about 5,000, it was in the middle 
ages a flourishing and well fortified Moslem city, which was visited and described by the 
Arab geographer Abulfeda, Prince of Hama (see page 109). The mosque shown above 
probably dates from the reign of Sultan Kalaun (1282). So well fortified was Baalbek that, 
while the Crusaders raided the valley several times, they never succeeded in taking the city. 


OI 


(66 1OVd “LXAL TAS) ATIWAL LVAID AHL JO NOMOWMIG THT WOW MAA :SAHOOVE AO WIaWaL 


(66 a8ed 9} 99S) d1nzPIqQeUS ey} JO IYsIOY 
SUINT 94} JO 9ZIS ay} JO UOda.U0D aWOS YyoIyYM Aq ‘ULUN[OD 4SVT 94} JeoU “yJa_ dy} UO Surpurys a \eu dy} 9 


IVVG :SAHOOVE AO WIdNAL AHL JO MAIA WAH LONV 


LOOKING OUT THROUGH THE GREAT DOORWAY, TEMPLE OF BACCHUS 


The native in the doorway supplies an approximate scale of measurement. Note how, 
through the cleavage of the inside face of the door post, to the right, the winding stairs 
leading to the top of the building are exposed. 


THE GREAT PORTAL INTO THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS (SEE TEXT, PAGE I01) 


The view of this exquisite portal was long obstructed by an Arab screen in the vestibule. 
This was removed by the famous orientalist, Sir Richard Burton, when he was British consul 
at Damascus, in 1870. He also propped up the cracked door-lintel, which has since been 
more firmly secured by the German archeologists. 


. 
, 


oe 


EXAMPLES OF PLAIN AND FLUTED COLUMNS, TEMPLE OF BACCHUS 


Note the great doorway seen between the columns. The structure at the top of the 
picture is the remains of the Arab fortification, which is also shown from the other side in 
the picture on page 90 (see text, page 101). 


96 


INTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS 


On the wall to the left is a tablet in late Arabic art, put up by the Turks to commemorate 
the German Emperor’s visit in 1898. The modern and ancient styles of art may rudely clas 
but as the visit resulted in the expedition under Professor Puchstein, it well deserves com- 
memoration (see text, page &9). 


JYSIt ay} Ur 


Ppunoise10F 
Ud9S SI }X9} OY} Ul pouvoljusM sjotvUIW oteNbs 94} JO 9UQ “PUNOISI10} OY} UT SasnOY JO sojA}s Ja}Jaq pue Jat00d jo sajduiexo 9}0N 


SWOH JO MHAIA IVAANAD 


08 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 99 


every visitor owes them a debt of grati- 
tude. They not only dug down and re- 
moved the debris, but strengthened weak 
parts, and, where necessary, they have 
removed the Arabic work so as to make 
the original plan more easily compre- 
hensible to the visitor. However, it was 
not entirely a disinterested work, for the 
Berlin museums now possess many of 
the finest examples of the carvings found 
here. 

The workmen built a narrow staircase 
where the broad old one used to be, have 
torn away the wall constructed over the 
bases of the columns, and have opened 
an entrance through a great block of 
stone which was placed across the cen- 
tral doorway into the forecourt, so that 
today we enter again as did the Roman 
worshipers of old. 

Proceeding inward we pass through a 
triple entrance into the Great Court, or 
Court of the Altar. It is about 440 feet 
long by 370 feet wide. The central 
portal, as well as one of the smaller side 
ones, has fallen in, and the pieces which 
formed the arches have been collected 
and laid together on the ground below 
the place where they had originally been. 

Around this court, on three sides, omit- 
ting the west end, where a staircase led 
up to the level of the Great Temple, are 
square and semicircular exedre, each of 
which contain many handsome niches for 
statues, of which, unfortunately, not a 
single example remains. These were de- 
signed as resting places for the devotees 
who came here to worship. In front of 
these exedrz ran a colonnade of polished 
Egyptian granite surmounted by an en- 
tablature bearing carvings of rare beauty. 
The columns have all fallen and now 
with fragments of their entablature and 
capitals lie about the court. 


HOW THE CHRISTIANS USED THE TEMPLES 


In the center of the court, rather 
nearer to the steps ascending to the 
temple, stands what is left of the large 
altar. On each side of it is a pool or 
basin used for ablution in connection 
with the religious rites here observed. 

When these temples were taken pos- 
session of by the Christians, a church 
was erected over this altar, part of which 


was destroyed, and then the space leveled 
up with the earth so that the church floor 
was above the top of the altar; so, also, 
the lower part of the staircase was filled 
over, while the upper part was removed 
to accommodate the apses. 

The construction of this basilica is at- 
tributed to Theodosius, Roman Emperor 
of the East, who reigned towards the 
end of the 4th century of our era. The 
Great Temple was demolished to furnish 
materials for the construction of this 
church. 

The idea was to obliterate heathenism 
by placing this Christian shrine right in 
the center of this renowned temple of 
the heathen gods. As it seemed to work 
in best, the apses were placed as above 
described on the west, with the entrance 
from the east. Later this was considered 
unorthodox, and an apse or apses were 
built at the west end, so that now traces 
of them appear at both extremities of the 


ruins. 


The Great Temple itself has been al- 
most entirely destroyed. All that is left 
are six columns of the peristyle, still 
standing im situ, capped with Corinthian 
capitals and joined by ornate and mas- 
sive entablature. These lofty pillars do 
not taper as they appear to do when seen 
from below (see page 86). They are 
over 60 feet high and 7% feet in diameter 
and are each composed of three drums. 
The deep entablature is also in three 
layers, the uppermost, or cornice, having 
a gutter cut in its upper edge to receive 
the rain water from the roof, and at in- 
tervals mammoth lion heads with open 
jaws serve as spouts. In all, this entab- 
lature measures 17 feet in height (see 
page 88). 


THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS 


One can perhaps best mentally recon- 
struct the Great Temple by an inspection 
of the smaller one, dedicated to Bacchus, 
which lies to the southeast of the Great 
Temple, entirely independent of it and 
on a lower level (see pages 92 and 93). 
It had no court, but was entered by a 
flight of steps from the east. 

The walls of the cella, which is ob- 
long, are quite plain on the outside and 
are built of carefully dressed stone, the 


“RITAG YOY pue 
YON fo ABMYSIY & UVaq SuO] SPY SMOG HU YIM Ysnosy} Ad][ea ay} ynq > UOSIIIT OF ISN 9]}}I] FO St pue ‘o[qesiAeuUN ATUIeU SI 47 
‘sHixy pue ‘uoydAy ‘ooelqd 94} Se UMOUH Uso OS[e SeY jt PUL ‘*SoLIT] [BOISSE[D UL JOATI SIY} JO} posn seM SoJUOIQ sWeU 34] 


SNOH LV SHALINOYO YHA AAW 


100 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 


joints so perfect that a knife-blade can- 
not enter between. Around this at a dis- 
tance of 10 feet runs on the two sides 
and ends a row of smooth columns which 
forms the peristyle. 

These, including their capitals, are 
about 52 feet high and are surmounted 
by a magnificent entablature. This en- 
tablature is connected with the walls of 
the cella by enormous slabs of stone, 
which are elaborately carved with the 
heads of emperors, deities, and inter- 
woven with floral designs, forming an 
exquisite ceiling. 

While the walls of the cella are still 
perfect, more than half of the columns 
forming the peristyle have fallen, the 
north side being the best preserved. Not- 
withstanding the profuse ornamentation 
of the peristyle, it is exceeded by that of 
the portal to the temple, which is indeed 
the gem of the entire edifice (see page 
95). 

The door posts are elegantly carved 
with figures of Bacchus, fauns, cupids, 
satyrs, and bacchantes, woven around 
which are grape-vines and clusters of 
fruit, also poppies and ears of wheat, all 
of which are symbolical of the attributes 
of the revelling god to whom the temple 
is dedicated. 

This great doorway stands 43 feet 
high and 21% feet wide, while the carv- 
ing of the posts just mentioned covers a 
space about 6 feet wide. On both sides 
of this door stand graceful fluted col- 
umns, forming the prostyle or portico, 
while the plain ones of the peristyle, 
which stand behind them, seem to re- 
flect their beauty. 

The decorations of the walls of the 
interior of this temple resemble the carv- 
ings of the exedrz of the Great Court, 
having two rows of niches for statues 
one above the other and divided perpen- 
dicularly from each other by engaged 
fluted columns. 

As already mentioned, these temples 
stood on a raised platform resting on 
substructures. The Great Temple lies 
44% feet above the level of the plain 
and is the highest part of the entire in- 
closure, while the Great Court was only 
23 feet lower. 


101 


THE ENORMOUS MONOLITHS OF BAALBEK 


An inclosing wall, the mammoth stones 
of which have been the marvel of engi- 
neers for ages, deserves mention. ‘The 
lowest courses are built of stones of mod- 
erate dimensions, but which grow rap- 
idly in size until we come to a row of 
three enormous stones, the shortest being 
63 feet and the longest 65 in length, and 
each being about 13 feet high and 10 
feet thick. The course of which they 
form part is some 20 feet above the sur- 
face of the ground. 

They are the largest building blocks 
ever known to have been used by man; 
and a still larger one lies in the ancient 
near-by quarry, never having been de- 
tached from the rock beneath. This one 
is 70 feet long by 14 by 13 feet. 

In addition to the Acropolis, as the 
ruins described are called, there are at 
Baalbek several other objects of minor 
interest, such as the Temple of Venus. 

At the hotel in Baalbek we met an in- 
teresting Turk. He was traveling, being 
sent out by a newly established depart- 
ment of agriculture at Damascus, with a 
carload of American and European farm 
machinery for sale or exhibition to the 
peasants. He had a very clear concep- 
tion of the reforms needed to aid the 
agriculturist in Turkey, and his eyes 
snapped with delight as we drew from 
our scanty knowledge of what the De- 
partment of Agriculture at Washington 
had done for our American farmers. 

A short train ride northward from 
Baalbek, first through a flat valley which 
broadened into a plain, brought us to 
Homs, a town of some 60,000 inhabit- 
ants, located on the banks of the River 
Orontes, which here flows far below the 
level of the plain, so that the town lies 
cradled, invisible to one approaching it, 
until almost upon it. 

A large mound rises to some height 
above the level of the valley, on which at 
one time stood the citadel of the town. 
The houses are built of unbaked bricks 
and have flat roofs, with some better 
edifices constructed of black basalt deco- 
rated with white limestone. There are 
numerous minarets, but very unlike the 


102 


ordinary type. They are square and do 
not taper upward, and instead of a bal- 
cony arrangement for the muezzin, or 
caller to prayer, a window is provided 
on each side, the top terminating in a 
sort of dome. 


THE UBIQUITOUS ADVERTISEMENT 


Homs, the ancient Emesa, which has 
_a varied and interesting history, today 
gains its living as a market for the large 
Bedouin tribes of the adjacent country. 
The bazaars remind one quite a good 
deal of Damascus, as one wanders 
through them, seeing here a man work- 
ing a primitive hand loom, on which he 
turns out bright fabrics for which Homs 
is noted, and there a small spice shop, 
and again a dyer, with hands stained 
dark with indigo, hanging up his wet 
cloths in the street. 

When we had lost ourselves in these 
strange surroundings, which seemed to 
place civilization at a remote distance, 
our eyes were struck by a placard, on 
which appeared in bold English “Use 
Fel’s Naptha Soap.” 

On the outskirts we came across nu- 
merous potters’ shops, where large water 
jars, some 20 inches high, were being 
turned out by ancient methods. The 
plain ones retailed at 214 cents each, 
while those striped with bands of red 
and otherwise decorated sold at double 
this price. Further on were extensive 
threshing floors, where the grain was 
being threshed out with appliances that 
have probably been in use for thousands 
of years. | 

Here we also found limekilns, the fuel 
being a common pricker that grows in 
the wheat fields and which has to be col- 
lected and transported from a distance 
requiring two to three hours’ travel (see 
page 103). 

We were often told that we would 
find the people of Homs and Hama very 
fanatical and anti-European, but our ex- 
perience did not bear this out. We found 
them very polite and not averse to being 
photographed. 

Moreover, we never heard the familiar 
word ‘“bakshish,’ the only person who 
asked for a tip being a tired native wo- 
man, who had been carrying bunches of 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


thorns all day to the limekiln, when she 
was asked to hold her bundle up while a 
picture was being taken. When the 
money was handed her she seemed to be 
ashamed of herself and only took it after 
much persuasion. ‘The secret lies in the 
fact that they have not been spoiled by 
Europeans. 

If you want to see the Arabs at their 
best, take them where they have not been 
tainted by outside influence, for, like 
most primitive peoples, they more readily 
take on the vices than the virtues of civ- 
ilization. 


A TEST OF KEEPING RAMADAN 


On our return to the town we were 
stopped by a native, who seemed to be a 
friend of our carriage driver and who 
asked him if he was keeping the fast. 
The driver replied that he was. “Then,” 
answered the friend, “by Mohammed, 
the prophet of Allah, show me your 
tongue.” The driver produced that mem- 
ber and the questioner used both hands 
to draw the jaws open wider in order to 
complete his examination, after which 
he turned away, shaking his head with a 
kind of unexpected satisfaction, mutter- 
ing to himself, “By Allah, he is really 
fasting.” We said nothing, for not long 
before we had seen him, while waiting 
for us, go into an obscure corner to sat- 
isfy his hunger with some bread he had 
with him. 

Curious windmills are to be seen here 
on the tops of some of the houses. 
Round disk-like pans of sheet-iron are 
fastened to wooden arms and are so dis- 
posed that the wind striking them causes 
them to revolve. 

A curious custom also obtains of en- 
snaring domestic pigeons. Our atten- 
tion was called to it by seeing a man on 
his housetop swinging round over his 
head what resembled a huge tennis 
racket, only instead of the tight strings a 
loose bag was attached to the frame. 
Over him hovered a large flock of pig- 
eons. We were told that his own pigeons 
decoyed others which followed and were 
caught. After being taken, if they proved 
to be the property of a friend they were 
returned, but if of an enemy they were 
kept. They did not regard it as stealing, 


A NATIVE LIMEKILN 


Large tracts of Syria are completely destitute of trees, and consequently anything in 
the nature of fuel is exceedingly scarce. Often the only tree to be found is a small, scrubby 
thorn bush, which nevertheless has its value. The woman shown in the picture had collected 
fuel for this limekiln at a distance requiring between two and three hours’ travel. 


103 


‘TIVYANAD 


WATER-WHEEL AT HAMA CALLED “NAURAT EL KELENEY” 


These water-wheels, which in working make the most curious and discordant noise, not 
unlike a brass band in which every instrument is out of tune, not only serve to supply the 
town of Hama with water, but they also irrigate the adjacent gardens (see text, page 109) 


105 


ee 


WALLY MA 
Wad SZ [nodv “VNVH LV .VaNVN,, ISHouvl FHL 


100 


‘}x0} 99s) AemM jaivd dn suos Surarvy J9}Je TOA oy} OJUT yYOrq Suiddoip oq oy4 ION 
‘dn 19}8M dy} OYL} WII dy} UO SjayoN [[PUS I[IYM “TIAII oY} JO UOTJOW 4JIMS dy} Aq puNo le UdAI 


VAVH LV ,VanvNn YIdNOd V 


»* 


NATIVES OF HAMA WASHING WHEAT IN THE ORONTES 


and ground in mills, making “borghal,” which is the chief food of this 
‘en shown in this picture are all peasants and do not veil their faces 


108 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 


but viewed it from the same standpoint 
as the Bedouins, who raid their neighbors 
for what they can get from them, as long 
as they are not friends. 


HOW THE ORONTES GETS ITS ARABIC NAME 


The country over which we passed 
after leaving Homs was at times quite 
level and free from rocks, planted in 
watermelons and yellow corn; then again 
it would become quite rocky and covered 
with boulders of tufa; and still again, 
as we neared Hama, level and rich with 
extensive vineyards. The fallow ground 
was as if sown by nature’s hand with 
countless wild holly-hocks in bloom. At 
times the road ran quite near the edge 
of the Orontes, whose turbid waters 
flowed along many feet below the level 
of the surrounding plain. 

It is called in Arabic “El Asi,” which 
means stubborn or unwieldy. We asked 
a native why this name was given to the 
river, and he gave the following explana- 
tion: “A Jew once filled a bottle with 
water from the ‘Sea of the Nile’ (the 
Arabic name for the Nile River) and 
came to this country to perform magic 
with it. Our Lord Ali* met him and 
asked what he had. The Jew denied that 
he had anything, but when hard pressed, 
he threw the bottle against a rock and a 
river issued forth. Our Lord Ali bade 
it stop, but it would not, and so he named 
it El Asi.” A fellow-passenger ques- 
tioned if this were an actual fact, to 
which our informant replied that a look 
at the color of the water proved it, for 
it was exactly like that of the Nile. 

Finding our friend communicative, we 
asked him what use this corn was put to 
which here grew so plentifully, but was 
not known in Palestine. Opening his 
capacious jaws and gesturing with his 
fingers, he answered, “To eat; and when 
the loaves are hot they are mighty good, 
but when cold it would take one of 
Ibrahim Pasha’s cannon to force it down 
-Olie > throat.” 


THE HOME OF THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS 


Shemsi Bey, to whom we had a letter 
-of introduction, met us at the station at 


*Ali, the caliph and successor of Mohammed. 


109 


Hama and took us to his home, where 
we were guests during our stay. After 
a sumptuous repast, we began our in- 
spection of the town. It much resembles 
Homs, and like it is located on the 
Orontes, has a mound crowned by a 
citadel, and cannot be seen until one is 
right upon it. 

Like every part of this region, Hama 
has a checkered history. It is first men- 
tioned by the prophet Amos as “Hamath 
the great’ (Amos 6:2). A small mosque 
called Jami el Haiya (Mosque of the 
Snakes), so named from its two inter- 
twined columns, contains the tomb of 
Abulfeda, Prince of Hama, whose geo- 
graphical work is still renowned. Under 
his rule Hama prospered until his death, 
in A. D. 1331. 

The famous Arabian geographer, Ya- 
kut, is said to be a native of Hama, and 
while we were there we heard of a manu- 
script written by him which is in the pos- 
session of one of the rich families of the 
town. 

If one would know the full beauty 
and picturesqueness of Hama, let him 
climb to the top of the citadel hill, and 
around will be spread out a scene which 
cannot be outdone in Syria. An Arabic 
proverb says that three things make the 
heart of man glad—water, vegetation, 
and beautiful faces. Here we have the 
first two, and other features in combina- 
tion, whose value is enhanced by con- 
trast with the arid lifelessness of the 
country which surrounds it, for at the 
time we were there the wheat fields were 
all harvested and bare. 


THE WATER-WHEELS OF HAMA 


The Orontes flows through the town 
and drives the large water-wheels, here 
called naura. They serve not only to 
supply the town with water, but also 
irrigate the adjacent gardens. We had 
long before heard of these singular 
wheels, and in fact had seen similar 
ones at Antioch. As we began the ascent 
of the citadel hill, creaking, groaning, 
and other weird sounds reached our ears. 
It at first suggested a pipe-organ, then a 
brass band practicing, and it was not 
until, after a little time, the top of one of 
them came into view that we realized 


[ony 10; pasn ‘amueu parsp JO ose soprd peoruos soypeus oy, “Av[D Fo Suryeod 1oyno sy JnoY}M Uses St 9UCG 


Odd VIV MVAN SHOVTIIA ASOOH AAIHWAA UVITNOAd AH AO WNO 


110 


FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 


that these sounds came from the water- 
wheels. 

A large crowd of men and boys fol- 
lowed us around during our inspection 
of the water-wheels and the town, but 
were very courteous and went out of 
their way to show us little kindnesses. 
Small boys bathing in the river would, 
for fun, get in between the spokes of the 
wheels and allow themselves to be carried 
around many times, or they would hang 
on the outside of the wheel and drop 
back into the water when half way up, 
which made the faces of the old men 
who were looking on beam, undoubtedly 
reminding them of like achievements in 
their boyhood days. Our cameras were 
a source of much curios'ty, and a peep at 
the ground glass was considered a treat. 


AN EVELESS EDEN 


A couple of long streets arched over 
with masonry were the chief bazaars 
and were in their aspect Oriental in the 
extreme. Here Bedouin men armed with 
sword and pistols jostled townsmen in a 
variety of native dress. Not a Euro- 
pean suit was to be seen except our own. 

A few swarthy daughters of the desert, 
with their tatooed faces and flowing gar- 
ments of indigo, were the only females 
we saw. In fact during our entire stay 
at Hama we did not see a towns-woman, 
Christian or Moslem, veiled or unveiled, 
upon the streets. We understood that 
the Moslem men are very particular about 
their harenis, and the Christians likewise 
as to their ladies. 

The men are very fond of outdoor life, 
and spend their summer evenings on the 
banks of the river sipping coffee and lis- 
tening to the curious music of the nauras. 

At Hama one can witness a most crude 
method of printing cotton goods. The 
operator sits cross-legged on the ground 
before a low table, on which is laid the 
hand-woven cleth. He dips short blocks 
of wood, with patterns carved upon 
them, into a dye mixed with. gum arabic 
and presses them upon the goods. It re- 
quired six to eight impressions to cover 
the width of the cloth and a great num- 
ber of them to complete the length of a 
small bolt, and this tedious operation had 
to be repeated with every color used. 


11) 


ryA am oi : 

lhe finished article resembles a very 
coarse Persian shawl and is sold to the 
peasants to cover mattresses with, 


A VISIT TO THE MARKET GARDENS 


As we were going out from our 
friend’s house to visit the souks, or mar- 
kets, our aged hostess, a Christian wo- 
man, followed us out into a garden, 
through which our path lay, and accosted 
two wrinkled, gray-haired men, one of 
whom was handling the plow and the 
other dropping seeds into the furrow. 
“May Allah give you strength!” sounded 
the voice of the old lady. “And may 
Allah strengthen you,” replied the two 
men. “May your crop be blessed,’ re- 
turned our hostess. “By your pres- 
ence,’ both murmured. After exchang- 
ing more elaborate salutations, which are 
common among the Arabs, she learned 
that they were planting corn for roasting 
ears, but on only half the tract. “We are 
keeping half to plant with bits of soot,” 
said one, with a roguish twinkle in his 
eye. “Soot! What do you mean?” “To 
raise negroes” (slaves), came the reply. 

We had now advanced too far to 
hear the end of the conversation, but on 
our return we found the old men resting 
under the trees, sitting on their heels. 
Their long-legged cows were unyoked 
and chewing their cud, while the wife of 
one of the men was cutting up water- 
melon to feed to a couple of half-starved 
sheep. We asked how their negro crop 
was coming on, and did not have to wait 
for the answer. “Khawaga (gentlemen), 
we are poor and own nothing. The land 
all belongs to the Effendis, and they ex- 
act the rent from us whether we get a 
crop or not. Now it is Ramadan, and 
during the fast they use much water in 
their homes, so very little of the water 
the wheels turn up, which we need for 
our vegetables, gets to us. But we dare 
not complain. Life is getting so hard 
here. We realize but one mettalic (1% 
cents) for a rottle (six pounds) of egg- 
plant, and tomatoes are only half that 
price. So I thought if I could only plant 
some negro slaves they might bring me 
better returns.” 

We parted, all laughing, and we walked 
away reflecting that even here, pinched 


VIEW OF ALEPPO, SHOWING THE CITADEL DOMINATING THE TOWN 


Note the round minarets with balconies, in contrast with the square minarets of Homs. 
A minaret of the type most common in the Moslem world is shown near the great dome to 


the left of the picture. 


by poverty, the heart was still young that 
throbbed in that dried-up old case. 

The low price of many commodities 
was noticeable. In the market we ob- 
served a sweet-meat vendor, on one side 
of whose tray was a little pile of the 
money his produce had brought in, but 
of it all there was no coin representing 
more than a fraction of a cent. 


THE BEAUTY OF THE LARGER HOUSES 


Most of the townspeople are rich, and 
it is said that about two-thirds of the 
farming land of the surrounding villages 
is owned by a few of the influential fam- 
ilies. The houses of the wealthy much 
resemble those of Damascus, with a 


II2 


large open court in the center, where a 
fountain of water plays. 

We visited several, one belonging to 
the heirs of Muaiyad Bey being espe- 
cially interesting. One guest-chamber 
contained a small fountain ; the windows 
were of colored glass, and the walls were 
covered with woodwork, ornamented 
with carving and stucco work in elegant 
floral designs, relieved with pictures and 
inscriptions with dates, one of which 
made the work about 200 years old. The 
general color was a commingling of deep 
reds, blues, green and brown on a back- 
ground of gold and silver, which were 
reflected through the semi-transparent 
colors. One of the panels held a picture 


Te EE RIT 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


of the citadel hill, crowned with a fort, 
mosques, and houses, surrounded by a 
wall, the approach to which across the 
moat resembled the one still to be seen at 
Aleppo. 

Leaving Hama and the Orontes, with 
its gardens and water-wheels, which ex- 
tended some way up along the course of 
the railroad, we found ourselves rolling 
over a lifeless plain, except for here and 
there a flock of sheep with Bedouin 
shepherds. With each flock was a small 
donkey as a mount for the shepherd, and 
which followed the sheep almost like one 
of them, as they ran away in terror of 
the train. 


THE “BEEHIVE” HOUSES 


We now came into a region where we 
found a peculiar style of village, com- 
posed of “beehive houses,” so called on 
account of their similarity in shape to 
the abodes of bees (see page II0O). 


113 


The country is destitute of trees from 
which to hew rafters, and in parts there 
is no stone at all, and therefore the na- 
tives resort to building these curious 
structures of sun-dried bricks with high 
and steep domes, so as to resist the heav y 
rain and snow storms which prevail here. 
Fach home consists of several of these 
huts standing near together and_ sur- 
rounded by a wall of similar materials. 
One or more is used to live in, another 


‘is for the animals, and still another serves 


as a granary, and so on according to the 
possessions of the proprietor. 

We pulled up at Aleppo, one of the 
greatest cities of the East, a once som- 
nolent mart, whose past prosperity and 
importance as a center of commerce is 
fast returning to it with the advent of 
the railway, now in the course of rapid 
construction, which is to connect Con- 
stantinople with Bigdad. 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


HE annual banquet of the Na- 

tional Geographic Society, held on 

January I1, 1913, at the New 
Willard Hotel, Washington, was marked 
by several features of more than usual 
interest. 

The 700 members and guests had the 
satisfaction of hearing the announcement 
that the total membership of the Society 
had grown to the very gratifying total 
of 170,000, the Society thus ranking, in 
point of numbers, not only as the first 
geographical society in the world, but 
also as the largest educational association 
‘in existence. 

But no statistics, however satisfactory, 
could have accounted for so large and 
so distinguished a gathering. It was, as 
Ambassador Bryce remarked, ‘“‘an occa- 
sion which had never happened before 
and could never happen again,” a unique 
event in geographic history, for those 
present saw the discoverer of the South 
Pole meet the discoverer of the North 
Pole, from whose hands he received the 
special gold medal voted by the Society 
as the tribute of the American people to 
his great achievement. 


With Capt. Roald Amundsen as its 
guest of honor and Admiral Peary as its 
toastmaster, the Society had before it 
two men who had literally come from 
the uttermost ends of the earth to enjoy 
its hospitality. 

As would be expected on such an occa- 
sion, there were representatives from 
almost all the embassies accredited to the 
United States and from nearly every 
State in the Union. 

The one note of regret was sounded 
when Ambassador Bryce, an old and tried 
friend, made his speech of farewell to 
the members of the Society. It was a 
speech worthy of his fame—graceful, 
witty, learned, and kindly reflecting the 
personality of the great English states- 
man and scholar who will soon leave 
these shores to pass the evening of his 
life in his native land. When he goes 
no good wishes will follow him more 
cordial and sincere than those of the 
National Geographic Society. 

The encouragement of agriculture was 
represented by the novelty of the menu, 
which this year consisted of a fruit new 
to America—the Chinese jujube. These 


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HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


jujubes were grown, dried, and candied 
in California, where they had been in- 
troduced by the Department of Agri- 
culture, and were the first of the home- 
grown variety to be served at a public 
function. 


ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT GANNETT 


Members of the National Geographic 
Society, ladies and gentlemen: It is with 
great pleasure that I welcome you here 
this evening, on the occasion of our 25th 
anniversary. A quarter of a century ago 
a few score of men assembled in the 
Cosmos Club and organized this Society 
and elected Gardiner Greene Hubbard its 
first President. The Society has had a 
wonderful growth in its membership, and 
today its members number 170,000. The 
business of the Society has likewise 
grown, and the total income last year 
from all sources was $370,000. Of this 
amount, after paying the running ex- 
penses and spending some $14,000 in 
geographic research, the sum of $50,000, 
more or less, was added to our reserve 
fund, which now stands at a total of 
about $175,000. 

We have carried on geographic re- 
search this year in Peru and on the east 
coast of Hudson Bay and have made 
an examination of Katmai volcano, in 
southern Alaska, which broke out seri- 
ously last summer. 

The theme this evening is the South 
Pole. We are fortunate to have with us 
Capt. Roald Amundsen, the hero of the 
South Pole, to whom is to be awarded a 
gold medal by the Society. The Toast- 
master this evening is Robert Edwin 
Peary, the hero of the other end of the 
earth. I have the honor to present Ad- 
miral Peary. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


Mr. President and fellow-members of 
the National Geographic Society: I fancy 
it is superfluous for me to say to you 
how deeply I appreciate the honor of 
being elected by the Society as Toast- 
master for this distinguished occasion. 
I will say to you that I recognize fully 
that the first qualification for the posi- 
tion of Toastmaster is to let the others 
do the talking. 


L145 


Before beginning with the program of 
the evening I am going to read two an- 
nouncements to you, the first in regard 
to the special delicacy which you will 
have the opportunity this evening to test. 
I might say that our members and guests 
always appreciate and welcome the op- 
portunity given us by our friends, the 
Secretary of Agriculture and his assist- 
ants, to test some of the discoveries 
made in foreign lands by the agricultural 
explorers of the Department. 

Two years-ago the members of the 
Society were the first at a large function 
to test the American-grown dasheen, im- 
ported from China. Last year Amer- 
ican-grown dates, imported from Africa 
and grown in California, were served to 
us. This year we are given the oppor- 
tunity of tasting some preserved Chinese 
jujubes. The story of their discovery in 
China and of their cultivation in America 
is told on the printed matter which is 
placed at every plate this evening. 


AWARD OF GRANT SQUIRES PRIZE 


The first award of the Society from 
the Grant Squires fund, relating to com- 
merce and industries of the Orient, has 
been made to the author of ‘Farmers of 
Forty Centuries,” Mr. F. H. King. This 
book is an exhaustive study of the meth- 
ods by which a very populous nation 
have been so skillfully cultivating their 
lands for more than 4,000 years that the 
fields of China are today more fertile 
than when first cultivated by man. ‘That 
is a wonderful record. Mr. King’s book 
represents what the Society believes is 
an ideal study of foreign places. 

This Society, among other efforts in 
the wide field of research which it has 
undertaken, has been assisting in ex- 
ploration in South America, and the first 
speaker of the evening will be the leader 
of the Yale-National Geographic Society 
Peruvian Expedition during the year 
1912. This expedition, under the leader- 
ship of Dr. Bingham, has performed a 
most interesting work, and procured, af- 
ter trials and tribulations, most valuable 
material. 

I have the pleasure of introducing Dr. 
Hiram Bingham, who will tell us of the 
home of the Incas and their predecessors. 


116 


THE YALE-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
PERUVIAN EXPEDITION BY HIRAM 
BINGHAM 


Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentle- 
men: I must confess that I feel rather 
chilly, having recently come from the 
tropics and finding myself so close to 
both poles. In fact I am reminded of 
an experience a friend of mine had in 
the Northwest, where so many of our 
most healthy American citizens are from 
the land of Captain Amundsen. This 
friend had the bad taste to try to take an 
automobile trip, bumping over some of 
the unmacadamized roads of the district 
and losing some of his tools. He finally 
ran into trouble and looked for a farmer 
to help him out of it. He asked the 
farmer if he could borrow a monkey- 
wrench. ‘The farmer looked very sad 
and said, “I don’t think so, my friend. 
My father he got cattle ranch, and my 
brother John, he got sheep ranch, but I 
think it too damn cold here for monkey 
ranch.” 

Nevertheless, it is a great pleasure to 
talk with members of the National Geo- 
graphic Society about Peru, for one does 
not have to explain, as my good friend 
the Minister from Peru has to do some- 
times, where Peru is. I went down on 
the steamer with a healthy young Amer- 
ican from Chicago, who was spending 
some of his father’s money in securing 
an acquaintanceship with South America, 
and he asked me confidentially a day or 
two before we got to Lima, if I would 
please tell him whether Lima was in 
Peru or Peru was in Lima. 


THE EXPEDITION TO PERU 


When we got to Lima we received that 
very cordial reception from the Peru- 
vian government which I have always 
received on going to Peru. We were 
given every facility, and it is a pleasure 
to take this occasion to thank the govy- 
ernment of Peru, through the Minister, 
for the many courtesies we received. In 
fact those who know the character of 
some of the mountain Indians will realize 
that it would have been quite impossible 
for us to have done our work had it not 
been for the kind assistance the Peruvian 
government extended to us on account 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


of our connection with the National Geo-— 
graphic Society and Yale University. 

I do not hold it against the Minister 
that when I got to the wharf in Callao 
some one (I think it was a reporter from 
a Lima paper) said to one of the officials 
to whom I had been introduced, and who 
was courteously passing all our baggage 
without any examination or difficulty: 
“Who are these people?” The customs 
official said: “Oh, some of them are scien- 
tific men.” “And who are the rest?” 
“Well, the rest are professors.” 

In 1911 we began a _ topographical 
cross-section of the Andes, which, owing 
to the tremendous difficulties of the 
undertaking and the magnitude of our 
program, we were unable to complete. 

Owing to your generosity, we were 
able this year to take an expert topo- 
graphical engineer and a corps of as- 
sistants, who did excellent work, and 
whose work I hope you will all live to 
be proud of. 

We also made a special study of the 
osteology and geology of the Cuzco re- 
gion, and came to the conclusion that the 
human remains found there last year 
were not nearly so old as had been at 
first supposed. 

One of our principal geographical tasks 
lay in the identification of several, cities 
and towns described in 1911. In particu- 
lar, there was that remarkable ‘White 
City,’ a remarkable buried city, away 
down in the jungles on the Urubamba 
River, below Ollantaytambo, which place 
was supposed by Squier and other stu- 
dents of Peruvian archeology to be one 
of the frontier fortresses of the Incas. 
Down below this place, and buried in 
jungle, we found a city called Machu 
Picchu. 


THE FIRST CAPITAL OF THE INCAS 


That is an awful name, but it is well 
worth remembering. The city, built of 
white granite, is on top of a ridge sur- 
rounded by precipices from two to three 
thousand feet high, above the Urubamba 
River, at a distance of four or five days 
journey from Cuzco, the well-known 
Inca capital. Last year we were not able 
to do more than make a reconnaissance 
of this old city, but we realized that it 


HONORS BO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


was very important and were anxious to 
study it more, and to try to find out 
something about its builders. We could 
find nothing in the chronicles anywhere. 
No one, with the exception of a few In- 
dians, had ever heard of it. The name 
was not known in Cuzco, only a few 
days’ journey away. Nobody in Lima 
had heard of it. 

Fortunately, owing to your interest, 
and largely through your generosity, we 
were able to go back this year and spend 
four months and a half at Machu Picchu. 
We spent about $2,000 simply in clearing 
the tropical jungle from these ruins and 
excavating them, taking off the dirt and 
decayed foliage that had accumulated for 
many centuries. 

We found the city had 150 houses, 
built of white granite; palaces, temples, 
and more especially stairways. We un- 
covered over 100 stairways of white 
granite, containing a total of more than 
2,000 steps. This does not include sev- 
eral stairways leading off into the jungles 
and up the side of the mountains, one of 
which was nearly half a mile in length. 

We found also that Machu Picchu was 
a city essentially of windows. Standing 
at one point, after we had cleared the 
ruins, we could count in the walls of the 
houses about 55 windows—a very extra- 
ordinary occurrence. This fact leads me 
to believe that Machu Picchu was the 
place from which the Incas came when 
they started for Cuzco and established 
the Inca Empire. 

When we went down there last year 
we were looking for Vitcos, the last capi- 
tal of the Incas. By accident, in running 
down those ruins, we stumbled on the 
first Inca capital. As it was owing to 
your generosity that we were able to 
make these and several other important 
discoveries, I take great pleasure in 
thanking you on behalf of Yale Uni- 
versity. We hope eventually to be able 
to prove by our excavations and the ma- 
terial we have brought away the connec- 
tion of Machu Picchu with the later Inca 
Empire.* 


*An early number of the Nationa, GEo- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE will contain a complete ac- 
count, with 150 illustrations, of Dr. Bingham’s 
remarkable discoveries. 


117 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


I may say, supplementary to Dr. Bing- 
ham’s brief, modest, and interesting re- 
marks in regard to his work, that his 
discoveries of these ancient cities have 
astounded the scientists of the world. 

We have with us tonight the beloved 
familiar face of our old, tried, and true 
friend, an indefatigable globe-trotter, who 
has been everywhere on earth except, 
perhaps, at the poles. He is the repre- 
sentative of our cousins across the sea, 
one of whom, Shackleton, pioneered the 
way to the South Pole, and another of 
whom, Scott, is still down there, or, as 
we hope, may be now on his way home 
with a splendid record of exploration 
and scientific work. 

I do not know what Ambassador Bryce 
is going to talk about any more than you, 
nor do I need to know; but whatever he 
says will be worth saying and it will be 
well said. 

His Excellency the Right Honorable 
James Bryce, Ambassador from Great 
Britain. 


ADDRESS BY THE BRITISH AMBASSADOR, 
MR. BRYCE 


Mr. President, Mr. Toastmaster, ladies 
and gentlemen: | am very much honored 
by being asked to say a few words to you 
this evening, and | feel that it is a real 
privilege to be present on an occasion 
so historic that it makes us all feel as if 
we were historic figures ourselves. This 
is an occasion—a conjunction of discov- 
erers—that has never happened before 
and can never happen again. 

My friend, Professor Bingham, says 
that he felt cold in the neighborhood of 
the poles. I have the honor of being 
between the two poles and therefore in 
a warm climate. I suppose I cannot call 
myself the Equator, for that honor be- 
longs to your President, who is exactly 
in the middle. May I claim, being nearer 
the South Pole, to represent the tropic 
of Capricorn? 

It is a great occasion, ladies and gen- 
tlemen, when we meet both of the dis- 
coverers of these two remotest and least 
accessible parts of our earth. They have 
accomplished that which all nations have 


118 


dreamed of for centuries as doubtfully 
possible at all, and that has been accom- 
plished by the enterprise, courage, science, 
perseverance, and faith of two such re- 
markable men. Their names will go 
down to the remotest posterity, and it is 
a privilege to all of us to have met them 
on the first occasion when they are to- 
gether. As we heard from Admiral 
Peary two years ago, so we heard from 
Captain Amundsen, a narrative of his 
achievements—plain, simple, straightfor- 
ward, modest, impressive. 

I cannot fancy listening to what he 
told us today without being struck by the 
fact that the man who approached his 
great task in so simple a spirit and with 
such a forecasting mind showed his qual- 
ities in the way in which he told it as 
well as in the way he accomplished it. 


A TRIBUTE TO PROFESSOR BINGCHAM’S 
WORK 


You will hear, from those who are to 
succeed me, more about the South Pole 
and about what Captain Amundsen has 
done. Jet me therefore say one word 
about what our friend, Professor Bing- 
ham, has done. His modesty has pre- 
vented him from giving you anything like 
a full account of the additions he has 
made to geographic knowledge. He has 
cleared up some very long-standing and 
difficult problems in primitive Peruvian 
history; he has explained many features 
of the neighborhood of Cuzco which had 
puzzled previous inquirers; he accom- 
plished in his previous journey a remark- 
able ascent of one of the loftiest peaks 
in the Andes, and he has now secured a 
mass of archeological material which I 
think will occupy him and your arche- 
ologists in this country years in collating, 
describing, and interpreting. 

I think, ladies and gentlemen of the 
National Geographic Society, that you 
may now feel well pleased with the gen- 
erous liberality which your council ex- 
ercised a year ago when it made a grant 
for the undertaking of this expedition by 
Mr. Bingham. The expenditure has been 
amply justified and amply rewarded by 
that which he has discovered and brought 
home. 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


WHAT GEOGRAPHIC DISCOVERIES REMAIN 
FOR THE EXPLORER? 


I remember, on: one of the previous 
occasions when I had the honor of ad- 
dressing you, observing that those of us 
who care for geographical science seemed 
to lie under the danger of having, sooner 
or later, our theme exhausted. We have 
not yet found a means for the exploring 
of any other part of this universe except 
our own planet. With our planet so 
limited in its area, and now rendered 
so comparatively accessible in every part, 
with its population growing so fast, and 
the number of its explorers increasing, 
it is natural to believe that before very 
long there will be no great discoveries 
left to make. Certainly no discoveries 
remain to be made so striking as these 
which have been made of the two poles. 

We may, however, comfort ourselves 
by reflecting that there is another kind 
of work to be done, and the work which 
Professor Bingham has done seems to 
me to show how large that work is and 
how full of interest and instruction it 
may be made. Professor Bingham has 
taken a region which has been known, 
more or less, since the time of the Span- 
ish Conquest, in the middle of the 16th 
century; but he has revealed immense 
fields of further inquiry, which had not 
been little thought of until he went there. 

Has not the time come when we may 
apply to geography what may be called, 
in the language of agriculture, “inten- 
sive cultivation,’ when we may begin to 
bestow upon the surface of our planet a 
study so full, so exact, so carefully sci- 
entific, that we shall examine every part 
of it from the point of view of the vari- 
ous sciences and from the point of view 
of the events that have happened since 
man found him strong enough to deal 
with and overcome nature. Orography, 
seology, botany, meteorology, zoology— 
all these sciences are the handmaids of 
geography. 


THE OBSOLETE TERM, “MAN” 


In the largest sense of the word, they 
may all be called branches of geographic 
science, which is nothing less than the 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 119 


whole knowledge of our globe, and which 
is to be worked out by study applied in 
these various departments. That is to be 
supplemented also by a study of history 
of what man has done in these parts of 
the world where nature permitted him to 
settle and thrive. So you may say geog- 
raphy is the meeting point of all these 
sciences, a great stream into which they 
all pour their tributary brooks. Geog- 
raphy tells us what Nature has offered 
to Man and what Man has made of 
Nature. 

Possibly I should apologize for using 
the perhaps obsolete term “man,” con- 
sidering that some of your Western 
States, following in the wake of Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand, have recently 
transferred the political, as well as the 
social scepter from man to woman, and 
especially considering the fact that this 
victory is going to be celebrated in Wash- 
ington upon the third of March by a pro- 
cession. I will therefore withdraw the 
obnoxious term and say “human _ na- 
tires” 


MR. BRYCE’S FAREWELL 


Ladies and gentlemen, I reflect, with 
sadness, that this is probably the last oc- 
casion on which [ shall have the pleasure 
of meeting you here—at any rate, as the 
representative of my country. I wish to 
take this opportunity, in saying farewell, 
of thanking the National Geographic So- 
ciety for its constant invitations to my 
wife and myself, and not only for the 
hospitality we have received from you, 
which we have warmly appreciated, but 
also for that welcome which doubles the 
value of your hospitality. 

Among all the pleasant gatherings 
which we have been privileged to attend 
in Washington, among all the friends 
whose constant kindness we gratefully 
acknowledge, here and elsewhere through 
your country, there are no gatherings 
which we shall look back upon with more 
pleasure and with a more grateful mem- 
ory than those of the National Geo- 
graphic Society. Here we have rejoiced 
to meet many who were interested in the 
same subject, who were alive to all the 
movements of the world and were eager 


to help them forward. Here we have al- 
ways noted and been impressed by the 
feeling which has pervaded your gather- 
ings, that all nations and all men of sci- 
ence and learning ought to be united by 
ties of sympathy and mutual helpfulness 
in endeavoring to advance science and 
learning and to promote also the peace 
and good understanding between nations 
which ought always to go therewith. To 
be present at such gatherings as this has 
been to us a constant pleasure. We shall 
always remember them, and we venture 
to hope, ladies and gentlemen, that some- 
times you will remember those friends 
who have left you to recross the Atlantic 
and who will never forget you. 

May I express my wish for the con- 
tinued growth, prosperity, and useful- 
ness of this Society, which in so short a 
time has attained a position of such 
prominence among the geographic socie- 
ties of the world, in its numbers as well 
as in its activity. It is the hope of all 
your English fellow-workers that for 
centuries to come the members of your 
Society may still find something fresh to 
do, and that their zeal and earnestness 
may know no weariness or abatement. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


I voice the thought of every one in 
this room when I say I sincerely hope 
that Ambassador Bryce’s prophecy may 
not come true, but on the contrary we 
shall many more times have the pleasure 
of welcoming him and Mrs. Bryce here 
at the meetings of the National Geo- 
graphic Society. Comments upon Am- 
bassador Bryce’s remarks are impossible 
and superfluous. Diplomat, student of 
people and countries, whenever he speaks 
the fullest measure of pleasure and in- 
struction goes to his hearers. 

Our next speaker is a successful man 
of business affairs, one of our prominent 
legislators, a man who has felt and seen 
and believes in the extension of geo- 
graphic instruction. Whatever he may 
have to say upon this subject of the need 
of geographic knowledge will be well 
worth our consideration. I have the 
pleasure of introducing to you Hon. 
William C. Redfield, of New York. 


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HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


MR. REDFIELD, ON THE NEED OF GEOGRAPH- 
ICAL TEACHING 


Mr. President, Mr. Toastmaster, ladies 
and gentlemen: If we may follow the 
geographical parallel, the position in 
which | find myself this evening is that 
of the English Channel, which separates 
Great Britain from France. It has a 
somewhat unsavory reputation, but I 
venture to hope it may not add tonight 
to the evils which it has visited hereto- 
fore upon suffering humanity. 

I am but a voice this evening to men- 
tion a need and to offer a suggestion, 
neither more nor less. It is somewhat 
embarrassing, when one has tried faith- 
fully to teach a working force of sup- 
posedly intelligent young Americans 
something as to where some places are 
on this globe, to be told by one of them, 
in answer to a question, “Where is Ja- 
maica?” that it is an American island in 
the Pacific Ocean. It is almost as bad 
to be told in Manila that a large Boston 
firm wrote to a house there on the 8th 
of June demanding payment of an ac- 
count, and wrote again on the 25th of 
June wondering why they had not re- 
ceived a response. It is also equally 
bad to be told that a large New York 
concern referred an actual inquiry from 
Panama to its agent in the Philippine 
Islands. 

I have, unfortunately, been obliged to 
make an effort to employ young Amer- 
ican men and women who were sup- 
posed to have some elementary knowl- 
edge of geography. I have never found 
it possible to get one with those qualifi- 
cations. I think that statement, if you 
mean by “elementary” the fact that there 
are continents, is not correct, but if it 
means any sort of useful knowledge that 
was available at call as to where the im- 
portant countries and cities of the world 
were, I believe it is correct. ‘That is to 
say, if you attempt to employ young peo- 
ple of from 16 to 25 years of age at any 
pay running from $10 to $20 a week, you 
will not find it practicable to obtain from 
any of them a ready, ordinary common 
knowledge of the chief cities of the 
globe. I think that statement is well 
within the fact. 


121 


I doubt very much if a graduating 
class in our universities could answer 
correctly 20 out of 25 rather ordinary 
geographical questions. For example, let 
us take a practical illustration out of 


every-day office life. 
THE LACK OF GEOGRAPHIC 


COMMERCE 


KNOWLEDGE IN 


A shipment of machinery is to go to 
the town of Bandoeng, in the center of 
Java, and we will call our clerk or tell 
our stenographer to find out whether this 
shipment should go by way of Rotterdam 
and by Dutch steamer to Batavia and 
thence by rail, or whether it should go 
to London and thence by P. and O. 
steamer to Colombo and then via Sing- 
apore to Batavia and thence by rail, or 
whether it should go west by way of San 
Francisco and Manila and Hongkong, on 
a chance of catching the steamer for 
Soerabaja or Semarang and by rail from 
either point. 

I imagine, Mr. Toastmaster, that some 
of them are caught now, and yet, ladies 
and gentlemen, with the exception of 
Bandoeng, there is not one place men- 
tioned that is not a large seaport of prime 
commercial importance. Not one of those 
cities but has daily in its harbor many 
large commercial vessels. There is not 
one of the towns mentioned with which 
this country is not in daily, if not hourly, 
communication by mail and wire, and the 
statements I have made are taken from 
facts out of the ordinary commonplace 
work of a business office. 

Our clerks do not know, and there is 
no place in America today where our 
young people can get the thorough teach- 
ing that will give them a working knowl- 
edge of where these places are. 

Every day young women as stenog- 
raphers and young men as clerks are 
called upon for this knowledge, and their 
employers are keeping kindergartens to 
instruct them because the schools do not. 
It is not the fault of our young people, 
but their misfortune. 

That is a very plain statement of a 
commonplace fact that every business 
man who is engaged in foreign com- 
merce knows all about. It is a very seri- 
ous handicap. 


22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


HOW TO REMEDY IT 


The suggestion is this: Cannot this So- 
ciety, in some way, learn the facts as to 
the ignorance of the average American 
young man and woman on the subject of 
geography? Secondly, having learned 
them, cannot this Society, in some way, 
standardize, or attempt to standardize, 
geographical teaching ? 

I can say for one very large organiza- 
tion of business houses that if young men 
or women were to apply to any of the 
150 concerns therein represented, bearing 
some sort of a certificate that the school 
in which they had learned geography con- 
formed to the standards set by the Na- 
tional Geographic Society, employment 
would be quicker for these people and 
wages would be higher. I make the sug- 
gestion that something of this kind may 
possibly, in time, be started, because 
another scientific society, finding a similar 
state of ignorance in another line, is now 
attempting to formulate some standard 
of instruction that will be country-wide. 
At the present time, however, our school- 
taught young men and women of 18 and 
20 years of age do not know practically 
enough geography to trust themselves out 
at night alone. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


There is certainly much need for 
thought in Representative Redfield’s re- 
marks. If ] might venture, I would sug- 
gest that if Mr. Redfield and others 
would be willing to utilize their com- 
manding positions to assist this Society 
in the construction, either here or in New 
York, of a great globe on a scale of I to 
t million—which is a scale advocated by 
representative national geographic con- 
gresses for a universal way of the world— 
that such globe would enable the business 
men, the traveler, the student, and the 
school children to keep in touch with the 
big as well as the small details of geo- 
graphical information, which information 
could be transferred to this globe from 
time to time as secured over the world, 
thereby making the globe continuously 
up to date. 
work on such a globe as that would 
count for more than days of reading of 
geographical books. 


An hour or two of visual 


Across the water there is a sunny 
land—the birthplace of the automobile, 
the leader of the world in aviation today, 
a country in the front rank of every 
sphere of human activity. The sons of 
that country have written French names 
within the Arctic and the Antarctic. 

The last of these, Jean Baptiste Etienne 
Auguste Charcot, the National Geo- 
graphic Society has elected an honorary 
member in recognition of his splendid re- 
searches and explorations in the south 
polar regions. The certificate of his elec- 
tion will be received for him by another 
illustrious Frenchman, also our friend 
and long acquaintance, His Excellency 
Monsieur J. J. Jusserand, the French 
Ambassador. 


ADDRESS BY THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR, 
MR. JUSSERAND 


Though prevented from being present 
at the comestible part in tonight’s cere- 
mony, I greatly desired not to miss it 
altogether, not only because I was sure 
Admiral Peary would speak with his. 
wonted forceful eloquence, but because I 
have made it a rule ever to be present 
when Captain Amundsen is honored for 
having discovered a pole. 

Five years ago we celebrated together 
the deeds of this Viking’s son and of his. 
good ship, Gjoa, with which he had, 
shortly before, ascertained the exact po- 
sition of the north magnetic pole, and 
seconded by a crew of six men had, first 
of all sailors in the world, navigated that 
northwest passage vainly attempted by 
innumerable predecessors, from the 16th 
century to our time. 

Like the present occasion, that one was- 
brilliant and memorable, and I am not 
the only person in this assembly who was. 
there and still cherishes its remembrance. 
The members of the National Geographic 
Society were present in imposing num- 
bers; at different tables several explorers. 
of fame were seated; pointing to one of 
them, a neighbor of mine at table said: 
“You see that gentleman with the long” 
mustache? Many are making the at- 
tempt, but if the North Pole is to be 
reached by any one, it is he who will do 
it: he is called Peary.” All the world 
now knows whether my neighbor was or 
not a good prophet. 


; i 


A BRANCH OF THE JUJUBE TREE, LOADED WITH FRUIT, GROWING IN CALIFORNIA 


American-grown jujubes were first served in the United States at a great public function 
on the occasion of the Annual Banquet of the National Geographic Society, January II. 
These jujubes represented one of the tangible results of agricultural exploration as it 1s 
carried on by the Department of Agriculture. 

[The jujube is one of the five principal fruits of China, and has been cultivated tor at 
least 4,000 years. A Chinese work published 800 years ago listed 43 named varieties; hun- 
dreds are described in the more modern works. In China this fruit is highly esteemed, and 
there are hundreds of varieties, differing in shape, size and flavor. There is even a seedless 
one and one as large as a hen’s egg. Some are eaten fresh and others are candied and dried 
or used for preserves. The seedless sort is stewed with rice, much as we use raisins. 

The jujubes served at the National Geographic Society banquet were grown at the 
Plant Introduction Garden at Chico, California, and had been candied in syrup and_ dried. 
Many of the varieties thus preserved have almost exactly the shape, color, and flavor of dates. 

Here, then, is a new fruit as delicious as a choice date and capable of being grown 
hundreds of miles further north than the date palm. Trees growing in Washington, D. C 
were entirely uninjured by temperatures as low as 17 degrees below zero last winter. 


123 


124 


THE ACTIVITIES OF MR. BRYCE 


And while others were exerting them- 
selves in far-off lands, most of us Wash- 
ingtonians were staying at home, anxious 
for news, but very quiet in this beautiful 
city. Some exceptions there were, how- 
ever, one being my British colleague, 
who was present at the other dinner and 
is also with us tonight; he did not re- 
main dormant; it is not his fashion. Sure 
it is that he has in the interval increased 
the number of his travels, of his books, 
of his speeches, but not, to all appear- 
ances, the number of his years. 

Between the dates of the two dinners 
memorable deeds have been accom- 
plished, causing the unique event which 
we are going to witness to be possible. 
Those hands will clasp before us that 
have planted the flag of their country at 
the extremities of the world. 

We went yesterday to the Masonic 
Temple, holding tickets in our hands. 
The carefully devised inscription on 
them read: “Admit to the South Pole,” 
and we were indeed admitted there. 
With his clear, plain, straightforward 
manner of expressing himself, Captain 
Amundsen truly led us to the pole. We 
took part in his undertaking, his dog- 
breeding establishment, his clever prepa- 
ration, and his long, long journey across 
unknown solitudes, till at last the goal 
was reached, Queen Maud’s Land was 
baptized, and Norway’s flag planted 
where no man had set his foot before. 
The orator spoke calmly ; we can scarcely 
do the same when talking of what he 
has achieved. 

In its kindness the National Geo- 
graphic Society has desired to associate 
a French name to the famous ones we 
are honoring tonight, the name of Dr. 
Jean Charcot. 


THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS IN 
AMERICA 


In the dash to the pole, France, it is 
true, took no decisive part. There is, 
however, some dash, I dare say, in my 
nation, but the kind of discoveries which 
have ever been the special aim of her 
sons are the inland ones. While others 
were exploring coasts we, from the first, 
have taken a particular pride in assum- 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ing the often hard task of exploring the 
interior of countries. This was con- 
spicuously done on this continent when 
those singularly bold expeditions of our 
early explorers took place which are 
just now the subject of admirable arti- 
cles by President Finley. The valley of 
the Mississippi was as a whole first ex- 
plored by French people, and the names 
of Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans first 
appeared on French maps. The same in 
Asia with Bonvalot, Dutreuil de Rhins, 
Pavie, Lefévre-Pontalis, and all the 
others; the same in Africa with Fou- 
reau, Lamy, Brazza, and their peers. 

We did not, however, entirely neglect 
the polar regions; witnes; those sailors 
whose names have just been recalled by 
that good judge in such matters, Ad- 
miral Peary, witness especially the work 
done before Charcot by Dumont d’Ur- 
ville, with his tiny frigates, the Astrolabe 
and the Zélée, and his visit, toward the 
end of 1837, to the Great Barierwees 
he sailed along he sighted a rift and 
drove his ship through the narrow 
chasm, which closed behind him. For 
five days he’ was there a prisoner, with 
no apparent hope for his life and that of 
his crew, when a lucky storm caused a 
cleavage in the ice which, with the help 
of saws and axes, they were able so to 
increase as to bring the ships safe again 
to the open sea. 


THE FRENCH IN THE ANTARCTIC 


On a second expedition, in 1840, he 
explored vast antarctic regions yet un- 
known, some still bearing on every map 
the names he gave them; in particular 
that of his dearly admired wife, Adeélie, 
the god-mother of Adélie Land. On his 
return, in 1841, he was presented with a 
medal by our Geographic Society, the 
same medal which the same society pre- 
sented the other day to Captain Amund- 
sen in Paris. 

Dr. Jean Charcot has proved a worthy 
successor to Dumont d’Urville, and I 
offer on his behalf sincere thanks for the 
way in which you tonight so kindly show 
your appreciation of what he has done. 
What he wanted was at all risks to be 
useful, and he succeeded in perfecting 
our knowledge of an unknown part of 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


the Antarctic Continent, one not particu- 
larly easy to explore. Acting with the 
earnest desire to help toward a complete 
survey of an unexplored section, he dis- 
carded all idea of duplicating the work 
of other explorers or of competing with 
those who, duly prepared for the at- 
tempt, were planning their dash to the 
pole. As testified by your award tonight, 
by the praise which our chairman has 
bestowed on him, and by the tokens of 
appreciation conferred on him by his 
peers in several countries, he succeeded 
in what he had planned; our knowledge 
has been considerably increased, thanks 
to his exertions, and the fatigues and 
dangers he and his companions under- 
went have not been wasted. 


DR. CHARCOT’S ACHIEVEMENTS 


Owing to his two expeditions, with the 
Francais in 1904-1905 and the Pourquoi 
Pas in 1908-1910, presidential names 
have been added to the royal and im- 
perial ones, recalling almost all Europe 
and the United States, too, at the south- 
ern end of the world. Europe will be 
more completely duplicated—a quiet, si- 
lent, snowbound Europe—now that there 
is a Loubet Land and a Falliéres Land. 

No poles at present remain to be dis- 
covered, and the line of coasts of the 
Southern Continent has been in a great 
measure explored. What will such men 
as Shackleton, Charcot, Peary, Amund- 
sen now do? We do not know; perhaps 
they do not know. Of one thing we are 
sure—that is, that whatever they attempt 
will be worthy of their name; whatever 
it be we wish them success. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


It has been my good fortune on sev- 
eral occasions and on entirely different 
subjects to listen to Ambassador Jusse- 
rand, and in every case it has been a dis- 
tinct and emphatic pleasure. His clear- 
cut diction lifts as the wings of the aéro- 
plane and carries us direct to the point 
with the directness of the automobile. I 
wish my friend Charcot could have been 
here tonight to hear of his magnificent 
work in the Antarctic regions so ably 
presented. 

We have with us tonight a man who 
has had experience in both the tropical 


125 


and the Arctic regions, and I am going to 
ask him to give us a few remarks upon 
his experience in those localities. I take 
pleasure in presenting Mr. Walter L. 
Fisher, Secretary of the Interior. 


SECRETARY FISHER 


Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentle- 
men: It has been suggested to me that | 
should say something to you about those 
far outlying posts of the Department of 
the Interior in this country, that after 
all get into the realm of exploration. | 
have made two very slight voyages of 
discovery, one to Hawaii and one to 
Alaska, but on both occasions my object 
was the investigation of industrial and 
economic conditions and not of geog- 
raphy. 

Of course, I realize that the Depart- 
ment of the Interior has much to do with 
the subject with which this Society is 
concerned. A great deal of the geo- 
graphical work of the United States gov- 
ernment is carried on under its direc- 
tion, the work of the Geological Survey 
particularly, and in the opening remarks 
of the President I noted with some in- 
terest that this Society has spent some 
money with some energy upon the recent 
eruption of a volcano in Alaska. 


HAWAII AND ALASKA 


The two countries which have been 
suggested to me have a singular resem- 
blance and singular differences. I do 
not know whether all of you have 
thought of the points of resemblance so 
much as you have of the points of differ- 
ence; but if for a moment we consider 
the fact that Alaska is largely volcanic ; 
that it contains some of the few active 
volcanoes of the world; that it has re- 
cently had the most active eruption, we 
may see one of the resemblances. The 
volcano which can be best observed for 
scientific purposes, the voleano which is 
most accessible and most interesting to 
the traveler, is that which exists upon the 
island of Hawaii. 

The territories are very different in 
most respects. I do not know whether I 
can in this brief notice succeed in re- 
peating to you something that has been 
written to describe these differences in 
verse, possibly not intentional in either 


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126 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


case, and yet if I am able to remember 
the lines they may carry home some of 
these distinctive features and may illus- 
trate the different spirit which pervades 
those far outlying territories of ours. 

The island of Hawaii, of course, lies 
in the tropic or semi-tropic region, and 
it has a poetess, in the person of the wife 
of the present Governor of the island, 
who has written a poem which perhaps 
describes the sentiment and the atmos- 
phere of those islands better than any 
other of which I know. It runs some- 
thing like this: 


MY ISLANDS 


On the edge of the world my islands lie, 
Under the sun-steeped sky, 

And their waving palms 

Are bounteous alms 

To the soul-spent passer-by. 


On the edge of the world, dear islands, stay, 
Far from clamorous day, 

Content with calm, 

Hold peace and balm, 

Be Isles of the Blest for aye! 


The port of the northern clime is of 
much rougher variety. I do not know 
how much you know about the country 
which got its greatest notoriety from the 
rush to the Klondike. That rush was 
celebrated in a poem, which has in it 
vigorous lines like this: 


You've read of the trail of Ninety-eight, but 
its woe no man can tell; 

It was all of a piece and a whole yard wide, 
and the name of the brand was “Hell.” 


But the poem which best describes that 
land is perhaps the “Spell of the Yukon,” 
written by Robert W. Service. 


THE SPELL OF THE YUKON 


I wanted the gold and I sought it; 

I scrabbled and mucked like a slave. 
Was it famine or scurvy—I fought it; 

I hurled my youth into a grave. 
I wanted the gold and I got it, 
Yet somehow life’s not what I thought it, 
And somehow the gold isn’t all. 


No, there’s the land. (Have you seen it?) 
It’s the cussedest land that I know, 

From the big, dizzy mountains that screen it 
To the deep death-like valleys below. 

Some say God was tired when He made it; 
Some say it’s a fine land to shun. 

Maybe, but there’s some as would trade it 
For no land on earth—and I’m one. 


127 


There’s gold, and it’s haunting and haunting ; 
_It’s luring me on as of old; 
Yet it isn’t the gold that I’m wanting 
So much as just finding the gold. 
It’s the great, big, broad land ’way up yonder; 
It’s the forests where silence has lease: 
It’s the beauty that thrills me with wonder: 
It’s the stillness that fills me with peace. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


In the first chapter of Genesis we read 
that the Creator, after having first sep- 
arated the light from the darkness and 
the earth from the land, filled the land 
with vegetation and the sea and the air 
with life, creating man, and said: “Let 
them have dominion over the earth.” 
Only now, with the attainment of the two 
uppermost parts of the earth—the North 
and the South Pole—has that scriptural 
command become realized. 

Today there are, broadly speaking, no 
large regions on the face of the globe 
that have not been traversed or pene- 
trated by that incomparable, wonderful, 
adjustable machine—the human animal 
guided by the flame of divine intelligence. 

Ended is that splendid series of great 
ventures and voyages, beginning with the 
first pushing out of the Phoenician navi- 
gators through the Pillars of Hercules 
into the frightful storms and fearful 
terrors of the great Atlantic; the crossing 
of the Equator, where the sun's furnace 
heat, it was thought, scorched men black ; 
the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope; 
Columbus’ splendid launching into the 
mysteries of the unknown West; the cir- 
cumnavigation of the globe; the accom- 
plishment of the Northeast and the 
Northwest passages; the attainment of 
the North Pole and the South Pole. 

Ended is the long list of strange con- 
ceptions of the shape and character of 
this world of ours. 


THE POLAR MYSTERIES VANISH 


Vanished are those mysterious regions 
about the two poles, filled with strange 
imaginary conditions and peoples. 

Gone is the “Open Polar 
“Symnes Hole’—the Garden of Eden: 
the glistening Lodestone Mountain; the 
huge ice-cap; the great crater-like basin. 

Though every one in this hall tonight 
knows that the last of the poles has been 
discovered, I fancy there are some ot 


Sea’ — 


THE SPECIAL GOLD MEDAL AWARDED TO 
AMUNDSEN BY THE NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


you who have not yet grasped clearly the 
striking contrast in almost every physical 
condition at those two points. As a 
matter of fact, the conditions at the two 
poles are as far apart as the poles them- 
selves. 


Yet, though every one of my 
auditors knows that the last of the 
poles has been attained, I have no 
doubt that some of us have not 
grasped clearly the striking con- 
trast of physical conditions exist- 
ing at those two points. 

Conditions at the two poles are 
as unlike as the poles are far 
apart. The North Pole is situated 
at the center of the hemisphere of 
the land, yet is itself located in an 
ocean. 

The South Pole is situated at 
the center of the hemisphere of 
water, yet is itself located in a 
continent. 

An explorer at the North Pole 
stands up on the frozen surface 
of an ocean two miles or more in 
depth. 

An explorer at the South Pole 
stands on the surface of a great 
interior snow cap two miles or 
more above sea level. 

The most northery North Polar 
lands possess a comparative abun- 
dance of animal life—musk-ox, 
reindeer, Polar bear, wolf, fox, 
arctic hare, ermine, lemming, and 
land birds, as well as forms of 
insect life—and during a few short 
weeks in summer numbers of bril- 
liant flowers. 

On the Antarctic continent there 
is absolutely no form of animal 
or vegetable life, though two or 
three species of sea birds breed 
during a few weeks in summer at 
several localities on the coast. 

Human life is found within 
some 700 miles of the North Pole. 

The nearest human life is some 
2,000 miles frorm the South Pole. 

Efforts to attain the North Pole 
have been going on for nearly 400 

ears. 

Efforts to reach the South Pole 
date back 140 years. 

The history of North Polar ex- 
ploration is studded with crushed 
and foundering ships and the deaths of 
hundreds of brave men. 

The history of South Polar exploration 
shows the loss of but one ship and the 
loss of two or three men. 

In one respect the two poles are alike. 


ROALD 


HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 


Their conquest depended, in the last 
analysis, upon the first primal machine, 
the most wonderful and adjustable of 
all—the animal, man, and the Eskimo 
dog. 


THE DISCOVERER OF THE SOUTH POLE 


Sitting at this table is a man—look in 
his eyes and try to imagine to yourselves 
what those eyes have seen—a man who 
forced his way across hundreds of miles 
of icy Antarctic waste; climbed thou- 
sands of feet into the frozen Antarctic 
air, and stood at last more than two miles 
above sea level, with a frozen desert 
stretching from his feet to the horizon, 
and the yellow sun circling parallel with 
the horizon, at the South Pole—Amund- 
sen, of Norway. 

Amundsen, for your “Antarctic explo- 
rations, resulting in the attainments of 
the South Pole,’ The National Geo- 
graphic Society has awarded you this 
special gold medal. 

You already hold the Society’s other 
grand prize—the Hubbard ‘gold medal— 
for your successful forcing of the first 
ship through the Northwest passage, 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and for 
your definite re-location of the North 
Magnetic Pole. 

In one respect this medal is unique. 
Within its yellow circle is crystallized 
the appreciation of 175,000 intelligent 
men and women, the members of this 
Society. In this respect no other trophy 
you have, or will receive, can equal it. 

Health, strength, good luck continue 
with you. 


CAPTAIN AMUNDSEN 


Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, ladies 
and gentlemen: I am not going to try to 
make a speech here tonight after all 
these delightful speeches which we have 
heard delivered from those illustrious 
and distinguished men here tonight. I 
am only briefly going to thank the Na- 
tional Geographic Society for the great 
hospitality and the great kindness which 
they have shown me this time. This is 
not the first time. I came here five years 
ago and I was received when I came as a 
stranger, but I went away, as I felt, a 
good, dear friend. I went away with 


129 


the highest honors from the Society. 
The feelings I had at that time toward 
the Society were highly strengthened by 
the hospitality and the sympathy which 
it extended to me here. 

I certainly appreciate very highly this 
special gold medal, the highest medal 
which the Society can bestow upon an 
explorer. I appreciate it highly, but | 
also appreciate still more highly the way 
in which I have been handed this medal. 
I have been handed this medal, I might 
say, from the most illustrious of the liv- 
ing polar explorers. 

From the time I was a boy I followed 
Admiral Peary in his work; I was with 
him when, in 1890, for the first time, he 
crossed Greenland. I was with him in 
my thoughts; I was too young to try to 
follow him, but I have followed him in 
my thoughts and later in his work. I 
followed him when inch by inch he 
worked his way toward the north, inch 
by inch, foot by foot, and yard by yard 
until he finally succeeded in planting the 
Stars and Stripes on the most difficult 
part of our globe. 

I am mighty thankful to you, Admiral 
Peary, for all the experience and all the 
assistance you have really given me in 
my work. 


SOUGHT THE SOUTH 
POLE 


WHY AMUNDSEN 

There is one thing which perhaps not 
many of you here tonight know, and that 
is that it was really Admiral Peary who 
sent me out to the South Pole. I was 
preparing my trip toward the North 
Polar regions—it may be to the North 
Pole—in 1909. It was not very easy to 
start an expedition from Norway, for it 
was hard work among us to raise money 
and I was preparing this expedition 
slowly. 

Then suddenly the news flashed all 
over the world that the North Pole had 
been attained; that Admiral Peary had 
planted the Stars and Stripes up there. 
The money, which had been scarce, now 
went down to nothing. I could not get 
a cent more and I was in the midst of 
my preparations. 

One of the last mysterious points of 
the globe had been discovered. 


130 


The last one still remained undiscov- 
ered, and then it was that I took the de- 
cision to turn from the north toward the 
south in order to try to discover this last 
problem in the polar regions. 

» So you see it was really Admiral Peary 
who sent me away. Well, I thank you, 
Admiral, for that. 

I am now going to thank the National 
Geographic Society for all they have 
shown me in the way of kindness and 
hospitality, and permit me, in closing, to 
wish the Society every prosperity in the 
future. The President recently told us 
that the Society at present holds a mem- 
bership of 175,000, I think the largest by 
far of the geographic societies in the 
world. I wish the Society a continued 
growth, and when I come back from my 
North Polar Expedition I hope I may 
find it holding a membership of at least 
300,000. 


THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY 


I thank you heartily, Captain Amund- 
sen, for your friendly remarks in regard 
to me. 

You have listened to the words of a 
man who has accomplished a great thing. 
I need not go into details. You have 
heard from his own lips the story of 
how he pitted red blood, tense muscles, 
and the insistence of the human brain 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


against the cold, the hunger, the fatigue 
of the Antarctic hell, and won. 

The presence of such a man as 
Amundsen in our midst ought, and [ 
hope will, spur us as individuals, as So- 
cieties, and as a nation to take our 
proper share and part in the great work 
yet to be done in the Antarctic. 

There are two ways in which this 
country could make up for its past leth- 
argy in Antarctic work and take front 
rank at once in this attractive field. 

One is to establish a station at the 
South Pole for one year’s continuous ob- 
servations in various fields of scientific 
investigation. 

The other is to inaugurate and carry 
out in a special ship, with a corps of ex- 
perts, through a period of several sea- 
sons, a complete survey and study of the 
entire periphery of the Antarctic Conti- 
nent and its bordering ocean. 

We should also set before ourselves 
the thorough exploration of the region 
south of Cape Horn, the Weddell Sea 
region, which is especially within our 
sphere of influence, together with a trav- 
erse from the most southern point of 
that sea to the South Pole itself. 

Such traverse, with the work of 
Amundsen, of Shackleton, of Scott, 
would give us a complete cross-section 
of Antarctica. 


p > 


VOL. XXIV, No. 2 


a 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAIP ENC 
MAGA ZINIE, 


FEBRUARY, 1913 


aa 


THE RECENT ERUPTION OF KATMAI VOLCANO 
IN ALASKA 


An Account of One of the Most Tremendous Volcanic 
Explosions Known in History 


By Georce C. MartTIn 


Mr. Martin is the geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey who directed the 
National Geographic Society Alaska volcano researches in 1912 


HE volcanic eruption of Mount 

Katmai, Alaska, of June, 1912, 

was undoubtedly one of the most 
violent eruptions of historic times. 

This volcano was one of the least 
known of the many Alaskan volcanic 
peaks, and had been so long dormant 
that there were apparently not even local 
legends of its former outbreaks. No 
observed warnings of its renewed activity 
were given other than copious steaming 
and minor earthquakes. ‘These attracted 
little attention even among the few dwell- 
ers in that thinly settled land, for dozens 
of other volcanoes along the Alaskan 
coast steam freely from time to time. 
The peak is usually hidden in the clouds, 
and local earthquakes are so frequent as 
to cause little comment. 

Among other people than the few local 
inhabitants and the comparatively few 
others who have had occasion to sail 
through Shelikof Strait, the very exist- 
ence of Katmai Volcano was doubtless 
unknown. 

Then, without warning, on the 6th of 
June, 1912, the Katmai Volcano pro- 
claimed itself by a violent eruption. All 
southern Alaska ,.knew of the event at 
once, for the sound of the first mighty 


explosion carried down the coast as far 
as Juneau, 750 miles away, and was even 
heard across the Alaska Range at Daw- 
son and Fairbanks, distant 650 and 500 
miles respectively. 


THE FIRST ERUPTION 


Those who did not hear the sound of 
this first blast, or did not feel the accom- 
panying earthquakes, did not have to wait 
long for another form of announcement. 
The column of steam and ash rose sev- 
eral miles in the air and was immediately 
seen as far away as Clark Lake and 
Cook Inlet. ‘This cloud of ash was car- 
ried eastward by the wind and within a 
few hours had shed a shower of ashes 
over all the east end of the Alaska Penin- 
sula, the east half of Kodiak Island, and 
all of Afognak Island (see map, page 
12), 

Intense darkness accompanied the fall 
of ashes. Midnight blackness in the day- 
time extended as far east as the Kenai 
Peninsula. Darkness lasted for 60 hours 
at Kodiak, 100 miles from the volcano. 
Dust fell as far away as Juneau, Ketchi- 
kan, and the Yukon Valley, distant 750, 
goo, and 600 miles. The fumes were 
reported from points as remote as Van- 


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Photo by Lieut. J. F.Hahn 


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A FLASHLIGHT VIEW TAKEN UNDER THE OPEN SKY AT NOON, SHOWING ASH-COVERED 
CHART BOARD OF THE “MANNING,” JUNE 8, I912—I100 MILES FROM VOLCANO 


“The darkness was intense, and the ash so thick in the air that bright lights failed to 


penetrate it for more than a few feet. 


It is said that a lighted lantern held at arm’s length 


could barely be seen, and that the searchlight of the Manning failed to penetrate farther 


than the bow of the ship” (see page 156). 


couver Island and Puget Sound, 1,500 
miles away. 

In the violence of the explosion, in the 
quantity of material thrown out, and in 
the distance to which the ejected material 
and sound waves were carried, this was 
certainly among the greatest eruptions 
witnessed by man. It differs, however, 
from almost all other known great erup- 
tions in that the immediate damage to 
property was almost nothing, and that, 
as far as known, it was not the direct 
and sole cause of the loss of a single 
human life. 


HOW THE NEWS CAME 


The stories which came by wire from 
the towns along the Alaska coast at this 
time told of an eruption of the first mag- 
nitude somewhere to the westward. 
These towns heard the explosion, felt the 
earth tremble, and saw the air clouded 
with dust brought in on the west wind. 
Still no authentic news came as to the 


133 


exact origin of the disturbance. The 
volcano proclaimed its own news for a 
thousand miles down the coast, yet si- 
lenced the wireless by which the Alaska 
Peninsula and Kodiak Island were ordi- 
narily in communication with the world. 

The first detailed and authentic news 
came when the little old mail steamer 
Dora, notorious partaker in many a wild 
Alaskan episode, returned to Seward 
from her monthly Aleutian pilgrimage 
with her decks smeared with ashes and 
reported witnessing the outbreak from a 
near-by point and running out to sea in 
24 hours of darkness and ashes. The 
Dora had been unable to reach Kodiak 
in the darkness caused by the volcanic 
cloud (see page 154). 

It is highly probable that other vents 
in the vicinity of Mount Katmai had 
been steaming profusely throughout the 
summer, and they may at times have 
been in a moderate state of eruption, but 
all the available evidence indicates that 


sal 


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Photo by George C. Martin 


VOLCANIC CLOUD POURING OVER MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK BAY, I.30 P. M., 
AUGUST I0, 1912 


The white drifts which cover the mountain slopes are not snow, but ash and pumice from the 
volcano 


Mount Katmai is by far the most active 
of the group, and is probably the only 
one which contributed in any large way 
to the gfeat volume of solid matter 
ejected in June. 


THE SCENE OF THE ERUPTION 


Mount Katmai is a peak 7,500 feet 
high, situated relatively near the eastern 
end of the Alaska Peninsula and of the 
Aleutian Mountains. 

The Alaska Peninsula is like a great 
horn, convex on the southern side, 500 
miles in length, averaging 50 miles in 
width, and projecting southwestward 
from the Alaska mainland. It has a 
partly submerged extension in the Aleu- 
tian Islands which stretches 1,100 miles 
westward toward Asia, and with these 
separates Bering Sea from the Pacific. 

The Aleutian range, like the less con- 
tinuous line of peaks on the islands 
trailing from it, 1s dominantly volcanic 
throughout, there being certainly nine, 
and probably at least twelve active or 
latent volcanoes in the Alaska continental 
end of the belt. The Aleutian Islands 
probably contain a still larger number 
of volcanoes. Only two of the Alaska 
volcanoes, Wrangell and Edgecombe, 


are not situated in these groups (see page 
1360). 

The mountains in this belt which have 
shown indications of volcanic activity in 
historic times include Redoubt, [liamna, 
and St. Augustine, on Cook Inlet. Re- 
doubt was active in January, 1902, while 
St. Augustine had an exceptionally vio- 
lent eruption in October, 1883. 

The easternmost volcano known on 
the Alaska Peninsula is Mount Kugak, 
which was probably active in 1880. 
Mount Katmai comes next to the west- 
ward, and has a near neighbor, Mount 
Mageik, which seems to have shared, in 
a more moderate way, its recent activity. 
There are probably other unnamed vol- 
canoes in the near vicinity. 

Veniaminof, near Chignik, was in 
eruption on August 28th, 1892, this out- 
break apparently being, next to those of 
Katmai and of St. Augustine, the most 
violent known in Alaska. Farther west 
and near the extremity of the Alaska Pen- 
insula is Mount Pavlof, which has been 
continuously steaming for many years. 

The volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands 
include a well-known group at the east- 
ern end in which are Isanotski, Shishal- 
din, Pogromni, Akutan, and Bogoslof, 


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136 


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138 


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Photo by George C. 


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AUGUST 


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h, which were frightened away 


IS 


A small amount of ash fell here, but the grass was not covered, and no serious damage was done except to the { 


and a large number of 
others situated far- 
ther to the west. 
Shelikof Strait, a 
turbulent and treach- 
erous body of water, 
averaging 35 miles in 
width, lies south of 
the eastern end of the 
Alaska Peninsula and 
Separates it from Ko- 
diak and Afognak 
islands, which shared 
the effects of the 
eruption with the east- 
ern end of the Alaska 
Peninsula. These 
islands are mountain- 
ous, but not volcanic. 


THE INHABITANTS OF 
THE ALASKA PEN- 
INSULA 


The inhabitants of 
the Alaska Peninsula 
include a few hundred 
people in ten or twelve 
small native villages, 
the employés of four 
or five salmon  can- 
neries, and a handful 
of traders and _ pros- 
pectors. Most of the 
native villages had a 
former basis of pros- 
perity in sea-otter 
hunting, but with the 
practical extinction of 
the sea otter this is 
gone and the salmon 
is the chief means of 
support. 

The inhabitants of 
Kodiak and Afognak 
islands are mostly de- 
scendantsof Russians. 
The largest _ settle- 
ments are Kodiak (St. 
Paul) and Afognak. 
The former is well 
known as one of the 
quaintest and most at- 
tractive towns on the 
Alaskan coast. Its 
population includes 
the largest proportion 
of Americans of any 


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juny ‘Ss ‘a Aq ojoyg : ; 


. ¢ 


140 


THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


town in southwestern Alaska. The town 
had long lived upon the memories of its 
former glories as capital during the early 
Russian occupation and of the prosperous 
sea-otter days. New activities have re- 
cently come through the establishment of 
salmon and halibut fisheries and of im- 
portant agricultural industries. 

It was the sparse settlement of the 
district which alone prevented great loss 
of life during the recent eruption. 

The town of Katmai was deserted at 
the time of the eruption, most of the in- 
habitants being at Kaflia Bay, 30 miles 
east of the volcano. 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY’S 
INVESTIGATION 


As soon as it became known that there 
had certainly been a great eruption in 
southwestern Alaska the Research Com- 
mittee of the National Geographic So- 
ciety made plans for the investigations 
upon which this article is based. This 
expedition is the beginning of a system- 
atic study of the Alaskan volcanoes which 
the National Geographic Society has in 
view and which will be carried out by 
some experienced authority on volcanism. 
The writer was selected for this first 
expedition not as a student of volcanism, 
but as one who eight years before, in the 
course of the U. S. Geological Survey’s 
investigations, had made a cruise of 300 
miles in an open boat along this little- 
known coast, and was consequently some- 
what familiar with the local geographic 
details. 

A hurried departure from Washing- 
ton, a busy day of outfitting in Seattle, 
and a leisurely voyage of 13 days past 
all the windings of the sinuous southern 
coast-line of Alaska preceded an arrival 
in Kodiak just four weeks after the 
eruption began. The protracted voyage 
from Seattle had its compensation in 
that it permitted visits to many places 
which had been affected by the eruption 
and interviews with many eye-witnesses. 

‘On reaching Kodiak it was found that 
the revenue cutter Manning was still in 
port and was about to move the refugees 
from the uninhabitable mainland villages 
to a new location west of the affected 
zone. Capt. K. W. Perry kindly wel- 


141 


comed the writer as a passenger on this 
and following cruises of the Mannine. 
The four weeks spent aboard the Man- 
ning permitted the obtaining of vivid ac- 
counts of the hours of darkness which 
the officers of the cutter witnessed at 
Kodiak, and of their subsequent obser- 
vations in the vicinity of the volcano and 
elsewhere, and also gave opportunity to 
see parts of the coast which would other- 
wise have been inaccessible. 

After leaving the Manning, the power 
schooner Lina K. was chartered and 
cruises were made along the southeast 
shore of Afognak Island and the north- 
west shore of Kodiak Island, the effects 
of the eruption being thus studied in de- 
tail. While in Shelikof Strait watch was 
kept for a glimpse of the volcano, but 
the clouds hung continuously upon the 
mountain. 

On August 8 the clouds seemed break- 
ing and the sea was smooth, so we 
crossed to Amalik Bay on the mainland. 
Vast columns of steam could be seen ris- 
ing through the clouds, but the latter 
were not dispelled enough to permit a 
satisfactory view. Two weeks were 
spent on the mainland between Amalik 
and Cold bays. During this time many 
interesting phenomena, described below, 
were observed, but the glimpse of the 
volcano itself, which was desired most 
of all, was not obtained. 

The part of Alaska in which Mount 
Katmai is situated and the districts most 
seriously affected by the eruption are so 
thinly settled that the number of persons 
who observed the eruption and its larger 
effect is comparatively small. The writer 
has been able to get in touch directly or 
indirectly with most of these people, and 
they have furnished information of very 
great value which could not otherwise 
have been obtained. 


CONDITIONS PRECEDING THE ERUPTION 


Mount Katmai had been in a dormant 
condition for an unknown length of 
time, but for many months prior to its 
outburst it must have been going through 
the changes which a dormant volcano 
always undergoes prior to an eruption. 

A volcano consists of a vent extend- 
ing from the surface of the earth to a 


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142 


THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


reservoir of molten material deep in the 
earth’s crust. The vent usually reaches 
the surface at the summit of a mountain, 
composed of material thrown out in ear- 
lier eruptions and terminates above in the 
opening known as the crater. When the 
volcano is not in eruption this vent is 
closed by material fallen in from above 
and by material which was not fully ex- 
pelled during preceding eruptions and 
solidified there. 


WHAT CAUSES AN ERUPTION 


An eruption is preceded by a long 
continuing and gradually increasing ac- 
cumulation of pressure from the reser- 
voir of molten material. The eruption is 
caused by this pressure becoming at last 
sufficient to overcome the resistance of 
the material which chokes the vent, or 
by a sudden relief of pressure by fault- 
ing or some other cause. The conditions 
preceding the eruption include a gradual 
rise of lava in the vent, accompanied by 
an increase in the temperature of the 
surface rocks, an increase in both tem- 
perature and volume of the waters and 
gases given out, and by earthquakes and 
minor explosions. 

The initial outburst is accompanied by 
the final clearing of the vent and break- 
ing up and expulsion of the detritus and 
solidified lava by which it had been 
closed and sometimes by the destruction 
of the mountain. This suddenly relieves 
the underlying liquid lava of an enor- 
mous pressure, and results in the rapid 
giving off of the steam and other gases 
which the lava contained. 

Hot molten lava, especially when un- 
der pressure, has the capacity to dissolve 
great volumes of gas. It is in the con- 
dition of water under pressure and 
charged with gas. The uncorking of the 
volcano has therefore the same effect as 
the uncorking of a bottle of any other 
liquid charged with gas; the gas rushes 
out, carrying part of the liquid material, 
chiefly in the form of coarse spray. 

It is this frothing of the lava which 
creates pumice, which is nothing but 
lava blown full of holes and projected 
in a liquid condition into the air, where 
it cools. The explosion which began 
is then continued in great force with the 
ejection of a stream of lava-spray or 


143 


liquid pumice, which is kept up as long 
as the imprisoned gases last. 

This action is usually intermittent, the 
volcano behaving somewhat as a geyser 
and being subject to the effects of re- 
peated accumulation and sudden release 
of pressure from below. In most cases, 
after the larger part of the gas is given 
off, the lava flows quietly out in response 
to the pressure back of it. 


HOW SHOWERS OF ASHES ARE FORMED 


The column of steam and lava-spray, 
after being blown out of the crater, ex- 
pands until it is in so rarefied a condition 
that it floats freely in the air and is 
known as volcanic smoke. ‘This grad- 
ually cools, and in so doing becomes un- 
able to support the solid particles which 
gradually fall in a shower of ash and 
dust. These finer materials are com- 
posed chiefly of the smaller particles of 
spray as they solidified, together with 
detrital material made up of fragments 
broken from the walls of the crater by 
the passing blast, and of pumice dust 
made by the larger pieces breaking as 
they struck each other or cracking as 
they cooled. 

The eruption of Mount Katmai was 
doubtless preceded by the conditions de- 
scribed above, yet in this case, probably 
because of the absence of near-by ob- 
servers, none of them except the earth- 
quakes were recorded. Earthquakes 
were felt at Katmai for at least five days 
prior to the eruption, while more severe 
shocks were felt on June 4 and 5 at 
Kanatak, Uyak, and Nushagak. These 
places are 65, 58, and 130 miles from 
Mount Katmai to the southwest, south- 
east, and northwest respectively. 

It seems highly probable that the vol- 
cano began to throw out large volumes 
of gases on the 5th, since observers at 
Cold Bay noted that the northern sky in 
the direction of the volcano “looked 
black and storming” late that night, in 
spite of the fact that there was fair 
weather on the coast. 


THE EXPLOSIONS THAT WERE HEARD 9QOC 
MILES AWAY 


Early in the afternoon of June 6 the 
volcano passed into a state of violent 
eruption. There must have been fre- 


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144 


INTERIOR OF MAIN ROOM OF BARABARA AT DOUGLAS VILLAGE, SHOWING 
PENETRATED THE CREVICES 


ASH 


quent explosions accompanied by earth- 
quakes during the morning, but few of 
these were intense enough to be noticed 
at a distance. It was only at Seldovia 
and Nushagak that these preliminary 
morning explosions were noted. 

The beginning of the violent phase of 
the eruption was apparently at I p. m., 
June 6, at which time a terrific explosion 
and earthquake was noted by C. L,. 
3oudry at Cold Bay (see page 147). At 
the same hour a heavy cloud was seen 
from the steamer Dora (55 miles away) 
rising over Mount Katmai. This cloud 
was under observation from this time 
until it enveloped the steamer, 514 hours 
later. The accompanying views of the 
cloud were taken by John E. Thwaites, 
mail clerk of the Dora, just before dark- 
ness shut down (see pages 154, 155). 

At 3 p. m. there was a tremendous 
explosion, which was heard for hundreds 
of miles around, and the volcano passed 
into a state of continuous eruption, which 


Photo by George C. Martin 


HOW THE 


AND CRACKS 
lasted, except for possible short inter- 
vals, for several days. 

This explosion was noted at Uyak, 
at Iliamna Bay, at several places on 
Iliamna and Clark lakes, at Koggiung, 
and at a point 90 miles southwest of 
Eagle. Explosions were also heard at 
about this time, although no statement of 
the exact hour is available, at Juneau, 
750 miles east, and Fairbanks, 500 miles 
northeast of the volcano. At Iliamna 
Bay the sounds were accompanied by a 
“sudden, quick motion of the clouds that 
would start and stop.’ 

It was probably at this time that the 
larger part of the coarse, gray ash which 
forms the lower stratum on the Alaska 
Peninsula and on Kodiak and Afognak 
islands was thrown in the air. This ash 
reached Uyak, 58 miles away, at 3.30 
p. m., and Kodiak, roo miles from the 
volcano, at 5 p. m., and soon afterward 
complete darkness settled down over an 
area of several thousand square miles. 


145 


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a ee 


146 


THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


EYE-WITNESSES OF THE ERUPTION 


The only people who witnessed the 
explosion from near at hand were na- 
tives. ‘Two families, who stayed at Kat- 
mai after the other people of that town 
went away to work in a fishing camp, 
left Katmai for Cold Bay on June 4, 
and were in camp on the shore between 
Kamvik and Alinchak bays at the time 
of the eruption. 

C. L. Boudry, who was at Cold Bay 
when these people reached there wrote 
in his diary: ‘They report the Katmy 
hill blew up and threw rock out to sea, 
but could not tel mor as they whare on 
the road to Cold Bay—an that pommey 
stone in fire whas falling 20 miles an 
that the watter was hot in the Katmy 
bay—after examining ther boat ther i 
found pummice stone the sise of com- 
mon rice.” 

Jack Lee, who also interviewed them 
on their arrival at Cold Bay wrote: 
“They report the top of Katma Moun- 
‘ain bin Gt.) There was a lot . of 
Pummy stone in their dory when they 
got here and the say Hot Rock was fly- 
ing all eraund them.” 

These last two statements of the in- 
terviews with the natives are quoted ver- 
batim because each contains an assertion 
that the explosion wrecked the moun- 
tain. In this connection it is important 
to note the statement made by William 
Neilson, of Iliamna, as quoted in a letter 
from Thomas W. Hanmore. Mr. Han- 
more says: “While Mr. Neilson was in 
Naknek” (he went there June 7, and was 
there at least until June 9) “the natives 
from the Indian village of Savanoski, at 
the head of Naknek Lake, came to Nak- 
nek very much excited. They reported 
the upper half of Katmai Mountain gone 
and the mountain burning up.” 

These people, together with those 
from Katmai, were the nearest persons 
to the volcano at the time of the erup- 
tion, and were in an excellent position 
to observe what happened. Proper al- 
lowance must, of course, be made for the 
natural but unintentional exaggeration 
due to the excitement of the moment; 
but the close similarity of these entirely 
independent accounts, their source from 
people who, though familiar with dor- 


147 


mant volcanoes, certainly never before 
witnessed a violent eruption, and their 
agreement with what we would expect 
to happen in an eruption of this charac- 
ter, all confirm them as being probably 
reliable and accurate descriptions of 
what occurred at 3 p. m., June 6, as seen 
by the only eye-witnesses. 


THE SECOND EXPLOSION 


The activity of the volcano probably 
slackened somewhat after the severe out- 
break at 3 p.m. The next violent explo- 
sion was probably at about 11 p. m. that 
night, at which time a hard earthquake 
was noted at Cold Bay and at about 
which time a strong glare of light was 
observed at Kanatak (see page 148). 

It is believed to be the ash of this 
eruption which began falling at Kodiak 
about noon of June 7, at Afognak at 
4p. m. of the same day, and at the west 
end of the Kenai Peninsula early the 
morning of the 8th. This shower con- 
tinued without interruption at Kodiak 
for 26 hours, or until 2.30 p. m., June 8. 
The ash which fell during this shower is 
the second stratum of fine brown mate- 
rial 4% inches thick at Kodiak after 
being packed down. 

The people at Cold Bay apparently 
first realized that a volcano was in vio- 
lent eruption on the morning of June 7. 
The westerly wind on the 6th kept any 
ash from reaching Cold Bay, and appar- 
ently neither the earthquakes nor the 
black cloud in the northern sky had been 
considered as having any connection 
with the long dormant volcanoes. By 
the morning of the 7th the continued 
and increasing noise of thunder and ex- 
plosions, together with the growing vio- 
lence of the earthquakes, called closer 
attention to the appearance of the cloud, 
which had then risen to a great altitude 
and assumed a well-marked form and 
other characteristics which made it im- 
possible to confuse it with an ordinary 
storm-cloud. 

Father Patelin, who was at Kanatak, 
noted that the smoke came and dust fell 
there the morning of June 7, though the 
wind ‘continued to be from the west. 
There were earthquakes nearly all day, 
with short intervals between. Many of 


148 


the earthquakes were strong and there 
was continuous rumbling. The earth- 
quakes became so severe toward evening 
that it seemed dangerous to remain in 
the barabaras, one of which nearly fell 
in, so they were abandoned and tents 
used. That evening after 10 o'clock 
came the strongest earthquake yet felt, 
accompanied by heavy rumbling and 
rock-slides from all around. There was 
evidently a strong glare of light from 
the voicano, it being recorded that “the 
mountains were like sunshine.” After 
midnight he heard a “big noise like 
thunder from the Katmai side,” after 
which everything was quiet and he slept. 


THE THIRD EXPLOSION 


It is important to note the very severe 
earthquake which was felt at Cold Bay 
at 10.40 p. m. June 7, and also at Kana- 
tak at about the same hour. At Kanatak 
heavy rumbling was heard and an in- 
tense flare of light came from the direc- 
tion of the volcano. Earthquakes lasted 
all this night at Iliamna Bay (115 miles 
distant from Katmai Volcano), it being 
recorded that “the earth never ceased to 
move for nearly 12 hours.” Earthquakes 
were reported from 90 miles southwest 
Ofwagle at it ps im. june olor 7... leas 
evident that these phenomena marked 
another violent outbreak of the volcano. 
Probably it was the material erupted dur- 
ing this period which forms the upper- 
most stratum at Kodiak and vicinity, fall- 
ing there during the night of June 8. 

The period of explosive activity and 
of the ejection of large quantities of 
solid matter seems to have ceased on 
June 8, the volcano then passing into a 
less violent but freely erupting stage 
which lasted all summer and possibly 
still continues. An immense column of 
steam was noted rising from the volcano 
wherever the absence of clouds permit- 
ted a view in that direction. Frequent 
earthquakes were noted on the Alaska 
Peninsula at intervals throughout the 
summer; heavy rumblings were heard 
by all who approached the vicinity; so- 
called flames were observed from Bris- 
tol Bay; fumes were noted at long dis- 
tances from the mountain, and occasional 
light showers of ashes fell as far away 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


as Nushagak. These subsequent phe- 
nomena will be described more fully af- 
ter we have considered the conditions 
existing during the fall of ash from the 
eruptions already described. 


THE ZONE OF DARKNESS AND FALL OF 
ASHES 


The material hurled into the air by the 
explosions described above ascended to 
great heights and traveled east under the 
influence of the prevailing wind in a suc- 
cession of clouds. The coarser material 
began to fall at once, but so great was 
the total volume of material that the 
clouds traveled several hundred miles 
before very considerable amounts of dust 
had ceased to fall and before they ceased 
to spread absolute darkness over the 
land and sea. The track of the clouds 
seems to have been to the east over the 
southeast end of Kodiak Island and out 
to the sea for an unknown distance, then 
back under the influence of a wind shift- 
ing into the east, so that Cook Inlet, Ili- 
amna Lake, and Bristol Bay received a 
belated shower. ‘The influence of the 
west wind at the time of the eruption on 
the distribution of ash is shown by the 
fact that the total amount of ash which 
fell at Cold Bay, only 50 miles from the 
volcano, was less than that which fell at 
Seldovia, 150 miles away, and probably 
was little if any more than that which 
fell at Juneau, which is 750 miles distant. 

The nearest to the volcano of those 
within the zone of darkness were the na- 
tives in a fishing camp at Kaflia Bay. 
Ivan Orloff, the creole Tyone of Afog- 
nak, who was with these people, wrote 
as follows to his wife: 


Kariia Bay, June 9, 1912. 
My Dear Wire TANIA: 


First of all I will let you know of our un- 
lucky voyage. I do not know whether we 
shall be either alive or well. We are awaiting 
death at any moment. Of course do not be 
alarmed. A mountain has burst near here, so 
that we are covered with ashes, in some places 
10 feet and 6 feet deep. All this began on the 
6th of June. Night and day we light lamps. 
We cannot see the daylight. In a word, it is 
terrible, and we are expecting death at any 
moment, and we have no water. All the rivers 
are covered with ashes. Just ashes mixed with 
water. Here are darkness and hell, thunder 
and noise. I do not know whether it is day 


2K OT MRS Le 


Photo by John E. Thwaites 
NATIVE CHURCH AT KODIAK BEFORE THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


THE SAME SCENE DURING THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI, JUNE 6, 1912, 
SHOWING THE GREAT DRIFTS OF VOLCANIC ASHES 


A 


BIDARKA IN ILIAMNA BAY 


These bidarkas are used in the pursuit of otters. They vary from 18 to 25 feet in 
length and are very light, being constructed of hides stretched over a slight wooden frame- 
work. They can be very rapidly propelled and are constructed to carry one to three people 
with never more than three paddles. 


150 


BA Ste eat tel oN SS 
Photo by George C. Martin 


RUSSIAN CHURCH AND INHABITANTS OF LITTLE AFOGNAK, JULY 30, 1912 


Photo by George C. Martin 


THE INTERIOR OF THE RUSSIAN CHURCH AT LITTLE AFOGNAK, JULY 30, I9QI2 


The inhabitants of Little Afognak are mainly descendants of Russian settlers and belong to 
the Orthodox Church 


I5I 


152 


or night. Vanka will tell you all about it. 
So kissing and blessing you both, good-bye. 
Forgive me. Perhaps we shall see each other 
again. God is merciful. Pray for us. 

Your husband, IvAN ORLOFF. 


The earth is trembling; it lightens every 
minute. It is terrible. We are praying. 


WHAT WAS SEEN FROM A PASSING 
STEAMER 


The outburst on the afternoon of June 
6 was witnessed from the steamer Dora, 
which was then passing through Sheli- 
kof and Kupreanof straits, eastbound. 
Capt. C. B. McMullen, of the Dora, has 
given the following description of the 
phenomena which he observed: 

‘Uett Uyak at 8.45 a.)m.) June 0; 
strong westerly breeze and fine clear 
weather. At 1 o'clock p. m., while enter- 
ing Kupreanof Straits, sighted a heavy 
cloud of smoke directly astern, raising 
from the Alaska Peninsula. I took bear- 
ings of same, which I made out to be 
Katmai Volcano, distance about 55 miles 
away. ‘The smoke arose and spread in 
the sky, following the vessel, and by 3 
p. m. was directly over us, having trav- 
eled at the rate of 20 miles an hour. 

“At 6 p. m. passed through Uzinka 
Narrows, fine and clear ahead, and con- 
tinued on expecting to make Kodiak. 
At 6.30 p. m., when off Spruce Rock, 
which is about 344 miles from Mill Bay 
Rocks and the entrance to Kodiak, ashes 
commenced to fall and in a few minutes 
we were in complete darkness, not even 
the water over the ship's side could be 
seen. 

“T continued on in hopes that I might 
pick up entrance to Kodiak, but when 
vessel had run the distance by the log 
conditions were the same, so I decided to 
head out to sea and get clear of all dan- 
ger. At 7.22 I set a course NE. by N. 
(magnetic). Wind commenced to in- 
crease rapidly now from the southwest 
and vessel was driven before it. Heavy 
thunder and lightning commenced early 
in the afternoon and continued through 
the night. Birds of all species kept fall- 
ing on the deck in a helpless condition. 
The temperature rose owing to the heat 
of the volcanic ash, the latter permeat- 
ing into all parts of the ship, even down 
‘into the engine-room. 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


“About 4.30 a. m. next day vessel 
cleared the black smoke, emerging into a 
fiery red haze, which turned into yellow, 
and by 6 a. m. the ashes had ceased to 
fall and the horizon was perfectly clear 
from west to north. 

“The wind now came from the north- 
west and vessel was headed for Chugach 
Islands, as the smoke and ash was still 
in the sky astern of us. 

“During the day Katmai continued to 
be emitting volumes of smoke and could 
be seen at a distance of over 100 miles. 

“The vessel was covered with ash from 
trucks to deck, the decks having ashes 
from 4 to 6 inches deep. 

“Made Seldovia June 7 at 8 p. m. and 
Homer at 11 p. m. Leaving Homer at 
11.30 p. m., proceeded on toward Seward. 
At 3.30 to 4 a. m. passed through bank 
of volcanic ash. At 7 a. m. vessel was in 
complete darkness again and | dropped 
the anchor near Clam Bay until 9.20; 
clearing a little, proceeded again and run 
out to sea. At 10 a. m. complete dark- 
ness again, which continued throughout 
the day until 4 p. m., when we ran out of 
the smoke area into brilliantly clear 
weather.” 


THE RAIN OF ASHES 


John E. Thwaites, mail clerk on the 
Dora, was quoted in a local paper as 
saying that at I p. m. an immense column 
of smoke was seen ascending from the 
westward, its diameter seeming to be at 
least half a mile or a mile. The column 
rapidly became dimmer, and a dark mass 
of cloud showed above it, mingled with 
it, and came toward the steamer. Soon 
the cloud obscured the column altogether, 
and afterward lightning was seen in the 
cloud. At 4 p. m. the edge of the cloud 
was directly overhead and the pictures 
were taken (see pages 154, 155). 

As the sun passed behind the edge of 
the cloud at this time, it immediately be- 
gan to grow dark. At 5 o’clock lights 
were turned on. At 6 o’clock the ad- 
vance edge of the cloud was out of sight 
beyond the horizon, and small white 
flakes began to fall. Darkness gradually 
increased as the streak of clear sky in the 
northwest narrowed, until “when the last 
ribbon of clear sky was suddenly ob- 


Photo by W. J. Erskine 
BARGE “ST. JAMES” AT KODIAK, JUNE 4, 1912, BEFORE THE ASH FALL 


Photo by W. J. Erskine 
THE “ST, JAMES” AT KODIAK, JUNE 9, 1912, AFTER THE ASH FALL 


“The buildings of the Navy wireless station, on Wood Island, were struck by lightning 
and burned on the evening of the 7th or the morning of the 8th. The darkness at the time 
was so intense that the flames could not be seen from the mission, less than 14 mile away. 
Late in the afternoon of June 8 partial daylight appeared and the fall of ash almost ceased 
(see page 156). There was darkness for practically 60 hours, at a distance of 100 miles 
from Katmai Volcano (see page 165). 


Photo and copyright by John E. Thwaites 


EDGE OF VOLCANIC CLOUD, 
FROM THE “DORA,” 75 MILES FROM 
VOLCANO (SEE PAGE 133) 


scured, the light snuffed out like a candle 
and we were left in absolute darkness.” 

Mr. Thwaites’ further statement of 
conditions during the darkness and fall 
of ashes on night of June 6, as published 
in the Seward Gateway of June 15, is as 
follows: 

“And now began the real rain of ashes; 
it fell in torrents; it swirled and eddied. 
Gravity seemed to have nothing to do 
with the course of its fall. The under 
side of the decks seemed to catch as much 
ashes as the sides or the decks under our 
feet. Bright clusters of electric light 
could be seen but. a few feet away, and 
we had to feel our way about the deck. 


LOOKING SOUTHWEST 


The officers of the deck had to close 
the windows of the _ pilot-house 
tightly, and even then it was with 
the greatest -dificulty that the man 
at the wheel could see the compass, 
through the thick dust that filled the 
room. In the meantime, lurid 
flashes of lightning glared contin- 
uously round the ship, while a con- 
stant boom of thunder, sometimes 
coinciding with the flash, increased 
the horror of the inferno raging 
about us. As far as seeing or hear- 
ing the water, or anything pertain- 
ing to earth, we might as well have 
been miles above the surface of the 
water. And still we knew the sun 
was more than two hours above 
the horizon. 


“Tn the saloon everything was 
white with a thick layer of dust, 
while a thick haze filled the air. 
The temperature raised rapidly, and 
the air, what there was left of it, 
became heavy, sultry, and _ stifling. 
Below deck conditions were cane 
able, while on deck it was worse 
still. Dust filled our nostrils, sifted 
down our backs, and smote the eye 
like a dash of acid. Birds floun- 
dered, crying wildly, through space 
and fell helpless to the deck.” 


BLACKNESS OF NIGHT AT MIDDAY 


The events at Kodiak during the 
eruption, including the appearance 
of the black volcanic clouds, the 
rain of ashes, the 60 hours of al- 
most continual darkness, the pre- 
cautions taken for the safety of the 
people, and the welcome return of 
clear skies, have already been vividly de- 
scribed in these pages by Captain Perry, 
of the revenue cutter Manning,* and 
will not be repeated in detail here. 

The aut clouds were first noticed 
about 4 p. June 6, in the south and 
west. ae cloud afterward appeared 
in the north, the two meeting in the 
northeast. Ash began to fall at 5 p. m., 
coming in gradually increasing volume. 
ZANE GD) ile “complete darkness. had shut 
down. ‘Thunder and lightning were ob- 
served soon after the cloud appeared, and 


*(See Nationa, GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, vol. 
xxi, No. 8, pp. 824-832.) 


154 


Photo and copyright by John E. Thwaites 


VOLCANIC ASH APPROACHING KODIAK ISLAND 


Photograph taken straight up from deck of the Dora, June 6, 1912 


Photo and copyright 
SMOKE FROM KATMAI VOLCANO AS IT PASSED OVER KODIAK ISLAND 
Photograph taken straight up from deck of the Dora June 6, 1912 


“The column rapidly became dimmer, and a dark mass of cloud showed above it, mingled 
with it, and came toward the steamer. Soon the cloud obscured the column altogether, and 
afterward lightning was seen in the cloud. . . . As the sun passed behind the edge of the 
cloud at this time, it immediately began to grow dark. . . . “The last ribbon of clear sky 
was suddenly obscured, the light snuffed out like a candle, and we were left in absolute 
darkness.’” (see pages 152, 154). 


Photo by H. C. Hermann 


ON BOARD THE “MANNING” AT KODIAK, JUNE 8, 1912 


continued in great severity throughout 
the rain of volcanic material, but dimin- 
ished in intensity after midnight of the 
6th. : 
The lightning was described by one 
observer as traveling like a snake and in 
some cases as going up from the earth 
in round balls. Electrical conditions 
were such that wireless apparatus could 
not be used. A number of severe earth- 
quakes were felt during the night. 

Ash fell continuously until 9.10 a. m., 
June 7, but in decreasing volume after 
3.a.m. The total fall of ash up to this 
time was originally about 5 inches, but 
packed down afterward to 4 inches, form- 
ing the lower and coarse gray stratum 
now on the ground (see page 166). 


THICK DARKNESS AND A RAIN OF ASHES 
FOR OVER 25 HOURS 


At noon, June 7, the fall of ash was 
renewed. At i p. m. darkness came 
again, not to be dispelled until after 2.30 


p. m. of the following day. During all 
this time the fall of ash was continuous 
and was accompanied at times by sul- 
phurous fumes. The darkness was in- 
tense, and the ash so thick in the ar that 
bright lights failed to penetrate it for 
more than a few feet. It is said that a 
lighted lantern held at arms length could 
barely be seen, and that the searchlight 
of the Manning failed to penetrate far- 
ther than the bow of the ship. By the 
morning of the 8th the ash had accumu- | 
lated in sufficient bulk on the steep hill- 
sides to begin sliding in great volumes. 
The buildings of the Navy wireless 
station on Wood Island were struck by 
lightning and burned on the evening of 
the 7th or the morning of the 8th. The 
darkness at the time was so intense that 
the flames could not be seen from the 
mission, less than %4 mile away. Late 
in the afternoon of June 8 partial day- 
light appeared and the fall of ash almost 
ceased. The ash which fell during this 


156 


THE END OF THE ASH FALL AT KODIAK: 


a 
~ Oe 


Photo by W. J. Erskine 
METHA NELSON” AND BARGE 


e 


SCHOONER 


“ST, JAMES,” JUNE 9, 1912 


time constitutes the second stratum, now 
4% inches thick, of fine-grained brown 
material. 

During the evening of June 8 the fall 
of ash was again resumed and continued 
until an unrecorded hour in the night, 
when it gradually diminished, entirely 
ceasing by the morning of the 9th, when 
daylight appeared. The ash which fell 
during this interval is the third stratum, 
composed of 1% inches of very fine- 
grained, light-gray material. 

Conditions as observed at Afognak by 
E. M. Ball differ in few essentials from 
those already described at Kodiak. The 
time of the appearance of the cloud is 
not recorded. It is, however, described 
as approaching in silence, there being no 
wind on the level of the ground and no 
thunder and lightning. 

The ash reached the west end of Kenai 
Peninsula early in the morning of June 
7, slight showers being reported at Port 
Graham at 3 a. m., and at Seldovia, 150 
miles from Katmai volcano, at about 
the same time. Explosions and earth- 
quakes had been noted since 9 a. m., 


June 6, becoming louder and more fre- 
quent throughout the day. The sky was 
overcast all day June 7, but there was 
no darkness, and comparatively small 
amounts of ash fell. The more heavily 
ash-laden clouds were at this time passing 
eastward, further south. 

Boats on Cook Inlet reported lightning 
rising from the water in the direction of 
Barren Islands. Explosions and earth- 
quakes were observed throughout the 
day. The next day there was a much 
heavier fall of ash, and there was moder- 
erate darkness for two hours during the 
forenoon. Frequent and violent earth- 
quakes and explosions were noted. A 
dense cloud of dust came slowly in from 
the south about 3 a. m., June 9. 

Ash fell from 5 a. m. till nearly noon, 
and inky darkness prevailed during part 
of this time. (This place is 150 miles 
from the Katmai volcano.) The fall of 
ash was much heavier than on the pre- 
ceding day, about 34 inch accumulating 
on the ground, and sulphur fumes accom- 
panied its fall. Explosions were heard 
at irregular intervals on the 9th and con- 


a 


158 


tinued in decreasing violence and fre- 
quency until the 14th. The last ash was 
recorded as falling on the 13th. 


EXTENT OF THE CLOUD OF ASHES 


The ash cloud reached the eastern end 
of Prince William Sound, 375 miles 
northeast of the volcano, about noon of 
June 7, at which time the log of the 
steamer Bertha records that the sun 
turned red in a clear sky, the air became 
hazy, and dust began falling. Cannonad- 
ing at irregular intervals was heard 
aboard the steamer at 2 a. m., June 8, at 
Cordova. ‘The Whiteshead wireless sta- 
tion reported at this time that the noises 
had already been heard there for 36 
hours. There was a light westerly breeze 
when the dust first came, but after the 
steamer passed Cape Hinchenbrook the 
wind came from the east, but the fall 
of ash increased, continuing until the 
steamer reached Juneau, at 8 p. m., June 
10. ‘Ihe heaviest fall was east of Cape 
St. Elias, in a fresh easterly breeze. 

Dust fell at Katalla (410 miles from 
Katmai volcano) 48 hours after the 
first explosions, which sounded like dis- 
charges of dynamite in the near-by hills. 
The ash came first on a southwest, but 
afterward on an east, wind. For about 
three days the air was so thick that one 
could see only a mile or two. There was 
no darkness, and only about 4 inch of 
ash fell. Vegetation was turned yellow. 

The steamer Admiral Sampson also 
reported that ash fell all the way from 
Seldovia to Juneau. The air was so 
thick that one could not see more than 
2 miles until passing Cape Spencer. 
Brass tarnished in 15 or 20 minutes after 
being polished. 

It was reported in the press that dust 
fell in Ketchikan (goo miles from Kat- 
mai) June 8, and in Vancouver and Vic- 
1OGia Jime 1 

Dust fell 90 miles southwest of Eagle 
the morning of the 1oth, and was re- 
ported from Dawson on the 11th. It fell 
also in small but appreciable quantities 
at Fairbanks, Ruby, and in the Innoko 
district. 

SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 


The freely erupting condition of the 
volcano, which appears to date from the 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


cessation of the continuous violent ex- 
plosions and of the ejection of large vol- 
umes of ashes, etc., about the 8th of June, 
continued until at least the last week in 
August. The exact conditions during 
this time are not known, but it is evident 
that violent earthquakes occurred fre- 
quently; that the crater or craters sent 
forth vast and probably continuous 
clouds of vapor, and that at times con- 
siderable dust was ejected. 

At Cold Bay (50 miles from Katmai 
Volcano), where complete daily records 
were kept from June 6 to August 15, 
earthquakes were recorded on 50 of the 
70 days from June 8 till August 15. They 
were heaviest on the following dates: 
June 8; 11, 13; 17, 21,22) 28) a) ula: 
21, 23, 24, 30, and 31. The most severe 
ones were noted on June II, 21, and 
July 30. 

Sounds, probably of volcanic explo- 
sions, were heard at Cold Bay on June 
17, 22, 28, July 9, 16, and August 13. 

The presence of fumes and falling 
dust at Cold Bay was influenced largely 
by the direction and intensity of the 
wind. Fumes were noted almost contin- 
ually from June 8 till July 5, from July 
12 till July 24, and on July 30 and 31, 
and August 10 to 12. They were strong- 
est on June 8 to II, 17, 23, 24, and Au- 
gust 5. A general decrease in their in- 
tensity is thus shown. Dust was preva- 
lent in the air until June 24, falling in 
sufficient amount to be seen upon the 
ground on June 10, 13, 17, 21, and 24. 

The times at which columns of steam 
and other visible evidence of conditions 
at the volcano could be seen from Cold 
Bay depended chiefly, if not wholly, 
upon weather conditions, and are conse- 
quently of little significance other than 
indicating that they were probably al- 
ways present. 

The glare of volcanic light upon the 
steam and clouds was observed on June 
23 and July 21 and 31. This phenome- 
non could be seen only during favorable 
weather conditions, so its apparent ab- 
sence at other times is not significant. 

Some of the phenomena observed at 
Cold Bay were of widespread occurrence: 

On the morning of June 9 observers 
at Naknek, 80 miles northwest of the 
volcano, saw a beautiful illuminated fun- 


Photo by W. J. Erskine 
THE END OF THE ASH FALL AT KODIAK 


Photo by W. J. Erskine 


A PORCH WHICH COLLAPSED BENEATH THE WEIGHT OF THE ASHES 

_ Many of the houses at Kodiak were wrecked by the weight of ashes which descended 
in avalanches from the hillside. In other cases the roots collapsed under the weight ot 
ashes, for the deposits were frequently as much as 24 inches in thickness. 


Photo by George C. Martin 
SPRUCES NEAR KODIAK, WITH SOME ASH REMAINING ON THE BOUGHS, BUT NOT AS 
MUCH AS IN MORE SHELTERED PLACES: SEPTEMBER 4, IQ12 


160 


THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


nel-shaped cloud, which rose straight 
into the air to a considerable altitude, 
and, as there was no wind, retained its 
shape. It afterward assumed different 
colors and dissolved into cloud banks, 
being illuminated all the time. A similar 
cloud was observed from Iliamna, 115 
miles north-northeast of the volcano and 
135 miles from Naknek, at the same 
time, the description differing from the 
above only in the statement that in losing 
its funnel-shape form it assumed “the 
shape of a ship.” 

A severe earthquake was felt in the 
Yukon Valley and Alaska Range on July 
6, the after effects continuing for about 
a week. It was apparently not felt in 
southwestern Alaska, and it is very 
doubtful whether it has any connection 
with the volcanic disturbance, as it was 
apparently central to the north of Mount 
McKinley. 

Strong sulphurous fumes were re- 
ported by several on board the Manning 
from 6 to 9 a.m., July 27, when south of 
Marmot Island and about 120 miles east 
of the voleano. The author did not notice 
the fumes, but they were of sufficient 
strength to darken the new white-lead 
paint on the Manning and in Kodiak. 

An immense column of steam ascend- 
ing through the ordinary clouds in the 
position of Mount Katmai was seen by 
the writer during the evening of August 
12 from Takli Island. While anchored 
here we heard almost continuous roar 
as of waterfalls or of surf on the islands, 
but no such surf was seen. Possibly 
the sound came from landslides in the 
ash, but more likely from the volcano. 


THE RAIN THAT TARNISHED SILVER 


On August 15 the writer was at the 
mouth of Katmai River. The wind was 
from the west and the sky was clear 
much of the day, except for cloud caps 
on the mountains. 

The hills from west (magnetic) around 
through the north to the east (magnetic) 
of Katmai village were enveloped in a 
blue haze, which became denser through- 
out the morning. At noon the haze be- 
came so thick that the end of the ridge 
north of the Steamboat Bay Valley and 
the low hill 2 miles northwest of Kat- 


161 


mai village were invisible from our an- 
chorage, a mile above the mouth of the 
river. 

Rain fell during the middle of the 
morning. The drops of water striking 
the eyes produced a sharp pain, and brass 
and silver were tarnished by the drops. 
The blue haze was thickest about noon 
and came nearer with the stronger wind, 
receding as the wind lightened. About 
I p. m. it became oppressively sultry, an 
apparent glare of heat being noted from 
the north. No sounds attributable to the 
volcanoes could be heard, nor were earth- 
quakes felt. Photographs were taken, 
showing the edge of the haze on the end 
of the ridge west (magnetic) of our an- 
chorage. No clouds over the volcanoes 
could be seen on account of the haze. 

On August 16 sulphurous fumes were 
noted by H. M. Eakin at the Ophir Creek 
mines, 350 miles north of the volcano. 

On August 17 earthquakes were felt 
at Naknek. They were so violent as to 
upset lamps on the table. Reports either 
of thunder or explosions were also heard. 


COMPARISON WITH OTHER ERUPTIONS 


The magnitude of a volcanic eruption 
is not properly measured by the loss of 
life and damage to property which it 
caused, for these are the accidental re- 
sults of the eruption and are due largely 
to the chance proximity of cities. It is 
rather to be measured in terms of the 
natural phenomena; the quantity and dis- 
tribution of the ejected material, the dis- 
tance at which sound waves, dust, dark- 
ness, and fumes were observed, the vio- 
lence of the accompanying earthquakes, 
the distribution and intensity of the re- 
sulting atmospheric conditions, and other 
natural phenomena of various kinds. 

The greatest eruptions on record, meas- 
ured by criteria of these kinds, include 
those of Krakatoa in 1883, Coseguina in 
1835, Tomboro in 1815, Skaptar-Jokull 
in 1783, and Papandayang in 1772. The 
eruption of Katmai was apparently of a 
magnitude comparable with some of 
these (see article by Dr. Abbot in this 
number ). 

Comparing the eruption of Katmai 
with that of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait 
between Java and Sumatra, in 1883, we 


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164 


THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT KATMAI 


find the volumes of ejected materials are 
not far from equal, but the explosive 
violence of the Krakatoa eruption was 
by far the greater. The explosions of 
Krakatoa were heard at a distance of 
3,000 miles; those of Katmai were not 
recorded farther away than Juneau, a 
distance of 750 miles. But it should be 
noted that the country east of Juneau is 
chiefly an uninhabited wilderness, from 
which sounds are not likely to be re- 
ported, and that the more distant reports 
of sounds from Krakatoa came from 
islands and sailing vessels, both of which 
were more numerous in the Indian than 
in the North Pacific Ocean. 

Darkness was recorded at a distance of 
276 miles from Krakatoa and only at 150 
miles from Katmai. The darkness lasted, 
however, only 22 hours at a distance of 
133 miles and for 57 hours at a distance 
of 49 miles from Krakatoa, while there 
was darkness for practically 60 hours at 
a distance of 100 miles from Katmai. 

The ash from Krakatoa fell to a depth 
of 18 inches in 24 hours at a distance of 
66 miles, while the depth of the ash from 
Katmai was about 12 inches at a distance 
of 100 miles. (See also article by C. G. 
Abbot, page 191, in this number.) 

The dust from Krakatoa fell at least 
1,800, and possibly 3,300, miles away; 
that from Katmai has not been recorded 
‘authentically farther than Ketchikan, goo 
miles away, but probably fell in small 
amounts at a distance of 1,200 or 1,500 
miles. Here again it must be noted that 
the direction of heaviest ash fall from 
Katmai extended into the wilderness of 
British Columbia, where its maximum 
extent is difficult to recognize. 

It is probably fair to conclude that the 
eruptions of Krakatoa and Katmai were 
of approximately equal magnitude, the 
former exceeding in the brief intensity 
of its culminating explosion, the latter in 
sustained violence, and the two being 
about equal in the quantity of material 
ejected (see also pages 166, 167). 


THE GREATEST KNOWN ERUPTION 


The eruption of Tomboro, on the 
island of Sumbawa, east of Java, in 
1815, if the published reports are to be 


‘mated at 28.6, 


165 


credited, appears to have exceeded all 
other known eruptions. It caused dark- 
ness lasting for three consecutive days 
at a distance of over 300 miles. Ash fell 
to a depth of 2 feet more than 850 miles 
away. Dust fell over an area of 1,000,- 
000 square miles. The explosions were 
heard at a distance of 1,000 miles. The 
material ejected has been variously esti- 
and even at 50 cubic 
miles. 

The eruption of Skaptar-Jokull, in 
Iceland, in 1783, appears to share with 
Tomboro the preeminence as the greatest 
eruption known. Comparison with the 
other eruptions here described is made 
difficult by the fact that the larger part 
of the material ejected was lava ‘and not 
ash. The immense flows of lava from 
Skaptar-Jokull exceed in volume any- 
thing known during historic times. In 
addition to this, there were showers of 
ashes throughout the island, the atmos- 
phere over Iceland was loaded with fine 
dust for months, crops were destroyed in 
Scotland, 600 miles away, and plants 
were blighted and sulphurous fumes 
were noted even in Holland, 1,100 or 
1,200 miles away. 

The eruption of Papandayang, in 
western Java, in 1772, was accompanied 
by the extrusion of much larger quanti- 
ties of material than were thrown out by 
Krakatoa in 1883. Towns were buried 
under ejected materials at long distances 
from the mountain. The volcano was 
reduced in height from 9,000 feet to 
5,000 feet. 

The more famous eruptions of history, 
such as those of the Mediterranean, 
which are not mentioned above, occupy 
a prominent place in human, rather than 
in geologic, history. These volcanoes 
are famous because they are situated in 
thickly settled districts, and have conse- 
quently been familiar objects to millions 
of people, while their eruptions have 
caused great loss of life and property, 
not primarily because of their violence, 
but because of the proximity of the peo- 
ple and cities. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE EJECTED MATERIAL 


The character of the material ejected 
from Mount Katmai is as yet known 


166 


Photo by George C, Martin 


ENORMOUS DRIFTS OF VOLCANIC ASHES AT AMALIK BAY, DEEPLY TRENCHED BY SUBSEQUENT EROSION: AUGUST I0, 1912 


This place is 1514 miles from Katmai Volcano 


Note thickness of beds compared with height of men. 


only from the deposits which fell 
at distances greater than 15 miles 
from the mountain. If streams 
of lava flowed out, they did not 
come within sight of the coast. 
The deposits which were studied 
in detail vary in thickness from 
55 inches at the head of Amalik 
Bay, 15% miles from the moun- 
tain, to 34 inches at the east end 
of Afognak Island, 113 miles 
from the volcano. 

Throughout this entire district, 
at least three layers correspond- 
ing to the three major outbreaks 
can be observed. The bottom 
layer is of relatively coarse gray 
material; the middle layer is 
finer and is brown, and the upper 
layer is the finest and is light 
gray or almost white. Each layer 
decreases in thickness with the 
distance from the volcano, the 
decrease being most marked in 
the bottom and middle layers 
(see pages 132 and 176). 

The bottom layer consists of 
fragments of pumice mixed with 
a small proportion of fragments 
of crystals of feldspars and py- 
roxenes and other dark minerals. 
The pumice -is consolidated lava-. 
froth, mostly white, and varies in 
size from pieces I or 2 ounces in 
weight and 2 or 3 inches in long- 
est dimension, which fell 15 miles 
from the volcano, to. material of 
the grain of fine sand, which fell 
70 to 100 miles away. 

The middle or brown material 
near the base of the mountain 
consists of several layers, which 
differ from the lower bed in con- 
taining a smaller proportion of 
crystalline material and in con- 
taining a considerable amount of 
yellowish and brownish pumice. 
At distances of 70 to 80 miles 
from the mountain this material 
consists of two brown layers, the 
lower one of sandy grain and the 
upper of very fine dust. At dis- 
tances of 90 to 100 miles from 
the mountain only a single layer 
could be recognized, and that was 
composed of impalpable brown 
dust. 


SECONDARY ACCUMULATION 


The uppermost material consists of 
fine light gray or white material, varying 
less in grain with the distance from the 
mountain than the other layers. It con- 
sists of several alternating layers of fine 
sand and very fine dust near the moun- 
tain, and of a single layer of extremely 
fine white dust at a distance. 

The finer material and the dust of all 
the layers are apparently composed 
chiefly of pulverized pumice of the same 
character as the larger pieces. This ma- 
terial in petrographic character is appar- 
ently rhyolitic. 

The various layers aggregate about 4.9 
cubic miles in bulk, extending over an 
area of many thousand square miles and 
ranging in thickness from 4% feet 15 
miles from the crater to almost one foot 
100 miles away and to the fraction of an 
inch 150 miles away. 


THE CHANGE IN THE LANDSCAPE 


The effect of this covering on the 
landscape is well illustrated in the photo- 
graphs (pages 166 and 168) taken on 
Takli Island, which lies in the mouth of 
Amalik Bay, about 21 miles southeast of 
the volcano, and was nearly in the direct 


167 


Photo by George C. Martin 
OF PUMICE AT BASE OF MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK 
BAY, AUGUST I0, I9QI2 


track of the heaviest ash fall. This island 
is the place where those who risk the 
hazardous bidarka voyage across Sheli- 
kof Strait watch and wait for favorable 
weather. A small cove on the inner side 
of the island afforded shelter for our 
schooner during a northeast gale, which 
lasted several days, while the hills 
formed good lookout points from which 
the clouds pouring out from the volcano 
could be watched and studied at such 
fortunate moments as storm and fog per- 
mitted. 

The island was covered with 3 feet of 
volcanic detritus, in which there were 
numerous fragments of pumice an inch 
long. The scene was a dreary one—a 
gray expanse of ashes broken only by a 
few ledges of ancient lava, patches of 
half-killed willow and stunted birch, and 
two small groves of young spruce. These 
spruce trees are of interest as being the 
westernmost evergreens on the Pacific 
coast of America. They are far from 
others of their kind, and I suspect that 
the Russians may have planted them 
there as they did at Unalaska. 

The surface of the ash was strewn 
with recently killed willow and alder 


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170 


Photo by George C. Martin 


DOUGLAS VILLAGE, SHOWING BARABARAS COATED WITH ASH, GRASS COMING THROUGH THE ASH, AND RUNS OF WET ASH ON THE STEEP 


SLOPES 


The ash was thoroughly saturated from rains at the time the picture was taken, July 14, 1912 


leaves, too fresh to have 
been killed at the eruption 
of June 6. They may have 
fallen, because the bushes 
were slowly dying through 
suffocation, or may have 
been withered by a more re- 
cent volcanic blast. Fumes 
were noticeable while we 
were there, in spite of the 
fact that the wind was pre- 
vailingly from the east. 

I believe that a steady 
northwest wind at a time 
of only. moderate activity 
would have carried suffi- 
cient fumes to make even 
vegetable life precarious. 
The only indications we 
saw of animal life in this 
locality were soaring eagles 
and tracks of foxes. 

Amalik Bay heads back 
among the high mountains 
at a distance of about 15 
miles from the volcano. 
We here realized that we 
were indeed in a volcanic 
land, for through the clouds 
of volcanic vapors which 
were pouring over the 
mountain crests and under 
the thick covering of the 
volcanic detritus of last 
June could be seen layer 
upon layer of columnar 
lava, aggregating at least 
3,000 feet in thickness, 
which poured out from 
some mighty vents, prob- 
ably in Miocene time, per- 
haps a million years ago. 
These ancient volcanic 
rocks, mantled by those of 
June, except on the cliffs 
too steep for the latter to 
lodge, are shown in all the 
views taken from this bay. 

It was near the head of 
Amalik Bay that the thick- 
est ash accumulation was 
found. Fifty-five inches on 
the level was measured at 
one point, this thickness 
representing the original 
fall and not a secondary ac- 
cumulation. The material 


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DRY CHANNEL OR GULCH ERODED IN ACCUMULATION OF VOLCANIC ASHES AT BASE 
OF MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK, AUGUST I0, 1912 


included one piece the size of a brick, 
which had traveled through the air for 
15 miles. 


THREE DOGS ESCAPE DEATH 


Katmai lies desolate on the edge of the 
great gray waste. It was fortunate that 
the people went away before the erup- 
tion, for a breath of hell swept down the 
valley, bringing death even to the trees. 
The only living things we saw were a 
few spears of grass, which had pushed 
up through the places where the wind 
had swept part of the ash away, and 
three dogs, who had escaped either by 
seeking refuge in the inner and deeper 
recesses of the barabaras or who possibly 
had been away on a hunt. The scene 
was the more deathly because it lay on 
‘the edge and in full view of the bril- 
liantly green and undevastated country 
to the west (see page 146). 

The appearance of this newly altered 
landscape is also shown in the views taken 
in the vicinity of Kodiak. The dust fell as 
a dry and impalpable powder, which was 
incapable of supporting weight. Heavy 
rains fell soon afterward, the greater part 
of the water being absorbed by the dust, 


mush. 


which acquired the consistency of soft 
It was in this condition at Doug- 
las Village when we landed there. At 
every step one would sink to the ground, 
the feet sticking in the soft mud as in 
molten tar. When this water-soaked ma- 
terial dried, it cracked as mud does in 
drying. The cracks are in places 2 inches 
wide and extend through the two upper- 
most and finer layers (see page 172). 

Hilltops and ridges are being swept 
bare, and thick drifts similar in form 
and surface to sand dunes are accumu- 
lating. At times of high wind the air is 
thick with the drifting dust. In the for- 
ested areas a large part of this dust is 
derived from the trees, the forests look- 
ing as if brush fires were running 
through them. 

As soon as the material fell to such a 
thickness that it was not held down by 
the grass it began sliding down the 
steeper slopes. This action was accentu- 
ated by the rains, and large volumes de- 
scended the steep hillsides back of Kodiak 
carrying houses off their foundations and 
crushing in the walls. Such deposits are 
shown in many of the Kodiak views (see 


pages 134, 140, 173). 


174 


CREEK CUTTING A CHANNEL IN A DEEP ACCUMULATION OF VOLCANIC ASHES AT BASE 
OF MOUNTAIN WEST OF AMALIK BAY, AUGUST IO, IQI2 


“The streams are heavily overloaded with the volcanic detritus, and consequently are 
rapidly building up and extending their flood-plains, and are constructing large alluvial fans 


at their mouths and at points of flattening grade. 
of tributaries are changing the grades and even the courses of some of the streams. 


Avalanches and deposition at the mouths 
Lakes 


are being rapidly filled and great changes are being made in shore-lines.” 


DEPOSITS FORMED MORE THAN 


THICK 


25 FEET 


In the area of thicker ash-fall and on 
the steeper mountain slopes tremendous 
avalanches took place. ‘The immense ac- 
cumulations formed in this way are 
shown in the views from Katmai and 
from Amalik Bay. Much of this mate- 
rial had, on August 12, come to rest tem- 
porarily at least, but the enormous de- 
posits gave evidence as to what the char- 
acter of the avalanching must have been 
and inspired caution in climbing steep 
slopes. 

The deposits along the stream below 
the waterfall, shown in view above, had 
been deeply trenched by the stream after 
it spread them. A thickness of over 25 
feet was exposed and still the base of the 
deposits was not reached. This expo- 
sure is, moreover, not at the very foot of 
the hill, where the greatest thickness 
must have been deposited. 

The streams are heavily overloaded 
with the volcanic detritus, and conse- 


quently are rapidly building up and ex- 
tending their flood-plains, and are con- 
structing large alluvial fans at their 
mouths and at points of flattening grade. 
Avalanches and deposition at the mouths 
of tributaries are changing the grades 
and even the courses of some of the 
streams. Lakes are being rapidly filled 
and great changes are being made in 
shore-lines. 

MASSES OF PUMICE COVER THE SEA 

The pumice is being washed into the 
sea by the combined action of streams, 
waves, and tides. There it forms great 
floating fields, which migrate with the 
winds and tides and greatly impede the 
navigation of small craft such as ours. 
An immense field of pumice which visited 
our anchorage at Takli Island is shown 
on page 178. The view shows the dis 
tance to which a dory could be forced 
into it. This visitor came and went under 
the influence of tidal currents and winds, 
and constituted a menace which led us 
to seek a more sheltered nook for our 


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178 


Photo by John E. Thwaites 


THE WAKE OF THE “DORA” THROUGH THE FLOATING PUMICE 


Fishermen reported a field of pumice in Shelikof Strait dense enough to support a man. 
The pumice consists of rhyolitic glass, with a small amount of crystals of feldspars and 


pyroxenes. 


It is a lava which solidified at a time when it was giving off gases, and is con- 


sequently of a porous and spongy texture, which makes it so light that it will float. 


boat. Even this was invaded by the float- 
ing rock, which jammed tight around and 
carried our boat with it when it moved, 
in spite of two anchors and two pieces 
of pig iron down, and forced us to make 
fast to a projecting cliff. The floating 
pumice was twelve inches thick alongside 
the boat and possibly was much thicker 
in the center of a large field. Fishermen 
reported a pumice field dense enough to 
support a man in Shelikof Strait. 

The pumice, once in the sea, will drift 
around until it is thrown high upon some 
beach, is ground to powder, or finally 
becomes waterlogged and sinks. 


EFFECT ON LIFE 


The effect of the eruption on whatever 
vegetation clothed the flanks of the vol- 
cano was certainly annihilation. The 
position of the death-line around the 
mountain is not known, but it came prac- 
tically down to the sea, 15 miles from 
the crater at Katmai. The conditions 
under which the bushes in Katmai Val- 
ley were killed is uncertain, but a hot 
blast like that of Pelée is suggested. 
The brush is living in Amalik Bay, no 
farther from the volcano, and where the 


fall of ash was twice as great as at 
Katmai. 

The effect on the vegetation of Kodiak 
and Afognak islands was apparently 
only that of burial. Where the ash was 
washed off, even after many weeks, the 
grass soon came up, and apparently 
showed the effects of no other injury 
than that which would be caused by a 
similar burial under any other material. 
The stronger-stemmed plants, especially 
the fireweed, lupines, and some of the 
grasses, forced their way up through the 
cracks in the ash, and even through its 
solid mass where the thickness was not 
too great (see page 180). 

The finer dust stuck to the trees, espe- 
cially to the spruces, causing a wintry- 
looking scene which lasted all summer. 
This fine dust does not wash or shake 
off readily, and probably will cling to the 
more sheltered spruces for many years. 
The dust from the eruption of Redoubt 
in January, 1902, was still lodged on the 
spruces along Lake Clark in the summer 
of 1909. It apparently had a serious ef- 
fect upon the trees, only the tops and 
the outer tips of the boughs showing a 
healthy growth. This same after effect 


= 9) 


sapmemeermmnerrant 


Photo by George C. Mai tin 


LUPINES GROWING THROUGH CRACKS IN THE ASH NEAR KODIAK, SEPTEMBER 4, IQ12 


“The stronger-stemmed plants, especially the fireweed, lupines, and some of the grasses, 
forced their way up through the cracks in the ash, and even through its solid mass where the 


thickness was not too great” (see page 178). 


is to be expected on Kodiak and Afog- 
nak islands and in lesser degree on the 
southern end of Kenai Peninsula. 

The leaves of the currants, salmon 
berries, and many other of the shrubs 
and herbs on Kenai Peninsula and Prince 
William Sound were blighted by the dust 
or by the acid rain which fell there. 
This effect, curiously enough, did not 
occur in the district of thicker ash. 

Marine life was affected to a larger 
degree than would perhaps be expected. 
The writer observed that the barnacles 
and mussels as far down as low tide in 
Katmai Bay were mostly dead. Kelp is 
apparently dead as far as the eastern end 
of Afognak Island. This is indeed a 
catastrophe, since the kelp is the one 
great aid to navigation on the Alaskan 
coast. Cod and halibut are reported to 
have died in great numbers in the shal- 
lower waters of lower Cook Inlet. 


ANIMALS STRICKEN WITH BLINDNESS 


The bears on Kodiak and Afognak 
islands were made bold by hunger, and 


attacked cattle in close proximity to the 
villages. It is reported that some of the 
bears were blind. 

In the vicinity of Ihamna Lake, where 
not over 4 inches and for the most part 
less than 1 inch of ash fell, most of the 
small birds died, many rabbits were 
made blind, and the reindeer were se- 
riously affected by the dust. Dead gulls, 
geese, ducks, ptarmigan, snipe, hawks, 
and many small birds were found at the 
mouth of Kakhonak River. A dead 
eagle was found hanging in a tree in such 
a position that he was probably killed by 
flying into the tree when blind. Blind 
rabbits, and birds which were either 
blind or had their eyes affected, were 
noted at several places in the Iliamna 
district. Small fish in some of the creeks 
were killed, and the fish in the lakes 
were driven offshore into deep water. 

Small birds, squirrels, marmots, and 
mice were killed at Cold Bay. Mosqui- 
toes were entirely exterminated through- 
out the greater part of the district in 
which the ash fell. 


180 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


Man escaped the injuries received by 
the other animals by seeking shelter. 
Many of the people reported severe 
headaches, pains in the throat and lungs, 
and sore eyes while the dust and fumes 
were in the air. Two or three people in 
Kodiak died during the eruption, but 
their deaths are considered as_ being 
merely hastened by exposure and by 
breathing the dust and as not due pri- 
marily to the eruption. 

Man was indirectly affected by the 
eruption through the injury to other ani- 
mal life and to vegetation. The scarcity 
of salmon during the summer of 1912, 
the injury to crops and grass, and the 
destruction of game and fur animals 


181 


must all be counted as indirect, but none 
the less serious, injuries to man. The ef- 
fect on the salmon, through the probably 
complete filling of all the smaller lakes 
by the ash, which will for years work 
down the streams and hillsides into them, 
and through the possibly permanent de- 
struction of the spawning grounds, is 
probably the most serious of these in- 
juries. 

Vegetation will be affected only tem- 
porarily, the soil will probably be im- 
proved, and the people can feel assured 
that not in many years, and possibly not 
in centuries, can the volcano accumulate 
enough force to cause another eruption 
of this character. 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR 
CLIMATE? 


By C. G. ABBor 


DrrECTOR ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION* 


With Photographs by George C. Martin 


engaged in making measurements 

at Bassour, Algeria, on the quantity 
of heat coming to the earth from the 
sun. At the same time my colleague, Mr. 
F. E. Fowle, was- engaged in making 
similar measurements at Mount Wilson, 
in California. Recent work of the As- 
trophysical Observatory had strongly in- 
dicated that the sun is a variable star. 
The fluctuations in the amount of the 
solar radiation seemed to be of variable 
magnitudes, seldom exceeding 5 per 
cent, and occurring in irregular periods 
of from 5 to 10 days. 

The work on which this conclusion 
was based had been done at Mount Wil- 
son, in California, and it was not impos- 
sible that local atmospheric conditions 
may have had such an influence there 
that the observed changes might possi- 
bly be of atmospheric origin. To ex- 
clude this possibility it was necessary to 
show that the same results would be 
reached by simultaneous observations at 
another station so remote from Mount 


| N THE month of June, 1912, I was 


* Published by permission of the Secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution. 


Wilson that the local circumstances 
would be entirely different. 

Hence it was that an expedition occu- 
pied the station in Algeria in 1911, and 
again in 1912. As we shall not have 
occasion to refer again to the main pur- 
pose of the expedition, it will suffice to 
say here that, so far as yet reduced, 
high values of solar radiation obtained 
in Algeria coincide in time with high 
values obtained at Mount Wilson, and 
vice versa; so that the results seem to 
strongly confirm the supposed solar va- 
riation. 


DUST FROM ALASKA OBSERVED IN ALGERIA 


While observing on June 19, 1912, I 
noted streaks resembling smoke lying 
along the horizon, as if there were a 
forest fire in the neighborhood of the 
station. These appearances continued, 
and were soon joined by others more 
noticeable. After a day or two we 
began to see peculiar mottled figures 
like those of the mackerel sky, although 
absolutely no clouds were present. The 
phenomenon became so marked that we 
ceased entirely our observations of the 


solar radiation, as the sky seemed to be 
quite too poor for such work. 

About the 25th of June a cloudy pe- 
riod began, with rain, and after this, of 
course, we expected that all these curious 
sky phenomena would have passed away ; 
but not so, for when the clouds had quite 
passed by, about the 29th of June, we 
found that the whole sky was filled with 
haze, and this state of affairs continued 
even more pronounced until the expedi- 
tion left Algeria, about September fo. 

For a long time I supposed the hazi- 
ness was local, but in- August a letter 
from Mr. Fowle told me that at Mount 
Wilson also the same conditions pre- 
vailed, and the presumption was that 
they were world-wide. I then recalled 
reading in an American paper of the 
volcanic eruption at Mount Katmai, and 
turning to the paper, which fortunately 
had not been destroyed, I saw that the 
magnitude of the eruption must have 
been very great, and was perhaps the 
cause of the phenomena which we had 
observed. 

On my return to America I found the 
matter even more certain, for Professor 
Kimball, of the Weather Bureau, re- 
ported a great increase of haziness at 
Mount Weather, Virginia, beginning on 
June fo. European journals ‘also began 


182 


Photo by George C. Martin 
LUPINES GROWING THROUGH THE ASH NEAR KODIAK 


to be filled with notices of an extraor- 
dinary haziness which had _ prevailed 
throughout the summer in Europe. 


THE DUST TRAVELED 25 TO 40 MILES AN 
HOUR 


Assuming these effects to have been 
due to the volcano in Alaska, it is inter- 
esting to note the rate at which the dis- 
turbances were propagated. Mr. Kimball 
noted the effect at Mount Weather, Vir- 
ginia, 3,700 miles from Katmai, on June 
to and 11. The writer noted effects in 
Algeria on June 19, but the observations 
seemed to indicate that they were be- 
coming appreciable as early as the morn- 
ing of June 17. This was at a distance 
of 6,000 miles.* The first observations 
of Mr. Fowle were noted on June 21 at 
Mt. Wilson, distant 2,500 miles from 
Mount Katmai. 

The rates of propagation then were 
roughly as follows: Toward Washington, 
40 miles per hour; toward Bassour, 25 
miles per hour; toward Mount Wilson, 
3 miles per hour. The great delay in 
reaching Mount Wilson was doubtless 
because the prevailing winds in the higher 
atmosphere have a course from westerly 


* By shortest course directly over the North 
Pole. It is probable that the actual course was 
much longer. 


BLUEBELLS AND MOSS AMONG THE ASHES: 


toward easterly, so that Mount Wilson 
lay decidedly too far to the south for the 
most favorable communication. 


HOW THE SUN’S HEAT IS MEASURED 


Before taking up the question of the 
reasonableness of the hypothesis that the 
dust from Mount Katmai was distributed 
all over the higher atmosphere and re- 
mained there for months in suspension, 
we may consider for a moment the exact 
effects which were observed with our 
apparatus and the nature of the appa- 
ratus with which these effects were ob- 
served. 

In the first place we have the pyrheli- 
ometer, an instrument for measuring the 
heating effect of the sun at the earth’s 
surface. In the second place we have 
the spectro-bolometer, that wonderful de- 
vice of Langley for observing the exces- 
sively minute heating effects of the rays 
of the solar spectrum. Imagine that you 
have before you a very intense solar 
spectrum, and that it is still early morn- 
ing, with the sun perhaps an hour and a 
half high. 

If you had a thin, delicate blackened 
thermometer, you could carry it along in 
the spectrum from the extreme ultra- 
violet to far beyond the red, and detect 


eS AR 


- —., . 
tm wit Te 


Photo by George C. Martin 


MIDDLE BAY, SEPTEMBER I2, I9QI2 


varying degrees of temperature rise, pro- 
portional to the heat produced by each 
spectral ray. It would make no differ- 
ence whether these lay between the violet 
and the red and were visible to the eye, 
or were the short wave-length photo- 
graphic rays beyond the visible end of 
the violet spectrum, or the long wave- 
length rays lying beyond the visible end 
of the red. All would produce their just 
and proportional heating effects upon this 
delicate thermometer. At each of the 
Fraunhofer absorption lines the ther- 
mometer would fall slightly. 

The “A” band of oxygen would pro- 
duce a comparatively great decrease of 
temperature, and beyond the red there 
would be still more prominently the great 
bands, due to the water vapor in the 
earth’s atmosphere. 

Suppose now that several hours latet 
you repeated the experinient. You would 
find that, excepting in these great water- 
vapor bands, practically every part of 
the spectrum was hotter than before, and 
that the change had been greatest in the 
violet end. Knowing the altitude of the 
sun above the horizon at each time of 
observation, you could compute the thick- 
ness of the layer of air traversed by the 
solar beam. 


From this it would be possible to de- 
termine how much the intensity of the 
rays would have been increased had the 
observation been made outside of the at- 
mosphere altogether—as if it could have 
been made, for instance, upon the moon. 
From this result one could determine 
how much the rays of each part of the 
spectrum were diminished in intensity by 
their passage through the atmosphere on 
their way to the surface of the earth. 


INSTRUMENT THAT MEASURES ONE- 
MILLIONTH PART OF A 
DEGREE OF HEAT 


AN 


No ordinary thermometer would be of 
any value for this purpose; but the bo- 
lometer invented by Langley about 1881 
is an electrical thermometer so sensitive 
that a change of temperature of 1 one- 
millionth part of a degree is observable 
with it under ordinary conditions. 

We were equipped with such an ap- 
paratus at Bassour, and Mr. Fowle had 
one similar on Mount Wilson, and with 
these, following the scheme of operations 
which I have indicated above, we meas- 
ured for all rays of the solar spectrum 
the transparency of the atmosphere. 
Similar measurements have been made 
at Mount Wilson for many years, and 
were made in Algeria in the year I9QI1. 


{ Photo by George C. Martin 
ASH IN FOREST NEAR HEAD OF WOMAN'S BAY, NEAR UZINKI, AUGUST I, I912 


The following table shows the decrease 
in the transparency of the atmosphere, 
first for the beam of the sun as a whole, 
and then for the rays of different re- 
gions of the solar spectrum: 


Percentage Decrease of Direct Solar Radiation 
by Haze of 1912 


Computed for Solar Zenith Distance 48° 


Station. Bassour. 

Radha non, Total. ee Green. Tite 
Wave-length..... All. | 3,700 | 5,300 | 10,000 
UDG eo) ies Sse 18.0 | 21.4 | 22.2 16.8 
August I to 31...] 19.3 19.7 24.3 14.9 
September 5...... 16.4 | 14.3 18.3 14.9 

Station. Mount Wilson. 

Radiation. Total eres Green. ine 
Wave-length..... All. | 3,700 | 5,300 | I0,000 
July 1 to 31...... 10.7 15.5 12.9 5-4 
August I to 31...| 16.8 27.5 23.1 14.0 
September 5...... 17.1 tees sisahe eee 


20 PER CENT OF SUN’S HEAT LOST IN IQI2 


From these results we see that the un- 
common haziness of the sky during the 


184 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


summer of 1912 produced a very marked 
decrease in the direct solar radiation in 
all parts of the spectrum,* and reached 
nearly 20 per cent at high sun for the 
total heat. 

There was, however, some compensa- 
tion in the increased brightness of the 
sky for this apparently very great loss in 
1g12. In order to understand this, think 
for a moment what happens to the sun- 
rays before they reach the earth’s sur- 
face. If we could go outside the carth’s 
atmosphere—to the moon, for instance— 
the sky would look dark as it does at 
night, studded with stars, except when we 
looked directly toward the brilliant sun, 
which would shine wholly undimmed. It 
is the earth’s atmosphere which changes 
all this, for in the passage of a sunbeam 
through it, even on a cloudless day, two 
kinds of losses occur—one imperceptible 
to the eye, the other giving us the sky- 
light. 

Firstly, some of the invisible rays of 
the infra-red spectrum are totally ab- 
sorbed by the water vapor, oxygen, and 
carbon-dioxide of the earth’s atmosphere, 
and cease to exist as radiation long be- 
fore the sunbeam reaches the earth’s sur- 
face. Secondly, the molecules of the air 
and the fine dust suspended in it scatter 
and diffusely reflect the sun-rays, and 
make the sky bright, much as the motes 
of dust in a sun-lit room reveal the path 
of the sunbeam in it. 

Thus, of the sun-rays scattered in the 
earth’s atmosphere, some reach the ob- 
server at the earth’s surface, coming no 
longer from the sun directly, but dif- 
fusely reflected from every part of the 
sky. The remainder are scattered away 
into space and lost altogether for the 
purpose of heating and lighting the 
earth. 


HEAT REFLECTED INTO SPACE INSTEAD OF 
REACHING THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 


It is this last-mentioned portion which 
most interests us here, for we wish to 
inquire how much more heat than is 
usual was lost to the earth by reflection 
of the atmosphere to space in 1912, owing 


* This circumstance must have caused a de- 
cided increase in the exposures required by 
- photographers for solio prints. 


185 


to the dust which came from Katmai 
volcano. One can easily see that since 
the light of the sky and the loss by re- 
flection to space both depend on the pres- 
ence of the molecules and the dust of the 
atmosphere, an increase of the dust (at 
least up to a certain point) must make 
the sky brighter and the loss to space 
greater also. 

What, then, do we ordinarily receive 
from the sun? 

(A) The direct solar beam. 

(B) The skylight. 

What else would we have received if 
there were no atmosphere? 

(C) The rays absorbed by atmospheric 
vapors. 

(D) The rays reflected away to space 
from the upper atmosphere. 

The sum of these four quantities 
should be approximately equal to the 
heat of the solar beam outside the earth’s 
atmosphere, as, for instance, on the 
moon. This we may call (EF). As we 
cannot measure (D) directly, we must 
find it by subtracting A+B-+C from E. 
It is of course (D), the loss to space, 
with which we are principally concerned. 

For we must ask ourselves: las 
the earth's loss of heat by reflection of 
the upper air to space made greater by 
reason of the haze of 1912? To answer 
this we must know the value of the ex- 
pression (D)={E—(A+B-+C)} as it 
was in 1912 and as it is ordinarily. 

Measurements of (A), the direct sun- 
rays, and (C), the water vapor and other 
absorption, we make every day, and I de- 
vised and built with my own hands at 
Bassour two pieces of apparatus for 
measuring (B), the light of the sky. 
From observations taken a little before 
noon on September 5, 6, and 7, 1912, we 
found at Bassour the following results, 
stated in calories per sq. cm. per minute: 
(A) Heating effect of the direct beam of 

ZEMITM SUM tea niet ee ose a etnies .250 
(B) Heating effect of the entire sky.... 0.245 


(C) Heating effect of the rays absorbed 
by water vapor from sun and sky 


PACiAtI Oto ne esi awe es 0.175 
Total "(Ae B a’C) csteeces es ss 1.670 
(E) Heating effect of total radiation 
outside the earth’s atmosphere 
(from the moon, for instance)... 1.950 
(D)=(E)—[(A) +(B) +(C)] .«....... 0.280 


186 


The difference between the heat out- 
side the earth’s atmosphere and the sum 
of the various parts of it indicated above 
is 0.280 calory per sq. cm. per minute, 
and this we may suppose represents ap- 
proximately the loss of heat by reflection 
from the atmosphere to space in the 
summer of 1912. 

In former years similar experiments 
to these have been made at Mount Wil- 
son and Mount Whitney, and it was 
found in each case that the sum of the 
radiation: (A) of the direct solar beam, 
(B) from the sky, and (C) lost by the 
absorption in the atmosphere, lacked 
less than 0.05 calory of the total heat- 
ing effect outside the atmosphere. 

I am of the opinion that the difference 
between these results of 1912 at Bassour 
and those of earlier years at Mount Wil- 
son and Mount Whitney (or about 0.20 
calory) represents approximately the 
radiation reflected away to space by the 
volcanic dust of 1912, or, in other words, 
the loss of heat available to warm the 
earth, which we must attribute to the 
great haziness which prevailed in 1912. 
The difference is about 10 per cent of the 
whole intensity of the sun’s radiation 
outside the atmosphere. Hence I con- 
clude that the dust of Katmai diminished 
the heat available to warm the earth in 
the north temperate zone by about ten 
per cent during the summer of 1912. 

In accordance with the laws of heat 
and radiation, this might produce a fall 
of 7° centigrade in the temperature of 
the earth as a whole, if it was effective 
for a long enough period of time, pro- 
vided that there were no counteracting 
influences, such as altered cloudiness or 
decreased nocturnal earth radiation, 
brought about at the same time with, 
and perhaps by reason of, the increased 
haziness of the atmosphere.* 


* The results here given on the combined 
brightness of the sun and the sky must as yet 
be regarded only as provisional. No experi- 
ments were made at Bassour on the brightness 
of the sky prior to the coming on of the haze; 
hence we shall be obliged to wait until the 
haze has entirely cleared before we can have 
measurements strictly representative of the 
conditions which would prevail there in a clear 
sky. Dr. Dorno, observing at Davos, in Swit- 
zerland, does not confirm my conclusion that 
the total brightness of sun and sky was de- 
creased by the presence of the haze, although 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


WORLD-WIDE HAZE CAUSED BY TERRIFIC 
ERUPTIONS IN JAPAN AND ICELAND 


Having now given estimates of some 
effects of the great haziness of 1912, we 
shall next consider whether volcanoes 
can really produce such world-wide 
haze. ‘To answer this we have only to 
go back to the records of times of the 
greatest volcanic actions of the last 150 
years.* 

In the year 1783 occurred the eruption 
of Asamayama, Japan, stated to be the 
most frightful eruption on record. Im- 
mense rocks were hurled in all direc- 
tions and towns and villages buried. 
One stone, said to be 264 X 120 feet, fell 
into a river, and looked like an island. 

In the same year occurred the (if pos- 
sible) still more extraordinary eruption 
of Skaptar Jokull, in Iceland, beginning 
near the end of May and producing the 
most violent eruptions on June 8 and 18. 
Arago records that the dry “fog of 1783 
commenced about the same day (June 
18) at places distant from each other, 
such as Paris and Avignon, Turin and 
Padua. It extended from the north 
coast of Africa to Sweden and lasted 
more than a month. 

The lower air did not seem to be its 
vehicle, for in some parts the fog came 
on with a south, in others with a north, 
wind. Abundant rains and the strongest 
winds did not dissipate it. In Languedoc 
its density was such that the sun was not 
visible in the morning up to 17° altitude 
above the horizon. The rest of the day 
the sun was red, and could be observed 
with the unprotected eye. At the time 
of new moon the nights were so bright 
that the light was compared to that of 
full moon, even at midnight.” 

In 1814 occurred the great eruption of 
the volcano of Mayon, in the Philippine 
Islands, and on April 7 to 12, 1815, the 


he found very strong effects of the haziness 
in reducing the intensity of direct sun rays, 
and noted even that the combined brightness 
of sun and sky in the green had fallen off by 
7 per cent as compared with that of the com- 
bined brightness in the red. His measure- 
ments of the combined brightness do not ex- 
tend to the whole spectrum, so that it is possi- 
ble that in this fact may lie the explanation of 
the divergence between his results and mine. 

* See Report of Krakatoa Committee of 
Royal Society of Great Britain. 


Phot by George C. Marti: 
ASH-LADEN TREES NEAR KODIAK, AUGUST 206, IQI2 


(See article by George C. Martin, page 179) 


187 


extraordinary eruption of ‘Tomboro, 
Sumbawa, of which it is said “this erup- 
tion was the greatest since that of Skap- 
tar Jokull, in 1783.” For three days 
there was darkness for a distance of 300 
miles. After these extraordinary erup- 
tions there were noted in Europe streaky 
skies, haziness, long twilights, and red 
sunsets; so that “the year 1815 is the 
most remarkable as regards sunset lights 
recorded up to that date.” 


THE DRY FOG OF 1831 AND 1883 


Passing on to the year 1831, there oc- 
curred three moderate eruptions and 
three more of the very first magnitude. 
Graham’s Island was thrown up, and 
eruptions took place in the Babujan 
Islands and at Pichincha. 

Arago says: “The extraordinary dry 
fog of 1831 was observed in the four 
quarters of the world. It was remarked 
on the coast of Africa on August 3, at 
Odessa on August 9, in the south of 
France and at Paris on August 10, in 
the United States on August 15. he 
light of the sun was so much diminished 
that it was possible to observe its disk 


Photo by George C. Martin 


POLEMONIUM IN BLOOM AT BASE OF ASH-COVERED CLIFF NEAR KODIAK, 
SEPTEMBER 4, 1912 


all day with the unprotected eye. On 
the coast of Africa the sun became visi- 
ble only after passing an altitude of 15° 
or 20°. M. Rozet, in Algeria, and others 
in Annapolis, United States, and in the 
south of France saw the solar disk of an 
azure greenish or emerald color. The 
sky was never dark at night, and at mid- 
night, even, in August, small print could 
be read in Siberia, at Berlin, Genoa, etc. 
On August 3, at Berlin, the sun must 
have been 19° below the horizon when 
small print was legible at midnight.” 
Passing over, among many others, for 
lack of space, the great eruptions of 
Hecla in 1845 and 1846, and those of 
Vesuvius and Merapi in 1872, we come 
to the tremendous explosion of Kraka- 
toa of August 27, 1883, and the eruption 
of St. Augustine, in Alaska, October 6, 
1883. The extraordinary atmospheric 
phenomena which closely followed these 
remarkable volcanic eruptions were so 
evidently in the relation of effects to 
causes that there can be no doubt as to 
the reasonableness of ascribing the haze 
of the past summer to the volcanic erup- 
tion in Alaska, provided that eruption 


188 : 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


was comparable in magnitude to those of 
which we have spoken. 


KATMAI DEPOSITS ONE FOOT OF ASHES 100 
MILES AWAY 


The eruption of Mount Katmai vol- 
cano reached its most vigorous phase on 
June 6 and 7, 1912. Observations were 
made by Captain Perry, of the revenue 
cutter Manning, at Kodiak Island, situ- 
ated 100 miles from the volcano. At 5 
o'clock, June 6, a noise like distant thun- 
der was heard and ashes began to fall. 
Thunder and lightning were frequent, 
and the sky became dark, although two 
hours before sunset. 

When the deposit of ashes ceased, at 9 
a. m. of June 7, about 5 inches of ashes 
had fallen. At noon they commenced to 
fall again, and increased in density, until 
at I o'clock it was impossible to see be- 


yond a distance of 50 feet. At 2 o'clock 


pitch darkness had set in, and although 
all ashes of the previous day had been 
removed from the ship, yet the decks, 
masts, and yards were again heavily 
laden, and the men worked incessantly 
with shovels and streams of water to 
clear the decks, falling over one another 
in the blackness. 

At 2.30 p. m. of June 8 the fall of 
ashes decreased, the sky assumed a red- 
dish color, objects became dimly visible, 
and the deposition ceased by the morn- 
ing of June 9. At Kodiak Island, 100 
miles from the volcano, the ashes reached 
the average depth of one foot. (See arti- 
cle by George C. Martin in this number. ) 


THE VOLCANIC EXPLOSION OF KRAKATOA 
WAS HEARD 3,000 MILES AWAY 


In order to compare the intensity of 
this volcanic outbreak with the great 
outburst at Krakatoa in 1883, which 
stands at the high-water mark of vol- 
canic activity for the past century, it 
will be interesting to review some of the 
phenomena of the Krakatoa eruption as 
stated in the report of the Krakatoa 
Committee of the Royal Society of 
Great Britain. 

May 20, 1883, booming sounds were 
heard at Batavia and Buitenzorg, towns 
in Java, situated about 1oo miles from 


189 


Krakatoa, and on May 21 a sprinkling 
of ashes was noticed on both sides of 
the Strait of Sunda. From this time 
until August 26 the eruption of Kraka- 
toa continued with considerable inten- 
sity, although several times parties 
landed on the island. 

On August 26, 27, and 28, violent ex- 
plosions occurred, which blew away the 
whole northern and lower portion of the 
island of Krakatoa, leaving submarine 
cavities sometimes a thousand feet deep 
where before the island had risen to 
1,400 feet above sea-level. The water 
wave following the greatest explosion of 
August 27 was estimated to be 50 feet 
deep or more when it reached the coasts 
of Java and Sumatra. A ship of war 
was carried inland for nearly 2 miles, 
and left 30 feet above sea-level. Be- 
tween 30,000 and 40,000 people lost their 
lives by the overwhelming of their vil- 
lages. 

The explosion was heard as far as the 
island of Rodriguez, nearly 3,000 miles 
away, and the area over which the actual 
noise of the explosion was heard em- 
braced one-thirteenth of the area of the 
globe. The air waves traveled outward 
from the volcano as a center till they 
reached the antipodes in South America, 
were then reflected backward to their 
origin, and from there returned, so that 
they were observed by the meteorologi- 
cal stations to have made four complete 
passages away from Krakatoa and three 
in return before their traces were lost. 

The sea waves were several feet high 
after crossing the Indian Ocean, and at 
a distance of several thousand miles, and 
were even thought to be observed by the 
tide gauges of the English Channel. 
The height of the column projected from 
the volcano on August 26 was measured 
as 17 miles (89,760 feet). 

Beginning shortly after the eruption, 
the sky at distant regions of the earth 
became hazy, and abnormally long twi- 
lights and sunset glows continued to be 
observed even as much as two years after 
the occurrence. It was computed that 
the fine dust from the volcano reached 
an altitude at first of 120,000 feet and 
was still at a height of 50,000 feet more 
than a year after the eruption. 


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190 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


BUT KRAKATOA DID NOT EJECT AS MUCH 
ASHES AS KATMAI 


Although the violence and destructive- 
ness of this celebrated eruption places it 
in the first rank, and the quantity of 
matter ejected was very great, yet when 
we compare the depth of ashes falling at 
considerable distances from the Island of 
Krakatoa with the quantity of ashes 
which fell on Kodiak Island after the 
eruption of Mount Katmai it appears that 
the volcano of Krakatoa was far inferior 
in this respect to the recent one. 

According to the investigations of Ver- 
beek, the average depth of the ashes at 
the distance of 100 miles from the vol- 
cano of Krakatoa was about one quarter 
of aninch. We have seen that at Kodiak 
Island the depth of the deposit from Kat- 
mai was about one foot and the average 
depth at a distance of 100 miles from 
Katmai at least one inch (see page 132). 
If, then, the air was filled with haze from 
Krakatoa for two years after the erup- 
tion, it need not surprise us that a great 
amount of haze occurred following the 
eruption of Katmai. 

But it must not be forgotten that the 
violence of the eruption of Krakatoa was 
most extraordinary. It is possible that 
although the amount of ashes sent out 
from Mount Katmai may have greatly 
exceeded the quantity sent out from 
Krakatoa, yet the height to which the 
ashes were projected in the atmosphere 
by Krakatoa may have greatly exceeded 
the height to which they were projected 
from Katmai. Thus perhaps we ought 
not to infer that the meteorological con- 
sequences of Katmai should last as long 
as those extraordinary ones which were 
observed after Krakatoa. Recent pyr- 
heliometer measurements, however, show 
that in January, 1913, the sky was still 
abnormally hazy. 

It is only since just before the Kraka- 
toa eruption that we have had measure- 
ments of the intensity of solar radiation 
comparable to those which were available 
in 1912. From a paper of Prof. H. H. 
Kimball* I copy the accompanying illus- 
tration, which shows the fluctuation of 
the annual solar radiation received at the 
earth’s surface as measured at different 
stations. + 


* Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observa- 
tory, vol. 3, Part II. : 
7 Professor Kimball’s data comprise the four 


191 


VIOLENT VOLCANIC OUTBURSTS SERIOUSLY 
DIMINISH THE AMOUNT OF HEAT WE 
RECEIVE FROM THE SUN. 


It is apparent that very great de- 
partures from the usual intensities oc- 
curred from 1883 to 1887, 1888 to 1893, 
and from 1902 to 1904 respectively. 
Having now convinced ourselves that 
such departures may reasonably be ex- 
pected in consequence of great volcanic 
eruptions, it is interesting to find, if we 
can, the causes of the diminished solar 
radiation at about 1891 and 1903 re- 
spectively. 

The activity of the Island of Vulcano 
lasted 20 months—from August 3, 1888, 
to March 22, 1890. The most violent 
explosions occurred on August 4, 1888; 
December 26, 1889, and March 15, 1890. 
An eruption which took place there on 
January 6, 1889, was observed by A. 
Ricco from the Observatory of Palermo 
to be sending a column of smoke to the 
height of more than 6 miles. 

An eruption of Mayon, in the Philip- 
pine Islands, took place December 15, 
1888. Vast columns of ashes ascended 
from the crater, and in a short time the 
darkness was so intense that, though it 
was midday, lights had to be used in 
Manila. Violent eruptions were also re- 
ported in the same year in other islands 
of the Philippine group. 

A vessel passing the Island of Oshima, 
in Japan, reported violent eruptions of 
the voleano of Miharaizan on April 13, 
1889. On January 16, 1890, a violent 
eruption took place at Mount. Zoo, near 
the town of Fukuyama, in Japan. 

In February, 1890, there was the vol- 
canic eruption at the Island of Bogoslof, 
in Bering Sea. Three small new islands 
were created in the immediate vicinity 
and the island was raised 1,000 feet. 
Ashes were collected in Unalaska, about 
40 miles distant. 


BANDAI-SAN THROWS UP 700 MILLION 
TONS OF MATERIAL 


On June 7, 1892, a severe eruption 


broken lines near curve A of the figure, page 
196. I have marked them 1-1 (from 1883 to 
1900); 2-2 (from 1896 to 1903); 3-3 (from 
1901 to 1905); 4-4 (from 1906 to 1909). The 
results of different observers have been com- 
bined and smoothed, as will be stated below. 
Results of this kind from single stations are 
much influenced by local haziness. In future 
years much fuller information will be available. 


192 


began from a volcano near the capital of 
the Island of the Great Sangir. Some 
thousands of people were killed and im- 
mense quantities of ashes fell all over the 
island. The noise of this eruption was 
heard at Sandakan, 500 miles away. 

An eruption of Mount Etna began on 
the nights of July 8 and 9, 1892, and 
continued with more or less intensity all 
the month. Occasional less severe out- 
breaks occurred afterwards. The erup- 
tion was notable for the enormous quan- 
tities of smoke and sand emitted. 

But undoubtedly the greatest eruption 
of this period occurred in northern Japan. 
Bandai-San is a mountain about 5,800 
feet high, which had shown no sign of 
activity. for about 1,100 years. A sub- 
ordinate peak, called “Little Bandai- 
San,” arose on its northeastern side. On 
the morning of July 15, 1888, “Little 
Bandai-San” was blown completely into 
the air and obliterated. The debris buried 
and devastated an area of at least 30 
square miles. An estimate based on the 
depth of the debris in this area indicated 
that the quantity of earth, rocks, and 
volcanic material reached 700 million 
tons, and that doubtless the true figure 
would be much greater. About 600 
people perished horribly and many more 
were reduced to destitution. 

It was, with one possible exception, 
the most terrible volcanic disaster which 
had occurred in Japan since the famous 
explosion of Asamayama in 1783. The 
force of an explosion capable of tearing 
a mountain to bits and distributing it 
over an area of 30 square miles may 
well have been sufficient to blow the 
column of ashes high enough into the air 
to have been carried over the earth like 
those ejected from the crater of Kra- 
katoa in 1883. 


THE DEVASTATION WROUGHT BY MONT 
PELEE 


The town of St. Pierre, on the Island 
of Martinique, was struck and _ totally 
destroyed by two volcanic blasts of nearly 
equal severity, occurring respectively on 
May 8 and May 20, 1902. The loss of 
life reached nearly 30,000 persons. The 
volcano of Mont Pelée continued in ac- 
tivity for a long time after these occa- 
sions. An eruption of May 28, observed 
by Mr. George Kennan, carried ejected 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


matter up to a height estimated by Mr. 
Kennan as exceeding 12,000 feet. 

_ It seems doubtful, however, whether 
the eruption of Mont Pelée and the 
nearly simultaneous one of Soufriére, on 
St. Vincent Island, produced a widely 
distributed haze in the atmosphere. 

On the one hand the measurements 
made at the Astrophysical Observatory 
of the Smithsonian Institution on the 
transmission of the earth’s atmosphere 
in 1901, 1902, and 1903 show that dur- 
ing the latter part of 1902 and the whole 
of 1903 the transparency of the atmos- 
phere was very decidedly low—hbelow the 
normal. On the other hand, however, a 
measurement of the total intensity of the 
solar radiation, made at this observatory 
in Washington on October 15, 1902, gives 
a value of the intensity of 1.40 calories 
per sq. cm. per minute, which is among 
the very highest observations of this kind 
which have been made at this station. 

It is of course possible, though rather 
unlikely, that the haze due to the erup- 
tion of Mont Pelée was not so quickly 
distributed toward the more northern lati- 
tudes as that of Mount Katmai, in Alaska, 
in 1912, was diffused toward more south- 
erly ones; so that perhaps the dust from 
Mont Pelée reached Washington later 
than October 15, 1902, 


THE WHOLE SIDE OF THE MOUNTAIN 
BLOWN AWAY 


On October 24, 1902, however, there 
occurred the eruption of Santa Maria, in 
Guatemala. ‘The ashes from this volcano 
covered an area of more than 125,000 
square miles. Pumice stone and ashes 
fell to a depth of 8 inches or more in a 
region extending over about 2,500 square 
miles, within which the houses and farm 
buildings were crushed under the weight 
of the ejected material and in some cases 
totally destroyed. Six thousand persons 
are believed to have been killed. 

The cloud from the volcano reached 
18 miles in height, and the sound of the 
explosion was heard at Costa Rica, 500 
miles away. The whole side of the 
mountain was blown away, exposing @ 
cliff, nearly perpendicular, 7,000 feet m 
height and forming a crater three-quar- 
ters of a mile wide, seven-eighths of @ 
mile long, and 1,500 feet deep. 


arts | 


ats Sie tee 


owe) neers” 


Photo by George C. Martin 
OLD FOREST SPRUCE, WITH MOSS-COVERED TRUNK AND BRANCH ES LOADED WITH ASH, 
NEAR KODIAK, SEPTEMBER 4, I9QI2 
(See article by George C. Martin, pages 179-180) 


z161 ‘Ze ATOL ‘ANV‘IST AGOOM :STHSV THI Ad damnad TOVNVIdIO LSTLava MVIGOM IW NAGUVS AHL tO MALA 


UIJILJ “OD 251095) Aq oj0Y 


104 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


The magnificent volcano of Colima, in 
Mexico (height, 3,960 meters, or 13,000 
feet), had a period of great activity from 
February 15 to March 24, 1903, during 
which there were maximum eruptions on 
12 days. In a photograph taken March 
7, 1903, the column of ashes seems to 
reach a height of about 17 miles. 

It is clear, I think, from these records 
that the decrease of solar radiation from 
1888 to 1893 had much volcanic action to 
cause it, including Bandai San, Mayon, 
in the Philippines, Vulcano Island, and 
others; and that the depression, .whose 
maximum was in 1903, was attributable 
to the terrific explosion of Santa Maria, 
in Guatemala, on October 24, 1902, rein- 
forced by the later eruptions of Colima, 
in Mexico, of which a photograph is 
given on page 108. 


195 


DOES THE VOLCANIC HAZE PRODUCE COLD? 


I have made some preliminary study 
to determine if the haziness produced 
by volcanoes causes a decreased temper- 
ature at the earth’s surface. 

Taking the year 1912, I find from the 
international ten-day mean values pub- 
lished by the German Marine Observa- 
tory that the high altitude stations of 
southwestern Europe, namely, Pic du 
Midi, Puy de Dome, Brocken, Schnee- 
koppe, Santis, and Hoch-Obir, give a 
very marked indication of a decrease in 
temperature with respect to the normal 
beginning about the middle of July. 
The six stations I have named are very 
consistent with one another in this indi- 
cation, and the following table, giving 
their mean result, shows the effect very 
clearly: 


Temperature Departures ( Centigrade), Mean of Six Mountain Stations, 1912. 


onth February. March. | April. May. June. July. 
ICAME:. 2.000. I 2 2 I 2 3 I 2 3 I 2 | eed yo 2 | 3 I 2 Mean. 
~partures...| +0.7 | +3.6 | +5.9 | +2.1 | +0.7 | +2.8| —1.0 | —3-2 | —0.9 | +o.5 | +2.8 | —I1.5 | —0.6 | —0.6 | +-0.6 | —1.7 | -+2.1 | --0°.69 
} | | | 

: 
outh AF July August September. October. November. 
we a EE ee | eee ee | a ae 
cadeoals.s. 3 I | 2 3 I 2 I | | ae I | 2 ed Mean. 
‘partures... —o.8 | —2.2| —3.6 | —2.1 | —5.0 | —4.4 | —4.9 —2.6 | —0.4 | —0.3 | —3.4 | —3.6 / —I.5 raat —2°.68 


Stations in our own country, however, 
are not so consistent. I have chosen some 
where the cloudiness is small so as to 
avoid that complication. The stations 
chosen are arranged in the following 
table with regard to whether their tem- 


negative after July, and thus support the 
indication of the high mountain stations 
of southwestern Europe, or not. It is 
interesting to see that Leadville and 
Flagstaff, which are both very high sta- 
tions, fall in the first category. 


perature departures* are increasingly *These departures are in Fahrenheit degrees. 

| / Mean. 
Station. Jan. Feb. Mar. | April. | May. | June. || July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. : Nov 

pe bas Leeda 
El Paso..|+1.6 |—2.5 |— 1.9}—4.7 |—0o.6 |—1.8 ||++o.5 |—o.8 Lp y i\—O.2 ae —1.65|—0.76 
Pueblo ../—3.0 |+0.5 |— 7.2|\—I 7 |-++o.! aio —I.4 |—0o.I |—7.0 |—0.9 Ree —2.55/—1.44 
Dodge...|—9.3 |+0.9 |—II.1/—1.6 |+2.3 5.0 |+0.9 | 0.0 |—4.2 |4+1.6 PAE —3.93/+0.56 
Santa Fe |--0.4 |—1.8 |— 1.8)—5.3 | -1.3 |—3.8 |—0.5 |+0.2 |-—2.5 |—1.0 l4+-1.0 —1.93|/—0.56 
Leadville|+-0.5 |—2.0 |— ey —0.5 2.7 | 5.2 |-1.8 rg -1,8 |+0.2 —1I.57 io 56 
Flagstaff.|+1.6 |+1.8 |— 1.7\—4.0 |—1.9 |—0.9 ||-3.8 |—1.6 |—3.2 |—0.9 +2.3 |—o.85|—1.44 
Tucson ..|+0.7 |—1.6 |— 2.9—6.8 |—2.4 |+1.1 ||—5.1 |—2.7 |}—3.6 (4.8 —o.9 —1.98|/—3.22 


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A es Re 
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Nooo 
Scie 
Need 


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J OOOO. O29 
pe = 2) 


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196 3 


DIAGRAM TO SHOW VARIATIONS IN SOLAR RADIATION AND IN THE EARTH'S TEMPERARURE: 1880-1910 
The periods of low solar radiation and low temperature coincide with periods when there was much volcanic dust in the air (see pages 191, 195, 197) 


DO VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS AFFECT OUR CLIMATE? 


The volcanic effect, if here present, is 
certainly obscured by other influences. 

As stated above, there seems to be a 
strong indication that the mountain sta- 
tions were rendered appreciably cooler 
by the explosion ‘of June, 1912. In order 
to see if a similar effect was caused by 
the dust cloud emanating from Krakatoa 
in 1883, I have studied the temperature 
departures for Pic du Midi, Puy de 
Dome, and Schneekoppe for the years 
1882 to 1884, inclusive, but there does 
not appear to have been at that time any 
such decrease of temperature following 
the eruption of Krakatoa, August 27, 
1883, as occurred in July, 1912. Never- 
theless at Pic du Midi there was a very 
well marked decrease in the daily tem- 
perature range, beginning with Septem- 
ber, 1883. I have found for some other 
stations a similar decrease of the daily 
temperature range following the erup- 
tion of Krakatoa. 

The fact is that the temperature of the 
earth is a function of so many variable 
quantities that general or cosmical ef- 
fects are often greatly obscured by local 
ones. Studies have, however, been made 
by various authors to detect if there is a 
periodicity of terrestrial temperature cor- 
responding in time to the sun-spot cycle 
of about I1 years, and it has been found 
by Koppen, Arctowski, Nordmann, New- 
comb, Abbot and Fowle, and others that 
there is indeed an increased temperature 
at the time of minimum sun-spots. This 
increase of temperature is greater than 
would be caused directly by the darken- 
ing of the sun by sun-spots, so that it is 
supposed that there is accompanying the 
spots some secondary influence affecting 
terrestrial temperatures. 

The fluctuations of temperature are, 
however, not fully accounted for by the 
march of the sun-spots, and I have en- 
deavored to see whether a combination 
of the well-known effect of the sun-spot 
cycle with the effect of the volcanic haze 
will produce a more exact correspond- 
ence between the cosmical phenomena 
and the temperature of the earth. 

Referring to page 196, the curve (A) 
is a smoothed representation of the aver- 
age intensity of the direct solar radiation. 
The method of smoothing the curve is as 


197 


follows, taking for example the year 
1895: Add to the value for 1894 twice 
that for 1905 and that for 1896 and 
divide by 4. Curve (B) is the smoothed 
sun-spot curve as given by Wolfer. The 
sun-spot numbers run from 0 to about 8o 
Curve (C) is a combination of (A) and 
(B). They are taken in the following 
proportions: Multiply the percentage de- 
parture of radiation by 6* and subtract 
from it the sun-spot number for the given 
year. Curve (D) represents the depart- 
ures of mean maximum temperature for 
15 stations of the United States distrib- 
uted all over the country. It is smoothed 
in the same manner as curve (A). Curve 
(E,) represents the departures of tem- 
perature for the whole world, also 
smoothed in the same manner as curves 
(A) and (D). The data for the curves 
(D) and (E) are taken from Annals, 
Astrophysical Observatory, volume 2, 
page 192, and from the Monthly Weather 
Review of the United States Weather 
Bureau. 

Although there is a considerable de- 
gree of correspondence between curve 
(B) and curve (D), yet it is not hard 
to see that there is also much of discord- 
ance. 

For example, the sun-spot maximum 
of 1893 was greater than that of 1883 
or 1906, yet the temperature curve (D) 
indicates a gradual increase of tem- 
perature for the three periods; also the 
temperature had begun to fall in 1890, 
although sun-spots were still at the mini- 
mum, and the temperature had begun to 
rise in 1892, although sun-spots had not 
yet reached their maximum. 

Similar discrepancies occur in other 
parts of the curves, but when we com- 
pare the curves (C) and (D), that is to 
say, the combination of. the effects of 
sun-spots and volcanic haze, with the 
mean maximum temperature for the 
United States, the correspondence of the 
curves is most striking. 


CONCLUSION 


It seems to me, in consideration of 
this, that there can be little question that 
the volcanic haze has very appreciably 


*T incline now to think a better result would 
have come if 5 were used instead of 6. 


Photo by R. R. Rivera. 


By courtesy of The University of Chicago Press and the Journal of Geology 


MOUNT COLIMA IN ACTION, MARCH 7, 1903 


The column of ashes seems to reach to a height of 17 miles, or 89,760 feet. It is pre- 
sumed that this notable eruption was largely responsible for the decrease in solar radiation 


noticeable in 1903 (see page 195). 


influenced the march of temperature in 
the United States. When we take the 
march of temperature for the whole 
world the apparent effect is not so strik- 
ing, but in this case there are so many 
conflicting influences at work that it is 
perhaps too much to expect so good an 
agreement. 

In view of this slight preliminary 
study of temperatures, it seems to me 
that the question of the effect of vol- 
canic haze on terrestrial temperature is 
well worth serious consideration. 

Although a large group of stations 
may, by their contrary local influences, 


mask the influence of the haze, J believe 
it will be found eventually that tempera- 
tures are influenced perhaps as much as 
several degrees by great periods of haszi- 
ness, such as those produced by the vol- 
canoes of 1853, 1888, and 1912. 

Certainly an agency capable of send- 
ing vast clouds of dust to a height of 20 
miles in the air, there to be distributed 
by the winds all over the world, and to 
remain in suspension for months or 
years, causing the decrease of the direct 
radiation of the sun by as much as 20 
per cent, is a climatic influence not to be 
ignored. 


1908 


THE CHANGING MAP IN THE BALKANS 


By FrepericK Moore 
AuTHor OF “THE BALKAN TRAIL’ AND CORRESPONDENT OF THE ASSOCIATED PRESS 


VERY definite settlement of the 
A centuries-old Balkan Question 
promises to result from the war 
which the ‘Allies’ have been conducting 
against the Ottoman Empire. The Turk 
has been driven not entirely back to Asia 
but far enough in that direction to termi- 
nate his power over subject European 
races. ‘This is the solution for which 
those European countries not materially 
interested in the maintenance of the Ot- 
toman régime have long been hoping. 
Centuries ago the Turks set out from 
Asia Minor with the idea of conquering 
the world for their Prophet Mohammed. 
They carried their new faith east inte 
Persia, India, and China, and west into 
Europe. In Europe they succeeded in 
driving their way as far as the gates of 
Vienna, subjugating all the peoples of 
Southeastern Europe except some few 
bands of hardy Serbs who took refuge 
in the fastnesses of the mountains that 
now make up the little kingdom of 
Montenegro. 


THE TURKS CONQUERED, BUT FAILED TO 
CONVERT 


But though the Turks conquered and 
subdued with the sword they found the 
peoples of Southeastern Europe who fol- 
lowed the Christianity of that day most 
hard-headed and unconvertible. Had the 
Turks adopted the method of the Arabs, 
who went across North Africa on the 
Same mission and even entered Spain, 
they would have left no soul alive who 
did not say with them 


“There is no god but God, and Mohammed is 
His Prophet.” 


They did not desolate, however, to the 
Same extent as the Arab; their method, 
though sufficiently terrible to blight the 
conquered countries ard retard their 
progress for centuries, was never quite 
as drastic as the methods of other Mo- 
hammedans. The Turks are the best of 
the peoples who have accepted that un- 
compromising militant faith. 


The territory which the Turks suc- 
ceeded in overrunning was too vast to 
lay entirely waste and the people too 
numerous to exterminate. Those whom 
they could convert were made Moham- 
medans; the others became vassals and 
serfs, laboring for the conquerors, paying 
them tribute in money and in kind, and 
yielding up not only of their wordly pos- 
sessions, as the Turk demanded, but also 
of their flesh and blood. Many of their 
daughters went at the Turks’ will to Mo- 
hammedan harems, and for many years a 
tribute of their finest sons was also ex- 
acted. 

In the early days of the conquest the 
Sultan’s agents visited every four years 
the Christian villages under his domina- 
tion and took away a fifth part of all the 
male children between the ages of six 
and nine, to be raised as Mohammedans 
and to form his corps of Janissary sol- 
diers. Naturally, the strongest and finest 
boys were selected ; however, being taken 
young, like many of the girls, no mem- 
ories of parents or deep religious beliefs 
long affected them. 


HOW THE TURKS IMPROVED THE RACE 


By this system and by conversions 
(for many of the Christians went over 
to the new faith because of the privileges 
it offered, the foremost being the right 
to carry arms) the Turks added to their 
Semitic blood some of the finest manhood 
of the races of Southeastern Europe. 
Turks whose appearance is thoroughly 
European and Turks with fair hair and 
straight noses are to be distinguished 
throughout Western Turkey from the 
distinctive Semitic type; and some of the 
best brains in the recent Young Turk 
movement are European brains. 

The infusion of European blood had 
a certain minor effect upon the character 


‘of the Turk, but the greater change came 


upon the converts and their offspring. 
The blight of the Mohammedan creed, 
which impairs all better civilizations that 
it touches, affected the Europeans only 


199 


NAMVL SVM AYO LOI 
SIH], NAMM SWNUYOWINOD ON GHAIMOUN DONIAVE 
‘TINOLSOO LNVSVid HALLVN ONIGVEM SYAIGIOS NVIATAS 


a1OOWW WVIpes1y Aq oyoyg 


Udy poustopiun. Joh JOU JN ‘sLOjOD dy} O} payed useq pey Aoy J, 
SWAV AXAVD OF 


GAININGOAN AUV “VIANAS FO WALAd ONIM JO SLoufans 
WIHLO TIV ANIT ‘OHM ‘SHNVOIZL YO “SHISCAD NUWISVA 


IIOOP{ YIIIpset1q Aq oJoyq 


200 


, — 
‘Zn 


art ity 


Fhoto by Frederick Moore 


SERVIAN PEASANTS, CALLED TO ARMS, SIGNING THE MUSTER-ROLL 


less seriously than it had the Asiatics SEVEN RACES IN ONE LITTLE CITY 
whom it reached. 

When Europeans became Mohammed- 
ans they became to all intents Turks and 
called themselves such; they were no 
longer Greek, Servian, or Bulgarian, as 


the case might be. In spirit if not in : con si : 
blood they were wholly gone over to the Ne small city, and remaining distinct in 


other race. Such is the power of the facial appearance, distinct in dress, dis- 
Moslem faith! tinct in language, and reverencing at 


But the conversions were not on the least three distinct beliefs, with the Chris- 
whole large. The great majority of the tian religion divided within itself. 
Christians remained steadfast, and per- The retreat of the Turks from the 
secutions, as they generally do, made the Balkan Peninsula has been comparatively 
people more than ever obdurate. And _ rapid. Gradually, sometimes unaided, 
so we find the Bulgarians, Greeks, Serv- sometimes with the assistance or entirely 
ians, and Albanians of European Turkey by the efforts of one or more of the great 
today hard-headed people in spite of their Powers, the conquered Christian peoples 
centuries of oppression, not only retain- have regained their independence. The 
ing their own faiths, but wearing such modern States of Rumania, Greece, 
clothes as they wore in the medieval days Servia, and Bulgaria were carved in the 
when they were conquered, and speaking past century out of the conquests of the 
not Turkish, but Servian, Greek, Bulgar, Turk, and Montenegro, always independ- 
Albanian, and, among the Jews who took ent, was given definite boundaries and 


refuge from the persecutions in Spain, recognition. 
; Sk: eck 
the Spanish language. Slowly the question of Turkey in Eu- 


All these people, clinging fast to their 
own ideals and marrying only in their 
own faith, remain today in remarkable 
distinction one from another, seven races 
sometimes making up the population of 


201 


rope had been narrowed down, until at 
the beginning of the present war the 
provinces of Albania, Macedonia, and 
the Adrianople vilayet (known in ancient 
times as Thrace) composed all the Euro- 
pean territory remaining under the domi- 
nation of the Sultan. 

There was no reason why the Balkan 
Allies could not have driven the Turks 
out of Europe ten, or even twenty, years 
ago, had they been able to agree upon the 
division of the territory and had they 
been bold enough to defy the dictation 
of Europe, _which has been anxious al- 
ways to avoid the dangers of a conflict 
between the great Powers. But because 
there were Greeks, Bulgarians, and Ser- 
vians scattered over European Turkey, 
each small State, unduly ambitious, pre- 
ferred to let the years slip by in the hope 
of some turn of politics among the Pow- 
ers that would work in its favor. 

At last, however, the leading statesmen 
if not the masses of the people of the 
Balkan States set aside their jealousies 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


ASIATIC TURKISH ‘TROOPS IN OLD ZOUAVE UNIFORMS, SOCKS PULLED OVER 
TROUSERS, DRILLING 


Notice physiognomies of these as compared with European types of Turks 


and rival ambitions, and, coming to an 
agreement early in 1912, entered in a 
few months into the present war confi- 
dent of success. 


THE ALLIES FORCE THE ISSUE 


They had always reason or excuse for 
war. The Turk had never seriously re- 
formed; he had not assimilated the con- 
quered people, nor had he done what has . 
made the English powerful among for- 
eign races over which they rule—he had 
not governed justly or well. In the case 
of each of the Allied States there were 
people of their own blood and religion 
just beyond their frontiers being con- 
stantly persecuted and massacred. 

When the States were ready for war 
they made demands of Turkey which 
they knew the pride and arrogance of the 
Mohammedan, who had held them so long 
in subjection, could not accept. They de- 
manded no less than the right of inter- 
ference in the control of affairs in Eu- 
ropean Turkey, in order to put a stop to 


202 


=} ORAM en 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


TURKISH RECRUITS ARRIVING IN SALONIKI FROM ANATOLIA 


the intolerable conditions under which 
their fellow-Christians were oppressed. 

la pl *Th bd s 

The Turkish people clamored for war, 
and the wiser heads among them under- 
stood that war was inevitable. Those 
wiser heads had come to realize that they 
were unable as a race to rule subject 


peoples except by the sword. They 
knew, too, that each of the Balkan 
States—and this was perhaps the most 


important factor—was ambitious to an- 
nex territory. 

Underlying these motives of the Allies 
was a deep desire for vengeance on the 
Turk. There was not a Christian family 


in European Turkey whose property and 
hard-earned money had not at some time 
been taken by some Mohammedan; not 
a family without a record of parents 
slaughtered in massacre; not one which 
had not mourned a daughter enticed or 
taken forcefully to the harem of some 
lustful Turk. And what recourse was 
there for the Christians in a Turkish 
court of justice? 


WAR THE ONLY SOLUTION 


The situation was one that only war 
could settle. The Turks saw that to ac- 
cede to the demands of the Allies would 


203 


Ot ne em 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


\RCIL NEAR THE CHATALDJA LINES 


A SECTION OF THE TURKISH ARMY ON THE M 


be only to defer the day 
of trying the issue with 
modern arms. 

If the Turks admitted 
European agents for the 
purpose of reforms with- 
in their own boundaries, 
and gave equal rights to 
Christian Bulgar, Greek, 
and Servian, they would 
soon be the subject and 
not the ruling people. 
Numerically the Chris- 
tians of their European 
provinces outnumbered 
them and they were also 
quicker of wit. The sit- 
‘uation was one of an in- 
ferior continuing to hold 
back several advancing 
races. 

The Turks decided to 
accept war in place of 
the terms of the Allies. 
They were confident of ~ 
holding the Allies in 
check if not of driving 
them back beyond their 
borders. Regiment upon 
regiment of recruits 
brought up from Asia 
Minor passed through 
Constantinople crying 
“On to Sofia!” And one 
of the Turkish newspa- 
pers boasted that in fu- 
ture years visitors to 
Bulgaria would cross the 
plain of Sofia and say, 
looking over a desert 
waste, “This was once 
the site of the Bulgarian 
capital.” 

Europeans generally, 
even military attaches lo- 
cated at Constantinople, 
believed with the Turks 
that the Allies would fall. 
back before a terrible 
Turkish onslaught. For- 
eigners based their opin- 
ion on two things—on 
the name and reputation 
of the Turk as a fighting 
man and on the fact that 
the Greeks had been 


DAILY FOR WEEKS WITH SICK AND WOUNDED FROM THE LINI 


crushed by the Turks in battle not many 
years before. 


THE ALLIES’ SCHEME FAILS 

When the Turks rejected the propo- 
sals of the newly Allied States of what 
they termed interference in their internal 
affairs, not all of the Allies declared war 
but only little Montenegro with her army 
of about 40,000 men—4o,000 against the 
Turks’ paper million! 

In this preliminary declaration of war 
by Montenegro alone there must have 
been a strategical design on the part of 
the Allies. They evidently intended to 
draw a large part of the Turkish army 
off to the western extremity of the mili- 
tary area, thereby weakening the armies 
of Turkey that stood between the Bul- 
garian border and peeeentimapie and giv- 
ing the Bulgarian forces the best chance 
OF ia successful rush, as they planned, 
upon the Turkish capital. 

But the Turkish government, no doubt 
advised by their foreign experts, left the 
garrisons of Scutari and other Turkish 
towns in the neighborhood of Monte- 
negro to take care of themselves and re- 
inforced primarily the army that was to 


Photo by Frederick Moore 
CHOLERA VICTIMS THROWN FROM THE TRAINS WHICH CAME INTO CONSTANTINOPLE 


S (SEE P. 215) 
oppose the Bulgarians. The Turkish 
plan was apparently to defeat the Bul- 
garians first, and, having dealt with this 
most formidable of their enemies, to turn 
their attention later to the punishment of 
the other States. 

But the Turks were not even equal to 
the first of the tasks they set themselves. 
They are a slow-moving race. I think it 
was Moltke who said that the Turks be- 
gin to defend a position only when an- 
other army would consider capitulating. 

In the present war the Turk has shown 
a number of times how slowly he learns 
a lesson and how often he begins to act 
upon an experience too late. Neverthe- 
less, as in the case at Chataldja and in 
the historic example of Plevna, he will 
defend too late with remarkable deter- 
mination. 


BULGARIA MAKES A RECORD IN 
MOBILIZATION 


In the case of the Bulgarian, the army 
is a thing of speed and French-like dash. 
The Bulgarian officers, in preparing as 
they have for years for this war, de- 
voured the history of Napoleon and 
planned to emulate his quickness of 


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dIOOW YorIapety Aq ojoyg 


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206 


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2) 


VOIVODA PETKO 


One of the Servian revolutionists of Macedonia who, after 
operating for years in Macedonia, finally served as guerillas in 


the present war. 


movement. It was always said round the 
club in Sofia that when the Bulgarians 
struck their movement would be hard and 
fast against Constantinople. Consider 
how this little nation, with only about 3 
million inhabitants, which the average 
American was wont to consider a primi- 
tive country of “Dagos,” mobilized their 
army of 350,000 men. In two weeks 
after the call to arms their forces were 


Photo by Frederick Moore. 
A SERVIAN KOMMITTADJI (BANDSMAN), THE CHIEF, 


camped behind the fron- 
tier mountains ready to 
move through the border 
passes on word from 
Sofia that peace was defi- 
nitely broken. 

Those who know some- 
thing of the Turk can 
picture him at the front 
on receiving news that 
his own government had 
declared war against the 
Bulgarians and Servians, 
not waiting for those 
enemies to follow with 
Greece the example of 
Montenegro. 

The news gave the 
Turkish soldier a meas- 
ure of keen satisfaction. 
But, slow-moving and 
generally lazy, his camp 
was not stirred by the 
news as was that of the 
Bulgar. Slowly he gath- 
ered in little groups with 
his fellow-soldiers, knelt 
and gave thanks to Al- 
lah, made coffee and 
rolled cigarettes, and 
spent a happy night 
round a comfortable 
camp-fire discussing how 
he would make the Bul- 
garian girls dance to his 
music when he entered 
Bulgaria and the Bulgar 
tnen deserted their wo- 
men and children to him. 

But the Turk himself 
and not the Bulgar was 
the man who was going 
to hop and skip to get 
out of the way of the 
enemy. The Bulgars 
came through the passes 
with speed that amazed 
the military authorities of other nations, 
and, after three quick battles following 
rapidly upon each other, the ‘Turkish 
army was driven back to the sheltering 
positions of the Chataldja lines, about 30 
miles from Constantinople. 


THE BULGARIANS AVOID THE TRAP 


It was evidently the opinion of the 
Turkish generals, and also of the Ger- 


208 


protect them and their residences in Turkey. 


man engineers and military officers who 
had aided in the construction of the for- 
tifications of Adrianople, that the Bul- 
garians would break their backs, so to 
speak, there at Adrianople, just as the 
Russians had spent so much of their 
energy and their time at Plevna in the 
war of 1877 before proceeding on to 
Constantinople. While the Bulgarians 
stormed and invested the position at 
Adrianople the Turks planned to bring 
up their great hordes of men—it would 
tale several months, to be sure—from 
Asia Minor. 

The Bulgarians, however, did not stop 
at Adrianople. Contenting themselves 
with masking the fortresses there with 
only sufficient men to prevent the garri- 
son escaping or getting in further sup- 
plies, they pushed on at once toward their 
goal. 


Photo by trederick Moore 
ALBANIAN KAVASSES, DRESSED IN THE SAME “FUSTENELLA,’ OR PLEATED SKIRT, 
THAT THE NORTHERN GREEK WEARS 


The Kavass is the armed watchman whom the foreign embassies or consulates keep to 


Note their pistols 


And what was the result of their get- 
ting to the Chataldja entrenchments with- 
in three weeks after they first charged 
the Turkish lines? The result was amaz- 
ing; so terrific that almost any nation 
would have made peace without another 
battle and would have paid whatever in- 
demnity the Allies saw fit to demand. 
But the soul of the Turk is of a different 
stuff. His religion is not a thing that 
considers seriously a waste of this world’s 
flesh and blood. 

The Turks had had in all probably 
400,000 armed men scattered over Euro- 
pean Turkey, yet they could muster on 
the Chataldja lines but 70,000 effectives 
for the defense of Constantinople. ‘The 
others are to be accounted for in various 
ways; some had been killed in_ battle, 
some had died or become ineffective by 
starvation and disease, some had been 


209 


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TIM 91ep9p OF JOM SVM JUSWUIIAOS YSN oy} YyoyM 
<SOSIUUe [P19UIS,, 9Y} JO 9UO Ur UOstId wWoIZ pasealay 


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DOMME 


210 


a eet 


Cai calle’ 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


PART OF THE TURKISH GARRISON OF MONASTIR MOVING OUT OF THE CITY (IN A 
FORMER CAMPAIGN ) 


made prisoners by the armies of the sev- 
eral Allies, some had been locked up in 
garrisons like those of Adrianople, Jan- 
nina, and Scutari, which must in time 
capitulate, and others had been cut off 
from retreat and compelled to take to the 
fastnesses of the mountains. 


CHATALDJA AN IDEAL PLACE FOR DEFENSE 


Yet with these 70,000 men the Turks 
were able to hold their position at Cha- 
taldja. There they began to fight. In 
this cramped position the Bulgarians 
were no longer able with swift move- 
ments to outflank them. The sea on 
either side and the heavy guns of Turk- 
ish cruisers confining the attack to a 
limited central plain, permitted the Turk- 
ish soldier to occupy his trenches and 


redoubts and fire steadily from them at 
the oncoming Bulgarian infantry. 

It is a question whether the Bulgari- 
ans, now that the London conference has 
failed and fighting has been renewed, can 
succeed in taking the Chataldja lines. 
Their capture seems possible only by a 
slow tedious mining and trenching pro- 
cess; in other words, only by laborious 
and sacrificing effort such as the Japanese 
devoted to the taking of Port Arthur. 

The questions have often been put to 
me why the Turks did so badly in this 
war and whether they are no longer the 
capable warriors they were in former 
days. 

My opinion is that the reputation of 
the Turks as a whole rests upon the 
heroic work of a few ardent leaders, 


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dIOOW Yorsoeparq Aq oJ0y I 


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Br 


Poe se Seen eee} 


212 


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V WOW ATINVA HOVA OL dNOS TNO 
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aIOOWW Yyotapery Aq o1oyq 


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ory 


213 


ee ” ~ 


SEN 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


MONTENEGRIN SOLDIERS ON THE HEIGHTS ABOVE THE AUSTRIAN COAST 


partisans of the faith, who encouraged 
and employed the spirit of Islam, which 
the great majority of the ignorant people 
of ‘Turkey possess. Some of the Turks 
fight well—as, for instance, at Adrianople, 
at Scutari, and at Jannina—and some do 
not. 

The trouble rests with the organiza- 
tion of the Turkish government, which 
is so incompetent and corrupt that no 
standard of fighting efficiency can be 
maintained. If any one army or single 
garrison fights well it is because that 
garrison is properly controlled and led. 


THE REASON WHY THE TURK HAS FAILED 


As a whole the nation cannot and will 
not, because of internal political jealous- 
ies, work in unison, work zealously and 
honestly. The killing of Nazim Pasha is 
a case in point, and also the memorable 
delinquency of the palace clique in ignor- 


ing persistently the appeals of Osman 
Pasha, the commander of Plevna, for re- 
lief and reinforcements in 1877. Many 
of the Turks would rather see the enemy 
win than that their political rivals should 
hold office. 

As this war has brought out, there 
are great defects of organization in the 
Turkish army. Whole regiments, for in- 
stance, were sent to the front during the 
mobilization with few or no officers, the 
officers joining the men in the camp or 
even on the battlefield. 

In former days, as, for example, at 
Plevna—as no doubt in Adrianople, Scu- 
tari, and Jannina today—men and off- 
cers shared the hardships in common, 
suffered together, and sympathized one 
with another. Too many officers of the 
new school, who reside mostly at Con- 
stantinople, do not know their men, and 
are consequently mistrusted by them. 


214 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


ON THE (FORMER) TURKO-BULGARIAN BORDER: A BRIDGE OVER THE. RIVER STRUMA, 
THE CENTER OF WHICH WAS THE BORDER LINE; A TURKISH SOLDIER 
ON THE LEFT AND A BULGARIAN ON THE RIGHT 


The foreign-educated officer of the pres- 
ent day spends too much of his time in 
the cafés and the foreign restaurants of 
Pera, and too little in the camp of his 
soldiers. 

I saw on one occasion a young Turkish 
doctor, immaculately dressed, wearing a 
high collar on the field, refuse to touch 
a line of 20 or 30 invalided men because 
they were too dirty for him to handle. 
To my knowledge these men had had 
hardly sufficient water to drink and no 
opportunity whatever to wash. 


THE HORROR OF THE CHOLERA CAMPS 


Conditions in the cholera camps— 
which I had occasion to describe in my 
dispatches to the Associated Press dur- 


215 


ing the month of November—were final 
proof, if proof were needed, of the hope- 
less incapacity of the Turks. There is a 
measure of excuse even for massacres, 
Mohammedans believing that they do not 
offend God by siaughtering “infidels ;” 
but could there be any excuse for permit- 
ting thousands of their own soldiers to 
die without taking the trouble to give 
them water? 

The scene at San Stefano was horrible 
almost beyond conception. For weeks 
train-loads not only of sick but wounded 
men and men with frozen feet were 
dumped down at this summer watering 
place on the Marmora. ‘Those who were 
able to walk entered the cordon of death 
without assistance; those unable were 


awIVaA ASNYOH AHL LV SAISTAD AGNV SMANL 
dIOO YOI9paty Aq oyoyg 


SNIMOHS 


SOWTIIA NVINOGHOVIN 


Vv 


NI 


Avd lasuvinn 


216 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


SWEARING TO A BARGAIN 


Being unable to write, men who buy and sell ponies or other animals are sworn to a bargain 
(over which they shake hands) by a third man 


pushed off the cars and lay where they 
fell, or rolled down the steep railway em- 
bankment some 20 feet or more to the 
level ground. For a fortnight or several 
weeks practically no attention was paid 
to the victims put into this camp. 

On my first visit to the place, in the 
company of Mr. Hofman Philip, firs 
secretary of the American Embassy, and 
Major Clyde S. Ford, of the United 
States Army, there were probably eight 
Red Crescent men standing idle among 
the dead and dying, who lay huddled to- 
' gether in groups on the open ground, en- 
deavoring to get, by close contact, what 
shelter they could from the winter winds. 

We saw one man praying, whose over- 
coat blew over his head, he was too 
feeble to replace it, and yet the men who 
wore the Red Crescent did not trouble to 
help him. They did not trouble to place 
a stone under the heads of many who 
might have been more comfortable for 
even so hard a pillow. 


The victims lay, that first day of our 
visit, on the hard, cold ground for the 
most part, unsheltered even from the 
wind. There were not more than a dozen 
tents and they were crowded with 
corpses and men who would soon be 
corpses. In one tent Major Ford counted 


twenty-two. The Red Crescent men 
shrugged their shoulders as we ap- 


proached, as much as to say, “What can 
any one do?” 
Occasionally a water 
a barrel on wheels drawn by a pony or 
donkey, and the driver would call out 
“su!” Those who were able to rise and 
respond to this cry of water got a little. 
They fought and fumbled for it, men 
sometimes falling in the mélée. ‘Those 
who wanted bread and could respond 
when the call came of ‘‘“ekmek” went like- 
wise to the cart and got it for themselves. 
I saw one man at a deep well trying, 
evidently, to wet the end of a long sash 
which he had unwound from his waist in 


cart would pass, 


217 


soul, efpyeyeyg eyy uo pue e[douelipy ur pues PoeulWteyp a9) 0} }Sse1}U09 
peyieu ur ‘aseo siy} ur ‘sem Ajnp Jo jsod say} woz sinjedep 4 


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a1OOJ YA9paiy Aq oJoyg 


218 


THE CHANGING MAP IN THE BALKANS 


order, I suppose, to moisten his parched 
lips. The water cart did not come his 
way. 


THE TURK REFUSES AID FOR HIS OWN 
WOUNDED 


Several men lay on a manure pile, in 
which one was feebly digging with his 
fingers a trough in which he might lie 
and thus keep warm. Several round this 
manure heap lifted their heads and called 
out to us in Turkish. Our kavass (an 
embassy attendant) told us that they 
said, “We are sick men and no one gives 
us water and no one gives bread.” Their 
appeal to us in the sight of men of their 
own faith seemed to me a remarkable 
recognition of a somewhat better condi- 
tion of humanity existing among men of 
the Christian nations. 

There was no excuse for this terrible 
condition, which existed not only at San 
Stefano, but on the Chataldja lines and 
even in Constantinople. The govern- 
ment had brought the cholera over to 
Europe from Asia Minor in the mobili- 
zation, and then brought it into Constan- 
tinople, where sick and wounded were 
crowded into the mosques. At Constan- 
tinople there was an abundance of pro- 
visions and an endless supply could be 
got in from the several seas that wash 
the Empire’s shores. There were also 
many foreign Red Cross volunteers in 
the city, who were not permitted to go to 
the front! 

The Turk likes to conduct his affairs 
or leave them to conduct themselves 
without the interference of foreigners, 
and though always polite he availed him- 
self of the foreign medical officers and 
nurses only when they forced themselves 
upon him. In order to get patients some 
of the volunteer surgeons were compelled 
to meet the incoming trains and take 
away as many wounded men as they 
could accommodate in hospitals which 
they improvised. 

The condition at San Stefano was so 
pitiful that Mr. Philip and Major Ford, 
together with the Rev. Robert Frew, a 
Scotsman, and Mr. Maurice Baring, an 
Englishman, went out there with the 
idea of saving at least some of the 


219 
wounded and injured who were not 
stricken with cholera. Mere segregation 


and feeding and watering hundreds of 
those cordoned at San Stefano would 
save their lives. 

The work which these men took up 
was financed by Mrs. Rockhill, wife of 
the American Ambassador, with Amer- 
ican Red Cross funds and other collec- 
tions. Soon the Turks, shamed at the 
sight of foreigners doing their work, 
sent out a few officers and a number of 
men and made a feeble pretense of medi- 
cal work, and soon foreign Red Cross 
men and some Austrian Sisters of Charity 
went out to assist at the work. 


TWO HEROIC WOMEN 


But the pioneers of all were two old 
women, one Swiss, the other a Hunga- 
rian, both frail old ladies of more than 
sixty years, whom Philig’s party on their 
arrival found already working among 
the mass of dying and dead humanity. 
These old ladies, governesses living in 
San Stefano, went into the cholera cor- 
don, taking their own savings of money 
and working with their own hands, not 
even troubling to notify the foreign em- 
bassies of their action, much less appeal- 
ing for protection. Miss Alt and Mad- 
ame Schneider were the names of these 
ladies. 

THE DILEMMA OF THE YOUNG TURKS 


The Young Turk movement, which 
promised much a few years ago, seems 
doomed to failure. The original leaders 
of this reform movement were men af- 
fected by European education—almost 
entirely men who had lived, if they had 
not also studied, abroad. The majority 
had returned home with their faith in 
Mohammed distinctly shaken. 

But though they had lost their zeal for 
the creed of Islam their sojourns abroad 
had not made Christians of them. Against 
their natural enemies, the Balkan States, 
they were as bitter as ever. Their re- 
ligion had given place to patriotism. In- 
stead of replying in the manner of the 

“true believer” to the question of their 
nationality, namely, that they were Mos- 
lems, they would answer now, if you in- 
quired, that they were Ottomans. 


Photo by Frederick Moore 


STREET SWEEPERS IN SALONIKI 


The White Tower in the background is where-the ancient pre-Turkish wall, probably built by 
the Crusaders, met the sea 


They succeeded, as is well known, in 
overthrowing the Sultan Abdul Hamid, 
whose tyrannical régime bore only less 
heavily upon Turks than upon Chris- 
tians. 

Having come into power (in 1908) 
they were faced with the problem of the 
faith: Should they denounce Moham- 
medanism or support it? 

They tried a middle course, attempting 
to give to Christians and Jews equal 
rights with their own people. This im- 
possible combination naturally failed. 

There is now left to them the alterna- 
tive of supporting or denouncing Mo- 
hammedanism. By continuing that faith 
as the soul of the empire they maintain a 
stifling idea, a state of mind that cannot 
progress sufficiently to keep pace with 
the advancement of the countries which, 
being “infidel,” all true followers of the 
Prophet must scorn and oppose. 

On the other hand, should the Young 


Turks attempt and succeed in destroying 
the Mohammedan faith—a thing they 
will not do—the result would be the 
break-up of the Empire, for Arabs, Syr- 
ians, Anatolians, Kurds, and others are 
bound to the Turks only by the “faith,” 
and because the Sultan at Constantinople 
is their Caliph, their religious chief. 

It is regrettable that though the Bal- 
kan question is solved and the people of 
European Turkey liberated, there stiil re- 
main many Christians, notably the Ar- 
menians, in Asia Minor, for whom inde- 
pendence or even a measure of relief 
seems impossible. ‘That these Christians 
of Asia Minor will suffer further, as a 
result of the present war, there seems 
little doubt. 


THE AMBITIONS OF BULGARIANS 


The Bulgarians have now by conquest 
come down to A’gean Sea. They speak 
already of the navy they intend to build, 


220 


a teed 


G 
| 
Photo by Frederick Moore 
WALLACHIANS (OR KUTSO-VLACHS, AS THEY ARE KNOWN IN MACEDONIA), ONE OF 
THE SEVEN DISTINCT RACES OF MACEDONIA 
The people whose blood affinity with the Rumanians gives Rumania excuse for claiming 
territorial compensation for their annexation by Bulgaria 
planning to have ships in both the Black _ the navy will hold in any future war that 
Sea and the A%gean, and thereby con- may arise with Turkey. 
trolling if not possessing the great water- 
Way that joins these two seas. A glance 
at the map will show what a splendid 
position the Bulgarian army as well as 


In offering back to Turkey, as the Bul- 
garians did at the abortive London con- 
ference, a sufficient strip of territory to 
connect Constantinople and the Darda- 


to 
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_ 


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Photo by Frederick Moore 


SLAV PEASANTS OF BOSNIA IN THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE 


nelles, they gave evidence of a desire to 
keep out of the high politics of Europe. 
By occupying the coveted city of Con- 
stantinople and the Dardanelles—that is 
to say, all of European Turkey—the Bul- 
garians would at once enter the sphere 
of politics which causes the Great Pow- 
ers to form into two balancing groups in 
order to maintain the peace of Europe. 
The Bulgarians seem, curiously, to have 


little ambition to hold the city, which, as 
one of their leading statesmen first 
pointed out to me, has caused the ruin 
and downfall of every empire that has 
possessed it. 

The Bulgarians, unlike the Greeks, 
are not dreamers and have no imperial 
aspirations. They are very hard-headed, 
as every student who has written of 
them has declared. Even more than the 


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THE TURK GOES OUT OF EUROPE AS HE CAME 


Long lines of these arabas pass daily over the bridges of the Golden Horn and are conveyed 
to the Asiatic shores by boat 


Servians and the Montenegrins, who are 
likewise Slavs, they are most practical. 


WHAT THE SLAV QUESTION MEANS 


When we take up the Slav question 
we enter at once into the politics of Eu- 
rope. Why have the European Powers 
the right to interfere in Balkan affairs? 

It is in the first instance the right of 
might ; but most of the Powers have also 
very definite reason or excuse. 

England, the supporter of the Turks 
in former years, aided them then be- 
cause the alternative of their occupation 
of Constantinople seemed to be an occu- 
pation by the Russians; and England, in 
spite of the present entente with France 
and Russia, has never ceased to guard 
against the Russians achieving their am- 
bition to acquire an outlet to a southern 
sea. 

As is well known, England’s perma- 
nent policy in European affairs is to 
maintain a divided continent in order 
that she may remain supreme. She is 
always to be found balancing the rival 
European camps, thereby keeping the 
peace by placing her navy on the side of 


the weaker group. Hostile to Russia 
prior to the Japanese war, she now forms 
the Triple Entente by supporting the 
Franco-Russian Alliance, the Triple Al- 
liance of Germany,’ Austria-Hungary, 
and Italy being, she believes, the present 
danger to European peace. Hostile to 
Russia when Russia’s ambition was to 
possess Constantinople, England is now 
hostile to Austria-Hungary and her sup- 
porter, Germany, who together appar- 
ently covet the possession of Saloniki 
and hope for the extension of a German 
shaft of territory from the Baltic Sea to 
the A‘ gean. 

England is well satisfied that the Bal- 
kan States are victorious in the present 
war, though she opposed them when she 
feared that they, being Slavs like the 
Russians, would eventually be annexed 
by Russia. But the three Slav States of 
Southeastern Europe have given very 
clear proof to the contrary, and as long 
as they desire their own liberty of action 
and independence Great Britain will al- 
low her Christian sympathies to support 
those minor States against the Turks. 


226 


WHY AUSTRIA INTERVENES 


The position of Austria-Hungary, sup- 
ported by Germany in her interference on 
behalf of the Albanians, is one of serious 
politics as well as of thwarted ambitions. 
The evident intention of the victorious 
Balkan States was to divide Albania—an 
important territory, though peopled only 
by a primitive mountain race and more 
or less sparsely settled. But the accom- 
plishment of this plan would unite the 
Montenegrins and the Servians, on the 
south of Austria, within whose borders 
are many Slavs. 

Austria-Hungary desires to keep any 
confederacy of the Southern Slavs feeble, 
because though these Southern Slavs in- 
tend to maintain their independence, they 
are, nevertheless, in sympathy with Rus- 
sia, the great Slav nation, whose religion, 
like their own, is Orthodox—that is to 
say, of the same form as the Greek. 

The great balance of racial power in 
Europe being Germanic and Slay, the 
Germanic Powers must prevent a strong 
Slav confederacy south of them as long 
as their northern frontier is permanently 
open to a Russian menace. Further- 
more, by maintaining an intact Albania, 
which Austria will support and assist for 
political purposes, she may prepare for 
the future absorption by herself of this 
section, at least, of Turkey in Europe. 


IS RUMANIA’S CLAIM JUST? 


It is because Rumania is not Slavic, 
yet lies geographically between Russia 
and the Southern Slavs, that she naturally 
adheres in sympathy to the Germanic 
Alliance. Rumania’s claim for territorial 
compensation from Bulgaria is based on 
the fact that many settlements of Ru- 
manians, not emigrants from Rumania, 
but remnants evidently of ancient Roman 
invasions of the Balkan Peninsula, will 
be annexed by Bulgaria with her share 
of the conquered territory of Macedonia 
and the Adrianople vilayet. 

With the new order of things that must 
come soon after the several countries are 
able to mark out their new border lines 
and extend their respective governments, 
the various scattered settlements of Bul- 
gars, Serbs, Albanians, Greeks, and per- 
haps even Rumanians (or, as they are 
known in Macedonia, Vlachs) will natu- 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


rally, to some extent, shift themselves be- 
hind the respective border lines of the 
races with which they are to become 
assimilated. 

The Tziganes, or gypsies—of whom 
there are very many—will be content to 
live anywhere, and there will be no diffi- 
culty of politics or national ambitions 
arising from their presence. 

Likewise, there will be no difficulties 
save those that exist already in Balkan 
countries, with the Spanish Jews, who, 
as I have said, took refuge in Turkey in 
great numbers during the period of per- 
secution in Spain. 


THE TURK FORCED BACK TO ASIA 


As for the Turk, he will trek back in 
great numbers to Asia, selling out his 
lands for what he can get or allowing 
them to be taken from him, for there is 
much vindictive feeling among the Chris- 
tians. He will dispense with the ques- 
tion of compensation—being a fatalist— 
as the will of Allah. 

He will make his way back to Asia 
as he came away, centuries ago, little 
changed by his association with the peo- 
ple of Europe—whom he has kept as he 
found them, in a medieval condition, 
with all the barbarity of medieval Eu- 
rope, with all its picturesqueness, its 
color, squalor, and unthinking faith. 

‘The Turk is to be seen already moving 
toward the Bosphorus. Many thousands 
went away, fleeing before their retreating ~ 
army, leading their double teams of buf- 
faloes or oxen, behind which creeped the 
lumbering, four-wheeled arabas, laden 
with the remnants of their possessions, 
and with their veiled women in black and 
their children gaily clad in striking con- 
trast. 

Will the Turk change now, and pro- 
gress and reform? ‘That is a question 
which I should answer in the negative. 
He is a Moslem, and the soul of the true 
Moslem is indifferent to progress. 

But for the enlarged Balkan States it 
seems safe to predict rapid development 
along modern lines, for we have seen how 
all of them under great difficulties have 
already fulfilled partially, at least, their 
aspirations to adopt the civilizing insti- 
tutions of Europe and to advance in edu- 
cation, morals, and material welfare. 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE CARIBBEAN 


By WILLIAM JosEPH SHOWALTER 


HE wonderful changes that will 
be wrought on the countries of 
the Caribbean region by the com- 
pleted Panama Canal are beginning to be 
evident through the plans these countries 
are making to capitalize on the advantages 
it brings to them. Everywhere there is 
anticipation that the completion of the 
canal is going to bring in a great stream 
of capital for development purposes, and 
that an era of unprecedented growth and 
expansion will result. 

Such a desirable outcome will take 
place in some of these countries, but not 
in all of them; for, until capital is made 
safe in any country, it will not come in, 
and there seems to be no prospect of such 
an issue of affairs in many of the coun- 
tries of this region. 

Nowhere else in the world has Nature 
been more bountiful in her blessings of 
natural resources than in the Caribbean 
region. Everything that her treasure- 
house holds has been bestowed with lav- 
ish, and also with impartial, hand. Some 
one has observed that if you tickle the 
ground with a hoe it smiles back with a 
yam, and certain it is that in any one of 
these countries the ground of natural re- 
sources may be tickled with the hoe of 
foreign capital and it smiles back with 
yams of wealth. 

These countries are nearly all favored 
alike in natural wealth, but there is a vast 
difference in the development of that 
wealth—a difference that may be attrib- 
uted almost wholly to the character of 
the governments in the respective coun- 
tries. AL 


POVERTY AND MISRULE DWELL TOGETHER 


In some of these lands the milk and 
honey of plenty flows in a_ bountiful 
stream. Others are in wretched poverty, 
where the masses never have enough to 
keep the gaunt wolf of hunger from 
gnawing at their vitals day and night and 
year in and year out. In traveling 
through these countries one is impressed 
with the fact that prosperity abides with 


good rule and poverty dwells with mis- 
rule. 

Starting out with the easily demon- 
strated fact that there is very little differ- 
ence between these countries in their nat- 
ural resources, it is interesting to look 
around and notice what a vast difference 
there is in the use that is being made of 
this natural wealth. One needs not go 
out of the confines of Central America to 
see this. It would require six Salvadors 
to make one Honduras, and yet Salvador 
has three times as much population and 
three times as much foreign commerce 
as Honduras. 

Costa Rica is less than half as big as 
Nicaragua, and yet it has three times as 
much foreign commerce as Nicaragua. 

And yet, when Salvador and Costa 
Rica are compared with Porto Rico, they 
in turn seem to be slow in their develop- 
ment. Porto Rico is so small that seven 
islands like it would be required to cover 
an area equal to that of Costa Rica, yet 
it has a foreign trade five times as great 
as that of the Banana Empire. Porto 
Rico is less than half as large as Sal- 
vador, yet it has a foreign trade seven 
times as great. 


WHY LITTLE PORTO RICO HAS PROGRESSED 


Little Porto Rico is so small that it 
could be buried in a single Central Amer- 
ican lake; it would take 57 islands of 
its size to equal Central America in area, 
and yet Porto Rico produces more for- 
eign trade than all Central America to- 
gether from Tehuantepec to Colombia. 
The reason? Because Porto Rico has 
an ideal government. The trade of the 
island has nearly quintupled since Uncle 
Sam took possession there. The number 
of children enrolled in school has in- 
creased sixfold. The wages of the la- 
boring class has multiplied threefold. 

We read of Porto Rico’s present pros- 
perity in every page of the record of its 
expanding industry. It is seen in the 
sugar fields, where four tons of sugar 
are produced where one was a dozen 


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Holmes, U. S. National Museum 


THE PYRAMID TEMPLE OF EL TAJIN 
This pyramid temple, situated at Papantla, in the province of Vera Cruz, Mexico, pre- 


sents a feature found in no other pyramid. 
and is solid throughout. 


It is constructed of earth, dressed with stone, 
With the exception of the space reserved for the stairway, the 


pyramid is faced on all four sides with a series of stone niches apparently designed to receive 


statues. This feature is unique. 
disappeared. 


years ago, and where the Porto Rican 
people receive $6 for exported sugar 
where they received $1 only a dozen years 
before. It is seen in the expansion of 
the coffee fincas, where production has 
quadrupled since the beginning of the 
century. It is seen in the growth of the 
fruit-export business, where the produc- 
tion of oranges increased sevenfold in 
ten years, pineapples twenty-fold in four 
years, and grapefruit twenty-five-fold in 
three years. 

Wherever one turns Porto Rico is ex- 
tending its sugar fields, planting new 
pineapple plantations, establishing new 
coffee fincas, and laying out new citrus- 
fruit groves. And given a free entrance 
of their products to the markets of the 
United States, products raised where 
frosts never threaten and where labor is 


The temple proper, which crowned the pyramid, has now 


abundant and cheap, Porto Rico is des- 
tined to become a great competitor with 
Florida and southern California in sup- 
plying our tropical and _ semi-tropical 
fruits. 

The crusade which was initiated and 
originally directed by the U. S. medical 
officers against the hookworm disease in 
Porto Rico has been a godsend to the 
suffering people of the island. Formerly 
practically the entire population of Porto 
Rico suffered from this wasting affliction. 
Hundreds of thousands of cases have 
since been treated and the majority of 
them cured. Forty-five dispensaries are 
maintained throughout the island, and in 
a single year 49,000 cases have been 
treated, out of which 19,000 complete and 
7,000 partial cures were made. There 
still remain some 200,000 cases in the 


Photo from W. H. Holmes, U. S. National Museum 


A PREHISTORIC WATER GOD 


This enormous serpent is found sculptured on the rock on a hillside near the town of 


Fuente, in Mexico. 
from the rocks. 


It is represented as if crawling out of the spring, which here issues 
It is 20 feet in length and its tail is hidden in the spring. 


Archeologists 


are of the opinion that it represents a Mexican water god. 


island, but they are being reduced at the 
rate of about 12,000 a year. ‘The treat- 
ment is free to the people, the ecpense 
being borne by the government. | 

With hundreds of thousands of men, 
women, and children released from the 
thralldom of one of the most wasting 
and preying diseases that may attack the 
human system, humanitarian ends with- 
out measure have been served; and, with 
their earning power doubled, their ability 
to work in many cases trebled, the great 
crusade against the hookworm in Porto 
Rico constitutes one of the brightest 
pages in all colonial history. Here pub- 
lic medicine has been put to the test, and 
the most enthusiastic promises of the 
sanitarian and exponent of preventive 
medicine has seen his dreams come true. 


A TERRIBLE PICTURE 


That Porto Rico under Spain was little 
different from Central America today is 


shown by a prize-winning essay that was 
published at the big centennial celebra- 
tion of 1897—an essay that was awarded 
the prize by the Spanish authorities on 
the island themselves. In that document 
the essayist declared: 

“Only the laborer, the son of our fields, 
one of the most unfortunate beings in the 
world, with the pallid face, the bare foot, 
the fleshless body, the. ragged clothing, 
and the feverish glance, strolls indiffer- 
ently, with the darkness of ignorance in 
his eyes. In the market he finds for food 
only the rotten fish or meat, codfish cov- 
ered with gangrenish splotches, and In- 
dian rice; he that harvests the best coffee 
in the world, who aids in gathering into 
the granary the sweetest grain in nature. 
and drives to pasture our beautiful young 
beef animals cannot carry to his lips a 
single slice of their flesh; coffee is to him 
a prohibited luxury, and he can use only 
sugar laden with impurities.” 


30 


Xico, in Mexico. 


Photo from W. H. Holmes, U. S. National Museum 
A REPULSIVE IDOL 


This curious stone was found in a corn field a few hundred feet from the station at 


An animal figure with a human head is carved in high relief on the 


boulder to which it seems to be clinging. Some idea of its size can be gained from the 


little Mexican boy who is shown alongside it. 


The picture which then fitted Porto 
Rico now fits Central America. The 
laborer of Porto Rico, who then got less 
than 20 cents a day for his work, was 
even better off than the present laborer 
of Guatemala, who now gets nine cents 
a day for his. Then, seven out of nine 
Porto Rican laborers were barefooted; 
today nine out of ten wear shoes, while 
in Central America six out of seven are 
barefooted. 

Lest it seem to appear that in compar- 
ing Porto Rico with Central America the 
comparison is an unfair one, let Cuba 
be taken instead. Cuba has an area 
somewhat smaller than Guatemala and a 
population approximately equal, and yet 
it enjoys a foreign trade 13 times as 


large. It has an area one-fifth as great 
as that of all of the six Central American 
republics, including Panama, and yet its 
foreign commerce is three times as great 
as that of all six republics together. 


GOOD GOVERNMENT SPELLS PROSPERITY 


Jamaica, a British possession, has an 
area only one-twelfth as great as that of 
Nicaragua, and yet it has a foreign trade 
three times as great. One might go on 
with these enumerations indefinitely, the 
lesson of them all being that prosperity 
cannot exist where good government does 
not. On the other hand, it is equally 
demonstrated that poverty cannot exist 
in the Caribbean region where good gov- 
ernment is found. 


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THE COUNTRIES OF THE CARIBBEAN 233 


GUATEMALA 


A trip through the countries of the 
Caribbean is a trip of remarkable con- 
trasts. In some ways Guatemala is the 
most interesting of them all. Guatemala 
contains a larger proportion of pure- 
blooded Indians than any other of the 
republics. 

In northern Guatemala one sees many 

tribes of Indians who have never felt 
the rude touch of an outside civilization. 
They are not even acquainted with Span- 
ish, and still speak the uncorrupted 
tongues of their Aztec and Mayan an- 
cestors who ruled the country before 
Columbus discovered America. They are 
an honest and cleanly race. They will 
not tolerate loose women among them, 
and in their transactions with outsiders 
their word is as good as old wheat in a 
granary. 
_ A little illustration of this it was my 
good fortune to see when I was in Guate- 
mala City with Secretary Knox. Indians 
from every part of the republic were 
compelled .o go to the capital and par- 
ticipate in the big parade. While calling 
on Consul General Bucklin, a Mrs. Owen, 
who has spent 30 years among them, 
brought in two typical San Cristobal In- 
dian girls to be photographed. One of 
them had a very unique set of native- 
wrought silver ear-rings, which I bought 
from her, and also a silver ring sur- 
mounted with a little spread-winged dove. 
Then she had another ring which I 
thought was a hand-carved gold one. 
She replied that she would not sell it, 
since it was not gold. Mrs. Owen as- 
sured me that she has never known one 
of them to misrepresent anything in 
order to effect a sale. 

Yet it is these splendid types of people 
who become slaves to the Guatemalan 
coffee planters and are forced to work 
their lives away trying to pay their debts 
on a wage of less than nine cents a day. 


WHAT AN AMERICAN CORPORATION DOES 


FOR THE INDIANS 


It is in Guatemala that one begins 
properly to appreciate the great civilizing 
influence of a much-maligned American 
corporation—the United Fruit Company. 
That corporation has many thousands of 


acres of banana plantations along the 
lowlands of the Motagua River and ex- 
tending to the Caribbean Sea. It pays 
its laborers a dollar in gold a day, eleven 
times as much as the laws of Guatemala 
say shall constitute a day’s wage. One 
readily can imagine what a boon this is 
to poor Indians who have formerly been 
paid only nine cents. Yet the United 
Fruit Company voluntarily pays this 
wage, and is able to give work to every 
Guatemalan Indian who applies for a job. 

It is the advent of such organizations 
as these—powerful enough to protect 
their own interests when disputes with 
the local governments arise—that spells 
the economic salvation of these countries 
and promises an honest wage to the la- 
boring classes. I hold no brief for the 
United Fruit Company, but it must be 
said that that great corporation has done 
more for Central America than all other 
agencies combined. 


HONDURAS IS VERY UNFORTUNATE 


Honduras is in a very bad way from 
whatever standpoint one views it. It has 
a smaller population now than it had a 
half. century ago, and it has gone to 
wreck and ruin to such an extent that 
nothing but outside help can ever lift it 
again to a plane where growth and de- 
velopment are possible. And yet it is 
rich in natural resources almost beyond 


-imagination. 


With vast deposits of minerals of all 
kinds ; with untold thousands of acres of 
the finest tropical fruit and vegetable 
lands in the world, and with vast areas 
of magnificent grazing and coffee lands, 
Honduras is at our very doors. It is 700 
miles nearer to Chicago than that city is 
to San Francisco; it is closer to Wash- 
ington than Denver is; it is farther from 
New Orleans to Chicago than it is from 
Puerto Barrios and Livingston to New 
Orleans. A stable government for Hon- 
duras, and it must become a kingdom of 
plenty instead of a principality of pov- 
erty ! 

A KINGDOM OF PLENTY 


Across the border is prosperous little 
Salvador. It is as different from Hon- 
duras as night is from day. It has a 
population so dense that if ours were of 


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75 miles broad. 


Photo from Mrs. Harriet Chalmers Adams 
LAKE MARACAIBO, VENEZUELA 


This is a great lake, quadrangular in shape, in western Venezuela, 137 miles long and 


. It communicates with the sea by 13 channels, each obstructed by a sandy 
bar, but for which the lake would be navigable for large vessels. 


The influence of the tides 


is felt in the lower part of the lake, and the water is consequently brackish, but in the upper 
half the water is sweet. A city and seaport, founded in 1571, of the same name stands at 


_ the entrance to the lake. 


equal density we would have a popula- 
tion of 7oo million in the continental 
United States; and although nearly half 
of the country is mountainous, the peo- 
ple are able to get their living out of 
what they produce and still have a bal- 
ance of trade amounting to about $3,500,- 
000 a year. 

The Salvadorean people are different 
from those of any other Central Ameri- 
can State. They have a middle class. 
There are thousands of little farms not 
much larger than a good-sized city block, 
and yet it is here that the real prosperity 
of Salvador is created. 

In no other way could nearly 2 million 
souls find subsistence on 7,225 square 
miles of territory, nearly half of it moun- 
tains. Salvador has had its revolutionary 
troubles, too; but they have been more 
because of bellicose neighbors than be- 
cause of internal difficulties. People who 
cultivate their own lands have too much 


235 


at stake to start a revolution with every 
change of the moon. 


THE HOPELESS NICARAGUANS 


Nicaragua is in the same condition as 
Honduras. They have had revolutions 
there since the memory of the inhabitants 
runneth not to the contrary. There 
seems to be little hope that they will ever 
be able to give themselves a good govern- 
ment. Here one sees a thousand oppor- 
tunities for the development of great 
wealth. 

Virgin 


forests of all the precious 


’ woods in the category extending for 


miles on end; coffee lands where millions 
of pounds of splendid coffee might be 
grown; sugar lands which might yield 
hundreds of thousands of sacks of sugar ; 
and yet all stand idle. Why? 

Ask the American coffee growers of 
the Matagalpa district; ask the cotton 
growers of Campo Santo. The revolu- 


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236 


WATCHING THE STEAMERS ENTERING 


La Guaira is the chief port of Venezuela. 


by high mountains. 
and the houses ill-built. 
churches. 


tions come along and leave their coffee 
to spoil ungathered and their cotton to 
go to waste unpicked. Ask the financier 
from New Orleans who spent 20 years 
of hardships there trying to gather to- 
gether a competence, and who now finds 
his business wrecked and in the hands of 
receivers. 

Given good governments, then no coun- 
tries on the map would afford greater 
opportunities for profitable investments 
than those of Central America. With 
such governments as some of them now 
have, all their natural wealth cannot off- 


It is an unattractive town. 
There are, however, a few fine public buildings and some handsome 
A winding railroad connects it with the capital—Caracas—some 23 miles distant. 


——— 
“~S - 
. 


Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co. 
PORT : LA GUAIRA, VENEZUELA 


It lies in a valley surrounded on three sides 
The streets are narrow and badly paved, 


set the disadvantages of those govern- 
ments, and an investment at 4 per cent 
in the United States is often to be pre- 
ferred to one yielding 100 per cent in 
some of these countries. 


CENTRAL AMERICAN REPUBLIC WHERE 
THEY DO NOT HAVE REVOLUTIONS 


A 


When we come to Costa Rica things 
are beginning to be different, and Costa 
Rica does not like to be reckoned in the 
same’ class with Nicaragua, Honduras, 
and Guatemala. She has not had a revo- 
lution in a generation. ‘The country is 


of their milk. 


Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co. 
STREET SCENE IN CARACAS 


In the towns of Venezuela the most fastidious can always be certain of the freshness 


It is the custom to conduct the cow in person, often accompanied by her 


calf, to the door of the customer, and the operation of milking is performed in the presence 


of the purchaser. 


so occupied with foreign interests that 
everybody is busy and revolutions are not 
to be thought of, much less started. 
Panama is blest with some very fine 
farming and fruit lands in the region 
next to Costa Rica; but nearly all of the 
Panamans have gone down to the canal 
zone region for the time being. Some 
of the most beautiful tierra templada 
lands in America are to be found in the 
Chiquiri country, and when the people 
of the United States get acquainted with 
the possibilities there, some of them are 
going to settle in that region and make 


to 


it a splendid example of the possibilities 
of tropical America. 

It is not improbable that one of the 
results of the completion of the Panama 
Canal will be the realization by the people 
of the United States that its safety de- 
pends in no small degree upon the good 
conduct of the governments of Central 
America. That will mean a demand for 
a new order of things in these countries, 
which in turn will mean safe investments 
for American capital. 

Then will dawn an era of development 
and expansion in Central America com- 


moma nhee 


ae: aad 


A HANDSOME 


PLAZA IN CARACAS, 


Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co. 


VENEZUELA 


The Plaza Bolivar is the center of Caracas, and contains the cathedral, the archbishop’s 


palace, and the national library. 
bered, lighted by electricity, 


The streets cross each other at right angles, 
and generally well paved. 


are all num- 


The city was founded in 1567, and 


was almost entirely destroyed by a great earthquake in 1812. 


parable to that which has taken place in 
Porto Rico and in Cuba. 


NEW YORK TO PANAMA IS LE 


A DREAM? 


BY RAIL. 


Then will the Pan-American Railroad 


become a living reality instead of a 
statesman’s dream. Already, in antici- 


pation of that day, Panama is preparing 
to build from the canal to the Costa 
Rican frontier. 

The gap to the Costa Rican Railroad 
is not a long one, and the connection 
through to Nicaragua would not be diffi- 


2 


cult to build. From the national railway 
of Nicaragua to the one now being built 
by the United | Fruit interests from the 
lower part of Salvador through to a con- 
nection with the Guatemala Northern is 
only a short break, and then there would 
be actual rail connection from Panama 
to New York. 

Of course the idea of through trains 
or even through cars is little more than 
a dream, since the roads are of varying 
gauges, and it will be many a year before 
it can even be hoped that they will all 
be converted to standard gauge. 


foot of the mountains, at a height of some 3,000 feet above the sea. 
are the twin peaks of the Silla de Caracas, which rise to the height of 8.622 feet. 


Photo and copyright by The Keystone View Co. 
CARACAS, VENEZUELA 


This city, the capital of Venezuela, occupies a beautiful site in a narrow valley at the 


Dominating the city 
The 


climate of Caracas has been described as one of perpetual spring, with an annual mean 
temperature of 66 degrees; but there are very rapid changes, and the alternation of the dry 


and humid winds is often very unpleasant. 


As it is, 1t is now possible to travel 
from Washington to the Guatemalan 
frontier on a standard-gauge road; but 
who does it once will never do it again. 

The trip across the great Mexican des- 
ert is an experience not soon forgotten 
or desired again. With the windows of 
the Pullman cars down as if going 
through a tunnel, still the alkaline dust 
seeps in and makes the traveler feel that 
he has been in the presence of a thresh- 
ing machine for 24 hours. 


TWO OF THE MOST WONDERFUL RAILROADS 
IN THE WORLD 


If Central America expects to capi- 
talize on the building of the Panama 
Canal, it has no more ambitious hopes 
in that direction than Venezuela and Co- 
lombia. Although Colombia is still deeply 
aggrieved over her failure to negotiate 
a canal treaty with the United States, 
that does not prevent her from expecting 
much benefit from the operation of the 


240 


Photo from Mrs. Harriet Chalmers Adams 


VIEW ON THE ORINOCO RIVER, VENEZUELA 


This great river, which is approximately 1,500 miles long, and is supposed to have 436 
tributaries, has never been properly explored, although in the days of the Spanish con- 
quistadores it was the scene of many voyages of discovery in search of El Dorado. It 
flows into the sea through a delta which is 700 square miles in area, and so little above 
sea-level that great tracts of it are periodically flooded. The influence of the tides can be 
seen in April, when the water is lowest, as far up the river as Ciudad Bolivar, 373 miles 


from its mouth. 
for steamboat traffic. 


big waterway. Already thousands of 
concessions are being issued, and Colom- 
bia, practically virgin territory so far as 
development is concerned, promises to 
be invaded by a great army of men whose 
mission it will be to convert her latent 
wealth into usable money. 

Venezuela considers herself a sort of 
natural stopping place for travel that 
passes through the Panama Canal. With 
two of the most wonderful railroads in 
the world, leading from La Guaira and 
Porto Cabello to Caracas, one of the most 
charming of all the American capitals, it 
is certain that no place can hold out more 
attractions for the tourist. 

On the one road the traveler must ride 
23 miles to make seven, and that in itself 
tells a story of a wonderful mountain 
road,- with zigzags and windings galore, 
with high bridges, gorges thousands of 
feet deep, and other touches of scenery 


241 


Although it presents a magnificent waterway, the Orinoco is but little used 


not surpassed in its grandeur and beauty 
anywhere. On the other road there are 
86 tunnels in less than 100 miles of rail- 
way, and it would seem that a third of 
the route was made up of bridges. 

Caracas has a situation to be compared 
only to that of Mexico City. It has a 
climate such that no one has failed, it is 
said, to sleep under a blanket since the 
city was founded. If its climatic charms, 
its beauty, and the attractions of its so- 
ciety come to be fully appreciated, this 
will be one of the places to which the 
tourist steamers of the world will carry 
their passengers. Then there are mil- 
lions of acres of splendid tropical farm- 
ing land in Venezuela, and rich deposits 
of minerals and oil. 

The West Indies also are getting ready 
for the great boom in international trade 
which the completion of the canal prom- 
ises. The Danish government is prepar- 


242 


ing to spend millions of dollars in deep- 
ening the magnificent harbor at Charlotte 
Amalia, on the island of St. Thomas, 
expecting that here will be a favored 
spot for the calling of ships after the big 
waterway is in operation. 

Lying hard by the main shipway from 
Europe to the canal and being a free 
port, St. Thomas anticipates a great 
boom. And it will almost certainly be- 
come the Panama-hat distributing center 
of the world. I have been in every coun- 
try north of the Equator, and on this 
island I saw the biggest Panama-hat store 
I have ever seen. It is probably the big- 
gest emporium of its kind in the world. 


WHERE IS COLUMBUS BURIED? 


Santo Domingo expects that it will get 
a share in the great international com- 
merce that will move through the Pan- 
ama Canal. Not only will it afford a 
great highway for its exports and im- 
ports, but will also constitute an impor- 
tant port of call for many kinds of ships. 

Here one may see the house of Colum- 
bus, and if the conclusions of the priests 
of Santo Domingo are to be believed, his 
very ashes. It seems that Columbus, his 
brother, and his son were interred in the 
Cathedral. In after years it was decided 
to remove the ashes of the Discoverer to 
Havana. 


% 
When the Spaniards were fighting in 


the Spanish-American war they took the 
bones at Havana back to Spain and in- 
terred them there. It is claimed that it 
has since been demonstrated that those 
are the bones of his brother. 

The Santo Domingans afterward op- 
ened up a leaden casket and in it found 
the inscription “Cristobal Colon, First 
Admiral.” Other evidence substantiates 
the claim and was strong enough to con- 
vince Secretary Knox that the Domini- 
cans actually do possess the real bones 
of Columbus. 

The casket was opened for our party. 
There were small parts of the skull, 
vertebre, ribs, and femurs remaining; 
but for the most part there was nothing 
but dust. The bones still remaining un- 
crumbled would fill about a quarter-peck 
measure. 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


UNCLE SAM AS A CUSTOM’S CLERK 


Under the convention by which the 
United States is overseeing the collection 
of customs in Santo Domingo, remark- 
able results are being achieved. When 
the United States sent the receiver there, 
the customs collections in their entirety 
did not suffice to meet the needs of the 
government and the republic was a bank- 
rupt, defaulting on its interest and hay- 
ing the warships of a European nation 
at its door. 

One of the early acts of the receiver 
was to revise the tariff. Export duties 
were cut in two and import duties were 
lowered 14 per cent. 

Under the old tariff champagne was 
admitted with a nominal duty and beer 
was heavily taxed; silks came in almost 
free and cotton goods bore a heavy bur- 
den; French sardines were admitted with 
a low duty and rice was assessed with a 
very heavy one. It put the burdens of 
taxation on the poor masses and prac- 
tically exempted the rich classes. 

The revised tariff reversed all this. 
And under an honest administration of 
the tariff laws 60 per cent of the reduced 
tariff gives the country more revenue 
than 100 per cent of the old tariff. The 
other 40 per cent goes to the liquidation 
of the foreign debt of the country. 

Haiti does not expect much from the 
Panama Canal, for here is the one spot 
in the New World where black rules 
white, and to which the tourist tide will 
probably never flow. 

Here also there have been revolutions, 
starting almost with each change of the 
moon, for a generation or more. The 
country is perhaps the most backward in 
the New World. They never plant any- 
thing. Haiti grows a considerable amount 
of coffee, but it grows on trees which are 
now the wild descendants of the trees. 
which were planted by the French colo- 
nists. 

Porto Rico feels that the completion 
of the canal spells new prosperity for it. 
Plans are on foot for a magnificent tropi- 
cal hotel, to be built at San Juan. Being 
hard by the natural route for ships be- 
tween the canal and Europe, it expects. 
to profit by the traffic as Genoa profited 


ae ee oe 


Photo by Luis F. Chibas 


ROAD-MAKING IN CUBA, WITH FOUR-TON ROLLER, IN THE INTERIOR OF THE ISLAND 


Cuba has always been handicapped by a lack of good roads, and one of the greatest blessings 
of the American occupation was the initiation of an era of road-making 


”~ 


"29h, D> 


Photo from Frederick J. Haskin 


A HAVANA BABY ENJOYING ITS MIDDAY LUNCH 


This is by no means an uncommon sight in the poorer quarters of almost any Cuban 
town. All through the tropics and particularly among the Latin peoples the goat 1s a do- 
mestic animal of greater value than the cow. Its milk is preferred for infant feeding, and 
it needs less care and attention than the cow. 


243 


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THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP 


by the Mediterranean traffic before the 
Turks took Constantinople. 

Cuba also is expecting vast opportuni- 
ties for development and expansion grow- 
ing out of the operation of the canal. 
The Cubans are so enthusiastic as to pro- 
pose the cutting of a canal through the 
island just west of Havana large enough 
to accommodate all the shipping that 
passes from the /\tlantic seaboard to 
Panama and vice ~?rsa. 

It is not unrea onable to assume that 
if the people of Middle America can 
secure fair and pr»per governmental con- 
ditions after the c mpletion of the Pan- 
ama Canal, they ce:: do what Cuba has 
done in the 13 years since the first Amer- 
ican intervention. 

Since that time the -umber of people 
in the island able to read and write has 
increased 140 per cent. ‘The mortality 
rate has been cut down from 33.68 per 
thousand to 12.69, and only Australia, 
among all the countries of the world, can 
make a better showing. 

The balance of trade has risen from a 
deficit of $27,000,000 a year to a surplus 
of $30,000,000. The mileage of macadam 


249 


roads has increased from 158 miles to 
928. Some $350,000,000 has been spent 
since then in the rehabilitation of the 
country. And even then Cuba’s govern- 
ment has not been all that it might be, 
nor is it at the end of its possibilities of 
progress. Only a bare fraction of its 
agricultural lands are under cultivation; 
only a part of its mineral wealth has 
been developed. It might easily be made 
to quadruple its foreign trade. 

But assuming that Central America can 
only be brought up to the standard of 
Cuba today, its foreign trade would 
amount to a full billion dollars a year 
instead of. a beggarly 65 million today. 
It would have 10,000 miles of railroad 
where it has less than 1,0co miles today. 
It would have 5,000 miles of macadam 
roads as compared with a few hundred 
today. It would have a population of 
11,000,000 as compared with 5,600,000 
today, 

This and more wili certainly come to 
Central America if good government 
there comes apace with a completed Pan- 
ama Canal. 


IMPORTANT NOTICE TO OUR READERS 


WING to the very large increase 
() in the edition of the NATIONAL 

GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, the ca- 
pacity of our printers, who have the 
largest printing establishment in Wash- 
ington, has been temporarily overtaxed, 
with the result that the magazine is many 
weeks late. In September, 1912, we were 
printing 140,000 copies, whereas the edi- 
tion for January and February had leaped 
to 210,000 copies. The present magazine 
also makes a larger book. 

This increased popularity of the maga- 
zine is very gratifying; however, such an 
extraordinary growth was beyond all cal- 
culation, 


Messrs. Judd & Detweiler, Inc., who 
have so admirably printed the magazine 
for 25 years, are now building a large 
new plant, which will be entirely devoted 
to the printing of the Natrona, GEo- 
GRAPHIC MacGAzINE. Meanwhile, new 
presses are being installed in their old 
building, and two shifts are working night 
and day. Every effort is being made to 
catch up with the calendar, and we hope 
soon that the readers will receive the 
magazine more regularly than has been 
possible in the past two months. Mean- 
while, the members may rest assured that 
the increased edition will mean an even 
more valuable and entertaining magazine. 


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250 


PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
pOGIEDY 


The Reports for the Year 1912 of the Director and Editor, the Secretary, and 
the Treasurer 


REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR AND EDITOR 


HE results of the year 1912 were 
| most gratifying in all departments 
of the Society's work. In the 
variety and extent of researches and ex- 
plorations by the Society; in the number 
of new members added to the rolls; in 
the popularity, influence, and educative 
value of its magazine, and in the amount 
added to the investment fund, the year 
1912 surpassed all its predecessors. 

The expedition which the Society, in 
cooperation with Yale University, sent 
to Peru, under the direction of Hiram 
Bingham, made a careful study of the 
wonderful Inca city of Macchu Pichu, 
discovered by Mr, Bingham in 1911. The 
expedition stayed in this city for nearly 
five months, mapping it in such detail 
that a model can now be made of Macchu 
Pichu, which is one of the most extra- 
ordinary archeological finds in America 
during the past 50 years. The city covers 
the top of a high mountain, being one- 
half mile long and almost as wide. The 
buildings are built of blocks of pure 
white granite, put together without ce- 
ment. The publications by the Society 
of the results of Dr. Bingham’s expedi- 
tion, which also made many other new 
discoveries, illustrated profusely by the 
remarkable array of photographs that he 
brought back, will bring much honor and 
credit to the Society for its share in the 
work. (The April number of the Mag- 
azine will contain Dr. Bingham’s report. ) 

The expedition to Mount Katmai, 
Alaska, to study volcanic conditions of 
the mountain and neighborhood, was also 
very successful. Prof. George C. Martin 
has completed his report, which is illus- 
trated by a marvelous collection of pho- 
tographs showing the devastation caused 
by the volcano. (Published elsewhere in 
this number.) 

The expedition to the east coast of 


Hudson Bay, under the direction of 
W. E. Clyde Todd, did good work, and 
its biological and other studies should 
prove valuable acquisitions to science. 

The scientific volume of the Alaska 
Glacier studies of 1909, 1910, and I9rI 
was completed by the late Prof. Ralph S. 
Tarr, of Cornell University, and Prof. 
Lawrence Martin, of the University of 
Wisconsin, and delivered to the Society 
late in the year. It will be published in 
IQT3. 

The present activity of the Society in 
conducting explorations is most gratify- 
ing when we realize that until very re- 
cently the Society had no funds of its 
own available to maintain researches. 


THE NEW BUILDING OF THE SOCIETY 


As the Society has no endowment, it 
has been the policy of the Board of Man- 
agers each year to add to the reserve 
fund as large an amount as possible from 
the annual receipts, in order that the 
Society might accumulate a comfortable 
surplus and thus be protected in times of 
financial stress. The wisdom of this 
policy is now apparent, when, owing to 
the immense increase in the correspond- 
ence and business of the Society, more 
accommodations are needed for its office 
force than Hubbard Memorial Hall can 
provide, and the erection of a new office 
building for the Society has become im- 
perative. In December, 1912, the Board 
of Managers authorized the construction 
of a new building on the large property, 
which the Society had purchased at a 
cost of about $44,000, adjacent to Hub- 
bard Memorial Hall. 

The Finance Committee, which the 
Board charged with the duties of pre- 
paring plans, is now actively at work on 
the designs for the new building, which 
will be convenient, well-lighted, and a 
handsome annex to the beautiful home 
given to the Society by the family of its 


251 


252 


first President. It is expected that ground 
will be broken for the new building about 
April 1, and that it will be ready for 
occupancy before November 1, 1913. The 
building and equipment will cost approxi- 
mately $150,000, exclusive of the land. 
When the new structure is completed 
Hubbard Hall will be restored to the 
original purposes for which it was in- 
tended—a meeting-place for geographers 
and travelers, for the research and other 
committees of the Society, and for the 
accommodation of a useful geographical 
library of ready reference. The Society 
has several thousand standard geograph- 
ical books, but owing to the crowding of 
its present quarters, the volumes are for 
the most part stored in packing-boxes. 
Fourteen years ago an able-bodied man 
could walk off with the entire month’s 
edition of the magazine on his back, 
whereas today seven freight cars are re- 
quired to carry the paper for printing 
the current number of the magazine. The 
number of the magazine which contains 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


this report would fill a book-shelf 1% 
miles long. This really extraordinary de- 
velopment of a magazine which prints 
no fiction has been made possible largely 
because of the belief of the old and new 
members in the object of the Society and 
of the loyal support which they have 
given to its policy of popularizing geo- 
graphical knowledge, particularly as ex- 
pressed in its magazine. 

During 1912 there was a uniform 
growth in new members and in receipts 
of approximately 60.5 per cent over the 
preceding year, the largest percentage of 
increase that the Society has attained 
during the past six years. I give below 
a table showing the progress of the So- 
ciety in its membership, in its receipts, 
in its earnings, research expenditures, 
and investment for each of the last six 
years. It is there shown that the mem- 
bership, the receipts, and the earnings 
for the year 1912 were practically four 
times the corresponding figures for the 
year 1908. 


Surplus after : 
Members. Receipts. Pe au ee Bropuiated Invested. 
the year. ; 
TO U2 Ge a ene 160,565 $369 , 829.34 $64 564.31 $13,740.76 $50,823.55 
LOD ass 102,051 224,927.12 43,886.96 5,200.94 38 686.00 
TOTO ee eee 74,018 168 , 863.43 36,872.00 8,766.00 28 ,096.00 
TOOQ Henao, 53,333 127,275.70 25,466.07 5,746.39 19,719.68 
TOOSH Ms anal 38 , 608 84,083.54 16,898.00 None 16,898.00 
TOO Tire Mies epetia a Bit YD 80,707.29 19,013.00 1,729.15 17,283.85 
“SIROy 2) eee ea kc ke ee aN eh aLSTAL weal aap mer nM ceoena $206 , 700.34 $35,183.24 $171,507.08 
Total investments and cash of the Society (December 31, I912).......... $177,060.00 


This increased growth of the Society 
will provide funds for an even more val- 
uable magazine in 1913 than the So- 
ciety has yet been able to publish. Sev- 
eral new maps and panoramas, inciuding 
another wonderful mountain panorama 
by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution, and several 
colored features will appear in early 
numbers of the magazine. Each number 
of the magazine will contain splendid 
articles by eminent authorities, and an 
average of from 125 to 150 of the mar- 
velous illustrations which have given the 


magazine its unique reputation for inter- 
est and instruction. 
The magazine has been purchasing 
ee: in almost every part of the 
orld and has today one of the most 
Lee collections of photographs in 
the United States. The Society has also 
a large equipment of machines, etc., 
which have been purchased during the 
past several years and none of which 
appear on the books of the organization 
as assets. ‘The Society has a collection 
of copper plates worth many thousand 
dollars, also not carried as assets. 


PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


There were published by the Society 
during 1912 1,705,000 copies of the mag- 
azine, the average monthly edition for 
the year being 142,083, a gain of 48,666 
per month. ‘he average edition in 1911 
was 93,417; in I910, 68,833; in 1909, 
52,833; in 1908, 41,000. 

The Society is today the largest patron 
of the post-office in Washington, exclud- 
ing the government departments. Dur- 
ing the past year about 1,200,000 letters 
and 50,000 postal cards were dispatched 
from our office. Approximately 225,00c 
remittances were made to the Society. 
only a very small percentage of which 
were of a greater amount than $2. Forty- 
eight thousand changes in the addresses 
of members were made, more than 150 
for each working day, and approxi- 
mately 2,250 mail-bags of magazines 
were sent out each month. 

The condition of the advertising de- 
partment of the magazine is most prom- 
ising for the current year. Our policy 
has been to limit the number of advertis- 
ing pages and to refuse much advertis- 
ing which we didnot think desirable. 
For instance, advertisements of certain 
medicines, foods, real estate, etc., though 
carried by standard magazines, are not 
printed in the Narionat GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE. 

The fact that the magazine has been 
built up out of membership fees and sub- 
scriptions, and has not been dependent 
on advertising receipts, has enabled us 
to be independent ; furthermore, we have 
not had to maintain an expensive adver- 
tising staff. 

Our policy is to limit the number of 
pages of advertising to be carried by the 
magazine to not more than 50 pages per 
month. Owing to the exceptional value 
of the advertising pages in the NATIONAL 
GrocRAPHIC MAGAZINE, there is now be- 
ginning to be a great demand for them, 
and we expect shortly to command a 
much more remunerative price per page 
than has heretofore been obtainable. 

The success of the Society in develop- 
ing a popular magazine for the diffu- 
sion of geographic information monthly 
makes me believe that the Society should 
now undertake the publication of the 


bo 
Or 
oo 


ideal, or standard, books of travel. It 
seems to me that our aim should be to 
encourage a new type of geographical 
literature, just as we have encouraged 
and established a new type of geograph- 
ical magazine. ©ur facilities for illus- 
trating books of travel and for distribut- 
ing them are unequaled. The market is 
flooded with books of travel every year, 
most of which are rubbish and not 
worthy of even a line of note in our 
periodical. They have a very small sale, 
because so many poor books of travel 
are published that the very rare good 
book is hidden in the mass of worthless 
material. 

If the Society adopts the policy of 
printing exceptional studies of foreign 
peoples, such as “Farmers of Forty Cen- 
turies,” by the late F. H. King, we shall 
undoubtedly receive applications from 
authors of such volumes who will want 
to have us undertake their publication 
because of the distinction that a work 
approved by the Society will merit from 
the public. We have such a tremendous 
field of readers that the Society ought to 
do all that it can to place useful geo- 
graphical information before them. 

Our aim is to make the magazine a 
source of desirable and useful geographic 
information to every intelligent family 
in the United States, and we believe that 
this ambition can be realized. 

If the Society through its magazine 
can get the average man and woman in 
the United States to read articles like 
the one on “The Wonderful Canals of 
China,” in the October (1912) number, 
we shall be doing an educational work 
which in importance cannot be overesti- 
mated. 

The magazine-is thus becoming one of 
the greatest forces in the world for a 
better understanding and appreciation of 
other peoples, and for the promotion of 
international good will. And in this con- 
nection I quote from an editorial in the 
Boston Herald as follows: 

“The National Geographic Society of Wash- 
ington, D. C., is doing a work, through the 
monthly publication of its magazine, which no 
intelligent man or woman can afford to remain 


ignorant of. Geography by itself is ordinarily 
thought a dry subject. Geography, on the con- 


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d1e YIYyM ‘Sioy}ee} YSIIjsO Ul 9pe4} 9]/qelopIsuoyd AloA & Soop Os[e izeysueg ‘ysodxa 4s0F; posedoid suleq stOfeq oinjord oy} Ul UMOYS JY sIOY 
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IZVHONAG LV dVaAH LIVS V 


254 


PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC SOCIETY 255 


trary, based on geology or the vivid presenta- 
tion of the great physical features of the earth 
on which depend all civilizations, customs, 
avocations, sciences, and literatures, easily be- 
comes one of the most fascinating of studies, 
or even of mere cursory skits of reading. 

“Strange to add, in its bearing on such af- 
fections of the heart as ardent love of country 
and patriotic pride in its great foreordained 
destinies, here is an agency the force of which 
cannot be overstated. Indeed, the modern in- 
novation of hatching chickens by incubators 
instead of hens is simply nowhere compared 
with the system of hatching patriots of the 
stamp of William Tell by geological geography, 
as exemplified in the faith and works of the 
National Geographic Society of Washington, 
IDE MC? 

“This is. no wild paradox. In truth, have 
not the gravest historians insisted that the rea- 
son why there is no such thing as the existence 
of patriotic sentiment in China is solely due 
to the fact that the human heart is incapable 
of loving 400 million fellow creatures one 
knows nothing about? They are a pure nu- 
merical abstraction to a man. Of their lives, 
languages, aspirations, joys, and sorrows he is 
ignorant of every concrete item, unless that 
they all wear the national pigtail; and so, even 
this dangling appendage is not potent enough 
to bind the people together in the chords of 
universal love. 

“Just the same used to be asserted of the 
United States of America. The States were 
too big, too broadly dispersed, too divergent 
in interests, for any one to be capable of lov- 
ing their multitudinous populations as fellow 
countrymen. All this, however, at any rate in 
the eyes of the National Geographic Society of 
Washington, is now rapidly being done away 
with. It is getting effected through a vivid 
appeal to the visual imagination which is en- 
abling us all to see, in the mind’s eye, our 
whole country at once and as a whole. The 
stupendous national enterprises already com- 
pleted, or about to be inaugurated, are fast 
annihilating all lines of geographical division, 
and enlisting the minds and hearts of the scat- 
tered millions in vast undertakings in which 
all share acommon interest and common pride.” 


In conclusion, you will permit me to 
call your attention once more to the fact 
that, notwithstanding the wide range of 
geographic subjects included in the maga- 
zine, covering archeological, geological, 
political, and historical themes, the stan- 
dard of accuracy of fact has always been 
maintained. It is the reputation of the 
magazine for its unquestioned reliability 
and impartiality that is largely respon- 
sible for its popularity. 

The great success of the year would 
not have been possible without the cor- 


dial codperation and help of the assistant 
editor, Mr. John Oliver La Gorce; the 
assistant treasurer, Mr. F. B. Ejichel- 
berger; the assistant secretary, Mr. 
George W. Hutchison, and all the other 
members of the office force, to whom 
grateful acknowledgment is hereby made. 
Respectfully submitted, 
GILBERT H. GROsVENOR, 
Director and Editor. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 


The year 1912 shows a large increase 
in the membership of the National Geo- 
graphic Society and a general improve- 
ment in its condition and work. 

The number of members December 30, 
IQII, was 102,051; the number added 
upon their own application from Janu- 
ary 2 to December 31 was 59,161; the 
losses by death, by resignation, by non- 
payment of dues was 5,876. There was 
also a net gain of 8,029 in the number of 
subscribers, making a net increase of 
58,514 members and subscribers during 
the year and the total membership, in- 
cluding life members and subscribers on 
December 31, 1912, 160,565. 

Fifty-five new life members were 
elected during the year, making the total 
life membership 505. 

The membership is distributed through- 
out all the States and Territories of the 
Union, and includes about 3,100 in the 
District of Columbia and between 1,300 
and 1,400 in the Philippines, Hawaii, 
Porto Rico, and Alaska. ‘The member- 
ship in foreign countries is 3,550, and 
represents 50 different countries, includ- 
ing most of the European countries, 
Egypt, India, China, Japan, Australia, 
New Zealand, and the various Central 
and South American countries and sev- 
eral West Indian islands. 

The membership in Canada is 1,550, 
in Mexico 550, in Cuba 350, in Europe 
2,300, Central and South America 350. 
In January, 1912, Mr. James Bryce, 
the British Ambassador, was elected an 

honorary member of the Society. 
Respectfully submitted, 
O. P. Austin, 
Secretary. 


256 


REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
SOCIETY 
For the Fiscal Year Ending December 31, 1912 
RECEIPTS 


Cash, as shown by statement of 


Wecemberesi) lOleie aera ee eee $42,876.92 
IBY ES Ps say Ropers sees te eee apie athe lickin stro 264,499.74 
Life memberships, 55 at $50....... 2,750.00 
Magazine subscriptions and sales... 28,243.08 
ILGORBRRC GH S > SHEAR ain Gate ences 7,238.90 
ENGI eT: LISTE sci rar res cies sess casino aves 41,446.43 
Interest on investments............ 3,458.85 
Interest on deposit in bank........ 687 .87 
JP GDR ERO NS aig Os OBA IGS abe oe 20,251.02 
Si s6gtGh ey) S'S Cee ae Cee eae 1,355-39 

$412,808 .26 
DISBURSEMENTS 
Magazine, paper, printing, articles, 

EEC MPP UMMM pet tole ito shige el arate. $167,138.89 
Pound-rate postage on magazine... 13,000.00 
ostage Om leptersmetc.... 2... 2-066 24,807 .00 
Salaries and services.............. 54,331 -90 
Printing and stationery............ 16,030.67 
IL QDS ics ae AAI Re aera 0,643.52 
Hubbard Memorial Hall.......... 1,769.53 
Publications, scenes, panoramas, 

ATTA SMR LCR iss RG AMER es Sa ees 28,863.08 
Research: 

Alaskan glacier expedi- 

TLONABL OME Jee hers ee cese $750.28 

Alaska volcano expedi- 

PIO TN eas GeV ee easton: 1,500.00 

Peruvian expedition, 

MO TAN A Merete sity sia ales 28 10,000.00 

Hudson Bay expedition, 

TROIS es: ts epee eee 500.00 

Instruments, research 

expeditions ......... 976.83 
‘SIENIGII PN aa cere cele Bales 4.65 
I ADITIE 
Advertising commission........... 2,370. 33 
Mibranyanes« Boh aeia arin Aa com Shares 208 .20 
Investment account, purchase of 

bonds, and real-estate notes se- 

cured by first mortgage......... 49,961.99 
Equipment : 

urn nities oh ceoges oe $1,177.75 

Mraichitmenye anne eee 1,912.48 

——— 3,090.23 
SUC eN AR, Ort, asclan ene Pe homeo 4,647.69 
Cash balance in the Washington ‘ 

oan Wrust Company. ..cosse. 23,132.47 

$412,808.26 


THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ASSETS 
Investments, General Account 


5% notes, secured by first mortgage 
onpreal estate van cots ote $47,300.00 


Bonds: 


10 $500 bonds, Capital 
sLraction Cos oe 
purchase price...... 

8 $500 bonds, Washing- 
ton Gas Light Co., 
5%, at purchase price 

10 $500 bonds, George- 
town Gas Co., 5%, at 
purchase price...... 


4 $1,000 bonds, Po- 
tomac Electric 
Power Co., 5%, at 


purchase price....... 4,135.00 


$5,518.75 
4,438.75 


5,427.50 


19,520.00 


Real estate: 
Lot 45, square 183, at 
purchase price....... $11,338.95 
Lot 46, square 183, at 
purchase price....... 16,145.22 


Lot 47, square 183, at 
purchase price....... 


43,360.17 


Investments, Life Membership Fund 


5% real-estate notes secured by 
TLESEMIMORES ARE Ca lee ues ee $22,000.00 
Publications on hand, cost price... 21,750.00 

Cash in the Washington Loan & 
Weise (COmPAI ss occaccoccondscc 23,130.47 

Total assets year ending De- 

Gembers 2c Na sea. wert eee $177,060.64 
Total assets December 31, I912.... 177,060.64 
Total assets December 31, IQII.... 126,237.00 

Increase in assets in IQI2...... $50,823.55 
LIABILITIES 
None. 


Respectfully submitted, 
Jno. Joy Epson, 
Treasurer. 


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VoL. XXIV, No. 3 


i 


OYSTERS: THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE 
WATER CROP 


By Hucu M. Smiru 


U. S. Deputy CoMMISSIONER OF FISHERIES 
Author of “Making the Fur Seal Abundant,” “Federal Fish Farming,’ “Our Fish 


Immigrants,’ 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGIRAIPIENIC 
MIAGAZIUNIE, 


MARCH, 1913 


aa 


“America’s Most Valuable Fishes,’ “The Pearl Fisheries of 


Ceylon,” “King Herring, ” “Some Great Fishes of the Sea,” “Brittany, the 


Land of the Sardine,” 


YSTERS are the most popular 
() and most extensively eaten of 
all shellfish; economically, they 
are the most important of all cultivated 
water products and, with the single ex- 
ception of the sea herrings, the most 
valuable of all aquatic animals. Zoolog- 
ically considered, oysters are lamelli- 
branchiate mollusks of the genus Ostrea. 
In at least 35 countries oysters support 
a special fishery, and in various other 
countries enter into the food supply. On 
the shores of all the temperate and tropi- 
cal oceans and seas, oysters occur in 
greater or less abundance; but the supply 
in the North Atlantic exceeds that of all 
the other waters combined. Not less than 
150,000 men and women are engaged in 
the oyster industry; and the capital in- 
vested in vessels, boats, apparatus, oyster 
lands, and cultural establishments aggre- 
gates many million dollars. 

The oyster crop of the world at the 
present time amounts to over 42 million 
bushels and is valued at nearly $25,000,- 
ooo. Of this output, the share of the 
United States is 88 per cent of the quan- 
tity and 69 per cent of the value. Of 
the remaining portion, fully 65 per cent 
of the quantity and 50 per cent of the 
value belong to France. 


etc., in the National Geographic Magazine. 


At least 100 species are known, with a 
rather wide range in size, shape, habits, 
flavor, and food value. Some excellent 
species exist in the equatorial and sub- 
tropical regions, but the best occur in 
temperate climes. The northern limits 
of their habitat are the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence and southern Norway in the At- 
lantic, and Hokkaido and Puget Sound 
in the Pacific. 

Oysters produce an immense number 
of young in order to compensate for the 
heavy mortality that occurs at all stages 
of growth, but particularly in the early 
months. It is an astonishing biologicai 
fact that in some species of ‘oyster each 
sex’ is represented by a different indi- 
vidual, as in the oyster of the Atlantic 
coast of North America; while in other 
species both sexes are united in one in- 
dividual—the male stage alternating with 
the female, as in the common oyster of 
the Atlantic coast of Europe. 

After the oyster attains a size that is 
visible to the unaided eye, it is incapable 
of changing its position. This is in 
marked contrast with the newly born 
young, which is a free-swimming crea- 
ture, floating about with tides and cur- 
rents, and quite as likely to settle down 
on a far-distant bank or bar as to rejoin 
its progenitors. 


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258 


| Seer = 


VERY 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. 


Smith 


YOUNG OYSTERS (“SPAT”) ATTACHED TO THE INSIDE OF AN OYSTER SHELIL 


WHICH HAS BEEN “PLANTED” FOR THIS PURPOSE 


The planting of suitable material, such as old shells, gravel, etc., 
may attach themselves after the free-swimming stage, 


of the oyster industry, 


Of the millions of microscopic young 
liberated by a single full-grown oyster, 
only an exceedingly small percentage be- 
come attached to a suitable bottom, form 
a shell, and enter on a career that will 
terminate on the table in two to four 
years. When the temperature, density, 
tides, and currents are favorable, the 
young will settle on an existing bar or 
bed, covering the shells of the old oys- 
ters and any other hard surfaces or ob- 
jects that may be present. All the young 
that fall on a muddy or soft sandy bot- 
tom, or on surfaces that are slimy, are 
lost. Oyster culture therefore aims pri- 
marily to conserve the free-swimming 
young, which it accomplishes by sowing 
clean oyster-shells or other “cultch” 
which the “spat” can attach, or by col- 
lecting the young on tiles or brush raised 
above the bottom or suspended between 
surface and bottom (see pages 269 and 
274). 
CHINA AND ITALY CULTIVATED OYSTERS 

2,000 YEARS AGO 


Oysters have been under culture longer 
than any other shellfish and, indeed, than 
any other water creature. A simple type 
of cultivation, with the formation of 


to which young oysters 
is an exceedingly important branch 


for any of the young falling on mud or sand are lost. 


artificial beds, flourished in China at 
a very remote period and probably an- 
tedated by some centuries the inception 
of oyster culture in Italy, about the year 
100 B. C. With the advance of civiliza- 
tion and the increase in population, oys- 
ters were in greater demand and of ne- 
cessity came under cultivation in all the 
important maritime countries of Europe, 
where, at the present time, fully 90 per 
cent of the output represents oysters that 
have undergone some kind of culture. 
In other parts of the Old World the 
growing of oysters by artificial means 
has become an important industry, while 
in the Western Hemisphere oyster farm- 
ing has progressed to such a point that 
the annual crop now exceeds the total 
product of the rest of the world. 

Oysters are thus become the most ex- 
tensively cultivated of all aquatic ani- 
mals, and the yearly product of the oyster 
farms is many times more valuable than 
that of all other aquicultural operations 
combined. 

The cultivation of oysters is made 
necessary by the exhaustion of the nat- 
ural beds; it is made possible by private 
ownership or control of oyster- producing 
bottoms; and it is greatly facilitated by 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith 


ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER 


“Tt is an astonishing biological fact that in some species of oyster each sex is repre- 
sented by a different individual, as in the oyster of the Atlantic coast of North America; 
while in other species both sexes are united in one individual—the male stage alternating 
with the female, as in the common oyster of the Atlantic coast of Europe’ (see text, 


page 257). 


the peculiar susceptibility of oysters to 
increase and improvement by artificial 
means. 


THE OYSTER HAS MANY ENEMIES 


The human animal is not the only one 
that looks with favor upon the edible 
qualities of the oyster. At every stage 
in its career it is attacked by a horde of 
dangerous enemies, some of which are 
most destructive after the oyster has put 
on its stoutest armor and would seem to 
be almost invulnerable. Before it be- 
comes attached, the delicate oyster. fry is 
extensively consumed by adult oysters 
and various other shellfish, as well as by 
fishes like the menhaden, which are able 
to strain their food from the water. 
When the oyster attains its shell, a new 


260 


set of shellfish enemies, provided with 
drills, begin their attacks and extract the 
soft parts through minute holes made in 
valves. In some localities various snail- 
like mollusks do immense damage to the 
beds of oysters in their first year. 

The oyster growers of Long Island 
Sound and adjacent waters suffer large 
losses from the inroads of starfishes, 
which come in from deep water and 
move in waves over the bottom, devour- 
ing every oyster in their path and some- 
times destroying several hundred thou- 
sand bushels of marketable oysters in 
one State in a single season. It is re- 
markable that a weak creature like the 
common starfish should be able to prey 
on an animal so strongly: fortified as an 
oyster. ‘The starfish acts by attaching 


THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP 


itself to the lips of the oyster-shell and 
exerting a steady and _ long-sustained 
traction with each of its numerous small 
suckers. After a time the powerful ad- 
ductor muscle of the oyster becomes fa- 
tigued, the valves open, and the starfish 
inserts its stomach and devours the help- 
less oyster at leisure. 

Other enemies of the grown oyster are 
fishes with powerful jaws armed with 
crushing teeth. On the Atlantic coast 
the most destructive fish is the black 
drum, a school of which may literally 
clean out an oyster-bed in one night. On 
the Pacific coast a species of stingray is 
the chief offender, and to stop its rav- 
ages the oyster growers have been 
obliged to inclose the beds by stout pali- 
sades. 

Further damage is done to oysters by 
the encroachments of mussels, barnacles, 
sponges, etc., which sometimes occur so 
densely on the shells as to cut off food 
and oxygen, and thus greatly retard the 
growth of the oysters. 


OYSTERS ARE CHEAPEST AND MOST POPU- 
LAR IN THE UNITED STATES 


In any consideration of the world’s 
oyster industry the United States neces- 
sarily receives first and most prominent 
mention, for there is no country in which 
oysters occupy a more important place. 
The output here is larger and more valu- 
able than elsewhere, and the relative im- 
portance of oysters compared with the 
total fishery product is greater. Further- 
more, among the leading oyster-produc- 
ing countries the cost of oysters to the 
consumer is least and the per caput con- 
sumption is greatest in the United States. 
Additional evidence of the conspicuous 
position held by the oyster is seen in the 
facts (1) that it is taken in every coastal 
State except one; (2) that in 15 States 
it is the chief fishery product, and (3) 
that it is the most extensively cultivated 
of our aquatic animals. 

The annual oyster output at this time 
is about 37,000,000 bushels, with a value 
to the producers of nearly $17,000,000. 
The yield has increased 70 per cent in 
quantity since 1880. Under the favor- 
able conditions now prevailing, the out- 
put is becoming larger year after year in 
the country as a whole. The limit of 


261 


production has perhaps been practically 
reached in certain States, but in most 
States the industry is capable of great 
expansion. In recent years the South 
Atlantic and Gulf States have experi- 
enced a noteworthy augmentation of 
yield as a result of increased apprecia- 
tion of the oyster ressurces and in- 
creased encouragemert given to oyster 
culture. 

The seven leading oyster States at this 
time are Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, 
and Louisiana, in each of which over a 
million bushels of oysters are marketed 
annually. Virginia is the ranking State 
as regards production, with over 6 mil- 
lion bushels, followed by Maryland, with 
over 5% million bushels, and Connecti- 
cut, with about 4 million bushels. As 
regards value of oysters taken, Connec- 
ticut and New York lead, with over 2% 
million dollars each, followed by Vir- 
ginia and Maryland, with about 21% mil- 
lion dollars each. In other words, an 
average bushel of oysters in Connecticut 
and New York brings the oysterman 80 
cents, while a bushel in Maryland and 
Virginia brings less than 40 cents. 


CHESAPEAKE BAY IS THE WORLD'S GREAT- 
EST OYSTER GROUND 


The body of water which produces 
more oysters than any other body of 
water in the United States or, in fact, in 
the whole world is Chesapeake Bay. The 
latest statistics of the oyster industry 
show the preponderating importance of 
the bay: an output of over 11 million 
bushels, valued at more than $4,250,000, 
or 30 per cent of the quantity and 25 per 
cent of the value of the entire oyster 
crop of the United States for 1908. 

While the oyster yield of Chesapeake 
Bay and tributaries in all recent years 
has been considerably. less than formerly, 
nevertheless the industry today is in a 
healthier condition than ever before. 
This apparently paradoxical statement is 
explained by the fact that whereas in 
earlier years a very large proportion of 
the product was obtained from public 
beds, whose depletion had already begun 
and whose ultimate destruction was in- 
evitable, now an annually increasing pro- 
portion of the oyster output is taken 


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262 


THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP 


from grounds under private control and 
represents an actual aquicultural crop. 

In Virginia about 50 per cent of the 
value of the State’s oyster industry is 
contributed by grounds under cultiva- 
tion, and in Maryland an increasingly 
large proportion is from private beds—a 
condition which 25 years ago would have 
been regarded as almost impossible, for 
at that time these States were firmly 
committed to the policy of making their 
oyster industry depend on public or nat- 
ural beds and restrictive measures, and 
discouraged the general inauguration of 
oyster planting on public oyster grounds. 

This policy was in strong contrast with 
that in the next most important oyster- 
producing region, namely, Long Island 
Sound, where the States of New York 
and Connecticut had cut loose from the 
old fetish of the sanctity of public oys- 
ter grounds, had leased or sold those 
grounds for planting purposes, and had 
assumed the front rank, although their 
natural advantages for oyster growing 
were much inferior to those in Chesa- 
peake Bay. 


OYSTER CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 


The rank early attained by the United 
States in the oyster industry was due to 
the great area of the oyster-beds; but 
the maintenance of that rank depends on 
the general adoption of oyster culture as 
the only certain means of insuring a 
yearly increasing crop that will keep 
pace with the increasing demand. 

Of the oysters marketed last year, 50 
per cent came from private or cultivated 
grounds. Owing, however, to the im- 
provement in the quality and shape of 
oysters by cultivation, the product of the 
private beds represented 70 per cent of 
the total value of the yield of market 
oysters. While the quantity of oysters 
taken from cultivated grounds in the 
United States is larger than in all the 
remainder of the world, yet the propor- 
tion of such oysters to the total output 
is much smaller than in any other im- 
‘portant oyster-producing country. 

Wherever the fishery is active and the 
demand great, the necessity for artificial 
measures to maintain the supply sooner 


263 


or later becomes manifest. Some of the 
States long since ceased to place reliance 
on natural beds as sources of supply, and 
encouraged oyster culture by leasing or 
selling all available grounds to prospec- 
tive oyster farmers, and each year other 
States are falling in line for progressive 
methods. 

The American oyster industry has 
been greatly retarded in one of the most 
important regions by the failure of the 
States to adapt themselves to existing 
conditions and by their deep-seated prej- 
udice against innovations based on mod- 
ern conceptions and experience. 

Nowhere in this country is there any 
excuse for continuing to rely on public 
oyster grounds as sources of supply, and 
the proposition to discourage or prohibit 
individual control of land for agricul- 
tural purposes would not be less absurd 
than to prevent or retard the acquisition 
of submerged lands for aquicultural pur- 
poses. 

The prosperous condition of our oys- 
ter industry at present is directly due 
to the more general acceptance of more 
rational standards as regards oyster cul- 
ture, and it is only a question of a few 
years when there will be unanimous rec- 
ognition, as an orthodox fact, of what a 
short time ago would have been regarded 
as the rankest economic heresy, namely, 
that natural oyster-beds as a general 
proposition are to be considered nui- 
sances, whose perpetuation delays prog- 
ress and impairs the prosperity of the 
oyster industry. 

Reduced to its simplest terms, oyster 
culture in the United States consists in 
(1) acquiring suitable submerged bot- 
tom, (2) cleaning and preparing that 
bottom for the growth of oysters, (3) 
sowing thereon shells or other material 
(“cultch”) for the attachment and 
growth of the young oysters, (4) insur- 
ing the production of larval oysters by 
the proximity of natural or planted beds 
of adult oysters, (5) protecting the oys- 
ter beds from enemies, (6) transplant- 
ing as occasion requires to prevent over- 
crowding and to facilitate growth and 
fattening, and (7) culling and sorting 
for market. 


5 % 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith 


OYSTER GROWING ON A PIPE 


The oyster is so large and the pipe so small that at first sight it would hardly seem 
possible that the oyster grew from a little disc only about one-twentieth of an inch in 


diameter. 


While the young oysters are in the free-swimming stage they are even smaller, 


being about 1/150th part of an inch long and almost transparent. 


“FLOATED” OYSTERS MAY BE DANGEROUS 


A prevalent practice among oyster 
growers in some sections is to transfer 
oysters from salt water to brackish or 
less dense water for a short time before 
shipping to market, with the object of 
making them take on an illusive appear- 
ance of fatness by the rapid absorption 
of fresher water, while the more saline 
fluids in the tissues slowly pass out. This 
process, known as plumping, floating, or 
fattening, results in a swelling of the 
oysters to the full capacity of the shell, 
but adds nothing to their nutritive value 
or flavor. On the contrary, it extracts 
certain nutritious ingredients and re- 
places them with water. Chemical tests 
have shown that this sadly misnamed 
process of “fattening” deprives the oys- 
ters of 10 to 15 per cent of their food 
value, while increasing their weight from 
10 to 20 per cent. A similar result is 


seen when oysters are placed in fresh 


water or brought into contact with melt- 
ing ice after removal from the shell. 
More serious, however, than the loss 
of nutritive properties is the danger 
from contamination by pathogenic bac- 
teria when the floats are situated within 
the range of sewers or other sources of 
pollution. It is well known that oysters 


imbibe disease germs with their food, and 
such germs may be taken into the human 
body with their vitality unimpaired and 
give rise to sickness. Epidemics of ty- 
phoid fever have been definitely traced 
to “floated” oysters which were un- 
doubtedly innocuous when taken from 
the salter water. ; 
It will thus be seén that this feature 
of oyster growing is not commendable, 
and is necessarily prejudicial to the best 
interests of the industry. The growth 
of the practice has been due to the igno-_ 
rance of the public; its continuance after 
its undesirable nature has frequently 
been shown is a sad commentary on our 
intelligence. - 


OYSTERS ON THE PACIFIC COAST 


While the entire east coast of North 
America has but a single species of oys- 
ter, the Pacific coast has five or six 
native species, and has been further en- 
riched by the one from the Atlantic. 

The most abundant of the native spe- 
cies, found in all the Pacific States, is 
very small and has a strong flavor. It 
is never served on the half shell, but is 
eaten in bulk, one hundred or more 
oysters often being a “portion” for one 
person. ‘The largest and best occur in 
Willapa Bay, Washington. 


264 


OYSTERS GROWING ON A 


During the past 40 years immense 
quantities of Atlantic oysters have been 
transplanted to the Pacific coast, and a 
large business has sprung up which sur- 
passes that in the natives.* It is neces- 
sary, however, to renew the supply an- 
nually, particularly in Oregon and 
Washington, where the water is of too 
low a temperature to permit the eggs of 
the transplanted oysters to develop. 
This difficulty may eventually be over- 
come, and an oyster fully equal to that 
of the Atlantic be produced, by the ac- 
climatization from the coast of Japan of 
a large oyster that is able to spawn in 
relatively cold water. Experiments to 


this end have been undertaken with 
promising results. 
In the warmer water of San Fran- 


cisco Bay the gonditions for oyster cul- 


i) 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith 
BOOT 


ture are different, and there a very 
extensive and peculiar kind of oyster 
farming has sprung up. The grounds 
are surrounded by stockades, principally 
for the purpose of protecting the beds 
from the inroads of strong-jawed sting- 
rays, which at times enter San Francisco 
Bay in schools, and would crush and de- 
vour large quantities of marketable oys- 
ters unless excluded by the stockades. 
Within the inclosures the planting, trans- 
planting, growing, gathering, and culling 
are done under ideal conditions. 

A large oyster, similar to our Atlantic 
species, grows in great abundance in the 
Gulf of California, and is eaten in lim- 
ited quantities in the adjacent parts of 


* See NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, June, 
1907, for a fuller account of the transplanting 
of Eastern oysters on the Western seaboard. 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith 


OYSTERS ENCUMBERED WITH A MASS OF EGGS OF THE WHELK . 


When the eggs hatch, the young whelks es eeu young oysters by boring through the 
shel 


Mexico. The grounds are virgin, and are 
capable of supporting a large industry. 


HOW OUR GOVERNMENT AIDS THE OYSTER 
FARMERS 


The Federal government, as repre- 
sented by the Bureau of Fisheries, does 
not hatch oysters artificially and dis- 
tribute them by the billion for the stock- 
ing of public and private waters as it 
does food fishes. A much more potent 
way to increase the oyster supply is the 
one that has been followed for many 
years, to the entire satisfaction of the 
oyster-growing communities. 

This consists in practical aid to the 
States and codperation with them in de- 
termining the physical and_ biological 
characters of the oyster grounds, in sur- 
veying and plotting those grounds with 
a view to their allotment for oyster cul- 
ture, in conducting .experimental and 
model planting operations, in recom- 
mending oyster legislation, and in giving 
disinterested expert advice on the 
various problems that arise in the devel- 
opment and administration of the oyster 
fishery. 


Assistance of this kind has been ren- 
dered to every coastal State, and off- 
cial requests for additional aid have of 
late been so numerous that the facili- 
ties of the Bureau of Fisheries have 
been overtaxed with respect to both 
funds and trained men for the work. 
The most recent surveys, experiments, 
and inquiries have been in Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana, and Texas, in several 
of which States the Bureau of Fisheries 


and the Coast and Geodetic Survey have 


joined forces in the accomplishment of 
special plans. 

The beneficial results of the govern- 
ment’s efforts in behalf of the oyster in- 
dustry of the various States have been 
conspicucus and lasting. The recent re- 
markable increase of the oyster output 
in the Gulf States is directly attributa- 
ble to those efforts. 

Especially noteworthy has been the 
outcome of certain experimental plant- 
ing operations in Louisiana. In Bara- 
taria Bay, where there had previously 
been no oyster industry, experimental 
beds laid out by experts of the Bureau 


266 


STARFISH 


Photo from Dr. Hugh M. Smith 


ATTACKING AN OYSTER 


“It is remarkable that a weak creature like the common starfish should be able to prey 
on an animal so strongly fortified as an oyster. The starfish acts by attaching itself to the 
lips of the oyster-shell and exerting a steady and long-sustained traction with ‘each of its 


numerous small suckers. 


After a time the powerful adductor muscle of the oyster becomes 


fatigued, the valves open, and the starfish inserts its stomach and devours the helpless oyster 


at leisure” (see text, pages 260, 261). 


of Fisheries yielded marketable oysters 
at the extraordinary rate of 1,500 to 
2,000 bushels per acre in two years from 
the time the cultch was deposited on bar- 
ren bottom. The natural consequence 
has been that all available oyster-grow- 
ing land has been leased by the State, 
and a great impetus has been given to 
oyster culture. ‘ 

The oysters thus produced on bottoms 
never before utilized are of high quality 
and meet with ready sale in New Or- 
leans, where the “raccoon” and other 
oysters from the natural beds can hardly 
be sold at one-fourth the price. 

In further pursuance of its paternal 
policy of promoting the oyster industry, 


the Bureau of Fisheries has sought to 
make known to fishermen, State officials, 
and legislatures the methods and condi- 
tions of oyster fishing and oyster culture 
in all parts of the world. ‘To this end 
inquiries have been made in all foreign 
countries having important oyster re- 
sources. Special reports thereon have 
been issued and distributed broadcast, 
and, so far as its powers and facilities 
have permitted, the government has ap- 
plied the knowledge gained abroad and 
at home to the particular requirements 
of the individual States in pointing out 
the way for the most successful utiliza- 
tion of the oyster grounds. 


SWILSAO NXdVHSSIN FO HMO ASNAG DONIMOHS ‘VINYOAIIVO JO TINO “AXATA INOVA AHL JO HLNOW ‘Saaau WHISAO IVANLVN 


YWIUIS “WW YSN “1d Wosz OJOYT 


268 


THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE WATER CROP 


THE FRENCH OYSTER INDUSTRY 


France, which is the only rival of the 
United States in the oyster industry, 
has the distinction of maintaining the 
most perfect and thorough system of 
oyster culture in the world, although the 
methods pursued are not adapted to con- 
ditions in the United States or even in 
some countries contiguous to France. 

The native oyster of France is the 
same species that occurs in England, Hol- 
land, and other countries of northwestern 
Europe. There is another species, how- 
ever, which has been introduced into 
France and elsewhere, and has become 
very: important on account of its hardi- 
ness, prolificness, and rapid growth; this 
is the Portuguese oyster, which in spawn- 
ing habits and other characters is related 
to the American oyster, but is inferior 
in quality. 

Oysters are cultivated along the entire 
coast of France. 


- For the handling of the native oysters 


the great centers of the industry are 
Cancale, on the north coast, and the dis- 
tricts, of Auray, Sables-d’Olonne, Ile 
de’ Ré, Ile d’Oléron, Marennes, and 
Arcachon, on the Bay of Biscay. Culti- 
vation of the Portuguese oyster is most 
extensive in the last .four of the locali- 
ties just mentioned, and, in addition, at 
Rochelle and Rochefort. 

The number of oyster-cultural estab- 
lishments in some sections is so large as 
to suggest that practically the entire 
shore-line must be occupied by parcs, 
claires, and viviers, as the various en- 
closures are called. Thus in the Ma- 
rennes district there were in 1907 over 
11,300 independent establishments for 
growing the native oysters and 5,400 for 
the Portuguese oysters. According to 
1907 Statistics, issued by the French gov- 
ernment, 21,900 oyster farms, with a 
superficial area of 6,860 hectares, were 
devoted to the growing of the indigenous 
species, and 20,500 others, having an 
area of 5,150 hectares, were concerned 


with the introduced Portuguese oyster. 


Oyster culture in France is of com- 
paratively recent origin. Up to the mid- 
dle of the last century the natural oyster 
banks were, like those of the Chesapeake, 


269 


deemed inexhaustible, and dredging op- 
erations thereon were practically unre- 
stricted. Then the government awoke to 
the gravity of the situation, and by 
stringent regulations endeavored to save 
the few remaining oysters. 

The leading advocate and exponent of 
the possibilities of oyster culture was 
Professor Coste, who, after investiga- 
tion and successful experimentation, 
made a report which embodied a propo- 
sition to restore the oyster banks of the 
entire coast. Obtaining a government 
grant through the interest of Napoleon 
III, Coste began extensive experiments, 
but was unfortunate in his choice of 
sites, met with unfavorable weather con- 
ditions, and failed in his entire under- 
taking, and he died blind, in disgrace, 
and regarded as a charlatan. Neverthe- 
less, Coste’s work was of the utmost im- 
portance, and it was his pioneer efforts 
that were directly responsible for the 
present advanced status of the French 
oyster industry. 

Oyster culture in France has several 
distinct phases or branches in which the 
culturists specialize. The tidal oscillation 
leaves extensive flats exposed or nearly 
exposed twice daily, and this greatly 
facilitates the various procedures, the 
work being done in a horizontal plane, 
whereas in Italy and other countries 
where the tidal movement is slight the 
cultural operations are conducted under 
water and in a vertical plane. 

The first essential step in the French 
method is to arrange on the shores, be- 
tween high and low water, series of 
earthen tiles or wooden trays coated with 
lime cement, on which the floating oyster 
fry are collected. When the young have 
reached the size of a finger nail, usually 
by October, they are detached from the 
collectors by means of a short knife, the 
plaster being easily separated from the 
tile. or wood. ‘This work is done by 
women, who become very skillful in hand- 
ling the thin-shelled seed oysters, of 
which as many as 20,000 or more may be 
detached by a woman in a day. 

The young are then placed in wire 
gauze baskets and transferred to en- 
closed ponds or parcs, where: growth 
may take place without danger from nat- 


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270 


271 


Smith 


Hugh M. 


Photo from Dr. 


RANCISCO BAY 


4 
4 


AN OYSTER STOCKADE IN SAN I 


os the beds from the inroads of strong-jawed sting-rays, 


(see text, page 265). 


antities of marketable oysters unless excluded by the 


ctin 
urge qu 


anting, transplanting, growing, gathering, and culling are done under ideal conditions 


c 


, and would crush and devour 1 


, principally for the purpose of prote 


in school 


rancisco Bay 


4 


I 


San 


e surrounded by stockades 
Within the inclosures the pl 


grounds ar 


“The 
which at times enter 


stockades. 


THE OYSTER FLEET AT CANCALE, FRANCE 


Cancale is situated in Brittany, not far from St. Malo. During the summer months it 
is frequented for sea bathing; but the wealth of the little town depends upon its oysters, 


for which it is famous. 


ural enemies or from suffocation by 
mud, sand, or silt. For two to three 
years the oysters are thus protected, re- 
quiring frequent overhauling, thinning 
out, and transfer to other parcs or bas- 
kets as their size increases, this part of 
the work also being done by women, 
clad in short skirts and having heavy, 
square shoes on their bare feet. An- 
other phase of cultivation is the placing 
of the oysters, now of marketable size, 
in special enclosures or claires where 
there is an abundance of food, so that 
they may become fat and plump before 
sale and also acquire the condition of 
greenness that the trade requires. 
Green oysters in America are often 
regarded as diseased or unwholesome, 
and our oyster-growers strive to prevent 
their occurrence; but green oysters in 
France are in greatest demand. Ma- 
rennes has long been celebrated for its 
oysters of a green or bluish-green color, 
and special efforts are there put forth to 
make the oysters take on the maximum 


27 


intensity of color in the shortest time. 
The claires at Marennes swarm with the 
minute plants, whose color is imparted to 
the gills and mantle when the oysters 
consume them in excessive quantities. 
Marennes oysters command the highest 
price in the market because of their ex- 
quisite and inimitable flavor, which con- 
noisseurs say is dependent on their green 
color. 

French oyster-growers in 1907 pro- 
duced upwards of 1,450,000,000 oysters, 
having a market value of 3% million 
dollars. In addition, there was a small 
product taken from bottoms laid bare 
at low tide, which were not under culti- 
vation, and from deep-water public 
grounds. Over 22,000 men, women, and 
children were engaged in gathering such 
oysters, and their aggregate take was 
about 175 million oysters, for which they 
received less than one-tenth of a cent 
apiece, whereas the cultivated oysters 
brought nearly three times as much. 


WIRE-GAUZE TRAYS FOR REARING OYSTERS: BELGIUM 


“The young are then placed in wire gauze baskets and transferred to inclosed ponds or 
parcs, where growth may take place without danger from natural enemies or from suffoca- 


tion by mud, sand, or silt. 


For two to three years the oysters are thus protected, 


requiring 


frequent overhauling, thinning out, and transfer to other parcs or baskets as their size in- 
creases, this part of the work also being done by women, Se in short skirts and having 


heavy, square shoes on their bare feet” 


ENGLAND'S ANCIENT OYSTER INDUSTRY 

As early as the year 50 B. C. the fame 
of the British oyster had extended as far 
as Rome, and Sallust seems to have been 
more impressed by the oyster than by 
any other feature of the country, for he 
wrote: “The poor Britons—there is some 
good in them after all—they produce an 
oyster.” In 80 A. D. oysters were ex- 
ported from the Thames estuary to 
Rome, and ever since that time England 
has had an oyster industry of respect- 
able proportions, although for many 
years the supply has been. inadequate to 
fill London’s gigantic maw, and importa- 
tions from the United States, Holland, 
and France have been necessary. 

In both quantity and quality the Brit- 
ish product has been noteworthy from 
early times, and while the natural oyster 
grounds have been greatly depleted by 


to 


(see text, pages 260, 2 


72). 


excessive dredging the quality of the 


‘yield has not only been maintained, but 


has probably been increased by cultiva- 
tion. ‘To augment the supply of native 
oysters, seed” is brought from America, 
France, Holland, and other European 
countries, and after being transplanted 
for variable periods is placed on the local 
market. 

It is noteworthy that American oys- 
ters deteriorate when taken to England 
and placed on the grounds to grow 
and fatten; they grow rapidly, but the 
flavor becomes metallic and their creamy 
white color turns to leaden gray; fur- 
thermore, they will not reproduce. 
French seed oysters, on the other hand, 
when transplanted for three years in the 
English estuaries, take on the shape and 
flavor of the “natives,” and are annually 
sold as such at great financial profit to 
growers and dealers. 


OYSTER CULTURE IN FORMOSA 


The soft muddy bottom all along the coast renders the cultivation of oysters a difficult 
matter. To obviate this natural disadvantage stones have to be laid in regular rows, to 
which the young oysters can attach themselves. 


BIRTHPLACE OF OYSTER CULTURE 


Although Italy was the birthplace of 
modern oyster culture in Europe and in 
early times had a large oyster trade, at 
present the oyster is not of great impor- 
tance. Interest in the Italian oyster 
comes from its historic associations and 
the peculiar methods of culture which 
have been practiced with little change 
for 2,000 years. 

The cardinal feature of oyster cul- 
ture here is the keeping of oysters sus- 
pended between the bottom and the 
surface. To this end the spat is col- 
lected on bundles of twigs hanging from 
ropes stretched between the stakes at the 
corners of the squares; the brush, with 
the oysters attached, is woven into huge 
ropes, 10 to 20 feet long, which when 
suspended utilize the entire volume of 
water, and the oysters that become de- 
tached .and the full-grown ones are 
placed for final growth, fattening, and 
storage in suspended baskets. It is re- 


ported that on a rope 14 feet long about 
2,000 marketable oysters may be reared. 


OYSTERS IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 


Holland has a rather extensive in- 
dustry, which ranks after that of France 
among the continental countries. The 
natural oyster grounds were practically 
wiped out by overdredging, and the in- 
stitution of artificial measures has been 
so wisely undertaken by both govern- 
ment and private citizens that the Dutch 
have come to be regarded as the most 
successful administrators of the oyster 
industry. Efforts to restore the depleted 
grounds in the Zuyder Zee have been 
futile, and the industry now centers in 
the Schelde estuary, in Zeeland. The 
bottoms suitable for oyster culture have 
been carefully surveyed and plotted, and — 
the government receives a large revenue 
from their lease. Zeeland oysters are 
in great demand in Holland, and are also 
shipped to England and other countries 


274 


LOW TIDE ON 


A JAPANESE OYSTER FARM 


“Owing to a rise and fall of the tide of from 10 to I5 feet, an immense area of bottom 


suitable for oyster growint 


for immediate consumption or for trans- 
planting. 

The oyster grounds of Germany are 
restricted to a small section of the coast 
of the North Sea near the Danish fron- 
tier. The banks have for three centuries 
been the property of the Crown, and are 
leased for terms of years. The govern- 
ment exercises strict supervision, to pre- 
vent the depletion of the natural beds 
and at the same time to induce the maxi- 
mum production therefrom. 

The oyster industry of Belgium cen- 
ters at Ostend, where claires or reser- 
voirs for fattening oysters have been in 
constant use for more than a century. 
The Belgium oysters are highly esteemed 
for their flavor, and Ostend is one of the 
great oyster depots of Europe. The 
physical cqnditions on the Belgium coast 
are not favorable for general oyster cul- 
ture, and the industry consists for the 
most part in fattening and conditioning 


275 


is exposed twice daily, 
ducted under conditions that do not exist in America or various other countries” 


and the cultural operations are thus con- 
(see p. 281). 


oysters from other countries. Foreign 
oysters transplanted in the Ostend reser- 
voirs for a short time acquire a new 
flavor, and are then sold at home and 
abroad as “Ostends.” 

Denmark has an interesting oyster in- 
dustry, restricted to the Limfjord, an 
irregular arm of the sea that extends en- 
tirely across Jutland. The oysters are 
the property of the Crown, and the priv- 
ilege of taking them is now sold to the 
highest bidder, who enjoys a monopoly, 
with restrictions imposed by the govern- 
ment: fixing the annual output and the 
maximum price that may be charged. 
The Limfjord oysters are nearly circular 
in outline and have large, plump meat of 
excellent flavor. No form of cultivation 
has ever been applied, and the supply is 
maintained by limiting the production. 
The oysters are gathered by means of 
steam vessels, using dredges, six of which 
are hauled simultaneously. 


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276 


INSPECTING A JAPANESE OYSTER CROP 


The great rise and fall of the tides in Japan is of considerable advantage to the oyster 
farmer, enabling him to keep his crop under direct observation during the entire period of 


growth. 


IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 


The oyster resources of the lands south 
of the Equator are comparatively unim- 
portant. In South America and South 
Africa efforts at cultivation are under 
way, but the most promising field is 
Australia. The oyster industry has at- 
tained some proportions in all the Aus- 
tralian States, but New South Wales sur- 
passes all the others combined. Under 
a system of leases, several thousand oys- 
ter planters have been granted littoral 
and deep-water grounds, and the fore- 
shores already taken up are nearly 400 
miles in length. The oysters grown un- 
der the peculiar conditions prevailing are 
of excellent quality and have an average 
value to the producer of more than $3 a 
bushel. 


JAPAN'S CURIOUS METHODS OF CULTURE 


The oyster industry of Japan is not of 
great importance in itself, the aggregate 
output being valued at less than a quar- 
ter of a million dollars; but it is of in- 
terest because of the cultural methods 


to 


adopted and the possibility of establish- 
ing and cultivating Japanese oysters on 
the Pacific coast of the United cians 

Oysters of several species are widely 
distributed in Japan, but the business of 
growing and marketing oysters attains 
its greatest dev elopment in the famous 
Inland Sea, near the large city of Hiro- 
shima, At least as early 1720, and 
probably much earlier, the growing of 
oysters by artificial means was under- 
stood and practiced there, and long be- 
fore the descendants of Mayflower pil- 
grims had realized the desirability of 
and the necessity for oyster culture, the 
Japanese had grasped the situation and 
made provision for an enlightened ad- 
ministration and utilization of oyster 
grounds, such as some American States 
have. not yet come to appreciate. 

The Japanese are so original in their 
aquicultural practices that their peculiar 
and effective style of oyster farming 
need occasion no surprise. Some ex- 
perts have pronounced their methods the 
simplest and most practicable of all, and 


as 


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278 


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MUVd WIWSAO ASHNVdVE V NI SYAISAO ONINAHLVO 


GREECE AND MONTENEGRO 281 


it behooves western countries to become 
acquainted with those methods even if 
there is no opportunity for their adop- 
tion in their entirety. 

Owing to a rise and fall of the tide of 
from 10 to 15 feet, an immense area of 
bottom suitable for oyster growing is ex- 
posed twice daily, and the cultural oper- 
ations are thus conducted under condi- 
‘tions that do not exist in America or 
various other countries. 

The distinctive feature of Japanese 
oyster culture is that the very young 
oysters are not allowed to settle on 
shells or other forms of cultch com- 
mercially employed in America, but are 
collected on bamboo stalks to which the 
branches and leaves are attached. Prior 
to the spawning season, each oyster 
grower sets out an immense number of 


prepared bamboo stalks; these are thrust 
deeply into the soft bottom, and are ar- 
ranged in definite lines or groups so as 
to intercept the floating spat. After re- 
maining attached to the bamboo brush 
for one to two years, the oysters are 
planted on prepared bottoms, where 
growth and fattening are completed. 
The oysters are marketed when two to 
three years old. 

The individual Japanese oyster farms 
are of comparatively small size and are 
separated from one another by bamboo 
fences or hedges. When viewed from a 
distance at low tide, the exposed bottom 
and the innumerable upright pieces of 
regularly arranged bamboo strongly sug- 
gest an agricultural rather than an aqui- 
cultural crop. 


GREECE AND MONTENEGRO 


By Grorce Hiccins Moses 
U. S. MINIstTER TO GREECE AND MONTENEGRO, 1909-1912 


F THE four allied Balkan States 
() who have made history so rapidly 

in the past few months, two— 
Bulgaria and Servia—are contiguous; 
and two—Greece and Montenegro—are 
isolated ; isolated not only from each other 
and from their allies, but isolated practi- 
cally from the rest of the world. 

Like a clenched hand thrust down from 
the sturdy arm of the Balkan Peninsula, 
Greece, blocked, hitherto, from direct 
communication with that portion of the 
world which its people so curiously insist 
upon calling “Europe,” has made the sea 
its highway from classic days; while 
Montenegro, perched in the rocky fast- 
nesses of grim Cernagora, both defies and 
invites invasion with its magnificent sys- 
tem of highways so delightfully easy of 
passage in time of peace and so superla- 
tively simple of defense in time of war. 

Behind the stern barrier of the Lovcen, 
towering 6,000 feet above the smiling 
waters of the Bocche di Cattaro, and 
crowned with the simple tomb of Peter 
Il, the Montenegrin saint and lawgiver, 


who begged to be laid there that his spirit 
might survey the land he loved so well, 
dwell the old Lion of Montenegro and 
his people—he the last of the patriarchs 
in this modern world and they a race of 
warriors whose origins lie back in those 
misty days ere the first faint swirl of 
the never-ceasing flood of Slavic blood 
had made its way southward to sweep 
across the valleys and the plains from 
the Black Sea to the Adriatic. 


WHY THE MONTENEGRIN WEARS A BLACK 
HAT BAND 


Thither, upon the final overthrow of 
the ancient glory of the Serb upon the 
fatal field of Kossovo—in memory of 
which to this day the Montenegrin’s cap 
is banded with a rim of black—thither 
retreated a handful of valiant souls to 
seek asylum with the Voivode of the 
Zeta. A few years later, abandoned by 
their ruler—who preferred a life of ease 
at Venice—they turned to their bishop, 
made him also their prince, and with him 
retreated still deeper into the hills and 


282 


there set up that long line of the Vladikas 
which did not end until well into the last 
century. 

There for 500 years they have main- 
tained freedom, which “of old has sat 
upon the heights’; and, with sufferings 
indescribable, with courage illimitable, 
won from the great English apostle of 
Balkan freedom those words of undying 
praise, in which he gave it as his “‘de- 
liberate opinion” that “the traditions of 
Montenegro exceed in glory those of 
Marathon and Thermopyle and all the 
war traditions of the world”; and in- 
spired in Tennyson what he regarded as 
the finest of his sonnets, inscribed to the 
res smallest among peoples! rough rock- 
throne 
Of freedom! warriors beating back the swarm 
Of Turkish Islam for 500 years, 

Great Cernagora! never since thine own 
Black ridges drew the cloud and broke the 


storm 
Has breathed a race of mightier mountaineers.” 


Ascending the marvelous zigzag road 
which leads up from Cattaro, one ap- 
proaches the stern and gloomy defile 
which forms the portal to this historic 
stronghold of freedom in the Balkans. 


A WONDERFUL ROAD 


Splendid engineering is this road. Built 
for post and military uses, it clings to the 
face of the sheer rock and weaves back 
and forth in a multitude of “hairpin 
curves” which the chauffeurs of the post 
automobile treat with that contempt 
which familiarity alone can breed. 

Up and ever up, one goes. Below 
stand forth the dusky cliffs, which jut 
into the southern fiord; nestling beneath 
them, and hemmed in with the massive 
battlements of those giants of an earlier 
day who stretched out the lion of St. 
Mark’s from the Lido to the Bosporus, 
lies Cattaro—Italian in appearance, Aus- 
trian in allegiance, but Serb in feeling, 
its heart ever in the Highlands. Beyond 
smiles the Adriatic, and above tower the 
gaunt gray rocks, against which the road 
seems a veritable ladder laid upon a wall. 

Threading at last a narrow defile, 
whose walls are pierced with caves 
where lurk the fables of the moun- 
taineers, and crossing a pass too often 
swathed in clouds, one turns a corner 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


and comes face to face with the ancient 
realm of the Vladikas. 

The smile of the soft blue sea lies be- 
hind, and before stretches a wild, turbu- 
lent ocean of rock, rising and sinking in 
angry gray waves flecked with white, 
which seem to leap and rage and battle 
together like a sea lashed by a storm. 
Stones, rocks, and crags, nothing else; 
not a tree, not a blade of grass; scarcely 
even a tuft of brushwood to relieve the 
dreary scene of desolation. 

At the creation, so runs the Monte- 
negrin legend, an angel was sent forth 
to pick up the superfluous stones on the 
éarth’s stirface: “Ele’ placedsicnamiame 
bag, which burst as he was flying over 
Cernagora—and certainly the landscape 
bears out the tale. 

And yet the scene cannot be said to 
lack charm—the charm of majesty al- 
ways to be found among the hills. And 
while Cernagora at first sight—gaunt, 
gray, and drear, an arid wilderness of 
bare rock—tells in one blow of the suf- 
ferings of centuries, pity does not long 
endure; it passes almost at once to praise 
for a people who have preferred liberty 
in this desolation to slavery in fat lands. 


THE CRADLE OF THE ROYAL HOUSE 


From the Austrian border to Cetinje 
one encounters but one village, Niegush, 
nestling in a little cleft in the hills and 
claiming attention as the cradle of the 
Petrovich dynasty, which for more than 
two centuries has ruled the destinies of 
the land.. Here was born not only Da- 
nilo I, progenitor of the line, but most 
of his successors, including the present 
king, whose tiny villa is the show-place 
of the town. 

Founded more than four hundred 
years ago by a band of refugees from 
the Herzegovina, Niegush cherishes the 
curious legend that one of its sons, wan- 
dering even farther afield, found him- 
self one day in Abyssinia, where he be- 
came possessed of power and _ trans- 
mitted to his successors the title of 
Negus, in memory of his Montenegrin 
birthplace. 

Here we halt for the customs exam- 
ination—a formality which is soon over, 
even for those who do not possess a 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


A MONTENEGRIN IN THE DOORWAY OF HIS HOME 


diplomatic laisser passer—and after re- 
freshing ourselves with a coffee at the 
Grand Hotel, which the town possesses 
In common with every other in Europe, 
we begin the ascent from the pocket of 
Niegush, and an hour’s climbing brings 
us to the top of the pass, and we behold 
Cetinje. 


283 


WHERE THE CONQUERING TURK HAS 
NEVER TROD 


The distance as the crow flies is short; 
but the winding road multiplies the miles, 
and we have ample opportunity to survey 
the tiny capital which boasts itself— 
albeit somewhat inaccurately — that its 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


TWO MONTENEGRIN OFFICERS IN NATIONAL COSTUME 
Note the double eagle over the door bearing the royal cipher (N. I.) of Nicholas I 


284 


7 - Aa a 


* 


a 


16) 


streets alone of all the Balkan capitals 
have never echoed to the tread of a con- 
quering Turkish host. 

Two broad, parallel streets, connected 
by irregularly laid out cross streets, com- 
prise the town, which lies hemmed in on 
every side by the stern hills. The green 
fields, the elms, the buttercups by the 
roadside, and the steep gables of the 
houses, which often lie banked to their 
eaves with winter's snows, reminded me 
always of my own White Mountain vil- 
lages—an impression which was indeli- 
bly fixed in my mind on the first morn- 
ing that I ever saw Cetinje. 

I had reached the capital late on a 
Saturday evening. The next day was 
set for the inauguration of the new Na- 
tional Theater, and the people were out 
in force to cheer their ruler as he went 
from the palace. The hotel at Cetinje 
stands at the head of the main street, 
which was filled with Montenegrins in 
national garb, and as I stepped upon the 
balcony after my coffee and looked down 
upon the throng of red-jacketed moun- 
taineers, I thought for all the world that 
I was in some New England hill town 
on the day of a firemen’s muster. 

European dress has made slight in- 
roads in this part of the world. The 
army now, thanks to Russian generosity, 
wears khaki; but the guard of honor 


eee 


<< 


re] 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


ME OF THE MONTENEGRIN VETERANS OF 1860 


which accompanied me to the palace 
when I presented my letters of credence 
were ir Montenegrin garb, and the pal- 
ace attendants still wear it. It is the 
habitual dress of both King and Queen, 
the latter having pointedly refused the 
suggestion of her daughters-in-law that, 
together with the roy al title, she should 
take on modern gowns. 

CAN BUY 


COSTLY HIS HABIT AS HIS PURSE 


A Montenegrin’s habit is as costly as 
his purse can buy, and there the apparel 
proclaims the man. The baggy blue trou- 
sers are the same for the King or the 
peasant, as is the gaily colored sash 
which holds the invariable revolver. But 
from the red jacket, whether it be em- 
broidered with black or with gold, and 
from the redingote, whether it be of dark 
green or a delicate blue, one connotes 
whether the wearer be a man of sub- 
stance and consequence or not. 

Among the women there are slighter 
distinctions. All wear a simple dark skirt, 
a more or less elaborate blouse, and a 
redingote of blue, though for the peas- 
ants the outer garment is likely to be of 
a coarse woolen stuff of home manu- 
facture. 

Men and women alike wear the black- 
banded red cap, the crown embroidered 
for the women with some fanciful de- 


ATdOUd GASSHNG ATAVO HIM GATT AMHM AINA oO Sites THI, ONTNMOTT 


UOS[ODIN 9OLIJeYy WIOIT OFOYT 


ELT, 


NI XIS SV ATYVA SV 


286 


GREEGE. AND 


vice in gold, while the men proclaim their 
fealty to Nicholas I by ornamenting their 
caps with his cipher in Cyrillic characters 
surrounded by five semicircular rows of 
gold braid to typify the five centuries of 
Montenegrin independence. I can fore- 
see, in 1984, unless the fashions in the 
Black Mountain have meantime changed, 
that a hatter’s monopoly in Montenegro 
will be well worth having. 

Montenegrins are nearly all giants and 
they stride as though each wore seven- 
league boots. Indeed, when a Monte- 
negrin wants to go anywhere in a hurry 
he walks, not using the splendid roads 
with which his mountains are threaded, 
but taking the old short cuts among the 
hills. 


A HUMAN TELEGRAM 


Last spring, when Danilo the Crown 
Prince was hurriedly despatched to Paris 
to seek the aid of his brother-in-law, the 
Grand Duke Nicholas, for the conflict 
which has since ensued, an important 
document was found to have been left 
behind, and no automobile was at hand 
to send with it to Cattaro. 

It was suggested to the King that one 
Michel, a runner of repute, was about the 
palace, and that perhaps he could over- 
take the Prince before his steamer had 
sailed. So the paper was given to Michel, 
and the King, who was giving a state 
luncheon that day, went to the dining- 
room. Passing through the corridor to 
his study after the meal, the King saw 
Michel sitting there and upbraided him 
for not having gone to Cattaro. “I have 
just come back, Gospodar,’ answered 
Michel. “Ah, then!” exclaimed the King, 
“you are Michel the Telegram.” And 
Michel the Telegram he now is in Monte- 
negrin speech. 

hese Montenegrins are a race of war- 
riors, and for years they have sat about 
in the coffee-houses bemoaning their lot. 
“What a life for a man!” they have said. 
“Thirty years without a war; nothing for 
a man to do.” 

But there seems to be always plenty 
for the women to do, and the women of 
Montenegro, so alert and graceful in their 
youth, soon lose their good looks and be- 
come bent and bowed and ugly ; for—but 


MONTENEGRO 


287 


I will give it in the language of General 
Martinovitch, president of the council of 
ministers, minister for foreign affairs, 
and minister of war, and commander of 
the southern column of the Montenegrin 
army which has been operating against 
Scutari. Martinovitch was not always 
the Poo Bah that he now is, but at the 
time of which I speak he was minister of 
war and had arranged a review of troops 
in honor of the King of Italy, who was 
visiting his father-in-law. 


WOMEN THE PRODUCERS 


I dined at the palace that night and 
took occasion to compliment the minister 
on the appearance of the soldiers. I asked 
how many were his effective strength and 
he said that he could put 50,000 men in 
the field. I expressed incredulity and 
said that that number would be one-fifth 
of all the people in the kingdom—more, 
I added, than could be spared from the 
productive pursuits. “Productive pur- 
suits, indeed!” cried Martinovitch. ‘‘Don’t 
you know that the women do all the work 
up here anyway?” 

And yet the Montenegrin is a man oi 
capacity and when taken from his belli- 
cose environment of his mountain home 
becomes one of the best of workers. 

In our own Northwest there have been 
many of them in the mines where they 
toil industriously as against that day 
when, with the 10,000 crowns which will 
make them rich, they may return to their 
beloved Black Mountain. 

His 500 years of freedom have given 
the Montenegrin a fine sense of order, 
and it is a current saying along the Dal- 
matian coast that when a Montenegrin 
applying for a job is asked what he can 
do he invariably answers, “Superintend.” 

The externals of Montenegrin life are 
simple. In Cetinje there are but two 
buildings of three stories, and neither of 
them is the palace ; they are the legations 
of Austria and Russia, whose rivalry in 
the Near East extends, it would seem, 
even to the housing of their representa- 
tives. 

The palace is an unpretentious struc- 
ture, built some 60 years ago, and, though 
the famous plane tree before its door 
beneath which King Nicholas for so many 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


A GROUP OF MONTENEGRIN BOYS 


Note the military salute, a sign of the early appearance of the warlike spirit in these 
unconquered mountaineers 


years dispensed a quick and shrewd jus- 
tice to his people has disappeared, the 
master of the house remains the same 
father to his people that he always has 
been. 


THE DEMOCRATIC KING 


Access to him, now that he has be- 
come a King, is slightly more difficult 
than in the olden days; but every after- 
noon he may be seen driving about the 
streets of Cetinje in a low phaeton, the 
Queen or one of the princesses with him, 
and frequently he stops to exchange 
greetings with one of his intimates or to 
give to one of his people that highest of 
all Montenegrin privileges—that of kiss- 
ing the sovereign’s hand. 

Wherever he goes he finds the evi- 
dences of his rule. As I have said, all 
Montenegrins bear his cipher on their 
caps. The same initials, formed of cap- 
tured Turkish cannon, stare out from the 
gable of the huge barracks of Cetinje; 
within sight of his study windows rears 
the bulk of the new government house 


which he has built; across the street are 
the guest house and the home of his 
second son; from his own garden he can 
stroll to that of the Crown Prince and 
thence to the public park which he has 
created. 

Close to one of his gates stands the old 
Billiardo, whose name is shrouded in 
mystery; for none can declare with cer- 
tainty whether it is because the building 
once had at its corners little towers which 
looked like the pockets of a billiard table, 
or because in one of its rooms was in- 
stalled the first billiard table in the king- 
dom. In this little building Nicholas was 
voted his royal title, and there the Coun- 
cil of State has its apartments. 

On another corner of the little Place 
du Palais is the long, low dormitory of 
the old monastery. In its upper rooms 
Danilo II taught his chiefs to read and 
write, while further on, at the base of 
a high hill, stands the monastery itself, 
the most interesting building in Monte- 
negro, for here were made the desperate 
defenses’ against the Turks which have 


288 


SOME FELLOW-TRAVELERS IN 


«geet! pf ne > % 7 = 
bo ie ee 
ne ae Ne Ne WF “on * “ 
ich > alg AMMAN ey SPSS 9 A A i 0 
Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


MONTENEGRO 


With their pistols in their belts, they were rather fierce looking, but they proved to have the 
kindest hearts possible 


enriched the Montenegrin legend with so 
many tales of bravery. 


A NATIONAL SHRINE 


This venerated stronghold and sanctu- 
ary of faith and freedom in the Black 
Mountain stands on the spot where, in 
1484, Ivan the Black established himself 
upon moving his seat of government 
from the shores of the Lake of Scutari 
to Cetinje, and where he established the 
first Slavonic printing press, whose four 
hundreth anniversary was celebrated 


280 


with much rejoicing a few years ago. 
A century and a half later it succumbed 
to the Turks, but was soon retaken by the 
Montenegrins, who descended in force 
from the Lovcen, whither the invaders 
had been unable to follow them. ‘Two 
centuries and a quarter ago it was blown 
up by the monks themselves, who per- 
ished with their precious books and doc- 
uments rather than see their sacred walls 
again degraded by the Moslem foe. 

But again and again the structure has 
raised its benignantly defiant front. In 


UOS[ODIN 9dLI}ey WoO.1y OJOY 


AVG ALAA V dOed ALNITHO NI 


SINVSVdd 


200 


its present appearance it dates only from 
the 18th century; but its quaint clock 
tower and shaded cloisters give it an im- 
pression of a much greater age. 

Here rest many of the Vladikas; here 
are to be found the cannon captured from 
the foe on many an historic field; here is 
preserved a page from the first gospel 
issued from the famous press (wncse 
type were afterward melted down to 
make bullets), and it is little wonder that 
the Montenegrin peasant making his way 
to market at Cetinje pauses as he glimpses 
the shrine from afar and crosses him- 
self devoutly as he whispers a prayer for 
the Black Mountain and its Gospodar. 


GRIM RELICS OF THE PAST 


Above rises the Tower of the Skulls, 
the old-time citadel of the monkish de- 
fenders, which takes its name from the 
fact that up to within a short time it bore 
grisly fringes of Turkish heads impaled 
upon its ramparts. These grim reminders 
of a gory past were dear to Montenegrin 
veterans, and many were the murmurs 
of disapproval when the Gospodar con- 
cluded to remove them. 

Life in Montenegro centers in ‘he 
King, who is greater than the ministry, 
the chamber, or the constitution, who 
all owe their creation and preservation 


291 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


WHEN PRINCE NICHOLAS BECAME KING NICHOLAS I THERE WAS GREAT REJOICING 
AMONG THE PEOPLE 


to his grace. More than any other sov- 
ereign of whom I know he fits his legend. 
Nicholas I, “King and Gospodar of free 
Cernagora and the Berda,” is the most 
picturesque and remarkable figure in the 
southern Slavonic world, to say the least. 
Descended from a long line of heroes— 
the heir of the Vladikas—he has, like 
them, distinguished himself in many a 
hard-fought conflict. 

As a lad he was with his father, Mirko, 
the “Sword of Montenegro,” at fateful 
Grahovo, and like Mirko, too, he has 
written lyric odes and ballads. Like his 
ancestor, Peter II, he has composed his- 
torical dramas and given laws, and, like 
all his line, he has at all times displayed 
a courage and a capacity fitting every 
occasion. 


THE NATION’S TYPE AND HERO 

The inheritor of a splendid tradition, 
a warrior and a bard, gifted by nature 
with a fine physique and a commanding 
presence, he personifies and embodies all 
that appeals to the imagination of a ro- 
mantic and impressionable people, to its 
martial instinct, its poetic temperament, 
and its yearning for long-vanished glo- 
ries. 

He is a statesman at once bold and 
cautious, a diplomatist of many talents, 


ONIAC:IM NX@I09 SIH JO NOISVOOO AH NO GNV ANOUHL AHW OL NOISSHOOV SIH dO AUVSUAAINNV 
HLOS AHI NO NANO GNV ONIM GAWIV1IONd Ad OL 


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GREECE AND 


a capable administrator, and a thought- 
ful reformer. Again and again he has 
repressed the war-like ardor of his 
mountaineers, and has led them to battle 
only when no other course was possible. 
But whether he has fought or remained 
tranquil he has always profited. Like 
his royal cousin at Sofia, Nicholas of 
Montenegro is a skillful international 
trader; and as I have seen him in stormy 
times negotiating now with the revolu- 
tionary Albanians and now with the 
Turks, I have often wondered if his in- 
tellectual inheritance was not as much of 
the White as of the Black Mountain. 
He was but yet a boy when the as- 
sassin’s bullet brought him to his uncle’s 
piace, to the place of that uncle who 
had launched the nolo episcopari at the 
heads of his astonished people, but whose 
marriage remaining childless has seen the 
crown pass in its usual succession from 
uncle to nephew, so that if Nicholas shall 
give place to Danilo it will be the first 
time in Montenegrin history that a son 
has followed a tatiier upon the throne. 


WHAT NICHOLAS HAS DONE FOR HIS LAND 


Nicholas was then a little lacking of 
19 years, but his education in Paris and 
his experiences at home had given him 
wisdom beyond his years, and his tiny 
land has profited by it mightily. 

He has already doubled his territory, 
-and now expects to gain much more. 
He has added two Adriatic ports to his 
possessions. He has organized minis- 
tries, the courts, finance, and all the de- 
partments of government. Where, when 
he came to the throne, only a few diffi- 
‘cult trails threaded the hills, today a 
splendid network of roads connects all 
ithe principal points of the kingdom, and 
lit may be said of Montenegro alone 
‘among nations, I hazard, that wherever 
‘one may go at all in a wheeled convey- 
ance one may go in an automobile. 

He has established posts and tele- 
‘graphs, so that whereas once a Monte- 
‘negrin mobilization was effected by sten- 

torian hallooing from peak to peak, 
Cetinje is now constantly in touch with 
all parts of the country and with the 
outside world. 
- He has codified the laws, a task already 


MONTENEGRO 293 


begun by his predecessor; and while he 
has modernized procedure in a degree, 
there yet remain many quaint survivals 
of the days when the Vladikas made law 
by whim or wrote into the statutes the 
superstitions of the people. For exam- 
ple, by law in Montenegro the eating of 
a hedgehog is regarded as an offense 
against nature, and not long since a peas- 
ant was imprisoned for it. 

Respect for age is enjoined by law, 
and in the articles regulating public con- 
veyances it is provided that the traveler 
may have the seat indicated by his ticket, 
but it is added, “The deference due by 
youth to age requires that the former 
yield the better place to their seniors.” 
Another article declares the equality of 
all before the law, and lays down the 
democratic principle of the universal 
ownership of land and equal right of all 
to hold office. 

Another allows a man who is struck 
to kill the striker, provided it be done 
at once. If he delays, it is murder. In 
short, the Montenegrin code aims to be 
the embodiment of that “civil and re- 
ligious liberty” which, it avows, is “the 
reward of valor.” 


THE PRINCE BECOMES A KING 


Probably Nicholas himself would 
count the chief among his achievements 
the assumption of a kingly title upon 
the completion of 50 years of rule. ‘The 
jubilee, the royal honor, and the king’s 
golden wedding were coincidently and 
joyfully celebrated at Cetinje. 

Those were splendid days for the 
Petrovitches, who gathered in force. Pre- 
eminent among them, of course, was the 
beautiful queen of Italy. With her were 
the two stately grand duchesses of Rus- 
sia and the Princess of Battenberg, 
whose marriage had led the King to re- 
tort to one who had taunted him that 
Montenegro had no exports, “Sir, you 
forget my daughters.” ‘There, too, was 
the son of the King’s dead daughter, the 
Crown Prince of Servia, and the three 
princes and two charming princesses 
who make up the royal group at home. 

Thither came the Tsar of the Bulgars 
and the Crown Prince of Greece. The 
Sultan sent a special embassy, but other 


nations contented themselves with send- 
ing letters of felicitation by the hands 
of their ministers in residence, and 
among them the American alone was 
able to hail Nicholas as King, for Mr. 
Taft had taken care to address his great 
and good friend as His Majesty, and 
Nicholas has never forgotten that the 


American President was the first chief 


of state who addressed him as King. 

There, too, were the deputations. from 
all the dans of the Black Mountain, and 
as they passed before the palace and 
made their obeisance to the Gospodar 
one was struck with the instinctive and 
natural grace of these Highlanders, 
whose courtesy is the fruit of their cen- 
turies of freedom. 


MOTOR CARS ARE SCARCE 


Nicholas alone of Balkan monarchs 
lives among his people—an undertaking 
-which is rendered easier by the limits 
of his kingdom. At every considerable 
town there is a royal villa, and among 
the delights of life at Cetinje is the priv- 
ilege of automobiling with the King to 
spend the week end at Rieka, Krusovac, 
Niksic, or Antivari. 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


SHALLOW WATERS OF SCUTARI LAKE 


Practically the only motor cars in 
Montenegro are those in use by royalty, 
and as the machines purr along the splen- 
did roads all the peasants working in the 
fields, even the most distant, straighten 
themselves and make a deep obeisance 
as the car passes, and at every halting 
place the people swarm up to see if they 
may have the privilege of kissing the 
royal hand. 

It has been my good fortune to make 
frequent excursions of this kind, and 
once, as we went to Niksic, we were less 
than two hours from Cetinje when we 
entered upon the territory which Nich- 
olas himself had taken from the Turks 
during the Russian war. Passing north 
from Podgoritza, we soon passed the 
old Turkish stronghold of Spuzh. Spuzh 
is a perfectly conical hill set in the mid- 
dle of the meadows of the Moraca River. 
It had been a fortress in Venetian times, 
and their old battlements, as strength- 
ened by the ‘Turks, still crown its 
heights. : 

As we bowled along the King de- 
scribed the campaign which resulted in 
the capture of the fortress. On every 
hand were the reminiscent landmarks. 


204 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


PASSENGERS ON SCUTARI LAKE 


Over this hill he had dragged his cannon 
with men and ropes. Upon that height 
was Suleiman Pasha with 30,000 troops. 
At this spot was a Montenegrin brigade. 
From this the assault was ordered. 
“And what is there now, sir?” I asked. 
The King drew himself up and answered 
solemnly, “Seven million Montenegrin 
cartridges!” And it is worth noting that 
the only manufacturing establishment of 
consequence is the cartridge factory. 


“AN ATTILA WITH MACHINE GUNS” 


South of Spuzh lies Podgoritza, once 
Turkish, and still retaining the minarets 


2 


and the unkempt Moslem cemetery to 
point to the order that has passed. It 
is the most considerable town of the 
kingdom, yet it has no more than 6,000 
inhabitants. 

The Albanian frontier lies but a short 
distance to the east, and during the Al- 
banian revolution of I9II, as we sat in 
the square before the dismal hotel sipping 
our evening coffee beneath the mulberry 
trees, we could watch the twinkling camp- 
fires of Torgut’s column moving upon 
the rebellious Malissori—‘‘like an Attila 
with machine guns,” as Miss Durham 
used to say. 


95 


opines a 


Photo from Katrice Nicolson 


SOME MOUNTAIN WOMEN IN MONTENEGRO 


From Podgoritza north one passes 
Danilograd, where the King has estab- 
lished a flourishing agricultural experi- 
ment station which will probably be 
found of use to his people, now that 
their thirst for blood has been slaked, 
and an asylum for the insane, which is 
almost tenantless. 

Next comes Niksic, another of the 
spoils of the last war, where the King 
has built a villa directly facing the old 
Turkish fortress which he had captured 
and from whose ramparts he proudly 
flies the royal standard when he is in 
residence. Next to the villa stands the 
church, a fine structure, designed by 
Nicholas and erected to the memory of 
the heroes of the war of ’77. Here, too, 
is the principal prison of the realm, 
whose inmates are allowed great free- 
dom, and the one symbol of progress of 
all the world—a brewery. 

Between Danilograd and Niksic lies 
Ostrog, the famous mountain monastery 
and stronghold, whither withdrew, two 


centuries ago, St. Vasili, Metropolitan of 
the Herzegovina, and founded the shrine 
so often besieged and so valiantly de- 
fended—once by only 28 men, under 
Mirko, King Nicholas’ father, who held 
at bay 10,000 Turks for eight days and 
then succeeded in making his escape at 
night. 


THE PORT OF MONTENEGRO 


Antivari, the chief seaport, is a thriv- 
ing place. Taken by Nicholas himself 
during the Russo-Turkish war, he has 
built a new town directly on the shore, 
two miles or more from the old Turkish 
city, up among the Albanian foothills. 
Here is one of the numerous royal villas, 
and here the Italian concessionaires have 
poured out their lire in making a port 
and building a railroad which zigzags up 
the hills and darts through a tunnel near 
the summit before beginning its tortuous 
descent to the Lake of Scutari beyond. 

There is little commerce and almost 
no manufactures in the Black Mountain. 


206 


GREEK PEASANT STANDING BEFORE HIS 


The tobacco is excellent, and an Italian 
company has its monopoly. A_ few 
coarse stuffs are woven at Podgoritza, 
but practically everything is imported. 
Duties are high and prices are extortion- 
ate. 

Happily the people’s wants are simple ; 
but to bring even a scanty living from 
the reluctant soil requires unremitting 
industry. Everywhere, in sheltered nooks 
and upon the gentler slopes, the earth 
has been painstakingly gathered up be- 
hind retaining walls, and the gray hill- 
sides are dotted with these little patches 
of green, most of them no larger than a 
tablecloth. 


207 


Photo by Emma G. Cummings 


HOUSE, BETWEEN BRAI,O AND DELPHI 


Near the Lake of Scutari the vine 
grows luxuriantly, and it is one of the 
King’s hopes that some-day, when perma- 
nent peace shall have fallen upon the 
Black Mountain, the fertile meadows may 
be drained and cultivated and that Mon- 
tenegro may become the granary of that 
portion of the world. 


RELIGION AND EDUCATION 


The established religion of the land is, 
of course, Orthodox Greek. The clergy, 
headed by the Metropolitan of Cetinje, 
are a splendid lot of men in physique and 
character. . The Catholics, numbering 
some 13,000, have their own archbishop 


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GREECE AND MONTENEGRO 


at Antivari, and the few Mohammedans 
possess a Grand Mufti. 

Perhaps the most striking testimony 
to Nicholas’ tact as a ruler is to be found 
in these three religious groups dwelling 
amicably together and all possessing and 
professing a like affection and honor for 
their Sovereign. 

Education is not advanced. The schools 
are few in number and most elementary 
in character. At Cetinje there is the In- 
stitute for Girls, founded by the Empress 
Marie Feodorovna of Russia and main- 
tained by Russian bounty. Here several 
score of girls are trained in domestic 
arts, music, and the studies which with 
us are preparatory to high-school work. 
This school has had a large influence 
upon Montenegrin life, and, thanks to it, 
the position of woman is becoming each 
year more tolerable. 

Another Russian establishment is that 
for the training of cadets, and indeed it 
would be difficult to find any Montene- 
grin activity where Russian influence is 
not exerted. A Russian subsidy main- 
tains the army, and two years ago from 
Russia came arms, uniforms, tents, can- 
nons, saddlery, and the complete equip- 
ment for 50,000 men. A Russian mili- 
tary commission has been busy at Cetinje 
for years, and the Russian military re- 
gent has long been a most conspicuous 
figure in Montenegrin life. 


WHERE RUSSIAN INFLUENCE FAILED 


Yet Russian influence was unable to 
restrain the Montenegrin initiative in the 
present war, and King Nicholas never 
showed to better advantage than when 
he informed the spokesmen of the Great 
Powers that they had come too late. 
Within an hour from that declaration he 
had sent the Turkish Minister his pass- 
ports, and the next morning we heard 
the first gun in the war whose results 
have so astounded the world. 

If I have seemed to give too large a 
share of my allotted theme to the consid- 
eration of Nicholas and his Black Moun- 
taineers, my excuse is that the other por- 
tion of it is measurably familiar. 

To separate the life of modern Greece 
from the splendors of its classic or Byzan- 


299 


tine days is not easy, and the Greeks 
themselves would be the first to resent it. 
They, of a truth, deem themselves the 
direct descendants of the worthies of 
classic days, and certain it is that their 
life has shown a persistent continuity 
which warrants the claim. 

Whether their land has been ruled by 
a Roman emperor, a Frankish duke, a 
Venetian baillie, or a Turkish pasha, the 
thread of Hellenic existence has remained 
unbroken. In the monasteries have been 
preserved their religion, their tongue, 
their traditions; mothers have taught 
their children the glories of the Greek 
heritage, and today the Greek people 
stand forth in character, at least, exactly 
as they did in days of yore, as Aristoph- 
anes pictured them, as St. Paul described 
them, and as every classical scholar has 
learned to regard them. 


THE PARIS OF THE LEVANT 


In many ways Greek life remains un- 
changed from its classic aspects. Modern 
Athens, to be sure, is a brilliant capital 
well worth its title, “The Paris of the 
Levant.” Less than a century ago it 
passed finally from Turkish possession, 
and it was then a small collection of mere 
hovels huddled beneath the Acropolis. 

Today it is a city of wide and gay 
streets, dotted with small parks and 
adorned with many handsome public 
buildings, most of them the gifts of rich 
Greeks who have delighted to spend in 
the mother country the fortunes which 
they have earned abroad. 

To such generosity Athens owes the 
noble group of buildings which comprise 
the university, the National Library, and 
the fine classic reproduction which houses 
the Academy of Science, and above all 
and to my mind the most interesting, the 
noble stadium, built upon the old foun- 
dations and along the old lines and in- 
geniously carrying in its fabric every 
fragment of the old structure which could 
be found. 

In the midst of all this modernity stand 
the remnants of the golden days cf 
Athens sedulously preserved, and open to 
inspection and study with a freedom no- © 
where equalled. The focus, of course, is 


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Photo by Emma G. Cummings 


PEASANTS AND FLOCK, NEAR EPIDAURAS, GRE LCE 


the Acropolis—incomparable even in its 
ruins—its cliffs and grottoes still the 
home of legend and of fable. 

All the cycles of Athenian life are rep- 
resented. The classic temple of Theseus, 
best preserved of all the ancient monu- 
ments, recalls the days of Pericles. The 
Stoa of Hadrian speaks of that distant 
day when a Roman conqueror ruled the 
violet crowned city. 

While the early Christian era finds 
its survival in the beautiful Byzantine 
churches, the most striking of which is 
that of St. Theodore set down in the 
midst of one of the great business streets 
of the city and scrupulously guarded 
from encroachment. Of Turkish days 
there remain few traces, though the ba- 
zars, as typified by the Lane of the 
Little Red Shoes or Hephaestos street, 
the home of the coppersmiths, are more 
oriental than Hellenic or European. 

In this land of changing allegiance the 


301 


marks of Venetian rule were set deep 
and strong. Corfu today, in its externals 
at least, is more Italian than Greek, while 
Nauplia, Patras, and many of the island 
seaports still find useful the battlemented 
fortresses erected by the Latin rulers. 


“. GRAVE NATIONAL HEMORRHAGE” 


As of old, the Greeks swarm the seas. 
The Pirzus is one of the busiest of 
Mediterranean ports—indeed, it is the 
center of transhipment for all the East— 
while the Corinthian Canal, after many 
financial vicissitudes, now seems to be in 
the way of becoming each year a more 
and more useful route between the Ion- 
ian and the A‘gean Seas. 

The Greeks are a town people. One- 
tenth of the population is to be found in 
Athens and the Pireus. The drain of 
emigration from the rural districts is 
enormous. In the words of a Cabinet 
Minister, it constitutes “a grave national 


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GREECE AND MONTENEGRO 


hemorrhage.” Indeed, in some villages 
in the Peloponnesus there remain scarcely 
enough men to fill the offices. 

In one sense, however, the emigration 
has been of benefit to the country, for 
large sums of money are sent back each 
year, especially from America, to the 
families who remain behind, and to this 
may be traced the gradual appreciation 
in the Greek paper currency, which, as 
against a depreciation of some 40 per 
cent, is now, and has been for several 
years, at par or better. 

I remember that my bankers, in I9QI1, 
were able to buy Napoleons at 99 and 
a fraction in Greek money, and it was at 
this time that the wife of one of my 
colleagues complained that, owing to the 
high price of the drachma, she felt un- 
able to keep an automobile. 

Country life in Greece remains in many 
of its aspects as it has been for ages. 
Within two hours’ drive of Athens I have 
seen peasants plowing with a crooked 
stick exactly as they did, I imagine, in 
the days of Homer. The shepherd boys 
of today manage their flocks with a crook 
that bears the lines of that carried by 
Corydon. And in Thessaly one sees the 
solid-wheeled cart which has come down 
without substantial change from the days 
of Jason. The distaff remains as the 
chief instrument in preparing the wool 
for the hand-looms, and is rarely absent 
from the busy fingers of the older dames ; 
and the women gather at the fountains 
for their washing as did Nausicaa and 
her maids did on that day when Odysseus 
came to port. 


THE GREEK LIVES IN THE OPEN 


In a land of much sunshine, as Greece 
is; life is followed much in the open. 
The oven is almost invariably to be found 
in the courtyard, and it is heated with 
dried twigs, almost the only fuel of the 
country, which are brought in huge piles 
upon the backs of the patient little don- 
keys, who vie with the goats in being the 
most useful members of the household. 

Market day, of course, brings all the 
community together, and is generally an 
occasion of much gaiety, while the feast- 
days, which are numerous, are literally 
observed. On these occasions there is 


303 


always dancing, the most famous to be 
seen at Megara during the feast of Easter 
week. Megara prides itself upon being a 
pure Hellenic community in the midst of 
the Albanian strain, which predominates 
in Attica, and its. Easter dancing was 
once a famous marriage mart. It no 
longer serves this purpose, because, as the 
maidens sigh, so many men have gone off 
to America. 

At Megara the native costume appears 
at its best. It is rarely seen anywhere 
nowadays, and has almost wholly disap- 
peared from the cities. But for the 
Evzones, or household troops, the fusta- 
nella would be as rare a sight in Athens 
as the classic garb, which is worn only 
by Americans. : 

The church plays a large part in Greek 
affairs, and rightly ; for it was the church 
which kept the national spirit alive dur- 
ing the long night of Turkish rule. It 
was from the famous monastery at Kala- 
vrita, that the Archbishop Germanus un- 
furled the flag of rebellion in the war 
for independence, and this famous shrine 
has been more lightly dealt with than the 
most of the monastic establishments, 
which have now come under strict gov- 
ernmental supervision. Another favored 
monastic group is that at Meteora, in 
Thessaly, where the quaint buildings, 
perched upon their needles of rock, af- 
ford a fascinating risk to the venture- 
some visitor. . 


THE ORACLE AT DELPHI SPEAKS AGAIN 


It is not yet easy to go about in Greece. 
The railroad lines are meager, the roads 
are not good, and the hotels leave much 
to be desired. The most accessible of 
all the great centers of classic life is 
Delphi, a fitting shrine for an oracle, with 
its massive cliffs and majestic hills. 
Here the French have brought to light 
the ancient city with its treasures, its 
wonderful Castalian spring, its theater, 
and its sacred way. 

That it still retains its oracular powers 
I can testify; for when I was last there, 
about a year ago, my Dutch colleague 
stood upon the spot where Baedeker told 
us the tripod and the priestess had sat. 
“Who will be the next President of the 
United States’? I asked, and the oracle 
said solemnly: ‘““The best man will win.” 


| 
| 


— 
ay 


ee aN 


Photo by Emma G. Cummings 


PEASANT WITH DISTAFF, SPINNING AS SHE WALKS 


The Greek royal family are claimed 
as the best looking, the most charming- 
mannered, and the best behaved royalties 
in Europe. I believe it to be true. Court 
life is democratic and simple, the late 
King much preferred his life as a farmer 
at the Chateau of Tatoi to that of the 
palace at Athens. Queen Olga and the 
princesses devote themselves to good 
works, and the princes have so recently 
given such good account of themselves 
on the field of battle that words of mine 
are needless. 

My chief criticism of modern Greek 
life would be that the young men of 
good family and of fortune have not 
turned themselves to the economic de- 
velopment of their country. Manufac- 
turing and agriculture have been almost 
wholly neglected, and all that one wears 
and much of what one eats is brought 
from abroad. The owners of estates 
have considered them chiefly useful as a 
foothold for a seat in Parliament—that 
one-chambered and often turbulent body 
where have centered the chief defects in 
Greek development. 


POLITICS THE CURSE OF THE GREEKS 


To speak the truth, the curse of poli- 
tics has overlain all Greek activities 
since the establishment of the kingdom. 
And politics in Greece has meant a sor- 
did thing. There are no questions of 
principle which divide parties there. 

Economic conditions demand high tar- 
iffs; on foreign questions there is no 
division; sociological problems have not 
developed along party lines—and so it 
has happened that parties have now 
grown up with well-defined lines of 
cleavage in policy, but have arisen from 
time to time in accordance with the am- 
bitions or political necessities of individ- 
ual leaders—and the struggle has been 
wholly between the ins and the outs. 

Thus it has happened that maladmin- 
istration has been the rule. I have never 
inclined to the belief that Greek admin- 
istration has been dishonest. In fact, 
the modest budget forbids graft on any 
scale to be really dangerous, but waste- 


fulness and poor service have been com- 


mon to all ministries. 
I speak of this in the past tense, be- 


304 


Photo by Emma G. Cummings 


SITE OF THE ROYAL, TOMBS, DISCOVERED BY SCHLIEMANN IN 1876, WHICH CON- 
TAINED AN EXTRAORDINARY QUANTITY OF GOLD AND OTHER ORNAMENTS 


The circular space in which these were found was inclosed by a double circle of upright 
stone slabs, covered with horizontal slabs 


cause I believe that a new day has 
dawned for Greek public life. The 
bloodless revolution of 1909, which had 
its origin in the determination of a group 
of officers to purge the army and the 
navy of their political ills, has gone much 
farther than its authors had foreseen, 
and as a result Greek hopes now center 
in one man, who, brought to Athens 
from turbulent Crete to rescue the Mil- 
itary League from the depths of the 
parliamentary muddle into which they 
had fallen, became in 10 months the 
prime minister of Greece, and in three 
weeks thereafter had demonstrated him- 
self the master of a situation which had 
baffled all of his predecessors. 


A GREEK BISMARCK 


This man, Eleutherios Venizelos, is a 
Greek of the Greeks, with a long line of 
distinguished Hellenic ancestry. Edu- 


ur 


cated at the University of Athens and 
in Switzerland, he was established him- 
self as an attorney in Crete, and was 
active in the revolution movements 
which brought on the Greco-Turkish 
war of 1897. 

Upon the establishment of the High 
Commissioner’s regime in Crete, Veni- 
zelos and Prince George were not in ac- 
cord, and the prince’s withdrawal from 
the island followed—an incident which 
led the court party in Athens to regard 
Venizelos as an arch-revolutionary and 
to render his task the more difficult. 

The Greek people, however, have 
never wavered in their support of him. 
He is their idol—and he justifies their 
idolatry. Summoned to the prime min- 
istry much earlier than he had believed 
himself ready for such power, and 
knowing full well that he owed his pre- 
ferment in a large measure to the wishes 


Photo and copyright by H. C. White Co. 


SHIP CANAL, LOOKING EAST: ISTHMUS OF CORINTH, GREECE 


The idea of a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth dates from Roman times, when the 
Emperor Nero started excavations in the year A. D. 67, but the project was soon abandoned, 


and not until 1893 was the canal actually opened. 


It is nearly 4 miles long, some 70 feet 


broad, and 26 feet deep, but the strength of the current running through it, together with its 


narrowness, impedes its full usefulness. 


of the old political leaders, who had con- 
ceived the notion of choking him to 
death with power, he has confounded 
his enemies, amazed his friends, and jus- 
tified all the fond hopes of the people, 
who regard him as the embodiment of 
their future and who have never ceased 
to hail him as the savior of Hellenism. 
Twice his ministry has been forced to 


appeal to the electorate—once by his own 
wish to test Greek public opinion and 
once because the constitutional limit had 
run against his government. In each 
case he has been swept back into office 
with a majority of cumbersome propor- 
tions—and he has rightly counted him- 
self as a man with a mandate to reor- 
ganize Greece. 


306 


MEDIEVAL FORTIFICATIONS OF THE 


Under his guidance the constitution 
has been revised, the chamber has been 
liberated and set in the way of con- 
structive legislation, while the electorate 
has been given a wider privilege of 
choice of their representatives. The 
courts have been given tenure and re- 
moved from political control. 

The ministries have been reorganized 
and purged and the civil service has been 
set.upon a merit basis. Agriculture and 
commerce have been taken under the 
charge of a new ministry. Municipalities 
have been granted new rights and charged 
with new duties; and a general quick- 


Photo and copyright by H. C. White Co. 
ACRO-CORINTH : CORINTH, GREECE 


ening and efficiency have been infused 
into all branches of the administration. 


THE ORIGIN OF THE BALKAN LEAGUE 


Emphasis, however, has been laid 
upon the work of reorganizing the army 
and the navy, and French and English 
commissions have respectively under- 
taken that task. How well they have 
succeeded was foreshadowed at the 
joint maneuvers of last spring and dem- 
onstrated beyond question in the engage- 
ments of the war which is now drawing 
to its close. 

To Venizelos, more than to any other, 


307 


Photo and copyright by H. C. White Ce. 


MONASTERY OF HAGIA TRIAS ( HOLY TRINITY ), ON THE MARVELOUS METEORA ROCKS, 
NORTHERN GREECE 


is due the Balkan Federation. His was 
the initiative that opened the negotia- 
tions, and it was his controlling political 
genius that shaped the entente in most of 
its details. The powers of Europe and 
its diplomats were staggered by the news 
of his success. ‘Though well warned by 
frequent rumor during the year and a 
half that the negotiations were in prog- 
ress, they refused to think it possible 
that two races who had dealt with each 
other as ferociously as the Greeks and 


the Bulgars in Macedonia could be 
brought into accord, no matter how 
great the stake. 

Yet nothing was more obvious than 
this, and from the moment that Venizelos 
came to power in Greece and called to 
his side that talented statesman, so well 
known, from his service in the United 
States as Minister of Greece, it was evi- 
dent that the long-cherished ideal of 
Balkan statesmen for an effective agree- 
ment toward an amelioration of the lot 


308 


GREECE AND 


of the subject Christian peoples in Euro- 
pean Turkey was in the way of realiza- 
tion. 

A Balkan federation has long been 
dreamed of, and the first steps toward its 
attainment were taken some 30 years ago 
by the then Prime Minister of Greece, 
Charilao Tricoupis, of whom it is said by 
the ardent Venizelists that he was an 
earlier Venizelos, while the Tricoupists 
refer to Venizelos as another Tricoupis. 
That attempt failed, and for nearly a 
generation the Balkan entente was rele- 
gated to the realm of academic discus- 
on: 

In the meantime the Turkish policy 
“Divide and rule” had set the Greeks 
and Bulgarians at each other’s throats, 
and there had ensued an era of blood in 
Macedonia, wherein the province was 
ravaged by marauding bands of Greeks, 
Bulgars, and Serbs, who waged a war of 
extermination against each other. 

This barbarous policy had carried it- 
self nearly to exhaustion when Venizelos 
came to power at Athens, and to him it 
was suggested that an attempt at a def- 
inite agreement be made among all the 
nations having racial pretensions in Ma- 
cedonia and Albania. 

A beginning was made at once, the 
first exchanges being purely unofficial. 
It was soon found, however, that formal 
undertaking were possible, but it was 
nearly a year before any effort was made 
to reduce to terms the basis of agree- 
ment. 


THE MONROE DOCTRINE OF THE BALKANS 


It was thought best to simplify the 
first declarations, and the same counsel- 
lor who had first engaged Venizelos’ at- 
tention to the subject advised that the 
Allied States should unite in a promulga- 
tion of a Monroe doctrine for the Balkan 
States. For this policy the lamented Milo- 
vanovitch, then Prime Minister of Servia, 
became the spokesman, and one of his 
last—as it was surely the most impor- 
tant—of his public utterances was a 
speech in the Skuptchina at Belgrade de- 
claring the doctrine of the Balkans for 
the Balkan peoples. 

Nearly coincident with this came the 


MONTENEGRO 


309 


transfer of Mr. Coromilas from the min- 
istry of finance at Athens to that for 
foreign affairs, and the negotiations took 
an immediate impetus from his active 
persistence. The early summer saw their 
completion, and for the first time the 
Balkan States were in position to present 
a united front to their traditional enemy. 

The Balkan Federation was not, how- 
ever, predicated upon immediate war. 
Greece, at any rate, felt herself unready. 
The work of national reorganization un- 
der Venizelos’ lead was far from com- 
plete. The finances, to be sure, were in 
excellent condition. Indeed, Greece alone 
among the allies had any considerable 
sum of money on hand when hostilities 
began. But much remained to be done 
with the army, and the navy was await- 
ing the new battleship for which the con- 
tract had only just been awarded. And, 
on the whole, the allies preferred a peace- 
ful solution of the difficulty if it could 
be had. 

Their fundamental desire was to se- 
cure tranquillity and good government in 
Macedonia and Albania, believing that 
with this the evolution of time would 
bring to them their natural zones of in- 
fluence, even as eastern Rumelia had 
been added to Bulgarian territory. They 
calculated not a little upon the fetich of 
the status quo, which had always been 
before the eyes of the Great Powers, 
and they reckoned that an effective in- 
tervention would prevent their coming to 
grips now. 


A NEW ERA FOR THE NEAR EAST 


Their plan in brief was to mobilize 
and to present an identical note to the 
Porte demanding immediate reforms in 
Macedonia and Albania, at the same time 
notifying the powers of their action and 
of the terms of the note. Their expecta- 
tion was that the powers, fearful of the 
long-dreaded explosion in the Balkans, 
would then step in and enforce the major 
portion of the demanded reforms. 

It must be admitted that the allies had 
no considerable confidence in the results 
of these reforms as administered by 
Turkish authority, and that they felt that 
conditions would again be beyond en- 


510 


durance after a few years; but by that 
time they knew that they would be ready 
for war, and were content. 

The general lines of this program were 
carried out. The powers, as so often be- 
fore, failed to meet the expectations of 
the allies and drafted an ultimatum to 
the Balkan governments, the terms of 
which were almost immediately made 
ridiculous by the fortunes of war. The 
rest is now history; and when the treaty 
of London is finally cast into enduring 
terms, it will be found that the Balkan 
allies have remade the map of Europe as 
none have done for a century. 

Will it prove that they have also put 
an end to the specter which has so long 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


lurked behind every aspect of the Near 
Eastern question? ‘That they have found 
tranquillity for lands long harassed? 
That they have, to use the words of 
Lloyd-George, extended the boundaries 
of liberty and good government? ‘That 
they have brought deliverance to the 
oppressed? 

That they have, in short, opened a new 
era in the Near Fast, in the course of 
which those long in terror and subjuga- 
tion may enjoy life, liberty, and the pur- 
suit of happiness, and in which a plente- 
ous prosperity shall reign in a region 
where desclation and poverty have so 
long held sway? 

They so believe, and I with them. 


MEGASPELAON, THE OLDEST MONASTERY IN 
GREECE 


By Carroiti Srorrs ALDEN 


With Photographs taken by the Author 


which, when a small boy, I heard 
my uncle observe that Americans 
were overrunning Europe, and that in a 
few years there would be not even a 
village they had not visited and made 
common. The doom of Europe was thus 
pronounced. With dismay I realized that 
when I became a man and traveled like 
my uncle, Germany, Russia, and all other 
lands would be completely tamed; I 
would see them but as Chicago (my home 
city) repeated again and again. 
However, Europe is like one of those 
old home-spun garments which, though 
slightly faded, is extremely durable; and, 
as patching is not an easy process, most 
of Europe still remains Europe. Ameri- 
cans are far from being everywhere, and 
on going to Greece in a recent summer 
I wandered for several weeks through 
city and village, and outside of Athens 
met just three of my countrymen—one 
man and two college women. 
Under such conditions the sociable man 
is likely to feel intensely lonely, and it 
is curious how he will sometimes en- 


] REMEMBER the consternation with 


courage himself, as he might a child, by 
appealing to his pride; thus, if I did not 
emphatically approve, at least I made no 
remonstrance as the solitary young Texan 
I met at Tiryns denounced our country- 
men as poor creatures of convention, 
traveling only where thousands had pre- 
ceded them, and shrinking timidly when 
they encountered the least hardship. 
“They're even atraid of dirt,” heweom 
temptuously concluded. It was plain that 
he was not, and I presume that I also 
bore the dark badge of courage. 


THER MONKS IN THE CAVES 


One of the places in Greece fairly easy 
of access, yet rarely visited by Ameri- 
cans, is the monastery of Megaspeleon. 
As the name signifies, it is the monastery 
of the Great Cave, and the cave-dwellers, 
though not belonging to prehistoric times, 
are like a relic of the middle ages. 

‘It is the oldest of Greek monasteries, 
tradition affirming that it was founded 
in the fourth century; probably the real 
date is about 1,000 years later; it is also 
the richest, for it has extensive holdings 


viioresin alt 


Weaesines 


ROCK MONASTERY OF MEGASPELZON, T 


HE 


rma, 
28 
rm yan emt os AE» 


Fe 
Mraee ee 


EA 
resales 


Photo by Emma G. Cummings 


MOST IMPORTANT IN GREECE, ON THE 


SIDE OF A GREAT CLIFF 


The buildings date from 1640. 


The monks derive their income from 


extensive lands in the 


neighborhood and also from houses in Smyrna and Constantinople 


in Elis and other States, and with the 
growing prosperity of Greece these lands 
are rapidly increasing in value, making 
Megaspelzon one of “the richest monas- 
teries in all Europe. About 140 monks 
at present live here, not including those 
whose duties, such as collecting the rents, 
keep them much of the time away. They 
have a government like that of a republic 
and they elect their own abbot. 

Half way between Corinth and Patras 
I had left the main railway and took a 
cog-road that winds its way up a rocky 
gorge to Kalavryta, on the northern edge 
of Arcadia. 

“Fis ton Megaspeleon?” [For Megas- 
pelzon ?| I inquired, as I looked into the 


already crowded combination car. (Dur- 
ing my stay in Athens I had an Eng- 
lish-Greek lady dictate 20 or 30 con- 


venient phrases, which I had conned 


rs 


until I could utter 
ness. ) 

“Nat, nai” | Yes, yes], was the answer, 
and a youth of 20 crowded some rustics 
over so as to give me the best that could 
be had in the second-class compartment. 

I tried to enter upon a conversation, 
but between my limited vocabulary and 
the strong reserve of the youth the at- 
tempt failed. However, as the train be- 
gan to wriggle up one of the most pictur- 
esque valleys of the Peloponnesus, the 
youth showed he had not forgotten me 
by catching my arm and pointing to the 
unusually fine view as the mountain tor- 
rent burst through the sharply cleft rock. 


them with some glib- 


WHAT IS THE RAILROAD ETIQUETTE ? 


Two enthusiastic young Greeks in the 
next seat also gave me some attention. 
They were from Athens, on a holiday 


Photo by Carroll S$. Alden 


THE MONASTERY OF MEGASPELASON SEEN FROM A DISTANCE, SHOWING THE VERDANT 
GARDENS AT ITS FOOT 


. “On retracing the path leading to the valley, I turned and caught my last glimpse of the 
monastery, in the distance no longer dirty and dilapidated, but thoroughly picturesque as it 
hung half way up the cliff like a huge swallow’s nest” (see page 323). 


312 


2. 


we, Me 
et FRAY 
cas 


Photo by Carroll S. Alden 
PATH LEADING TO THE MONASTERY OF MEGASPEL.ZON 


“The monastery is 3,000 feet above sea-level, on the face of a large cliff. It rises out 
of a leafy bower and seems to be plastered against the bare gray rock of the mountain” (see 
page 315). 


ms aa 
Mee suns 


Photo by Carroll S. Alden 
MONKS KILLING TIME AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE MONASTERY 


“I could not help thinking what a miserable life is that of the monks of Megaspelzon. 
They send out no missionaries or preachers to the neglected people; they go through their 
services with considerable indifference; they have no interest in study; they write no books, 


nor do they, like certain orders in the Roman Church, care for the sick and the poor” (see 
text, page 323). 


314 


THE OLDEST MONASTERY IN GREECE dL 


trip, and spoke a little French. Although 
my French is as uncertain as that of a 
girl at a boarding-school, we exchanged 
some ideas. 

Later, as they opened a lunch-box, they 
offered me at intervals, first a sandwich, 
next an egg, later wine, grapes, and a 
pear. I began by declining, but the re- 
served youth at my side again manifested 
his interest in me. He had not been in- 
cluded in the luncheon party, but he 
plainly disapproved of my course of re- 
fusal. At each offer he would assure 
me, “Yes, good,” and when [ still re- 
fused, he became so earnest and insistent 
that I suspected that he was attempting 
to save me from a seeming discourtesy. 

On leaving the train, I secured a 
donkey at a khan near by. The little beast 
proved of value, for the monastery is 
3,000 feet above sea-level, in the face of 
a large cliff. 

Soon I caught my first glimpse of the 
monks’ home, apparently rising out of a 
leafy bower and plastered against the 
bare gray rock of the mountain. The 
winding path the donkey followed was 
not a little romantic, at times completely 
shut in by trees and shrubs, and later 
emerging and affording an extensive pan- 
orama. The tiny brook that crossed the 
path again and again, or the several 
brooks, I know not which, made pleasant 
music in a country where the soil is rocky 
and the rainfall slight. 


IBRAHIM PASHA OVERREACHED 
HIMSELF 


HOW 


The path as it approached the monas- 
tery became steeper and appealed strongly 
to the imagination; for this was the spot 
where the great Turkish commander, 
Ibrahim Pasha, had been kept so long at 
bay. During the war of independence, 
nearly a century ago, it was the monks 
from this vicinity who had first urged the 
people to throw off the hated yoke. 

Naturally when Ibrahim Pasha had re- 
conquered much of the Peloponnesus he 
thought in passing he would take the 
monastery of Megaspelzon and possess 
himself of its treasures; but the warlike 
monks, re-enforced by a few Pallikars, 
placed two cannon on the cliff above and 
effectually barred the progress of the 


or 


Turkish army up the steep and narrow 
path. 

However, Ibrahim, being a man of 
iron, was not to be thwarted. After 
spending some weeks in vainly trying to 
reach the monastery by the path, he sent 
a force which with great labor succeeded 
in gaining the heights above. One can 
fancy what then must have been the 
terror of the women and children who 
had taken refuge with the monks and the 
exultation of Ibrahim. 

But a surprise came when his men be- 
gan to roll down rocks from their vantage 
point and discovered that the monastery 
clings so closely to the overhanging cliff 
that the huge missiles fell wide of their 
mark. Doubtless as the boulders went 
crashing down the mountain-side they 
drove more than one startled and angry 
Turk to shelter. 


A HOSPITABLE WELCOME 


As I approached by the path, I came 
up directly underneath the monastery, 
whose huge wall rose 50 or 60 feet, with 
six stories of wood superimposed on this. 
A large bell rang to announce my arrival, 
and many a curious head peered down 
on me. 

I slid off my donkey on reaching a 
platform before the monastery, and a 
lean, hungry-looking youth, bristling with 
a four days’ beard, took my bag and led 
me up the stone steps into a building 
adjoining the monastery. The Nenodo- 
chos, a monk whose duty it is to provide 
entertainment for pilgrims and visitors, 
greeted me and soon had brought good 
cheer in coffee, Turkish style—muddy 
with pulverized grounds and very sweet. 
Most travelers are fond of it. 

“Anglos?” he asked. 

“Ochi | No], Amerikanos.” It was not 
a long conversation, but both of us were 
pleased at having exchanged an idea and 
by common consent lapsed into silence. 

The large room into which I had been 
shown on arrival had eight coverless 
couches, which I supposed I was to share 
for the night with six Greek pilgrims, 
who had come to this their holy place. 
My supper was served in this room, but 
not with that of the pilgrims. I feasted 
in the august company of my own soli- 


Photo by Carroll S$. Alden 


NEAR VIEW OF THE MONASTERY, SHOWING THE HUGE FOUNDATION WALL AND THE 
WOODEN STRUCTURES BUILT ABOVE IT 


tary self, banqueting on lamb (pot roast), 
rye bread, ripe olives, goats’ milk cheese, 
and red wine. 

Later I was conducted to another and 
smaller building, placed over the monks’ 
little terraced gardens, on the steep slope 
of the mountain. As I discovered, I was 
the guest of honor and had a whole house 
to myself. 


HOSPITALITY A NECESSITY, NOT A VIRTUE 


Hospitality is a virtue common to 
Greek monasteries, doubly to be appreci- 
ated since the inns are wretched and in 
the villages are often entirely lacking. 
This hospitality a century ago was not 
a virtue, but a necessity, for the monas- 
teries had thus to satisfy the Turkish 
government to avoid being plundered. 
Happily the tradition persists long after 
the requirement has ceased. 

The lean, unshaven youth who had first 
met me—he was not a monk, but acted 
as porter and kitchen boy—said some- 


thing which I guessed to be the reassur- 
ing information that his name was Geor- 
gios, and that, having served as butler in 
an Englishman’s family in Athens, he 
could talk English; the latter confidence 
he communicated with great pride. 

I promptly hailed him joyfully as a gift 
of the gods, but our friendship was dis- 
appointing. Snobbishness, particularly in 
the wilderness, is not an American vice, 
yet I could not find that the ex-butler 
and I had much in common. 

My objection to Georgios began early, 
as I inquired how many monks were then 
living at the monastery and received the 
answer, “Yes, oh yes.” 

“But how many, how many, monks are 
there here?’ I asked, speaking very 
slowly. 

“Yes, yes ohuyes: | 

I made one more attempt, reversing 
my question, and in conclusion asked if 
there were “50, 100, how many?” 

He hesitated for a moment, looked 


316 


Photo by Carroll S$. Alden 


THE GUEST-MASTER, OR XENODOCHOS, WHO PROVIDES FOR THE ENTERTAINMENT OF 
STRANGERS 
“The Xenodochos, a monk whose duty it is to provide entertainment for pilgrims and 


visitors, greeted me and soon had brought good cheer in coffee, Turkish style—muddy with 
pulverized grounds and very sweet” (see text, page 315). 


(Sebsosud sxopiess) eyoGas{sieye SULpaISON Ss Jadee] Sov 
snorsijat yO AIOWIOp yeas, & se HW pezitojowsreyo [fom ‘gSQ1 ul uowjedse 
NWO JH NI DNIGTIING AHL ‘SNHGUVD GHOVIUAL SHNOW HAL 


SoJ{ Peysia om ‘osKAA SeUIOYT, IIS ‘JoIsIUull YSHtid V,, 


SISHOAD GHYONOH YHL YOd SUAIAVNG SCMOMIV WA 
uaPIV *S [10HB) &q 0304 


Photo by Carroll S. Alden 


MONKS WITH THEIR BREAD AND WINE: NOTE WINE-SKINS HANGING ON THE WALLS 


puzzled, and I became hopeful as I saw 
calm following the severe mental effort; 
but his answer was the inevitable “Yes, 
yes indeed; oh yes, oh yes.” 


WHY A SLEEPING-BAG IS 


GREECE 


The bed in the house assigned me had 
for covering a blanket and one sheet; 
the latter had grown gray with service, 
but it compared favorably with accommo- 
dations elsewhere ; for outside of Athens 
and three or four other places frequented 
by tourists, beds in Greece have a bad 
reputation. Whether in hotel or in pri- 
vate house, they are commonly possessed 
by small devils. However, a light sleep- 
ing-bag I had with me kept out intruders, 
and I have only pleasant memories of 
slumbers at Megaspelzon. 

The very atmosphere of the place is 
sleep, and with my windows flung wide, 
admitting the cooling breath of the moun- 
tain, I did not waken till 7 the next morn- 
ing, when there resounded the pounding 


A COMFORT IN 


of a mallet on a heavy vibrant board— 
the summons to prayers. 

It was Sunday morning, and the half 
dozen pilgrims who had spent the night 
at the monastery had been joined by 30 
peasants from the country near by. The 
chapel, 30 or 40 feet square, was crowded 
near the door and the people were stand- 
ing. ‘This, the nucleus of the monastery, 
is, as of old, in a cave, only the chapel is 
so well walled in and roofed over that | 
did not at first notice the peculiarity of 
its construction. 

A hundred candles were burning, and 
the richly jeweled hearts and the some- 
what garish ornaments with which the 
altar screen and walls were studded 
caught up the gleams. The service to the 
stranger was dreary and monotonous, 
nor did the harsh, droning voice of the 
monk who furnished the music make it 
less so. 

There is at Megaspeleon an object 
greatly venerated by all devout Greeks, a 
painting almost black because of its age 


319 


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-wnodi19 swes dy} Jopu 
SulUJOW oY} J0F dn sui0d pey OYM ajdood pue susjistid ay} persyyes | ysejyeoiq JoiFV,, 


paseajd se ataM Woy} JO SOY] ‘Qanqoid @ 1Of IdIAJosS 


dnowd AHL JO WALNAD AHL NI INV 
uePTV *S [10118D Aq or0ud 


SVad AHL JO ANNLSOO AAILVN AHL ALON : NOW'TAdSVOUW LV SUINVSVad GNV SWIMDTId FO dNOW) V 


alin. pb. Xa Sak oo 


Photo by Carroll S. Alden 


A MONK RETURNING FROM WORK ON THE MOUNTAIN FARM 


and its exposure for centuries to smoky 
candles.- It is of the Virgin and Child, 
and is ascribed to Saint Luke, for tradi- 
tion says that Luke was a painter as well 
as a physician, and that this picture he 
made from life. 

Some of the Greeks affirm that the 
images in this marvelous picture spoke 
plainly to them during the war of inde- 
pendence, weeping at times of defeat 
and encouraging them with the promise 
of ultimate victory. It is certain that the 
painting is very old; Murray in his 
Handbook dates it from the 8th or oth 
century. 

After the service a man whose duties 
were about the same as Georgios’ showed 
me over the monastery. As he was not 
an accomplished linguist like Georgios, 
we got on well together. He understood 
my explanation of what my camera was 
for, and he took me down long passages, 
dark as night, past the monks’ cells, up 
a crazy, creaking stairway that uttered a 
long complaint of old age and weariness, 
until we reached the very top. 


321 


A young monk who had one of the 
better rooms happened to pass, and my 
cicerone induced him to play the host. 
Dionysos (the young monk had the most 
pagan name) was scarcely more than a 
boy, perhaps 17, and his ‘beard—the in- 
variable sign of the Greek priest and his 
chief pride—was just beginning to ap- 
pear. His cheeks were thin and lacking 
in color, and his long hair gave him al- 
most a feminine appearance. His coun- 
tenance expressed, as I fancied, some- 
thing of sadness and disappointment, but 
as I told him I wanted a picture of him 
and his room it lighted up responsively. 

I saw him for only a few moments, 
but if the first impression is to be relied 
on the lad possessed rare qualities; he 
needed only inspiration and a great pur- 
pose to bring them out. 


THE WINE TUNS OF THE MONASTERY 
Having been to the summit of the 
monastery, we next proceeded to the very 
depths, catching a glimpse in passing of 
the library, a small room with one 


Photo by Carroll S. Alden 


DIONYSOS IN HIS CELL 


gloomy window, as I judged but little 
used; but if the monks have nothing of 
a library it may be remarked that books 
and learning are not their specialty. Af- 
ter groping along a pitch-dark passage 
we descended into a huge, cobwebby cav- 
ern in the mountain, where water was 
dripping in a dozen places from the rock 
ceiling and the sides. 

Here I saw what certainly could not 
be regarded as commonplace, for there 
were gigantic tuns of wine that would 
have been a credit to Heidelberg. It is 
in their wine cellar that the monks of 
Megaspeleeon excel, and as I watched 
two monks who had brought the pilgrims 
down here and heard them explaining 
what I could easily guess was the extra- 
ordinary capacity of the tuns and the ex- 
cellent quality of the wines, I observed a 
flash of pride and enthusiasm such as 
nothing else had elicited. 

On the stairs we had met the keeper 
of the cellar—a rough, square-built fel- 
low—carrying on his shoulder a wine- 


bo 


skin which he had just filled and was 
taking up for the morning’s distribution. 
In the hall above, where there hung a 
row of 15 or 20 wine-skins, old and new, 
the wine was doled out, each monk re- 
ceiving his pitcher full and also a loaf of 
rye bread. 

The Greeks eat scarcely half what the 
northern European nations require. The 
11 o'clock breakfast was the first meal 
of the day, and at the monastery con- 
sisted of the same articles as I ate for 
supper the preceding evening. While for 
this vicinity it was a sumptuous repast, 
it would have seemed like Spartan sim- 
plicity to a hungry German. 

When breakfast was about to be 
served I made a move to join the pil- 
grims at a large table, for 1 sought inti- 
mate acquaintance with their life. But 
no, the Xenodochos was a stickler on 
class distinction, and again I had a room 
and a table all to myself, where I might 
eat with great dignity and loneliness. 


THE OLDEST MONASTERY IN GREECE By 


CLASS DISTINCTIONS 


After breakfast I gathered the pil- 
grims and people who had come up for 
the morning service for a picture. Most 
of them were as pleased as children, and 
they joked and jostled one another as 
they took their places, as any American 
holiday crowd would do under the same 
circumstances. But again I ran counter 
to prejudices based on class distinctions ; 
three women, somewhat better dressed 
than the others, together with the aristo- 
cratic Georgios, unmoved by my excla- 
mation, “Photographia!” refused to be 
taken with the peasants. However, they 
were not nearly so interesting and pic- 
turesque as their humbler countrymen, 
and their absence meant no loss. 

It seems almost ungrateful for one 
who has enjoyed the hospitality of the 
monks of Megaspelzon to speak a word 
in criticism, yet if the truth be told they 
are an idle lot and have a bad reputation 
for honesty. 

A striking commentary on the place 
and the people is that I found each of 
their little terraced gardens strongly 
hedged in or fenced off from the main 
path and from the neighboring gardens. 
They were to be entered only by gates 
and the gates were padlocked. Similarly, 
even in remote parts of the monastery, 
the rooms were securely locked. What 
must be the conditions when the faithful 
have to take such extreme care to guard 
their possessions from their own num- 
ber! 


THE NEGLECTED STATE OF MEGASPELZON 


Further, the shabby, neglected state of 
the monastery gives the visitor an un- 


AND PHOTOGRAPHY 


bo 
Co 


pleasant impression. <A century ago, 
when the monks were under the scrutiny 
of the Turks, there was reason for their 
simulating poverty; but now the ruinous 
condition of their main building, in sharp 
contrast to their reputed wealth, gives 
their indifference the character of sac- 
rilege. 

A British minister, Sir Thomas Wyse, 
who visited Megaspeleeon in 1858, well 
characterized it as a “great dormitory of 
religious commonplace, sleeper succeed- 
ing to sleeper.” Their building may be 
taken as an index of the general life of 
the monastery; all is today much as it 
has been for centuries, while the sun, the 
rain, and the winter storm have slowly 
carried on their work of destruction, 
making no slight havoc on the miserable 
Ww ooden upper structure, in the repair of 
which the inactive monks have employed 
only the merest makeshifts. 

On retracing the path leading to the 
valley, as I turned and caught my last 
glimpse of the monastery, in the distance 
no longer dirty and dilapidated, but thor- 
oughly picturesque as it hung half way 
up the cliff like a huge swallow’s nest, I 
could not help thinking what a miserable 
life is that of the monks of Megaspelzon. 
They send out no missionaries or preach- 
ers to the neglected people; they go 
through their services with considerable 
indifference; they have no interest in 
study; they write no books, nor do they, 
like certain orders in the Roman Church, 
care for the sick and the poor. 

What a living death! Dionysos’ pallid 
face, his sad, yearning expression, and 
his quick hungry response to a few words 
of interest still linger in my memory. 


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324 


MYSTERIOUS TEMPLES OF THE JUNGLE 


The Prehistoric Ruins of Guatemala 
By W. F. Sanps 


ForRMERLY AMERICAN MINISTER TO GUATEMALA 


ITH the opening of the Quiri- 

\\ gua ruins in Guatemala a most 

important addition is_ being 
made to the material now available for 
study of the races which once occupied 
the low, hot coast land between Copan, 
in Honduras, through the Guatemala 
littoral, Petén, and Quintana Roo to 
Yucatan. 

Master races they were as were once 
the Brahmans in Indo-China. They con- 
quered in easy battle the fever-ridden 
natives, and lived thenceforth upon the 
country and its population. 

They taught them nothing of their 
higher civilization, but ground them back 
to the earth, until inbreeding, idleness, 
and fever took their toll, and in their 
turn they were overthrown and perished, 
leaving nothing but the elaborate monu- 
ments and massive buildings which, cov- 
ered with the mould of centuries of quick 
springing and quick decaying tropical 
forest, form the “Indian mounds” so 
plentiful in this region. 


A RACE OF PRIESTLY CONQUERORS 


The theory of an alien sacerdotal aris- 
tocracy, claiming divine descent because 
of superior development, and ruling an 
untutored conquered race, while it offers 
no suggestion as to origin, may at least 
explain why no memory of their rule 
remains among the inhabitants of these 
regions today. Knowledge of every kind 
was kept from the subject races, and with 
the downfall the slave fled from the an- 
cient holy places, and the symbols of ar- 
rogance, cruelty, and power were shunned 
for centuries as an abomination. 

It is not necessary to hold with Bras- 
seur de Bourbourg that all these coun- 
tries (the “Hinterland” of Atlantis) were 
submerged when the island-continent was 
destroyed, although his theory is im- 
mensely attractive, and that after remain- 
ing under the sea for an unknown period 
they rose once more and were peopled 
from the highlands. 


It is simpler to imagine, as long as we 
have nothing definite to go on and one 
man’s tale is as good as another’s, that 
some such catastrophe took place as is 
so charmingly suggested in Sir Hugh 
Clifford’s “Tragedy of Angkor,” and that 
the degenerate rulers of the coast were 
shown suddenly to their subjects by some 
attack of the hardier mountain tribes to 
be no longer irresistible, no longer divine, 
but only very feeble men, and so were 
wiped out as utterly and effectually as 
would have been the first weak settlement 
on our own shores without succor from 
the mother country. 


AN ENVOY WHO FAILED TO FIND HIS GOAL, 


Perhaps none of the ruins of America 
is more accessible now to Americans 
than those of Quirigua; and yet, though 
frequently visited, they are among the 
least known. 

John Stevens, in his gossipy ‘Travels 
in Central America, etc.,” in 1839, has 
left an excellent account of both Quirigua 
and its neighbor, Copan, during his wan- 
derings in search of a Federal govern- 
ment sufficiently stable to receive his cre- 
dentials as American Minister. 

Failing in the object of his official mis- 
sion, he returned north through the 
Guatemalan highlands, visiting also the 
ruined cities of Quiché, and so up the 
ridge of the Cordillera, through Chiapas 
to Palenque and down to Chichen, Itza, 
and Uxmal, in Yucatan—a wonderfully 
beautiful journey and not in any way 
difficult for a saddle-hardened rider. 

Stevens left a valuable record; but his 
real treasure (aside from the personal 
reminiscence of the astonishing Carrera, 
who from a particularly brutal swineherd 
became a demi-god and one of the ablest 
rulers Guatemala has known) is the 
series of admirable drawings by Cather- 
wood, who accompanied him, of all the 
monuments in both Quirigua and Copan, 
which remain unexcelled even by pho- 


tography. 


ut 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Cu. 


THE BEAUTIFUL SITUATION OF QUIRIGUA 


“The ruins lie on low, flat land, flooded and renewed each rainy season by the Motagua’s 


overflow—rich, 


inexhaustible alluvial soil, and ideal for banana-growing. 


A more inspiring 


spot can hardly be imagined. Under the immense ceiba and other coast trees (7o and 80 
feet to the lowest branches, each as big as a 30-year maple and hung with orchids or Spanish 


moss) has grown up a thicket of palms and fern trees, forming, 
cleared, arching forest galleries impossible to describe” 


Many travelers have passed through 
since the completion of the railway ; but, 
with the exception of Maudslay, none 
has attempted to give more than such a 
description as I am now writing. At 
present all men are equal, for no one has 
succeeded in deciphering the historical 
writings of Quirigua. 


THE SITE OF QUIRIGUA CLEARED 


In the spring of 1910 the tract of land 
surrounding the monuments, on the left 
bank of the Motagua River, was opened 
for planting by the United Fruit Com- 
pany of Boston, and a park left about 
the principal ruins. The company gen- 
erously supplied labor and many other 
facilities for clearing this park of under- 


when the underbrush is 
(see esate page 331). 


brush and cleaning the stones, so that at 
last an organized study was made possi- 
ble, under the guidance and supervision 
of Prof. Edgar L. Hewett (Director of 
the School of American Archeology, at 
Santa Fé, New Mexico) and of Mr. Syl- 
vanus Griswold Morley (see article by 
Mr. Morley, pages 339 to 360). 

Both of these gentlemen have spent 
many months in exploration and detailed 
examination, and under Mr. Hewett’s 
able direction the institute has an oppor- 
tunity for study hardly paralleled in the 
history of American archeological re- 
search. 

Quirigua should become the starting 
point, the workshop, and the school for 
beginners in this branch until the gradual 


326 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. 


GREAT BANANA TREES NEAR QUIRIGUA 


These banana trees grow to the height of 4o feet, attaining this growth in a period 
of 18 months. So rich is the alluvial soil of the plain upon which Quirigua stands that the 
vegetation here grows at the incredible rate of one-half inch every 24 hours. 


528 


development of the country makes or- 
ganized extension possible into Petén 
without the hardships and risks to health 
and life to which sojourners in that beau- 
tiful but treacherous country are now 
subject. Quirigua is free from all these 
drawbacks, and nothing could be easier 
than its approach. 

The steamer that brings the traveler 
from New Orleans is only one entire 
day out of sight of land. The run down 
the Mexican coast and along the cays 
and islets of British Honduras is beauti- 
ful, with tiny villages white against the 
forest line and the ‘“Cockscomb” jagged 
range stretching blue in the distance. 
From Belize, the capital of the crown 
colony, it is only a few hours to the 
Guatemalan border and to the mouth of 
the Rio Dulce. 

This historic waterway (Cortez road 
on his superhuman raid from Mexico 
City to the Honduras coast) opens deep 
between miles of high wood-hidden cliffs 
into a vast tide lagoon stretching 30 miles 
toward the mountains of Vera Paz, “The 
Land of True Peace” of Las Casas, con- 
quered by him and his Dominican friars 
when years of fierce fighting had resulted 
in unvarying disaster and defeat to the 
Spanish troops at the hands of the war- 
like Indians. 


WHAT THE COAST TOWNS ARE LIKE 


Livingston, a Carib town, lies clean 
and white on a low bluff at the entrance 
bar, and just opposite, a few miles away 
by sea, is the real port (Puerto Barrios) 
more important, but far less sightly, than 
its neighbor. 

Livingston receives the coffee trade 
from the German plantations of Vera 
Paz, does a bit of “free trade” on its 
own account, filibusters and fishes. The 
soul of the Spanish Main still lives there, 
and all the game fish of Tampico or 
Catalina Island are to be found about 
Puerto Cortez, the next little town, be- 
_ yond the Motagua River in Honduras, 
or in the great lagoon above the shady 
stretches of the Rio Dulce. 

Puerto Barrios has a railroad termi- 
nal, tank and turn-table, a customs shed, 
a group of buildings belonging to the 
United Fruit Company, a barrack for 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


a half company of Carib infantry, and 
a rotting wooden hotel, all set in a swamp, 
bridged from house to house by board 
walks, and made altogether unendurable 
by mosquitoes. Fortunately one is not 
obliged to remain in this singularly unat- 
tractive place, for the daily train to the 
capital starts as soon as the passengers 
are through the customs, and, long before 
the sun is high, has plunged into a jungle 
so thick that a dozen paces from the rail- 
road embankment the sun is invisible. 

This dense brush is filled with game: 
the small deer common to America and 
Asia, herds of peccary (the small wild 
pig always cited as a model of fierceness 
in all the good old books of travel and 
adventure of our boyhood), tapir, an oc- 
casional jaguar, and birds of all kinds, 
some related to our own game birds. 

Monkeys were common enough, but 
the natives say that they died by the 
hundred, not a great many years ago, of 
smallpox. I do not vouch for the diag- 
nosis, but I always visit the jungle with 
a receptive mind. 

A few miles beyond this forest prime- 
val villages begin to line the track, which 
now follows the Motagua River; groups 
of huts built of four walls of split bam- 
boo stems set upright in the earth, with 
a floor of split bamboo laid cross-wise 
and a roof of palm-leaf thatch; some of 
them are set on the damp and soggy 
ground and some slightly raised to allow 
for drainage. 

Among these appear others more tidily 
and securely, built of whitewashed plank, 
inhabited by negroes who come here from 
the West Indies, Belize, and our own 
Southern States, attracted by the good 
pay offered by the fruit company and the 
railroad. A fair sprinkling of escaped 
criminals and “bad men” from New Or- 
leans gives to all our American negroes 
an undeservedly evil reputation on the 
coast. 


THE GREAT BANANA PLANTATIONS 


These villages cultivate a little corn, 
a little fruit, and some gaudy flowers 
about the huts; but in spite of any at- 
tempt at neatness or decoration, they 


convey only a strong impression of im- | 


permanency. Along this part of the river 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. . 


A FALLING MONUMENT 


These great monoliths, some of which are as much as 26 feet high, were quarried from 
the foothills two miles west of the city, and were probably transported thither on rafts 
during the rainy season, when the greater part of the valley is submerged by the overflow 
of the Motagua River (see text, page 354). 


WELL-PRESERVED HIEROGLYPHICS 


“Each figure is crowned with a tall feather head-dress; is belted with a short embroid- 
ered skirt like the sacrificial apron worn by Korean eunuchs in the Heaven sacrifice—naked, 
with heavy ornaments at wrist and ankle. On the sides of the stones are columns of glyphs, 
until now undeciphered, but nearly all plain and well preserved, and, when the clue shall have 
been found, easily legible” (see text, page 331). 


330 


MYSTERI 


between the bank and a ridge of hills, 
covered partly with tropical growth and 
partly with sickly pines, the banana plan- 
tations of the Boston company cover 
18,000 acres, mostly developed in the last 
five years. 

In place of the jungle belt, through 
which I passed on my first visit to 
Guatemala, are well-ordered sections or 
“farms” tapped by spur lines of the rail- 
way, each fed in its turn by Decauville 
roads. Each farm is overlooked by the 
superintendent’s house, built like those 
designed for the Panama Canal work- 
ers, well above the ground, with broad 
porches, screened and mosquito-proof. 

The company has of late preferred 
young college graduates as farm super- 
intendents, and the station name often 
indicates the founder’s school. In the 
center of all, set in a too-luxuriant rose 
garden, surrounded by labor villages, 
shops, storehouses, offices, and “bach- 
elors’ quarters,” lies the big, comfortable 
house of the young manager, under 
whom this extraordinary growth has been 
attained. 

A few miles beyond, 57 from Puerto 
Barrios and 2% from the railroad, to- 
ward the river, lie the ruins of Quirigua, 
from the beginning of last year open 
country like that below, planted with 
banana “eyes” like a vast potato field, 
with a lively camp of some 1,800 la- 
borers preparing still more acres. 


THE BEAUTIFUL SITUATION OF QUIRIGUA'! 


The ruins lie on low, flat land, flooded 
and renewed each rainy season by the 
Motagua’s overflow—rich, inexh raustible 
alluvial soil, and ideal for banana-grow- 
ing. A more inspiring spot can hardly 
be imagined. Under the immense ceiba 
and other coast trees (70 and 8o feet to 
the lowest branches, each as big as a 30- 
year maple and hung with orchids or 
Spanish moss) has grown up a thicket 
of palms and fern trees, forming, when 
the underbrush is cleared, arching forest 
galleries impossible to describe. 

From the ceiba and mahogany trees 
drop long, leafless, snake-like ‘black vine 
stems—one, the “water-vine,” containing 
a quart of clear, pure water to every 
foot, which spurts forth in a refreshing 


ODS TEMPLES OF 


THE JUNGLE 331 


stream when cut. It is a real, thirst- 
quenching water, drawn up from the soil 
and filtered through the pores of the 
plant; not a sap, as one might suppose. 
As is generally the case, this vine grows 
thickest where the surface water is least 
drinkable. 

Through the arches of the palms sud- 
denly appears a group of mounds, still 
overgrown with masses of foliage, and 
beyond these an avenue of great stones, 
carved monoliths, leading to some—as 
yet—invisible altar or temple. From each 
pillar stares—impassive, gloomy, or sul- 
len—a gigantic face. Each figure is 
crowned with a tall feather head-dress; 
is belted with a short embroidered skirt 
like the sacrificial apron worn by Korean 
eunuchs in the Heaven sacrifice—naked, 
with heavy ornaments at wrist and ankle. 

On the sides of the stones are columns 
of glyphs, until now undeciphered, but 
nearly all plain and well preserved, and, 
when the clue shall have been found, 
easily legible. The faces are well carved, 
of a heavy, full type, with thick lips, 
narrow eyes, and thin, carefully pointed 
Egyptian beards, like the Sargent Pha- 
raoh in the Boston library. Several show 
a remarkably cruel strength, which 
lessens with each set of pillars to a 
weak, purposeless, degenerate type 
loose - lipped, chinless, and imbecile. 
Among them is to be found the most 
perfect pieces of carving I have yet seen 
among American antiquities (see pages 


333 and 342). 


CENTERS OF 


A GREAT CIVILIZATION 


It is not to be supposed that either this 
place or Copan was an isolated group of 


temples. It is more likely that they were 
centers, and that more similar, if less 
perfect, remains will be uncovered in the 


near future in the course of deforestation 
preliminary to banana planting. 

There is no reason to suppose that the 
aboriginal dwelling was in any way su- 
perior to the bamboo and thatch struc- 
tures I have described above—than which 
nothing could well be more perishable. 
The Motagua Valley and adjacent terri- 
tory may ‘have been and probably was 
densely populated about these sacrificial 
foci; but with the overthrow and savage 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. 


A MAYA CALENDAR 


At the close of each hotun, or 1800-day period, at Quirigua, one of these monuments was 
erected. The hieroglyphics carved on the sides probably record the principal events of the 
corresponding period in each case. 


a 
—- . - 


= aes 
Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. 


THE CURIOUS EGYPTIAN TYPE 


“The faces are well carved, of a heavy, full type, with thick lips, narrow eyes, and thin, 
carefully pointed Egyptian beards, like the Sargent Pharaoh in the Boston library. Several 
show a remarkably cruel strength, which lessens with each set of pillars to a weak, purpose- 
less, degenerate type—loose-lipped, chinless, and imbecile” (see text, page 331). 


SUNAWNOVUL ONILSHYALNI OM, 


aArvapleA Ag oJ0U J 


MYSTERIOUS TEMPLES OF THE JUNGLE O00 


annihilation of the last of the priest- 
kings and the flight of their emancipated 
but terrified subjects to the higher valley 
of the same river about Gualan and 
Zacapa, no trace would remain of any 
but the most substantial buildings, the 
temples and palaces. “Indian mounds” 
are frequently reported in all this region 
and have been known for many years to 
the adventurous spirits who have pros- 
pected for gold, railroads, mahogany, 
game, or “treasure” in these uninhabited 
forests. 

These lie, according to such statements, 
along the river and in the hills toward 
the Rio Dulce and the lagoon, with a 
general trend from Copan to Petén. 
Some lie in the upper Motagua Valley 
as far as the foot-hills above Zacapa. 
The railroad crosses the Motagua a few 
miles above Quirigua, forced to the right 
bank by the line of low hills it has fol- 
lowed from the coast. 

Almost from the crossing the coun- 
try begins to change. It becomes less 
swampy; the river bed grows rocky and 
no longer flows through deep banks of 
black earth; it acquires the greenish tinge 
of mountain streams; and the foliage on 
the banks, while not less thick, is drier 
and shows a less feverish green. 

Above Gualan (perched picturesquely 
ona hilltop) the valley opens into a rain- 
less, dusty, cactus-grown plain like north- 
ern Mexico or Arizona, surrounded by 
high bare mountains and watered by two 
fine rivers—the Motagua still and an 
affluent, the Zacapa. It is well popu- 
lated; corn and cotton grow well, and 
cattle appear to prosper. 

Yellow fever, having once got a hold 
upon this region, has become endemic, 
but I know of no place whence it might 
more easily be banished, and, cleaned 
thoroughly, these towns should be as 
healthy as any. 

The inhabitants are of the “Ladino” 
class, the Spanish-Indian hybrid, which 
has, in the course of centuries, become 
a fixed type. They have a good idea of 
the possible value of their land, dry and 
dusty as it is, and will not sell at any 
price; nor are they in error. Barrage 
and pumping works installed in the Za- 
capa River—far beyond the power of 


native capital, it is true, but of easy con- 
struction for some American syndicate— 
would make of this plain the richest 
sugar region in the world. Cane needs 
heat and unlimited water, but neither 
wind nor rain. The burning Zacapa 
plain is sheltered from both, and has ar 
inexhaustible supply of water from the 
rivers, 


A PREHISTORIC MINING CENTER 


There is every indication that this re- 
gion was once as thickly peopled as any 
part of the country. Records of the mis- 
sionaries who came after the Spanish 
conquest tell of large towns here and 
flourishing villages, and it may be that 
gold or silver workings gave to the over- 
shadowing range the name it bears, of 
“Mountains of the Mines.” Whether or 
not this upper valley of the Motagua was 
peopled from below might still be de- 
termined from the relics which remain. 

These investigations, however, should 
be undertaken promptly before the de- 
velopment of all this country by invest- 
ment of American capital and intensive 
cultivation has so altered its face that all 
record is lost. A connection between the 
upper and the lower Motagua Valley— 
that is, between the Zacapa Valley and 
the coast—seems to me to be more logical 
and natural than a relation between this 
region and the highlands. 

Of the plateau cities destroyed by 
Alvarado sufficient record is still avail- 
able to make comparatively easy an ex- 
haustive study of the Quiché, Kakchiqueél, 
and other tribes or nations of the moun- 
tains and of the Pacific coast. Rulers 
and people seem to have been of the same 
stock, and after their overthrow by the 
Spaniards and their Tlascalan allies, the 
survivors did not disappear; they rose 
again and again and fought their con- 
querors as long as there remained a chief 
to lead them. 


DO THE INDIANS PRESERVE THEIR 
TRADITIONS ? 


The traditions of the ancient people, 
their religion, and their feeling of na- 
tionality may still live in the heart of the 
Quiché Mountains, and might be easily 
studied by one who would devote a num- 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. 


STELA F, IS ONE OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL OF ALL THE HOTUN- 
MARKERS AT QUIRIGUA 


It is 25 feet high above ground and is elaborately carved from top to bottom. It records 
the date 9.16.10.0.0.1 Ahau 3 Zip of Maya chronology, or approximately 490 Ava 


THIS MONUMENT, 


336 


am S 


Photo by Valdeavellano & Co. 
SIDE VIEW OF THE MONUMENT CALLED STELA K 
The hieroglyphic inscription shown here records the date 9.18.15.0.0.3 Ahau, 3 Yax of 
Maya chronology, or approximately 535 A. D. Stela K was the last of the great monuments 


to be erected at Quirigua, the following hotun, or 5-year period (540 A. D.) being marked 
by the erection of Temple A. 


337 


338 


ber cf years of his life to acquiring their 
language and observing their customs and 
their prejudices, and who would make it 
his first care to treat them like human 
beings rather than savages (which, dis- 
tinctly, they are not), or like beasts of 
burden. 
from their martyrdom of centuries; since 
Bartolomé de las Casas they have had no 
protector. The republic has done nothing 
for the Indian, yet they are the finest 
stock in the country and in them lies the 
future of Guatemala. 

To help him the student will find many 
treasures in the government archives and 
valuable historical documents in private 
collections. Much has found its way out 
of the country, and it is to be hoped that 
it is in the hands of some one who will 
realize the importance to history of these 
old manuscript books and records and 
will give it to the world. 

The climate during the dry season (on 
the high plateaus, from October or No- 
vember to March) is delightful; the high 
mountain valleys, pine and corn clad, 
with their soft-toned, well-shaded vil- 
lages and towns; the true hospitality and 
gentleness of the people (once one has 
gained their confidence and affection) 
make an ideal setting for a winter’s work. 

The roads are only navigable for bul- 
lock-carts? 1¢ is: true, but a mule or-a 
- good native pony will pass anywhere, in 
spite of bottomless ruts and spring holes. 
With a good animal, road traveling in 
Guatemala is, in my experience, unsur- 
passed for beauty except by the moun- 
tain paths of Korea. 


They are not emancipated yet 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


There is also a dry season on the coast 
of which advantage may be taken, and 
will be taken, I hope, for several years 
to come, to complete the Quirigua work. 
When the mud has dried and the ever- 
vigorous underbrush has been cut from 
the park surrounding the monuments, a 
few weeks spent among them is not only 
not dangerous, but not unpleasant and 
would certainly be immensely profitable. 


EXPLORING, BUT IN TOUCH WITH 
CIVILIZATION 


As I have attempted to point out, the 
student is not lost in primeval jungle, but 
works near a camp which is the center 
and headquarters of the United Fruit 
Company’s operations. He has but to 
follow their axemen every morning as 
they open new territory, and is at all 
times within easy range of tobacco, clean 
linen, magazines, good food, and, at the 
worst, of pills, American doctors, and 
hospitals. 

With the cooperation of the govern- 
ment of Guatemala lies open to the In- 
stitute a work of vast importance to 
American archeology, under conditions— 
I was about to say—of luxury, and I 
think that the expression is well justified 
if comparison be made with any other 


American work of this character. 


Nothing should be spared, in funds or 
men, to make Mr. Hewett’s undertaking 
a complete success and establish the work 
in Guatemala upon as permanent a basis 
as that of San Juan “Teotihuacan,sam 
Mexico. 


EXCAVATIONS AT QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA 


By SyLvanus 


ASSISTANT DIRECTOR QUIRIGUA EXPEDITION, 


HE ruins of Quirigua are located 
in the Republicof Guatemala, Cen- 
tral America, 57 miles from the 
Caribbean Sea. The heart of this ancient 
city, its civic and religious center (see 
map on page 349), 
acres, surrounding which on every side 
for a distance of several miles were the 
dwellings of the common people. 
Quirigua was one of the older centers 
of the great Maya civilization, which 
flourished in southern Mexico, Guate- 
mala, and northern Honduras during the 
first 15 centuries of the Christian Era. 
Judging from the dated monuments (see 
page 337) which were erected in its sev- 
eral courts and plazas, this ancient Amer- 
ican metropolis was abandoned during 
the first half of the 6th century A. D. 


THE FIRST STEP IN EXCAVATING TEMPLE A WAS TO REMOVE THE 


GRISWOLD 


covered about 75. 


Mor.Ley 


I9gi2 


Toward the close of the 6th century 
the Mayas moved out from the older 
centers of their civilization in the south 
and migrated northward into Yucatan. 
Here in the stress of colonizing a new 
and unfamiliar land the remembrance of 
their former homes gradually faded, until 
Quirigua, along w ith many another south- 
ern city, became only a memory, a tra- 
dition. Finally, long before the discov- 
ery of America, even the tradition of its 
former existence had passed from the 
minds of men. 


QUIRIGUA LOST FOR CENTURIES 


Hernando Cortez, the conqueror of 
Mexico, must have passed within a few 
miles of Quirigua in 1525, on his memo- 
rable march to the Golfo Dulce, but he 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


SURFACE STONE 


A line’of native workmen are here shown passing the fallen building blocks down to the dump 


car. 


3539 


An assistant stands at the car to see that no sculptured stones are thrown away 


ers “ptt oath ty AL45db4e{ = FUIUods A he ed L eles Tai = ¥ Daley a 


-1oduil A1oA B ske[d aensel ayy “ydessojyoyd SurAuvdwioosor oy} Ul AjsvepD AsoA svodde Soj[-910} SULME]D pur “Yynou sujuMeA “AO 


MAOLL NVOIMAWV YO “AvAOVE AHL SLNASHNdHA “D HdYONOOZ SV NMONY ‘INANOANOW SIH 
‘Od Y ourypaavaple A Aq ojoyg 


EXCAVATING 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


TEMPLE A 


Exposing the southeast corner after it had been buried for more than I5 centuries 


makes no mention of the fact, and it 
was not until over 300 years later, or in 
1840, that the site was again made known 
to the world by Stephens and Cather- 
wood.* 

During the centuries which had elapsed 
since its abandonment a dense tropical 
vegetation (see page 348) had overgrown 
the city, overthrowing its temples and 
palaces and reducing them to shapeless 
mounds of fallen masonry. 

The jungle had won its way into the 
different courts and plazas; and these 
public squares, once teeming with the life 
of a populous community, had become 
the haunt of the tiger, peccary, monkey, 
ant-eater, and the infinite host of the 
tropical forest. The jungle had again 
reclaimed its own. 

In 1909 the United Fruit Company, 
incidental to the purchase of a large tract 
of land in this vicinity for a banana plan- 
tation, acquired title to the site, and in 
the following year, through an arrange- 
ment with the School of American Ar che- 
ology, the systematic study of the ruins 


*“Tncidents of Travel in Central America, 
Chiapas, and Yucatan.” John L. Stephens. 
Harper & Brothers, 1840. 


341 


was undertaken under the direction of 
Edgar L. Hewett. 


DIFFICULTIES IN 


The archeological investigation of 
Quirigua presented many new and diffi- 
cult problems. Before digging could be 
commenced, it was first necessary to fell 
the all-enveloping jungle. 

Giant trees, often exceeding 150 feet 
in height, had to be removed occasionally 
from the midst of a cluster of elaborately 
sculptured monuments, where a single 
blow from a falling branch might have 
shattered the high relief and ‘done ir- 
reparable damage. 

In such delicate cases the trees first 
had to be cabled, and then, while they 
were being cut, gangs of native laborers 
pulled them away from the endangered 
monuments. 

All this preliminary work consumed 
much time, and it was not until Febru- 
ary of last year that the actual excava- 
tion of the site was commenced. 

The place selected for the first season’s 
digging was the south side of the temple 
court, at the points marked A and B on 
the map, on page 349; and at A a trestle 


CLEARING THE SITE 


Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr. 


THIS IS ONE OF THE BEST-PRESERVED MONUMENTS AT QUIRIGUA AND IS KNOWN AS 
STELA D 


The relief is very slightly weathered and looks as though it had just left the sculptor’s 
chisel. The Egyptian type of face, with its characteristic little beard, shows very distinctly 
in this monument. Compare, also, the monuments shown on pages 333 and 334. 


342 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


DETAIL SHOWING A HEAD AND HEAD-DRESS ON ONE OF THE LARGE MONUMENTS 


The “cross-bone” decoration on each side of the head-dress is a common motive in Maya art 


AIIAY “I AIYOSIUD Fy Ut ISO Lak AL Na da ha all Ni a RRO Ra BG ES al ARR SR De NS IN i i el 
I HaNowooz SV NMONM GNV “ASIOINOL V ATAVAONd “AYALVAYD ANOS ONILNASAAAHA ANOLS CHAUVO WIONIS V 


AaTIOJ 4) snuevsfAS wo1z 0FOYT 


344 


J9]uU99 


94} FO Ia] oY} 0} ysnf udas oq [IM 9] 


Z HdYOWOOZ GATIVD INIWNANOW MO “A TTMAL Ly 


yoid ul pray ouy e 


‘ 


‘ 


uUMO 


I 
“TaD AHL, JO MAIA AQIS 


) 


apisdn pauin} oq ainjoid sty} jf] 


345 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 
A MATAPALO TREE 


This tree when young grows around some other tree, clinging to it for support. As it 
grows it gradually surrounds the tree supporting it, and finally ends by choking it to death ; 
hence the name matapalo, or “kill-tree.” It is no uncommon sight in the vicinity of Quirigua 
to see two entirely different foliages emerging from the same trunk. The matapalo illus- 
trated here has succeeded in entirely surrounding the tree which originally gave it a helping 
hand upward. 


346 


i 


SCULPTURED FRAGMENTS OF STONE FOUND AROUND THE BASE 


THE CURIOUS VARIETY 


and tramway were built for carrying off 
the excavated material (see page 339). 

Surmounting the broad and spacious 
terrace which forms the southern side of 
the temple court was a large mound. A 
(see page 348), which, from its size and 
location, seemed to be the remains of a 
very important construction. 

Fragments of sculptured stone, human 
and grotesque heads, hands and feet, 
feather-work and geometric forms, and 
parts of a hieroglyphic cornice strewed 
the ground on every side (see page 352), 
and the first trenches brought to light 
much additional material of the same 
character. 


AN IMPOSING TEMPLE FOUND 


As the work of excavation proceeded 
there gradually developed from this 
mound of earth and fallen stone the 
ground plan of what had originally been 
an imposing temple. This temple (see 
the ground plan on page 355) was found 
to be 105 feet long and 29 feet wide. 

It is composed of seven chambers, sym- 


347 


Photo from Sylvanus G 


OF TEMPLE A: 
OF BIZARRE DESIGNS 


5. Morley 
NOTE 


metrically arranged, the three larger ones 
of which, those opening to the outside, 
are 14 feet long and about half as wide. 

The four interior chambers, alternating 
with the preceding, are somewhat smaller, 
being only 9 feet long by 5 feet wide. 
The floors of the smaller chambers are 
in every case a foot and a half higher 
than the flooring of the large chamber 
from which they are entered; and, sim- 
ilarly, the floors of the larger chambers 
are again 2 feet higher than the floors of 
the spacious doorways giving into them. 
In the latter case the rises of the steps 
are sculptured with hieroglyphics, draw- 
ings of which are shown on page 356. 
Successive stages in the excavation of 
the middle chamber of Temple A are 
shown on pages 350 and 351. 

This chamber originally had _ three 
heads tenoned into its back wall at a 
height of 5% feet above the floor (see 
bottom row on page 354). 

This unusual feature of decoration 
doubtless indicates a chamber of corre- 
sponding importance, which its central 


ese assed uO UMOYS SI UOI}JeALOXD 19378 J1N0d a[dwI9} 9Yy} Fo apis sues sy} Jo 
MIA BY, “WOHeAvX a10Foq ‘ATOATIedSeI g 2INJoNIIG pue y s[dway, x1e WH JO 4Y SIA ay} 0} ysnf punouw Moy oy} pue punoisyoeq 9y} 


NOILVAVOXH ANOMAT “HLNOS ONIMOOT “IMNOD TIAWAL AHL JO MAIA 


ult punour eyL 


Ad [IOW “5 snueaAs woz ojoyg 


Ro AD 


~ oR TS 


dew siy} uo gq pue Y poaxIeU d12 JOJUIM }SL[ Pa}BAVIXA soinjoN4js ay J, 


. 


VWIVNULVAD ‘VADINING JO SNINU AHL JO dvVW 


; \ tZ abnadsoy 
Sjuaunuop 4a8sa Ay \ 

q se _\ 29af 1801 44nd JO yIPIM 

waafOrez = 44g fo ybuaT 


sjuauinuop 4930249 ee ded tec 
ONI9I7 SNO/SNIWIC 
(ae et FAs OSE eee ee 


qgqeveot 2s v3 


dN 0O%4u%D 4SvVInHABWON dNOeD HiNOS 


So oo cs 


wD HLHON 


=, 


ce 2 sad sis Ae = ke) 


ae 


Oe 


yOOl= 4h) 8199S 
Lo. Se 


— ~~ 


349 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 
EXCAVATING THE CHIEF SANCTUARY OF TEMPLE A: (1) CLEARING THE DOORWAY 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 
EXCAVATING THE CHIEF SANCTUARY OF TEMPLE A: (2) THE SANCTUARY PARTIALLY 
CLEARED 


The back wall of the sanctuary has been partially uncovered and the threshold cleaned 
out, exposing the hieroglyphic step (see page 356). ‘The three heads in the bottom row 0 
the picture on page 354 were found in the layer of dirt on the floor of this room. 


EXCAVATING 


THE CHIEF SANCTUARY OF TEMPLE 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


(3) THE SANCTUARY AFTER 


foXue 


FINAL REPAIR 


Note that the wall to the left has been relaid in cement, and the third hieroglyphic, part 


2 


-; 


of which is missing in plate 


on page 350, has been repaired, the missing part having been 


found in the debris on the floor of the doorway. 


position in the building further corrobo- 
rates. Indeed, it is more than likely that 
this chamber of the tenoned heads was 
not only the chief sanctuary of this par- 
paca temple, but of the whole city as 
well. 


A SHRINE FOR HUMAN SACRIFICE? 


It requires but little effort of the imag- 
ination to picture once again the rich and 
varied scenes which had this temple for 
their background. White-robed priests, 
with jaguar skins hanging from their 
shoulders, ascend the stairway to the 
sanctuary. Garlanded victims in the 
shadow of death tremble at the altar. 

Gorgeously plumed chieftains pace the 
broad terraces or press around the cov- 
ered dais of the city’s ruler, while below, 
thronging the stone seats along the sides 


351 


of the court, the multitude, in ignorance 
and awe as always, awaits the sacrifice. 
All the pomp and pageantry of the by- 
gone days again fill the court under the 
magic spell of the romantic surroundings. 

Curiously enough, the excavation of 
this sanctuary failed to bring to light a 
single specimen, not even a potsherd, al- 
though the interior chamber adjoining it 
on the right yielded a generous return. 

Among the specimens recovered from 
this latter room were two very fine flint 
spear-heads, each over 6 inches in length, 
and the fragments of a dozen or more 
pieces of pottery, which show a variety 
of pleasing shapes and designs. In gen- 
eral, the Quirigua ware is red, or red and 
yellow, and of a basin-like shape. Many 
pieces have three legs, the legs being 
made of balls or inverted cones of clay. 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 
FRAGMENTS OF THE MEDIAL AND UPPER CORNICES OF TEMPLE A 


In the foreground appear several blocks from the hieroglyphic cornice, which divided 


the facade into two horizontal bands. 
the leaf or feather pattern. 


Decoration was largely confined to the 
exteriors, and was effected by fluting, 
painting, and incising. It has been sug- 
gested that the first of these was de- 
rived originally from the calabash, which 
abounds in the vicinity. The yield of 
specimens from the other chambers of 
Temple A was rather meager, all com- 
bined being less than the cache just de- 
scribed. 


THE TEMPLE CONFORMS TO MAYA TYPE 


The facade of Temple A, like that of 
all Maya structures, was divided into two 
parts by a cornice which passed around 
all four sides of the building half way 
between the top and bottom. 

In Temple A this cornice was com- 
posed of a band of hieroglyphics which 
began at the northeastern corner and ex- 
tended clear around the building. Below 
this cornice the facade was plain, being 
without sculptural decoration of any kind. 

This severe treatment of the lower 
panel offered a striking and effective con- 


Behind are blocks from the upper cornice, showing 


trast to the upper panel, which was com- 
posed of an elaborate mosaic of sculp- 
tured stones finished at the top with 
another cornice showing a leaf motive. 

Unfortunately the upper part of the 
building has suffered most, having fallen 
at every point, carrying with it all of this 
sculptured mosaic, not a single stone of 
which now remains in its original posi- 
tion. This appears very clearly in the 
picture on page 357, which shows the 
front or north side of Temple A. 

The walls up to the hieroglyphic cor- 
mice are perfectly plain At the jleme 
where the inscription begins and where 
the sequence of the first 15 or 16 hiero- 
glyphics is known, the cornice has now 
been restored to the position it originally 
occupied. 


SOME HIEROGLYPHICS DECIPHERED 


The hieroglyphic inscription presented 
on the exterior cornice and on the rises 
of the steps in the three exterior door- 


352 


VIEW OF THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE TEMPLE COURT AFTER EXCAVATION: 


Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr. 


CONTRAST 


WITH THE VIEW SHOWN ON PAGE 348 


ways of this temple is of unusual inter- 
est. The text on the cornice records the 
date 9.19.0.0.0:9 Ahau, 19 Mol of Maya 
chronology, which corresponds approxi- 
mately to the date 540 A. D.* 

This date doubtless indicates the time 
at which Temple A was erected or at 
least dedicated. It marks the close of 
Katun 19 of cycle 9 of the Maya erat 
and is the latest of all dates yet discov- 
ered at Quirigua. 

The first two hieroglyphics in the east- 
ern doorway (a and b, on page 3506) 
record the date 9g Ahau 18 Mol, which 
is exactly 40 days in advance of the date 


*Authorities differ as to the exact correla- 
tion of Maya and Christian chronology. The 
correlation used here is that proposed by the 
writer. 

+ The Maya Katun contained 7,200 days, or 
approximately 10934 years. There were 20 
katuns in a cycle, which was very nearly 400 
years long. Cycle 9 of Maya chronology was 
the first historic period of the Maya civiliza- 
tion. 


353 


presented on the outside. The third 
hieroglyphic in the middle doorway (c, 
on page 350) expresses this distance of 
40 days, and the fifth and sixth hiero- 
glyphics, e and f, the date 9 Ahau 18 
Mol, recorded also on the cornice outside. 

Finally, the seventh and eighth hiero- 
glyphics in the western doorway, g and 
h (page 356), declare that this day, 9 
Ahau 18 Mol, was at the end of Katun 
19 of cycle 9, thus repeating the infor- 
mation given on the exterior of the build- 


ing. 
WHAT DO THE HIEROGLYPHICS HIDE? 


It will be seen from the foregoing that 
the only Maya hieroglyphics which have 
been deciphered up to the present time 
are those which deal with some phase of 
the calendar, such as day, month, or 
period, signs, and the like. 

Indeed, all told, the meanings of not 
more than 50 different characters have 
been worked out, leaving in the neighbor- 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


SCULPTURED STONE HEADS FOUND DURING THE EXCAVATION OF TEMPLE A 
These heads, with the exception of the three in the bottom row, were found in front 


of the temple. 
jecting from their backs. 


Originally they had been fastened to the facade by rough stone tenons pro- 
The large grotesque head in the second row was over the middle 


doorway, and the two heads in the third row were over the eastern and western doorways 
respectively. The three smaller heads in the bottom row were fastened to the back wall of 


the sanctuary, 5% feet above the floor-level. 


hood of 150 which are still indeterminate. 
These undeciphered hieroglyphics prob- 
ably treat of the events which occurred 
on the corresponding dates; or, in other 
-words, they probably deal with the sub- 
ject-matter of Maya history. 

The frame-work of Maya history— 
that is, its chronology—no longer pre- 
sents serious difficulties to the student; 
but the more human side of this great 
aboriginal civilization, the records of its 
wars and conquests, its religious and so- 
cial movements, its rise and fall, still re- 
main a sealed book. 

The building material used in Temple 
A is sandstone, which was quarried from 
the foot-hills two miles west of the city 
and probably transported thither on rafts 
during the rainy season, when the greater 


part of the valley is submerged by the 
overflow of the Motagua River. 

In this way the building material could 
be floated right up to the base of the 
temple substructure. ‘The blocks were 
finished—that is, either sculptured or 
faced—as occasion required, after they 
had been laid in the wall. 

This accounts for the remarkable ac- 
curacy with which the lines of a design 
are carried from one block to another 
without a perceptible break in the com- 
position. ‘This is particularly true of the 
hieroglyphic cornice, which could have 
been sculptured only after the blocks 
were laid in the wall, so perfect is the 
fit of the lines in the details of the char- 
acters. 

In addition to the temple just de- 


354 


scribed, one other build- 
ing (Structure B) was 
excavated at Quirigua 
this year (see B, on p. 
349). The relation of 
these two structures ap- 
pears very clearly in the 
view of the temple court, 
shown in the photograph 
on page 353. This struc- 
ture B can hardly be 
classified as a temple, but 
more readily falls into 
the dwelling or palace 
type of Maya structures. 

It is built on the level 
of the temple court and 
does not rise from a sub- 
structure, like the other 
buildings — surrounding 
this inclosure, which fact 
somewhat detracts from 
its dignity and impress- 
iveness. Its ground plan 
is irregular. 

Tkere are no large 
open chambers rendered 
further conspicuous by 
unusual features of deco- 
ration, as in Temple A. 
Instead, the rooms are 
small and dark, the en- 
trance, shown on page 
358, being the only ex- 
terior doorway in the en- 
tire building. 

All of the doorways 
are provided with pairs 
of stone hooks for hang- ONE OF THE STONE HEADS WHICH FORMERLY ORNAMENTED 
ing curtains. These are THE FACADE OF TEMPLE A 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


GROUND PLAN OF TEMPLE A 


Note the proportion of wall space to room space in this building. The walls, which are of 
solid masonry, occupy nearly three times as much space as the rooms 


355 


apIsjno sd1uI0D sIYydA[So1s1y 9Y} UO poayeodo1 st pue ‘eld UeIySIIyD 24} JO OFS seah 9Yy} 0} Ajayeurxo1dde spuods 
-1109 d}ep SIyy, “ASojOuUCIYD eALW FO 6 aJIAO JO OF UNyey FO asO]D oy} Ye JOY BI Heyy 6 9}ep 9y} psodse1 H pue ‘f ‘a ‘p peyreur soryddAysosary ayy, 


V WIdWUL OLNI SNIGVA'I SAVMUYOOd AHL JO SdalS AHL NO SOIHdA'IOONXIH 


| Remicoq 42> days auydh|Sas3.144 


dais 


2|PPrYy 


REeMAcog jseq das 


356 


Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr. 


NORTH FACADE OF TEMPLE A 


This view shows the tremendous amount of repair work which necessarily accompanied 
the excavation of Temple A. When the walls were uncovered they were found to be in an 


extremely ruinous condition. 


Most of th2 building blocks had to be relaid in cement, and 


all of the walls had to be finished off with a waterproof cap to shed the large annual rainfall. 


set in niches in the walls, two hooks on 
each side of a doorway—one at the floor 
level and the other 4 feet above. By 
means of these the door-hangings could 
be secured in four places and prevented 
from flapping in the wind. 

The exterior of Structure B was deco- 
rated with the curious sculptural mosaic 
shown on page 359. This design occurs 
at each of the four corners and in the 
middle of the back and side walls. It is 
a variation of the grotesque head motive 
found throughout the Maya area. 


A PREHISTORIC ROOSEVELT PORTRAIT 


In this particular example the incisor 
teeth are as prominent as Colonel Roose- 
velt’s, and the first tourists who-saw the 
head immediately called it the original 
Roosevelt grin. Under this name _ its 
fame rapidly spread, until it became the 
chief point of tourist interest in the an- 
cient city. 

The yield of specimens from the 


smaller structure exceeded that from 
Temple A in both quality and quantity. 
Indeed, the finest specimen recovered 
during the entire course of the excava- 
tions—the effigy vase shown on p. 3590— 
came from this apparently insignificant 
building. When discovered, this vase 
was broken into a score or more of small 
pieces, and it was not until after these 
had been put together that its true char- 
acter was revealed. It is 7 inches in 
height and 3 inches in width at the top, 
flaring slightly at the bottom. 

The body of the vase is a rich cream 
or buff in color, decoration being con- 
fined to the fluting already mentioned. 

The grotesque head which ornaments 
its front is truly remarkable as an ex- 
ample of free-hand modeling, the fea- 
tures being rendered with a verisimilitude 
rarely encountered in any aboriginal art. 

The eyes, ear-rings, fillet, and mouth 
are painted a dull bluish-white, the beard 
and fillet decorations being done in a rich 


357 


Photo by George N. Bucklin, Jr. 


VIEW OF STRUCTURE B AFTER EXCAVATION 


“In the deep twilight of a tropical jungle the crumbling remains of this once proud city 
lie forgotten, its builders unknown, and its very name lost in oblivion—a melancholy com- 
mentary on its vanished glory” (see text, page 360). ; 


shade of red. When discovered, this 
vase was in fragments on the floor of a 
back room, in a dark and inconspicuous 
corner. 


WHY WAS QUIRIGUA ABANDONED? 


In finding such an unusual specimen 
one is prompted to ask, What dire cir- 
cumstances could have necessitated its 
having been left behind? Was it aban- 
doned in the extremity of sudden flight 
or overlooked in the confusion of an 
equally hurried sack? 
some general death or universal pesti- 
lence have laid low all the hands which 
might have borne it off? 

The number of conjectures possible is 
as endless as such guessing is idle. Such 
questions by their very nature are des- 
tined to remain unanswered until the 
end of time. 

In its dark corner, shattered and for- 
gotten, this gem of Maya ceramic art 
slept undisturbed throughout the cen- 


Or, again, could 


turies, only to be awakened in another 
day and age by the archeologist’s shovel. 

Decidedly the most unique article Te 
covered during the course of the work 
was a series of small worked hematites, 
found near the effigy vase above de 
scribed. For the most part these were 
hexagonal in shape, about 1/16 of an 
inch in thickness and not over an inch 
in width between any two points. One 
side was very highly polished in each 
case, the other being ground smooth. 
The edges were beautifully cut, and in 
some cases finished off round, as though 
such pieces had formed the border of 
some mosaic. The use of these curious 
little stones is unknown. 


THE AGE OF THE BUILDINGS 


One important point which the excava- 
tion of Temple A and Structure B settled 
beyond dispute was the relative ages of 
the two buildings. After the southern 
side of the temple court had been par- 


358 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 


REMAINS OF A GROTESQUE HEAD ON THE SOUTH FACADE OF STRUCTURE B 


The resemblance of the teeth to Colonel Roosevelt’s incisors earned for this head the title 
“the original of the Roosevelt smile” (see page 357) 


Photo from Sylvanus G. Morley 
EFFIGY VASE FROM STRUCTURE B 


This vase was found in a dark back room. It had been broken into about 22 or 23 
pieces, all of which were recovered, with the exception of two very small fragments not 
exceeding a quarter of an inch in any dimension. It is unquestionably one of the finest 
examples of the Maya ceramic art that has ever been discovered (see page 357). 


Suipsedig-yxonp yseq 9Yy} JO Jo}UsD 9Y} Ul o1e BjoNeq YWON UL ssoyy, ‘Sp4iq ves UOlj [ius BuUey} o10u1 JO spunois Sutpao1q st} sapnypout pue 
apNySuo] JO sdaiZap VAY WY} BJOW JIAO SpU9}X9 YIIYM “UOHJVAJISe1 SPULIS| ULNEMEFY OY} OF ‘sa1se OM} ATUO SUTe}UOD YIM “UISUODSIA\ ‘purys| 
Boy] WO1f 9ZIS UI AIVA AIT, “PUNOIS Sulpsesq peqinjsipun Ue Spiiq oy} SUIpIOYe O} MoIA B YM poysi[qyejso Useq savy suoIeAtSeI p.iq “TL 


VLOMVG HINON “AVI dNOLS LV NOILVANHSHY GHId SHLVIS GALINDO AHL YVAN CWA LVAHM V NI ASAHD VAVNVO CIM 


aYOOD “MM STIPM Worz OFOYg 


(2) 
\o 
(Sr) 


SAVING THE 


tially excavated, it became apparent that 
the small building in the southwest cor- 
ner—i. e., Structure B—belonged to an 
earlier epoch than the imposing temple 
which towered above it. Indeed, Struc- 
ture b is almost entirely surrounded by 
the platform of the larger building, which 
indicates that it was already standing 
when the foundations of Temple \ were 
laid. This appears very clearly in the 
illustrations on pages 357 and 358, where 
Temple A is seen to “ on top of the 
terrace built around Structure B. Ex- 
cept that it was erected at some time 
prior to Katun 19 (the date inscribed 
on Temple A), no definite conclusion as 
to the age of Structure B can be reached. 

However, since the very earliest date 
at Quirigua only precedes Katun 19 by 
87 years, it is probable that Structure B 
was built some time during the century 
preceding Katun 109, or during the period 
440-540 A. D. 

The excavation and repair of the two 
buildings above described constituted the 
work of the present year at Quirigua. 
When these ancient structures were 
finally uncovered, it was found necessary 
to make extensive repairs in order to 
preserve them from speedy deterioration 
and decay. 

The building stones had to be relaid 
in concrete and the walls plumbed and 


DUCKS AND GEESE 361 


finished off with a waterproof cap of 
cement to shed the enormous annual rain- 
fall. These permanent improvements 
however, necessarily consumed much 
time, and scarcely had been brought to 
a close before the rainy season set in, 
putting a stop to all work, excavation as 
well as repair. 


THE REAL WORK YET TO BE DONE 


So far as the possibilities of the site 
are concerned, the ground at Quirigua 
may be regarded as having been little 
more than scratched. The temple court 
alone has four other buildings surround- 
ing it, to say nothing of the remaining 
courts and plazas of the city. 

It is the purpose of the School of 
American Archeology to continue exca- 
vations here until an exhaustive study of 
the site has been made; for only through 
systematic investigations extending over 
a number of years can these great centers 
of the Maya civilization be made to tell 
their interesting story and contribute 
their quota to the record of man’s prog- 
ress and development. 

Meanwhile, in the deep twilight of a 
tropical jungle the crumbling remains of 
this once proud city lie forgotten, its 
builders unknown, and its very name lost 
in oblivion—a melancholy commentary on 
its vanished glory. 


SAVING THE DUCKS AND GEESE 
By We tits W. Cooke 


BrotocicaL Survey, U. 


| Author of “Birds that Fly from Pole to Pole,” 


S. DEPARTMENT OF 


AGRICULTURE 


in the National Geographic 


Magazine 


HEN the first settlers came to 
the United States they found 
the country teeming with wa- 
terfowl; the district along the Atlantic 
coast seemed to have an inexhaustible 
supply of ducks and geese. But in later 
ears, when emigrants pushed westward 
and crossed the Mississippi, they discov- 
ered that the flocks of the coast were as 
nothing to the countless throngs that 


passed each spring and fall over the 
Western prairies. 

The younger generation living today 
in lowa and Wisconsin can have no idea 
of the abundance of ducks and_ geese 
found there 50 years ago, at which date 
their original numbers had been scarcely 
diminished. 

Ducks and geese are by nature prairie, 
marsh, and swamp-breeding birds. A 


Formerly the summer home of many species of ducks; now 
oll cities and forms and scarcely a Suck /eft. 


NG 
Formerly thickly populated with breeding ducks, now 
NATTA lorgady occupred by forms. 
The breeding grounds thot hove furnished a/large part of 


Wa the ducks of the eastern and central United States, 


now ropidly being brought under cultivation. 


MAP SHOWING THE BEST BREEDING GROUNDS OF WILD DUCKS AND GEESE 


“All the lightest shaded area within the United States has now -been brought so thor- 
oughly under cultivation that it can never amount to much as a nursery for young ducks. 
The next heavier shading includes much of Minnesota and North Dakota, where there are 


still a great many lakes and marshes too large ever to be drained. 


The most heavily 


shaded part in the northern United States and southern Canada represents what is left of 


the ‘ducks’ paradise’” (see text, page 363). 
few species, such as the wood-duck, mer- 
ganser, and golden-eye, nest in hollow 
trees; but those which are the most im- 
portant from the standpoint either of 
food or sport—the Canada goose and the 
mallard, pintail, teal, redhead, and can- 
vasback—breed in the open country. 


DUCKS PREFER THE WEST FOR NESTING 


The whole region east of Indiana and 
north of the Potomac River, including 
also all of Canada east of Lake Huron 
and Hudson Bay, has never had more 
than a few small tracts suitable for breed- 
ing grounds. Only one species—the black 
duck, or black mallard—nested there com- 
monly, and that in numbers insignificant 
as compared with those of its nearest 
relative, the common mallard, in the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. 

In fact, the settlement of this eastern 
part of the country has decreased the 
acreage of duck-breeding grounds so little 


that if the black mallard was allowed 
proper protection, it would still nest in 
goodly numbers throughout this entire 
area. 

No other duck seems to have cared to 


nest in any numbers east of Hudson Bay, © 


and the enormous flocks of ducks re- 


ported by the early settlers, in the fall — 


migration, were not eastern-bred birds, 
but were travelers from the interior of 
the North American continent, where 
tracts of country furnishing exactly the 
conditions desired by ducks and geese 
were to be measured by square miles in- 
stead of acres. 

The so-called “prairie region” of the 
United States then extended into Illinois 
and northwestern Indiana, and so much 
of it as was occupied by lakes and 
marshes—northern Indiana, a wide strip 
of northern Illinois, another strip of 
northern Iowa, and thence northward to 
the Arctic Ocean —was crowded with 


362 


SAVING THE DUCKS AND GEESE 36 


breeding ducks and geese. The map (see 
page 362) shows the approximate out- 
lines of this area. 

It is noticeable at once that much of 
the lower half of this vast region, for- 
merly held in undisturbed possession by 
wildfowl, is now an almost continuous 
farm and garden, and the millions of 
waterfowl have been replaced by several 
millions of human beings. 


WHERE THE DUCKS’ PARADISE IS FOUND 


The prairie districts of central Canada, 
comprising large portions of Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Mackenzie, 
have been and still are the “ducks’ para- 
dise.”” Almost equally attractive to them 
are the northern part of North Dakota 
and much of northwestern Minnesota, 
the whole forming a tract 200 miles wide 
and 400 miles long, abounding in lakes, 
vonds, sloughs, and marshes, which fur- 
nish ideal nesting conditions and a plenti- 
ful supply of food; and 50 years ago 
every available nook was preempted by 
waterfowl. 

But the “paradise,” too, has been dis- 
turbed. The Northern Pacific and other 
railroads cut across its southern border 
in Minnesota and North Dakota, a north 
and south line was run to Winnipeg, and 
other shorter branches were but't. 

A still more severe blow was dealt the 
waterfowl when the Canadian Pacific 
Railroad crossed, between Winnipeg and 
the Rocky Mountains, the finest duck- 
breeding grounds on the continent. Dur- 
ing the decade just ended their last 
stronghcld has been invaded by the new 
Grand Trunk Pacific Railroad, and soon 
the great colonies of northern Alberta 
and northern Saskatchewan will be things 
of the past. 

It is evident, therefore, that in a few 
years neither the United States nor south- 
ern Canada will have any large breeding 
places of those species of ducks which 
are most highly valued for sport and for 
the table. 

The map on page 362 shows the exist- 
ing status of the breeding grounds which 
have been enumerated. All the lightest 
shaded area within the United States has 
now been brought so thoroughly under 


Go 


cultivation that it can never amount to 
much as a nursery for young ducks. 

The next heavier shading includes 
much of Minnesota and North Dakota, 
where there are still a great many lakes 
and marshes too large ever to be drained. 
Though the number of ducks through- 
out this area has been greatly diminished, 
yet in the aggregate a good many broods 
are reared each year. 

The most heavily shaded part in the 
northern United States and southern 
Canada represents what is left of the 
“ducks’ paradise,” and nesting ducks are 
still present in large numbers over the 
whole area. 


THE FUTURE IS BY NO MEANS HOPELESS 


Owing to two facts, the future of the 
ducks and geese of North America is 
not so gloomy as some are inclined to 
think. First, there is a rapidly awaken- 
ing interest in the preservation of game 
of all kinds, and, second, there is an over- 
looked area in North America of con- 
siderable size, which is well adapted for 
the breeding grounds of ducks and geese, 
and is so far north and has so severe a 
climate that it never will be used to any 
great extent for farming. Indeed, the 
places best adapted to the waterfowl— 
the great marshes—are too wet and cold 
even in mid-summer ever to be available 
for agriculture. 

The largest and best of these districts 
lies in the neighborhood of Athabaska 
and Great Slave lakes. It includes the 
whole of the Slave River, the lower hun- 
dred miles of the Athabaska River, and 
the region to the westward for distances 
varying from 50 to 250 miles. 

Here are some 30,000 square miles that 
with even moderately good protection 
during the breeding season will produce 
annually a liberal crop of the most valued 
kind of ducks. To the northward lies 
another district, including the delta of 
the Mackenzie and the Arctic coast east 
to Franklin Bay, that supports each year 
a large waterfowl population, including 
the mallard, green-winged teal, and sev- 
eral species of geese, but is too far north 
for the gadwall, blue-winged teal, red- 
head, and canvasback (see map, p. 304). 


70 


oN E2722 Best breeding grounds for ducks and 
Yj geese, that will remain undisturled by 
agricultural developments. 
] Less good breeding grounds for ducks 
Nl .and geese, that will remain undisturbed 
by agricultural developments. 
The finest breeding grounds for ducks & 
eese on the North American continent: 
uch of this area 1s already under 
cultivation, and a large part of it will 
in the near future cease to be available 


for waterfowl nesting sites. 


MAP SHOWING THE ALMOST UNDISTURBED BREEDING GROUNDS OF THE DUCKS AND 
GEESE IN NORTHERN CANADA 


Which will prevent the extermination of these waterfowl if they receive adequate protection 
in the United States (see text, page 363) 


Fastward a third area fringes Hudson 
and James bays on the west and extends 
from the south end of James Bay to 100 
miles beyond Cape Churchill. 

Many ducks have nested from time 
immemorial throughout this region and 
have been practically undisturbed by man, 
and it seems probable that this condition 
will continue for years to come. 

These three districts are the best, but 
throughout the -whole immense inter- 
vening area—lightly shaded on the map 
shown above —are innumerable small 
lakes and marshes, each well adapted to 
support a few pairs of ducks and geese. 
Moreover, by suitable legislation, south- 
ern Saskatchewan, nearly the whole of 
Manitoba, and the contiguous parts of 
the United States can be made to produce 
perennially their present large crop of 
aquatic game birds. 


WHY PROTECTION PAYS 


Some birds are protected because of 
their diet, as the wood-peckers and fly- 


catchers ; others for their song—thrushes 
and mocking-birds; others for esthetic 
reasons—gulls and terns; while the pro- 
tection of ducks and geese is purely utili- 
tarian ; they furnish a highly prized food, 
and the sport of hunting them involves 
an outdoor life and exercise which is 
worth far more to the individual and the 
community than the dietary value of the 
game secured. 

Twelve years ago the national govern- 
ment recognized the need of preserving 
the ducks and geese as part of the na- 
tional resources and they were included 
in the “Lacey Act”—the national law for 
the preservation of game. The enforce- 
ment of this law was put in the imme- 
diate charge of the Bureau of Biological 
Survey, and the facts contained in this 
article were gathered mainly in the course 
of investigations connected with the carry- 
ing out of the provisions of that act. 

Under that law wild ducks and geese 
are the property not of the individual on 
whose land they happen to nest or alight, 


364 


WH/TE-W/NGED SCOTER. 
Principal breeding range. 
Principal winter home. 
Principal migration route of those sadividua/s 
which winter on the Atlantic coast 


y+ be 


———= 


MAP SHOWING BREEDING GROUND, WINTER HOME, AND CURIOUS MIGRATION ROUTES 
OF THE WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 


“Its breeding grounds cover an immense area in Canada. 


In the fall some of 


these scoters go west and southwest to winter along the whole Pacific coast of the United 


States. 


But most scoters in the fall take an easterly flight, and they are particularly 


abundant in winter on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to southern New Jersey, especially 
in the neighborhood of Long Island Sound” (see text, page 367). 


but of the whole people, as represented 
by the State, and the modern doctrine of 
the conservation of natural resources re- 
quires that the laws be so framed that 
the State—1. e., the people—shall receive 
the largest practicable return for each 
bird. 

Experience of the last few years has 
shown conclusively that a duck killed for 


the home consumption of the gunner, 


or, as it is ordinarily called, ‘killed, for 
sport,” yields a manifold larger return 
to the State and to the community than 
one killed by a market gunner as a means 
of obtaining a livelihood; or, to put it in 
the baldest way, a market gunner adds 
nothing to the wealth of the community 
and obtains his living by an unnecessarily 
high drain on the State’s assets. 


WHAT IS THE MOST URGENT NEED? 


Hence the most urgent need at this 
time is to forbid by law, at least for a 


36 


time, all purchase or sale of domestic 
game birds. With this as the universal 
law in Canada and all of the United 
States—as it is already in 19 of the 
States—the business of the market gun- 
ner is gone; he need no longer be taken 
into account, and it seems probable that 
this single restriction will be sufficient to 
stop to a great extent, if not entirely, the 
present falling off in our waterfowl 
census. 

To impress this idea on the general 
community is the most important single 
item in the struggle for game protection. 
It gives a solid cash basis to the appeal 
for restrictive laws, and when once the 
public come to see this matter in its true 
light, the fight for game protection is 
won. 

Some birds protect themselves. For 
instance, the abundant and well-known 
white-winged scoter —or white-winged 
“coot,” as it is more commonly known 


re] 


[MOPIOVM YM suTEMS A]AeZ WISE sty} PUB ‘ysBO9 oy} Bue diajs Mosseu Ajeayereduiod & UL St Sulpaoy ysoq oy eet ee 
Joquinu dS1v] & YIM ‘sproypes pue ‘ssajaAoys ‘uoaspiam ‘[ea} Aq poruedusosse ‘spreijeur FO spuvsnoy} JO sue} pue sptresnou} aye8a18u03 ° ng . 
a JOH, 


VNVISINOT ‘ANWIST AWHAV : ANNAH'IT OW ‘V “A AO HAMHSAYd AHL NO INIGHYA SGYVTIVIN 


dYOOD “MM SITPM WOrF OF0Ud 


NNN Vt 


et Lata 


THE ROSS GOOSE. 
AN Probable principal summer. home. 
dh \ _U€(tt Principo! winterhome 


| =, | Principo! migration route 
Q 


THE BREEDING GROUND AND WINTER HOME OF THE ROSS GOOSE 


“From its breeding grounds on the high Arctic Islands it comes south through the Mac- 
kenzie Valley; but instead of turning to the southeast, to winter on the Gulf coast with the 
other geese and ducks which have been its traveling companions, it parts company with them 
at the national boundary line, goes south into Montana, and then strikes westward, crossing 
the lofty ranges of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains and winters in California” (see 


text, page 368). 


on the New England coast—is probably 
as common now as it was 50 years ago, 
in spite of scant protection by law. The 
reason for its escape from the woeful 
fate of its relatives is found in the re- 
gions chosen for summer and winter so- 
journ and in its unique migration route 
or, rather, routes. 

Its breeding grounds (see map, page 
365) cover an immense area in Canada 
and are mainly in a district which is still 
sparsely inhabited and is likely to remain 
so; at least, it will hardly have population 
enough to interfere with the nesting of 
the birds. In the fall some of these 
scoters go west and southwest to winter 
along the whole Pacific coast of the 
United States. Here they have not as 
yet been much molested, owing to the 
small market demand and the difficulty 
of getting within shot range, as they both 
feed and sleep on the ocean. 


But most scoters in the fall take an 
easterly flight, and they are particularly 
abundant in winter on the Atlantic coast 
from Cape Cod to southern New Jersey, 
especially in the neighborhood of the 
eastern end of Long Island Sound. Here 
100,000 and more have been seen in a 
single day; but as they, too, remain con- 
tinually on the ocean, they are less easily 
killed than are birds which feed closer 
to land. 


CURIOUS MIGRATION ROUTES 


Another peculiarity is the migration 
routes of these Atlantic Ocean wintering 
birds. Although few, if any, nest in the 
Labrador Peninsula, yet in August they 
become abundant as migrants along the 
east coast of southern Labrador, showing 
that they must have come 1,500 miles 
almost due east from their nearest breed- 
ing grounds in Canada. In the late fall 


367 


\\ Principal winter home of the ducks and geese d 
AW of the eastern United Stotes. 

ZZ Special distr.cts where great numbers of ducks and 
J ZZ geese congregate during the winter. 


MAP SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL WINTER RESORTS OF THE WILD DUCKS AND GEESE 


they repair to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
and gradually work south on the advent 
of winter to the southern New England 
coast. 

The following spring, instead of re- 
tracing the round-about fall migration 
route, the main flight of coots takes a 
short cut west in Long Island Sound to 
the mouth of the Connecticut; up the 
valleys of the Connecticut and Hudson 
tivers to: the valley of the Ottawa, and 
thence west and northwest to the breed- 
ing grounds. Thus during their fall 
migration they aie passing through a 
‘country almost entirely uninhabited, while 
their spring flight over the thickly popu- 
lated parts of Connecticut and New York 
is made for the most part by night. 
Under these circumstances it is not sur- 
prising that the scoter succeeds in holding 
its Own. 

Another species that has an equally 
peculiar migration route is the Ross snow 
goose. It is one of the very rare geese 
an North America and is also the smallest, 
about the size of a mallard duck. From 
its unknown breeding grounds on the high 
Arctic Islands it comes south through the 


Mackenzie Valley ; but instead of turning 
to the southeast to winter on the Gulf 
coast with the other geese and ducks 
which have been its traveling companions, 
it parts company with them at the na- 
tional boundary line, goes south into 
Montana, and then strikes westward, 
crossing the lofty ranges of the main 
chain of the Rocky Mountains and win- 
ters in California (see map, page 367). 


WHEN SHOULD THESE BIRDS BE 
PROTECTED ? 


The problem of waterfowl protection 
has four distinct phases corresponding to 
the four seasons of the year. The sum- 
mer or the breeding season is acknowl- 
edged to be the time when the shooting 
of ducks and geese is most pernicious. 
Practically all our States and Canada are 
agreed that hunting should cease abso- 
lutely during the weeks when the birds 
are nesting. 

Only a little less disastrous is hunting 
during spring migration, when the lucky 
survivors of the winter’s campaign are 
on their way to the nesting grounds. Just 
now the struggle for game preservation 


368 


MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF 46 OUT OF THE 56 NATIONAL, BIRD RESERVATIONS 


The other 10 are located in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico (see text, page 375) 


in the United States is centering around 
the proposition to abolish all spring shoot- 
ing. This has already been done by sev- 
eral of the States which are most en- 
lightened in their treatment of wildfowl 
preservation; but enormous numbers are 
still shot in Iowa and especially in the 
bottoms along the Illinois River. 

It is confidently expected that in the 
near future the good sense of the general 
community will recognize how short- 
sighted and wasteful it is to lose a large 
fall supply of well-fattened fowls for the 
privilege of obtaining earlier in the year 
a much smaller quantity in poor condi- 
tion. 

Some advocates of spring shooting 
claim that hunting can safely be allowed 
until the ducks begin to pair; but the 
pairing season with some species is very 
early in the year; the wood-duck begins 
nesting in early February, and some of 
the other species are paired by the middle 
of the month. Any attempt to make 
separate laws and dates for the different 
species would prove unsatisfactory, and 
the only practicable way is to prohibit 
all spring shooting. 


WHY A SHORT HUNTING SEASON 
PROFITABLE 


IS MOST 


Admitting that both spring and sum- 
mer shooting are utterly indefensible, the 
question is at what time may hunting 
properly and profitably be allowed. ‘The 
matter of game protection should be 
handled from a rational business stand- 
point, like the handling of any agricul- 
tural product. ‘There is some one time 
in the growth of a crop when its yield 
will be of the highest market value, and 
the wise agriculturist waits for that time 
and then harvests in a few days the out- 
put of the whole year. Moreover, he is 
careful to save enough for seed, so that 
the crop of the following year may be 
at least no less bounteous. 

Every one will admit that the greatest 
number of waterfowl of the highest value 
individually can be obtained yearly if all 
the shooting is done—i. e., the year’s crop 
is harvested—in the fall, after the young 
are fully grown and while the birds are 
on their fall migration trip. If birds are 
absolutely undisturbed by human agencies 
from the time they reach their winter 
home until they have completed the molt 


369 


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SAVING THE DUCKS AND GEESE 37 


the following fall, they will rear the 
largest proportion of the largest-sized 
families and furnish the greatest amount 
of foed and sport. 


WINTER SHOOTING IS DISASTROUS 


To understand the importance of pro- 
hibiting the winter hunting of waterfowl 
in the United States it 1s necessary to 
know something about the districts in 
which the birds are found at this season 
and the conditions surrounding them 
there. Ducks must have open water, and 
hence winter in the Southern States. They 
retire southward slowly in the fall, as 
they are driven away from their feeding 
places by the advancing ice. Many do 
not reach their real winter haunts before 
December and some not until the end of 
that month. Though the outside boun- 
daries of this winter home include a large 
area, the birds concentrate themselves on 
that very small fraction of the area which 
offers good physical conditions and plenty 
to eat. 

For instance, Arkansas contains 53,000 
square miles, but Mississippi County, 
with less than 900 square miles, is more 
important as a duck winter resort than 
all the rest of the State. In other words, 
during the winter the majority of the 
ducks of Arkansas are collected on less 
than 1/6oth of the State’s area. Ob- 
viously, under such conditions, the bag- 
ging of a great many at one time and 
place is a comparatively easy matter; 
hence the market hunter seeks out these 
favorite feeding spots and shoots there 
all winter. 

Accomac, Northampton, and Princess 
Anne counties, in Virginia, with an area 
of less than 1,000 square miles, send to 
market more ducks than all the other 
32,000 square miles of the State put to- 
gether. In fact, if the shipment or sale 
of ducks was prohibited in these three 
counties, it would have more effect in 
checking the present deplorable decrease 
of ducks there than would absolute pro- 
hibition of hunting in all the rest of the 
State. 

Evidently. then, if the ducks can be 
protected during the winter. in such fa- 
vored localities, the progressive reduction 
of the duck population would change 
speedily to a progressive increase. 


The map (see page 368) shows the 
general area of the principal winter homes 
of the ducks and also the special feeding 
places where they congregate. 


WHY THE CANVASBACK LEFT CHESAPEAKE 
BAY 


Among the latter, Chesapeake Bay is 
not marked, although 60 years ago it was 
one of the most important wintering 
places for ducks in the United States, 
usually spoken of as a winter resort, 
though really there was a time during 
most winters when the ducks were forced 
by the ice farther south for a few days 
or weeks. 

Persistent persecution by gunners from 
early fall to late spring has almost an- 
nihilated the myriads of fowls of the 
finest varieties that used to blacken the 
surface of the bay. Here was the pre- 
ferred winter home of the celebrated 
canvasback, whence many hundred thou- 
sand dollars’ worth of the birds have been 
shipped to the northern markets. Today 
a canvasback is almost a rarity in Chesa- 
peake Bay, and the few survivors spend 
the winter farther south, on the North 
Carolina coast. 

Chesapeake Bay was formerly the nat- 
ural goal of a large proportion of the 
canvasbacks and redheads which nested 
in central Canada. They had a peculiar 
migration route. Nesting in the lake re- 
gion of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, they 
found stretching thence southeastward 
an almost continuous chain of lakes sup- 
plying an abundance of food and espe- 
cially favorable conditions to tempt a 
journey in that direction. ‘This flight 
led, naturally, to Chesapeake Bay, which 
used to provide an almost unlimited 
quantity of their greatest delicacy—wild 
celery —and otherwise was admirably 
adapted for a fall, winter, and spring 
sojourn, except during an occasional 
week or two of unusually cold weather. 

This southeast and northwest route is 
still used by most of the thousands of 
ducks that winter on the entire Atlantic 
coast from Virginia southward, and the 
now almost deserted waters of the upper 
Chesapeake would be repopulated to a 
large extent if wise restrictive legislation 
were in force. 

The south shore of Long Island, N. Y., 


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THE WARD-MC ILHENNY AND THE LOUISIANA REFUGES FOR GAME BIRDS 


AUTH Ward-M‘Ilhenny wild fowl refuge 
WY La State wild fowl refuge 
ZQ 


“Two gentlemen—C. W. Ward and E. A. McIlhenny—purchased some 50,000 acres and 
hired game wardens at their own expense to patrol the district and prevent all shooting. 
Later they deeded 13,000 acres to the State of Louisiana to serve as a perpetual bird refuge” 
(see text, page 377). 


Currituck Sound, N. C., and the neigh- 
borhood of Georgetown, S. C., are now 
the most important ducking erounds on 
the Atlantic coast. Gunning clubs have 
obtained possession of most of the best 
hunting places on these coasts, but the 
market gunner is still quite notably in 
evidence. 

Many ducks winter on the Texas coast 
near Galveston and some even venture 
south to the Mexican coast, at Tampico. 
Fortunately in these localities the market 


373 


hunter has ceased to be an important 
factor of the question, for Texas has 
prohibited absolutely all shipment of wa- 
terfowl out of the State for sale. 

The northeastern corner of Arkansas, 
around Big Lake, is one of the special 
danger spots from the ducks’ standpoint. 
A constant succession of flocks occupy 
the region during a protracted fall mi- 
gration and most of the time throughout 
the winter. The conditions are favorable 
for their easy slaughter, and almost un- 


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374 


SAVING JHE DUCKS AND GEESE 375 


believable stories are told of the thou- 
sands of mallards sent to market by single 
gunners. 


WHERE THE GREATEST SLAUGHTER TAKES 
PLACE 


There remains for consideration the 
coast of Louisiana, which at present is 
the leading factor working for the ex- 
termination of those species that have a 
high market value. The whole coast 
from the mouth of the Mississippi to the 
Texas border abounds with lakes and 


marshes and offers most alluring winter . 


attractions for ducks. 

Here congregate thousands and tens 
of thousands of mallards, accompanied 
by teal, widgeon, shovelers, and _ red- 
heads, with a large number of geese of 
several species. The best feeding is in 
a comparatively narrow strip along.the 
coast, and this region fairly swarms with 
waterfowl. 

Here are collected on a few hundred 
square miles the ducks that during the 
breeding season have been scattered over 
many hundred thousands of square miles. 
They begin to arrive early in the fall, 
remain until late in the spring, and 
throughout this whole long season they 
are the easy prey of the market hunter, 
for the State game law allows duck shoot- 
ing during the entire winter. 

It is extremely difficult to make the 
inhabitants of southern Louisiana grasp 
the idea that such conditions are excep- 
tional, or that there is any possibility that 
their winter sport can endanger the game 
supply of a continent. Yet a careful 
census in 1910-1911 of the ducks killed 
in Louisiana during that one winter 
totaled so many hundreds of thousands 
as to be almost unbelievable. 

Is it any wonder that spring after 
spring the hunters in the upper Missis- 
sippi Valley report the migrating flocks 
as becoming smaller and smaller? 

So loth are ducks and geese to relin- 
quish their choice feeding places that they 
return there day after day in spite of 
incessant shooting, and it is estimated by 
good authority that at every shooting 
ground frequented by market hunters, 
both on the North Carolina coast and in 
southern Louisiana, at least 50 per cent 


of all the ducks that: winter there are 
killed before the remnant depart in the 
spring. 

No. class of birds can stand such 
slaughter, especially when there is added 
to this 50 per cent all those shot during 
the spring and fall migrations. 


BIRD RESERVATIONS WILL, 
WATERFOWL 


SAVE THE 
The immediate end to be sought is the 
stopping at once of any further inroads 
onthe already badly depleted ranks of 
the ducks and geese. To effect this, reg- 
ulations - should be* made which will 


*shorter’ the open Season and eliminate 


the market hunter. Later the task will 
be to réstore the old-time abundance of 
waterféwl, at least as far as is consistent 
with the development of agriculture. 

Fortunately this work can be turned 
over to the ducks and geese themselves. 
They have high reproductive powers in 
natural, undisturbed surroundings, and 
take kindly to any good offers of safe 
nurseries for ducklings. Hence has arisen 
the idea and practice of setting aside 
certain parts of the national domain as 
bird refuges or bird reservations. 

The first of these—Pelican Island, 
Florida—was established by the execu- 
tive order of President Roosevelt, March 
14, 1903, and in the nine years to Feb- 
ruary 21, 1912, 560 such reservations had 
been segregated (see map, page 369). 
They are scattered over the possessions 
of the United States, from Alaska to 
Porto Rico and from Florida to Cali- 
fornia and Hawaii. They vary in size 
from Hog Island, Wisconsin, which con- 
tains only two acres—the home of a large 
colony of gulls—to the Hawaiian Island 
reservation, which extends over more 
than five degrees of longitude and in- 
cludes the breeding grounds of more than 
a million sea birds. 

Some reservations — Breton Island, 
Louisiana, for instance—serve for the 
winter protection of waterfowl; others, 
as the two in North Dakota, are in the 
center of the best duck-breeding grounds 
still left in the United States. The Yu- 
kon Delta reservation includes the largest 
breeding colonies of ducks and geese in 
Alaska, and with its several hundred 


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SAVING THE DUCKS AND GEESE 


thousand acres covers more territory than 
the entire lake region of North Dakota. 
Shooting, trapping, or disturbing the 
birds in any manner is prohibited on all 
these reservations, whether they are to 
be nesting places in summer or refuges 
from man’s attack during the winter. 


GAME REFUGES IN LOUISIANA 


The results of such local protection are 
often immediate and striking. In the San 
Luis Valley, Colorado, the safety af- 
forded ducks on an artificial pond fed 
by an artesian well has induced the birds 
to resort there in larger and larger num- 
bers every winter. 

At Palm Beach, Florida, where no 
hunting is allowed within a mile of the 
town, ducks have become so tame that 
they will come for food within a few 
feet of a person (see cut, page 370), 
while outside the mile limit these same 
birds are so wild that it is difficult to get 
within gunshot range of them. 

Private enterpiise and generosity have 
joined forces with the national and State 
governments in extending protection to 
the birds. One of the most striking ex- 
amples is the Ward-MclIlhenny Game 
Refuge in southern Louisiana, in the very 
heart of the region already designated as 
the greatest winter home of ducks on the 
North American continent. 

These two gentlemen—C. W. Ward 
and FE. A. Mcllhenny—purchased some 
50,000 acres and hired game wardens at 
their own expense to patrol the district 
and prevent all shooting. Later they 
deeded 13,000 acres to the State of Lou- 
isiana to serve as a perpetual bird refuge 
(see map, page 373). This district had 
long been a favorite with the market 
gunner, and its 15 miles of now protected 
shore-line cannot fail to be a safe abiding 
place in winter for innumerable water- 
fowl. 

Here is the principal winter home of 
the blue goose, one of the rarest and most 
interesting of North American geese (see 
cut, page 372). Going northward in the 
spring, their pathway can be traced until 
they reach Hudson Bay. There they dis- 
appear; the nest and eggs have never 
been found, and no white man has ever 
reported seeing a blue goose in the sum- 
mer. 


By exclusion and from the testimony 
of the natives, it is almost certain that 
they breed in the unexplored interior of 
the Labrador Peninsula. In the fall they 
reappear and move slowly south to the 
coast of Louisiana, where they are sub- 
ject to increasing persecution. ‘he Ward- 
McHlhenny Wildfowl Refuge, in the cen- 
ter of their winter range, will offer a 
welcome and much-needed shelter and go 
far toward preventing the total extinction 
of this rare species. 


DOMESTICATION PROVED POSSIBLE 


Artificial propagation is worthy of con- 
sideration. That this is feasible has been 
strikingly shown by J. W. Whealton, of 
Chincoteague Island, Virginia, who has 
been raising the Canada wild goose for 
more than 50 years, and some of his 
oldest and best pairs are well beyond the 
half-century mark; in fact, have had their 
golden weddings (see pages 378 and 
379). 

The homing instinct has become suffi- 
ciently developed for them to be trusted 
to feed at liberty, and the flocks, now 
numbering several hundred, forage on 
neighboring islands even 15 miles distant. 
No runaways have been known, and 
many pairs which spend the fall and 
winter on adjacent islands return reg- 
ularly every spring to their breeding pas- 
tures and their old nests. 

Even the black mallard, one of the 
wildest and most untamable of all water- 
fowl, has become semi-domesticated and 
has shown remarkable powers of repro- 
duction ; 1,200 ducks were raised in three 
years from a beginning of only 8o pairs. 
Mr. Whealton has also succeeded in 
breeding the greater snow goose, al- 
though its nest and eggs in the wild state 
are almost unknown, 


THE NEW FEDERAL LAW 


The closing hours of the last Congress 
were marked by the passage, late in Feb- 
ruary, of the McLean Bill for the pro- 
tection of migratory game birds. This 
bill declares all migratory game birds “to 
be within the custody and protection of 
the government of the United States,” 
and authorizes and directs the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture to prescribe and fix 
close seasons for their protection. 


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Photo from Wells W. Cooke 


. M. WHEALTON : 


CHINCOTEAGUE ISLAND, VIRGINIA 


This goose and her mate are over 50 years of age, and have come back to this nest volun- 
tarily, spring after spring, for nearly half a century 


This is easily the most important piece 
of game legislation that has ever been 
enacted. As the law does not go into 
effect until the first of July, the depart- 
ment has not yet promulgated its rules 
and regulations; but the curtailment of 
slaughter that is sure to follow this na- 
tion-wide attempt at game conservation 
cannot fail to have a marked effect in 
preserving and ultimately increasing the 
present remnants of the waterfowl. 

It is exceedingly fortunate that this 


379 


protective legislation has been taken in 
hand, for the McLean law will save our 
ducks and geese from the fate which has 
so unfortunately overtaken the passenger 
pigeon, which formerly existed in enor- 
mous numbers all over the country. To- 
day this bird is entirely extinct, the last 
survivor dying in the Zoo at Cincinnati 
a few days ago. 

J. J. Audubon, in his great work, “The 
Birds of America,” in Vol. V, page 26, 
writes: 


380 


“The multitudes of wild pigeons in our 
woods are astonishing. Indeed, after 
having viewed them so often and under 
so many circumstances, I even now feei 
inclined to pause and assure myself that 
what I am going to relate is fact. Yet 
I have seen it all, and that, too, in the 
company of persons who, like myself, 
were struck with amazement. 

“In the autumn of 1813 I left my house 
at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio, 
on my way to Louisville. In passing over 
the barrens, a few miles beyond Hardens- 
burgh, I observed the pigeons flying from 
northeast to southwest in greater num- 
bers than I thought I had ever seen them 
‘before, and feeling an inclination to count 
the flocks that might pass within tk> 
Teach Of aay ‘eye im one hour, I) dis- 
mounted, seated myself on an eminence, 
and began to mark with my pencil, mak- 
ing a dot for every flock that passed. In 
a short time, finding the task which I had 
undertaken impracticable, as the birds 
poured on in countless multitudes, I rose, 
and counting the dots then put down, 
found that 163 had been made in 21 
‘minutes. I traveled on and still met more 
the farther I proceeded. The air was 
literally filled with pigeons; the light of 
noonday was obscured as by an eclipse; 
the dung fell in spots, not unlike melting 
flakes of snow, and the continued buzz 
of wings had a tendency to lull my senses 
to repose. 

“Before sunset I reached Louisville, 
distant from Hardensburgh 55 miles. 
The pigeons were still passing in undi- 
minished numbers and continued to do 
so for three days in succession. The 
people were all in arms. The banks of 
the Ohio were crowded with men and 
boys, incessantly shooting at the pilgrims, 
which there flew lower as they passed the 


ROGAN AD ae 
~ \ 


Ss 


X 


THE. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


river. Multitudes were thus destroyed. 
For a week or more the population fed 
on no other flesh than that of pigeons 
and talked of nothing but pigeons.” 


FURTHER TESTIMONY 


So, too, Elliott Coues, writing in 1897 
in his “Key to North American Birds,” 
Vol. Il, page 712, comments on their 
threatened extinction thus: 

“We do not now have the millions that 
the earlier writers speak of in the eastern 
United States, and no contract for serv- 
ice has for many years included a clause 
that the hireling should not be fed too 
often on wild pigeons or salmon; but I 
remember one great flight over Washing- 
ton, D. C., when I was a boy, about 1858, 
and I witnessed in 1873 another, of count- 
less thousands, on Red River of the 
North. The greatest roosts and flights 
we now (1897) hear of are in the upper 
Mississippi Valley, though some of the 
birds may still breed in various wooded 
places all along our northern border and 
northward to Hudson’s Bay. The wild 
pigeon seems now a passenger to happier 
hunting-grounds than it or the Indian 
has ever found in this country in the 
wake of the bison and the fur seal. It 
has been often subjected to merciless and 
almost wanton destruction by hundreds 
of thousands at a single roost in a single 
season; and, if it is not entirely extermi- 
nated soon, it will be only because there 
are too few left to pay for persecution.” 

From such a fate the Mclean law has 
saved our ducks and geese, and, as its 
administration will be in the hands of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, it 
is certain that adequate steps will be 
taken to conserve and increase what is 
undoubtedly a great national asset. 


WANDERING ISLANDS IN THE RIO GRANDE 


By Mrs. Apert S. Burieson 


HE migratory habits of certain 

small bodies of land inhabiting 

the Rio Grande and known as 
“cut-offs,” or ‘‘bancos,” have been the 
occasion of protracted diplomatic corre- 
spondence and discussion between the 
United States and Mexico. 

Their refusal to remain permanently 
attached to one or the other of the river’s 
banks deprived them of a fixed legal 
status as either Mexican or American 
territory and brought about their partici- 
pation in many illegal and unrighteous 
adventures, which in turn led to mis- 
understandings between the two coun- 
tries. 

Inherently weak by reason of a loose, 
sandy soil, they are an easy prey to the 
power of the Rio Grande, a river of un- 
usual and striking characteristics and 
revolutionary action. 

No one with an intimate knowledge of 
a great river will wonder at the homage 
so frequently offered it by early peoples. 
Its personality is so real to those who 
have lived by it and on it and know some 
of the many things it can do that they 
come to have a feeling akin to the blind 
fear and admiration. expressed toward 
certain rivers in many acts by primitive 
races. 


A RIVER OF UNSETTLED HABITS 


In no river is spirit more evident than 
in the Rio Grande. From its birthplace 
in the snows of Colorado to where its 
flood meets the tides of the Gulf of 
Mexico, it seems a sentient intelligence. 
laden with messages for the country 
through which it passes. 

Its power to do good or to withhold it 
is apparent in the creation of rich allu- 
vial valleys, or when it plunges through 
rock-bound canyons, leaving the country 
for miles on either side a voiceless desert. 
Throughout its length it seems to brood 
over the land for good or for evil. Along 
its sinuous route below Rio Grande City 
it pushes its way through miles of level 
sand in its final reach to the Gulf, twist- 


ing and doubling upon itself like a great 
sea serpent. 

For centuries it. had coiled and un- 
coiled and straightened itself again in the 
yielding sands of the semi-arid region, 
with none to heed its vagaries, until 
Mexico and the United States, by the 
Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, in the 
year 1848, fixed upon it as the boundary 
line between the two countries and there- 
by brought it under international super- 
vision. Its unsettled habits were recog- 
nized, however, and in the earliest con- 
vention on the boundary question every 
effort was made to provide against future 
misunderstandings arising between the 
two countries because of them. 

The boundary was to be the “middle 
of the river, following the deepest chan- 
nel.” This seemed clear, and took practi- 
cal note of the river’s shifting current, 
and neither side foresaw that it would not 
prove broad enough to cover the good 
intention of each to the other. 

But the Rio Grande possessed char- 
acteristics that had not impressed them- 
selves upon the framers of the conven- 
tion as possible causes of friction between 
the people living along its banks. In ad- 
dition to its eroding power, exercised 
through long months of low and mean 
water, it could during flood periods leap 
with torrential force across a narrow 
neck of land at the base of one of its 
long loops and cut for itself a new 
channel. 


WHAT A BANCO IS 


Through such avulsive action of the 
river, Texas soil would’ sometimes be- 
come Mexican, and on occasions a plan- 
tation occupied by jacals and Mexican 
citizens would over night find itself a 
part of T'‘exas—and behold a banco!* 

To meet this condition a new conven- 


*A banco is the non-descriptive term—elud- 
ing translation, but whose nearest English 
equivalent is cut-off—applied to those portions 
of the territory thus separated from the main- 
land by the river. 


381 


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"i 

tion was negotiated, providing that no 

such avulsive action of the river should 
be permitted to change the boundary line 
as determined by the original survey, but 
that the line should “continue to follow 

the middle of the original channel bed, 
even though this should become wholly 
dry or be obstructed by deposits.” Each 
banco, or cut-off, therefore, though un- 
moored from its mother country, was to 
be regarded as a part of it, with no 
change of allegiance or jurisdiction. 

But the river still held revelations for 
the treaty-makers, and the carefully 
framed articles, which had considered 
natural changes in the boundary line due 
to “slow and gradual erosion and deposit 
of alluvium,” and also to avulsion, “by 
the abandonment of an existing river bed 
and the opening of a new one,” had not 
reckoned with the result of a combina- 
tion of such changes. 

When, after forming a banco, or cut- 
off, the river, by wearing into the oppo- 
site bank, would enlarge the banco by 
accretion, the ownership of the new land 
would immediately become the subject of 
dispute. 

To whom should it belong? To the 
owner of the banco, or to the man whose 
land formerly faced the river and was 
now separated from it by an intruder 
from the other side, but whose country 
claimed jurisdiction to the middle of the 
river’s channel? 


HOW A RIVER WORRIED STATESMEN 


An example will serve to show both 
the extraordinary actions of the river and 
the difficulties in the way of any satis- 
factory adjustment of conflicting inter- 
ests. 

In the year 1851 a certain Josiah 
Turner began to farm the Galveston 
Ranch, on the Texan bank of the Rio 
Grande. In 1859 he was greatly sur- 
prised when 221 acres of Mexican land 
suddenly came across the river and at- 
tached itself to his ranch. An arrange- 
ment was effected by which he became 
the owner of this land, which is now 
known as the Solisefio Banco. The river 
was tranquil until 1865, when it cut off 
a piece of Mr. Turner’s land and took 
it to Mexico, and there part of it re- 
mains to this day. The other part was 


OF THE RIO GRANDE 383 


gradually washed away; but in 1886 the 
river made up its mind to repay the 
farmer for what it had taken from him 
21 years before, and so carried back into 
Texas a piece of land far larger than the 
tract originally lost. But, unfortunately 
for the good intentions of the river, the 
land it restored belonged to owners on 
the Mexican side, and although it had 
attached itself to Mr. Turner’s land and 
had apparently become an inseparable 
part of it, the Mexican owners claimed 
possession. 

So great was the confusion of boun- 
dary lines, the disturbance of private and 
public titles to lands, and so many were 
the conflicts of jurisdiction between the 
two governments following upon such 
freakish actions of the river, that a new 
convention, dealing with the questions 
under dispute, became necessary. ‘To 
hasten action upon these and other mat- 
ters related to the boundary line and 
threatening the amicable relations of the 
two countries, it was found advisable to 
create a boundary commission clothed 
with authority to investigate and de- 
termine the merits of each contest. 

Composed of two members, one ap- 
pointed by each country, the only limit 
placed upon its discretionary power was 
the privilege, reserved by each govern- 
ment, to object within 30 days to its find- 
ings. Any question upon which the com- 
missioners failed to agree was to be re- 
ferred to the state departments of their 
respective governments, to await final 
disposition through the slow process of 
diplomatic correspondence. 

In view of the extended authority re- 
posed in this international court and the 
importance and delicacy of the questions 
brought before it, many of them com- 
plicated by ill-feeling upon the part of 
the complainants, it is fortunate for this 
country that President Cleveland’s choice 
of the United States Commissioner should 
have fallen upon Brigadier General An- 
son Mills, U. S. Army—a man eminently 
fitted to perform the duties of the posi- 
tion. To his fine discrimination, patience, 
and tact we owe the final solution of the 
banco problem. It seems simple, now that 
we have it, but when General Mills took 
up its consideration he found it a maze 
in which the diplomats of both countries 


At different seasons the 
river varies inwidth and 
sometimes is only half as wide 
as shown 


Yards 


ee, 


Present course ——— 
Course in 1898 === 


MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE WANDERINGS OF THE RIO GRANDE AND OF THE OLD 
BOUNDARY 


had been hopelessly wandering for years. 

The initial case brought before him 
and his Mexican colleague in their ca- 
pacity as commissioners was typical of 
all the others. Mexicans had been im- 
prisoned on the American side and Amer- 
icans. had been imprisoned on the Mexi- 
can side; troops of both countries had 
been ordered out to protect its citizens; 
both sides claimed their laws to have been 
violated; neither was willing to yield 
jurisdiction to the other. The next step 


might be riot and bloodshed. ‘This state 
of things, with endless variations, but 
always underlying it the probability of 
clash between the two peoples, prevailed 
throughout the banco region from Rio 
Grande City to the Gulf. 

Small in area, rarely attaining to 500 
acres in extent, not always arable, and 
rarely inhabited, many of them, indeed, 
mere sand banks, these bancos are yet 
rich in mystery and romance. About 
them has raged for years border conflicts 


384 


WANDERING ISLANDS OF THE RIO GRANDE 385 


that have crowded the dockets of the 
Texas Federal courts and piled high our 
official correspondence with Mexico. 

Oftentimes surrounded by a_ deep 
bayou, which marks the lazy trail of the 
river as it followed the line of least re- 
sistance through the loose soil, the banco, 
like a moated castle of medieval days, 
has become a stronghold for murderers, 
thieves, and smugglers. Here criminals 
have been able to defy the operation of 
the laws of both countries. Convictions 
are rarely possible when witnesses are 
always at hand ready to swear that the 
banco belongs to either Mexico or the 
United States, as the exigencies of the 
case may require. 

The zeal of a revenue officer oftener 
than not only means new difficulties— 
fresh strain on our relations with Mex- 
ico, with the silent work of the stiletto, 
perhaps, added to complicate the affair. 


HOW THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED 


A resurvey of the river made by the 
engineers attached to the boundary com- 
mission showed these “cut-offs” in every 
stage of existence. Some were still sur- 
rounded by water; around others the 
old bed of the river, though dry, could 
be plainly followed; while still others 
showed scarcely a trace of the old chan- 
nel, which had filled up with alluvium 
and become in some instances covered 
with brush or heavily timbered. Many 
of the bancos appearing on the map of 
the original survey made in 1853 were 
gone; many new ones and some in pro- 
cess of formation appeared in the new 
survey. 

To follow this devious line and mark 
it as the boundary between the two coun- 
tries, according to the latest treaty stipu- 
lation, would entail upon both a pro- 
tracted and costly work. 

Thoroughly familiar, from boyhood, 
with the Rio Grande and having also in 
later years given it the careful study of 
an engineer, General Mills knew that in 
the course of another 50 years the great, 
stealthy river would make still a different 
map—obliterating old bancos and form- 
ing new ones, sweeping away many of the 
boundary monuments and necessitating a 
repetition of the whole laborious work. 

It was here that the General drew his 


pencil through the troublesome little “cut- 
offs” and sent in his recommendation to 
the department that they be forever elim- 
inated from the boundary line, all those 
occurring on the right of the river to pass 
to the jurisdiction of Mexico, those on 
the left bank to that of Texas. The in- 
habitants, if any, should retain their citi- 
zenship in the country from which they 
had been so suddenly and violently de- 
tached, or they might acquire the na- 
tionality of the country to which the 
banco would now belong. Any cut-off 
exceeding 650 acres in area and having 
a population of over 200 souls was not 
to be considered a banco, and the old bed 
of the river should remain the boundary. 


AN EFFECTIVE AND EQUITABLE DECISION 


By this arrangement neither country 
suffered any appreciable loss of territory, 
for the bancos migrate with great im- 
partiality from one side or the other. 

The effectiveness of this plan was so 
apparent that it was promptly approved 
by our State Department. In Mexico the 
proposition, though heartily indorsed by 
the Mexican Commissioner, was held up 
upon the constitutional ground that the 
Mexican State Department had no right 
to cede any portion of Mexico’s territory 
to another country, and it was referred 
to a Senate committee for consideration. 

But legislative action followed so slowly 
that it was several years before Mexico, 
having in the meantime exhausted every 
possible effort to find a different way out 
of the difficulty, agreed to the elimination 
of the bancos. A convention was finally 
negotiated and sent to the United States 
Senate for ratification. There it was met 
by a protest from citizens of Texas living 
in Brownsville; and although this proved 
upon investigation to be nothing more 
than the cry of some questionable char- 
acters, whose activities in the field of 
smuggling would thereby be curtailed, it 
succeeded in delaying action upon the 
treaty for two years. 

During the closing days of the 6oth 
Congress the convention was at last rati- 
fied by the United States Senate. Two 
days later the Mexican Senate confirmed 
it. Today it stands in both countries as 
the supreme law on the much-agitated 
boundary question. 


During the five years that have elapsed 
since the conclusion of the treaty a com- 
mission of American and Mexican engi- 
neers has been constantly at work sur- 
veying the river, locating new bancos, 
and, on the basis described above, de- 
termining to which country they belong. 

At the end of December, 1912, the 
commission had located, surveyed, and 
mapped 89 bancos situated in the lower 
reaches of the river between Rio Grande 
City and its mouth. On each of these 


bancos a permanent monument has been 
erected, by means of which and the maps 
which have been prepared any given 
banco can now be identified, no matter 
what the action of the river may have 
been in the meantime. 

Thus the great turbid, silt-bearing river 
is left to pursue its way untrammeled; 
but the terrors so long synonymous with 
its name have through the operation of 
this equable arrangement become a part 
of the storied, romantic past. 


Photo by A. Y. Tugarinoff, Curator Krasnoyarsk Museum, Siena 
A LIVE SABLE IN THE MUSEUM AT KRASNOYARSK, SIBERIA 


Mr. Frank N. Meyer, an agricultural explorer of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
suggests that it might be a profitable venture for Americans in the northern Rocky Mountain — 
region to import a few pairs of the dark-skinned sables from the Krasnoyarsk district, Si- 
beria, with a view to breeding sables in America, just as blue and silver foxes are now bred 


successfully in eastern Canada. 


The opinion among Russian hunters and fur dealers is that 


the sable is not a difficult animal to manage, though it is reputed very fierce, cruel, and blood- 
thirsty. Owing to the great decrease in the number of sables captured, the price of the skin 
has mounted very rapidly, and now ranges from $20 to $154 per skin. ‘The Russian govern- 
ment has become so alarmed at the rapid decrease in the numbers of sable in Siberia that it 
has prohibited the hunting or trapping of this valuable anit.al for three years. 


it 


Whe vee” 1" brakes 
“pt m § 


NA, Ay Nithenay Seoeraphle Noelory 


This wonderful city, whieh was built by the 
Nuins discovered in South America sir 
about two hundred e 


THE RUINS OF AN ANCIENT 

. =e ; Val c 

Was discovered in 1911 by Professor Hiram Bingham, of Yale University, es of the National Geographic Society and Yale Univ 
Vhe city is situated on a Narrow, precipitous ridge, two thousand feet above the ri 


canyon of the Urubamba, one of the r 
Lincluding palaces, temples, shrines, baths, fountains, and many stairways. The city does not appear to have been known to the Spaniards. I 
. 


ice the conquest of Peru, * 
dlifices built of white granite, anc 


Theas probably 2,000 years ago, 


INCA CAPITAL, MACHU PICCHU 
and uncovered and excavated under his d 


trecuon in 1912, under the auspic 
ver and seven thousanc 


1 feet above the sea, in the grand 


St inaccessibl parts of the Ande sixty miles north 
i tr D o1ru Natior sC0UT Dit ) 
or further information, see Dr. Bir gham’s article in t number of tl i 


se 


Aes AE RNR Bt Fo I ne ON 


H 
What varae 


WASHINGTON 


VOL. XXIV, No. 4 APRIL, 1913 


IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU 


The Work Accomplished by the Peruvian Expedition of 
1912, under the Auspices of Yale University and 
the National Geographic Society 


By Hrram BincHaM, DIRECTOR OF THE EXPEDITION 


Prof. Hiram Bingham’s explorations in South America, 1906-1911, and par- 
ticularly his discoveries in IQII, were so important that when he was seeking funds 
for another Peruvian expedition in 1912, the Research Committce of the National 
Geographic Society made him a grant of $10,000, Yale University contributing an 
equal amount. His preliminary report to the National Geographic Society and 
Yale University of the work done in 1012 is printed herewith, and forms one of 
the most remarkable stories of exploration in South America in the past 50 years. 
The members of the Society are extremely gratified at the splendid record which 
Dr. Bingham and all the members of the expedition have made, and as we study 
the 250 marvelous pictures which are printed with this report, we also are thrilled 
by the wonders and mystery of Machu Picchu. What an extraordinary people the 
builders of Machu Picchu must have been to have constructed, without steel imple- 
ments, and using only stone hammers and wedges, the wonderful city of refuge on 


the mountain top —Ep1Tor. 
INTRODUCTORY 


HE Peruvian Expedition of 1912, 
under the auspices of Yale Uni- 
versity and the National Geo- 
graphic Society, was organized with the 
specific purpose of carrying on the work 
begun by the Yale Peruvian Expedition 
of 1911. It was not intended to cover 
such a large area as had been done the 
year before, but to do intensive work in 
a part of the field where only reconnais- 
sance work had been previously at- 
tempted. 

The staff of the expedition consisted 
of the following: Prof. Hiram Bingham, 
director; Prof. Herbert E. Gregory, ge- 
ologist ; Dr. George F. Eaton, osteologist ; 
Mr. Albert H. Bumstead, chief topogra- 
pher; Mr. Ellwood C. Erdis, archeologi- 
cal engineer; Dr. Luther T. Nelson, sur- 
geon; Messrs. Kenneth C. Heald and 
Robert Stephenson, assistant topogra- 
phers, and Messrs. Paul Bestor, Osgood 
Hardy, and Joseph Little, assistants. 


The director, osteologist, and the two 
assistant topographers left New York 
May 16, and were followed three weeks 
later by most of the others. The geolo- 
gist was not able to leave until August; 
but as the plans for his work called for 
a study of a comparatively small region, 
the three months that he was able to 
spend in Peru were sufficient for his 
needs. Practically the entire party re- 
turned to New York in the latter part of 
December, after an absence of seven 
months, 

With one exception, the members of the 
expedition enjoyed fairly good health 
during their stay in the field. An occa- 
sional acute gastritis or enteritis resulted 
from indiscretions in diet. Assistant 
Hardy and the soldier who accompanied 
the topographical party suffered a slight 
attack of malaria, but this was soon over- 
come by quinine. 

In making a reconnaissance of the ex- 
tremely inaccessible and primitive ruins 


N ~ 


PSX nta Ana 


4 \ 


ree 


ROUTE MAP OF 


THE PERUVIAN EXPEDITION OF 1912 


UNDER THE AUSPICES OF 


YALE UNIVERSITY & THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HIRAM BINGHAM, DIRECTOR 


b a 
PAT 9 So 
oN sYileabey or Ss 
\ Leif Ccoribu™ oe ua, 
PuquiurayyVitcos fa, Sea 24, 
Villcabambaey 2Nusta Espana, j 2 <5 
Gj a ON rey \ - 
Chdég DN 7 1 I | Ca¥ 5 a Yom 
(aug Mt. oe a & S So SS 
Huarancalg ma / ha. 5 Zz aor 
: Yanama ( Q “Chy\ 
- Palcay® & Torontoy® >, 
\ \ 3 apo SS Ollantaytambo 
H Van e Wik guises. 
Mt.iSalcanta : % iY d f Gee ce 
: ‘ ony Bae CN 
/ = Ole Chincheros®  “4\/' 55, 
: * ~®Pampacahuape~. 4 Ose 2 
32 Choqquequirau._ arany? es SSN s 
a ee tee hie: é 
eS __-©Limatambo me ? 
2m, @la/Estrella 
o cage 
Cachora 7? 
ac) 7 : \ Rigi 
Q Paccaritampué- “ee Mohina 
Tampu Tocco” ¢ Gi 
Ve 
7 i 
: Ferrobamba, 
Scale of Miles rs 
10 5 ° 10 20 .” 


bY jj Ws 4 
Ly 
““dijff¥#-Y 


Scale of Kilometers 
10 > ° 10 20 jo +0 50 60 


Shading indicates where topographic surveys were. made. 


72° 


MAP OF REGION EXPLORED BY YALE-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY EXPEDITION 


The dotted lines indicate the routes taken by various members of the expedition and 


show how thoroughly the country was covered during 1912. 
extent of the careful topographical surveys. 


The shaded areas indicate the 
The black spot on the little map of South 


America in the corner indicates the location and extent of the route map. 


on the mountain of Huayna Picchu, As- 
sistant Topographer Heald was so un- 
fortunate as to lose his foothold on the 
VSRRS Ol a jorecnores, incl acl a wery 
narrow escape from death. This acci- 
dent resulted in a rupture of the liga- 
ments of his collar-bone, which later in- 
capacitated him for some time and pre- 
vented his accomplishing the reconnais- 
sance work in the Pampaconas Valley 
which had been planned. 

Assistant Bestor had the misfortune 
to contract amcebic dysentery while on 
a journey in the interior. Very proba- 
bly he was infected by drinking unboiled 
water from the Apurimac River at 
Pasaje. His condition failed to improve 
after seven weeks of treatment, and he 


was obliged to return to the United 
States.° He was kindly received at 


Ancon Hospital, and was there put on 


the road to complete recovery. 

We found an epidemic of smallpox 
and typhoid fever raging in the towns 
of Arma, Puquiura, and Lucma. These 
towns of 150 to 200 inhabitants had had 
a death toll of 40 and 50 people each. 


There was very little opportunity for 


medical work among the native Indians, 
but the more educated Peruvians were 
extremely glad to come to the inee 
clinics. 
There are no physicians in most of 
the villages of the interior; consequently 
the owners of the large plantations have 
to rely entirely on their own efforts at 


388 


ra 


2 
7 
= al 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
STRAW BOATS ON THE BEACH AT PACASMAYO, PERU 


On their way to southern Peru the members of the expedition touched at various ports, 
including Pacasmayo, where the fishermen use a peculiar form of canoe. These canoes, or 
balsas, are made of rushes and have to be dried out each time they are used. The picture 
also shows a typical fisherman’s hut made of split bamboo. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A FISHERMAN AND HIS CATCH AT SALAVERRY, PERU 
Another port at which the expedition touched was Salaverry. Here they met a fisher- 


man and his burro bringing in two large skates, called rayas, which they were taking to sell 
in the Salaverry market. 


3890 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
IN FRONT OF THE CATHEDRAL: LIMA, PERU 


The first part of the expedition arrived in Lima just in time to witness the annual 
procession of Corpus Christi. Starting from the cathedral, shown at-the right, the pro- 
cession, made up largely of little children in attractive costumes, passed around the four 
sides of the principal plaza and returned to the cathedral. This picture, taken before the 
procession started, shows the military band and escort, and the carpet of flowers and green 
leaves over which the procession was to pass. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
CORPUS CHRISTI PROCESSION: LIMA, PERU 


On one of the corners of the plaza a temporary altar, elaborately decorated, had been erected, 
and here the Corpus Christi procession stopped while Benediction was given 


390 


curing diseases among the In- 
dians in their employ. Very few 
Peruvians are properly vacci- 
nated. 


STRANGE MODE OF VACCINATION 


The Indians believe that vacci- 
nation with pus from the lesions 
of a patient who has died with 
smallpox confers immunity from 
the disease. ‘They practice this 
sort of vaccination, with the re- 
sult that many who are thus in- 
oculated die from the disease. 

There is no attempt made to 
isolate the smallpox or typhoid 
patients. Neighbors mingle freely 
in the huts where the diseases 
exist, and at the funeral of the 
dead they have feasts in which 
every one partakes, many using 
common cups and dishes. The 
clothes of the dead are washed 
in the same stream from which 
the people in the villages get their 
drinking water. There are no 
windows in the highland huts, 
and there is no attempt at clean- 
liness in the dark interiors. Of 
course, fumigation is unknown 
and vermin abound. 

On many of the large plan- 
tations conditions are better. 
There the owners of the estates 
vaccinate their Indian tenants 
and laborers. In some of the 
villages a priest will vaccinate a 
few during his annual or semi- 
annual visit, so that some do get 
the benefit of protection from 
smallpox. In the cities, on the 
other hand, while many are vac- 
cinated, there are many who are 
not, so that even in Cuzco small- 
pox was raging during our stay; and. 
furthermore, practically no attempt was 
being made at isolation or any other 
measure to prevent the spread of the 
epidemic. 

Notwithstanding many hardships and 
the presence of a considerable amount 
of illness in southern Peru, all the mem- 
bers of our party worked hard and faith- 
fully, and the general results of the ex- 
pedition were highly satisfactory. 


lath. 


cathedral. i 
emphasized in this picture, where the repair wagon of 
the trolley line is seen at the right only a few feet from 
this religious procession so redolent of the middle ages. 
The towers of the cathedral are made of plaster and 


In 


391 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
CORPUS CHRISTI PROCESSION: LIMA, PERU 


After Benediction had been given on the corner of 
the plaza, the procession moved slowly toward the 


The “conflict of old and new” is vividly 


this land of earthquakes it was not considered 
safe to build them of stone. 
RESULTS ACHIEVED BY THE EXPEDITION 


The work actually accomplished may 
be grouped under the following heads: 
(1) Machu Picchu; its archeology and 
osteology, and the topography and for- 
estration of the surrounding region (see 
pages 402 to 517). 

(2) The Cuzco region; its geology, 
osteology, and topography, with special 
reference to the age of its vertebrate re- 
mains (see pages 490 to 5060). 


"W998 S¥Y , [PWD UBSTIOUTY,, SIY} JEY} UOTEOI|SOUIOp FO SoTIMjzUId OY} 0} SUEpIAD Jvoq S[euTUe JUS1IBIP 
dy} JO sSurrewm poyesarsea ayy, -“einjord sy} JO JousOD puey-jjo] JoMoy ou} Ul uses aq Ae pue ‘padsowes useq ysnf pey syoed Jey} ‘Seo SITY} 
UI se ‘saUIjaWIOg ‘uses A]jUaNbesZ oFM SeUUEI] JO SpJoy ‘SuoHeys peorfel ou} Tvou ‘KEM 34} UG “OOZMD 0} YOU VdUIY} PUB BVI], oye’] Jeou 
eoeynf 0} [rer Aq Opualjoy, FO yod oy} WoIZ JUOM uolipedxe oy} ‘seddns fo oseq 94} “Oozn) pue suoijeiodO JO pjey IY} YOvIt 0} Jops1o UT 


nwd NYA TOOS ‘NOILVIS VSOU VINVS LV SVNVTI 
weysurg weary Aq 004g ; 


392 


SJ10dX9 JS9ITIOYD 9Y} JO 9UO SI [OOM BIVd]y ‘spsoydays Aq papusye SAeMye div jnq ‘d}RXs P[IM B Ul jsIxo Jou Op pure ‘ 


N41dg ime) 
SolInjuodo 1OfF peyeoTsouop UdaC 


aAvy AO], “SpunO1s Sulpoos [VANeU 194} Puy See], pue svoedye JO spuesnoy} oozng pue BOBOHEL, PAP] UaoMJoq sainysed purjdn ysiy ay} uC 


SVINVTI GNV SVOVd’IV 


wieysulg weirpy Aq ojoyg 


393 


‘adeose [je plnos 


Ady} sproy Tey} SULIOMO] Ajasow AG “sxDeU poyeto AHS ty} episjno punole passed ‘adoi ajsuis B@ Aq ‘ginjoid oY} UL UMOYS SI SB “poinyes 
aq Aew sewer] yo dnois & ey} Surpurys eros Jedoid sy uyejuyeut O} auIsap & yeaIB OS PUR IdUIST{JoJ! ATeUTPIO eft] OS SLY] eUIe]] IL 


AWHa NI GIVIHLaL AVY SVIV'TT MOH SHLVULSATIT AMALIA STH 


aj00g “M *H Aq 010Ud 


394 


Photo by H. L. Tucker 


A TYPICAL PERUVIAN PLAZA 


The llamas are loaded with rock-salt. 


The open sewer in the center of the street is char- 


acteristic of many mountain towns 


(3) A contour map from Abancay to 
Puquiura, completing the topography of 
the cross-section from Camana, on the 
Pacific Ocean, to canoe navigation on the 
Urubamba, begun in I9II (see map, 
page 388, and pages 506 to 510). 

(4) The topography and archeology 
of Vitcos and vicinity (see pages 511 to 
520). 

(5) The identification of ancient Inca 
place names of Vilcabamba that occur in 
the Spanish chronicles, but do not appear 
on any known maps (see page 520). 

(6) An archeological and topographi- 
cal reconnaissance of the hitherto-unex- 
plored Aobamba Valley (see pages 520 
to 544). 

(7) A reconnaissance of the northern 
route to Choqquequirau and a brief oste- 


395 


ological and archeological reconnaissance 
of that city (see pages 544 to 501). 

(8) An anthropological study of the 
highland Indians of southern Peru, in- 
cluding the careful anthropometric meas- 
urement of 145 individuals (see pages 
561 to 564). 

(9) The taking of weather observa- 
tions on the road and in the camps and 
the establishment at widely different ele- 
vations of four meterological stations 
along the 71st meridian west of Green- 
wich (see pages 564 and 565). 

(10) The collection, wherever practi- 
cable, of paleontological, osteological, 
ethnological, and archeological material 
(see page 507). 

The following report takes up these 
subjects in the order named. 


‘opiskem ayy Aq a[qqiu 0} daey Aoy} APSurpsoody ‘way} 4104 pelses st Iappoy ON ‘Aep & 
So]IW Uo} UBY} IIOU sseRIOAR AjaIeI AY], “S}sot JUONDa1y oye} 0} paMoTe pue ATMOS AIOA pue Al[NJored UdAIIp oq ysnuw sewer] sAouinof suo, uC 


.d4adS TINT YaNA NVAVUVO VINVTIT V 


deyony, “yy “E Aq ow0yg 


396 


Photo by L. T. Nelson 
A GROUP OF INDIAN ALCALDES: SOUTHERN PERU 


Near Checcacupe Station was a group of Indian Alcaldes bearing their staffs of office 
decorated with bands of silver. The Alcalde is the native Indian official who stands between 
the local government magistrate and the natives of his village, or of his section of a city. 
They do no manual labor, but frequently have anything but an easy time. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
BRINGING IN THE SHEAVES: CUZCO, PERU 


Nearly all of the manual labor in southern Peru is done by native Indians who 
Quichua, the language of the Incas. Here they are seen harvesting a barley crop, 


speak 
the sheaves to the threshing floor, where cattle and horses are st 


taking 


ill used in treading out the 
corn. 


397 


fiied 0} spunod jour 10 AJYSi9 ULY} IIOWW UOAIS WoOpas aie seurey’] ‘paods [ensnun jsow e 4e OzZND 0} palsiny Suraq sem 
YSIYM ‘ures} VWI] Sy} Se jsey sv OS ApoIeL AY} JNq ‘Uspind fo sjs¥aq se SsULIPUT URIANJOq 94} Aq jJUo}xe o[qeIapIsuod e& O} pasn [4s ae svUe]’] 


: AATIVA OOZND : NON AHL NO NIVSL VNV TT V 


weysurg wesrpy Aq 004g 


308 


Photo by L. T. Nelson 
A SCENE AT SICUANI STATION, SOUTHERN FERU 


At the railway stations between Lake Titicaca and Cuzco there were invariably groups 
of picturesquely clad Indians nearly always wearing a poncho, and sometimes felt hats, but 
more often the gaudily decorated reversible pancake-hat characteristic of this part of Peru. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A FOUR-HORNED SHEEP: CUZCO, PERU 


In the Cuzco Valley may be seen many flocks of sheep. Most of them are of poor 
quality and they do not compare favorably with the blooded stock in Argentina. A not 
tincommon sight in the Cuzco herds is an occasional four-horned ram. 


309 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A TYPICAL MOUNTAINEER S HUT: SOUTHERN PERU 


Tt was sometimes necessary to camp very close to the Indians’ huts, as there was so 
little available flat land in many of the valleys. In such cases a family group was almost 
sure to gather and satisfy their curiosity as to the ways of these visiting explorers. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


GROUP OF MOUNTAIN INDIANS: SOUTHERN PERU 


The Mountain Indians were always interested in our work and usually were content to 
silently watch the passage of our caravans, of quietly speculate on the activities of the topo- 
graphical engineer. Once, towever, the chief topographer was attacked by a dozen excited 
Indians who thought that he and his assistant were working some devilment with their 
strange instruments. Fortunately by diplomatic means they were dissuaded from doing 
any harm. Note the bare feet of the women at this great altitude, which is over 14,000 feet. 


400 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


CARRYING ADOBE BLOCKS: SOUTHERN PERU 


The modern method of building a house in Cuzco and in the uplands of Peru is to 
begin by making a sufficient number of adobe bricks (sundried mud mixed with straw or 
rubbish). They are made just about as large as can be conveniently carried by one work- 
man. In this case they were intended for the local magistrate’s new house near Choquetira. 


Photo by L. T. Nelson 


A TYPICAL PERUVIAN INDIAN WOMAN AT QUIQUIJANA, SOUTHERN PERU 


Indian women in Peru are never idle. Even when walking along the roads they are 
almost always engaged in spinning with old-fashioned whirl-bobs and spindles such as their 
ancestors used over a thousand years ago. 


401 


SR 
. i 


weit ae ; 
Photo by Hiram Bingham 
CROSSING THE APURIMAC RIVER 


Among the many hardships encountered by the expedition was the difficulty of fording 
the rivers under adverse circumstances. In this case, at Pasaje on the Apurimac, there was 
no wood in the immediate vicinity available for rafts, and it was necessary to wait several 
hours before the local ferryman, who lived more than a mile away on the wrong side of 
the river, could be aroused by firing of shots to bring his ancient raft to our assistance. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


TROUBLES WITH THE TRANSPORT: SOUTHERN PERU 


Even after we had the raft our troubles were not at an end, for our mules strenuously 
objected to jumping off the rocks into the deep and rapid current 


402 


_ gone race. 


IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU 


ib 


THE CITY OF MACHU PICCHU, THE CRADLE 
OF THE INCA EMPIRE 


In 1911, while engaged in a search for 
-Vitcos, the last Inca capital, I went down 
the Urubamba Valley asking for reports 
-as to the whereabouts of ruins. 
The first day out from Cuzco saw us 
-in Urubamba, the capital of a province, 
-a modern town charmingly located a- few 
miles below Yucay, which was famous 
_ for being the most highly prized winter 
-resort of the Cuzco Incas. The next day 
brought us to Ollantaytambo, vividly de- 
scribed by Squier in his interesting book 
on Peru. Its ancient fortress, perched 
on a rocky eminence that commands a 
‘magnificent view up and down the val- 
ley, is still one of the most attractive 
ancient monuments in America. 
Continuing on down the valley over a 
newly constructed government trail, we 
found ourselves in a wonderful cafion. 
So lofty are the peaks on either side that 
although the trail was frequently shad- 
owed by dense tropical jungle, many of 
the mountains were capped with snow, 
‘and some of them had glaciers. There is 
no valley in South America that has such 
varied beauties and so many charms. 
Not only has it snow-capped peaks, 
great granite precipices, some of them 
2,000 feet sheer, and a dense tropical 
jungle; it has also many reminders of 
the architectural achievements of a by- 
The roaring rapids of the 
-Urubamba are frequently narrowed by 
skillfully constructed ancient retaining 
- walls. Wherever the encroaching preci- 
_ pices permitted it, the land between them 
_ and the river was terraced. With pains- 
taking care the ancient inhabitants res- 
cued every available strip of arable land 
from the river. On one sightly bend in 
the river, where there is a particularly 
good view, and near a foaming water- 
fall, some ancient chief built a temple 
whose walls, still standing, only serve to 
tantalize the traveler, for there is no 
bridge within two days’ journey and the 
intervening rapids are impassable. On a 
precipitous and well-nigh impregnable 


403 


cliff, walls made of stones carefully fitted 
together had been placed in the weak 
spots, so that the defenders of the valley, 
standing on the top of the cliff, might 
shower rocks on an attacking force with- 
out any danger of their enemies being 
able to scale the cliff (see pages 405 and 
419). 

The road, following in large part an 
ancient footpath, is sometimes cut out of 
the side of sheer precipices, and at others 
is obliged to run on frail brackets 
propped against the side of overhanging 
cliffs. It has been an expensive one to 
build and will be expensive to maintain. 
The lack of it prevented earlier ex- 
plorers from penetrating this cafion. Its 
existence gave us the chance of discover- 
ing Machu Picchu (see pages 405, 420, 
421, 423). 

On the sixth day out from Cuzco we 
arrived at a little plantation called Man- 
dorpampa. We camped a few rods away 
from the owner’s grass-thatched hut, and 
it was not long before he came to visit us 
and to inquire our business. He turned 
out to be an Indian rather better than 
the average, but overfond of “fire-water.”’ 
His occupation consisted in selling grass 
and pasturage to passing travelers and in 
occasionally providing them with ardent 
spirits. He said that on top of the mag- 
nificent precipices near by there were 
some ruins at a _ place called Machu Pic- 
chu, and that there were others still more 
inaccessible at Huayna Picchu, on a peak 
not far distant from our camp. He of- 
fered to show me the ruins, which he had 
once visited, if I would pay him well for 
his services. His idea of proper pay- 
ment was 50 cents for his day’s labor. 
This did not seem unreasonable, although 
it was two and one-half times his usual 
day’s wage. 

Leaving camp soon after breakfast I 
joined the guide, and, accompanied by a 
soldier that had been kindly loaned me 
by the Peruvian government, plunged 
through the jungle to the river bank, and 
came to a shaky little bridge made of 
four tree trunks bound together with 
vines and stretching across a stream only 
a few inches above the roaring rapids. 


ut pres oUF FO Souris OU SuMutOy J IUeISIP OY} UL SUIPIUNOUL OUP CLOL$O uo podx’| 
UBIANAId 94) JO UOHIE FO sausos [edjouysd oyy FO SUO SEM “TIGT UT PsisAoosip “NySoIg NYyeW jo AD eouy [nFIapuom oy} 


spider 94} Aq Sapis 9e14} UO pue sadidisaid Aq sapis ][e@ uO payoajo1d pue nysaq eukenfy pees [ry ay} Jo jos oy} ye aSPlI ay} Jo do} uC 
NONVO VaNVdndn AHL GNV (ONINVH'IO ONINAG) NHODd AHOVW JO MATA WA-S CUA 


teysurg weary Aq oj0yg 


Photo by Hiram bingnam 
A BIT OF THE ROAD NEAR MACHU PICCHU: URUBAMBA RIVER 


The surroundings of Machu Picchu are remarkably wild and the scenery is inexpres- 
sibly beautiful. The city lies above the precipices which show in the distance in this pic- 
ture. The road in the foreground was constructed a few years ago at great expense by 
the Peruvian government. Early explorers, being obliged to avoid this portion of the 
Urubamba Valley by the absence of any road, were unaware of the whereabouts of Machu 
Picchu, although rumors of its existence had reached the ears of a French explorer forty 
years ago. 


405 


Se tie a a rt ol : 
a 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE URUBAMBA CANON 


A part of the Urubamba Cafion as seen from the top of Machu Picchu Mountain, 4,000 
feet above the river 


«Mag, SY JO ATXX Joydeyy 
ut ‘sainbg “5 “sy aqe] oy Aq YsSuy ul paqisosap A]peotydess ys1y seM J] ‘sapuy oY} Ul SUMO} BOUT pozesqo[9d JsOU dy} JO UO ‘OquIRIALJURIIO 
IBau JOANT VQuIeqNI ay} JO opis }SIM Jy} UO SI SSat}IOJ JUDIOUL SIYT, ‘aINJIa}YIIe BOUT JO suIeWaI AULUE SUIe}UOD AITTVA BQweqniy, sy, 


AWTIVA VANVAINNN :OANVIAVINVTTIO YVAN SSHMLIOT LNAIONV NV 
weysurg wesrpy Aq 0J0Yg 


oe ee 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE TEMPLE OF THE THREE WINDOWS: MACHU PICCHU 


It was this extraordinary temple, whose most characteristic feature is three large win- 
dows, a unique occurrence in early Peruvian architecture, that led us to the belief that 
Machu Picchu might be Tampu Tocco, the mythical place from which the Incas came when 
they started out to found that great empire which eventually embraced a large part of 
South America (see also pages 410, 414, 431, and 480). 


On the other side we had a hard climb; 
first through the jungle and later up a 
very stiff, almost precipitous, slope. 
About noon we reached a little grass hut, 
where a good-natured Indian family who 
had been living here for three or four 
years gave us welcome and set before us 
gourds full of cool, delicious water and 
a few cold boiled sweet potatoes. 
Apart from another hut in the vicinity 
and a few stone-faced terraces, there 
seemed to be little in the way of ruins, 
and I began to think that my time had 
been wasted. However, the view was 
magnificent, the water was delicious, and 
the shade of the hut most agreeable. So 
we rested a while and then went on to 
the top of the ridge. On all sides of us 
rose the magnificent peaks of the Uru- 
bamba Cafion, while 2,000 feet below us 
the rushing waters of the noisy river, 
making a great turn, defended three sides 
of the ridge, on top of which we were 
hunting for ruins. On the west side of 
the ridge the three Indian families who 
had chosen this eagle’s nest for their 
home had built a little path, part of 


which consisted of crude ladders of vines 
and tree trunks tied to the face of the 
precipice. 

Presently we found ourselves in the 
midst of a tropical forest, beneath the 
shade of whose trees we could make out 
a maze of ancient walls, the ruins of 
buildings made of blocks of granite, 
some of which were beautifully fitted to- 
gether in the most refined style of Inca 
architecture. A few rods farther along 
we came to a little open space, on which 
were two splendid temples or palaces. 
The superior character of the stone 
work, the presence of these splendid edi- 
fices, and of what appeared to be an 
unusually large number of finely con- 
structed stone dwellings, led me to believe 
that Machu Picchu might prove to be the 
largest and most important ruin discoy- 
ered in South America since the days of 
the Spanish conquest. 

A few weeks later I asked Mr. H. L. 
Tucker, the engineer of the 1911 Expe- 
dition, and Mr. Paul Baxter Lanius, the 
assistant, to go to Machu Picchu and 
spend three weeks there in an effort to 


408 


partially clear the 
ruins and make such 
a map as was possi- 
ble in the time at 
their disposal. The 
result of this work 
confirmed me in my 
belief that here lay a 
unique opportunity 
for extensive clear- 
ing and excavating. 
The fact that one 
of the most impor- 
tant buildings was 
marked by three 
large windows, a 
rare feature in Pe- 
ruvian architecture, 
and that many of the 
other buildings had 
windows, added to 
the significant cir- 
cumstance that the 
city was located in 
the most inaccessible 
part of the Andes, 
inclined me to feel 
that there was a 
chance that Machu 
Picchu might prove 
to be Tampu Tocco, 
that mythical place 
from which the In- 
cas had come when 
they started out to 
found Cuzco and to 
make the beginnings 
of that great empire 
which was to em- 
brace a large part of 
South America. 


AN ANCIENT INCA 
TRADITION 


A story told to 
some of the early 
Spanish chroniclers 
in regard to that 
distant historical 
event runs some- 
what as follows: 

Thousands of 
years ago there lived 
in the highlands of 
Peru a_ megalithic 
folk who developed 
a remarkable civili- 


409 


ingham 


Photo by Hiram I 


MACHU PICCHU 


THE SACRED: PLAZA 


aracter of the stone work, and the unusually large number 


The presence at Machu Picchu of these splendid temples and palaces, the superior ch 


finely 


since 


ot 


America 


t and most important ruin discovered in South 


the Sacred Plaza, the Temple of the Three Windows (behind the man), and, 


Machu Picchu is the larges 
nposing structure in the city (see pages 431 and 408). 


inclines us to believe that 


dwellings, 


Spanish co 


constructed stone 


at the 


shows 


This pictur 


the 


days of 


the 
left, the Chief Temple, the most i1 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


America 


led Yucay. The climate is most delightful, and the scenery as fine as anything in South 


THE URUBAMBA VALLEY AND THE ROAD TO CUZCO 


This part of the Urubamba Valley is sometimes ca 


410 


zation, and who left, as architec- 
tural records, such cyclopean struc- 
tures as the fortresses of Sacsahu- 
aman and Ollantaytambo. These 
people were attacked by barbarian 
hordes coming from the south—. 
possibly from the Argentine pam- 
pas. They were defeated, and fled 
into one of the most inaccessible 
Andine cafions. Here, in a region 
strongly defended by nature, they 
established themselves; here their 
descendants lived for several cen- 
turies. The chief place. was called 
Tampu Tocco. Eventually regain- 
ing their military strength and be- 
coming crowded in this mountain- 
ous valley, they left ‘Tampu Tocco, 
and, under the leadership of three 
brothers, went out of three win- 
dows (or caves) and started for 
Wuzcon, 

The migration was slow and de- 
liberate. They eventually reached 
Cuzco, and there established the 
Inca kingdom, which through sev- 
eral centuries spread by conquest 
over the entire plateau, and even 
as far south as Chile and as far 
north as Ecuador. 

This Inca empire had reached its 
height when the Spaniards came. 
The Spaniards were told that 
Tampu Tocco was at a place called 
Pacaritampu, a small village a day’s 
journey southwest cf Cuzco and in 
the Apurimac Valley. The chron- 
iclers duly noted this location, and 
it has been taken for granted ever 
since that T'ampu Tocco was at Pa- 
caritampu. 


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ““‘WINDOWS” 


ce 


Tampu means “ tavern,” Ot ae 
place of temporary abode.” Tocco 
means “window.” ‘The legend 1s 
distinctly connected with a place of 
windows, preferably of three win- 
dows, from which the three broth- 
ers, the heads of three tribes or 
clans, started out on the campaign 
that founded the Inca empire. 

So far as I could discover, few 
travelers have ever taken the trou- 


* See Markham’s “Incas of Peru,” 
Chapter IV. 


*AQ|[VA [NJaopuomM siy} JO Sjurod Aj}YSIs Jsou! ay} UO Sasnoy AJjJUNOD Alay} JO 9WOS YING ‘sMaIA [NyFIWNeAq JO dAIVeIDeIdde IDAd 


‘SPOUT AY, “BUI, JO YINOS dy} JO Jey} ayIJUN jou ajeuNpD ve skOfud JE ‘VIS ay} DAOGE Jada} 000'O st AaT]eA ay} JO WO OG ay} YBnoyYy ‘Avonx 


JO SUBPILS SNOW] IL O S99R119} UD9I1S JJISINDXS JY} O} UMOP SAPUY PPRII-ADIOPTS 9U} JO SjSoid BSurs9yys dt sed ANS [eoId01} DU} JO ONIG VSuap at 
3 I JF Pt J } ISI : . f i | iS Jeo! 1} J 1} 


Wolf MOpeYys Jo yJdep pue JOJOD Jo UOTJepess ATA SI oOYT, “P[JOM oY} ul Moy Aq pur ‘niog ul Aue Aq Inapuvss 10 Aynevaq JO; passedinsun st MIA 


SIY, “Sasnoy A1jUNOD 4foYy} JOF OOzZND JO svoUT oy} Aq PotOALF ysou AdT[VA vquUeqn1~) dy} JO UOT}IOd yey} seM ABONA JO AoTpea [nyyNeeq oy, 


NYAd NYAHLNOS NI LOdS LSHI'THAO'T AHL ‘AVONA 


weysurg wesrpy Aq 0J0oY4g 


4Il 


- 


24 st S55 5 
a NES vy 


— 


» 
SIq} JO suOI}dIIosap jsaq ay} FO VUE) 


Joxyony, “T “ET Aq ooyg 


Sa 
2 


ARM to;duyy 
‘OeSIq pay[eo 


‘ 


«M49d,, bh 
Jepeyo 10 


snubs ut st esejd juryiodui pue UMOoUy [Jom 
‘g]dua} BOUT [NfJopuoM eB FO sulns oy} o4e AdT[eA AON ayy JO pua saddn oy} yy 


OVSId LV SHOVUNAL PTNAIONV AA 


412 


Photo by H. L. Tucker 
THE RUINS OF PISAC 
A nearer view of part of these remarkable ruins, which resemble in the care and exquisite 
finish of the stone-cutting the best ruins at Machu Picchu and in Cuzco 


Photo by H. L. Tucker 


LLAMAS IN THE YUCAY VALLEY 


The llamas are carrying bundles of fire-wood. The total cargo of each llama is worth 
about 20 cents. The llama is valued at about $3.00. Back of the trees on either side of the 
road are fruit orchards interspersed with acres of strawberry fields. This valley is the 
garden spot of southern Peru. The climate is like that of California. 


413 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A BIT OF OLLANTAYTAMBO, SOUTHERN PERU 


On top of the crag, which overlooks the little village of Ollantaytambo, the Incas and 


their predecessors built a remarkable fortress. 


struction of this fortress weigh over eight tons. 


ble to visit Pacaritampu, and no one 
knew whether there were any buildings 
with windows, or caves, there. | 

It was part of our plan to settle this 
question, and Dr. Eaton undertook the 
reconnaissance of Pacaritampu. He re- 
ports the presence of a small ruin, evi- 
dently a kind of rest-house or tavern, 
pleasantly located in the Apurimac Val- 
ley, but not naturally defended by na- 
ture and not distinguished by windows. 
In fact, there are neither windows nor 
caves in the vicinity, and the general 
topography does not lend itself to a ra- 
tional connection with the tradition re- 
garding Tampu Tocco (see page 415). 

The presence at Machu Picchu of 
three large windows in one of the most 
conspicuous and best-built structures led 
me to wonder whether it might not be 
possible that the Incas had purposely de= 
ceived the Spaniards in placing 1ampu 


Some of the single stones used in the con- 


Tocco southwest of Cuzco when it was 
actually north of Cuzco, at Machu Picchu. 

The Incas knew that Machu Picchu, 
in the most inaccessible part of the Andes, 
was so safely hidden in tropical jungles 
on top of gigantic precipices that the 
Spaniards would not be able to find it 
unless they were guided to the spot. It 
was naturally to their advantage to con- 
ceal the secret of the actual location of 
Tampu Tocco, a place which their tra- 
ditions must have led them to venerate. 
The topography of the region meets the 
necessities of the tradition: The presence 
of windows in the houses might readily 
give the name T'ampu Tocco, or “place 
of temporary residence where there are 
windows,” to this place, and the three 
conspicuous windows in the principal 
temple fits in well with the tradition of 
the three brothers coming ovt of three 
windows. 


~ 


F, Eaton 


Photo by G. 
THE RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, NEAR PACARITAMPU 
A small ruin pleasantly located in the Apurimac Valley. This is the principal ruin of 
the little group which the Incas made the Spaniards believe was the home of their an- 
cestors. The surrounding country is not naturally defended and the ruins are not dis- 
tinguished by windows. In other words, this ruin does not fit in with the traditions as 
described in the text (see pages 400, 410, and 414). 


Photo by G. F. Eaton 


ANOTHER VIEW OF MAUCALLACTA 


The interior of the principal building at Pacaritampu. Notice the holes cut in the door- 
posts, to which a bar intended to close the door might be fastened 


da 
un 


Photo by Hiram Bingham > 


WONDERFUL MASONRY AT MACHU PICCHU 


Two of the windows in the remarkable three-windowed temple at Machu Picchu, which 
furnishes part of the convincing evidence that Machu Picchu and not Pacaritampu was the 
home of the ancestors of the Incas (see pages 400, 410, and 4T4). 


The interest in this historical problem, 
connected with the fact that at Machu 
Picchu we had a wonderfully picturesque 
and remarkably large well-preserved city, 
untouched by Spanish hands, led us to 
feel that the entire place needed to be 
cleared of its jungle and carefully studied 
architecturally and topographically. 


DIFFICULTIES OF THE APPROACH TO 
MACHU PICCHU 


We decided to make a thorough hunt 
for places of burial and to collect as 
much osteological and ethnological ma- 
terial as could be found. Our task was 
not an easy one. 

The engineers of the 1911 expedition— 
H. L. Tucker and P. B. Lanius—who 
had spent three weeks here making a 
preliminary map, had been unable to use 
the trail by which I had first visited 
Machu Picchu, and reported that the 
trail which they used was so bad as to 
make it impossible to carry heavy loads 
over it. 

We knew that mule transportation was 
absolutely impracticable under these con- 
ditions, and that it was simply a question 
of making a foot-path over which Indian 


bearers could carry reasonably good-sized 
packs. 

The first problem was the construction 
of a bridge over the Urubamba River to 
reach the foot of the easier of the two 
possible trails. 

The little foot-bridge of four logs that 
I had used when visiting Machu Picchu 
for the first time, in July, 1911, was so 
badly treated by the early floods of the 
rainy season that when Mr. Tucker went 
to Machu Picchu at my request, two 
months later, to make the reconnaissance 
map, he found only one log left, and was 
obliged to use a difficult and more dan- 
gerous trail on the other side of the ridge. 
- Knowing that probably even this log 
had gone with the later floods, it was 
with some apprehension that I started 
Assistant Topographer Heald out from 
Cuzco early in July, 1912, with instruc- 
tions to construct a bridge across the 
Urubamba River opposite Machu Picchu, 
and make a good trail from the river to 
the ruins—a trail sufficiently good for 
Indian bearers to use in carrying our 
60-pound food-boxes up to the camp and, 
later, our 90-pound boxes of potsherds 


416 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


PART OF THE SACRED PLAZA: MACHU PICCHU 


One of the gable ends of the three-windowed temple. 
the granite blocks in the lower part of the wall. 


Notice the tremendous size of 
The small ventilating window, of which 


there is one in each end of the building, is not visible when the structure is looked at from 
below, and does not affect the striking character of the three large windows in the east wall 


of this building (see pages 408, 431, and 489). 


and specimens down to the mule trail 
near the river. 


SOME RAPID BRIDGE BUILDING 


At the most feasible point for building 
a foot-bridge the Urubamba is some 80 
feet wide. The roaring rapids are di- 
vided into four streams by large boulders 
in the river at this point. ‘The first reach 
is 8 feet long, the next nearly 4o feet, 
the next about 22 feet, and the final one 
15 Leet. 

For material in the construction of the 
bridge Mr. Heald had hardwood timber 
growing on the bank of the stream; for 
tools he had axes, machetes, and picks— 
all made in Hartford—and a coil of 
manila rope. For workmen he had 10 
unwilling Indians, who had been forced 
to accompany him by the governor of 
the nearest town. For “guide, counsellor, 
and friend” he had an excellent Peruvian 
soldier, who could be counted on to see 
to it that the Indians kept faithfully at 
their task. In describing his work, Mr. 
Heald says: 

“The first step was the felling of the 
timber for the first two reaches. That 


was quickly done and the short 8-foot 
space put in place. Then came the task 
of getting a stringer to the rock forming 
the next pier. My first scheme was to 
lay a log in the water, parallel to the 
bank and upstream from the bridge, and, 
fastening the lower end, to let the current 
swing the upper end around until it 
lodged on the central boulder. On try- 
ing this the timber proved to be so heavy 
that it sank and was lost. 

“We next tried building out over the 
water as far as we could. Two heavy 
logs were put in place, with their butts 
on the shore and their outer ends pro- 
jecting some 10 feet beyond the first 
span. The shore ends were weighted 
with rocks and cross-pieces were lashed 
on with lianas (sinewy vines), making 
the bridge about 4% feet wide, as far 
as it went. Then a forked upright 10 
feet high was lashed and wedged into 
place at the end of the first pier (see 
Fig. I, page 422). 


THE CROSSING ACHIEVED 


“A long, light stringer was now pushed 
out on the completed part and the end 


417 


‘SUOI]IPUOD ByeUII[D o_qesIOAeF Jopun soidioaid a}1ueIs Ig9yS e JO 
ae} OY} UO Suooy & puy Ud YOIYM UOT}eJOS9A 9Y} FO JOSIA AreUIpP1O 
-B1}X9 OY} Os[e Vd1}ON ‘asnyos Fo Apo a[qeuseidut ue } oye 0} Sut 


-pue} pue nydog nyoey{ Ssurpunosims saoidiooid yeors oy} JO WUC 


NONVO VaWvandn : NHOOId VNAVOH JO AGIs [SH#M AHL 
meysurg weisz, Aq oj0yg 


“SMOPUIM IO ‘SABI 9914} JO JNO JUTeD SIOJS9IUe (SePIUT 3} Jey} shes 
UOMIpely, ‘deIY} O} VAY WoIF sINJONIYs a[qeyxIeWIII sty} Ul SMOPUIM JO 
JoquNU dy} DONpes 0} I[qeIMs posapisuod sem Ht UdYyM 4sed dy} UT oUI} 
awos je dn pol[y Sem YOIYM MOPUIM JOWIOZ & JO UOTeIOT dy} SurMoys 


‘SMOPUIAA 901Y,., 94} JO a[dway oy} Jo Jed JO MIA JOIIN}xo UY 


AHOOId NHOVW :SMOGNIM WAIN L AHL FO WIGWAL AHL 
weysurg weasrzy Aq o104g 


4 BO IY fe 2" SN 


418 


Sm, 
Fook ah 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


‘A PICTURESQUE PART OF THE GRAND CANON OF THE URUBAMBA ON THE ROAD 
MACHU PICCHU, SOUTHERN PERU (SEE PAGE 403) 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A GOOD MULE ROAD IN SOUTHERN PERU 
A view of the road in the bottom of the cafion near Machu Picchu (see page 403) 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE ROAD IN THE URUBAMBA CANON NEAR MACHU PICCHU 


If it had not been for this new government road cut at great expense in the face of the 
precipices of the Urubamba Cajfion, it would not have been possible for us to have reached 
the vicinity of Machu Picchu with our mules and supplies. This ancient city is in the heart 
of a region most wonderfully defended by nature; the most inaccessible part of the Andes 
(see page 403) 


IWS 
S Dy = 

a - 9 
SR SS MMMM MLS 


ON ae 
eo — 


FIGURE I. THE FIRST STACE IN MAKING THE BRIDGE BY WHICH WE CROSSED THE 
URUBAMBA RIVER TO REACH THE FOOT OF THE PRECIPICE NEAR MACHU PICCHU 


QUYJp0—™" 
se SQ ygeC“y 
VP Oo | 


: aS Sin 
¢ Sl ie 
) h | 
\ j foe” 


Lat, 


LOG IOs 1: Fock No. 2. 


FIGURE 2. “A LONG STRINGER WAS NOW PUSHED OUT ON THE COMPLETED PART 
AND THE END THRUST OUT OVER THE WATER” 


7) 


FIGURE 3. THE FINAL STAGE IN GETTING THE HEAVY TIMBER ACROSS THE RAPIDS 
(SEE PAGES 417 AND 423) 


HEALD'S 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


BRIDGE: MACHU PICCHU 


The completed bridge over the rapids of the Urubamba, showing the forked upright 
still in place. The great difficulty in building this bridge lay in the fact that the timber was 
of such density that it would not float. 


thrust out over the water toward 
rock No. 2, the end being held up 
by a rope fastened around it and 
passing through the fork of the 
upright (see Fig. 2, page 422). 

“This method proved success- 
ful, the timber’s end being laid on 
the rock which formed our second 
pier. Two more light timbers 
were put across this way, and then 
a heavy one was tried, part of its 
weight being borne by the pieces 
already across by means of a yoke 
locked in the end (see Fig. 3). 
This and another piece were suc- 
cessfully passed over, and after 
that there was little trouble, cross- 
pieces being used to form the next 
and shorter span. 

“On the second day of work we 
finished the bridge about noon and 
started making a trail up the hill 
under the guidance of a_half- 
breed who lived in the vicinity. 
After the first quarter mile the 
going was very slow. Not only 
did the steepness of the slope and 
the tangled condition of the cane 
jungle retard us, but the men were 
very much afraid of snakes, a fear 
which proved itself justified, for 
one of them was very nearly bit- 
ten by a little gray snake about 12 
inches long. 

“The second day’s work on the 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE EXPEDITION EN ROUTE TO MACHU PICCHU: 
URUBAMBA CANON 


A newly repaired part of the government road 
and a portion of our caravan en route to Machu 
Picchu. 


423 


trail took us to the 
city. The path was 
still far from being 
finshed, though. 
There were many 
places which were al- 
most vertical,in which 
we had to cut steps. 
Up these places we 
now made zigzags, so 
that there was com- 
paratively little diffi- 
culty in climbing. 
“On the first day I 
had set fire to the 
cane in order to clear 
the - trail. iis sae 
did not clear much) 
however. On the 
second day I was 
about a quarter of a 
mile behind the work- 
men, or rather above 
them, when suddenly 
‘Tomas (the Peruvian 
soldier mentioned 
above), who was with 
me, said: “Look, they 
have fired the cane.’ 
Sure enough, they had 
started it, and in a 
minute it had gained 
headway and was 
roaring up toward us, 
the flames reaching 15 
or 20 feet into the air. 


ge the ruins was 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
Huayna Picchu, the ascent of which nearly cost the life 


~ 


AMBA CANON 
Compare with pictures, pages 508 and 511. 


One of the most serious difficulties in clearin 


431, and 438). 


g of 1012. 


ying the walls of the houses. 


, is the peak on the extreme left (see pages 427, 


ESCAPE FROM FIRE IN 
THE JUNGLE 


“There was nothing 
for us but to run, and 
we did that, tearing 
through the jungle 
down hill in an effort 
to get around the side 
of the fire. Suddenly, 
on one of my jumps, 
I didn’t stop when I 
expected to, but kept 
right on through the 
air. The brush had 
masked a nice little 
8-foot jump-off, and 
I got beautifully 
bumped. Ina minute 
there came a thump, 
and ‘Tomas landed be- 


MACHU PICCHU AND THE WONDERFUL URUB 


A general view of the east side of Machu Picchu before the clearin 


the disposal of the great hardwood trees without destro 


of Assistant Topographer Heald 


424 


Surveyed by Robert.Stephenson 
Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead 


° tooo FEET 2000 


MAP 


— * 


\ 
' 
ae 
' 
' 
te 
4 
' 
' 
’ 


3000 4000 IMILE 


OF MACHU PICCHU AND VICINITY 


This relief map of Machu Picchu and vicinity gives a good general idea of the relative 
position of Heald’s bridge, the ruins, and the two peaks—Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu. 


It also shows the location of the two trails up from the Urubamba River 
to form some conception of the extent of the ruins. 
precipices are flattened out as they would be if one we 


balloon. 


side me. It amused me so much to 
watch him that I forgot all about my 
own jolted bones. ‘There was nothing 
broken, however, and we made our way 
without much more trouble around the 
fire and fell upon the peons, who were 
gathered in a bunch, speculating as to 
where we might be.” 

Three days later I reached Machu 
Picchu in company with Dr. Eaton, our 
osteologist, and Mr. Erdis, who, as arche- 
ological engineer, was to have charge 


and enables one 
_The map is misleading in that the 
.e looking down upon them from a 


of the general work of clearing and ex- 
cavating the ruins. 

Mr. Heald was at once relieved from 
further duty at Machu Picchu, where he 
had just begun the work of clearing, and 
was askcd to see whether he could get to 
the top of the neighboring peak, called 
“Huayna Picchu,” and investigate the 
story that there were magnificent ruins 
upon its summit. The same Indian who 
had originally told me about the ruins at 
Machu Picchu had repeatedly declared 


425 


oY} jO [ppit 34} Ul pure “YOM S,UOOUIDITE IT} .~C.,UIMIIIUIUIWIOD 
ay} ye ‘BulUIOUI oY} JO aIPpru ay} SulInp ‘Y1IOM sAep oY} JO Suruursaq 
oy} ye dn ope Ayjnjoieo st pinb YW ‘feo] P90 oY} Mod SURIpUT Ure} 
-UNOW OY} [[e A[IeaN ‘“pae}oV4}xXO SI OUTeIOD YOIYAM wo1Z JuRTd oY} Fo 
SaAvI] BY} “2D09 JO pnb & FO aduasaid dy} SurMOYs “SUTT[aMS B PoArosqo 
aq ALUL Yaoyo SI UL “NYG Nye, SUIBALXO UI JsIssv oO} PeY oA Jey} 
UIWYIOM JUOSTJoyUL Jsour oy} FO ouo ‘sotIog onbiiuy fo pesy410g 


OWd NYXTHLAOS :NVNMUNOM NVIGNI JO adAL [Sd HHL 


weysulg wep] Aq ojoug 


‘may s0e[dar 0} Buth1} Asnq Ajjenurjyuod sn jdoy pue ‘syoom 
OM} Ul UIeD P[nod Ady} saseM JeYM Y}IM JU}JTOD 919M UIWYIOM 3} 
JO JSOJ{ + “SYJUOU OM} A[IeaU IOF Prejs pue OOZND WoT sn YIM owed 
oym ‘UsWyIOM Ino fo suo ,‘ssourddeyy “s]N,, ‘elisopy JO pesy10g 


09OZND WOU NVNMYOM ‘TOAYHHHO V 


WeYysurg weiszy Aq ojoyg 


426 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


EXCAVATING AT MACHU PICCHU 


Commencing the work of excavating in the Chief Temple at 


Machu Picchu. Lieutenant 


Sotomayor, at the right, in charge of the gang of Indians 


that those on Huayna Picchu were only 
slightly inferior. Mr. Heald’s report of 
his work on Huayna Picchu runs in part 
as follows: 

“Huayna Picchu, lying to the north of 
Machu Picchu, and connected with it by 
a narrow neck, rises some 2,500 feet 
above the Urubamba River, which runs 
around its base. On one side, the south, 
this elevation is reached by what is prac- 
tically one complete precipice. On the 
other, while there are sheer ascents, there 
are also slopes, and, according to the 
account of one Arteaga, who claims to 
have explored the forests which cover a 
good deal of it, was once cultivated, the 
slopes being converted into level fields 
by low earth terraces (see page 424). 


ATTEMPT AT SCALING HUAYNA PICCHU 


“This mountain is, like Machu Picchu, 
cut from medium-grained gray to red 
granite, which accounts in part for its 


sharp, craggy outlines. The lower slopes, 
where there -are any, are covered with 
forest growths of large trees. A peculiar 
thing in this connection is one solitary 
palm tree, which rises above the other 
vegetation. Near the top the large trees 
give place to cane and mesquite, while 
many slopes have nothing but grass. This 
last is due more to steepness and lack of 
soil than to any peculiarity of elevation 
or location, however. 

“My first trip to reach the summit of 
Huayna Picchu and to ascertain what 
ruins, if any, were on it, ended in failure. 
The only man who had been up aed 
teaga), who lives at Mandor Pampa, w 
drunk, and refused to go with me; so % 
decided to try to find a way without his 
help. I knew where his bridge crossed 
the Urubamba River and where he had 
started up when he went the year before. 
With these two things to help me, I 
thought that I could very likely find as 


427 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A BURIAL CAVE AT MACHU PICCHU 
The first burial cave discovered at Machu Picchu containing a human skull. The 


picture was taken after partial excavation, showing the skull still in place. In all, more 
than 100 such caves were opened and a large quantity of skeletal material secured. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE SAME CAVE FROM A DISTANCE OF 20 FEET: MACHU PICCHU 


It was extremely difficult to find these caves. Here is a picture of cave No. 1 from a 
distance of only 20 feet. The entrance to the cave is near the center of the picture. It 
may be imagined that not the least portion of our difficulties was the cutting of paths through 
this dense tropical jungle and the transportation of material from the caves in which it was 


found. This cave was on the side of the mountain about 800 feet below the city of Machu 
Picchu (see pages 446 and 447). 


428 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A LARGE BURIAL CAVE: MACHU PICCHU 
A flashlight view of cave No. 9, one of the larger burial caves, in the floor of which a 


number of skeletons were found. On the ground among the rocks were pieces of beautiful 
large pots, which may have been destroyed at the time of burial (see pages 440-447). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
COLLECTING THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS: MACHU 
PICCHU 


A flashlight view of the interior of cave No. 11, showing the osteologist, Dr. Eaton, 
and his Indian helpers during the excavation of a human skeleton. The man at the right 
is a soldier kindly loaned to us by the Peruvian government to assist us In securing laborers. 


429 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE LARGEST CAVE AT MACHU PICCHU 


A flashlight view of the interior of the largest cave, at the base of one of the great 
precipices of Huayna Picchu. The cave is nearly 90 feet in length and is partly lined with 
cut stones. It had long been known to the Indian treasure-hunters of the neighborhood, 
and consequently yielded no results (see pages 446-447). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE CENTER OF THE BEST COLLECTING DISTRICT: MACHU PICCHU 


Archeological Engineer Erdis standing near one of the boulders within the city of 
Machu Picchu, in the vicinity of which he made the discovery that articles of bronze were 
likely to be found 2 or 3 feet underground (see page 449). 


430 


THE TEMPLE OF THE THREE WINDOWS 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
: MACHU PICCHU 


The floors of the principal temples yielded little, but on the terraces beneath the walls 
of the three-windowed temple, here shown, we found potsherds and artifacts to a depth of 


four or five feet (see pages 440 and 449). 


much as he had. Accordingly, I started 
with four peons and Tomas Cobines, the 
soldier, to have a look. 

“The river was passed easily on the 
rather shaky four-pole bridge, and we 
started up the slope, cutting steps as we 
went, for it was almost vertical. About 
30 feet up it moderated, however, and, 
after that, while it was steep, we seldom 
had to cut steps for more than 20 to 30 
feet ona stretch. The greatest hindrance 
was the cane and long grass, through 
which it was hard to cut a way with the 
machetes. 

“Our progress, slow at first, got abso- 
lutely snail-like as the men got tired; so, 
getting impatient, I resolved to push on 
alone, telling them to follow the marks 
of my machete, and charging Tomas to 
see that they made a good trail and did 
not loaf. 

“T pushed on up the hill, clearing my 
way with the machete, or down on all 
fours, following a bear trail (of which 
there were many), stopping occasionally 
to open my shirt at the throat and cool 
off, as it was terribly hot. The brush 
through which I made my way was in 


great part mesquite, terribly tough and 
with heavy, strong thorns. If a branch 
was not cut through at one blow, it was 
pretty sure to come whipping back and 
drive half a dozen spikes into hands, 
arms, and body. Luckily I had had 
enough practice to learn how to strike 
with a heavy shoulder blow, and for the 
most part made clean strokes, but I didn’t 
get away untouched by any means. 


A NARROW ESCAPE 


“Finally, about 3 p. m., I had almost 
gained the top of the lowest part of the 


ridge, which runs along like the back- 
plates of some spined dinosaur. The 
trees had given way to grass or bare 


rock, the face of the rock being practi- 
cally vertical. A cliff some 200 feet high 
stood in my way. By going out to the 
end of the ridge I thought T could look 
almost straight down to the river, which 
looked more like a trout-brook than a 
river at that distance, though its roar in 
the rapids came up distinctly. 

“T was just climbing out on the top of 
the lowest ‘back-plate’ when the grass 
and soil under my feet let go, and I 


431 


dy} Ul UMOYS SI Jso10} SITY} 
yo skep ua} 10}}e APO oy} F 


weysurg weasrpy Aq oJ0Y4g 


‘sanjord }x9u 
‘AO ayy JO suorjsod zuez0durr ysous By; JO GUO SEM ysoIO} yeoidos} pjo ey} Jopup_, “Surtees 


SULIvI]I JO poe OU 
ddn oy} Ul dwes Ino SUIMOUS TYG nyoeyy, JO a9pls JSoM gy} FO MotA [e1IUI*) 


© uo}js0d & pue JourOD pury-}yo] 49 
ONTUVHIO SAVG NY VLIV NAHOSId NHOVN 


432 


uopply LUddt 


| pey ze 


y} sosn 


WILY Sulgy WestpyT Aq 0JOYUg 


(OFF ased 908) jso10f [vIIdO1} VY} Y}VoUOG SolInjUusId 10F 


Uf poMOPUIM jO SMO 


oy} pue Ajo soddn ay} JO saovsso} OY} SuLMoys ‘Joye, YyUOW gUO aov[d owes 94} JO MOIA JoIvOU Y 


WLVT HLINOW V NHODId NHOVW 


433 


A VIEW OF ONE OF THE MOST INTERESTING PARTS OF MACHU PICCHU AFTER THE PRELIMINARY CLEARING 


434 


Photos by Hiram Bingham 


THE SAME THREE MONTHS LATER 


hy Hiram Bingham 


hoto 


C 


p 


TITT 
HU 


MACHU . PIC 


F 


O 


G 


N THE CLEARIN 


I 


<7 
E 
7 


A STA 
camp is just visible at the top of th 


belong to what was called the Ingenuity Group. 


Some 
ce 
3 5 
om 
u. Y 
bp & 
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bh A 
0 ¥ 
w 
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v , 
oc oN 
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ch 
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Our first 


nary clearing. 


435 


(Sb ased 99S) ulejunoW juejsip v jo jzed sapriy 
YIYM pNopD AdY IH] 94} YJeousopun ATJIIp jsowye pue syved OM} osdY} UIaMJoq ISpil4 oy} Jo doy uO si NYyIg nYyseY JO AYO ayy, “NYG 
vudenyy SI jo] 9W91}xX9 oY} Je YRad [BOIUOD JOMOT OY, “UreJUNOP NYyDIg Nye, sf punoisa10f YySII oy} ur yeod dreys ayy, “woueD equreqniq, 
oy} JO FvIY IY} UI Sapuy IY} FO JIUIOD a[qIssadovUT ysOUI oY} Ut ‘sootdioo1d Aq poxULy ‘aspld MOJIeU Ss} UO NYDIg Nye JO MTA JULISID W 


NONVO VENVENAN INAOMINOVIN FHL GNV GHLVOLIS SI OQHOOId NHOVNW HOIHM NO AOdIN MOYIVN AHL 
ulRy surg, weryy Aq ojoyg 


436 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ONE OF THE MAGNIFICENT PRECIPICES WHICH MADE THE CITY OF MACHU PICCHU 
INVULNERABLE (SEE PAGE 453) 


437 


438 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


MACHU PICCHU 


THE OUTER CITY WALL, 
The defenses of Machu Picchu consisted of two walls and a dry moat running across the ridge from precipice to precipice. 


In this picture may 


be seen the outer wall and the ruins of buildings probably used by the soldiers who protected the outer defenses (see page 453) 


dropped. For about 20 feet 
there was a slope of about 70 
degrees, and then a jump of 
about 200 feet, after which it 
would be bump and repeat 
down to the river. 

“As I shot down the slop- 
ing surface I reached out and 
with my right hand grasped a 
mesquite bush that was grow- 
ing in a crack about 5 feet 
above the jump-off. I was 
going so fast that it jerked 
my arm up, and, as my body 
was turning, pulled me from 
my side to my face; also, the 
jerk broke the ligaments hold- 
ing the outer ends of the 
clavicle and scapula together. 
The strength left the arm with 
the tearing loose of the liga- 
ments, but I had checked 
enough to give me a chance 
to get hold of a branch with 
my left hand. 

“After hanging for a mo- 
ment or two, so as to look 
everything over, and be sure 
that I did nothing wrong, I 
started to work back up. The 
hardest part was to get my 
feet on the trunk of the little 
tree to which I was holding 
on. The fact that I was wear- 


- ing moccasins instead of boots 


helped a great deal here, as 
they would take hold of the 
rock. It was distressingly 
slow work, but after about 
half an hour I had gotten 
back to comparatively safe 
footing. As my right arm was 
almost useless, I at once made 
my way down, getting back to 
camp about 5.30, taking the 
workmen with me as I went. 
“On this trip I saw no sign 
of Inca work, except one 
small suimed= wallaeane 


SUCCESS AT THE THIRD 
ATTEMPT 


Five days later Mr. Heald 
judged that his arm was in 
sufficiently good shape so that 
he could continue the work, 
and he very pluckily made 


another attempt to reach 
the top of Huayna Picchu. 
This likewise ended in fail- 
ure; but on the following 
day he returned to the at- 
tack, followed his old trail 
up some 1,700 feet, and, 
guided by the same half- 
breed who had told us 
about the ruins, eventually 
reached the top. His men 
were obliged to cut steps in 
the steep slope for a part 
of the distance, until they 
came to some of stone 
stairs, which led them prac- 
tically to the summit. 

The top consisted of a 
jumbled mass of granite 
boulders about 2,500 feet 
above the river. ‘There 
were no houses, though 
there were several flights 
of steps and three little 
caves. No family could 
have wished to live there. 
It might have been a signal 
station. 

After Mr. Heald had left 
Machu Picchu we set our- 
selves to work to see 
whether excavation in the 
principal structures would 
lead to discovery of any 
sherds or artifacts. It did 
not take us long to discover 
that there were potsherds 
outside of and beneath the 
outer walls of several of 
the important structures, 
but our digging inside the 
walls of the principal tem- 
ples was almost without 
any results whatsoever. We 
did find that the floor of 
the principal temple had 
been carefully made of a 
mixture of granite gravel, 
sand, and clay, laid on top 
of small stones, and these 
again on top of a mass of 
granite rocks and boulders. 
When the temple was in 
use this clean, white floor 
must have been an attract- 
ive feature. 


large 
er 2,000 feet below to be 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


Ammunition consisted of stones 


and small cobble stones brought up from the riv 


d from the gate, it was possible to direct a lateral fire on besiegers. 
Piles of this selected ammunition were found in various parts of the defenses. 


HE INNER WALL AND THE CITY GATE: MACHU PICCHU (SEE PAGE 453) 
n on the heads of an attacking force, 


could be thrown dow 


By building this wall forwar 


ones which 
used in slings. 


439 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE WESTERN TERRACES AND THE STEEP WINDING STAIRWAY : MACHU PICCHU 


It was difficult to feed the thousands of people who at one time may have occupied 
Machu Picchu, and every square foot of available land was terraced off to provide a place 


for the crops of Indian corn and potatoes, which were their chief resource. 


These terraces 


were all connected by stairways, sometimes steep, narrow, and winding like the one on the 
left, at other times consisting of a row of projecting stones in the face of the terrace, as is 
the case in the second terrace below the lowest line of niches in this picture (pages 454-459). 


THE FIRST EXCAVATIONS 


Our workmen excavated with a will, 
for the tests made with a crowbar gave 
such resounding hollow sounds that they 
felt sure there was treasure to be found 
beneath the floor of the ancient temple. 
In places the excavation was carried to 
a depth of 8 or g feet, and practically 
the entire floor of the temple was exca- 
vated to a depth of 3 or 4 feet; but all 


40 


this back-breaking work ended only in 
disappointment. There were many crey- 
ices and holes between the boulders 
under the floor, but nothing in them— 
not even a bone or potsherd. 

Digging in the temple of the Three 
Windows had a similar negative result, 
but digging outside on the terrace below 
the three windows resulted in a large 
quantity of decorated potsherds. Most 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


AN ANCIENT SIGNAL STATION ON MACHU PICCHU MOUNTAIN 


On the very summit of one of the most stupendous precipices the Incas constructed a 
signal station from which the approach of an enemy could be instantly communicated to the 
city below. By looking very carefully the terraced walls of this signal station may be seen 
just below the figures who are standing on an artificial platform (see pages 442 and 453). 


441 


(€Sv GNv IVP SHOvd AAS) MOTHA AWTIVA AHL, NI 
WIAIN AH, AAOMV LAA OOO NIVINQNOW AHOOId NHOVW JO dOL NO GALONALSNOD ATINIIINS WYOMLVId AHL JO MAIA WHAVAN V 


weysurg weir Aq ojoyg te ei eccrine ne a ee 


442 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE TOP OF MACHU PICCHU MOUNTAIN 


Another portion of the mountain-top, showing a skilfully laid retaining wall on the 
very top of a precipice overhanging the cafion. If any of the workmen who built that wall 
slipped, he must have fallen a thousand feet before striking any portion of the cliff. 


443 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE DRY MOAT OF THE DEFENSES OF MACHU PICCHU 


Just outside the inner walls of Machu Picchu the builders constructed a dry moat which 
ran directly across the hill. In this picture of the moat the city walls may be seen above 
on the right and the agricultural terraces on the left (see page 453). 


444 


‘poureip Ajsadoid oq O} [[BM 94} UIYJIM sooe1419} 9} SurI}}IWW 
-Iod ‘19}W8M JOJ S}a[JNO OA} UDdS aq APU [TBM JY} JO danjoId sty} Uy 
‘ISeUIRIP JO Je 9Y} Pooj}si9pun Ajysno1oyy pure S.199UTSUa poos JIOM 
SBOUT DY, ‘Slopjnoq ysnor ‘asiey jo ying A[suo1js [[eM Ysty ev Jo 
paysisuod NYydIg NyoeJ_Y JO Sasusjop J9UUT JY} ‘eOU 9Y} SapIsag 


TIVM WANNI AHL ;-NHDOId NHOVWN AO SHSNAAAC AHL 


weysurg wesrpy Aq 0104 


"(€Sh pue orb sased 99s) jJrour 
dy} JO ][BM JOUUT DY} JO UOTJINAJsSUOD dy} UL pasN dIAM SyoOI JSAP] 


Ajyensnun soor|d Uy ‘SdlInjus. JO suOTVeINUMDSe 9yy Aq dn patyy Apaed 
usaq Ajqeqoid sey ynq ‘daap yooy Qg 0} Q WOlf [[S St JeOW dT, 


NHODId NHOVWN JO SASNWAAG AHL NI MIO0W ADAH V 


wueysurg weit Aq ojo 


445 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


The peak in the distance is Huayna 


Its defense was made easy by bringing the wail out in a salient 


angle on the left of the gate, so that a perfect shower of stones could be rained on the heads of besiegers. 


Picchu (see page 453). 


THE DEFENSES OF MACHU PICCHU: THE INNER WALL AND THE CITY GATE 


The main city gate of Machu Picchu was on the very summit of the ridge. 


446 


of them were 2 to 4 feet under 
the surface. It seemed as though 
it had been the custom for a long 
period of time to throw earthen- 
ware out of the windows of this 
edifice. 

At the end of a week of hard 
and continuous labor we had not 
succeeded in finding a single skull, 
a single burial cave, nor any pieces 
of bronze or pots worth mention- 
ing. We did not like to resort to 
the giving of prizes at such an 
early stage. A day or two spent 
in hunting over the mountain side 
with the Indians for burial caves 
yielding no results, we finally of- 
fered a prize of one sol (50 cents 
gold) to any workman who would 
report the whereabouts of a cave 
containing a skull, and who would 
leave the cave exactly as he found 
it, allowing us to see the skull ac- 
tually in position. 


THE SEARCH FOR BURIAL CAVES 


The next day all the workmen 
were allowed to follow their own 
devices, and they started out early 
on a feverish hunt for burial 
caves. [he half dozen worthies 
whom we had brought with us — 
from Cuzco returned at the end 
of the day tattered and torn, sad- 
der and no wiser. They had 
hewed their way through the 
jungle, one of them had cut open 
his big toe with his machete, their 
clothes were in shreds, and they 
had found nothing. 

But the Indians who lived in 
the vicinity, and who had un- 
doubtedly engaged in treasure- 
hunting before, responded nobly 
to the offer of a prize, and came 
back at the end of the day with 
the story that they had discovered 
not one, but eight, burial caves, 
and desired eight soles. 

This was the beginning of a 
highly successful effort to locate 
and collect the skeletal remains of 
the ancient inhabitants of Machu 
Picchu. Fifty-two graves in and 
near this ancient city were exca- 
vated by Dr. Eaton, our osteolo- 
gist, and fully as many more were 


447 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


MACHU PICCHU 


Looking outward from within the city, and showing the graded approach that runs across the agricultural terraces 


R VIEW OF THE CITY GATE: 


4 
4 
4 


ANOTHI 


afterward located and ex- 
plored under the supervision 
of Mr. Erdis, the archeologi- 
cal engineer. The greatest 
number of these graves were 
in caves under the large boul- 
ders and projecting ledges of 
the mountain side, and the 
method usually followed by 
the osteologist in exploring 
them was, first, to photograph 
the entrance of the cave from 
without, after which the grave 
was opened and its contents 
carefully removed. Measure- 
ments were taken and dia- 
grams were made to show the 
position of the human skele- 
tons and the arrangement of 
the accompanying pottery, im- 
plements, ornaments, and 
bones of lower animals. 

In a few instances it was 
possible also to photograph 
the interiors of graves. 


CONTENTS OF THE BURIAL 
CAVES 


In some of the caves only 
the most fragmentary skeletal 
remains were found; in others 
only the larger bones and a 
skull or two; while others con- 
tained not only nearly com- 
plete skeletons, but pots in 
more or less perfect state of 
preservation, and occasionally 
pieces of bronze. In this way 
a large and valuable collection 
was made of human skeletons, 
pottery, and other artifacts of 
various materials, including 
some of the tools probably 
used by the Inca or pre-Inca 
stone-masons in the more in- 
tricate parts of their work. 

Before dismissing the sub- 
ject of the ancient graves, it 
may be noted that the custom 
seems to have been, whenever 
possible, to bury the dead in 
the sitting position, with the 
knees raised. In a very few 
instances bodies were interred 
in crudely fashioned “bottle- 
shaped graves.” While en- 
gaged in this work the collec- 


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448 


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— er —— 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE MAIN ROAD TO MACHU PICCHU 


A nearer view of the graded approach to Machu Picchu; part of the principal road which 
connected the city with the outer world 


tors were greatly annoyed by the veno- 
mous serpents of the region, and several 
of these serpents were killed and pre- 
served in alcohol. 

The burial caves occur generally on 
the sides of the mountain below the 
ruins. As they are in well nigh inacces- 
sible locations and more or less covered 
with dense tropical jungle, the work of 
visiting and excavating them was ex- 
tremely arduous, and it is most highly to 
the credit of those engaged in it that so 
many caves were opened and so much 
material gathered. Practically every 
square rod of the sides of the ridge was 
explored. The last caves that were 
opened were very near the Urubamba 
River itself, where the ancient laborers 
may have had their huts. 

It is too early as yet to give any gen- 
eralizations with regard to the anatomi- 
cal characteristics of the Machu Picchu 
people as evidenced by their skeletal re- 
mains. A few of the skulls show de- 
cided marks of artificial deformation, 
but most of them are normal. 

Mr. Erdis eventually made the discov- 
ery that by digging at least 18 inches 
underground, at the mouths of small 


caves, under large boulders, within 200 
yards of the Three Window Temple, he 
was almost sure to find one or two ar- 
ticles of bronze, either pins, tweezers. 
pendants, or other ornaments. 

Selecting two of the most reliable 
workmen and offering them a sliding 
scale of rewards for everything they 
might find of value, he succeeded, in the 
course of four months’ faithful atten- 
tion to the details of clearing and exca- 
vating, in getting together about 200 little 
bronzes, a lesser number of pots, and 50 
cases of sherds. The nature of the more 
interesting finds can be better under- 
stood by the accompanying photograph 
(see page 573). This material is now all 
in New Haven, where it is to be arranged 
by Dr. Eaton and Mr. Erdis. 


WHAT CLEARING THE JUNGLE REVEALED 


The change made in the appearance 
of Machu Picchu by the four months of 
clearing and excavating is graphically 
brought out by comparing the pictures 
on pages 404, 424, 432, and 499 with 
those on pages 433, 434, 490, 498, and 
the one set taken either before the 
work began or early in its stages and the 
latter taken at the end of the season. It 


512, 


440 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE DEFENSES OF THE CITY: THE NORTHERN TERRACES, MACHU PICCHU 


On the north side of the city there was little dan 
the nearly impassible cliffs and 


agricultural and defensive purposes were constructed 


ger of attack, but in order to strengthem 
precipices, narrow terraces that could be used both for 


(see page 453). 


450 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A STAIRWAY ON THE MAIN STREET IN MACHU PICCHU 


Within the city an extensive system of narrow streets and granite stairways made inter- 


communication relatively easy. 


This stairway is on the main cross street which connects 


the vicinity of the Sacred Plaza and the chief temples with the east city (see pages 450-459). 


is most sincerely to be hoped that the 
Peruvian government will not allow the 
ruins to be overgrown with a dense for- 
est, as they have been in the past. 
Although the buildings are extremely 
well built, there is no cement or mortar 
in the masonry, and there is no means 
of preventing the roots of forest trees 
from penetrating the walls and even- 
tually tearing them all down. In several 


cases we found gigantic trees perched 
on the very tips of the gable ends of 
small and beautifully constructed houses. 
It was not the least difficult part of our 
work to cut down and get such trees out 
of the way without seriously damaging 
the house walls (see pages 452, 453). 
Considering all the pains that we took 
to preserve the ruins from further spo- 
liation by the dense vegetation, it was 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A TYPICAL DWELLING HOUSE OF THE BETTER CLASS: MACHU PICCHU 


One of the most striking characteristics of Machu Picchu architecture is that a large 


majority of the houses are of a story and half in height, with gable ends. 


These gables 


are marked by cylindrical projecting stones, carrying out the idea of the wooden rafters, 


which have disappeared. 


In the case of these two adjoining houses, the southern gables 


alone are still standing, the northern gables having been knocked off either by earthquakes 


or owing to the destructive forest vegetation. 


Had we not cleared the jungle and cut off 


the forest trees, the right gable would soon have gone with the weight of the tree that was 
perched on its peak, and whose roots can still be seen in ine picture (see pages 455-450). 


with frank and painful surprise that we 
read in the decree issued by the new 
Peruvian government, in connection with 
giving us permission to take out of Peru 
what we had found, a clause stating that 
we were not to injure the ruins in the 
slightest particular, and that we must 
neither deface nor mutilate them. I 
could not help being reminded of the 
fact that we had spent two days of one 
workman’s time in erasing from the 
beautiful granite walls the crude char- 
coal autographs of visiting Peruvians, 
one of whom had taken the pains to 


scrawl in huge letters his name in thirty- 
three places” in the principal and most 
attractive buildings. 

We were greatly aided in the work of 
clearing the ruins by having with us for 
two months Lieutenant Sotomayor, of 
the Peruvian army, whose presence was 
due to the courtesy of President Leguia. 
Iieutenant Sotomayor took personal 
charge of the gang of Indians engaged 
in clearing the jungle and drying and 
burning the rubbish. As long as he was 
allowed to remain with us he did his 
work most faithfully and efficiently. It 


was with regret that we found he 
was relieved from duty at Machu 
Picchu in September. 


AN IDEAL PLACE OF REFUGE 


Although it is too early to speak 
definitely in regard to the civiliza- 
tion of Machu Picchu, a short de- 
scription of the principal character- 
istics of the city may not be out 
of place. 

Machu Picchu is essentially a city 
of refuge. It is perched on a moun- 
tain top in the most inaccessible 
corner of the most inaccessible sec- 
tion of the Urubamba River. So 
far as I know, there is no part of 
the Andes that has been better de- 
fended by nature. 

A stupendous cafion, where the 
principal rock is granite and where 
the precipices are frequently over 
1,000 feet sheer, presents difficul- 
ties of attack and facilities for de- 
fense second to none. Here on a 
narrow ridge, flanked on all sides 
by precipitous or nearly precipitous 
slopes, a highly civilized people— 
artistic, inventive, and capable of 
sustained endeavor—at some time 
in the remote past built themselves 
a city of refuge (pp. 436, 437). 

Since they had no iron or steel 
tools —only stone hammers — its 
construction must have cost many 
generations, if not centuries, of 
effort. 

Across the ridge, and defending 
the builders from attack on the side 
of the main mountain range, they con- 
structed two walls. One of them, con- 
stituting the outer line of defense, leads 
from precipice to precipice, utilizing as 
best it can the natural steepness of the 
hill (see pages 438 and 439). 

Beyond this, and on top of the moun- 
tain called Machu Picchu, which over- 
looks the valley from the very summit of 
one of the most stupendous precipices in 
the cafion, is constructed a signal station, 
from which the approach of an enemy 
could be instantly communicated to the 
city below. Within the outer wall they 
constructed an extensive series of agri- 
cultural terraces, stone lined and aver- 
aging about 8 feet high. Between these 
and the city is a steep, dry moat and the 
inner wall (see pages 441, 442, 444, 450). 


453 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A DECORATED GABLE: MACHU PICCHU 


A slightly different view of the gable end of one 
of the better houses, bringing out the location and 
size of the projecting cylindrical blocks. 


When the members of an attacking 
force had safely negotiated the precipi- 
tous and easily defended sides of the 
moat, they would still find themselves 
outside the inner defenses of the city, 
which consisted of a wall from 15 to 20 
feet high, composed of the largest stones 
that could be found in the vicinity— 
many of them huge boulders weighing 
many tons. This wall is carried straight 
across the ridge from one precipitous 
side to the other. These defenses are on 
the south side of the city (pp. 445-447). 


THE TOWN WAS INVULNERABLE 


On the north side, on the narrow 
ridge connecting the city with Huayna 
Picchu, strong defensive terraces have 
been strategically placed so as to render 


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Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE WEST GABLE IN THE BEST HOUSE OF THE KINGS GROUP 


Showing the second story window, a small ventilating window above it, the usual pro- 
jecting cylinders, and the location of four ring-stones to which the rafters were tied. The 
ring-stones are located at regular distances. The holes in the stones were probably bored 
by means of pieces of bamboo, sand, water, a pair of good hands, considerable time, and a 
great deal of patience (see page 456). 


j 
'% Ne. 


In this case not only the steps of the stairway, but 
also the balustrades, were cut out of a single stone. 
Imagine the patience required to do this, when the only 
tools at hand were hard cobble stones that had to be 


brought up from the river 2,000 feet below. 


nil the danger of an attack on this side. 
Difficult to reach at best, the city’s de- 
fenses were still further strengthened by 
the construction of high, steep walls 
wherever the precipices did not seem 
absolutely impassable (see page 450). 

Inside the city the houses are crowded 
close together, but an extensive system 
of narrow streets and rock-hewn stair- 
ways made intercommunication comfort- 
able and easy. 

On entering the city, perhaps the first 
characteristic that strikes one is that a 
large majority of the houses were a 
story and a half in height, with gable 
ends, and that these gable ends are 


: Photo by Hiram Bingham 
ANOTHER MONOLITHIC STAIRWAY : MACHU PICCHU 


marked by cylindrical blocks pro- 
jecting out from the house in 
such a way as to suggest the 
idea of the ends of the rafters. 
The wooden rafters have all dis- 
appeared, but the ring-stones to 
which they were tied may still be 
seen in some of the pictures, 
notably that on page 455. 

These ring-stones consist of a 
slab of granite, about 2 feet long 
and 6 inches wide by 2 inches 
thick, with a hole bored in one 
end, and were set into the slop- 
ing gable wall in such a way as 
to be flush with the surface, al- 
though the hole was readily ac- 
cessible for lashing the beams of 
the house to the steep pitch of 
the gables. There were usually 
four of these ring-stones on each 
slope of the wall. Dr. Eaton 
found this to be also a feature 
of the Choqquequirau architec- 
ture, only in that city the num- 
ber of ring-stones is larger per 
gable. 


A CITY OF STAIRWAYS 


The next most conspicuous 
feature of Machu Picchu is the 
quantity. of stairways, there be- 
ing over 100, large and small, 
within the city. Some of them 
have more than 150 steps, while 
others have but 3 or 4. Insome 
cases each step is a single block 
of stone 3 or 4 feet wide. In 
others the entire stairway—6, 8, 
or 10 steps, as the case might 
be—was cut out of a single 
granite boulder (see pp. 451, 454, 457-9). 

Again, the stairway would seem almost 
fantastic, being so narrow and wedged 
in between two boulders so close together 
that it would have been impossible for 
a fat man to use the stairway at all. In 
no case were the stairways intended for 
ornament. In every case they are useful 
in getting to a location otherwise difficult 
of access (page 458). 

The largest level space in the city was. 
carefully graded and terraced, so as to 
be used for agricultural purposes, on the 
products of which the inhabitants could 
fall back for a time in case of a siege. 

It seems probable that one reason why 


456 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE STEEPEST STAIRWAY IN MACHU PICCHU 


This stairway is one of those connecting the various agricultural terraces, and as it was 
in a position where it was not needed to be used for constant traffic, as in the streets of the 
city, it was left to follow the extremely steep natural declivity of the hill. 


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458 


the city was deserted was a change in 
climate, resulting in scarcity of water 
supply. At the present time there are 
only three small springs on the moun- 
tain-side, and in the dry season these 
could barely furnish water enough for 
cooking and drinking purposes for 40 or 
50 people. There could never have been 
very much water here, for the azequias, 
or water channels, are narrower than any 
we have ever seen anywhere else, being 
generally less than 4 inches in width. 


THE FOUNTAINS ON THE STAIRWAY 


We were able to trace the principal 
azequia from the vicinity of the springs 
along the mountain-side for a distance 
of perhaps a mile, across the dry moat 
on a slender bridge, then under the city 
wall, along one of the terraces, and finally 
to the first of a series of fountains or 
baths, located on the principal stairway 
of the city (see picture on this page). 

This stairway is divided to admit the 
entrance of one of the fountains, of 
which there are 14 or 15 in the series. 
Each basin is about 2% feet long by 1% 
feet wide and from 5 to 6 inches in 
depth. In some cases the basin and the 
floor of the bath-house, or fountain, is 
made of a single slab of granite. Gen- 
erally holes were drilled in one of the 
corners of the basin to permit the water 
to flow through carefully cut wunder- 
ground channels to the next basin below. 

The Peruvians call these fountains 
“baths.”” It does not seem to me likely 
that they were used for this purpose, 
but rather that, by a careful husbanding 
in basins of this sort, the water-pots of 
the inhabitants could the more readily 
be filled by any one coming to one of the 
fountains. 

Many of the houses are built on ter- 
races on the steep sloping hillsides. In 
such case their doors face the hill and 
the windows look out on the view. Most 
of the houses are well provided with 
niches, the average size being about 2 


feet in height by 1% feet in width. In Photo by Eiran Baebes 
some interiors projecting cylindrical THE STAIRWAY OF THE FOUNTAINS: 


blocks are found alternating between the 
niches. In a few houses we found evi- 
dence of stucco, but in most cases the 


MACHU PICCHU 


The longest and most important stairway 
is so arranged as to admit the entrance of 


mud plaster had entirely disappeared fountains, of which there are 14 or 15 in 
(see page 463). a series. As they had no pipes, the builders 
Possiblv the most interesting conclu- conducted the water in skilfully made stone 


: = conduits, carrying the stream from basin 
S10 oh Ss Fes ) 2X- ae RIES : 
10n broug t out as a result of our ex to basin, sometimes under the stairway and 


tensive clearing and excavating is that sometimes at its side (see pages 460-461). 


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401 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
TYPICAL INTERIOR OF SMALL CHAMBER IN BETTER CLASS HOUSE: MACHU PICCHU 


Most of the houses are well provided with niches, the average size being about 2 feet 
in height and a foot and a quarter in width. These niches took the place of closets, ward- 


robes, shelves, and tables. They were usually symmetrically arranged and offered a pleasing 
break in the dull finish of the solid walls. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ANOTHER TYPICAL INTERIOR: MACHU PICCHU 


In many of the houses there are round or square stones projecting between the niches. 


In some cases these were used to support an upper story, while in other cases they are either 
for ornament or merely convenient hooks on which to hang ponchos, slings, ropes, etc. 


462 


oe) ee 
Photos by Hiram Bingham 
STUCCO STILL IN POSITION: MACHU PICCHU 


Some of the houses were lined with such beautiful stone work as to require no other 
finish. In others it seems probable that the roughly finished stones were covered with some 
kind of mud or plaster. The picture shows the only house in Machu Picchu where consid- 
erable portions of this plaster still remain on the walls (see page 471). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


AN UNUSUAL GROUP OF NICHES: MACHU PICCHU 


In this house, or temple, the niches are of unusual form. The picture shows three, each 
one of which contains three little niches, and also has devices whereby it could have been 
closed by a bar fastened to the corner stones. 


463 


Pheto by Hiram Bingham 


One of the principal 


TYPICAL HOUSES AT MACHU PICCHU 


This picture shows a part of the east portion of the city and the entrances to clan groups (see text, pages 459 and 464). 


464 


streets in the city runs along the terrace just outside the walls of the houses 


the city was at one time divided 
into wards or clan groups (see page 
468). Each one of these groups 
has but one entrance, a gateway 
furnished with the means of being 
solidly fastened on the inside. None 
of the doors to houses or temples 
have this locking device, but all the 
entrances to the clan groups have it, 
and the same device occurs in the 
principal gate to the city. 


INGENIOUS BOLTING OF THE GATES 
TO THE CLAN GROUPS 


The doors have disappeared, but 
probably consisted of rough-hewn 
logs of hard wood. ‘They seem 
to have been fastened by two bars 
crossed at right angles. The up- 
right bar was probably tied at the 


top to a ring-stone set in the wall 


and projecting from it above the 
stone lintel of the doorway (see 
page 465). It could have been fast- 
ened at the bottom by being set into 
a shallow hole in the ground. The 
cross-bar was lashed to stone cyl- 
inders about 6 inches high and 3 
inches in diameter, set into lock- 
holes in the door-posts (pp. 466-7). 

This ingenious device varies in 
different groups, but in general the 
principle is the same. The more 
common method of making these 
locks was to cut a hole out of the 
top or corner of one of the larger 
blocks in the door-posts and set the 
stone cylinder into saucer-shaped 
depressions below and above. Thus 
the cylinder would be so firmly 
keyed into the wall that it would 
be able to resist at least as much 
pressure as the hardwood cross-bar 
which was lashed to it. 

Each one of the clan groups has 
certain distinctive features. In one 
of them, characterized by particu- 
larly ingenious stone-cutting, the 
lock-holes were cut in the center 
of solid granite rectangular blocks 
(see pages 470, 471). ‘The picture 
on page 471, taken after the top 
block had been removed, shows the 
saucer-shaped depression cut into 
the upper stone. It also explains 
how the ingenious architect had 
carved the cylindrical block and the 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE CITY GATE: MACHU PICCHU 


The doors to the houses had- apparently no means of being fastened, but the entrances 
to the clan groups and the main city gate, whose interior is here shown, had lock-holes con- 
taining granite cylinders to which a strong bar could be fastened back of the gate (see 
pages 466 and 467). The ring-stone above the stone lintel at the top of the picture was used 
to secure the upright bar (see pages 464 and 466). 


‘padnoes Used aABY JYUSIUL SOULUDJSeF SIP FO DUO Yor 
0} IO ‘SuNMS Uddq JAPY JYSIU 9}¥5 JY} YOIYM WOIF 9UO}S-SUII & SEM 
J2JUI] BU0}S BY} BAOGE [BM JY} OJUL potlajseZ pue o}ye5 dy} BAOGY ay} 


NHDDId NHOVW :ALVO ALIO AHL AO ‘IIVIAd V 
wueysurg weirzy Aq 004g 


Soh o8ed uo uMoOYs 93e8 AyD 


JO jsod-100p js¥a 9} UL SaTOY-YI0] 9Yy} JO BUO FO MOIA JaIvIU VW 


QNHOVId NHOVIN - 
weysurg weir Aq oJ0yg 


alVO ALIO AHL NI MOOT AHL 


466 


(ggb-bFoF saovd AuS) GHSO'IO NU 
LHOIN ALVO ALIO AHL MOH SNIMOHS ONIAM 


am AAV 
VUd ANVNIOVINT 


NV 


SLSOd-,LV9 


MOV AAS) SYMANTIAS 


ALIO' WHY GNYV, VIVA AL 


4 


AHL O-NI 
ANOLS 
ap. 


ID 


“1 


. 


TO 


LHS MaMa (Qgt 
HHL MOH SMOHS ALVO 
NOTLOUS V tO ONIMVUC STILL, 


467 


snolussul AjIvpnoyaed Jo sysisuoz 


Ajirerpnoed sty} 


"(oqo “PLh ‘Lh ‘ely ‘1Zp sased uo sainjoid oy} Ul UMOYS 91k YoIyM Jo sofduexa ‘Bu1y]n9-oU0}s 
‘odnjord 94} url UMOYS dno1s 9Y} JO Vsed ay} UT ‘AjseI[MOVd 9WIOS Aq pPazisozoRIRYD SI sosnoy jo 


dno1s yova pue ‘sosnoy Uo} 0} XIS WOIE Sey WY} JO QUO YOR ‘sdnois AjIWIeZ 10 sue[D snoI1eA Aq pordnooo sem nYSI nyoeypy Jo Ajo oy, 


(Vor 49ovd WHS) GNaIAIa 4 


WeYSUuIg wef, Aq ojoyg 


INO SVM ALIO AHL HOIHM OLNI SdNOUD NV'ID XO SGUVM AHL JO ANO 


468 


‘APpoO} [RAW UIOD 9YRUI O} 


pINOM sy se ysnf 12}1OW oy} UO J paosv]d sey Ao 


LOYSNO1Y} asn Ul [[YS apjsad Suryoos jeursiso0 
meetelent out jo 1OOY oy ul Slop 


UIOD SUIPULIS 10} Posn oq 


BUIJARIS D1OM JY Jt OP 
aU Naidq Jo seapuy ey} Uy 
dy} punoy SPM aso} FO QUO 1vou SULA’T 
-[noq JO JO Parted d1oOM s9o0jejod uazody 10 

Jdnosy Aymussuy,, sty} JO asnoy jsosie] oy} UT 


P]Noo YOY s1e}10UL , 
DIHLVIONOI 


NHDDId QAHOVIN 


weysurg weir] fq o0Ud 


:STISNALA NAHOLI™ 


‘ainjoid SI} UL UMOYS Se ‘asnoy 


oy} jo SI9UIO5S oUt UL S}BVOS QUOJS IIV O1OY} SOOUPYSUT Mo} B UL PUP “Sspoq 
ory suL1oyye[d 9uOjJS po 91P 91d} SAaseo 


OIOM 
yonw prey sasnoy ay} yey} eqeqoid jou st 4] 


JO} pesn A[qissod 
awos Ul Inq ‘aanjuany 


\HOOId NHOVW -AaALLAS ANOLS V 


weysurg weirpy Aq oj04g 


469 


go ee 
2 Ul H oe ~ a 
= Ga ie 
yy A eS, 
seit Bo Ae it les 
Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE MOST INGENIOUS LOCK IN MACHU PICCHU 


The gateway to Ingenuity Group had lock-holes differing from those of other groups 
(see pp. 464, 466-467), in that they were cut out of single blocks of stone and had the stone 
cylinder not set into, but forming part of the whole block (see also page 471). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A TYPICAL HOUSE DOOR: MACHU PICCHU 


The doors of the houses were carefully made and are all narrower at the top than at 
the bottom. The lintels are usually made of two blocks of stone. The Indian boy in the 
ee is carrying the kodaks and a large map, in ten sheets, on which are shown all the 
nouses. 


470 


lock-hole all out of one piece, 
thus making it much stronger 
than the average. 

Granite boulders in the floor 
of the principal house in this 
group had their tops carved into 
kitchen utensils for grinding corn 
and frozen potatoes (see page 
409). In this group also we 
found the only case of houses 
lined with stucco or plaster made 
of red clay (page 463), and here 
is the only gabled building di- 
vided into two parts by a party 
wall rising to the peak and 
pierced by three windows. 


SOME EXQUISITE STONEWORK 


Another group was distin- 
guished by having its own pri- 
vate gardens on terraces so ar- 
ranged that access to them could 
be had only by passing through 
the small collection of houses 
constituting this particular clan 
group. In another case, the en- 
trance to a group notable for its 
very elaborate and exquisitely 
finished stonework, the upright 
cylinder in the lock-hole is 
brought flush with the surface 
of the stone and is a part of the 
block itself (see pages 478 and 
479). 

Another group is distinguished 
by having monolithic lintels for 
the doorways (see page 477). In 
this group also the gables are 
unusually steep (see page 478). 

Nearly all the groups had what 
seemed to be a religious center, 
consisting of a more or less 
carved granite block in position. 
In several cases caves had been 
excavated under these rocks, and in one 
case the cave was beautifully lined with 
finely cut stonework (483- 485). In this 
last cave a semicircular tower was con- 
structed on the top of a boulder (485 
and 496) and connected with it by the 
finest example of masonry in Machu 
Picchu (485 and 496). 

This beautiful wall, shown on pages 
487 and 488 and also on page 490, was 
made of specially selected blocks of beau- 
tifully grained white granite, and was 
constructed by a master artist. We grew 
more fond of this wall the longer we 


lock. 


It 


devoted workman, 
such a contrivance for securing himself and his family 
against intruders. 


471 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE MECHANISM OF THE LOCK 


The left-hand lock-hole, shown in the upper picture 
on the preceding page, after its stone covering had been 
raised, showing the saucer-shaped depression in the cap- 
stone, enabling it to strengthen the stone cylinder of the 


was not only an ingenious, but a patient and 
who would take the trouble to make 


knew it, and every time we saw it it gave 
us a thrill of joy. 

The detailed study (p. 488) of where 
the wall joins the next house wall shows 
how ingeniously the blocks were con- 
structed, so as to form a brace which 
would prevent the house and wall from 
leaning apart and thus causing cracks 
to appear in the wall. The precision of 
line, the symmetrical arrangement of the 
blocks, and the gradual gradation in the 
tiers, with the largest at the bottom and 
the smallest at the top, combine to pro- 
duce a wonderfully beautiful effect. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE ENTRANCE TO A CLAN GROUP: MACHU PICCHU 


The exterior of the gateway to Ingenuity Group, 
showing the steps leading to it and the re-entrant angles 
in the door- -posts, characteristic of nearly all the gate- 


ways to clan groups. 


THE PROBABLE USE OF SNAKES FOR 
AUGURY 


As will be seen from the photograph 
(see page 491), the wall is not perpen- 
dicular, but inclines inward at the top. 
This angle i is characteristic of nearly all 
the vertical lines in the ruins. Doors, 
windows, and niches are all narrower at 
the top than at the bottom. 

In the semicircular tower which con- 
nects with this fine wall the ingenious 
cutting of stones in such a way as to fol- 
low a selected curve reaches a perfection 
equaled only in the celebrated wall of 
the Temple of the Sun (now the Do- 
minican Monastery), in Cuzco. Like that, 
it is a flattened curve, not round (p. 485). 


One of the windows in this 
tower (see pages 492-494) has 
several small holes near the bot- 
tom. These were found to con- 
nect, by very narrow channels, 
barely large enough for a snake 
to crawl through, with circular 
holes within the wall, where the 
snakes might have constructed 
their nests. 

There are still many snakes at 
Machu Picchu. There are also 
snakes carved on several rocks. 
(page 497). Lizards are not 
common, and the holes within the 
wall are much too large for liz- 
ards’ nests; but they are of the 
right size for a comfortable 
snake’s nest—for a small snake. 
It seems to-me possible that in 
this wall the priest of this clan 
group kept a few tame snakes 
and that he used their chance 
exits out of one hole or another 
as a means of telling omens and 
possibly of prophesying. 

The so-called sacred plaza is 
the site of two of the finest 
structures at Machu Picchu. One 
of these—the Temple of the 
Three Windows — has already 
been referred to; the other is a 
remarkable structure, about I2 
feet in height, built around three 
sides of a rectangle some 30 feet 
long and 18 feet wide. A de- 
scription is hardly necessary, as 
a better idea can be gained from 
the pictures (pp. 409, 501, 502, 
503, and 512) than from any 

words of mine. Suffice it to say that it is 
marked by a very pleasing symmetry, by 
the use of tremendous blocks of granite, 
three of them being over 12 feet in 
length, and by the projection in an ob- 
tuse angle of the ends of the sides. 


“nue PLACE TO WHICH THE SUN IS TIED” 


On top of the beautifully terraced hill 
(pp. 498, 507, 508), behind this temple, 
is a stone, generally agreed to be an mti- 
huatana stone, or sun-dial—the intihua- 
tana being the “place to which the sun is 
tied.” Similar stones were found by the 
Spanish conquerors in Cuzco, Pisac, and 
Ollantaytambo. An idea of this stone 
may be gained from the picture on page 


509. 


472 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A REST DURING PRELIMINARY CLEARING: MACHU PICCHU 


A corner of Ingenuity Group, showing the entrance on the left to a subsidiary group and on 
the right to the house that has the stone mortars in its floor (see page 469) 


Owing to the location of Machu Pic- 
chu in this extremely inaccessible part of 
the Andes, to its clearly having been a 
city of refuge, easily defended and suited 
for defensive purposes; owing to the 
presence of a large number of windows 
in the ruins, and particularly to the pres- 
ence of three large windows in one of 
the principal temples, I believe it to have 
been the original Tampu Tocco, from 
which the Incas came when they started 
on that migration which led them to con- 
quer Cuzco and to establish the Inca 
Empire. 

The difficulties of life for several cen- 
turies in the’ Vilcabamba region would 
have been likely to have developed this 
ingenious and extremely capable race and 
given them strength of character. The 
influence of geographical environment is 
no small factor in developing racial char- 
acteristics. I hope at no distant future 
to prepare an exhaustive report of this 
wonderful city, whose charm can only 
dimly be realized from these pictures. 

The beautiful blue of the tropical sky, 
the varying shades of green that clothe 
the magnificent mountains, and the mys- 
terious charm of the roaring rapids thou- 


sands of feet below cannot be portrayed 
and can with difficulty be imagined. 


THE PANORAMIC VIEW 


The beautiful panoramic view of Ma- 
chu Picchu, which accompanies this arti- 
cle as a Supplement, gives a good idea of 
the grand Cafion of the Urubamba as 
seen from Machu Picchu, of the sacred 
Plaza, and Intihuatana Hill, and of the 
Fast City. 

Unfortunately, it was impossible to 
take a picture that would also include 
the other half of Machu Picchu, includ- 
ing the remarkable Upper City, with its 
rows of houses, each one on a separate 
terrace, the beautiful buildings of the 
Princess Group, and the splendid stone- 
work of the King’s Group. All of these 
are behind and to the right of one look- 
ing at this panorama. And still further 
behind are the agricultural terraces, our 
camp, and Machu Picchu Mountain ; but 
these are all shown in separate views. 

The Incas were, undeniably, lovers of 
beautiful scenery. Many of the ruins of 
their most important places are located 
on hill tops; ridges, and mountain shoul- 


473 


474 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


TEMPLE OF THE 


4 
4 
1 


ACROSS THE GARDENS TOWARD THE SACRED PLAZA AND THI 


A VIEW IN THE CENTER OF INGENUITY GROUP LOOKING 


. se Ss ‘wes 
Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A DISTANT VIEW OF OUR FIRST CAMP: MACHU PICCHU 


A view looking over the tops of two of the houses of Ingenuity Group toward our camp 
and some of the agricultural terraces. The beams on top of one of the houses were placed 
there recently by one of our Indians, who thought this might make a good modern dwelling. 
but he found it too large for comfort. The huts of the modern Indians are much smaller 
than these houses and have no windows. It is possible that this may indicate that the climate 
has grown colder as well as dryer. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
HAVING DIFFICULTIES WITH A TRIPOD: MACHU PICCHU 
A distant view of Ingenuity Group, with Private Garden Group above it, as seen from 


the vicinity of the semicircular tower. In taking these pictures, it was frequently neces- 
sary to put the tripod on the shaky peak of a ruined gable, a process not always easy. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
TYPICAL MASONRY: MACHU PICCHU 


The outside wall of another group which was distinguished by having its own private 
gardens on terraces so arranged that access to them could be had only by passing through 
the houses of the group. ‘These houses are built on a terrace whose retaining wall consists 
of large blocks of solid masonry. The smaller wall on top of this is merely a screen for 
defensive purposes. Notice the end of the stone conduit in the lower left-hand corner, en- 
abling the courtyard of this group to be properly drained. 


476 


ders, from which particularly beautiful 
views can be obtained. 

Remarkable as is the architecture of 
Machu Picchu, and impressive as is the 
extent of the stone-cutting done by a 
people who had no steel or iron tools, 
neither of these things leaves more im- 
pression on the mind of the visitor than 
the inexpressible beauty and grandeur of 
the surroundings. 

A reconnaissance of the forestration 
of the immediate vicinity and a large 
scale map of Machu Picchu and its vi- 
cinity were made by Assistant Topog- 
‘rapher Stephenson. From the map we 
hope some day to be able to construct a 
model which will give those not fortunate 
enough to visit this marvelous place some 
idea of its character and beauty. 


FORESTRATION OF THE REGION 


In regard to the forestration of the 
region, Mr. Stephenson reports that tree- 
growth begins about midway between the 
source and the mouth of the Urubamba 
River. Forests frequently interrupted by 
open areas occupy the lower half of the 
valley. The open bottoms are moist, un- 
timbered, and used for agriculture. In 
these the soil is a deep sandy loam, rich 
in humus and having abundant moisture. 

The valley is very narrow, with many 
tributaries, and rough precipitous sides 
frequently broken by cliffs. ‘The lower 
slopes have fairly rich soil and abundant 
moisture. They extend for several hun- 
dred feet above the river. Above them 
the soil is regularly dry and poor. Al- 
though rainfall is abundant, the sunny 
north slopes have a dry rocky soil. 

The forest in the Machu Picchu re- 
gion is made up of subtropical hard- 
woods, with probably more than 30 spe- 
cies in the stand. Good growth is con- 
fined to the valley bottoms and the lower 
slopes. On the shaded slopes the forest 
sometimes extends to a point 2,000 feet 
above the river, and in narrow, protected 
valleys even higher; but on the upper 
slopes the trees are of poor form, gnarled 
and stunted. 

On the ridges some trees occur, but 
they are very scrubby and do not form a 
canopy. ‘Timber-line here is at elevation 
of about 10,000 feet above sea-level. The 
elevation of the river near Machu Picchu 
is about 6,500 feet above sea-level. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE FINEST DOORWAY AT MACHU PICCHU 


One of the monolithic lintels in the group 
distinguished also by having unusually steep 
gables. In the other groups the houses almost 
invariably had duolithic lintels, but the chief 
of this clan determined to overcome the me- 
chanical difficulties involved in placing a solid 
block weighing three tons on top of his door- 
post and fitting it accurately to them, As he 
had neither cranes nor pulleys, but only levers 
and inclined planes, it must have required a 
prodigious amount of patient effort. This 
group we named the King’s Group on account 
of the extraordinary solidity of the stonework. 


Owing to the large number of species, 
the quality of the timber varies greatly. 
Many of these species produce hard, dur- 
able wood of fine texture that takes good 
polish. Other quick-growing species pro- 
duce woods of inferior quality—soft, 
brittle, quickly decaying, and of little 
value for anything but rough lumber. 


477 


*(asvd SurMol[ofy Os[e vos) ysod-s00p oy} FO dOVFaNs OY} YAN YsuIpf 
WSNOIG St 9[OY-YIO] IY} UL JopuUljAS JYystidn oy} stoYM “AVAVoJeS oY} JO 
IOLIOJUL IY} SULMOYS “dnoss) ssoulIg IY} OF ABAT[VY odULIZUO JIT 

NHODId OHOVIN ?YANAOD AAMOVALLV NV 
weysurg weirpy Aq 0J0Y 7 


we 


at 


Rees Sk 


2 


Sosnoy FO UOTSea]JOO sity} Jo dysriojoRrIeYD Surysimsuysip oy} 
‘S]OJUL[ OY TOUOU OY} YIM ‘ote dno1s) s.sulyy oy} FO sofqvs doojs 
NHMOOId NHOVIN LV SHIGVD dyyLs 
wWBysurg UeITpZ Aq 070 qf 


UL 


47 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE SAME AFTER EXCAVATING 


Another view of this hallway after excavation had shown a monolithic stairway at the 
end of it 


479 


’ Photo by Hiram Bingham 


IN THE, KINGS GROUP: MACHU PICCHU 


A portion of the interior of this group, showing the great care exercised in the stone-fitting 


NOTES ON THE TIMBER 


All species are infected with parasites 
and all ages of trees seem to be subject 
to them. The worst damage is done to 
the fast-growing young trees. 

In the ‘bottoms the trees are tall, clean, 
and straight, running up to over 100 feet 
in height and 3 feet in diameter. The 
average is about 18 inches in diameter 
and 80 feet in height. On the lower 
slopes the growth is more uniform, with 
a slightly lower average size. There are 
a few healthy patches of timber, but they 
are only of occasional occurrence and 
limited to a few areas. 

The timber in the valley bottoms aver- 
ages 5,000 board-feet per acre, with a 
maximum of 10,000 over limited areas. 
On the slopes the average is 3,000 board- 
feet, with little variation. ‘These are con- 
servative ocular estimates. 


The rugged character of the country 
makes logging of any but timber in bot- 
toms impracticable. Trails are few and 
very bad; labor is scarce and uncertain. 
Should a railroad enter the valley as 
planned it will be possible to carry on 
profitable logging operations with port- 
able mills. There is a good supply of 
timber for ties. 

The next thing to be done would be 
to make a collection of samples, so that 
the qualities of the various hardwoods 
might be tested. Such tests would bring 
out definite facts about their value. Some 
of them are undoubtedly woods of high 
technical qualities as well as of beautiful 
grade and color. 

Mr. Stevenson’s map of Machu Picchu, 
the result of a three months’ survey, is 
on a scale of 1 inch=2o feet, with a 
contour interval of to feet, and consists 


480 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A SACRED ROCK: MACHU PICCHU 


Nearly all the clan groups had what seems to have been a religious center, consisting of a 
granite boulder or ledge carved into seats and platforms 


PRES eat Mans ERS Le 
Photo by Hiram Bingham 
ANOTHER SACRED ROCK: MACHU PICCHU 


One of these sacred rocks is only 2 feet in thickness, although 15 feet high and 30 feet 
in length (see page 471) 


481 


dovjd OJUL pd}yY SYoOI oSny asoy} Jos 0} Sio1oqvy FO AWAL [[vUIS Vv pu AjINUdSUT JO JUHOUL snOpuoUtas] B potMbot dAvY ysMUt I] 


SMOOWU HOUV'T- MITAVNIGUOVULXA HWIM GYOVA SHOVANL AT GHANNOUNAS dNOYD MOOM GHWAOVS V 
wuvy surg wesrpy Aq 004g 


482 


THE INTERIOR OF A CAVE UNDER A SACRED STONE: 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
MACHU PICCHU 


Under the sacred stones frequently caves were constructed and in some cases lined with 


beautifully cut stones. 


This is a flashlight of such a cave underneath the semicircular tower 


(seé page 471, and pictures, pages 484, 485, and 4096). 


of 16 large sheets. It should prove very 
useful in helping us to gain a correct 
idea of this wonderful city, which seems 
to have escaped the notice of the Spanish 
conquerors and to have remained prac- 
tically unknown until it was first visited 
by the present writer in July, 1911. 


OTHER IMPORTANT INCA RUINS 


It is still too early to make definite 
statements in regard to the importance of 
this discovery; in fact, such opinions can 
only be passed by archzeological experts 
after the full report of the work at 


Machu Picchu has been prepared and 
published. This much, however, can be 


said in regard to the superiority in ex- 
tent and interest of Machu Picchu over 
previously discovered Inca ruins: 

The most important Inca ruins here- 
tofore discovered are in the city of Cuzco, 
the town and fortress of Ollantaytambo, 
Pisac, and on the islands of Lake Ti- 
ticaca. “There are, besides these, on the 
coast a number of localities like Pacha- 
camac, Nazca, Ancon, Trujillo, and the 
country of the Grand Chimu, where the 
chief interest lies in the extensive find- 


ings of mummies, pottery, textiles, and 
metal ornaments, including gold, silver, 
bronze, etc. All of these places, how- 
ever, were known to the Spanish Con- 
querors, and have been ransacked by 
treasure hunters from the earliest times. 

Cuzco, the most important place of all, 
was adopted by the Spaniards as_ their 
most important city outside of Lima. 
They entirely remade the city, using large 
quantities of the ancient Inca walls to 
build their own palaces and churches. 
Although the city still has many Inca re- 
mains and retains a great charm for the 
tourist and the archeological student, it 
is more of a Spanish colonial city than 
of an Inca city. 

The same is partly true of Ollantay- 
tambo. The ruins of Pisac and many 
others in the vicinity, of which it is not 
necessary to give an account here, have 
repeatedly been ransacked by treasure 
hunters. ‘The long palace at Vitcos, 
identified in 1911 as the last Inca capital, 
has been almost completely destroyed by 
these treasure hunters. Of the 30 beauti- 
ful door of cut granite, only two or three 
remain intact. 


2U0}S 9nd YM peyTYy 
udaq SPY SIspe] 9}UPIS 94} UIdMjJaq ddeds OY} UOISIOaId pue 918) 9}I1SInb 
“Xo JeYM YUM BON ~ “(96h pue Sgr sased 99s) Jamo} IelNosOIUIAS 
oY} SJSot YIIYM UO YIOI }eI1S IY} Japun 9Aed ay} 0} doUeIIUA ayy 


NHOOId NHOVW :ONILLIA-ANOIS JO TONITE AUVNIGYOVULXA NV 


weysurg weir <q oj07g 


dno1 ssaoulig oy} Ul Jamo} 
JLMITIWIs ay} JOPpUN 9AVd dy} FO JOlI94UI 9Yy} FO WSyYsey sr9yjouy 


HAVO AHL JO YANYOO AHL 
weYysulg weir Aq oj0yg 


484 


‘(06h pue ‘Ogh ‘cZh sased Os[e das) Ooznd Ul UNg ay} JO 
ajdway, oy} JO [[PM po}eiqajed. ay} Ul AjUO peayeNnbs st [Iejap JO UOorI}I 
-lod dsOYM DAINO pausjey v apeur AY} Joy}es0} Jnd a19M Ady} Udy 
Jey} VAIND poqzdap9IS IY} A[JOVXE OS PaMO][OF puev UOIsIoaId YONS YB Jno 
d1IM SIUOJS IJ, ‘urd [RANJIOPYOIV sjt JO VAINO poud}eY oy} Ssurmoys 
‘dnoiry Ssooultd oY} fo JIOMO} AP[NOTOTWOS out JO MIA JOYJOUY 


NHODId NHOVW -UAMOL AUVNIGUOVUALXA NV 


weysurg wesryy Aq 004g 


‘(Pgh pue gob sosed ‘saunjord pue ‘Zh aded 4x0} 90S) S1outOd s}t 
d}e109ap Jey} SUIqQNU INOF dy} PUL MOPUIA 9]}}IT 94} Ul Suiy}Nd-9uU0}s 
ay} JO uorsidaid dy} ®HON “Jopynog oyueIs Jeois eB OUT }ING pue 
yo do} uo Suljsar dnoin) ssadutig oY} JO J9MO} AV[NOIOIWaS YY, 


NHODId NHOVW LV AYALVN OL GANIO£ Lav 


wmeysurg wesrpy Aq oyoyg 
Pe 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
IN THE PRINCESS GROUP: MACHU PICCHU 


A general view of the P 


(on the right) to the other houses of the group. 
house in Machu Picchu consi 


picture connects the first and second stories of this house. 


rincess Group, showing the relation of the semicircular tower 


In the center of the picture is the only 
sting of two stories and a half. The stairway shown in the 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
AN EXAMPLE OF EXTRAORDINARY STONE-CUTTING: MACHU PICCHU 


Connected with the semicircular tower is an ornamental wall made of specially selected 
blocks of beautifully grained white granite. The interior of the wall was ornamented by a 
series of symmetrical niches, between each one of which is a projecting stone roughly 
squared (see page 471). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


REMARKABLE NICHES AT MACHU PICCHU 


Another portion of the interior of the ornamental wall. Bear in mind that the ancient 
builders had no T squares nor right lines, and could approach straight lines only by the 
skill of a trained eye (see also page 488). 


(12h asvd 998) p]JOM PIO 24} Ur sajduis, 
a]qieur ay} FO ey} OAL] Joyo ue sonpoid 0} sv Os ‘d}1UeI3 d}1M ysaInd 
24} BUNoeJ9S UT Pasioiexo SBA a1vd JsOWN ay, ‘[[EM ay} Jo doz amy 
P1EMO} 9ZIS UL VSvat9p A][eNpeIS sauojs FO Sal} oY “nySoIg nye 


Ur JBM [H}4Nveq jsow oy} [fea [eyUsWeUIO ay} FO JOII0}x9 oY, 


NHODId NHOVW NI ‘TIVM ISANIG FHL 
weysurg wesrypy Aq ojoyg 


a aa ania OE tien mad Nha Ng CANALS A aH A Sl ATIITBIS 


St 194} JOA pu “Te}JOW JOU JUSUIID OU ST dIOY J, “s1Oqysiou sy OUT 


Ajsnus s}y ‘uouuooun jou oie sayenbyj1ee a104m purl ke UI solinjuss 
asoy} [JB Joye YSoyq yoea ysyM yYyWM uUorsIOVId ayISInDxe 94} 2d1}0N 
‘yaede suruevs] wos [[eM [eJUsWeUIO pue asnoy oy} Jwadoid pinom 
IPIYM sovIq @ WO 0} SB OS “JVM IsnoY }xXoU ay} YPM opeu sem yurof 
ay} A[snoluesur Moy SuIMoyYs ‘[[eM [eJUsUIeUIO ay} FO uoIpes Y 


NHOOId OHOVW :ONIILII-ANOLS SQOINHONT 
weysurg weirfpy Aq oon 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A SIGHTLY TOWER: MACHU PICCHU 


_ The corner of the Princess Group where the ornamental wall joins the semicircular tower 
is one of the most sightly spots in the city and commands a magnificent view of the great 


canon. 


WHY MACHU PICCHU IS AN ARCHEOLOGI- 
CAL TREASURE 


On the other hand, Machu Picchu not 
only is larger and contains more edifices 
than any other ruin discovered in Peru 
(except Cuzco) ; it has the additional ad- 
vantage of not having been known to the 
Spaniards, of not having been occupied 
by their descendants, and of not having 
been torn to pieces by treasure hunters 
seeking within the walls for the gold and 
silver ornaments that were not to be 
found in the floors. 

In other words, Machu Picchu is not 
only more extensive than any previously 
discovered Inca city outside of Cuzco, 
but it is in a remarkably good state of 
preservation, and its architecture has not 
become confused with Spanish efforts to 
build churches and villas. 

If the theory here propounded is cor- 
rect—that Machu Picchu was the orig- 
inal “Tampu Tocco,” from whose “three 
windows” set out the tribes that eventu- 
ally founded Cuzco—the importance of 
Machu Picchu as the cradle of the later 
Inca race will, of course, be increased. 

It is not very profitable to speculate on 
the habits of these ancient people until 


Within the tower was a sacred rock, which has been partly destroyed by fire. 


we have had more opportunity to study 
the finds made in the burial caves and to 
compare these with finds made in other 
parts of Peru. We know that they were 
masters of the art of stone-cutting. 

We know that they knew how to make 
bronze, and that they had a considerable 
artistic sense, as evidenced by their work- 
manship. One of the bronze pins found 
at Machu Picchu has for a head a minia- 
ture reproduction of the head of a hum- 
ming-bird, including a long, curved bill. 
One bronze knife is decorated with the 
head of a llama; another with an Indian 
boy, lying on his stomach, with his heels 
in the air, playing tug-of-war with a 
large fish on the end of a little bronze 
rope. 

The workmen of Machu Picchu not 
only had skill, but originality and inge- 
nuity. Their pottery is varied in form 
and attractive in its ornamentation. They 
understood how to plan great architec- 
tural and engineering works and to carry 
them to a satisfactory conclusion. 

The soil of the terraces is extremely 
fertile, and the Incas utilized every 
square yard of available land within a 
radius of several miles. The two or 


489 


Pheto by Hiram Bingham 


’s Group and the stairway near Private 


(9) 
fo} 


p gables of the Kin 
Garden Group (see page 471) 


REMARKABLE MASONRY AT MACHU PICCHU 


The semicircular tower and the interior of the ornamental wall looking toward the stee 


490 


three Indian families who have been 
living at Machu Picchu for the past 
four or five years have had no diffi- 
culty in raising good crops of sweet 
potatoes, corn, peppers, onions, to- 
matces, and certain native vegeta- 
bles unknown in this country. "The 
only difficulty they have found is 
in keeping down the superabundant 
tropical vegetation, which con- 
stantly threatens to suffocate their 
crops. 

As an instance of how rapidly 
this vegetation grows, terraces coy- 
ered by bamboo cane which we 
cleared in September had to be re- 
cleared in November, when most of 
these pictures were taken. In the 
intervening two months some of the 
cane had attained a height of five 
fects 

It is my hope to prepare a special 
monograph on Machu Picchu for 
publication by the National Geo- 
graphic Society. 


II 


DISCOVERY OF THE “CUZCO BONES” 
IN IQII 


Another discovery made in 1911 
was of the so-called Cuzco bones. 
The age of certain human and other 
bones found interstratified with 
glacial gravel near Cuzco was pro- 
visionally estimated by Prof. Isaiah 
Bowman, the geologist of the 1911 
expedition, as from 20,000 to 40,000 
years. These bones were brought 
to New Haven and submitted for 
examination to Dr. George i: 
Eaton, osteologist of the Peabody 
Museum. 

In describing them in an article 
in the American Journal of Science 
for April, 1912, he says in his con- 
clusion: “It is clear that no proof 
of great antiquity can be drawn 
from the characters of the human 
skeletal parts submitted to me, 
agreeing, as they do, in all essential 
respects with the bones of a recent 
people. Until additional skeletal 
material is obtained, showing char- 
acters more primitive than those al- 
ready noted, the burden of proof of 
great antiquity must rest on geolog- 
ical and paleontological evidence.” 


THE PRINCESS GROUP: 


* 


t 


~ 
o 


Abia }. at ARES 


Photo by Hiram peas 


MACHU PICCHU 


A general view of the ornamental wall and the semicircular tower, together with the 
second story of the adjoining house, looking toward the principal agricultural terraces and 


our camp in the distance (see page 471). 


Such geological evidence as we had 
been able to collect in the limited time at 
our disposal was presented by Professor 
Bowman in a paper published at the 
same time. Professor Bowman had re- 
ported several years before finding evi- 
dences of man’s existence in the central 
Andes in late Glacial or early post-Gla- 
cial times. He was led to believe that 
the actual remains of man found in the 
Cuzco basin were embedded in gravels 
of a still earlier date. 


DETERMINING THE AGE OF THESE BONES 


In his interpretation of the geological 
and geographical evidence he reached the 
conclusion that the beds belonged to a 


491 


Glacial series, and that the age of the 
vertebrate remains might be provisionally 
estimated at from 20 to 40 thousand 
years. 
But he called attention to the weakness 
of the case, lying in the following facts: 
(1) that certain of the bones could not 
be sharply differentiated from those of 
modern cattle, and (2) that it was within 
the limits of aueibiltey that the bluff in 
which the bones were found might be 
faced by younger gravel, and that there- 
fore the bones had been in gravel veneer 
deposited during later periods of partial 
valley-filling. 
He experienced grave doubts as to his 
own conclusions, because we were only 


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AHODId NHOVN LV ONINVH'ID MOCNIM 


Wey surg WITT, 


Aq oj0N g 


uy 


-ureyo souut ee ee ES Se Ste pe pUrrtory UII Ose GACY 
aso} O} AL[IMUIS sajoY “SUIp[inq Te[MosO1WIes & SulAey Aq Os[e pozis9je 
-Jeyo St yoIyM ‘oozndD ul ‘uns ay} Jo sjdwiay, oy} Uy ‘s}sou tay} oAeY 
Jystusr AY} YSIYM Ul [TBM 9} VpISUT jJo] Stoqureyo 0} ssed jYySsiwi soxeus 
YIYM YSHo1y} [[eM oy} UL sosessed 9]}}1] 0} SuIpea, sajoy sururejuod 
MOPUIM JIqexIVWiot V SI JOMO} Te[NIIOIWIIS ay} FO [[eM Jey oy} UT 


ANHOOId AHOVIN : MOGNIM UNVNS AHL 
weysurg wespy Aq ojo g 


492 


Bingham 


ANOTHER: VIEW OF THE SNAKE WINDOW 


Photo by Hiram 


Showing very clearly the holes in the wall for the admission of snakes 


493 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE SNAKE WINDOW FROM WITHIN 


There were several means of exit from each snake nest, and it is possible that the priest 


of this temple attempted to fortell the future by noticing from which holes the snakes 
chanced to come out (see pages 472 and 403). 


404 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE INTERIOR OF THE SEMICIRCULAR TOWER NEAR THE SNAKE WINDOW 


The cracks in the walls were probably caused by a great conflagration centuries ago 


495 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE PRINCESS GROUP: MACHU PICCHU 


gs, showing the principal houses of the Princess Grou 


The semicircular tower containing the snake window and its immediate surroundin 


p 


-455). 


. 459), and the King’s Group at the extreme right (see pp. 451 


on the left (see pp. 486-488), the stairway of the fountains on the right (see p 


496 


able to spend a very few days in 
Cuzco after the find was made, and 
concluded his report with these 
words: 

“Further excavation is needed, for 
the same body of gravels may yield 
material that will put the conclusions 
upon a more solid foundation. If 
later studies should yield evidence in 
favor of the conclusion that the ma- 
terial belongs to the Spanish period, 
we shall have still the fact of inter- 
stratification as a starting point, and 
the conclusions based upon that fact 
will have almost equal interest with 
the conclusions here stated, as to the 
Glacial age of the material. Changes 
of such magnitude indicate a swing 
of the climatic pendulum but little 
short of remarkable.” 

Since further examination of the 
Cuzco gravel beds and a comprehen- 
sive study of their age seemed essen- 
tial, this was one of the chief objects 
of the 1912 expedition, and it was 
with this particular end in view that 
Professor Gregory and Dr. Eaton 
were asked to go to Cuzco. 


IDENTIFYING THE “BISONIC” BONE 


Among the bones Dr. Eaton had 
noted three fragments of bones be- 
longing either to cattle or bison, 
whose specific identification was be- 
set with almost insuperable difficul- 
ties. After examining skeletal bison 
remains in various museums and 
comparing them with these frag- 
ments and with similar bones of a 
number of North American domes- 
tic cattle, he found that one of the 
bones, a fragmentary bovine rib, was 
of a form which appeared to be 
characteristic of the bisons and dif- 
ferent from the forms seen in North 
American domestic cattle. 

Dr. Eaton had said in his pub- 
lished report: “It cannot be denied 
that the material examined suggests 
the possibility that some species of 
bison is here represented, yet it 
would hardly be in accordance with 
conservative methods to differentiate 
bison from domestic cattle solely by 
characters obtained from a study of 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
SNAKE ROCK: MACHU PICCHU 


On top of one of the boulders near the Sacred Plaza there are several snakes carved 
into the surface of the rock. The carving of snakes on rocks seems to have been common 
among prehistoric peoples all over the world (see page 472). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


SUN ROCK: MACHU PICCHU 


On another curiously broken stone is carved a sun, several small snakes, and a few 
undecipherable figures 


497 


‘TOL UL UoyL} SBA Yo ‘oSed SuLrmopjoy Oy} uo oanjoid ol} Y}IAd ‘A}19.. 94}, SULULA]D UL 10. 
SHOnUdTS JO SYJUOU Jojfe “CIOL UL UAL} SEM YOIYyM “otnjord sty} ysvszUOD *(60S ‘Zo§ sasvd 99s) [vIp uns 10 ‘aUuO}S VUL}ENYTUT sy} St YoryM Fo do} 
UO “I[I}] PetovG oY} St way} aAoqy “(PZF ‘Ih ‘grb ‘Zit ‘git “Oot ‘gor sosed 99S) SMOPUIA\ 92914, 94} FO adwioy, oY} yYSII oy} Je pue ‘(zIS pure ‘Cos 
“IOS “Ooh sased vas) aydiuay, JaryD ay} st Jojzuad oy} UT “NYG NYSE }e samnyon4js Jsouy oY} JO ops oY} ‘eze[g PatdeG 9Y} FO MoatA [eIOUEs VY 


NHSDId NHOVW : HdWAINL TVWYOLOALIHOWV NV 


ueysurg wWeirpy Aq ojoyg 


498 


Photo by H. lL. Tucke: 


\ PICTURE OF THE SAME PART OF THE CITY OF MACHU PICCHU AS SHOWN IN THE 


PRECEDING ILLUSTRATION, BUT PHOTOGRAPHED THE YEAR BEFORE 

The comparison of these two pictures shows in a very striking manner the immense 
amount of labor and energy expended by members of the expedition in 1912 in clearing the 
ruins, so that the members of the National Geographic Society could obtain a good con- 


ception of the city (see also page 449). 


490 


BEC a 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A CORNER OF THE THREE-WINDOWED 
TEM PLE 

In the walls of the temples on the Sacred 
Plaza are several extraordinarily large granite 
blocks. In the hole in the upper left-hand 
corner of the picture rested one end of the 
beam which supported the roof on the west 
side of the Temple of the Three Windows. 
The women are wives of our workmen. ‘The 
one on the right was wearing a green skirt 
with a red waist and blue stripes; the one on 
the left had on a blue skirt and a red blouse 
with black dots. 


the first ribs of a small number ot in- 
dividuals.” 

Consequently his first interest on reach- 
ing Cuzco was to secure specimen ribs 
of Cuzco domestic cattle. The very first 
one that we were able to procure from a 
local butcher shop told a new story. 

Dr, Eaton reports as follows: “The 
plans for osteological work included the 
dissection of the carcasses of beef ani- 


mals reared in the high altitudes of the 
province of Cuzco. ‘This study revealed 
the fact that, under the life conditions 
prevailing in this part of the Andes, and 
possibly due to the increased action of 
the respiratory muscles in the rarefied 
air, domestic cattle can develop first ribs 
of. ‘bisonic’ form. 

There is, therefore, no reason for sup- 
posing that the bovine rib found with the 
human bones in the Ayahuaycco Que- 
brada in 1911 belongs to some species of 
bison, and any theory attributing great 
antiquity to the ‘Cuzco man’ based on 
such a supposition is untenable. 


VALUABLE SPECIMENS EXCAVATED IN 
CUZCO VALLEY 


“Systematic search in the Cuzco Val- 
ley for ethnological and paleontological 
material was carried on. Laborers were 
employed and excavations made in the 
terraces beneath the walls of the Sacsa- 
huaman fortress; in the gardens of the 
Inca palace near the fortress and among 
the ruins of the near-by hill called Pic- 
chu. Several ancient graves on the hills 
overlooking the village of San Sebastian 
were explored. Much valuable material 
was collected, including human skeletons, 
belonging presumably to both the his- 
toric and prehistoric periods, together 
with the bones of contemporaneous lower 
animals, implements and ornaments of 
stone, bone, metal and shell, and pottery. 
The so-called “ash deposits” of the city 
were examined, and specimens were ob- 
tained that will probably show that these 
deposits do not go back of the Hispanic 
period. 

“Two days were spent making a re- 
connaissance of fossil beds near Ayus- 
bamba [near Paruro], about 30 miles 
southwest from Cuzco, and the results 
of this brief visit gave such promise that 
later in the season another trip was made 
to this interesting locality in company 
with the geologist and two topographers. 
Although the locality had already been 
visited several times by amateur collect- 
ing parties, it was still possible to obtain 
a considerable amount of vertebrate ma- 
terial that will probably yield very satis- 
factory results.” 


GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 


The geological examination of the 
Cuzco Valley undertaken by Professor 


500 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE ALTAR OF THE CHIEF TEMPLE OF MACHU PICCHU 
The interior of the Chief Temple on the Sacred Plaza, showing the cracking caused by 


the settling of the east wall. 
decrease gradually in each ascending tier. 
little over 5 feet in height. 


Gregory consisted, in the first place, of a 
study of the gravel deposits near Cuzco 
and the relation in age and position of 
these gravels to the remains of men and 
other animals discovered in them, both on 
the present and on the former expedition. 
In a preliminary summary of his investi- 
gations Professor Gregory says: “The 
gravels were found to be portions of an 
extensive alluvial fan of Glacial age, but 
the human relics embedde 1 in them are 
probably of much later date.” ‘These de- 
posits will be described fully in a paper 
on the Cuzco gravels to be published in 
the near future. 

In regard to the other parts of his 
work, Professor Gregory reports as fol- 
lows: 

It consisted of “an examination of the 
structure, stratigraphy, and physiography 
of the Cuzco Valley with a view to se- 
curing the data for a geologic map of the 
area tributary to the Huatanay River. 
The region was found to consist chiefly 
of sedimentary rocks of pre-Tertiary, 
Tertiary, and Pleistocene age. Basic 
igneous intrusions are present and five 
intrusive masses of andesite (?) are rep- 


501 


Notice the care with which the size of the stones is made to 
The main altar stone is 14 feet in length and a 


resented by outcrops. During Glacial 
times a lake occupied the upper part of 
the valley. Fossils from Mesozoic and 
recent strata are sufficient to determine 
the relations of at least part of the for- 
mations. The results of the geologic sur- 
vey, including stratigraphic and petro- 
graphic maps, are to be embodied in a 
report dealing with the area as a whole.” 

Professor Gregory also made a survey 
of Ayusbamba, on the Apurimac River, 
the locality from which fossil vertebrates 
were collected by Dr. Eaton. The strata 
at Ayusbamba are clays and sands de- 
posited in an ancient lake perched high 
above the valley floors at an altitude of 
over 11,000 feet. 

The Island of the Sun, in Lake Ti- 
ticaca, Bolivia, was studied by both Pro- 
fessor Gregory and Assistant Topogra- 
pher Heald, with reference to its coal 
deposits. A collection of carboniferous 
fossils was secured. 


THE TROUBLES OF A CARTOGRAPHER 


Owing to a most unfortunate misunder- 
standing, occasioned by the difficulty of 
getting messages transmitted in an un- 


YySus] Ul JooF YET St YOM 


weysurg urerryy Aq ojoyd 


‘ 


21n} 


ord yx90U dy} WoIZ J0}}9q poreyjes oq Aeur “jYSI9 


JOUION PULY-}J2] OY} UL 9U0}S I9d1R] OY} JO oZIS VATL[II OY), 
NOILONYISNOOD OTIOLSIHAYd JO AOWIGAAISVN V 


Y Ur oof Q AyIeoU pue 
‘BZP[q pases ay} uo as[dway, FaryD oy} JO ]]eM 4svo YT, 


502 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
TYPICAL INDIAN WOMEN AT MACHU PICCHU 


The largest stone in the east wall of the Chief Temple on the Sacred Plaza and the wives 
of two workmen 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE HEAVIEST- STONE BLOCK IN A MACHU PICCHU WALL 


The interior face of the same stone and the ornamental niches in the east wall of the 
Chief Temple. The hole in the upper right-hand corner was undoubtedly for the admission 
of the beam which supported the roof of this temple. 


503 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


AN INTERESTING CORNER: MACHU PICCHU 


Back of the Chief Temple and adjoining it are 
the ruins of a small house probably occupied by the 
The picture shows a portion of the 
Part of this wall is 
made of a single stone, which is cut into 32 angles 


High Priest. 
exterior of its western wall. 


and corners. 


inhabited region, quite a little of Mr. 
Bumstead’s work was unintentionally de- 
stroyed. It was necessary for him to 
leave the Cuzco Basin and work on the 
Andine cross-section before the Cuzco 
map was completed. This was occasioned 
by the rapid approach of the rainy sea- 
son. Arrangements were made with the 
chief engineer of the Southern railways 
to have the map photographed. The 
permanent contour lines were inked in, 
but all streams, roads, ruins, terraces, 
plane-table locations, and many geograph- 
ical names and all elevations were left on 
the sheet in pencil. 


The photographer thought that 
the map looked rather badly with 
all these pencil-marks on it, and a 
telegram was sent to the director, 
requesting permission to erase all 
pencil-marks. This telegram was 
received six weeks later, on my re- 
turn from a difficult journey into 
the interior. 

It was then too late to save Mr. 
Bumstead’s work, for the photog- 
rapher, impatient at the delay, and 
not receiving permission to clean 
the map, had gone ahead on his 
own responsibility and erased what 
a month of careful field-work could 
not replace. As Mr. Bumstead says 
in his report: 

“. . Only one who has seen 
his patient and painstaking work 
destroyed can imagine mv feelings 
when I returned to Cuzco witnin 
about a week of the time when the 
new Peruvian government said we 
must stop all our work—weary and 
almost discouraged from a trip that 
had ended in profitless waiting in a 
leaky tent for a cold rain to stop 
and permit the work to proceed 
through a region where the rainy 
season had set in in good earnest— 
only to find that all the above men- 
toined penciling on the Cuzco Val- 
ley map had been completely and 
absolutely lost.” 


HAMPERED FOR LACK OF TIME 


The new Peruvian government 
had stipulated in their decree that 
all the work of excavating and ex- 
ploring must cease on the first of 
December, and the local authorities were 
directed to see to it that this order was 
carried out. In the limited time that re- 
mained it was impossible to finish the 
map of the Cuzco Valley as carefully as 
it had been begun. | 

It was decided, however, that it would 
be much better to map the area needed 
by the geologist as well as it could be 
done before the day set by the govern- 
ment for the conclusion of our work. 
Accordingly, great pains have been taken 
to show the true character of the topog- 
raphy. 


504 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE HIGH PRIESTS HOUSE: MACHU PICCHU 


This picture of the interior of the priest’s house gives a better idea of the stone of the 
32 angles. Not only were portions of two niches cut out of this stone, but in a spirit of 
freakish ingenuity the builders carried a small portion of the stone around the corner, so 
that a part of the corner itself is in this extraordinary block. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE HIGH PRIEST'S COUCH 


Another view of the interior of the priest’s house, showing the long bench, or platform, 
which was probably used as a couch. Notice the care with which the stones were selected, 
cut, and symmetrically arranged. 


eS Ok 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
EXAMPLE OF REMARKABLY SYMMETRICAL 


AN 
MASONRY 


Another view: of the interior of the priest’s house 
é Note the steps cut 
in the rock to enable the priest to get on top of it 
and salute the rising sun are just visible in the pic- 


and the sacred rock back of it. 


ture. 


The scale of the Cuzco Valley map is 
I inch to the mile, and the contour in- 
terval is 100 feet. The map covers in 
all 174 square miles. It includes nearly 
all the territcry that drains into the valley 
of the River Huatanay, which rises in the 
mountains back of Cuzco, flows through 
the city and under part of it between 
walls constructed by the Incas, crosses 
the bed of an ancient lake, and finally 


joins the upper waters of the Urubamba, 


called at this point the Vilcanota or Vil- 
camayu. 
Peruvian rivers have a habit of chang- 


ing their names every few miles, 
and this particular river is no ex- 
ception. It is called at various 
times the Vilcanota, the Vilcamayu, 
the Rio Grande, the Urubamba, the 
Santa Ana, and finally unites with 
other rivers to form the Ucayali, 
one of the great branches of the 
Amazon. 

Mr. Bumstead’s map of Cuzco 
Valley shows the elevations and 
relative positions of Cuzco, the 
great cyclopean fortress of Sacsa- 
huaman, and the four historic 
roads leading out of the ancient 
Inca capital. It also aims to bring 
out clearly the chief topographic 
and physiographic features that are 
characteristic of the locality. It 
will be used by Professor Gregory 
and Dr. Eaton as a basis for their 
reports on the geology and oste- 
ology of this region. If extensive 
scientific archeological work is ever 
permitted in this region, this map 
will be of great service in deter- 
mining the geographic influences in 
the location of the ruins. 


ITI 


MAP-WORK OF THE EXPEDITION 


The map-work was under the di- 
rection of Mr. Albert H. Bumstead, 
for nine years a topographic engi- 
neer in the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey. Mr. Bumstead’s work 
was seriously handicapped by the 
fact that the seasons seem to be 
changing in Peru, and an unex- 
pectedly large amount of rain was 
encountered in what is technically 
known as the “dry season.” Further- 
more, the difficulties of making maps in 
a lofty plateau, where, for example, the 
bottom of the Cuzco Valley is more than 
twice as high as the top of Mount Wash- 
ington, can hardly be appreciated except 
by those who have tried to do field-work 
at similar elevations. 

In 1911, owing to lack of preliminary 
reconnaissance and excessively hard local 
conditions, the topographer of the expe- 
dition had been unable to do anything on 
the most difficult part of the cross-section 
map. This work was now undertaken by 


506 


A WELL GUILT STAIRWAY : 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


MACHU PICCHU 


Near the priest’s house is the most carefully constructed stairway at Machu Picchu, 


each one of whose steps was originally a single block of granite. 


This leads from the 


Sacred Plaza up to the top of the Sacred Hill (see pages 472, 508, and 509). 


Chief Topographer Bumstead and As- 
sistants Hardy and Little. 

A route map was completed along a 
rarely used trail from Abancay, the capi- 
tal of the department of Apurimac, across 
the Apurimac Valley via Pasaje to 
Lucma, this being the portion of the map 
not completed in 1911. Mr. Bumstead’s 
map is on a scale of 1 inch to the mile, 
with a contour interval of 200 feet. It 
covers approximately 500 square miles. 
Frequent latitude and azimuth observa- 
tions were made all along the route, and 
an occultation of a first-magnitude star 
was observed in connection with time 
sights on the moon and Jupiter imme- 
diately afterwards (see page 388). 


The route covered by this map is about 
100 miles in length and passes through 
a great variety of very heavy mountain- 
ous country. The elevations here range 
from about 4,000 feet up to more than 
19,000. The most impertant features 
represented on this map are the glaciers 
of that part of the Vileabamba Cordillera 
between Choquetira, Arma, and Lucma. 
A large part of this country was under 
glaciation at no very distant date, and 
great pains were taken to bring out the 
glacial forms. 

This map will be of great value in 
giving proper understanding of the physi- 
ography of the central \ndes, and will 
be published in connection with Profes- 


507 


= 


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1} OL, 90M [PIG ung sy} uses oq Kew ayduio4 
‘sdo19 Jay} pastes SJUeYqeYyUL JUsTIUe 9Y} dIOT[M 
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VZV'ld GHYOVS AHL FO [SHM SHOVUNAL AHL ANV ‘TIE VNVLVOHILNI 


508 


THE SUN DIAL: MACHU PICCHU 


On top of the sacred hill is a curiously carved stone called an Jntihuatana stone, or sun 


dial, or sun circle. “Jnti’’ means “sun,” and “huatana’ a “rope,” in Quichua, the language 
of the Incas. Jntihuatana stones 


are found also in Cuzco and in Pisac and Ollantaytambo 
(see pages 472 and 507). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A GEM OF INCA ARCHITECTURE 


The little temple on top of the sacred hill near the Intihuatana stone 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE WEST SIDE OF MACHU PICCHU 


J 


four doors in the principal house, 


f=) 


) the sacred hill, the Temple of the Three Windows and the Sacred Plaza 


group of houses characterized by having 


f the finest stairways, a 
and finally the semicircular tower of the Princess Group. 


General view of Machu Picchu, showing (reading. from right to left 


the principal cross street in the city and one o 
the beautiful outer wall of the King’s Group, 


510 


sor Bowman’s account of the geo- 
logical cross-section made in 1o1Itr. 

In describing his work on this 
map, Mr. Bumstead says: 

“With such meager control as 
time and bad weather permitted, I 
endeavored to make a map of as 
wide a strip of country as possible, 
that would first of all convey the 
same impression of the topography 
upon the person who should use 
the map as I had at the time that I 
made it; that is, I wanted my map 
to accurately describe the char- 
acter of each mountain and valley 
shown. This I kept ever in mind, 
and frequently reached out five or 
six miles with estimated distances 
to sketch features as I saw them, 
knowing that even though their 
positions and elevations were far 
from right, the picture brought to 
mind by the use of the map wou!d 
be far better than nothing at all. 

“In the main, however, the map 
is fairly well controlled, and in the 
snow-and-glacier-covered moun- 
tains around Choquetira and Arma 
I took very great pains not only to 
show a good picture of this won- 
derful region, but to make an ac- 
curate and dependable topographic 
map as well, and I got good loca- 
tions and elevations on all the peaks 
and many other points besides. 

“In making this map we followed 
the route of Professor Bowman in 
1911. He expected the work to be 
done in 21 days. I think it could 
have been done in 30 days of good 
weather, and done even better than 
I did it, though I took three months, 
as I was hampered by fog and rain 
and snow almost continually from 
the time we left Abancay. It was 
aggravating in the extreme to catch 
glimpses of the wonderful scenery 
as the clouds would lift or settle 
and then have the peaks disappear 
from view before they could be lo- 
cated and sketched.” 

It was hoped that Mr. Bumstead 
would be able to locate and get the 
elevation of Mount Salcantay while 
on this trip, but it remained cloudy 
during the entire time. 


himself in this practically im- 
pregnable region called Vilca- 
bamba, and he was able occa- 
sionally to make raids on 
Spanish caravans bound from 
Cuzco to Lima. A large part 
of the road over which he 
must have passed in making 
these raids was mapped for 
the first time by Mr. bum- 
stead, and is included in the 
Andean cross-section map re- 
ferred to above (page 507). 
The young Inca Manco 
lived at a place called Vitcos 
for 10 years. Here he actu- 
ally received and entertained 
Spanish refugees. One of 
these, a hot-headed fellow, fell 
out with the Inca over a game 


A comp 


36 bs IV 
- 6§P pp 
2 “rs THE LAST- INCA CAPITAL— 
oo Seats 
i Ss Sy VITCOS 
A. Bee A map of the vicinity of 
a oe the last Inca capital of Vitcos, 
> 2-9 including the present-day vil- 
g ¢&« lages of Puquiura and Vilca- 
= 2 § bamba, was made on a scale 
' “ES of 3 inches = 1 mile, with 
, cs 2 100-toot contours. 
te his country is of great in- 
=. terest to students of historical 
= &~ geography. It is in the midst 
= & of a wonderful labyrinth of 
» Sy, tropical valleys and gl. cier- 
+s -.& clad mountains. Readers of 
<< § Prescott’s “Conquest of Pe- 
"wz % ru,’ a book whose charm is 
U4 ° 
“eo as fresh today as it eve’ was, 
OW oe oe will remember that Pizarro 
ropes) = 
i ‘Sys selected Manco, a son of a 
ae > » former Inca, as the most avail- 
= © 8.3 able figurehead in whose name 
ca & ee - 
p 8g the Spaniards could govern 
anal Vey “ if 
= © § Peru. He was crowned Inca 
<i “5 in 1534, but he had too much 
“= #5. good red blood in his veins to 
ty or ° 4 . 
S wha submit to Spanish tutelage, so 
st -=~ & he escaped, raised an army 
A - ie | e e . 5 
5% ©2% of faithful Indians, besieged 
= %& YF Cuzco unsuccessfully, retreat- 
cy ea ha: 3 8 
3 2°, ed to Ollantaytambo, and 
S ££ thence made good his escape 
y ©.2 — into the fastnesses of this An- 
= 22° dean labyrinth. 
— ees He found it easy to defend 
aes 
eee 
Ons 
oe 
=) vo 
-_ te 
O.oaies 
Ree 
is) fay) 
Vv 
Xe: 
ahs 
© ao 
xs! ° 
Piri = 
° fo) 
= n 
‘a 
oe 3 
= 
a 
oO 
S 
ad 
> 
rr 
7 
© 


garden terraces, the peak called Huayna Picchu, 


bamba Canon. 


s 
iter 
rit ° 
om a ed 
Is chess), and 
bow S ch hat 
_— t d. led 
v > say uar as ons d, so 
bees q wes) S ad, 1- 
zgees the ca his ste our 
@ 3, es an e In of his he Cc Vie 
eb eaga: th O in st §0 
‘Gee in tur oe as, to 
Fy EES in for Tit ne ft 
wo Se ss) t t \ I le £ 
i Bagie es tha abou the as ificen 
By ie “SEE try by at Te ire. 
= Ba oa a2 § rned I ee ee 
s as FOR 
S S 08 Ho Ww fo) erl ES 
ts elt hem Am CH 
> not eaes aa of uth / SEAR Pes 
g use e Be ous TCOS ~ ger 
2 ee VI VI ou Ra 
= dls PRE ee ion 
ss; Seal 
2 a Bug + n ogra ae 
S SEES eas e al 
eigaest Wh eee a of ms 
ar © BO n 1 iddle ee 
aoe Ss lan 1S d es ing 
etre: EUV, di, v ia on tellin 
y sce ge &, 50 abet ee of By 
Bees a u tu ht ie e 
Ss ne abo cen 2S) Be i 
SSSaE a5 th tho re ca 
se Bo ee 6 have ce 
‘S) 15) nN ishe 
aes Spee to tha ea u sne 
ie him Hen he “establ this 
a 58 Bees ins ie €s in 
wes Sans ruit tha d ere knew 
“eo Soe w ew ha h O d 
peaetals oe nd he also kine 
6x = S he in c= 
5 ee Ma elf d ru qui 
ered? ae ie resting sribedt bg 
Tae iS a 1 : r i iS 
= set on ae 
oes Gea : O r 
5) a Sn oe g o oe. ch, explorer, SO 
5 See: French : ve 
: scene the Fren oe tuded t e 
a ioe ne 2 Se S u es, ond clu ee 
S aa ed a “of Ch Soe 
Ba ‘| = 
N 3 pee Es Ration é ae tho -los 
: age noes nee 
— A b) 
: bbe: he the au | lines fs of 
pan ical 4 = 
ae: igere a ae 
Q ete Vee di’s of Inca 
eee “Raimond Oe ee 
ea “9 = 2 Ra inci d €, ins 
q cers 23 Oin an ose ui 
= Es 2 gee the Hae the ae coe 
s cee oe as ti are the ae Bis A 
ace q ita as "ene = 
gc heat ae Ce u etre 
ge: as ted aia ding 
Sine Soae Be aN lu 
~ Sie ve a Oe pepe th arly Inc her, 
eH i ere ued Ts, Tap ith 
5 goeees ee write geog aa 
Ha a, Ke) Uu 4 in 
bee eee ruvian fam, fl was t 
eneee Tu ae this 
mM TOS ran = 
eg Be oes 2 Bee that | “Choque 
ae] r= yen P idea M EtG 10) 
Stee sz the id of rd Ri 
pier iu fuge wo s t co t 
pee eS i 9 re he 20s len c1en 
Ea 3 pee a by Ww’ m ‘this he an 
is ss as “9 uirat and. in t 
goa Boek oot ry 
pees es g Te ace 
Bor ae SS g he 
geo 8 pace th 
Be te 
rere 
lay Pes S85 5 
ee 
Gi B'S 


Inca 
the 

les that 

icle * 

hron 

Cc 


512 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE ARCHITECTURAL CENTER OF MACHU PICCHU 


ay, 


On the right is the beautiful outer wall of the 


In the center is a portion of the longest stairw 


Apart from the Sacred Plaza, this is the center of the finest stonework in Machu Picchu. 


group that is characterized by 
the one in which fountains are 


snakes. 


513 


having the steepest gables and the finest monolithic lintels. 


On the extreme left is a portion of the semicircular tower and the window of the 


introduced at various stages. 


Manco had carried with him from 
Cuzco great quantities of gold 
utensils for use in his new capital. 

Personally I did not feel so 
sure that the case was proven. 
The ruins did not seem fine 
enough for the Inca’s residence. 
Consequently I was very glad that 
it was possible in 1911 to carry an 
exploring expedition into the Vil- 
cabamba Valley, and still more 
delighted when we found interest- 
ing ruins at a place called Rosas- 
pata. 

Near Rosaspata was an extraor- 
dinary monolith, called ‘“Nusta 
Espana.” By reference to the 
Spanish chroniclers, we found 
that it was recorded that near 
Vitcos, the last Inca capital, was 
a temple of the Sun, in which was 
a white rock over a spring of 
water. Furthermore, that Vitcos 
was on top of a high mountain, 
from which a large part of the 
surrounding region could be seen, 
and, moreover, that in the palace 
of Vitcos the doors, both ordinary 
and principal, were of white mar- 
ble, beautifully carved. 


WHY THE NUSTA ESPANA IS THE 
KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION 
OF VITCOS 


All of these points of descrip- 
tion fitted the Rosaspata locality. 
Within half a mile of Rosaspata 
are the ruins of an ancient build- 
ing which might have been the 
temple of the Sun, and in which 
is found a huge white rock, over- 
hanging a spring of water (see 
pictures, pages 550-554). The 
ruins of Rosaspata are on top of 
a conspicuously high hill, from 
which the view in all directions is 
fine. 

Finally the ruins of Rosaspata, 
unlike those of Machu Picchu 
and Choqquequirau, are noticeable 
because there are two kinds of 
doors, ordinary and _ principal 
ones, and that the door-posts are 
made of stones carefully carved 
out of white granite. (Strictly 
speaking, there is no marble in 


om we 


lt me i et ll 
- 7 Ss 


pure “dnoir) uopser) Q4LAL If 24} pojjte duos 
JO 9UO SI UN} UL SIYy} VAOGY 


iii a aaa “aera ei cee (ad went hs 6 ee be dl i I 


OY} SE ABMAILIS SUC, 4} PACYB FYSLA OY} OF [LYM “AD OY} FO SUOIZAOd PapMoO sD ATaSUAP JsoWw dyy 
‘SUPIPUT UJapOUr oY} Aq ying jy peyojey} BV pue sSUsPIYS PIdIVII9} DY} IIe WY} sAOGY ‘s}ORJIIe pue suid 9zu01q 
oH] oy}? JO JsOuUr PUNOF 9M YSIYM Av9aU SIapf~nog Ysonor 9y4 o1B punoIsI104F d}eIPOUIT DY} UI oinjord [erjUI. oY} UT "9U0}S [Ip uns 10 “euejeny 
-IJU] IY} Poyeoo]T ST YOIYM UO ‘T[IY petoVs oy} St NYS Nyoeyy ul AVMATeJs Jsouy 9Yy} AQ WOY} YIM PoayouUOD pue dSoq} dAOGY aii JO JYSII oy} 0} 
a[dia} PaMOpUIM-I1Y4} IY} Pue sjdW9y, Jory 94} YIM “eze[q Pe1oVg 9Y} si Woy} sAOGY ‘sdd¥II9} [eINI[NIIIse UId}sOM 94} 918 49] ayy 17@) 


NHOOId NHOVW JO ALIO AHI FO WIVH-EINO LNOGV AO MAIA IVYANAD V SHAID ANNLOId SIELL 


weysurg wep Aq ojo g 


514 


‘UOILAIYND JapuN aduo0 sem AI}JUNOD dy} FO JOOF ajqupivar 

‘saplspurl yuaded Aq ARBAB patisvd Uddq DABY FEY} SEIV119} JUSPIUL FO SUINA JY} 91B BdURISIP 9Y} UL Sadojs oy} UG “NYIq NYY JO sesuos 

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19} 94} JO J9}U9I VY} UT ‘sil VAOTY ‘Qanqoid ay} JO 10}UID JOMOT JY} Ul SuIpying Vy} epis}no ysnf [JI oy} UMOP saWOd YoIYM “yeour AIp ay} pus 


[Je APIO JOUUT ay} SE say} PUOsIq jsnf ‘dnoiy ssaoulig ay} JO ssulpyinq ey} pue A}ig Jaddg, ay} yo Javed uses aq Avw ZYsII ay} UO dn ystpy 


SdOUD MISA GASIVA NHODId NHOVW HO SINVLIGVHNI |NAIONV HHL AWIHM SHOVa iL TV UL LInoOliev. < 


» ¥ 


weysurg weisz Aq 0j0Gg 


aut 


YOM s,uOseaS dy} JO UOTATdUI0D 
q@ 1OPIIIG, oy} pue nya nyoeyy 3 dures oy) ur yuo} urew oyy, 


IWVO NHOOd NHOVIW 3: ISAM LV YOLOUNIG WHY, 
SIPLE “OD “Hh Aq o0y 


nydIq Nyse FO ApS dy} JO suors0d poarvopoun 
dy} FO 9UO UF UspprYy [jem ev Fo do} uO sanfnoyIp Japun soinjord Suryey, 


MYOM LV WVHONITSD YOLOTMIG 


uojery “WT 4) Aq oO. J 


516 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE WESTERN PRECIPICES: MACHU PICCHU 


_Forest trees growing wherever there is a foothold have usually been found in this 
region to cover ancient agricultural terraces, and they probably do in the cases shown in 
this picture. The western trail to Machu Picchu climbs out of the cafion in the lower right- 
hand corner and winds up the precipice until it passes over the shoulder near the top of 
the precipice. 


517 


; WMO} JOyYIVUL JsoIvoU st} 
0} FO UdATIp pue ‘sseis pelip ut poxoed Ayn fores usd Set YOryM ‘Krayjod 24} YUM Uopry ‘spsioy oY} WOIF Pojajas are seule] Apinjs Jo Joquinu & 
Juowdiys 10} Apvas oie puv poyeG useq savy sjod ay} usyM pure ‘seureT] oy} FO 91VO 9xe} Vout OU} ‘sjod oY, dYeUL UIWIOM 9} VIET “Weed SPSyAld jo 
do} 9y} FO Jey} UY} Jaj}vaI3 opnqyye ue ye seM jt 9seO yuasoId oy} UT “AdT[PA UyeJUNOUT 9}0WoT Pue AJJO] B Ul SOATT UszzZO ATIuTeZ S.10330d ay, 


WOW SHINOD AYWILOd AHL HaHAM 


rayon, “7 “H Aq 0104 


518 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE PLAZA OF SAYI,LA: CUZCO VALLEY 


In the Cuzco Valley, as well as on all the roads in the uplands of Peru, whenever an 
Indian passes through a village he stops to get a drink of chicha, the native beer, a large 
glass of which may be purchased for about two cents. When it is cleanly made, it is not 
disagreeable. 


Photo by Hiram Bingha 


A CORNER OF THE SAN FRANCISCO PLAZA: CUZCO 


In the market-places of Cuzco and other Peruvian cities pottery made by the Indians in 
the vicinity is usually to be bought for prices ranging from five to fifty cents. It is hand 
made, baked in primitive ovens, and rudely decorated with variegated designs. 


519 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A GRAVEL BANK CONTAINING BONES AND POTS- 


HERDS: CUZCO (PAGES 500-501) 


There are many places near Cuzco where in the 
stratified gravel banks bones and pieces of pottery 
may be found interstratified with the pebbles. 
Eaton and Lieutenant Sotomayor, on one of our first 
walks out of Cuzco, located a number of these. 


this region.) Furthermore, the rock at 
Nusta Espana bears in its carvings marks 
which indicate that at one time in the 
remote past it was unquestionably an 
object of veneration. 

This evidence made me believe that at 
Nusta Espana was the principal shrine of 
the ancient people in this entire region, 
and that the neighboring ruins of Rosas- 
pata were in reality the ruins of Vitcos, 
the last Inca capital. An account of the 
discovery of these places and a statement 
of the proof on which we have based our 
conclusions may be found in Harper's 


Dr. 


Magazine for October, 1912, and in 
more extended form in the Pro- 
ceedings of the American Anti- 
quarian Society for April, 1912. 
Returning to this location in Au- 
gust, 1912, I drained the marshes 
that partly surround the rock at 
Nusta Espana and excavated as far 
as was practicable. To our sur- 
prise and mortification we were un- 
able to find any artifacts whatever 
and only a handful of rough pots- 
herds. We did uncover an inter- 
esting priestly throne containing 
nine seats. The work of excavat- 
ing and the results may be seen on 


pages 553 and 554. 
WF 


INCA PLACE NAMES IN THE VILCA- 
BAMBA REGION 


A problem which particularly oc- 
cupied my attention was the identi- 
fication of ancient Inca place names 
referring to the Vilcabamba coun- 
try and occurring in the Spanish 
chronicles, but not appearing on any 
known maps. 

Before leaving New Haven I had 
an index prepared of all the places 
that are referred to in the available 
chronicles. A copy of this list was 
taken with me in the field wherever 
I went, and owing to the courtesy 
of the managers of various planta- 
tions and of local government offi- 
cials, the most intelligent and re- 
liable Indians were carefully ques- 
tioned in regard to these places. 

By this means it is believed that 
a considerable body of geographical 
nomenclature has been assembled, 
and it is hoped that in the future it may 
be possible to write a report that will 
elucidate and interpret some of the more 
difficult passages in the chronicles. 


VI 


EXPLORATION OF THE AOBAMBA VALLEY 


As part of our plan to cover the area 
included between the Urubamba and 
Apurimac rivers, an archeological and 
topographical reconnaissance was made 
of the hitherto unexplored Aobamba 
Valley. Assistant Topographer Heald 


520 


Y 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE OSTEOLOGIST AT WORK: CUZCO VALLEY 


In the north bank of the Huatanay River, a mile below Cuzco, Dr. Eaton found a human 


skeleton interstratified with clays and gravels 8 feet underground. 


Since the time when the 


bones were deposited there, the entire field of coarse gravels had been laid there above them, 
and in the succeding centuries the river had cut down the bank until it finally laid them 


bare (see pages 500 and 501). 


undertook to approach this problem from 
the mouth of the valley at the junction 
of the Aobamba and Urubamba rivers. 
He met with almost insuperable diffi- 
culties. 

Although the work looked easy as far 
as we could see from the mouth of the 
valley, he found that 4 miles from the 
mouth, up the winding stream, the jungle 
was so dense as to be almost impassable. 
There was no trail and the trees were 
so large and the foliage so dense that ob- 
servations were impossible even after the 
trail had been cut. During a hard after- 
noon’s work in jungle of this kind, with 
four or five men aiding in making the 
path, they succeeded in advancing only 
one mile. 

Reconnaissance work in this type of 
jungle is extremely discouraging and un- 
profitable. Furthermore, there are occa- 
sionally some dangers—as, for instance, 
the following from Mr. Heald’s account 
of his reconnaissance: 


Pal 


ty 


“On the way back to camp one of the 
men had a narrow escape from a snake, 
being grasped and held by another of the 
peons just in time to prevent his stepping 
on it. It was a small, dust-colored snake, 
about 10 inches long, and on being ex- 
amined was found to possess two small 
poison fangs far back in the jaw. The 
fangs differed from those of most poi- 
sonous snakes in that they slanted back 
very little, coming almost straight down 
to the lower jaw.” 


THREE NEW GROUPS OF RUINS REPORTED. 


There was little of archeological inter- 
est in the portion of the valley which Mr. 
Heald succeeded in reaching. Quite un- 
expectedly, however, I got into the up- 
per reaches of the valley about ten days’ 
later and found some interesting ruins 
and hed an unexpected adventure. It 
happenec on this wise: 

The largest and richest estate in the 
Urubamba Valley, Huadquifia, is owned 


AYM 


usye} oInjo1d Jol] SUIAvY SeM ays 
SULIOPUOM pUe YxoYspreA SUOIsins 9Y} suIpjoy Ap;usIWed st BYS 


AGVA GNV WHHLOW NVIGNI OOZND ‘IVOIGAL V 
wos[aN “f, *F Aq O04 


fro reeibari 


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yim Aep Apnojpo e& sea sy 


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SNVIGNI NIVINNOW NVIANWd TVSICAL 


wos[eN “I, “7 Aq 030 q 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
GOATHERDS AND SHEPHERDS: CUZCO VALLEY 


The shepnerds of the Cuzco Valley are usually small boys who, like David of old, spend 
their early years with slings in their hands tending their flocks 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A ROMANTIC SHEEP PASTURE: TIPON, NEAR OROPESA 


Frequently their sheep graze on ancient Inca terraces near carefully built retaining 
walls, or in the midst of interesting ruins about whose history we know practically nothing. 


Leal 
to 
WwW 


OEE EEE EO 


SIIVA19} JUILOUR VY} 


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VSid0NO UVAN : NOILVAVOXH SHLIANI TVA AWTIVA V 


Torr gee rare ane 
TPs 


Vv 


524 


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suop aq 0} IYSno UoOHvavoxs [BoLdoTOIYIe Ie 
ny oinsvas} Aq suOHRAvoXe pezZJOYNeUN jUX2y ‘esodoig, vou 


‘Injny Ivdu OY} Ul Wo}sks [NJo1vVd d1oYM Sotjt[eoo]T ou} yo 9u0 SI siyy, “Spuy queylodwt FSI] 
0} JYsnoIq VAey A}UISIA Sty} Ul S1oyU ‘uodly, yw SUIMI 94} JO MIA JOYzOL T 


ALINOALMOddO DIAILNAIOS GALOWIOAN V 


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eas 
Ph 


‘uoI}Ipedxe [eoIsojosyoie poddimbe-]jom 
v Aq polpnys A[jnforrd oq 0} sadtosop pue PBOI[IeI OY} WOIF HRM Snoy ue A[UO si jy “APD Jotoue sity} JO Siapyinq ay} Suiprese1 uonrpesy [eso 
[ensed ysno1y} Jdaox9 UMOUY SI Suryjou Ayfeooesd Joh pue “Bulpurys [IIS a1e sasnoy OO UeY} d10W JO ST[VM oy Ty, “euAN 3 s[[eo ey qnq ‘zzb a8ed 
uo ,Nisg,, SJoIndS Url 0} peliojot si jy] “epeyInbrg se uMOUy Mou AjID ase] & JO SUM dy} o1e VsadoIQ MoOjeq pue uodIy wo1y 1ey joN 


AATIVA OOZND :VLOVTIINOId FO SNINU AH, 


weysurg weirpy Aq 0y04g 


526 


"]BLIoyeuL Vy} JO UO} J voto} 
dAPY stojUuny o1Nse } dI1IOJO SUIApHys peo OS|e LOAN sulin AdYJO IIe PULYyO) av] 
Aq poapojoid svA\ epryinbig jo AWD dy 


PUILUTOJap OF} ojqissodult }t opeul 
pseMo} LEY ot SUISS a) uUMOYS dtl st Yor ar “|pem stl “suo] v 


-SIU oO 1yejot pue I35e out 
49 sotOUs ou} uc) *BULYO TY, >| 4 | 
*TIIANOId AO ‘VIVM ALIO AHL 


weyst FT Aq OVO 


ee ne OU Patsy JOU PUL AID Ul prey SsouoysS Wonor 
JO epeur ‘s][eM sy J, “YIOMIMO}S Opnsd puke soyoIU AIeyUdWId[9 YSno1 
surmoys eyeymbiq JO AyD poulns oy} Ul ossnoy e& JO sT[eM oy, 


VIOVTIINOId NI TIVM V 
weysurg wep Aq oy0yg / 


“1ojeM ADAUOD O}. pPOPUSjJUL .cUIOG..jO.peoj}sSUuL “sosodind dAisuafop, 10} 


SEM jf JeY} DADT[Oq O} 9UO SoUtTOUT [ITY 94} dn sunt zt YOTYM je You 9yy 
‘Onpoenbe ue seM [eM SI} Jey} So}yeJS UOT}IPeI} [RIO] oy} YsnoyIV 


VO'ION) INNA JO TIVM HLONOS AHL 
weysurg weary Aq Ovoyg 


io} 
Ye) 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE RUINS OF RUMI -CCOLCA 


A short distance east of Piquillacta are the ruins called Rumi Ccolca. It is impossible 
to say positively whether this was merely a wall which guarded the entrance to the Cuzco 
Valley, or whether it was an aqueduct that once carried water to the city of Piquillacta. 


an CUDste- Reo 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
AN ARCHITECTURAL PUZZLE: RUMI CCOLCA 


A nearer view of Rumi Ccolea shows the junction of two entirely different kinds of 
stonework. The original wall is of rough stones laid in mud, but the gateway is lined with 
cut stones fitted together without mortar after the best Inca style. It may be possible that 
a later race cut a gate through the ancient aqueduct and lined it in their own fashion with 
their best stonework. 


529 


pt PAR, 


vhoto by Hira .n Bingham 


THE FINEST STONEWORK AT RUMI CCOLCA: CUZCO VALLEY 
A detail of one side of the gateway at Rumi Ccolca, which shows stone blocks cut with 


as much precision as the best work at Machu Picchu. 


The projecting nubbins left on these 


rocks are an echo of similar marks left on the stone inside the priest’s house near the Sacred 
Plaza in Machu Picchu (see the picture on page 520). 


by the Sefiora Carmen Vargas, who in- 
herited from her father about 1,000 
square miles of land lying between the 
Urubamba and Apurimac rivers. Some 
of the land is occupied by sugar planta- 
tions; other parts are given over to the 
raising of sheep and cattle, while a large 
portion is still tropical jungle. Sefiora 
Carmen has always received us most 
hospitably and done everything in her 
power to further our efforts. : 

Her son-in-law, Don Tomas Alvistur, 
an enthusiastic amateur archeologist, took 
a considerable amount of interest in our 
work and was quite delighted when he 
discovered that some of the Indians on 
the plantation knew of three localities 
where there were Inca ruins, so they 
said, that had not previously been visited 
by white men. 

Don Tomas invited me to accompany 
him on a visit to these three groups of 
ruins, but when the time came to go he 
found that business engagements made 
it impossible for him to do more than 
accompany me part of the way to the 
first group. He went to the trouble, 


530 


however, of securing three Indian guides 
and carriers and gave them orders to 
carry my small outfit whenever it was 
impossible for the pack-mule to be used, 
and to guide me safely to the three ruins 
and home again. : 

They did not greatly relish these or- 
ders, but as they were all feudal tenants, 
holding their land on condition of ren- 
dering a certain amount of personal sery- 
ice every year in lieu of rent, they were 
constrained to carry out the orders of 
their overlord. 

After Don Tomas departed I was left 
to the tender mercies of the Indians and 
of my faithful muleteer, Luis. The In- 
dians had told us that one could visit all 
three ruins and return the next day. This 
information, however, did not prevent 
me from putting in supplies for at least 
a five days’ journey, although I little 
anticipated what was actually going to 
happen. 

The end of the first day’s journey 
found us on top of a ridge about 5,000 
feet above the place where we had 
started, in the midst of a number of 


‘Cpnys [NJo1wd pue UOIjeSsSdAUr dYTJUSIDS Spuvwap A]jud3.in ysour yey} AdqTeA OdzND ay} Jo saovid dy} JO 9uO st sIyy, “Surids ay} 
JO po dy} 0} payeorpap ajduia} & JO ssoy} oq OF Waos SUINI dy} pue UleJUNOF eB jInNq syusloue dy} Ft punodl Wend [es9UIW v_qeyseWat uleyUos 
S19}BM JSOYM d19Y ‘Sutids & st doy, ‘“eIvONg JO ssatj1OF JUIIOUe 9Y} IvoU ‘Tey el ndwey, JO Sums dy} aie OOZND Wolf opld Sinoy OM} Y 


OOZND AUVAN -IVHOVW NdWVL 
weysuig weir Aq ojoYg 


bore ; saath 
: At 


ie » Sa whet ae RS ¥ 
o's a e ae 
ag ae A 
“ ry : 


ge yre es Hyg nye ying oym o[dood oy} 
YUM ‘AYSYS JOA*MOY ‘Ji S}JOQUUOD sUIvApP MO AT[NJored PUL SOYIIU [WLI WIAS FO 9dUoSoId OY} PUL “YSOMAIUOJS d}ISINDXO FO d1e Ssat}1O}F III] SITY} UL 
soinponays dy} FO aUIOG ‘ainjord ay} UL UMOYS des oY} JoAO sassud YSIYM ‘vo]VD pUv OdZND WoeaJjaq [1e1} JUSIOUe ay} UO vIvONg JO Ssaiz410F oy 


OOZND AVAN SSIUALMOL PNAIONV NV : Vavond 
uvysulg weilpy Aq ojoyg 


ritabeeigg 
Fae 

ORE: pices ashes: 3 

BERL fom a0 a aig 

Cf ” 


Sie 
ene Aes 
weg ee 


ike 


ee 


useq sey }eyy oultYys JUBTOUL uv ‘OMUOAYST Ppe][e2 IO PoAtlvo ou} SI O} pe- jofot sul SUrTLL out jo 1944JO Aue uvyy PeyesIqoa[oo 81OUl pur OIZNE) JAIVIN 


weysurg weirypy Aq o10yg 


i. 
= 


fp 


7; ; * 


- 


SjsIsO[Oayoie Aq PO}ISIA Ajjuanbosy 


OOZNO UVIAN 


‘OMNAM™M 


’ 


TO MOOUWU AHL 


33 


5 


primitive ruins and two or 
three modern huts. 


LLACTA PATA, THE RUINS OF 
AN INCA CASTLE 


This place was called Llacta 
Pata. We found evidence 
that some Inca chieftain had 
built his castle here and had 
included in the plan ten or a 
dozen buildings. They are 
made of rough stones laid in 
mud, with the usual symmetri- 
cal arrangement of doors and 
niches. It would be interest- 
ing to excavate here for three 
or four weeks and get suffi- 
cient evidence in the way of 
sherds and artifacts to show 
just what connection the peo- 
ple who built and occupied 
this mountain stronghold had 
to the other occupants of the 
valley. 

After measuring the ruins 
(see plan, page 556) and tak- 
ing a few photographs (see 
page 555), l asked the Indians 
how far it was to the next 
group of ruins, and was told 
it was “two or three hours’ 
journey.” 

Possibly it could be done by 
an Indian runner, with noth- 
ing to carry, in four or five 
hours, but we had three mules, 
that is, our two saddle-mules 
and the one pack-mule, whose 
load, weighing about 100 
pounds, included a small tent, 
cooking outfit, blankets, and 
enough provisions for five 
days. 

Although I had selected for 
this journey one of the best 
and strongest pack-mules 
which we possessed, and al- 
though his load was not much 
more than a third of what he 
could comfortably carry on a 
good road, he found it impos- 
sible to carry this load over 
the trail that we found be- 
fore us. 

During the first two or three 
hours the trail passed through 
a dense tropical jungle. We 


r Bryce’s book 
orld contains.” 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


Many of the stones in its 


le long anterior to those historical Incas whom the Span- 


plete recent description of it may be found in Chapter III of Ambassado 


“one of the most impressive monuments of prehistoric times that the w 


The most com 


THE WONDERFUL FORTRESS OF SACSAHUAMAN : CUZCO VALLEY 
Mr. Bryce says that this fortress is 


Near Kkenko and still nearer to Cuzco are the remarkable walls of the cyclopean fortress called Sacsahuaman. 


construction are over ten feet in height. 


on South America. npre 
He believes that it belongs to a very early time, and is the work of a primitive peop 


iards overthrew. 


534 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


A SMALL CHAPEL ON:-THE OUTSKIRTS OF ABANCAY 


With characteristic hospitality when I left Abancay on my way to Cuzco, I was accom- 
panied this far by the prefect and his aide, and was sent on my way rejoicing and riding one 


of the prefect’s best horses, while my own mule had a day off. 


It is this generous spirit of 


friendly courtesy that makes the work of exploration pleasant in a region where nature has 


done all she could to make it difficult. 


repeatedly had to make detours to avoid 
deep sloughs, and occasionally had to 
stop in order to have branches cut away 
so that the mules might get through. 


DIFFICULT GOING. 


The trail grew rapidly worse, the 
pack-mule fell down four or five times, 
and finally became so frightened that he 
refused to attempt a place in the trail 
where it was necessary for him to jump 
up about four feet on a slippery rock. 
It was consequently necessary to unload 
him and distribute the cargo among the 
Indian carriers, and get all hands to help 
pull and push the mules over the bad 
spots in the mountain foot trail. This 
went on at intervals during the remainder 
of the day. 


Asa result we found ourselves at night- 


fall on a grassy slope on the side of the 
mountain about 15,000 feet above sea- 
level. A little shelter here and the pres- 
ence of a small spring made the Indians 
prefer to pass the night at this point. 
The next morning we crossed a high 
pass and descended rapidly into a steep- 


walled valley, containing one of the 
upper tributaries of the Aobamba. The 
lower slopes were covered with a dense 
forest, which gradually gave way to 
scrub and grass up to the snow-line. 
About 2 o'clock in the afternoon we 
reached the valley bottom <at.-a point 
where several smaller. tributaries .unite 
to form the principal west branch of the 
Aobamba. : The place was called Palcay. 

Here we found*two or three modern 
Indian huts, cne of them located in a 
very interesting ruined stronghold called 
Llacta. As the location of the strong- 
hold in the bottom of a valley was not 
easily defensible, a wall about 12 feet in 
height surrounded the quadrangular ruin. 

The stronghold was about 145 feet 
square ana divided by two narrow cross- 
streets into four equal quarters. Two of 
these quarters had been completed, and 
consisted of five houses arranged around 
a courtyard in a symmetrical fashion. 
The third quarter was almost complete, 
while the fourth quarter had only the be- 
ginnings of two or three houses. Each 
one of the four quarters had a single en- 


535 


‘UOTVSYSOAUL S1jeUlajshs AjIva spuLWop yey} suo st 
AWUINIA OY} PUR SIdf2Avsy [B1dAds Aq poqisosop Ajoyenbopeur useq svy 4[ ‘dsnoy ouo}s Jo ‘IsenyTWMY suLIpUT oy} Aq porjeo SI 9U0 SIYJ, “eByovou0g 
poy[eo sovjd B Je syIO1 PoAIvo AILUIPIOVIZXO OOS 91B ‘ZIGI UT UNSoq seM sopuYy oY} FO UOrJaS-sso4d [eorydessodo} oy} o419ym ‘Keoueqy Jean 


VHOVONOD JO SMOOM SNOINND AHL 


weysurg wespy Aq ojoyg 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ANOTHER VIEW OF THE STONE HOUSE: RUMIHUASI 


Showing the cell where some people suppose a hermit passed his time, while his life was 
devoted to painfully decorating this boulder by the means of such rude stone implements as 


he had at hand. 


trance gate on its north side. This will 
be more readily understood by consulting 
the plan on page 550. 

The characteristics of the buildings 
are distinctly Inca and resemble in many 
ways those found at Choqquequirau in 
1909. The stronghold was made of 
blocks of stone laid in mud, the buildings 
of symmetrical pattern, with doors nar- 
rower at the top than at the bottom; no 
windows, but interior ornaments of niches 
and projecting cylinders alternating be- 
tween the niches. Whenever the wind 
did not, blow, the gnats were very bad, 
which made the work of measuring and 
mapping the ruins extremely annoying. 


DESERTED BY THE INDIAN GUIDES 


I should like to have continued the 
journey the next day, but the Indians 
objected, saying that it was Sunday and 
that they needed the rest. This “rest” 
gave them an opportunity for concocting 
a plan of escape, and on Monday morn- 
ing, when I was ready to start for the 
third group of ruins, there were no guides 
or carriers in sight. 

Neither Luis nor I had ever been in 


the region before. We could of course 
have gone back on foot over the trail on 
which we had come, but it was very 
doubtful whether we could have suc- 
ceeded in getting our mules over that 
trail, even though we had abandoned our 
outfit, and we knew that a loaded mule 
could not possibly go over the trail with- 
out constant assistance and a number of 
helping hands. 

To aid us in our dilemma there came 
a little Indian who inhabited one of the 
huts near the ruins. He offered for a 
consideration to guide us out of the valley 
by another road, and said that it went 
near the other ruins. He also said that 
it might not be possible to use this road 
“if the pass had much snow in it.” 

We talked to him with difficulty, for, 
like most mountain Indians, he had no 
knowledge of Spanish, and our own 
knowledge of Quichua was somewhat 
limited. However, there was _ nothing 
for it but to follow our new guide, and 
by distributing the cargo on the three 
mules make it as easy as possible for the 
poor beasts to use the foot-path, or goat 
trail, which was indicated as our “road.” 


‘SO[MUE JO Uo FO syoeq 94} UO Joyze suTeJUNOUT 94} JIAO yYyBnoIq Udaq aALY yey} sejoueid 
pue sydeisouocyd uaae pur ‘soursd ‘syood ‘aanyummy 2qQe}JoFUI0D YM parjddns oie sasnoy say} pue peoiqe pareaesy aAvy SiojuEld seSns ay} Jo 


Auvyy ‘spsoye esnoy oy JeyA 3S2q oy} pue AduaMof sAep Sit] JO pus ay} Jv ouIOo[PM We BJO ais St ay oFDY4M ‘UOIBas a[qudsoy si) ySnosy 


Sal] AouINOl osoUM Jo[PAvs} PesOARZ B Pospul SI aE “Appeydsoy toy} Joy pojou ose yoryM suoneuLd seSns Busey Aue ose Avoueqy Jey 


ANTIVA OVWINNdVY AHL NI NOLLVINV’Id YVONS V +a 
meysurg weary Aq oj04g 


538 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE OTHER IMPORTANT CARVED ROCK AT CONCACHA (SEE PAGE 530) 


Called Piedra Labrada, which is simply the Spanish for “carved rock.” 
of the most extraordinary monoliths in South America. 


It was once one 
But within the past forty years it 


has been terribly mutilated. Remains of the animals and strange figures are still to be seen, 


but most of the heads have been destroyed either through superstition or caprice. 


Its present 


state is a glaring example of the necessity for preserving the ancient ruins of Peru, and for 
sending properly equipped expeditions to study these ancient sites before the historical evi- 
dence they contain is lost owing to ignorance or greed. 


We had not gone more than half a mile 
before an abrupt ascent in the trail and 
a huge sloping rock barred the way for 
the mules for over half an hour. ‘This 
difficulty being surmounted, we went on 
for another mile, only to find our way 
crossed by a huge avalanche of gigantic 
granite boulders and glacial drift, which 
had come down from the slopes of Mount 
Salcantay during the past year. A couple 
of hours were spent in negotiating the 
trail across this landslide. 

We then found ourselves near the 
ruins of a village. Judging by the primi- 
tive appearance of the ruins, it could not 
hhave been a place of much importance 


and it is impossible to say whether it had 
been occupied since the Spanish conquest 
or not. 


THE DISCOVERY OF TEN MAGNIFICENT 
GLACIERS 


Climbing up the valley beyond this 
ruined village and turning a corner, we 
came into full view of 10 magnificent 
glaciers—eight of them in a cirque in 
front of us and two on the slopes of 
Salcantay behind us. As the guide was 
very well informed as to the names of 
different parts of the valley and could 
give names for most of the peaks but 
none for any for the glaciers, I have 
named these as follows (pp. 560, 563-5) : 


Siq} Sasso1d eU’y 0} Odznd wor} prot dy} 
SUI}SIIOJUL SOU S}I JO aUO ‘paja[dutod sada 


meysurg wempy Aq oJ04g 


bees 


‘uozeuly oY} JO Ae NI} yUOOYLUsSeUL 
oto M “APUIOTA SPLIPSUIUIT SITY} UL oq [IM SorjpnoyIp Sursosursus SHOPUSWI1} SUIATOAUT 9UO pue suOTq_sS 
St AvM]Iey UPOJoUTy-Ueg OY} J] “AvouRqy pue eos eT useMjoq AoE A oeulindy 94} Jo 1q V 


OVWitNdY AHL FO NONVO GNvad AHL 


oor sie Cit cee li i silicic (a ete 


540 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


MAP MAKING IN THE APURIMAC VALLEY 


Chief Topographer Bumstead working at his plane table making the map between Aban- 


cay and Pasaje. 


The difficulties of map making in cafions, varying from 4,000 to 10,000 feet 


in depth, can scarcely be appreciated except by practical engineers (see pages 506, 507). 


(1) Hadley Glacier, in honor of the 
President of Yale University. 

(2) Gannett Glacier, in honor of the 
President of the National Geographic So- 
ciety. 

(3) Grosvenor Glacier, in honor of the 
Editor and Director of the National Geo- 
graphic Society. 

(4) Bryce Glacier, in honor of His 
Excellency James Bryce, the British Am- 
bassador, whose interest and enthusiastic 
support has greatly stimulated our work. 

(5) Harkness Glacier, in honor of Ed- 
ward S. Harkness, Esq., of New York, 
whose generous assistance was largely re- 
sponsible for making possible the expe- 
ditions of 1911 and 1912. 

(6) Alfreda Mitchell Glacier, in honor 
of my wife, without whose cooperation 
none of this work could have been done. 

(7) Taft Glacier, in recognition of the 
courteous assistance we received from 
the United States government. 

(8) Leguia Glacier, in recognition of 
the courteous assistance we received 
from the Peruvian government. 

(9) Morkill Glacier, in recognition of 
the courteous assistance we _ received 
from the Peruvian corporation. 

(10) Yale Glacier—for obvious rea- 
sons (see pages 500, 563-505). 


While we were enjoying the wonder- 
ful spectacle and wondering whether any 
civilized being had ever seen the glaciers 
before, a magnificent gray deer with eight 
prongs to his horns sprang out of the 
grass near us, gave us a long look of in- 
terested interrogation, and then dashed 
off to find his friends. 

Our little guide was more interested 
in the looks of the pass than in the deer, 
and although he shook his head as it 
came into view, it seemed to us that we 
were most fortunate, for there appeared 
to be no snow whatever on the trail all 
the way to the top of the pass. But we 
neglected to take into account the fact 
that we were approaching the pass from 
the north or sunny side, and that there 
might be snow on the trail on the other 
side of the pass, on the south or shady 
slope. 


THE GRANDEUR OF THE SCENERY 


All thoughts of this, however, were 
temporarily swept aside by the magnifi- 
cent view of Salcantay, which we now 
had on our right hand. The picture on 
p. 563 gives but a faint idea of the gran- 
deur of this mountain. In many ways it 
is an ideally beautiful peak, rising as it 
does to a sharp point, with its sides cov- 


Photo by Paul Bestor 


THE FERRY AT PASAJE: APURIMAC VALLEY 


The Director crossing the Apurimac River on a raft at Pasaje. The Indian ferryman is 
looking back in astonishment that a “gringo” should know how to use a paddle 


ered with snow and ice, and lifting its 
head so magnificently thousands of feet 
higher than anything else in the vicinity. 

Our own elevation at the time was a 
little over 16,000 feet, and a conservative 
estimate would place the top of the moun- 
tain at least 5,000 feet above us. It was 
a very great disappointment that we were 
unable, owing to the bad weather, to get 
the mountain triangulated, so that its 
height still remains an unknown quantity. 

The American mining engineers at 
Ferrobamba believe it to be the highest 
peak in the Andes, and Mr. Stevens, the 
superintendent of the mine, which is 
nearly 100 miles away from the moun- 
tain, told me that he had seen it from so 
many distant points of the Andes that 
he felt confident it must be the highest 
mountain in South America. 

Just before getting to the top of the 
pass we turned aside for a few moments 
to see the remains of a hole in the 
ground where it is said that there was 
once an ancient gold mine. 

A few specimens of rock brought from 
the talings appear to contain small quan- 
tities of silver and copper, but the altitude 


is so great and the surroundings so 
difficult that it is not likely that this mine 
will ever be a profitable working propo- 
sition. 

THE MULES STAMPEDE ON A SNOW SLOPE 


Our joy in the scarcity of snow on the 
north side of the pass was instantly re- 
duced to despair when we reached the 
summit and looked down a precipitous 
slope covered with snow for a distance 
of at least 1,000 feet below us. 

The sandal-shod mountain Indians, 
whose occasional huts are the only signs 
of human habitation hereabouts, had 
made a zig-zag path in the snow by 
means of tramping down the upper crust 
with roughly cut stumps of stunted 
mountain trees. The path was about 
eight inches wide. 

Our mules had never been in the snow 
before. At first our Indian guide de- 
clared he would not go down with us, as 
he was afraid of snow blindness, but he 
was persuaded to accompany us. 

Our mules took a few steps on the little 
path, then decided that the white snow 
field looked more inviting and left the 


A VIEW OF PANT 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


TA MOUNTAIN 


Between Pasaje on the Apurimac and Lucma lies a remarkable mountain region of 


glaciers and snowy peaks, of which the finest is Panta Mountain. 


The making of the map 


in this vicinity was accompanied by great hardships and innumerable difficulties. 


path, fell into the soft snow up to their 
ears, floundered around and attempted to 
stampede, and rolled down the side of 
the mountain. It was nearly half an 
hour before we got them safely back on 
the trail again, where they stood trem- 
bling and unwilling to attempt the de- 
scent. Coaxing and curses were equally 
of no avail. Pulling, hauling, and beat- 
ing were alternately resorted to. 

Somehow or other, chiefly because our 
trail lay down hill, so that when they fell 
and floundered off the path they always 
landed a little nearer to their goal than 
when they had started, we eventually got 
the mules to the foot of the declivity, but 
only after several narrow escapes and 
three hours of hard work. As we looked 
back up the trail it seemed that perhaps 
1,500 feet would be a more exact esti- 
mate of the height of the snow-covered 
slope. 

Just at dusk we reached the first hut in 
the valley, and found that we were in one 
of the upper branches of the Chamana 
River, a tributary of the Urubamba, 
which Mr. Tucker, of the 1911 expedi- 
tion, had reconnoitered the preceding 
year. 


543 


DISCOVERY OF THE PICTOGRAPHIC ROCK. 


In this valley was the third group of 
ruins which we had been told about. 
Their most unusual feature lay in the 
fact that the Incas, desiring to save as 
much of the upland valley floor as pos- 
sible for agricultural purposes, had 
straightened the bed of the meandering 
stream and inclosed it in a stone-lined 
channel, making it practically perfectly 
straight for nearly three-quarters of a 
mile. 

The valley is still used to a certain 
extent for raising and freezing potatoes. 
The owner of the hut near which we 
camped entertained our Indian guide in 
compensation for his assistance in spread- 
ing potatoes to be frozen that night some 
distance below us in the valley bottom. 
The next day our guide took us back up 
the valley and out through a smaller 
tributary, where we crossed the divide 
between the Urubamba and Apurimac 
valleys and descended toward the town 
of Limatambo. 

This was one of the most fortunate 
accidents of the trip, for had we decided 
to go down the Chamana over Mr. Tuck- 


*BdS JY} IAO(L JoIF OOO'RI IOAO 
“5 uovAafa ue ye sem ADAINS SIY Ul pvaysuing Joydessodoy, Foy 
fq patdnss0 APUISIA SIy} UL SUOT}e}s 9Y} JO 9UQ ‘epis-urvyuNoUT 9Y} 
Suole [re1} oy} Surmoys “eul1y Ivau ssed oy} WoI} UIeJUNOF, BJU 


VULLANOOHO OF VINNY WOW TIVUL HHL 


weysurg wesrfy Aq 004g 


VULLANOOHO UVAN WOW NIVINOOW 


weysurg weszy Aq ood 


VINVd JO MYIA WIHLONV 


544 


esnoy pesuopurqe ue jAPvou dues 


ANO WoOlt AIBA Puty oY} pue 


Pe 


YIOIIOMOG JUNOT! Jo 


AWTIVA VWUV AHL 


wueysurg weary Aq 010g 


M 


dtA JoyjJouy 


*S1OOUIRJUNOUL Apiey JO} PjPY sATjovAWe UL IDO pur *poquiyo 
Ude9q JAaAOU BARY ‘Bos 94} VAOQRK Jodf OOD'O™T jo pooysoqysiou ayy ul 
[|B oie syrod aso, ‘eininbng pue Pully UdeMjoq ssed a4} WOOL 


NIVINONOW VINVd UVAN VHOODDOUIOS LNAOW 


wieysurg weirpy Aq oJ0Ug 


545 


#: es 2 4, y 
: ei. | 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


EXPLORING ONLY 13 DEGREES FROM THE EQUATOR ; 


The caravan crossing a pass near Panta Mountain. The elevation here is about 15,000 feet; — 
the latitude is 13 degrees S. i 


er’s route and return quickly down the 
Urubamba to our starting point, we 
should have missed seeing a most inter- 
esting rock which lay alongside of the 
little path we followed on this day’s jour- 
ney. 

Neither the guide nor the muleteer 
had their eyes open for petroglyphic or 
pictographic markings, and so did not 
notice that they had passed close to the 
only rock so far discovered in the de- 
partment of Cuzco that contains petro- 
glyphs. Others have been reported by 
vague rumor, but none so far have been 
Iccated except this one, whose existence 
was known to one or two cowboys on 
a neighboring ranch. The photograph 
gives a better idea of the markings than 
can be expressed in words(see page 566). 

The character of the petroglyphs is es- 
sentially savage. They remind one of 
some of the glyphs used by our own 
western Indians. It seems to me possi- 
ble that these marks were left on this 
rock by an Amazon Indian tribe who 
came thus far on the road to Cuzco. In 
the vicinity there were a few groups of 
stones which might indicate the former 
presence of rude huts, but until a com- 
parative study can be made of all the 


Po) 


pictographs and petroglyphs in Peru and. 
in the Amazon basin it will be difficult to’ 
speak very definitely about this new dis- 
covery. aps 

That night I was most hospitably en- 
tertained at a small ranch house and the 
next day made a forced march to Cuzco, 
reaching there shortly before midnight. 
This journey, which began so inaus- 
piciously and might have ended in dis- 
astrous failure, actually produced more 
results in the discovery of hitherto un- 
described ruins than any other part of 
the work. 


Vil 
CHOQQUEQUIRAU. 


In 1909, owing to the courtesy of the 
Peruvian government and at their ur- 
gent invitation, I had visited the ruins 
of Choqquequirau. An account of this 
visit was published in the American 
Anthropologist for October-December, 
1910 (pages 505-525), and also in my 
Across South America, pages 291-323. 

A French expedition had visited the 
ruins about 60 years before and had 
reached them from the north, over a 
path that has turned back several expedi- — 


46 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


PLORING FIVE HOURS LATER 


Five hours after crossing the snow pass shown in the last picture we were going through 
a dense tropical jungle at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the sea. This proximity of the 
Arctic regions to the tropical is one of the most striking and at the same time one of the 
most trying features of the work of Peruvian exploration. 


a 


ee 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE VILCABAMBA VALLEY 


548 


A view of the Vilcabamba Valley from an elevation of 14,600 feet above the sea, near the pass between Puquiura and Arma 


tions since then. In 1909, owing 
to the existence of a small tempo- 
rary bridge, I was able to reach 
them from the south, but hac not 
found it possible to spend more 
than four days there. 

That bridge disappeared some 
time ago, and as it was now deemed 
advisable to attempt a further ve- 
connaissance of those celenzaied 
ruins, I asked Mr. Heald to see 
whether he could not reach them 
from the werth across the cordil- 
lera of Vilcabamsz. Ar enthusi- 
astic young German merchant in 
Cuzco had attempted this feat two 
years before, but failed to get more 
than half way from Yanama, the 
nearest settlement. 

Knowing Mr. Heald’s pluck, I 
felt sure that he could get there if 
anybody could, but that if he failed 
the only alternative must be to re- 
construct the bridge over the Apuri- 
mac. ‘The latter would have been 
a serious undertaking, as the river 
is over 200 feet wide and the rapids 
are strong and very dangerous. 

Mr. Heald not only succeeded in 
reaching Choqquequirau, but visited 
the place three times, made a passa- | 
ble trail, and was able to conduct 
thither Dr. Eaton and Dr. Nelson. 
Their stay was limited by the very 
great difficulties which they encoun- 
tered in securing laborers to accom- 
pany them, and in carrying suffi- 
cient food for themselves and the 
laborers over the extremely rough 
country. 


A HARD DAY'S WORK 


As a sample of the difficulties en- 
countered, let me quote the follow- 
ing from Mr. Heald’s account of 
his first day out from Yanama: 

ae After a three hours’ climb 
we reached a spot well above 14,000 
feet and had a splendid view of the 
country. From here I could get an 
idea of the kind of traveling I 
would encounter, and it did not look 
very inviting. Where the jungle 
was not thick the mountain-sides 
were steep and rocky. I could see 
the course of the Apurimac, some- 
where near which was Choqque- 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


OUR CARAVAN CROSSING THE PASS BETWEEN ARMA AND PUQUIURA: THE PASS OF 
CHUCUITO 


Vhoto by Hiram Bingham 


THE HOUSE OF ANDREAS QUINTANILLA: PUQUIURA 


A typical hut at Puquiura, in the Vilcabamba Valley, where we were hospitably enter- 
tained for several days during the preliminary work of excavating the monolith and shrine 
at Nusta Espana, near Vitcos. 


549 


(€1S-11S saSed 4x0a} 90S) [eyded vou, jse] oY} ‘SOWA SEM dioy IvaN ‘SofILUOISSIUI UBIULsSHSHY FO so[otuOIYyD ATIe9 ot]} Ut 
Peqiiosap SI ouTIYsS sIyy, “Joye JO Sutids B ssueYIIAO AOI dy} JO jeg ‘eininbng Jeou ‘eueds’y eJsnN ye YPOUOU! JeaIs 94} JO MaIA [e1oUas VW 


SOOLIA YVAN MOO ALIHM CGHAOVS AHL 


weysurg weisz Aq ojoyg 


550 


‘UNS 9} 0} pasodxo oq SAVMJL P[NOM Ady} IIIYM ‘YIO4 DY} JO VpIS YZIOU ayy 
UO P9ATBD 919M AY} FEY} JUBIYIUSIS SI jt ‘MOPRYS B }SBI O} PAPUdJU! 219M SaUO}S 9SaY} J] “9UOJS OY} JO JOVJ dy} JO JNO PadAivo av aAOqe 9a1y} pue 


Saul] B UL Way} JO UdAas ‘sauo}s oAeNbds Suljafoid Usa} oe AIY J, “fFol[at ySnoi ul padres pur 


A]BOYy Ae pousyey useq AjJUaplAad sey Yoo ayy, 


SODLIA IVAN “‘VNVdSH ViILSON ‘M90U WLIHM GANOVS AHL JO MAIA WAHLONV 


weysurg weairpy Aq ojoyg 


551 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ROCK CARVING AT NUSTA ESPANA 


A detail of some of the carving on the great monolith at Nusta Espana. 


These project- 


ing stones remind one of Machu Picchu, where they are frequently in evidence, and seem to 
have been used for practical as well as ornamental and religious purposes. 


quirau, and the green cane fields in the 
province of Abancay, on the other side. 

“From a purely artistic point of view 
the country was wonderful, with its 
splendid ranges of gleaming white peaks 
all covered by glaciers, and the dark 
green of the jungle below leading down 
into straight-sided valleys with streams 
white with foam running down them. 
From the point of view of one who had 
to travel through it for the purpose of 
getting to a place, location unknown, and 
making a trail to that place, it was any- 
thing but lovely. : 

“After looking my fill ‘and taking com- 
pass readings on Yanama and various 
prominent points, we started down. There 
had been condors swinging above us ever 
since we had reached the high point, and 
now one flew quite close. I fired at him 
with the 22 Winchester automatic, and 
for a moment thought he was going to 
fall. He recovered his balance, however, 
and went sailing off; but after traveling 
about half a mile he suddenly collapsed 
and fell, turning over and over and over 
into the brush, where, after quite a hunt, 
we found him, dead. 

“He was a splendid bird, spreading a 
little over 9 feet 6 inches and measuring 


4 feet from bill to tail tip. This shot 
showed both the hitting power of the 
little 22 and the wonderful vitality of the 
condor. The mushroom bullet had gone 
through breast and breast-bone, lungs, 
liver, and intestines, lodging against a 
thigh-bone. Tomas carried the bird back 
to the hacienda, where the prowess of 
the little rifle caused much admiration. 
We took off the skin and spread it to 
dry on one of the frames built to jerk 
meat, of which there were several in the 
yard. Next morning it was nowhere to 
be seen, and, as the mayor-domo said 
that it was no use looking for it, I sur- 
mised that he knew where it was and 
gereed wath slits Sse 


TROUBLE WITH BEARS AND JUNGLE FLIES 


Dr. Eaton’s party had some trouble 
with hungry bears, which broke open a 
food box and devoured a quantity of pre- 
cious provisions. ‘These bears belong to 
the spectacled-bear genus, and, although 
plentiful in this region, are extremely shy 
and hard to get a shot at. 

The perils of the trail were many, but 
the most serious handicap, as every ex- 
plorer has found in this region before, 
and the most annoying thing they had to 


552 


endure, was the 
swarms of green jungle-flies. 
Heald says in his report: 
“They are little fellows, but the 
way they bite is not the least in 
proportion to their size. Every 
place they bite they leave a blood- 
spot the size of a pin-head, and this 
burns and itches for two or three 
days. There were swarms of them, 
and soon we were all swelling. The 
only thing we could do was to grin 
and bear it. When we stopped to 
rest we made a smudge, but while 
traveling the best we could do was 
to slaughter as many as we could. 
“, . . With the coming of dark 
the flies had left us, but they left 
us in very bad shape. Not a man 
of us could bend his wrists, they 
were so swollen; the knuckles on 
the hands were invisible. and our 
eyes were mere slits that it cost an 
effort to open enough to look out 
of. Still, there was a lot to be 
thankful for. There was lots of 
dry wood where we stopped, and 
we soon had a fire going, which 
warmed and dried us. The night 
was clear, so there was no danger 
of being gotten out of bed by rain. 
I had shot a jungle duck, and the 
inner man was perfectly satisfied. 
What bothered me most was that I 
was afraid the peons would try to 
run away, and I very much doubted 
my ability to carry enough food to 
enable us to find Choqquequirau 
without their help. . . .” 


ever-present 
Mr. 


THE SCARCITY OF WATER AND SUFFERING 
FROM THIRST. 


Their most serious difficulty, however, 
was the lack of water and the height and 
steepness of the mountains, which cut 
them off from any possible water supply. 
Here is a sample of what they suffered: 

“The next morning, when I went to fill 
my canteen with water, I found that there 
was none. The men said that they had 
drunk it, but I felt pretty sure that they 
had poured it out, believing that then we 
would have to turn back. I would have 
done so (though no farther than the 
spring we had uncovered the day before), 
but the Director had told me there was 


ITS ne 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ANOTHER VIEW OF THE MONOLITH NEAR VITCOS 


The east end of the monolith at Nusta Espana 
Overhangs a spring. 
at first to be a stone platform. 
554 show what our excavations revealed at this point. 


Near this was what appeared 
The pictures on page 


a spring easily found at Choqquequirau, 
and I was confident that we must be near 
the place. 

“In front of us rose a sharp ridge. I 
was sure that if we gained its top we 
would see the city on the other side. 
The fire had cleared the ground, so going 
was not hard; it had also cleared out 
the flies. After about two hours of 
climbing we stood on top of the lowest 
saddle of the ridge. This had been 
reached after some rather ticklish cliff- 
climbing. On looking over the other side 
we were tremendously disappointed, for 
instead of a city there was an impassable 
ravine. All the morning we worked along 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


COMMENCING EXCAVATIONS AT NUSTA ESPANA NEAR PUQUIURA, NEAR THE STONE 
PLATFORM SHOWN IN THE LAST PICTURE 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


THE RESULTS OF EXCAVATION AT NUSTA ESPANA 


The seats near the spring at Nusta Espana after excavation. They are cut out of large 
rocks, so that the platform on which they rest, the seats themselves, and the lower portion of 
the back are all part of the same rock. Thus only three or four large rocks were used for 
the entire row of seats. The excavations here yielded no results in the way of potsherds or 
artifacts (see page 520). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
CCORIHUAYRACHINA 
The ruins of Ccorihuayrachina, in the Urubamba Valley, are very primitive and were 


visited for the first time in 1912. Inside of one of the houses here shown is a solitary square 
projecting stone, the only thing that differentiates these ruins from many others. 


Pnoty by Hiram Lingnam 


ANUTHER GROUP OF RELATIVELY UNIMPORTANT RUINS VISITED FOR THE FIRST TIME 
IN I9I2 WAS AT LLACTA PATA IN THE AOBAMBA VALLEY 


Corners of two of the smaller houses are shown in this picture as well as the type of 
tent used by most of our parties. It has only a single pole and may be easily put up by one 
man in five minutes (see text, page 534). 


555 


VM 


i 
a 


WY 
| 
7 
| 


D 
iil 


\ 


Measured by Hiram Bingham 
Grawn by Albert H Bumstead 


<0 30 eo To eo 
= 


az 


° © 20 


30 


PLAN OF THE RUINS OF LLACTA PATA NEAR HUADQUINA, DISCOVERED BY HIRAM 
BINGHAM IN IQI2 
This plan shows the more important group of ruins at Llacta Pata, but does not show 


any part of those illustrated in the preceding picture. As in all Inca ruins, the marked 
characteristic is the symmetrical arrangement of niches within oblong buildings (see also 


text, page 534). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


ESTANCIA IN PALCAY 


The most important group of ruins discovered in 1912 was that at Palcay, a hitherto 
unreported locality, where I found an extraordinary square fortified stronghold resembling 
in architectural details the ruins of Choqquequirau, described in my “Across South America,” 
Chapter XXIII (see text, page 535, and plan, page 550). 


556 


Ta eee it ARIES oes 


Measured by Hiram Bingham 
«Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead 


RUINS OF ESTANCIA IN PALCAY 


This ruin of a small isolated group of buildings at Palcay probably represents a temple 


and the residence of the priest. 


The presence of huge rocks, the careful character of the 


construction, and the absence of other buildings all point to this conclusion. 


the knife edge of ravines, hoping that 
the city would come into view, and al- 
ways disappointed. 

“By noon we had come to where the 
tidge merged into the mountain proper 
and were working along its sides. After 
the stop for lunch the men refused to go 
any farther. They said if they did it 
would be merely to die of thirst; that the 
city of Choqquequirau was non-existent, 
and that they did not wish to die just 
‘because I did. 


EXTREME MEASURES BECOME NECESSARY. 


“T knew we couldn’t make them work, 
‘but I thought we could force them to 
travel. Giving the 22 to Tomas, I told 


N 


him to shoot any man who tried to bolt, 
but to do it carefully, around the edges. 
Then, taking a machete, I started ahead, 
cutting the way, and told them to fol- 
low. As Tomas stood between them 
and the back trail, they decided to do so, 
and for two hours we went ahead in that 
way. By that time I was just about ex- 
hausted, as we were working through 
thick cane and I was going at top speed.* 

“Coming out on a little shoulder, I 
thought I saw some ruins on the next 
spur ahead. Looking through my glass 


* It should not be forgotten that all this time 
Mr. Heald was suffering from the effects of 
his accident on Huayna Picchu, which had 
partially disabled his right arm (pp. 431, 438). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A CORNER OF THE RUINS OF LLACTA IN PALCAY 


Showing a niche and a projecting cylindrical 
stone, and the chief Indian guide, who deserted with 
his fellows two days’ later and left us in the lurch. 


confirmed it. Then I pointed them out 
to the men. They too saw them, and 
after that there was no trouble. They 
were as anxious to get there as I was, 
for we were all suffering from thirst, and 
I had told them there was a spring there. 

“Two hours of hard work placed us on 
the spur, though still high above the ruins. 
From there we could see several stone 
houses and two thatched huts, which had 
been left by the treasure-hunters who 
had come from Abancay two years pre- 
viously. Just at dark we reached these 
huts. They showed signs of the old oc- 
cupancy. ‘There were two or three skulls 
lying around. A table-stone or two were 
in evidence and in one corner was an 
old Inca pot. 


ce 


While four of us were 
fixing camp I sent the other two 
out to look for water. In an hour 
they came back with the news that 
there was none to be found. By 
this time we were all very thirsty, 
but there was nothing to do but 
grin and bear it. 


. . 


WATER HARD TO FIND 


“About midnight I was wakened 
by a man crying and pleading. It 
was Tomas, who was having a 
nightmare. This in itself would 
not have been serious, but it ex- 
cited the superstitions of the peons. 
They said the Incas were angry be- 
cause we were there, and they 
wanted to be gone at daylight. I 
thought it best to spend some time 
making a search for the spring; so, 
as soon as it was light, we started 
and for an hour hunted in the 
jungle, but without result. The 
best we could do was to get water 
from air plants and chew certain 
bulbs which contained much mois- 
ture. This was not such a small 
help as it might seem, for many of 
the air plants had a good swallow 
of water in them, though of course 
we got it drop by drop at a time. 

“Giving up hopes of finding a 
spring near the city, we took the 
back trail. We were all pretty 
weak, but we made very fair time. 
Reaching the ridge, we climbed 
down by a new way, marking our 
trail with piles of stones, and also 
followed a new trail back to the draw 
in which the spring was, striking the 
draw a good deal higher up. This turned 
out to be a better road; also it led us to 
the discovery of a series of stone-faced 
terraces, and at one point in them the 
spring broke through, so that with a little 
fixing we could get all the water we 
wanted, and that was a good deal.” 

They later found water within an 
hour’s walk of Choqquequirau, and had 
a plentiful supply for the work of ex- 
cavating as long as their provisions lasted. 

They had hoped to accomplish a good 
deal of map-work, but, owing to the great 
amount of rain and the almost continuous 
prevalence of fog and mist, little could 
be done besides making a route map. 


558 


Tate 
CAAA 


AS 


Measured by Hiram Bingham 


Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead : = = = = 


LY, 


Waa 
EES SAH} SS 


Wy 


SSG 


Y 


Y 


Wi 


S 


WLM), 
Yj 


BKK. 


YY, 


are 


PLANS OF THE RUINS OF LLACTA IN PALCAY DISCOVERED IN I9QI2 


The most remarkable feature of this fortified stronghold is that the cross-streets repre- 
sent as nearly the exact cardinal points as it was possible for men working with crude tools 


to effect. 


These ruins are in the Southern Hemisphere, so the North Star is not visible. 


The ancient Peruvians did not know the use of the compass, and if they had the buildings 
would have been arranged according to the magnetic north and not according to true north. 
So exactly do the streets follow the local meridian and parallel that the exact orientation 
can hardly be said to be an accident (see pages 535 and 537). 


ACCIDENTS AMONG THE INDIANS. 


The Indians suffered quite as much as 
the white men on this journey. One of 
the bearers, who was carrying a food- 
box weighing 60 pounds, slipped on a 
steep bank and fell 20 feet; the box, 
which fell with him, opened his head. 
The man was not kiled, but of course 
had to be sent home, and as laborers 
were extremely scarce, his presence was 
seriously missed. 

Another Indian ran a stick into his 
foot and blood-poisoning ensued. A third 
slipped off a precipitous rock and fortu- 
nately was saved by the rope which had 
been tied to his waist when passing this 


dangerous part of the trail, although he 
had a toe-nail tern off and suffered con- 
siderably from blood-poisoning. 

The results of these hardships were 
the route map—the first ever made of 
this section of the Andes—the discovery 
of a number of hitherto unknown Inca 
engineering works, including ditches and 
agricultural terraces, now buried deep in 
the jungle and practically inaccessible, 
and a few boxes of archeological and 
osteological specimens. 

Because of the scarcity of labor, the 
terror of the Indians, and the small quan- 
tity of provisions that could be carried 
over the extremely difficult trail, the party- 
was only able to spend five days at Choq~ 


559 


SS 


YY 


(S9S-€9S ‘1hS ‘6ES sased ves) JoroeR[_) Ao[peH 
pue ‘sores ooktgq “TaLey) IOUDASOID) ‘FOLD Woeuues) +IJF9] OF JYSII WUloI; SUIpeot “SMOT[O} SB poleU pUe 
AWTIVA VANVEOV YeddA AHL NI SUMIOVID MUN AHL JO Ano 


weysurg weirpy Aq 0J0Ud 


Re 


uolipedxe 


Z1I61 34} UO PoetoAOISTd 


‘560 


IN THE WONDERLAND OF PERU 


quequirau. Under Dr. Eaton’s direction 
II graves were examined and such skel- 
etal material and pottery collected as four 
men could carry on their return march. 
No metal objects were found in these 
graves. 

The method of burial was similar to 
that observed at Machu Picchu, except 
that the construction of bottle-necked 
graves was far superior at Choqque- 
quirau, and this style of grave apparently 
more in vogue than at Machu Picchu. 
It may be noted here as significant that 
apparently the best example of the bot- 
tle-necked grave at Machu Picchu was 
found in a house closely resembling in 
its architectural details the buildings at 
Choqquequirau. 

This route had only been used three 
times previously: (1) by the French ex- 
plorer Sartiges in 1834, (2) by the Pe- 
ruvian explorer Samanez in 1861, and 
(3) by the Almanza brothers in 1885. 
It was used successfully this year for the 
first time since 1885. Great credit is due 
Mr. Heald for his courage and persever- 
ance. 


VIII 


ANTHROPOLOCiCAL STUDIES. 


_ The anthropological study consisted 
chiefly in the taking, with extreme care 
and marked regard for scientific accu- 
racy, of a number of anthropometric 
measurements. 

The blanks used for the measurements 
were prepared by Dr. H. B. Ferris, of 
the Yale Medical School, and the results 
and photographs have been turned over 
to him for the preparation of a report 
on the anatomical characteristics of the 
Mountain Indians of Southern Peru as 
represented in the data obtained by the 
expedition. 

Owing to the habit that the Mountain 
Indians have of frequently visiting Cuzco, 
the principal center of population, we 
were enabled to secure measurements of 
representatives of many villages and 
towns that we did not visit. Besides 
Cuzco, anthropological measurements 
were taken in Huadquinia, Machu Picchu, 
and Santa Ana. 

At Machu Picchu we had our own 


561 


workmen to draw on, while at Santa 
Ana and Huadquifa the managers of 
the large sugar plantations kindly placed 
their laborers at our disposal. In Cuzco 
it was necessary to employ force. Had 
it not been for the willingness of the 
Peruvian government to assist us, we 
should have failed in our object. 

The method followed was to have the 
officer or soldier who was assigned to us 
go out on the streets and arrest any In- 
dians that seemed to be of pure blood 
and who proclaimed by their costumes 
and general appearance that they were 
typical Mountain Indians. 

On being arrested, the unfortunate 
subjects were brought to the doctor’s 
room at the hotel. Many of the Indians 
thought that they were being recruited 
for service in the army, and not a few 
shed tears a, the thought; others were 
only curious. All were much relieved 
when they were set free and given a 
five-cent piece with which to buy chicha 
(native keer made from maize). 

Thirty-eight measurements were taken 
of each subject—measurements of head, 
face, ears, and nose, as well as of height 
standing, kneeling, sitting, and others. 
Many other data were also recorded con- 
cerning any peculiarities or deformations, 
color of eyes and hair, and other facts of 
anthropological interest. 

One hundred and forty-five Indians 
were thus studied, and a front and side 
view photograph taken of each. They 
represented 16 provinces and 60 towns. 
Most of these were men. Photographs 
of many Indian women were also taken 
in Cuzco and at the stations between 
Cuzco and Mollendo, making 433 photo- 
graphs in all taken for this study. 

Some of the Indians were greatly 
frightened at the procedure. To one aged 
Indian military honors appealed, and he 
took his measurements with a smiling 
face. Another Indian, when he found he 
cculd have his picture taken free, dressed 
in his Sunday clothes. The next day he 
returned to see the photograph. When 
he was shown the negative he refused to 
believe that it was his picture, because 
he couldn’t see the colors and the span- 
gles that decorated that Sunday coat he 
wore. 


562 


CONCLUSIONS REACHED FROM THE MEAS- 
UREMENTS AND EXAMINATIONS. 


At Huadquifia the Indians were or- 
dered to a room to be measured. One 
subject objected strenuously and made it 
as difficult as he could for any measure- 
ments to be taken. He would not stand 
straight, nor sit straight, nor assume any 
position correctly. Finally, when the 
measurements were all taken, he was 
offered the usual medio for his trouble. 
This small coin, with which one could 
purchase a large drink of native beer, 
was usually gratefully accepted as a quid 
pro quo, but in this case the Indian de- 
cided he had been gttevously insulted, 
and he threw the coin violently to the 
ground and strode off in high dudgeon. 

Remarkably few cranial deformations 
were found, these being all slightly acro- 
cephalic. The following facts were no- 
ticed about the Indians: The leg and back 
muscles are markedly developed, while 
their arm muscles show very meager de- 
velopment ; their work consists iargely of 
carrying heavy loads ureu their backs 
over mountain trails; ¢ne Indians do not 
become bald, and their hair seldom loses 
its pigment; their teeth are also remark- 


ably well preserved, except on the sugar 


plantations, where they suck the sugar- 
cane and eat coarse brown sugar (chan- 
caca). 

An interesting custom which still pre- 
vails was observed as being practiced 
about two miles outside of Cuzco, as one 
goes north toward the Urubamba Valley. 
At a point in the road where one gets a 
last look at the city the Indians have a 
praying place. 


THE INDIAN PRAYING PLACE ABOVE CUZCO 


| This road is one of the principal high- 
ways in Peru, and hundreds of Indians 

pass up and down going in and out of 

Cuzco daily. The view of Cuzco lying 

below in the green valley is truly a beauti- 
ful one, but it is something more than a 

sense of beauty that makes the Indians 

stop, and, with uncovered heads, some 

kneeling and some standing, offer a 

prayer as they look toward their Mecca. 

It is noticeable that those who are on 

a journey going away from Cuzco pray 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


for a longer time than those who are 
approaching the city. Possibly they fear 
the dangers of the roadside more than 
those of the city streets. 

Another Indian custom which adds a 
picturesque touch to the roadsides be- 
tween Cuzco and Machu Picchu is the 
presence of quaint signs indicating what 
is for sale in the Indian huts. 

A small bunch of wheat or barley tied 
on the end of a pole and stuck out in 
front of the hut indicates that there is 
chicha (a native corn beer) for sale 
within. A bunch of flowers on the end 
of a pole also has the same significance. 

A green wreath means that there is 
bread for sale, while a piece of white 
cloth or white paper waving in the breeze 
indicates that the wayfarer may here 
purchase aguardiente, a powerful white 
rum made of cane juice and containing 
a large percentage of raw alcohol. 

It is sincerely to be regretted that more 
Indians could not have been measured, 
but as this work was entirely in charge 
of the surgeon of the expedition, Dr. 
L. T. Nelson, and as his first duty was to 
attend to the health of the members of 
the expedition, the anthropological meas- 
urements had to take second place. The 
exigencies of the work necessitated his 
spending a large part of his time where 
there was little opportunity for making 
anthropological measurements. 


NO MEASUREMENTS PERMITTED IN 
ARLOUIPA 


In Arequipa he found that local senti- 
ment prevented the government from as- 
sisting him. Arequipenos would resent 
any action compelling an Indian to sub- 
mit to measurements, even though the 
subject were paid for his time. Further- 
more, as practically the only pure-blooded 
Indians now in Arequipa are transients 
who come in for commercial purposes, 
driving their llama trains loaded with 
produce, the merchants of Arequipa 
would resent anything which might in- 
terfere with business. These difficulties 
made it impossible to secure any meas- 
urements in Arequipa. 

On the trip to Choqquequirau, where 
the surgeon’s presence was necessary, 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


MOUNT SALCANTAY AND THE YALE GLACIER AT THE HEAD OF THE AOBAMBA VALLEY 


This peak, one of the most beautiful in the Andes, is probably 21,000 feet above sea- 
level, and has never been climbed or triangulated. It was cloud-covered so much of the time 
that we have hitherto been unable to triangulate it. Clouds may be seen gathering in front 
of the glacier, and two minutes after this picture was taken the entire mountain was envel- 
oped in cloud, and nothing more than partial and fleeting glimpses were had of it during our 
stay in the vicinity (see pages 539, 541, 560, 564-565). 


n 
~ 
es) 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


SEVEN OF THE NEW GLACIERS DISCOVERED IN 1912 IN THE UPPER AOBAMBA VALLEY BY HIRAM BINGHAM 


564 


Alfreda Mitchell Glacier, Harkness Glacier, Taft 
Taft Glacier is in the center of the picture 


ght. 


g from right to left: Bryce Glacier, Hadley Glacier, 
Bryce Glacier is on the summit at the extreme ri 


er. 


They have been named as follows, readin 
Glacier, Leguia Glacier, and Morkill Glaci 


owing to the great risks of send- 
ing the members of the expedi- 
tion over a dangerous mountain 
trail, it was necessary to cut the 
equipment down to any such 
surgical instruments as might be 
demanded, and it was not possi- 
ble to take along any of the 
equipment for making anthro- 
pometric measurements. 

Finally, owing to the presence 
of smallpox and an epidemic of 
typhoid in Arma, Puquiura, and 
the neighboring villages, the sur- 
geon was obliged to stay with 
the topographical party all the 
time that they were working in 
that region. Their work was 
greatly hindered by adverse wea- 
ther conditions, and so much val- 
uable time was lost. 

The extent of the smallpox 
and typhoid fever epidemics pro- 
hibited the surgeon from carry- 
ing on anthropological work 
there, on account of the danger 
of bringing the contagion to the 
camp. To be sure, the white 
members of the expedition had 
been vaccinated, both for small- 
pox and typhoid, by our medi- 
cal adviser, Dr. H. S. Arnold, of 
the Yale Medical School, before 
leaving this country ; but it would 
have been wrong to have had 
them run unnecessary risks or 
to have subjected to the danger 
of contagion the muleteers, engi- 
neering assistants, and the other 
native members of the party who 
had not been so vaccinated. 


IDS 
WEATHER OBSERVATIONS 


From May 28, the day of our 
departure from Panama, until 
the arrival of the vessel off the 
town of Mollendo, on June 8, a 
full series of weather observa- 
tions was taken daily at the 
heurs of ‘8 a. M., taenaeciaeiee 
p.m. The data recorded cover 
the following phenomena: Air 
temperature (dry-bulb thermom- 
eter), temperature by wet-bulb 
thermometer, barometric pres- 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 


OV 
un 


ACIERS 


G 


W 


4 
4 
] 


R VIEW OF THE NE 


4 
4 


ANOTH 


right: Morkill Gl 


541, 500, and 563) 


> 


lacier, and Harkness Glacier, looking down the Aobamba Valley 
alley (see pages 539, 


= 
] 


icier, Leguia Glacier, Taft G 
he Chamana V 


c 


from near the pass to t 


Including, reading from left to 


sure, clouds, precipitation, wind, 
sea, and surface temperature of 
the ocean. 

On the return voyage from 
Mollendo to Panama a full series 
of weather observations was 
taken similar to that recorded 
when outward bound. 

A complete series of weather 
observations was taken at Machu 
Picchu and during the cross-sec- 
tion map-making. Arrangements 
were made with Mr. Burt Col- 
lins, the manager of the Inca 
Mining Company, and with Mr. 
Claude Barber, of the Santa 
Lucia mine, to undertake the es- 
tablishment of four meteorologi- 
cal stations at widely different 
elevations along the 71st merid- 
ian west of Greenwich. One will 
be at an elevation of nearly 14,- 
ooo feet, another at an elevation 
of about 6,000 feet, another on 
the edge of the Great Plains, and 
still another on the River Madre 
de Dios. 

Self-registering barometers, 
thermometers, and rain gauges 
have been supplied for these sta- 
tions. Mercurial barometers and 
sling psychrometers have also 
been provided. Both Mr. Collins 
and Mr. Barber have agreed to 
look after the maintenance of 
the stations for a period of five 
years. 

The instrumental equipment 
for these stations was in part a 
loan from the Harvard Observa- 
tory through the kindness of 
Prof. E. C. Pickering, and in 
part due tc the generosity of 
Mrs. Alfred Mitchell, who placed 
at our disposal a special fund for 
the purchase of instruments. 

The results of the work should 
prove most illuminating an d 
ought to be of particular value 
in connection with the observa- 
tions made some years ago by 
the Meteorological Department 
of the Harvard Astronomical 
Observatory at Arequipa. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
THE FIRST PETROGLYPHIC ROCK DISCOVERED NEAR CUZCO 
At Maranyoce near Limatambo, on the trail from Mount Salcantay to Cuzco, a small 


boulder was discovered covered with petroglyphs. ‘The right-hand figure is seated near the 
boulder (see text, page 544). 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A NEARER VIEW OF THE PETRCGLYPHS NEAR LIMATAMBO. 


___A partial view of the Maranyoce boulder covered with, petroglyphs. ; Their significance 
is not known, and there is no tradition in the vicinity to account, for their presence here. 
The picture was taken by arranging the tripod so that the ¢amera pointed almost directly 
down. It is barely possible that this rock, which is carved in a manner-tunlike any other 
hitherto found in the Department of Cuzco, represents the story of an Indian raid from the 
jungles of the Amazon into the heart of the land of the Incas. 


566 


X 


COLLECTIONS MADE BY THE EX- 
PEDITION 


Our collections have all safely 
reached New Haven. They con- 
sist in large part of the bones of 
the people who built and lived 
in Machu Picchu, of the pots- 
herds, pots, and bronzes found 
there, and of the geological, oste- 
ological, and paleontological ma- 
terial collected in the vicinity of 
Cuzco, of geological specimens 
from other parts of Peru, and 
of 2,500 photographs taken with 
the 3A Special and No. 4 Pana- 
ram Kodaks. 

In a broad geographical sense 
the results of Dr. Eaton’s col- 
lecting is one of the most impor- 
tant and interesting features of 
the expedition. In the vicinity 
of Cuzco Dr. Eaton secured the 
skeletons of probably 20 individ- 
uals. At Machu Picchu more 
than 60 individuals were exca- 
vated, and at Choqquequirau ten. 

With these ancient denizens of 
southern Peru were found a 
number of bronze meta! objects, 
including pins, knives, forceps, 
and some very attractive pieces 
of pottery. Although Dr. Eaton 
was technically the osteologist of 
the expedition, his work lay in 
a variety of fields. 

Invertebrate fossils were col- 
lected from the hills overlooking 
the town of Payta, Peru, and the 
site of an ancient cemetery at 
Pascasmayo was visited. 

Vertebrate fossils were obtained from 
sedimentary gravels in the Huancaro 
Quebrada. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Acknowledgments are due to the 
United States government for kind of- 
fices in connection with securing requi- 
site privileges in Peru and for the loan, 
on the part of the Army, of a detached 
service chest, which enabled us to have 
the use of an abundant supply of medi- 
cines and of a complete set of surgical 
instruments : 

To the Peruvian government for many 
favors and courtesies, including the free 


es 


DS - be Att a ee 
icalalolila 82 iiois agenda et br ant 


rem a ed 


2 hao 


Photo by L. T. Nelson 


THE SAN FRANCISCO PLAZA: CUZCO 


A corner of the Cuzco market, showing venders of 
vegetables and fire-wood. Dr. Nelson, the surgeon of 
the expedition, took many photographs of men and 
women in the market-place and on the streets of Cuzco 
(see text, pages 561, 562). 


entry of all our equipment and supplies, 
the assignment to our party of members 
of the Army whenever necessary, and 
the permission to bring all of our collec- 
tions to this country. 

To Mr. W. L. Morkill and the other 
officials of the Pert.vian corporation and 
the Southern Railway of Peru for many 
courtesies, including the free use of their 
railway and telegraph lines. 

To the President and Faculty of the 
University of Cuzco, who aided us in 
numerous ways and whose many cour- 
tesies included not only hospitable en- 
tertainment at houses of the professors, 
but assistance in finding interesting 


567 


| 
i 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A FAVORITE SPOT FOR FREEZING POTATOES: NEAR CHINCHEROS 
One of the commonest vegetables sold in the market-place is called “chuiu,” potatoes 


dried in the sun by day, frozen at night on selected spots of the high plateau, and pressed 
the next morning by the feet of hard-working Indians. 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
SQUEEZING THE JUICE OUT OF THAWING POTATOES 
A “chunw’ maker treading the 


5 juice out of the piles of little potatoes that were spread 
out at night and frozen. Potatoes so prepared keep well, but lose their flavor and are. ex- 
tremely insipid. The usual method 


of preparing them for the table is to erind them on a 
stone mortar and use the powdered “chufw” to thicken soup. 


568 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
A ROADSIDE SCENE NEAR CHINCHEROS 
Looking toward the Urubamba Valley from a point near Chincheros. There are almost 


no wire fences in this country, the place of barbed wire being taken by thorny hedge plants 
which include cacti, thorn bushes, and agaves, or century plants, as shown in the picture. 


eer i 


Photo by L. T. Nelson 
THE ENGINEERS CAMP NEAR PUQUIURA 


Owing to the prevalence of an epidemic of smallpox and typhoid in Puquiura, one 
engineering party, that had the misfortune to lose its tent by fire, made its camp in a 
cave said by the natives to have been an Inca prison. It was not very comfortable, but it 
was dry and it was sanitary. 


569 


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572 


points whose whereabouts was not gen- 
erally known. 

To Messrs. Cesar Lomellini & Co., of 
Cuzco, who for two years have acted 
as our agents and have placed at our 
disposal their excellent facilities for 
handling the difficult situations which 
arise in connection with the organization 
and administration of an exploring ex- 
pedition, and all without charging us any 
commission or any rent, although we oc- 
cupied a large room in their warehouses 
as our headquarters for many months. 

To Messrs. W. R. Grace & Co., whose 
unique position in Peruvian commerce 
enable them to assist us in unnumbered 
ways, beginning with the procuring of 
our supplies and ending with the carry- 
ing home of some of our collections in 
their steamers, without charge for any 
of their services. It is not too much to 
say that the work of the last two years 
could not have been accomplished as it 


] 


Photo by Hiram Bingham 
POTTERY FROM MACHU PICCHU (SEE PAGES 446 TO 449) 


has been without the continual friendly 
offices of this company, whose enlight- 
ened policy in regard to assisting scien- 
tific endeavor might well serve as an ex- 
ample to other companies engaged in 
carrying on foreign trade. 

In conclusion it gives me great pleasure 
to acknowledge a large debt of gratitude 
to the officials of Yale University and of 
the National Geographic Society for their 
sympathetic codperation during both the 
preparation and the progress of the ex- 
pedition. 

Tio them and to the members of the 
expedition I should like to take this op- 
portunity to express my own personal 
thanks for the loyal support which has 
been accorded me from the beginning. 
The end is not yet, for it will take many 
months of patient and laborious effort 
to bring out the ultimate scientific results 
of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912. 


573 


BUDDHIST MONKS PRINTING 


The art of printing is, in the West, a comparatively recent discovery, but in China and 
some other parts of the East it has been known for ages. In many of the monasteries of 
Tibet and Siberia the Buddhist monks still print in the manner which has been handed down 
from generation to generation. Movable type is not used, but each page is carved upon a 

solid wood block, and thus, whenever a new book is printed, entirely new blocks have to be 


made. Several of these blocks can be seen in the picture, and from them the shape of a 
Tibetan book can be easily imagined. The printing press is an enormous stone which has 
to be raised and lowered by hand as each sheet is printed, and the production of a book is 
consequently a process requiring much time and labor. 


574 


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3 (Goppriglily Natimal Gegrephic Seer, 10/5) 


THE MONARCH OF THE CANADIAN ROCKIES—ROBSON PEAK a 


SUPPLEMENT 14 
This superb mountain picture, by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, is as unique as it is beautiful. It includes a great mountain mass, two types of glaciers and a continental divide that sends the water fiom the great glacier west to the Pacific and northeast to the Arctic Ocean. 
Hunga Glacier (on the left) is a broad river of ice six miles in length. Blue Glacier (near the center of the picture) slides and tumbles down the slope of Robson for 5,000 feet. Chupo Glacier (on the right) brings down the blocks that determine the geologic age of the rocks of Robson. Lyatunga (Black Rock) 
and Titkana (Bird) mountains form the mighty portals of Hungs Glacier. The horses seen in the foreground are 1,800 feet above the Berg Lake. For further information about this wonderful region see the article by Dr. Walcott in this number of the National Geographic Magazine 


= 9 a . i} 


= 


yer 


m VOL. XXIV, No. 5 


WASHINGTON 


May, 1913 


THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


By Davip FarrcHILp 


In CHARGE OF FoREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION, DEPARTMENT OF 
AGRICULTURE 


Author of “Our Plant Immigrants,” “New Plant Immigrants,’ and “Madeira, On 


the Way to Italy,” 


¥ TASK 4s to open to the 
readers of the NATIONAL GEo- 


GRAPHIC MAGAZINE a door into 
a world as full of romance as the fairy 
tales of Grimm or Andersen. 

But first I must tell you how it came 
about that an agricultural explorer should 
dare to present a theme so far removed 
from the one with which his life has been 
associated. 

I sat down one Sunday afternoon to 
write a story for my little boy about the 
creatures which he was finding around 
ny laboratory in the woods. He was 
hunting for them with the same enthusi- 
asm that a big-game hunter stalks his 
game in the jungle, and the thought 
flashed into my mind, why shouldn't we 
hunt them with a camera just as Shiras 
and Dugmore and others have done. It 
is true our monsters were small, while 
theirs were big; but then theirs were as 
much too large for the photographic plate 
as ours were too small. They were 
forced to reduce the image of each beast 
to the limit of a five by seven plate, while 
we would be forced to enlarge ours to 
the same dimensions. 

The collection of photographs which 
has grown out of this idea is a miscel- 
laneous one and has been made without 
any thought of what would be done with 
it later, and it was not, therefore, until 
I accepted the invitation to publish some 


in the National Geographic Magazine 


of them that I really began to look into 
the vast storehouses of literature which 
describe the life histories of these crea- 
tures. 

The facts which I have been able: to 
find out about them represent not my 
own observations, but those of hundreds 
of trained observers who, working quietly 
for years and some of them for a life- 
time, have studied out the habits of these 
various forms, most of which are so diffi- 
cult to study that months of patient wait- 
ing have been required to find out some 
significant fact about their ways of life. 

I had thought, in my ignorance of the 
subject, that all of my beasts had names, 
for they were caught within a stone’s 
throw of my house ; but my entomological 
friends of the Department of Agriculture 
and of the National Museum found diffi- 
culty in identifying some which I thought 
must be common; and now, since I have 
read more fully of the vastness of the 
world which I had entered, I wonder 
that with only the mummified specimens 
which I had preserved they could name 
so many of them. 

In fact, almost the first sentence in the 
first text-book I opened made the aston- 
ishing statement that “insects are the 
most numerous in species and individuals 
of all land animals. It is estimated that 
about 250,000 species have already been 
described and have had scientific names 


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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


: 

given to them, and it is considered that 
this is probably only one-tenth of those 
that really exist.” 

I must explain that all the creatures 
shown are not insects; for, strange as it 
may seem to some of my readers, spiders 
are not insects, for they have eight in- 
stead of six legs and no feelers or an- 
tenn. It is a pleasure to present these 
monsters to the public as a showman 
might, on a level with the eye and not 
looking down on them as they are so 
often shown in text-books on entomology. 


THE KING GRASSHOPPER (PAGE 570) 


* The young king grasshopper is prob- 
ably 20 days old, and its wings have not 
developed, but it can jump a hundred 
times its length, whereas man can 
scarcely cover three times his length at a 
leap. When its wings grow and its in- 
‘ternal air sacs fill with air it can sail 
away for miles. One representative of 
this great family can sail for a thousand 
miles before the wind, and they go in 
such numbers that they make a cloud 
2,000 square miles in extent. 

Its great front lip hides a pair of jaws 
as effective as a hay-chopper, and it has 
an appetite as voracious as that of a hip- 
popotamus. This voraciousness and 
these jaws are what have made several 
of its relatives the plague of mankind. 
They multiply in such numbers as to 
baffle all calculation, and every living 
green thing for thousands of square 
miles disappears down their throats, 
leaving the country they infest desolate. 
The great famine of Egypt, mentioned 
in the book of Exodus; the grasshopper 
years of Kansas, which ruined thou- 
sands of families on our plains, and 
more recent devastations in Argentina 
and South Africa are examples of the 
tremendous effects which the migratory 
locusts have had upon the happiness of 
mankind. 

As this young king grasshopper stands 
looking so inquiringly at one with his 
varicolored eyes, each of which is com- 
posed of hundreds of facets, I cannot 
help thinking that he represents a crea- 
ture quite as fascinating and actually 
more dangerous than the East African 
monsters of our school geographies. 


OU 
~J 
we) 


A BABY GRASSHOPPER (PAGE 577) 


A baby creature, scarcely two weeks 
since it issued from a grasshopper egg, 
and yet with two moults behind it—two 
bright green baby skins cast off! 

Imagine looking forward, as this baby 
creature does, to the day when the pads 
on its back shall have grown so long and 
parchment-like that it can leave its hop- 
ping terrestrial existence and sail away 
across the fields. Until that time, how- 
ever, it must be content with its six 
springy legs, pushing its way among the 
blades of grass, tasting everything green 
and eating what it likes, and hiding from 
its enemies when moulting time comes 
round. 

A young chick finds itself shut inside 
the egg-shell and must work its way out 
alone, but the young grasshoppers when 
they hatch out find themselves—the 
whole nestful—shut in a hardened case 
in the ground made by their mother, and 
it takes a half dozen of them working 
together to dislodge the lid which shuts 
them in. 


YOUNG GRASSHOPPER’S SKELETON 
(PAGE 578) 


When the young grasshopper emerges 
from the egg, it is very small indeed— 
a wingless, helpless little creature, all legs 
and mouth. 

It passes through successive ages, or 
stages, as they are called, each one of 
which is separated from the other by a 
moult or casting of its outer shell. 

These moults take place at fixed pe- 
riods, and as the insect finds itself re- 
strained by its firm, inelastic skeleton, a 
longitudinal rent occurs along the back, 
and the insect, soft and dangerously help- 
less, struggles out of the old skin in- 
closed in a new but delicate cuticle, which 
takes some time to harden and color up. 

Some people go to great trouble and 
expense to keep the baby portraits and 
even the baby shoes, and I cannot help 
wondering whether a full-grown grass- 
hopper, leading a life in the open air, is 


ever interested in observing the baby 


skeletons which show its five stages of 
terrestrial life. 
What an interesting collection could 


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582 


THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


be made of these insects’ skeletons, pho- 
tographed large enough so that we could 
see and study them! 


A GREEN GRASSHOPPER (Dichromorpha 
- vividis), PAGE 580 
_ Whether this creature has a person- 
ality or not may be forever extremely 
difficult for humans to decide. Its eyes 
that look like cows eyes really cast a 
thousand images on a special kind of 
brain, so different from our own that we 
cannot understand it, and then besides 
these great big eyes it has three others 
scarcely visible in the picture. Its short- 
ringed horns are not horns at all, but 
sense organs of so complicated a nature 
that we do not yet know certainly 
~whether they are organs of smell or not, 
and it is supposed that they may be the 
seat of sense organs that we humans do 
not have. 

In front of the great thighs embedded 
on each side of the body, but hidden in 
the picture by the second leg, are the so- 
called ears, tuned no doubt to catch vi- 
brations of the air far too delicate or 
too frequent for our ears. 

The jumping legs of the creature are 
filled with powerful muscles, which 
when they expand can hurl it through 
the air and enable it to escape from its 
enemies. On the inner side, along the 

lower rib of the wing, is the musical in- 
strument. It is a row of hard, bead-like 
projections, which are very highly de- 
veloped in the males, but not at all in the 
females. When the edge of the wing is 
scraped over these projections, a musical 
sound is made. It would seem to be the 
case, as with so many of the birds, that 
only the male can sing, the female being 
mute. 


THE KATypID (Scudderia furcata), 
PAGE 581 


How marvelously equipped such a 
creature as this is to live! The great 
eyes, with many facets, enable it to see 
by night as well as by day. Its long, 
slender antennz catch the faintest odor, 
and probably are sensitive to a host of 
perfumes that we do not know. In the 
front of each fore leg, just below the 


583 


knee, is a dark sunken area, the ear, with 
which it can probably hear sounds too 
faint for our ears, and by moving them 
can tell from which direction the sounds 
come. Its long muscular legs enable it 
to jump great distances, and its wings 
not only enable it to fly well, but in the 
males are provided with an apparatus 
near their base for making a musical 
sound. 

In fact, if it is any comfort for sleep- 
less ones to know it, the katydid is one 
of the noisiest creatures of its size in the 
world. It is only the males which call 
their ‘“Katy-did, Katy-didn’t, she did, 
she didn’t,” and they are calling to their 
mates. 


THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH (Gryllus 
Pennsylvanicus), PAGE 582 


Through the ages, who knows if not 
from the times of the cave dwellers, this 
friendly visitor of the fireside has rubbed 
his rough wings together over his head 
and sung man to sleep. The European 
form seems quite as domesticated as the 
cat or dog, leading nowhere a truly wild 
life, and it may be questioned whether 
any living creature has become more a 
part of human life than the cricket on 
the hearth. 

The carrying power of their song is 
extraordinary; there are species whose 
strident notes can be heard for a mile, 
although their little bodies are scarcely 
more than an inch in length. The males 
alone are musical, and it is reasonable 
to suppose, since the females have ears 
in their fore legs, that they are singing 
to their mates and not to mankind. 

As one listens to their friendly song it 
is hard to appreciate what fighters they 
are among themselves, the larger ones 
even turning cannibals when food is 
scarce, although a glance at the photo- 
graph shows how well equipped they are 
for battle. Their great black eyes only 
shinier black than their coal-black ar- 
mored necks, their jointed palpi with 
which they feed themselves, their thick, 
leathery wings pressed against their sides 
like a box cover, and their strong, mus- 
cular spiny hind legs, with which they 
jump a hundred times their own length, 


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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


do none of them contribute to beauty, 
though quite in keeping with their ar- 
mored war-horse appearance. 

Two long flexible circi protrude like 
tails behind, but the task of finding out 
what they are for has been too difficult 
for man. Perhaps the strange nerve-end- 
ing hairs which they bristle with may be 
sensitive to vibrations of the air, of 
which we yet know nothing. 


THE STONE OR CAMEL CRICKET (Ceutho- 
philus uhleri), PAGE 584 


It would not be a good idea to let the 
children think that creatures such as 
this were prowling round the house at 
night—that is, unless you assure them 
that it is only a harmless, tawny yellow 
stone-cricket from the shady woods, 
where it generally hides under stones 
and damp, decaying logs. 

It seems strangely equipped for its 
night life, for it has antennz as long as 
its body. I cannot help wondering if 
these help it to jump in the dark. Fabre, 
the great French entomologist, has tried, 
as others have, to find out just how the 
insects use their antennze and what they 
are really for. He says at last “our 
senses do not represent all the ways by 
which the animal puts himself in touch 
with that which is not himself; there 
are other ways of doing it, perhaps 
many, not even remotely analogous to 
those which we ourselves possess.” 


THE cockKroAcH (Blatella germanica), 
PAGE 585 


In carboniferous times this was a 
dominant creature, crawling over the 
giant club mosses and tree ferns which 
composed the marshy vegetation of the 
young world. Today it crawls over the 
cracker-box and makes its way through 
every crevice in the kitchen and is of all 
the creatures of our houses the most de- 
tested. This is the German cockroach, 
an importation from Europe, which has 
spread around the world and which New 
Yorkers know as the croton bug. 

Its long, spiny legs are built for the 
scurrying for which it is noted, while its 
slippery body enables it to squeeze 
through crevices and holes. It carries 
its head tucked under its body, as if 


587 


looking for food, and its whip-like an- 
tenn, always in motion, detect at long 
range the presence of anything edible 
which can be crammed into its capacious 
crop. 

Housewives may be surprised to learn 
that a cockroach can live five years, and 
that it takes a year to develop to ma- 
turity from the egg. The female lays 
her eggs in a horny capsule like a spec- 
tacle case, which she carries about with 
her until she is ready to deposit it in 
some suitable place. Later she returns 
to help her cockroach babies out of their 
shells. 

Like the crickets, cockroaches love the 
night and shun the daylight. They can- 
not tolerate cold weather, and though 
there are 5,000 species they mostly in- 
habit the tropics, where they are the 
plague of domestic and ship life. It is 
said that “ships come into San Fran- 
cisco from their long half-year voyages 
around the Horn with the sailors wear- 
ing gloves on their hands when asleep in 
their bunks in a desperate effort to save 
their finger-nails from being gnawed off 
by the hordes of roaches which infest 
the whole ship” (Kellogg). 

And now a rumor comes to us that the 
cockroach carries cancer. 


THE CICADA (Cicada sayi), PAGE 586 


The coming of the swallow is scarcely 
more significant to Americans of the 
Southern States than the arrival of the 
cicada. Its song is the noisiest song in 
the insect world. Darwin describes how 
on the Beagle, while a quarter of a mile 
off the coast of South America, he heard 
a tropical cicada singing. Whether we 
like their note or not, it is one of the 
shrillest and most peculiar sounds in the 
world. It is made in a curious way, by 
the stretching and relaxing of a corru- 
gated drum-like membrane in the side of 
the abdomen of the creature under its 
wings. This is done by means of spe- 
cially strong muscles. The sound is con- 
trolled in rhythmic cadences by means 
of semicircular discs or covers to the 
drums, which can be closed and opened 
at the will of the insect. 

This noisy song, which the male alone 
can sing, he doubtless sings for his mate 


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Photo by David Fairchild 


Copyright by National Geographic Society, 1913. 


THE PREDACEOUS GROUND-BEETLE 
he meadow and seen come out from the hollow wh 


h it made a black-brown, swiftly running 


ng that it looked at all like this fierce creature, which in the twilight hunts about for plant pests and devours 


1c 


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beetle, perhaps without once knowi 


them (see page 595). 


THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


and not for us, although entomologists 
are not agreed as to how his partner 
hears his song, as she seems to have no 
ears. Although this is not the strangest 
species of this wonderfully interesting 
genus of creatures, the story can be told 
here of that weirdest of all the insects— 
the Rip Van Winkle of the insect world, 
as David Sharp has called it, the 17-year 
cicada. 

From a tiny egg laid by its mother in 
a twig of your back-yard shrubbery 
there issues a creature which is as unlike 
this monster as it can be, with soft white 
body and mole-like front legs. It hurries 
to the ground and disappears beneath its 
surface sometimes to a depth of a hun- 
dred times its length—2zo feet it is said. 
For 17 years it digs its way around in the 
absolute darkness of this underworld, 
and then, as though by some prearranged 
agreement, it comes to the surface to 
join in a marriage revelry of a few brief 
weeks in summer with its kinsmen of 
the same generation who disappeared as 
it did into the darkness 17 years before. 
But somewhere while beneath the ground 
the mole-like creature has become trans- 
formed from the lowly larva to the 
strangest actively walking pupa imag- 
inable, and when it issues from its grave, 
as it were, and climbs to some conspicu- 
ous branch or tree trunk, it is a full- 
fledged creature of the air, though en- 
cased still in grave-clothes of parchment ; 
but it soon splits these up the back, pulls 
itself out, dries its powerful wings, and 
flies away with the whirr of an aéro- 
drome. 

Most insects live for a few months 
only, and one, indeed, the male at least, 
for only 15 or 20 minutes; but the 17- 
year cicada, the oldest of the insect world, 
lives as long as a cat or a dog. But what 
a life! Seventeen years of it in the dark 
and a few weeks in the sunlight. And 
yet, compared to the life of an angle- 
worm, condemned to the darkness for- 
ever, what an interesting career. 

When the cicada’s shrill song disturbs 
you, then remember how: brief is the 
pleasure of its existence. 

This species in the photograph is more 
fortunate than the 17-year one, for it is 
condemned to only two years of dark- 
ness, 


591 


THE JUNE BEETLE LARVA (Allorhina 
nitida), PAGE 588 

How is it possible that this fat crea- 
ture, with eye-like breathing pores along 
its body, whose legs are worthless, and 
which is so helpless that it has to turn 
over on its back to wriggle over the 
ground, can change into the emerald- 
green June beetle which wings its way 
like an aerodrome across the meadow ? 
This is the apparent miracle of meta- 
morphosis which has well-nigh baffled 
the intellect of man to explain. 

Though the reasons why are still un- 
known, modern research has shown us 
how this incredible change has taken 
place. 

When this creature, which has grown 
a hundred times its size since it was born, 
has reached the age for this great change, 
it doubtless feels the impending trans- 
formation coming, and instinct tells it to 
crawl away into some protected nook or 
corner and pupate underneath the pro- 
tection of a silken cover-lid of its own 
spinning. 

The change begins ; each organ goes to 
pieces, disintegrates, becomes a mass of 
disconnected cells, so that the body filled 
with these becomes, as it were, a bag of 
mush. This mushy fluid has been likened 
by entomologists to the disintegrated tis- 
sues which inflammation causes in our 
own bodies. If, then, you should slit it 
open at this stage, you would find no 
alimentary canal, no salivary glands, no 
muscles, simply a thick fluid, with here 
and there a thicker lump, that is attached 
at certain places to the inside of the sac 
wall. These lumps are formed of groups 
of active cells which were not disinte- 
grated in the general breakdown of the 
muscle tissue, and these form the nuclei 
around which the new creature is to be 
built. These groups of cells grow rap- 
idly, feeding on the fluid mass of broken- 
down tissue much as a young chick in- 
side the egg feeds on the yolk, and builds 
up the whole complicated structure of the 
winged beetle, which seems to have no 
possible relation to the white grub out of 
whose body it was made. 

It is as though the insect hatched 
twice, first from the almost microscopic 


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THE MONSTERS OF 


egg its mother laid and from which it 
emerged as a tiny little creature in the 
image of this grub, growing and manu- 
facturing from the leaves it eats enough 
nitrogenous matter so that when it 
emerges again from the yolk-like sub- 
stance of its cocoon it will be a full- 
grown beetle, for it must be remembered 
that once made the beetle never grows. 

This wonderful process is the same 
which is gone through by every flying 
insect that has a grub or caterpillar stage. 


ONE OF THE TWIG-PRUNERS (Elaphidion 
atomaricum), PAGE 589 


The long-horned beetles, as they are 
called, are remarkable for the length of 
their antennze and their eyes of many 
facets, which almost encircle the anten- 
nz at their base. They have, like other 
beetles, two lives, so to speak, and their 
grub-life is spent inside some twig or 
branch, burrowing and living on the 
juices which their stomachs extract from 
the sawdust made by their jaws. They 
kill the twig they burrow in, so that the 
wind blows it to the ground, and they 
go through their transformation on the 
ground. The story is told of a long- 
horned beetle, belonging to a different 
species, that lived for years in its larval 
stage, burrowing patiently into the dry 
wood of a boot-last or shoe-stretcher, 
trying vainly to get enough nourishment 
out of it to make a beetle of itself. 


THE PREDACEOUS GROUND BEETLE (Chile- 
nius estivus), PAGE 590 


This creature almost any one will 
recognize as a beetle. It is built for run- 
ning, and its jaws are made for fighting. 
You have only to catch one and watch it 
open and shut its jaws to realize that it 
would bite you if it could. But for all 
that it is a great friend, for it is what the 
entomologists call predaceous, and at 
night or at twilight it hunts everywhere 
for the larve of insects which attack the 
plants we live on. In its larval state, in 
which it looks for all the world like a 
centiped without the “ped,” it burrows 
in the ground in search of the plant de- 
stroyers, which think to escape notice by 
getting under the cover of the soil. They 
are by nature, then, opposed to the vege- 


OUR BACK YARDS 599d 


tarians, the herbivores, and hunt them 
wherever they are likely to occur. 

When you see a black or dark-brewn 
beetle running swiftly from under some 
stone or log which you have just turned 
over and which makes faces with its jaws 
as though it would chew your fingers 
when you pick it up, you can be quite 
sure in eight times out of ten that it is 
one of these carabide or predaceous 
ground beetles, and if you let it drop 
from your fingers you may be saving the 
life of a friend, because some day it may 
eat the worm which, lying close to some 
pet flower of yours, had planned to cut 
it off beneath the ground. 

It is the hardest thing in all the world 
to understand how balanced is this scale 
of foe and friend. One year there is a 
wiping out of our insect friends through 
frost or floods or microscopic disease, 
and, freed thus from the check which 
kept their numbers down, the foes to our 
plants can multiply to such an extent that 
nothing we can. do will save our crops 
from total failure. Next year perhaps 
the parasitic beetle, finding such a wealth 
of food to live upon, increases and holds 
well in check the pest which last year ate 
up all our plants. Each wave of insect 
pests could be explained, no doubt, if all 
the facts were known, and nowadays no 
one who knows what modern agriculture 
means will fail to reckon on the risks 
from losses caused by these pests. 


ONE OF THE JUNE-BUGS OR MAY BEETLES 
(Lachnosterna quercus), PAGE 592 


Of the wild creatures of our back 
yards, none is better known than this 
hard-shelled buzzing creature, which 
whirrs into the circle of light around 
your lamp and commits suicide, if you 
will let it, by flying into the flame. 

It is one of the so-called June-bugs, or 
May beetles, which every boy and girl 
knows, and is not the June beetle of 
which the larva was shown previously. 

Its hard, pitted skeleton covers it com- 
pletely, and it is most interesting to watch 
it open its wing covers with great de- 
liberation, unfold the wings which are 
carefully stowed away beneath them, and 
holding its wing covers elevated so they 
will not interfere, start the transparent 


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THE MONSTERS OF 


wings into motion and fly away with the 
whirr of a miniature aérodrome. Indeed, 
it was this resemblance which caused the 
members of the aérial experiment asso- 
ciation to name one of their first aéro- 
dromes after it, and the first trophy ever 
given for an aerodrome flight was won 
by Curtiss’ “June Bug.” 

This creature’s first life is spent be- 
neath the sod of your lawn, where it 
curls up around the roots of the grasses 
and clover and other plants which you 
do not want it to eat, and the first year 
of its subterranean existence it is the 
white grub, with the brown head, which 
everybody knows. At the end of the 
second summer of its life it changes to 
a soft brown beetle, which throughout 
the winter is hardening its shell prepara- 
tory to coming out in late spring as a 
winged creature to feed upon the leaves 
of trees. The beetle which is walking 
toward you lives upon the oak. 


THE DRAGON FLY (PAGE 593) 


No dragon of legend could be more 
bloodthirsty or terrible than this. With 
four wings like the supporting planes of 
an aérodrome, it can fly as fast as a rail- 
way train. With thousands of eyes 
crowded together like cells in a honey- 
comb, forming eye masses that cover 
most of its head, it can see in all direc- 
tions at once. With massive jaws and 
teeth as sharp as needle points, it can 
pierce and crush the strongest shell of 
its prey. With its long-jointed spiny 
legs held out in front like a basket, it 
rushes through the air, catches and de- 
vours its prey and lets the carcass fall 
to the ground, all without slackening its 
terrible speed. 

It is hard to realize, as you watch this 
swiftly moving dragon of the air, that it 
has spent the first stage of its life as a 
slowly crawling ugly water monster, ly- 
ing in wait among the reeds and grasses 
for some unsuspecting water fly or larva 
to pass by. 

The female, as she skims the surface 
of some pool, drops into the water her 
clumps of dragon eggs, a thousand at a 
time, and from these are born the ugly 
water-dragons which, when come of age, 
grow wings and, crawling to the sur- 


OUR BACK YARDS 597 


face, split their old skins open, unfold 
and dry their closely packed wings, and 
dart away into the sunshine to prey 
upon the other creatures of the air. 


ONE OF THE BEE-FLIES (Sparnopolius 
brevirostris), PAGE 594 

No butterfly or any other creature of 
the air could be more beautiful than this 
dream of early summer. Its black velvet 
body, into which the sunlight sank and 
disappeared; its fringe of golden hairs 
along the sides; its steel gray, myriad-. 
facet eyes, of which its head was made, 
and its delicately formed wings, so thin 
that the light in passing through them 
was refracted into rainbow tints, made 
it seem to me more beautiful than almost 
any of those gorgeous forms of insect 
life which sometimes fill the clearings in 
Brazilian forests. 

It does seem strange that such a thing 
as this should live its other life a para- 
sitic grub, within the larva of some cater- 
pillar or in the egg-case of some grass- 
hopper ; but so it seems to do. It spends 
its childhood as a disease and its mating 
days as a dainty fly among the nectar- 
bearing flowers. 


ONE OF THE ANOPHELES MOSQUITOS (Ano- 
pheles punctipennis), PAGE 596 


The malarial mosquito, so called, has 
spotted wings, but otherwise it looks 
quite like this harmless form from Mary- 
land. This whole tribe of Anopheles dif- 
fers from the Culex in the length of its 
mouth feelers, which project from the 
base of the proboscis and appear in the 
photograph almost as long as the pro- 
boscis itself, whereas in a photograph of 
the Culex it would appear so short as to 
seem merely a thickening of the base of 
the proboscis. 

The wildest fancy of the Arabian 
story-teller is lacking in imagination 
compared with the story which the facts 
of modern science have woven about 
these tiny representatives of the fly 
family. ; 

Who could imagine that just because 
the lady mosquitos, tiring of their usual 
meal of ripe bananas and plant juices, 
acquired the habit of sucking blood, vast 
regions should be devastated and beings 


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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


millions of times their size should die 
by thousands. And this, too, not through 
any real fault of the tiny creatures them- 
selves, but just because some of the per- 
sons whose blood they sucked had mi- 
croscopic wiggling things living in their 
blood corpuscles, which crawled into the 
soft throat glands of the mosquito and 
waited there for a chance to get out into 
the blood channels of some other human 
beings. 

When one pictures the grief of deso- 
lated homes, death-bed agonies, of toss- 
ing fever patients, the quarantined ves- 
sels at anchor in tropical harbors, yellow 
flagged with crews dead or dying, the 
streets of deserted houses, from which 
all life has gone forever through yellow 
fever and malaria, there is something 
ghastly in the picture of the winged lady 
mosquitos flitting airily from pale-faced 
patients to ruddy-cheeked happy people, 
unwilling carriers of death. 


THE HORSE-FLY (Tabanus atratus), 
PAGE 598 


The head of the horse-fly appears to 
be all eyes, and it is no wonder that we 
can so seldom take them by surprise. 

Below the oblong compound eyes are 
the sharp mouth parts, which in the fe- 
male are provided with lancets, which 
enable her to puncture the skin of warm- 
blooded animals and suck their blood. 
It is curious that the female should have 
such habits, while the males are content 
to lap up nectar from the flowers. 

This jet black, loud-buzzing creature 
flew into my laboratory and made so 
much noise that I was forced to kill her. 
This photograph of her is nine times her 
real diameter. 

She belongs to a large and important 
family of flies, whose females make the 
lives of men and animals miserable in 
many parts of the world by their bites, 
which form most annoying wounds. 


THE WORKER BUMBLEBEE (Bombus va- 
gans), PAGE 600 


This is the real worker of the hive, an 
undeveloped female, a clumsy rover, her 
hind legs laden with a mass of pollen 
from the flowers she has visited. 


599 


THE POOR MALE BUMBLEBEE (Bombus 
americanorum), PAGE O01 


It was late in October before I no- 
ticed, flying low here and there across the 
clover tops, large bumblebees, which 
seemed to be more covered with golden 
hairs than those which I had watched 
throughout the summer-time. At first I 
thought them queens, but as their number 
multiplied I felt I must be mistaken, and 
one of my insect-knowing friends ex- 
plained that they were only males, and 
that with the approaching days of winter 
they were all doomed to death. Already, 
he pointed out, their wings were battered 
and frayed from flying against the au- 
tumn winds. 

The importance of the males! Could 
there be a weaker argument against 
woman's suffrage than that of a noted 
statesman of the times, in which he said 
that throughout nature the duty and the 
right of protection rests with the male? 
Perhaps the drones do fight among them- 
selves; but, as in most other fighting of 
the males, it is not to protect the nest or 
young from perishing, but merely to de- 
termine which one of them shall win the 
queen’s attention. They are stingless. 

In this world of the clover field all the 
work of the society is done by the queen 
herself or by the workers, which are in- 
fertile females, and apparently few males 
are wanted in the colony until late in the 
season, when for a brief period they are 
tolerated in considerable numbers as the 
necessary courtiers who accompany the 
young queens of late summer in their 
marriage flight. This takes place before 
the winter comes to kill all but a few 
fortunate queens, which find safe shelter 
in some crevice in the rocks or under- 
neath some old decaying log. 


THE PORTRAIT OF THE BALD-FACED HORNET 
(Vespula maculata, Linn.) , PAGE 602 


I wish I could convey to you my sen- 
sation when, in hunting for the focus on 
my ground glass, this creature burst upon 
my sight. It was as though, exploring in 
some strange land, I suddenly stood face 
to face with a beast about which no 
school book had ever taught me anything. 

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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


imperfect focus, and it took me some 
time to realize that I was looking into 
_ the eyes of a bald-faced hornet, and that, 
instead of being an enemy, she is of all 
the fly-destroyers which frequent the 
house perhaps the most efficient, pounc- 
ing upon the flies with murderous vo- 
racity, tearing off their heads and legs 
and wings and macerating their bodies 
to a pulp to feed the hungry grub-like 
baby hornets which are hatching out in 
the paper nest over the front door. 

Does this picture represent, I wonder, 
one of the nightmare visions which haunt 
the dreams of baby flies? 

There is no wild creature in the north- 
ern United States that a man will run 
away from so fast as from a bald-faced 
hornet. 

At the tip of her flexible armor-plated 
abdomen is the poison-fed stiletto with 
which she paralyzes her prey or drives 
off enemies from the nest. 

Her six powerful legs are spined to 
help her, no doubt, in climbing over the 
smooth surfaces of flowers and twigs. 
She has two kinds of eyes—three lens- 
shaped ones on top of her head and two 
marvelous compound ones composed of 
hundreds of little lenses, which take up 
half the head. Just what she uses-each 
kind for is still unknown. 

From her forehead hang ringed anten- 
nz, which doubtless are the organs with 
which she scents the presence of her 
prey, and they may also help her find her 
way about. 

Her massive jaws lie below her eyes 
and look like shears with jagged edges; 
they are meant for crushing, not for 
grinding, and with these she tears to 
pieces bits of wood and cements the parti- 
cles together with the sticky secretion of 
her salivary glands, making thus the 
combs and shelter of her wood-pulp pa- 
per nest. 

She is an undeveloped female, but with 
the professional care of a baby’s nurse 
she tends her sister hornets in the nest. 
On the wing, from daylight to dark, she 
scours the country for the flies and other 
insects with which to feed the young. 

Her life is ended by the autumn, for 
she feels the cold as all our insects do, 


603 


and it is left to a few of the young queens 
to carry on the species. 

There is something fascinating in the 
picture of the young queen hornet, after 
mating is over and all her relatives are 
dead, crawling away beneath some log to 
pass there the long cold winter, and then 
alone, when spring has come, emerging 
from her sleep, the only survivor of her 
race, to build, unaided even by her mate, 
the beginning of a nest just large enough 
to hold her first-laid eggs. From these 
hatch out the grubs, which later, after 
days of feeding, emerge as workers, un- 
developed females, and help build up 
around her a colony of hundreds of busy 
hornets. 


THE YELLOW JACKET (Vespa carolina), 
PAGE 604 


All the readers of the Nationat GEo- 
GRAPHIC MaGazINE have probably had 
a more intimate acquaintance with the 
creature shown on page 604 than I can 
possibly give by any picture. It is the 
ordinary yellow jacket of our fields. 


THE SOLITARY LEAF-CUTTING BEE (Mega- 
chile brevis), PAGES 606 AND 607 


The sting or “stinger” of a bee is in- 
deed a most wonderful piece of mechan- 
ism. At the base, inside the body of 
the bee, lie bars or levers, operated by 
muscles, which push the darts out and 
draw them in. The poison sac lies just 
behind this mechanism and pours the 
poison into a set of cup-like valves, from 
which it escapes into the wound along 
longitudinal groves in the sting like 
grease along the piston of an engine. 

The sting itself is not, then, hollow, 
like the spider’s poison fang. 

Unlike the social honey-bees, this bee 
leads a solitary life. With her strong, 
saw-like jaws the female makes her bur- 
row in soft wood and lines it with bits 
of leaf which she has cut in circles from 
the roses and other plants; then, making 
a ball from the pollen and nectar which 
she has gathered, she puts it at the bot- 
tom of the burrow, lays an egg upon it, 
and with a wad of leaves securely shuts 
it in; over this again lays down another 
food ball, with its corresponding egg, and 
so on until the burrow is full. 


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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


A COMMON RED ANT (Formica sp.), 
PAGE 608 


There are probably five times as many 
species of ants in the world as there are 
species of birds in the whole of North 
America. There must be hundreds of 
times as many individuals. ‘They are 
undoubtedly the highest, structurally and 
mechanically, of all insects and at the 
same time the most efficient.” Their so- 
cial organization has been the admiration 
of human beings from the earliest times, 
because the interest of the individual is 
merged so completely into that of the 
colony; but, as Wheeler remarks, their 
organization must strike the individualist 
with horror. It is an organization of 
females, too. The workers are females, 
the soldiers are females, the nurses are 
females, and there is one queen mother 
for them all, who lays all the eggs of the 
colony. Where are the males, those rep- 
resentatives of society, those voters of 
our human colonies? They do not exist 
as such, for the males of ant colonies 
are but mates for the young queens. 
Together with them they leave the nest 
on their marriage day and together make 
the marriage flight, but as soon as this is 
over they die and the colony gets on 
easily without them. To man, who is 
the most rapidly evolving organism on 
the earth today, it is a strange thought 
that the most highly developed insect 
which the world has produced, and which 
has not changed materially since the 
Tertiary epoch, has relegated the males 
to the short-lived function of reproduc- 
tion, leaving him no work to perform 
and getting rid of him as quickly as pos- 
sible. Why did the ants, with their mar- 
velous instincts, fail to conquer the 
world? Why have they stood still for 
thousands of years after they had per- 
fected their social organization? Did 
they go as far as evolution could go 
when it leaves the male out of account? 
It is perhaps a comfort to think that, 
after all, they have failed and the man- 
guided organization of human beings has 
surpassed them in its development. 


FORE PART OF A BROWN BUTTERFLY (Ar- 
gynnis cybele), PAGE 610 


It is hard to realize that this is the 


605 


portrait of the head and fore part of a 
beautiful brown butterfly. 

Its head is almost all taken up with 
the gigantic eyes, which are composed 
of thousands of tiny facets. The long, 
trunk-like mouth with which it sucks the 
nectar from the flowers is coiled up like 
a watch spring. Like shingles on a roof, 
the scales are fastened in tiers over the 
broad surface of the wings stretched 
over the stiff ribs or frame-work. 

The white spots are made by hundreds 
of white scales and the brown blotches by 
brown scales, and what these scales are 
for nobody seems to know. Perhaps 
they help to grip the wind, for they have 
running lengthwise of them deep and 
parallel corrugations so small and fine 
that were a single scale as large as a 
lady’s opened fan these corrugations 
would represent its sticks. 

The caterpillar from which this splen- 
did creature came is black, with branch- 
ing spines and feeds at night on violets 
and other plants. 

The graceful beauty of the butterfly, 
its seemingly happy existence, its life 
among the flowers, where it sips the 
nectar that the flowers provide, are all a 
part of common knowledge. 

The real life of the butterfly, however, 
is not so pleasant as we think. Have you 
ever found a butterfly hanging beneath a 
leaf on a cold summer morning drenched 
with dew and stiff with cold? Have you 
ever seen one trying to cross a field in a 
rain-storm and observed it vainly at- 
tempting to navigate the conflicting air 
currents? Where do they roost at night 
and on rainy days? Where do they come 
from and what becomes of them? ‘These 
are matters which it has often taken men 
years to find out, and even now there are 
many thousands of species of butterflies 
which are known only by a preserved 
specimen caught in its flight by the net 
of some collector. 

It is easy to tell any butterfly from a 
moth by the clubs which it has on its 
antenne, and although the entomologists 
have decided that this classification is un- 
scientific, it is quite as uneducated to call 
one of these beautiful creatures with 
club-shaped antennz a moth as it is to 
call a mouse a rat or a lizard a snake. 


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608 


THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


Of the butterflies, so called, which flit 
across our lawns and flutter from the 
grass as we brush through it, nine out 
of ten are moths with feathery or pointed 
antenne. 

It is said of certain species of yellow 
butterflies that the males give off a pleas- 
ing, aromatic odor which is exhaled from 
the front wings through hundreds of 
minute, slender scales—scales quite dif- 
ferent from those with which the wings 
and body are covered. This scent, which 
is so strong that it can be detected by 
even our blunted olfactory organs if we 
rub the wings between thumb and fore- 
finger, is supposed to attract the females 
in some way that is little understood. As 
among these particular butterflies the 
male seeks out its mate, it is difficult to 
understand why it should be the male 
which has the perfume, since it does not 
serve to tell the female where her mate 
is to be found. The inference is that 
in some way the perfume charms the 
female. 

In some species it is the females which 
give off an odor, and in either case the 
distances over which these odors extend 
and are detected by the males or females 
respectively are analogous to the incon- 
ceivable reach of wireless telegraphy. 
And who knows but the mechanism of 
these creatures is set to respond to the 
swifty traveling ions which make wire- 
less telegraphy possible. 

The Doctor Jaeckel and Mr. Hyde is 
so complete between the butterfly which 
flits over the cabbage patch and the vel- 
vety green worm that eats holes in the 
leaves of the cabbages that it is no won- 
der that for centuries no connection be- 
tween the two careers of these creatures, 
seemingly so far apart, was suspected. 
In general it is true that no moth or 
butterfly is injurious to plants except in 
its larval stage, and herein has laid the 
clever deception which has doubtless pro- 
tected these gay mating creatures of the 
air from the systematic attacks of man 
until quite recent times. 


LARVA OF THE SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY 
OF THE SPICE-BUSH (Papilio troilus), 
PAGE OII 


Is this, I wonder, an insect make-be- 
live, a caterpillar mask, as it were, to 


609 


frighten away enemies? The black and 
white eye spots are not real eyes, but to 
a bird they doubtless seem so. Its real 
eyes are inconspicuous points at each side 
of the head, too small to appear in the 
photograph. 

Few of us stop to think as the beauti- 
ful swallow-tailed butterfly, gorgeous in 
its black and yellow painted wings, flits 
by us that it is made of sassafras and 
spice-bush leaves gathered together and 
ground up. This monster is a leaf-eating 
creature, its purpose being the accumula- 
tion of food material out of which is 
made inside of it the gorgeous swallow- 
tail butterfly. It feeds on sassafras and 
spice-bush leaves, and when’ the time ar- 
rives makes a nest for itself by fastening 
the edges of a leaf together.. In this nest 
it passes the winter. When spring comes 
it breaks open the gray shell of the chrys- 
alis, unfolds a pair of black and gold 
wings with long tails to them, and flies 
away in the sunshine in search of flowers 
and a mate. It is then no more like this 
monster than an eagle is like a hippo- 
potamus, yet after it has flown about, 
sucking nectar through its long beak, it 
mates and lays a mass of eggs, out of 
which hatch again these strange, weird 
beings. 

A BUG THAT IS ALWAYS WALKING AROUND 

(Brochymena arborea, Say), PAGE 612 


This is, as my friend Dr. Schwartz 
says, just one of those bugs that is al- 
ways walking around on plants, and no- 
body seems to know just what it is doing. 


A QUEER UNWORLDLY MONSTER (Cory- 
nocoris distinctud), PAGE 613 


Could anything be more antediluvian 
and unworldly than this old broken- 
down creature, with six crooked legs, a 
pair of popping-out eyes, two shining 
ocelli which look straight up into the air, 
and a long stout beak that is partly hid- 
den behind one of the fore legs? 

A discussion of how such a fright of 
a thing came into existence leads one 
into the realms of evolutionary science, 
and there we should perhaps find it sug- 
gested that it is so ugly and looks so 
much like the bark of the trees on which 
it roosts that birds have passed its an- 
cient forefather by, and through the 


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Copyright by National Geographic Society, 1913. 


Photo by David Fairchild 


LARVA OF A SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY 


It would be interesting to discover whether to a bird or other enemy the black and 
white eye-spots, which make of this caterpillar a fit subject for a nightmare, appear as 


monster eyes and frighten it away. 
its light-gray head (see page 609). 


weird workings of that little-understood 
law of heredity this thorny, spotted crea- 
ture has waddled along year after year, 
keeping up in the race for hundreds, 
perhaps thousands, of centuries. I can- 
not help exhibiting a little of the show- 
man’s pride in it; for, as Barnum would 
say, this is positively the first real ap- 
pearance of this century-hidden, hoary 
monster before the every-day public. 

According to the books, this species 
belongs to a strange family, in which are 
even more remarkable-looking creatures. 
They are all, however, characterized by 
having the femora of their back legs cov- 
ered with knobs or spines. One of the 
species is so spiny all over its back that 
the male makes use of it to carry around 
the freshly laid eggs of the female. 


611 


The true eyes are small, invisible ones at either side of 


(Anasa tristis), PAGE 
614 


THE SQUASH-BUG 


The smell of the squash-bug is known 
to every country boy. The odor is emit- 
ted through openings in the abdomen 
from special stink glands, which vary 
with each species. 

The tough external skeleton explains 
perhaps why no spray is strong enough 
to kill the fully grown insects without 
also injuring the young squash and 
pumpkin vines, and why the best method 
of prevention consists in screening the 
young plants with a wire screen until 
they have grown large enough to be im- 
mune from attack. If you can find the 
young insects which are not yet encased 
in such a hardened shell, spraying with 
a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion will stop 


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THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


up their breathing pores and asphyxiate 
them. 

The one in the picture is an old speci- 
men, preparing to go into winter quar- 
ters under the leaves and wait for the 
tender squash and pumpkin vines to ap- 
pear above the ground. 

It is surprising how quickly they find 
these juicy shoots, which they pierce 
with their sucking beaks and upon which 
they lay the eggs which in a few days 
hatch out into a brood of small but vo- 
racious squash-bugs. 

It is difficult to realize that the species 
to which this creature belongs is only 
one of 5,000 distinct species known in 
North America, or to fully comprehend 
the force of a remark made by David 
Sharp, the English naturalist, that ‘if 
anything were to exterminate the ene- 
mies of the true bugs, we ourselves 
should probably be starved in the course 
of a few months.” 

In other words, it represents an or- 
der of sucking insects of many strange 
shapes which, although directly connected 
with the welfare of the human race, has 
been, until recently, the most neglected 
of all the great orders of insects. 

To this order belong the chinch-bugs, 
the cause of an estimated loss to grain- 
growers of 20 million dollars a year; the 
great Phylloxera, which destroyed the 
vines on 3 million acres of French vine- 
yards, and the San José scale, which has 
spread during the past ten years through 
every State and Territory in the United 
States and become a menace to the fruit- 
growing industry. 


AN ORB-WEAVING SPIDER (PAGE 616) 


This creature has eight four-jointed 
legs of varying lengths, covered with 
large bristles which are hollow and sen- 
sitive. Hidden behind these legs is the 
head, with eight eyes, strong jaws, poi- 
son fangs, and a pair of palpi which 
look like extremely short legs and seem 
to serve as hands. The hairy body is 
filled with thousands of eggs and con- 


tains also a marvelous reservoir of liquid 


rope opening into spinnerets on the under 
side of the body. 

Before you are up on a summer's 
rnorning, this wonderful creature will 


615 


have manufactured what would be 
equivalent to- two miles of elastic and 
sticky rope if she were as large as a six- 
foot man. With the skill of an experi- 
enced fish-net maker, she will in a few 
hours construct a net as iarge as a cart- 
wheel, with tough, dry, radiating spokes, 
between which are looped sticky, elastic 
threads, which no little flying creature 
can strike against without running the 
risk of sticking fast. 


A VAGABOND SPIDER (Pardosa milvina), 
PAGE 6017 

This is a vagabond of the spider world, 
building no nest or web, content to use 
her marvelous silk in the construction 
only of a sac in which to lay her eggs. 
This sac she carries about with her until 
the eggs have hatched and the spiderlings 
are strong enough to take care of them- 
selves, and then she rips open the sac 
along a distinct seam on the edge and 
turns her babies loose to shift for them- 
selves. 

These voracious little cannibals have, 
however, already learned to forage, as 
the struggle for existence in many spe- 
cies of spiders begins in the egg sac, and 
it is only the strongest who emerge. In 
other words, they eat each other up. 

They do not grow to be more than 
half an inch in length, but they are 
among the most active of all spiders, 
and in the United States alone there are 
nearly a score of species of these little 
soldiers of fortune living nowhere and 
roaming the damp fields in search of 


prey. 


A JUMPING SPIDER (Phidippus audax), 
PAGE 618 


We are so accustomed to beasts with 
two eyes that it is hard to realize that all 
around us, though hard to see, are little 
monsters with many eyes of various 
sizes. 

This one has eight eyes, four of which 
are invisible from the front. The eyes 
are diurnal, enabling the creature to hunt 
only by day. Its eight stout legs fit it 
for jumping forward or sideways with 
great ease. In comparison with its size, 
its jumping powers are incredible. If it 
were the size of a tiger, it would be a 


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618 


THE MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS 


beast of prey which could clear a quar- 
ter of a mile at a bound. 

It can sit on a branch and throw out 
an elastic dragline behind strong enough 
to bear its weight, and by this means it 
is able to jump at and catch its prey on 
the fly, regaining its position by climb- 
ing up the dragline. Add to this that it 
possesses a pair of powerful hollow 
fangs, into which poison sacs empty, and 
a voraciousness which often leads it into 
cannibalism, and you have a fair picture 
of this jumping spider, which is one of 
a thousand species of little creatures 
found everywhere except in the polar 
regions. They range in size from a 
third to a half an inch long and live 
unde: stones and sticks, spending the 
winter in a silken bag of their own 
manufacture, but never spinning a web. 
The males of some species have been ob- 
served to dance before the females, 
holding up their hairy legs above their 
heads to show off their ornamentation. 


THE WOLF-SPIDER (Lycosa carolinensis), 
PAGE 620 


This is not the photograph of a polar 
bear, but that of the wolf-spider, with a 
battery of eight eyes on the top of its 
head and poison fangs hanging below. 

Behind and above the fangs and hid- 
den in their shadow is the creature’s 
mouth—toothless and made for sucking 
only. With his fangs this wolf-spider 
kills and crushes his victim; then he 
sucks the body dry and throws away the 
carcass. 

Seen here and there above the body 
hair are black spines, hollow inside and 
connected with the nerves of touch. Of 
his eyes, the two in the center in front 
are supposed to be for use by day, while 
all the others are nocturnal, enabling 
him to stalk his prey at dusk. It is the 
wolf-spider that often appears at night 
within the circle of lamplight searching 
for nocturnal insects. 

The nocturnal eyes are remarkable or- 
gans, with reflecting structures so placed 
behind the retina that the light entering 
the eye traverses the retina twice, and it 
is supposed that this reflecting structure 
increases the effect of any faint light, en- 
abling the creature to “see in the dark.” 


619 


This is a hunting spider, chasing its 
prey through the grass or lurking under 
stones, especially in damp places. 

It does not spin a web, but lives in a 
silk-lined hole 6 or 8 inches deep, which 
it digs in the ground, and around the en- 
trance to which, out of sticks and grass, 
it builds a turret or watch-tower, from 
which it can see its prey more readily 
than from the ground. ‘These spider 
holes are common in the meadows of 
Maryland. 

In form and color the wolf-spider re- 
sembles the famous tarantula of south- 
ern Europe, the bite of which was sup- 
posed to cause the tarantella, or dancing 
madness; but it is as harmless as a but- 
terfly, and indeed Dr. Comstock, who is 
the authority on spiders, believes that no 
spiders in the Northern States are poi- 
sonous to man. 


SKELETON OF A WOLF-SPIDER (Lycosa 
punctulata), PAGE 622 


This photograph is the outer skeleton 
or shell of a small wolf-spider which I 
found clinging to the focusing cloth of 
my camera after it had been lying on the 
grass. 

With us the bony skeleton is internal 
and grows as we grow. With spiders the 
skeleton is a tough, bony structure, which 
cannot change; so that the young, rapidly 
growing spider soon finds his shell too 
tight for him, and, like a crab, he bursts 
his shell and pulls his soft body from 
each leg and complicated cavity. 

This process seems marvelous, but is 
really comparatively simple when we re- 
alize that before the old shell is cast off 
it is loosened from the new skin by the 
moulting fluid which is excreted from 
glands opening through this new skin. 

After the old skin is loosened it splits 
along the sides of the body and in front 
of the eyes, the slit being just above the 
legs and jaws, and that portion of the 
old skeleton which had covered the back 
is lifted off like a lid. The new skin, at 
first elastic enough to accommodate the 
increased size of the body, soon becomes 
hardened like the old, and must in its 
turn be shed. 

Imagine, if you can, the surprise of a 
wolf-spider who in running through the 


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Copyright by National Geographic Society, 
MONSTERS PICTURED ON THE PRECEDING 


ALL THE 


Photo by David Fairchild 


1913. 


PAGES, AND MANY MORE, IM- 


PRISONED IN ONE MUSEUM CASE 


They are all pinned in the box and have dried out and changed almost beyond recognition, 
but the impression which their portraits have made will, | hope, be lasting 


grass should stumble over his own out- 
grown skeleton, so like his former self in 
all its details that he could scarcely fail 
to recognize it as his own; for even the 
transparent cornea of the eye is a part of 
this outer skeleton and is shed with it. 
as well as the jaws, sensitive spines, and 
hairs. 


A MALE SPIDER (PAGE 623) 


The long legs and low-swung body of 
this creature fit it peculiarly for running, 
and the curious structure of its short 
front legs, or palpi, show it to be a ma- 
ture male. 


wn 


A SPIDER FROM A FLY’S POINT OF VIEW 
(Dolomedes tenebrosus, Htz.), 
PAGE 024 


A spider from the fly’s point of view 
is a terrible monster indeed. Its claws 
of polished chitin, sharp as sword points, 
each with an aperture leading to a sac 
filled with deadly poison; its array of 
eyes of different sizes, its mottled, hairy 
skin covered with hollow sensitive bris- 
tles, and its powerful leg-like palpi must 
strike terror to the heart of any fly or 
cockroach which may happen in_ its 
neighborhood. 


626 


It is hard for man, who has con- 
quered all the beasts of the forest by his 
superior intelligence, to realize what a 
struggle for existence is going on about 
him in the grass beneath his feet. Im- 
agine being pursued on every hand by 
enemies like this, and having to be on 
the alert every instant of your brief ex- 
istence lest you fall into the clutches of 
some absolutely merciless monster. 

Having conquered the beasts which he 
can see and shoot, man is turning his at- 
tention to these minute monsters and is 
coming to realize their gigantic impor- 
tance to the human race. Species of 


* Although perhaps not customary in an ar- 
ticle of this character, I wish to publish my 
indebtedness to those who have helped to make 
its preparation possible; to Dr. N. A. Cobb for 
blazing the way by his house-fly photographs, 
published in the Natronat GrocraPpHic Maca- 
ZINE, May, 1910; to Dr. L. O. Howard and his 
colleagues of the National Museum for naming 
the insects; to Scott Cline for developing all 
the negatives and making all the prints; to 
L. C. Crandall for making valuable sugges- 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


beetles no larger than a bird-shot have 
destroyed more forests than all the forest 
fires, and bugs no larger in size have 
caused an annual loss of 200 millions of 
dollars to the grain-growers of a single 
country. The tence corners, the old logs, 
the stone piles, the stumps, and the weeds 
everywhere are breeding-places for these 
strange creatures, and you can no more 
maintain a vegetable garden or run a suc- 
cessful orchard without making provision 
to protect your plants from them than a 
man can raise chickens in an African 
jungle without a dog-tight fence to pro- 
tect them from the wild beasts.* 


tions; to Mr. and Mrs. Alexander Graham 
Bell, and Mr. Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago, 
for their enthusiastic support; to Miss. C. J. 
Aldis and Mrs. F. A. Keep for revisions of 
the manuscript, and to the members of the 
Entomological Society of Washington for their 
kindly criticisms during its first reading. 
Although the personal pronoun has been 
used throughout the article, | wish to make it ~ 
clear that Mrs. Fairchild is quite as responsible 
as I am for the taking of these photographs. 


THE MONARCH OF THE GANADIAN ROCKIES 
The Robson Peak District of British Columbia and Alberta 


By Cuarites DY Watcorr 
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


OBSON, the most majestic peak 
R of the Canadian Rockies, is situ- 
ated northwest of the Yellow- 
head Pass, through which the Grand 
Trunk Pacific and the Canadian North- 
ern railways have been building their 
lines to connect the great interior plains 
and granary of Canada with the Pacific 
coast. Known to trappers of the Hud- 
son Bay Company and a few hardy ex- 
plorers who have penetrated the region 
in search of a practicable trail to the 
Pacific, the region remained almost a 
terra incognita to the outside world until 
Dr. A. P. Coleman described his attempts 
to scale Robson Peak. 
Messrs. Milton and Cheadle, in their 
search for the “Northwest Passage by 


Land,” * give the first graphic descrip- 
tion of Robson Peak as they saw it 
from the Fraser River. 

“On every side the snowy heads of 
mighty hills crowded round, whilst, im- 
mediately behind us, a giant of giants, 
and immeasurably supreme, rose Rob- 
son’s Peak. ‘This magnificent mountain 
is of conical form, glacier-clothed, and 


rugged. When we first caught sight of 


it, a shroud of mist partially enveloped 
the summit, but this presently rolled 
away, and we saw its upper portion 
dimmed by a necklace of light feathery 


*“The Northwest Passage by Land,” by Vis- 
count Milton and W. B. Cheadle. Page 257. 
Published by Cassel, Petter and Galpin, Lon- 
don. 1865. 


x 


Photo by R. C 


Sa 


. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk Pacific Railway 


OUR FIRST BEAR: THE SKIN AND SKULL ARE NOW IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


clouds, beyond which its pointed apex of 
ice, glittering in the morning sun, shot 
up far into the blue heaven above, to a 
height of probably 10,000 or 15,000 
reet.”” 

Thirty-three years later (1898) Mr. 
James McEvoy, of the Geological Sur- 
vey of Canada, made a reconnaissance 
from Edmonton west over the Yellow- 
head Pass and saw Robson Peak from 
the south. He fixed its geographic po- 
sition and assigned it a height of 13,700 
feet, stating that it has the distinction of 
being the highest known peak in the 
Canadian Rockies. McEvoy also made 
some geological observations. and on his 
map of 1gor includes the Robson region 


627 


north of the Fraser River Valley as Up- 
per Cambrian or Castle Mountain group. 


rHE FIRST ASCENT OF THE MOUNTAIN 


In 1907 and 1908 Dr. A. P. Coleman, 
of the University of Toronto, began ex- 
ploration with the purpose of attempt- 
ing to ascend the peak. He found it 
impossible (1907) to climb from the 
south, where precipitous clifis rose ter- 
race on terrace from the valley of the 
Grand Forks 9,000 feet to the snovw-clad 
summit. 

The following year (1908) Dr. Cole- 
man, guided by an Indian, went up 
Moose River and over the pass to the 
Smoky, reaching the foot of Robson 


Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk Pacific Railway 


PREPARING SKINS OF SMALL GAME ON A RAINY DAY 


Peak on the northeastern side. He there 
made two attempts to climb the moun- 
tain, but was driven back by storms and 
returned after enduring many hardships. 

He was accompanied by Rev. George 
Kinney, who returned the following year 
(1909), and on August 13, with Donald 
Phillips, ascended the peak. When they 
reached the summit, fresh snow began 
to fall and soon night was gathering. It 
was only after incurring great risks for 
seven hours on the storm-swept ice and 
rocks that they finally descended to a 
place of safety and told how they had 
carried their flag to the highest peak in 
the Canadian Rockies. 

Dr. Kinney later wrote that on the 
summit it was too cold to stop, and on 
the way down the danger was so great 
that they could not stop. Twenty hours 
of strenuous work brought them to their 
camp in the valley of. Berg Lake. 

Friends have asked how I happened 
to take up geologic work in the Cana- 


dian Rockies. The reason is a very sim- 
ple one. 

As a boy of 17 I planned to study 
those older fossiliferous rocks of the 
North American Continent which the 
great English geologist Adam Segwick 
had called the Cambrian system on ac- 
count of his first finding them in the 
Cambria district of Wales. This study 
has led me to many wild and beautiful 
regions, where Nature has glorified these 
old sea-beds by thrusting them up into 
mountain masses, with forests below, 
and crowning them with perpetual snow 
and ice. 

It was to learn the geology and the 
record of the life of Cambrian times that 
led and forced me summer after summer 
to traverse and live in those grand and 
beautiful Rockies. 


OUR HUNT FOR FOSSILS 


In the NatTIoNnAL GEOGRAPHIC Maca- 
ZINE for June, 1911, I briefly told the 


628 


PREPARING PTARMIGAN SKINS TO SEND TO THE 


story of “A Geologist’s Paradise” along 
the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
During the summer of 1911 a Smith- 
sonian expedition, in cooperation with 
Mr. Arthur O. Wheeler, of the Alpine 
Club of Canada, visited the Robson Peak 
district. Mr. Wheeler went to make a 
topographic map, and the Smithsonian 
party sought to obtain specimens of the 
animal and plant life. The resulting 
Wheeler map is the best one of the re- 
gion, and the Smithsonian collections 
were enriched by a fine series.of animals 
that include caribou, mountain sheep and 


goat, grizzly and black bear, many 
smaller animals, birds, and also many 
plants. 


My son Charles brought back a few 
Cambrian fossils picked up while hunt- 
ing, and told me that ridge after ridge 
encircled the great Robson Peak with 
rocky layers, all sloping back toward the 
mountain. This suggested an opportu- 


_Pass on the 


629 


Photo by Charles D. Walcott 


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 

nity to study another great section of 
the Cambrian of the Rockies 200 miles 
(328.8 kilometers) northwest of the sec- 
tion of IQIO. 

With our party in 1912 we had Mr. 
Harry H. Blagden, who accompanied the 
expedition in 1911; also Mr. R. C. W. 
Lett, of the Grand Trunk Pacific Rail- 
way, who took many fine photographs 
the first two weeks of the trip; Sidney S. 


Walcott, Closson Otto, Dr. I. F. Burgin, 
and Arthur Brown, all of whom were 


qualified by experience and physique to 


overcome the physical obstacles and 
hardships of the trip. 
Through the courtesy of Mr. Lett, of 


the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, a set of 
his photographs were sent to me for use 
in illustrating the Robson Peak district. 


WHERE THE GREAT PANORAMA WAS MADE 


As Moose 


OO 


the beautiful 
Coleman trail of 1908 (6,7 


we crossed 


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ABMIeY Iylovg YunIy, puerry yo Asozrno0o Aq 49°T *“M “SD “wW AG o10yg 


‘ i ears SEN} % i ron & 


WAS) MVad HV 


GNV SSVd WSOOW WO MIA 


630 


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WoeAy “Cd seseyD Aq oJoyd 


mIeyuNOW PAuNpeAT ‘ yeaq uosqoy ayingy SBurlp ley 


631 


MVad VNVMIIL JO AdOIS AHL NO [VOD YO ONIMOOT ALNVd ONTILNOE :UHIOWID VONOH JO ANVINAS AMOOWWOAH THI 
ABMIIeY Weg Yun y, puery jo Asoz1noo Aq ‘349°T “MO “WL Aq O10Ng 


632 


Railway 


WORKING UP THROUGH THE VAST AND BROKEN FRONT OF HUNGA GLACIER 


Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk Pacific 


“Day after day we passed between these portals and climbed over the crevassed and 
hummocky ice in order to trace the connection of the rocky section of Titkana Peak with 
that of Robson. Thanks to the fine fossil fauna found in Billings Butte, and the slope of 
the layers of rock, a satisfactory ‘tie’ was made across the glacier to the limestones of Rob- 
son” (see text, page 638). 


633 


a 


EN 


SES \ > : SE 


i Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Gand Trunk Pacific Riese 
VIEW OF BLUE OR TUMBLING GLACIER FROM ITS NEVE ON THE SLOPE OF ROBSON PEAK 
TO WHERE ITS FOOT ENTERS BERG LAKE, A.DESCENT OF 5,000 FEET 


“Blue Glacier is a wonderful stream of slipping, sheering, blue, green, and white ice. 


Why it does not slip and slide as a whole down into Berg Lake is one of the unsolved secrets 
of this great mountain” (see text, page 638). 


Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand 


i - x . = 
We ats we 


Trunk Pacific Railway 


A CATCH OF GOAT ON THE SLOPE OF TITKANA PEAK BELOW SNOWBIRD PASS 


feet = 2,042 meters) (see page 630), | 
noted that the pass was on the line of a 
fault that had displaced and tilted up a 
great block of limestones and_ shales. 
Climbing a high point, Robson Peak was 
seen far to the southwest, with several 
high ridges between the pass and the 
peak. As the work went on from Moose 
Pass camp, mountains, ridges, lakes, 
great snow fields, and glaciers were ex- 
amined, and finally we camped in the 
forest of Robson Pass, near the shore of 
Berg Lake, at the foot of the crowning 
glory of all—Robson Peak. 

The view of Robson and its glaciers 
from above our camp is one of the finest 
views of a mountain mass that I have 
ever seen. By a happy combination of 
fair weather and a kindly disposed AI- 
Vista camera, the great photograph ac- 
companying this paper was secured, and 
through the enterprise of your Editor it 
is given to all the readers of the Na- 
TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE (see Sup- 


635 


plement of this number). When the 
exposure was made, the camera stood on 
the south slope of Mumm Peak, about 
1,800 feet (548.6 meters) above Berg 
Lake. The horses are near the edge of 
a cliff overlooking the lake. 2 

Robson Peak rises majestically cliff on 
cliff for 7,000 feet (2,136 meters) above 
Berg Lake to its summit, where the va- 
pors from the Pacific gather nearly every 
day of the year. At times the peak 
stands out clear, sharp, and glistening 
against the pure blue sky, but usually the 
mist gathers and trails about it in wisps, 
streamers, or solid clouds that often 
clothe the mountain in a mantle of white 
to its base. 

Again, about Robson and on the sum- 
mit of its northern spur—lyatunga (black 
rock) (see Panorama)—the mists will 
gather as though impelled by a cyclone 
funneled from the mountain top, sug- 
gesting a great volcano belching forth 
smoke and steam far and near. 


Photo i R. C. W. Tate by courtesy ae Grand reat Pacine Ramee 
EMPEROR FALLS, WITH ROBSON PEAK ABOVE (SEE PAGE 639) 


“The waters flowing from beneath Hunga Glacier form two streams, one on either side 
of a rocky knoll near the left face adjoining Titkana Peak. The stream at the right has 
formed a broad delta at the head of Berg Lake, from which the water passes through the 
lake and out at its foot over the cliffs into Grand Fork River, and thence by Fraser River 
to the Pacific.” : 


ee. 


bes) * 2 —-> 


Photo by R. C. W. Lett, by courtesy of Grand Trunk Pacific Railway 
WORKING ON THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION OF THE ROBSON DISTRICT 


“The geologic story of this enchanting region is too long and complicated to be related 
here. Suffice it that I found over 12,000 feet in thickness of Cambrian beds capped by 3,000 
feet or more of Ordovician strata high up on Robson Peak” (see text, page 630). 


637 


638 


THE GREAT GLACIERS ON THE MOUNTAIN 


The profile of the peak on the north- 
west (about 45°) is finely shown in the 
great photograph. On the western side 
the slope is 8,800 feet (2,679 meters) 
from the summit to the floor of the val- 
ley above Lake Kinney. On the east and 
southeast the upper 3,000 feet (947.4 
meters) are very precipitous, but on the 
more gentle slopes below, the snow gath- 
ers to form the névé of the great Hunga 
(Chief) Glacier. 

The snow clings to the steep sides of 
the upper peak in long ribbons quite to 
the crest; gathering below, it forms a 
névé, which pushes out and divides into 
two streams of ice that fall and slip 
down the steep inclines for nearly a mile. 
The stream on the left forms Blue Gla- 
cier* and on the right Chupo (mist) 
Glacier. Blue Glacier extends two miles 
(3.2 kilometers) in horizontal distance 
and has 7,000 feet (2,210 meters) ver- 
tical descent between the snow cornices 
of Robson and its foot, where the ice is 
thrust into the water to break off and 
float away as small bergs. Blue Glacier 
is a wonderful stream of slipping, sheer- 
ing, blue, green, and white ice. The de- 
tails of its marvelous descent are beau- 
tifully shown on page 634. Why it does 
not slip and slide as a whole down into 
Berg Lake is one of the unsolved secrets 
of this great mountain. 


Chupo, the glacier of fog and mist, is’ 


usually half concealed by clouds and 
banks of mist that form on the edge of 
the mountain and drift over it. It is not 
comparable in size and beauty with Blue 
Glacier, but it proved of great interest 
and service to us in our geologic work. 
On its surface blocks of rock from high 
up on the peak were carried down to the 
great moraine at its foot, and in those 
blocks I found the evidence that proved 
the upper third of the mountain to be of 
post-Cambrian age by the presence in the 
limestones of marine shells and frag- 
ments of crab-like animals that lived in 
so-called Ordovician time. 

Directly above Blue Glacier a point of 
rock was named by Dr. Coleman ‘The 


* Coleman. Account of expedition of 109c8. 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Helmet,’ and the great black’ mountain 
in the center, which he called the “‘Rear- 
guard,” is now given the Indian name of 
lyatunga (black rock). Four thousand 
feet (1,263.1 meters) lower than Rob- 
son, lyatunga rises dark and massive 
above the milky white Berg Lake and 
the great ice river on its left. 


A FLOWING RIVER OF ICE 


The beautiful Hunga Glacier is liter- 
ally a flowing river of ice. In the large 
photograph (see Supplement) we see 
nearly three miles of the length of this 
glacier, -and on page 632 its upper half of 
néve and tributary fields and slopes of 
snow and ice are shown from Mount 
Resplendent to Robson. At the foot of 
Hunga .Glacier, on the left, Titkana* 
(bird) Peak rises as a black limestone 
mass that with lyatunga* forms the 
mighty portals of the great glacier. 

Day after day we passed between these 
portals and climbed over the crevassed 
and hummocky ice (see page 633) in 
order to trace the connection of the rocky 
section of Titkana Peak with that of 
Robson. Thanks to the fine fossil fauna 
found in Billings Butte, and the slope of 
the layers of rock, a satisfactory “tie” 
was made across the glacier to the lime- 
stones of Robson. 

The work was trying and tedious, but 
Nature kindly assisted by bringing down 
long trains of boulders on the ice of the 
glacier. From these was revealed the 
story concealed in the cliffs far above, 
and thus we learned the geologic history 
of the rocks connected with that of the 
more accessible cliffs on the opposite side 
of the glacier. 

Back on the horizon line between lya- 
tunga and Titkana there is a fine point 
that I am calling Phillips Mountain, in 
recognition of Donald Phillips, who 
made the ascent of Robson with Dr. 
Kinney. From its crest a glacier slopes 
down for a mile and a half to the edge 
of the cliffs west of Snowbird Pass. It 
is such a fine example of a small and 
complete glacier from névé to foot that 
I think it worthy of the name Chushina. 


_ * Names approved by Geographic Board of 
Canada, December, 1912. 


THE MONARCH OF THE CANADIAN ROCKIES: 


It was along the slopes below this gla- 
cier that our party met a band of moun- 
tain goat, affording museum specimens 
as well as food for hungry men and dogs 
at camp (see page 635). 


THE STREAMS THAT FLOW FROM THE 
GLACIERS 


The waters flowing from beneath 
Hunga Glacier form two streams, one 
on either side of a rocky knoll near the 
left face adjoining Titkana Peak. The 
stream at the right has formed a broad 
delta at the head of Berg Lake, from 
which the water passes through the lake 
and out at’its foot over the cliffs (see 
page 636) into Grand Forks River, and 
thence by Fraser River to the Pacific. 

On the left the second stream finds its 
way to Adolphus Lake, and thence down 
the Smoky, Peace, and Slave rivers to 
Great Slave Lake and out through the 
Mackenzie River to the Arctic Ocean. 
Sometimes the water of the left-hand 
stream flows across the broad flat of 
Robson Pass at the foot of the glacier 
and enters Berg Lake. On warm days 
the surface streams on the glacier part 
and send their waters to the two streams 
below. 

The geologic story of this enchanting 
region is too long and complicated to be 
related here. Suffice it that I found (see 
page 637) over 12,000 feet in thickness 
of Cambrian beds capped by 3,000 feet 
or more of Ordovician strata high up on 
Robson Peak. 

A new fossil find was made by chance. 
Mr. Harry Blagden and I were sitting on 
a huge block of rock at the lower end of 
Mural Glacier, munching our cold lun- 
cheon, when I happened to notice a block 
of black, shaly rock lying on the ice. 


A limited number of copies of Dr. 


Walcott’s beautiful panorama of Mount. 


Robson and its glaciers, which is pub- 
lished as a Supplement to this number, 
have been printed on heavy artist’s paper 
suitable for framing, and may be ob- 


639 


Wishing to warm up, for the mist drift- 
ing over the ice was cold and wet, I 
crossed to the block and split it open. 
On the parting there were several entire 
trilobites belonging to new species of a 
new subfauna of the Lower Cambrian 
fauna. 

There were also some fine marine shells 
of a kind that occurs in the Lower Cam- 
brian rocks west of St. Petersburg, Rus- 
sia. We found the bed from which this 
block had come by carefully tracing 
fragments of the shale scattered on the 
upward-sloping surface of the ice to a 
cliff two miles away. Working until late 
in the afternoon, we carried all we could 
pack of the rock over the glacier and 
down through the cliffs to the valley of 
the Smoky River. 

One of our horses had taken leave on 
his own account, so we loaded faithful 
Billy with the rock specimens, two rifles, 
two shotguns, a camera, and our rain- 
coats, and plodded over the muddy trails, 
forded two icy-cold rivers, and “dropped 
in” at camp three hours after dark. At 
the last ford the powerful animal carried 
us both and all our impedimenta through 
the broad, rushing glacial stream. 

If all is well, I hope to return during 
the summer of 1913 and spend many 
weeks in the midst of this area of the 
“Geologist’s Paradise.” Meantime if any 
readers of the Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC 
MacGAZINE wish to visit Robson Peak, 
they can readily do so by going to Ed- 
monton and thence by railroad to Mount 
Robson Station, which is in sight of Rob- 
son Peak. The Alpine Club of Canada 
is planning to have its next summer camp 
on the shores of Berg Lake, and soon 
this wonderland will be open to all who 
love the mountains and the outdoor life. 


tained, unfolded, at 50 cents per copy at 
the office of the National Geographic 
Society. 

The panorama was engraved and 
printed by the Matthews-Northrup Com- 
pany of Buffalo, New York. 


. Photo by Ethan C. we Munyon 
PASSING THROUGH THE NATIVE STREET OF KALGAN 


The foreigner on the horse is Mr. Heininger, a missionary of Kalgan, who kindly helped 
to keep the curious natives clear of the car when it passed through the main street of Kalgan. 
They had never before seen a motor-car. 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
INTERESTED CHINESE GATHERED AROUND THE CAR 


Some of them termed it a “che chu” (breath cart), and all wanted to know what made it go 


640 


THE LAMA’S 
A Trip Across the Gobi Desert by Motor-Car 


By Eruan C. Le Munyon 


F ALL the strange piaces and 
strange people into whose hands 
American motor-cars find their 


way, perhaps the strangest or least 
known of all is “Gigin,’” whom all Mon- 
golians call “The Living God,’ or 


“Bogdo.” 

This personage is known among for- 
eigners as the “Tasha Lama,” or Living 
Buddha; he is second only to the Dalai 
Lama of Tibet in importance in Lama- 
ism. In Mongolia he is both the relig- 
ious and the political head of the country 
and is recognized and venerated by all 
the inhabitants of Mongolia as sacred. 

The city of Urga, where he dwells, 
has, up to recent years, been one of the 
cities of Asia forbidden to the foreign 
traveler, it being second in importance to 
the forbidden city of Lhasa, Tibet, the 
dwelling-place of the Dalai Lama and 
the capital of the northern Buddhist 
faith. 

Some months ago an American firm in 
Tientsin, China, was commissioned by 


MOTOR-CAR 


the agent of the Buddha to obtain for 
him a closed type of motor-car, the Bud- 
dha having heard it rumored among his 
priests, or lamas, in Urga that such 
things could be obtained from the for- 
eigners. 

After giving the matter due considera- 
tion as to the make of car best suited to 
the needs of the Buddha, whom we shall 
call ‘“The God,” as it is by that name 
that he is known in China and Mongolia, 
a popular-priced American motor-car, 
having the planetary type of transmis- 
sion and foot control, was selected as 
being as near “fool-proof” as possible 
and best suited to the god’s needs. 

This type of car was chosen as being 
fitted to the country in which it was to 
be used, and also because it could be 
easily maintained by people who had no 
mechanical knowledge whatever. 

The car was ordered by cable from 
the Detroit manufacturers and was to be 
a regular stock car and not a special car 
in any way. 


- 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


SAVING GASOLINE BEFORE REACHING THE HILL 


As long as we had to have the bullocks on the hill we used them here 


641 


STARTING UP THE “HAN OR” HILL: 


Photo by Bihan C. Le Munyon 
NOT A PLEASANT OUTLOOK 


Note the camel caravan, which is loaded with cigarettes en route from Kalgan to Urga. 
It will take this caravan 30 days to make the trip. Each camel will carry about 300 pounds, 
the freight rate in this case being about 13 taels per camel, about $7.75 for the trip. 


It was received in Tientsin during the 
last week of September, 1912, and was 
set up and placed in working order im- 
mediately and driven round the streets 
for two or three days to test out the 
working parts. It was then placed on a 
flat car and shipped by rail to the end of 
the Peking-Kalgan Railway at Kalgan, 
the point nearest the Gobi Desert, over 
which it was necessary to pass to reach 
Urga. 

The car arrived at Kalgan without in- 
cident on the afternoon of the 22nd, and 
was unloaded at the station and driven 
through the native streets under its own 
power, across the old stone bridge and 
through the crowded part of the town. 
The natives crowded around and it was 
with difficulty that we were able to move 
without running over some of them, as 
they filled the road, for in almost every 
case they had never seen a motor-car be- 
fore and a great number had never even 
heard of one. One and all, they wanted 
to know what made it go, like the old 
Chinaman in the early days of railroads: 


64 


“No pullee, no pushee, how fashion can 
makee goee.”’ 

Many hundreds of years ago these 
streets were originally paved with huge 
slabs of stone, but during the passing 
centuries holes have been worn in and 
between these stone blocks, so that in 
some places the wheels of the car would 
drop into holes 12 to 18 inches deep, and 


-in most cases they were filled with slip- 


pery mud. 
USING A RIVER-BED AS A ROAD 


Leaving the city behind us, we now be- 
gan the climb up the pass, the river-bed 
serving us as a road for about 20 miles. 
It was necessary for us to cross and re- 
cross the stream from time to time, for 
the river-bed was full of loose stone, soft 
gravel, interspersed with larger stones, 
which made progress exceedingly diffi- 
cult. The grade was so steep and the 
road so poor we were forced to use low 
gear most of the way, and darkness over- 
took us before we had gone six miles. 

To add to our discomfort, it now be- 


Photo by E hadi C. Le Munyon 


A SCENE NEAR THE TOP OF THE PASS 


We passed these caravans frequently while in the pass 


gan to rain a little; so we sought shelter 
at a Chinese inn for the night. A trained 
nurse, who was going up country with 
us for a distance of 90 miles, used the 
car as a shelter; but my companion and 
I managed to get in a sort of stable, cov- 
ered with a leaky roof, and by using a 
heavy canvas which we carried, con- 
trived to keep dry and to sleep a little 
occasionally. 

The rain continued steadily during the 
night, and daylight the following morning 
gave very little promise of better weather. 
We arranged with some Chinese farmers 
to supply us with five bullocks to draw 
the car in case the river-bed should prove 
too soft for us to run under our own 
power. 

About 10 o'clock the clouds lifted, the 
bullocks were attached to the car, and 
we set off up the pass, saving our own 
power for the bad places which the na- 
tives informed us we should run across 
later in the day. 

It was sometimes necessary to use the 
entire power of the car in addition to the 
pulling power of the five animals to get 
over some of the steepest places. The 
road was slippery with mud, and with 


643 


the loose stones and large boulders, it 
was almost impossible for the wheels to 
get a grip at all. Half way up we halted 
at the “Temple to the Horse” and gave 
the animals and ourselves a rest. 


THE WATCH-TOWERS OF THE 
OF CHINA 


GREAT WALL 


Looking back toward China, we could 
see in the distance the watch-towers of 
the Great Wall. These are 20 miles out- 
side the wall proper, but were built at 
the same time; they are at least 150 feet 
square at the base and quite high. 

After leaving the temple the road be- 
came even steeper and filled with sharp 
stones and larger rocks, so that in some 
places it was necessary to leave the road, 
wending our way in and out among the 
larger rocks. 

Near the top the worst roads of all 
were passed. At times it was necessary 
for my companion to go ahead and sound 

each of the mud-holes as to depth before 
we attempted to go through with the car. 
Often he had to stand on the running- 
board of the car to keep it from tipping 
over, as the road along the side of the 
hill was merely a sketch and the outside 


peanees 


“TeJIOW QUIT] UL 
ple] 3YPIIq aATWeU puv sUOJS FO YING Sulsq s]dWI9} 9114U9 94} ‘9U0}S PI[OS PoAIevd FO o1e d[dWI9} dy} JO JuUOIT UI sojod yystidn sy, “epeis sy} oyeUI 
0} 189 ay} JO Jamod 9Y} SB [Jam SB SyDOT[NG sAY osn 0} AyessadoU SEM PI BIOYM “T[IET JO uey,, snhowey sy} dn Aem jJley ynoqe poyeso] st 7] 


«stOH AHL OL TIdWAl,, AHL 


uoAun 9’ “> UeYyywy 


a 


Aq oJoyg 


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644 


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wo 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


THE OVERLAND FREIGHT CARRIERS OL ASIA 


Note that the road is not a boulevard even here 


track was in most cases 6 to 12 inches 
lower than the inside; so that the car was 
always on the verge of upsetting. 

One of the native carts which passed 
us had two bullocks and two Mongolian 
horses hitched to it, while it carried only 
about 100 to 150 pounds of goods. Even 
with all this motive power, it was all the 
driver could do to get up the hill, the 
grade was so steep. 

After crossing a sea of mud, where the 
ruts were not less than 8 inches deep, we 
arrived at a native inn. We ran the car 
in the yard, which was also deep in mud 
and refuse. Here, as at the first inn, 
after a great deal of ‘“‘dickering” with the 
inn-keeper, we were given a room to our- 
selves. 


MAKING A BED IN A CHINESE INN 


In this room were several bundles of 
garlic and onions, pack-bags, and stores 
in general. There was also a “kang” (or 
brick bed), with a hole in the center as 
big as a wash-tub. After filling this hole 
with some of the saddlebags, we spread 
our ground cloth over it and made a bed. 
This room was next the regular room of 
the inn, which was about 10 by 15 feet 
in size, and contained one very large 


brick kang, on which slept about 20 Chi- 
nese and Mongols, which to us would 
seem impossible; but the fact remains, 
however, that this was the true number. 
After listening for a while to their jab- 
bering, which continued all through the 
night, we tried to sleep, but had rather 
indifferent success. 

The following morning we did not at- 
tempt to get an early start, as we wished 
the roads to dry a little if possible. We 
also waited for our second carter to ar- 
rive from Kalgan. The first, who was 
carrying our extra baggage, had only 
been engaged to go as far as this, for we 
had been told in Kalgan that the roads 
would be hard and dry from this point 
on, which they certainly were not. Carter 
number two put in appearance about 11 
o'clock; the baggage was transferred to 
his cart and a start made. 

During the remaining hours of day- 
light we made as much progress as pos- 
sible, arriving at a small Chinese settle- 
ment by the name of “Meeota’” (tem- 
ple), where we spent the night in a much 
better inn. 

This was a very interesting day’s run, 
as we passed through a section of culti- 
vated Chinese fields where grain was 


“ssed Sty} Ysno1y} eulyD Sisjus eljosuoy {je 
FO opet}y ULjs puw ‘Any ‘JOOM ay, “P[sOmM JY} JO SI9PUOM 4s9}%913 dy} JO sUO AjNI} st ‘sa[Iul 000% I9AO0 FO YYSUIT & YIM “euly) FO TTB AA yeorry) oy} 
JOF “VISW Ul URL FO YIOM 4sa}vI13 9Y} PeArsouOd OYM PUTT JoJseUT dy} 0} JUOWINUOW & ‘uor}Isod sty} Ur pooys savy Ady} s1eak 000‘ 1OF Jey} azij[eor 
OF PlPY SI 3] “TIP AA Feet) oY} SB out} sues oY} }e YINq 919M PU SIaMO}-Y9}eM IO s}sodjno SE] OY} VIE SUT[-AYS oy} UO samo} oreNbs sy, 


SSVd HHT NMOG GYVMMOVA DNIMOOT 


uokunyy{ o’T “2D ueyyy Aq oon g 


646 


f 
ry 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


CHINESE COFFINS LOADED ON CARTS AND STANDING JUST OUTSIDE THE INN YARD 


Note that the wheels of the carts are of wood only and have no iron tires. 


In fact, no iron 


is used, wooden pegs serving the same purpose as nails 


growing. There was a great collection 
of sheep and camels in the inn yard 
awaiting shipment to China. When we 
were leaving the following morning, all 
the women of the town lined up at the 
gate. 

The country through which we were 
now passing was an almost flat plain, 
with rolling hills showing against the 
horizon. The soil in this section was 
also very poor, free alkali showing in 
many places, and the grasses and bush 
were not unlike those of our own great 
Southwest. We were now beyond the 
cultivated region and were entering the 
barren country at the beginning of the 
Gobi Desert. 


THOUGHTFUL PROVISION FOR GHOSTS 


Soon after we passed a couple of Chi- 
nese graves, each of which had a small 
hole in the end, so that the spirit could 
pass in and out at will. 

About noon we came in sight of the 
last river which we would have to cross. 
We made a run for it and got as far as 
the middle of the stream, but the mud in 
the bottom got the best of us and we 
stuck. We were, however, prepared for 
just such a case as this, and had pro- 


vided the car with a set of small iron 
tackle blocks before leaving ‘Tientsin, 
and carried an iron rod, which was 
driven in the dry bank of the stream; 
and as we had a long length of rope, it 
was only necessary for us to thread up 
the pulley blocks and to pull the car out, 
with the help of a couple of Mongols 
who happened to come along at that 
time. When we stuck in the stream the 
water was over the muffler, and we did 
not dare stop the engine lest we could 
not start again, as the water was just to 
the bottom of the carbureter. 

We were now freed from troubles of 
this sort until we reached the Tola River, 
just in sight of Urga. As we had plenty 
of water here we washed the car, remov- 
ing some of the mud, which stuck like 
cement, as it had been on for three days 
from the time we entered the wet clay 
on the way up the pass. We had lunch 
and drove on about a mile further, where 
our carter came up with us and unloaded 
our baggage. We paid him off in lumps 
of silver, called “sycee,”’ which was 
weighed out in small pocket scales, which 
are always carried when traveling in 
Mongolia. The baggage was now trans- 
ferred to the machine and, after giving 


647 


te eur WOIF VUIOD S[OOM jodied FO aseiI0I0d 
JasIe] WY, ‘9s Jodres 10F AJUO v[qeyms st Joom sry, “voraUIy 04 peddrys suraq saseo. Aue ut [oom oY} pue sulys 94} ‘fooy oy} UO UI UdATIp st 77 


NVDIVS VIA ONIMMd WOT GNNAOT NOTLOAWN 


uokuny oT ‘dD ueyiy Aq oo 


648 


TRANSFERRING THE BAGGAGE FROM THE CHINESE CART 


SETTLING WITH 


TO THE AUTOMOBILE; ALSO 
THE CARTER FOR HIS SERVICES 


The foreigner in the white shirt—my companion on the trip—is weighing out the lump 


silver (sycee) to pay the carter the proper amount. 
nurse who traveled a distance of 90 miles into Mongolia to call on some friends. 
the place where we bade farewell to the Chinese. 
With our additional baggage we had a very heavy load. 


very rough. 


trade tobacco to some of the Mongols 
who had assisted us, we took to the road 
again. The roads were now in much 
better shape ; they were dry and not very 
smooth, but this was much better than 
mud. 

Soon we stopped at a well to replenish 
our water supply. This was a dug well 
about 70 feet deep. The bucket was a 
piece of untanned bullock hide, with the 
hair on the inside, and every time we 
drew water some of the hair would come 
off. Americans might not consider it 
quite sanitary. 

The days are warm and sunny here, 
but the nights are so cold that it was 
necessary for us to drain the radiator of 
the car to keep the pipes from bursting. 
From that time on we had to do this 
every night until we reached Urga. 

Late on the following day we passed 
over a level plain and several herds of 


649 


The lady in the picture is a trained 
This is 
The roads are much better here, hard but 


antelope were sighted; they were scared 
at the motor-car and we could not get 
very near to them. Soon we entered the 
barren plain and stopped the car to speak 
to the driver of a camel-cart. 


THE OVERLAND LIMITED OF THE DESERT 


These camel-carts are the ‘overland 
limited” of the desert and are used as 
passenger conveyances. The body of the 
cart is covered with heavy felt, which 
will defy the coldest weather, and in all 
they are quite comfortable, if one can 
only forget that there are no springs 
under them. 

Pangkiang, the first telegraph station, 
was reached about dark. Here we found 
the first 10 gallons of the gasoline which 
we had sent forward from Tientsin a 
couple of weeks before shipping the car. 
The supply was transhipped at Kalgan 
and forwarded to Urga by camel cara- 


“BUIYD) JO SoseI[IA puke sarzI9 
jo Auvur j10ddns [[LM pue eAtjonpoid pue YoIt AIA SI [IOS ay} 4GzOYs a4Mb sit uoseas ayy TM. 
“tO pUs}x9 splay pozearqno PSOUTY) 24, “S}jN}s-pooj J9y}O pue ure1is Sursrer ‘eI]OSUOT OUI 19 
‘uisos APU YI se sOOd ‘speay J19y} I9A0 FOOL @ JueM AY} FI JYSIU I9AO Avs 0} aAey AI3ZUNOD 


VIIOONOW :GYVA NNI ASHNIHO V 


uoAunyy a] “5 ueyyy Aq o}04g 


“~~ 


PePMOID OY} Ul BAIT JUssaId ye OYM suOTTIW 94} 
‘URSs[ey WOIZ sop Of ynoqe eyoSuoypy OJUT prem 
Yitey pue Joyjyey Suraow Ajresk a1e asouryo oy 
oY} FO Jsed sy} Ul StopIAeIy [[e a104M SI SIy 


650 


7 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
CHINESE GRAVES NEAR THE ROAD 


The hole is to let the spirit of the deceased in and out at will. This is a rather lonesome 
place—a sort of alkali country 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


THE WRITER DRAWING A BUCKET OF WATER AT A NATIVE MONGOL WELL 


The windlass and rope are removed from the stone-post and taken into the tent of the 
Mongol owning the well. Wood is very scarce, and it would never do to leave this amount 
where it could be stolen. The bucket in this instance is a piece of untanned cowhide with 
the hair left on, and on the inside of the bucket too. The hide is sewed up the side and 
holds probably two American gallons. Of course a quantity of hair comes out each time 
the bucket is emptied. As this one had been in use some time, the odor was not pleasant. 
However, it was the only way to get water and we had to have it. The well is a dug well, 
about 70 feet in depth. 


Lat TIVWS AHL 


MON :NNI NV SVM WYIHL THM (“VLONAN,, GUTIVO “INXNWILLAS ASHNIHD ISV'I HHL LV NXWOM ASHNIHO AAILVN JO anowo V 
uoduny aT “> uremia Aq 010 


ake 4 


Ud 


van, with instructions that 
a tin of 10 gallons was to 
be left at each of the three 
telegraph stations, which 
were about an equal dis- 
tance apart across the 
desert. 

The Chinese who was 
in charge of this office 
spoke English and enter- 
tained us in the guest- 
room, which is always re- 
served for officials trav- 
eling on government busi- 


ness in Mongolia. The 
Chinese government op- 
erate a_ telegraph line 
across the desert from 


Kalgan, in China, to Ki- 
achtka, in Siberia. The 
altitude at this point is 
5,600 feet. We were now 
180 miles from Kalgan, 
and in this one day we 
had made a distance of 
go miles. 

We were now on the 
actual Gobi Desert, and 
at times found the roads 
very, very sandy, so that 
it was impossible to make 
good time. At a well we 
took a few photos of the 
native women and also of 
a lama. The lamas have 
their heads shaved, but the 
ordinary Mongols wear a 
queue like the Chinese. 
Their features are very different from 
the Chinese and both sexes are filthy be- 
yond description. About 98 per cent of 
these natives never bathe from the cradle 
to the grave. 

Later in the day we came upon a Mon- 
golian temple, which was patterned more 
after the Tibetan style of architecture. 
There were a great many dirty lamas 
living there. 


THE TELEGRAPH IN THE DESERT 


Night overtook us when we were pass- 
ing through a very bad stretch of rocky, 
mountainous country, and, rather than 
risk the car and our necks, we stopped 
the car at the side of the road and spent 
the night where we were. 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


A TYPICAI MONGOLIAN LAMA: THESE LAMAS ARE THE 


PARASITES OF MONGOLIA 


Udde, the second telegraph station, lo- 
cated at an altitude of 3,000 feet and 
situated at the foot of a small mountain 
almost in the exact center of the desert, 
was the next stopping place; it was 328 
miles from Kalgan. Here we discon- 
nected the muffler from the car, as we 
had no “cut-out,” so that if it was possi- 
ble to save fuel and keep the engine cool 
we could try our best to do so. That 
afternoon we traveled on some compara- 
tively good roads, but as they were full 
of small holes, fast running was out of 
the question. About dark we came up 
with a caravan and spent the night in 
one of their tents, we having none. 

The following day we disturbed sev- 
eral herds of antelope and managed to get 
one. We estimated that in one of the 


‘WeD [OULD DY} IOF [9AVI] S.AeP pOOs v st sayru dAYy-AJUoMT, “ABP B Ur 41e9 dy} se InoYy uO Ul IVF Se S[OAPI} oIOY IIqoWOo Ne syy, “eas AAvaYy 
e Ur yeod [fetus & oy] Yonu AT9A st WOO Sui<ems MYT, “Joao sdij soujouros pue ssurids ou sey yy ‘soy ROM JSeP[OD 94} Ul UIA WAeM 93ND st 
pue jez AAvIY YUM PatdA0d si IBD oY, ‘aay UOMRIIOdsueIy FO POY SNOLMINXN] Jsou oy} SI puke ‘Igor 9Y} JO _payun’y PUuv[1aAO,, 94} St y1e9 
Poure> MT, “ese 140 ay} JO o[ppius ayy ur st Buijs [enjoe YL “Uoye} OAS PUI Sz JO duo ATUO oy} Ayqeqosd pue sanqoid enbiun wv 


MAN WHHL GNV a’ro HE, 
uoAuny 3/7 ‘D ueyiy Aq ojoyg 
Pe e gt yy 


fe} 


. 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


A GROUP OF CURIOUS NATIVES GATHERED AROUND THE CAR 


droves there must have been at least 500. 
We began a climb of over five miles, to 
a grassy plain about 30 miles wide; here 
the road was scattered with the bleached 
bones of cattle that had died by the way 
and also of other animals. About dark 
we stuck in the sand of a river-bed and 
had to dig ourselves out. This caused a 
delay of a couple of hours, so that we 
were forced to sit up in the car that night, 
as it was raining a little and very cold, 
and we dare not go on, as we were, of 
course, not familiar with the trail, and 
even in daylight we lost the way two or 
three times, as the beaten path was not 
very well marked. 

During the night a string of 90 bullock 
carts passed us, bound for Kalgan, loaded 
with small hewn logs to be used for lum- 
ber; this had come all the way from the 
other side of Urga. It would take at 
least 30 days for them to reach Kalgan, 
as they could only make about 15 to 20 
miles per day, because the bullocks had 
to get their living from the country and, 
of course, had to be pastured during the 
daytime. 

The following day we reached Sume, 
which consists of the two temples and 
their outbuildings and forms one of the 
largest and most important lamaseries 
in outer Mongolia. The altitude here is 
4,800 feet. There are about 2,000 lamas 
living here, some quite young, as Sume 
is an important theological school. 


This lamasery, or monastery, is a town 
in itself and very interesting. Lamas 
may be seen here of all ages and degrees 
of filth. On the tops and corners of the 
temples are prayer-wheels covered with 
gold leaf; these contain long prayers 
written on rolls of script, the wheels re- 
volve in the wind, and the results of these 
special prayers are said to be as satis- 
factory as those offered by any other 
method, either ancient or modern. 


WHAT THE LAMAS ARE LIKE 


Every third man in Mongolia is a 
Lama. Some live in yurts, or tents, with 
and on their relatives, while others live 
in the temples. The temple lamas are 
of the lower type; they are coarse and 
filthy and much inferior, both morally 
and physically, to the tent lamas. They 
are not unlike those sometimes seen by 
travelers in the Lama temple at Peking, 
China. The lamas living in tents among 
the people are of a better class and are 
much respected and looked up to all over 
Mongolia. 

We had now taken on our last tin of 
gasoline and were on the “home stretch.” 
We had to drive against a strong head 
wind, and were it not for our heavy fur 
coats we would have suffered greatly 
from the cold. The wind blew so hard 
that on the up grades it was almost im- 
possible to drive the car in high gear and 
make speed. On this high, grassy plain 


655 


Photo by Teen C. Le Munyon 
TYPICAL MONGOLIAN HORSEMEN 


They are not lamas, but ordinary civilian Mongols, who own herds, tents, etc. 


we saw hundreds of antelope, in groups 
of from 5 to 50; all became frightened, 
and in one case they ran ahead of the 
car, crossing the trail about 100 yards in 
front of us. 

About sundown the road became very 
rough and hilly, and several soft places 
were passed over where the water came 
out of the ground as seepage. These 
places were on side hills, and all indica- 
tions pointed to the fact that it would 
be a good place to develop water by ar- 
tesian or other methods. ‘This will be 
done, perhaps, when the country is set- 
tled by an agricultural people like the 
Chinese or the Russians. This is bound 
to come soon, for famines in China are 
driving the common people to new and 


more productive regions, and every year 
sees more and more of them in Mon- 
golia, as well as Siberia and Manchuria. 

As we saw that it would be impossible 
to reach Urga that night, we stopped the 
car near the trail and, wrapped in our 
fur coats and blankets, passed another 
night in the car. 

We were now in the hills, which were 
at this time covered with dry grass. 
Dipping down into the valleys, we en- 
countered water and very soft and 
marshy ground, and in going across one 
bad marshy place the car broke through 
the frozen ground and we stuck in the 
slippery mud. It was here necessary to 
wind long lengths of rope around the 
tires to obtain traction, and we had to 


656 


han C. Le Munyon 


— 


A MONGOLIAN HORSEMAN 


The pole with the slip-noose is used in place of the lariat, and is almost as effective. 
The rider drives into a herd and “cuts out” the horse he wants, drops the noose over his 
head and soon subdues him. 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


CATCHING HORSES ON THE PASTURE LANDS OF MONGOLIA BY THE AID OF A POLE 


oatjeu 
ISCIIAL IY} ULY} JOUBI][D IIOFIIOY} JIV PUL SIOUSIOIOF YUM JOeIUOD UI UdEq DALY SOAT]EU dSoy, ‘UNU ysIyppng ze 


NYACTIHO CNV NHWOM NVIIODONOW WO dnNOYD V 
ueyya Aq ojoyg 


te 


uofunyq{ aT “‘D 


7 


St 3J9] Ou 


wosy 


ynpe puoses 


= 


ou 


658 


Photo by Ethan C. Ie Munyon 
WELL-TO-DO MONGOLIAN WOMEN OF SOUTHERN MONGOLIA 


Note the heavy silver ornaments used to dress the hair. This always represents their 
wealth 


659 


660 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


THE TOWN OF SUME, SHOWING THE TWO MONGOLIAN TEMPLES IN THE DISTANCE SURROUNDED BY THE SMALLER QUARTERS OF OVER 


IT IS A SORT OF MONGOLIAN LAMA SCHOOL 


2,000 LAMAS: 


dig trenches for the wheels in 
the mud for about 75 feet to 
solid ground; for if we did 
not do this, the wheels would 
spin around without moving 
Une Cane. 

A small lake or two were 
passed where we saw_a great 
many wild-fowl. Most of the 
grades that we went down 
here were so steep that we 
left the clutch in, shut off the 
power, and went down under 
compression, using the brakes 
at the same time. 

From time to time groups 
of native yurts (tents) were 
passed by the side of the trail. 
The women of this part of 
Mongolia dress their hair very 
differently from their sisters 
of southern or inner Mon- 
golia. The dress of the men, 
however, is the same. 

Arriving at the Tola River, 
we crossed by way of the 
Russian bridge, which is con- 
structed of logs. The Tola at 
this point is about 300 feet 
wide and from 5 to 10 feet 
deep at that time of the year. 
The surrounding mountains 
were covered with a forest of 
larch. After crossing the 
bridge and traveling up the 
river-bed, fording the smaller 
tributaries from time to time, 
we arrived at the native Chi- 
nese city of Mai-Mai-Chen, 
which is the business place of 
Urga. It is about five miles 
east of Urga proper, where 
the Mongol temples and the 
Russian traders are located. 
The Chinese telegraph office 
and a branch of the Ta Ching 
Bank (government bank) are 
situated at Mai-Mai-Chen. 

After giving the car a thor- 
ough inspection and making 
some needed adjustments, we 
washed it and covered it up, 
awaiting instructions from the 
god regarding its delivery. 
‘Time is without value among 
the Mongols; the higher the 
official, the longer it takes to 


= 
® 


r 
& 
1 
be 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


PAGE 60600 


ON 


ILLUSTRATION 


Ada HE 


IN 


SECOND TEMPLE AT SUMI SEEN 


4 
4 


THE 


OF 


A CLOSER VIEW 


Written prayers are put 


The cylinders standing upright on the roof are prayer-wheels, which are gilded with gold leaf and turn in the wind. 


inside, which revolve and pray 


deal with him, and in 
this case, as it was 
the god himself that 
we had business with, 
it would take a long 
time. Needless to say, 
the car was a seven 
days’ wonder to the 
natives of Urga. 

While awaiting the 
pleasure of the god, 
we wired the car so 
that we could drop a 
small chain on the 
ground, and when the 
motor was running no 
one could touch the 
car without getting a 
slight shock from the 
magneto. This af- 
forded us quite a little 
fun at the expense of 
the natives, who could 
not understand what 
had “bit them,” as 
they expressed it, and 
did not leave a mark. 

As we were to see 
the Buddha and had 
brought the car all the 
way from China for 
him, we were shown 
great respect by the 
natives. 

The population of 
Urga is hard to esti- 
mate. During the au- 
tumn and winter 
months there are 
from 20,000 to 30,000 
lamas here. 

There are countless 
temples and long lines 
of prayer-wheels be- 
side the road. One 
temple contains the 
shrine of ‘Maidari,” 
the future ruler of the 
world, an image of 
metal about 30 feet 
high, which 1s_ esti- 
mated to weigh 125 
tons. It was cast in 
sections and brought 
to Urga from Dolo- 
nor, a city 600 miles 
east of Urga, where 


a spsemuonyeneennnsonannannamenancnsstencarensmanAtenntharavmrasnssshaanyren rnrinsanecaynn/patc ea\eanente raseenane: 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


DINGLY DIRTY, 


AN CH 


AN 


3RICK ? 


f ARCHITECTURE, OF PLASTERED STONE AND 1] 


4, 
b 
By 


A MONGOLIAN TEMPLE OR “SUME,’ TIBETAN STYLI 


FILTHY PLAC 


it was designed and 
cast. 

The temples of 
Urga are many and of 
all kinds. Some are 
no more than large 
tents and others are 
resplendent in vivid 
colors, gold leaf, and 
gilt. Some follow the 
Chinese style, some 
the Tibetan, and oth- 
ers seem to have a 
sort of style common 
to neither. 

There are few reg- 
ular streets in Urga, 
with the exception of 
the main street, along 
which are lines of 
prayer-wheels, which 
zre sheltered by small 
shanties or _ sheds. 
These are turned by 
hand by the people 
who wish to pray. 
Prayer flags float over 
all tents and temples 
and smaller prayer- 
wheels turn in the 
wind, while gilt 
prayer-wheels swing 
from the roofs of the 
temples. 

Urga was the resi- 
dence of a Chinese 
lieutenant governor, 
or “amban,’as he was 
called, the representa- 
tive of the Chinese 
government. Since 
Mongolia declared 
herself independent of 
China, early in the 
year 1912, there has 
been no amban, the 
former one having 
fled, reasoning that he 
was not needed. The 
god was crowned Em- 
peror of Mongolia, 
and as he was actually 
the religious head 
it made his position 
doubly secwHes 
Whether China will 
ever again obtain con-- 


crenata | 


trol of Mongolia, time alone will tell; but 
for a long time Russia has cast a covet- 
ous eye on it. 

The houses and business places in 
Urga are surrounded with stockades of 
large logs set on end and sharpened at 
the tops in some cases, while in others 
they are left square at the top. These 
stockades are 15 to 20 feet in height and 
afford effective protection against in- 
truders and thieves. 

A common sight in the streets of Urga 
is the Russian tarantass, a clumsy four- 
wheeled cart without springs, to which 
are hitched three horses abreast; they 
are extensively used to carry passengers 
between Urga and towns on the northern 
border. 

Urga is surrounded by high mountains 
on all sides. One of these, Bodga Ol 
(Buddha’s Mountain), is heavily wooded 
with forests of larch and no hunting is 
allowed. In the districts between Urga 
and Kiachta are extensive pine forests. 

Urga is without doubt one of the very 
few cities seldom visited by the for- 
eigner, as it is no holiday trying to reach 
it even from the Transiberian Railway. 
It means five or six days of continuous 
traveling in a tarantass and by boat, 
while to reach it from the China side it 
is necessary to cross the Gobi Desert, a 
distance of about 700 miles. 

The street scenes are many and varied. 
The women ride past on swift-footed 
Mongol ponies. Long lines of bullock 
carts go by, in most cases loaded with 
wood from the near-by mountains. Here 
is also seen the Tibetan yak, used as a 
beast of burden. The trade of the place 
is in the hands of the Chinese, although 


663 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
PASSING A GROUP OF WILD HORSES, COMMONLY CALLED MONGOLIAN PONIES 


there are a few Russian stores. The 
Russian government has a consulate here 
and a large garrison of soldiers. The 
offices of a large gold mining company 
are also located here, the mine being be- 
tween Urga and Kiachta. 


WHAT THE LIVING BUDDHA IS LIKE 


About a week after our arrival the car 
was delivered to the god, who enter- 
tained us at lunch, if such it might be 
called. We drove the car inside the 
compound of the palace, which was a 
sort of stockade built of logs set on end 
(see page 668), and took some of his 
chief officials for a drive outside, which 
pleased them very much. 

After the business of turning over the 
car had been completed, the god, through 
his head lama, presented the writer with 
a bolt of imperial yellow brocaded silk, 
wrapped in a blue silk scarf. 

The god is about 40 years of age. His 
appearance is not prepossessing. He has 
a bull neck and a hard-looking face and 
seems more like a cut-throat than a holy 
pontiff. He is almost blind. It may be 
remarked here that blindness is a com- 
mon complaint among the Mongols, and 
while it is usually caused by a lack of 
personal cleanliness, there are other 
causes. The fuel burned in Mongol tents 
is argol, or dried camel dung; it is burned 
in an open grate in the middle of the 
tent, and the fumes cause an irritation 
of the eyes as well as the lungs. This is 
the only fuel on the Gobi; even in Urga 
it is burned in place of wood, as it is 
cheaper. 

Some years ago the Buddha was a gay 
young spark, and although his morals 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
WOMEN OF NORTHERN MONGOLIA: NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN HAIR DRESSING AND 
THE PADS ON THE SHOULDERS OF THE WOMAN ON THE LEFT 


664 


ia a8 ax Sa ; 
Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
A TYPICAL WOMAN AND CHILD OF NORTHERN MONGOLIA 


Note the method of dressing the hair; also the pads on the shoulders. The head-piece is 
of beaten silver set with red-stones 


665 


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uokuny, oT “-D ueyyy Aq oJOYg 


666 


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Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
THE WRITER OUT FOR A MORNING RIDE—MONGOL “YURTS” AND CAMEL CART IN 
BACKGROUND: URGA 


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CT pee haa Pe 6 each Oe OR 2 Se 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 
THE MONGOL WITH WHOM THE WRITER STOPPED WHILE IN URGA: THE PHOTOGRAPH 
WAS TAKEN IN THIS RICH MONGOLS COMPOUND 


667 


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GHIA ATTIG SVM UVO-MOLOW AHL AWLHA ‘SHOV'IVd WHNWAS $,G0) AHL 4O ANO 4O MATA MOIMHLX 
uosunjyy 9] “dD ueryiy Aq ojoyg 


668 


THE LAMA’S MOTOR-CAR 


are said to have improved since then, he 
has not entirely given up his former 
modes of life. In spite of the tenets of 
the Buddhist religion, which prescribe 
celibacy for all lamas, the god is said to 
be very susceptible to feminine charms, 
his favorite being a tall Mongol girl. It 
is said that her influence over her divine 
lord is very great. She has commercial 
instincts and, besides the large sums and 
presents which she receives, she is re- 
ported to own a store in Urga and to be 
fairly rich. 

The god has only to express a wish 
and his faithful adherents compete with 
each other to supply his needs; whether 
it is a watch, a horse, motor-car, or a 
new concubine, one is obtained at once. 
At the present time he is seldom seen by 
foreigners. He has three palaces in 
Urga and spends some little time in each. 
One place is copied from the Russian 
consulate; the others are of the native 
type and quite imposing. 

Mongolia is one of the most interest- 
ing countries in the world today and also 
one of the most primitive. The inhabit- 
ants in many ways resemble our own 
North American Indians. They have a 
written language, are blindly devoted to 
the Buddhist religion, and very fanatical. 
The lamas, or Buddhist monks, are the 
curse of Mongolia and are parasites liv- 
ing on the religious credulity of their lay 
brethren. 

The highlands of, Mongolia vary in 
altitude from 3,000 to 5,500 feet. There 
are many mountain ranges, and in very 
few places is the country level for any 
considerable distance. The word Gobi 
means a “barren or desolate plain.” 
Vegetation is absent, with the exception 
of a few grasses, so that argol (or dried 
camel dung) is the only fuel used. It is 
collected and stored in large quantities 
for use during the winter. 

Water is scarce, a few wells along the 
caravan route furnishing the entire sup- 
ply. During the winter and spring the 
camel is the only animal that can cross 
the desert and subsist on the dried-up 
grasses. At this season of the year 
blocks of ice are carried for the water 


669 


supply, and at other seasons two large 
tubs are carried on each camel, used for 
this purpose, one tub on each side of the 
camel. 

The medium of exchange is the Chi- 
nese tael (an ounce of silver). Small 
squares or cubes of pressed silk are also 
used, but brick tea will pass current for 
barter in any part of Mongolia. Tobacco 
is also used for this purpose. The trade 
is in the hands of the Chinese, with the 
exception of the Russian traders in Urga. 
There is a Russian and also a Chinese 
post-ofice in Urga. Both maintain a 
pony express route across the Gobi; the 
time is 7 days. 


A CURIOUS METHOD OF BURIAL 


Mongols look on the dead in a differ- 
ent light from the Chinese, and their 
dead are taken just outside the town and 
thrown down. The dogs, sometimes those 
from their own tent and also others, soon 
make short work of them; in a couple of 
hours nothing is left. The natives be- 
lieve that the quicker this happens, the 
better chance the spirit of the departed 
has in reaching Paradise. 

The Mongol is a great meat eater, liv- 
ing in some cases entirely on mutton. 
In comparing other foods, he will ask if 
they are as good as mutton. It is not 
uncommon for a Mongol to consume 10 
pounds of this meat at one sitting. He 
puts mutton fat in his tea, which is pre- 
pared with milk from the brick tea 
(poorest grade pressed in bricks), and of 
this he drinks enormous quantities; 30 
cups per day is not an uncommon amount 
for anadult. There are no regular hours 
for eating; the native eats when oppor- 
tunity offers. Game is not common near 
Urga, but many varieties are found in the 
mountains, though hunting on Bogda Ol 
(Buddha’s Mountain) is prohibited. 

After having delivered the car, we left 
for Kiachta and the Transiberian Rail- 
way, riding in a Russian tarantass. By 
traveling four days and four nights we 
arrived in Kiachta in time to catch the 
river steamer going down the river to the 
railway the following day. We arrived 
back in Tientsin after an absence of 32 
days, having traveled 1,200 miles over- 


Photo by Ethan C. Le Munyon 


A MONGOLIAN PRAYER-WHEEL IN THE STREETS OF URGA 
This is only one of about 100 that line the main road or street. It is an octagon wheel 


on a vertical shaft. 
same time (see page 662). 


land by conveyances other than the rail- 
way. ‘The total distance covered was 
3,300 miles in 32 days, during which 
time for eight days no traveling was 
done—one day at Tob Ol and seven days 
in Urga; also a day and a night between 
Urga and the railway. 

This was the first time that a closed 
car had ever been driven across any 
desert country. This was also the first 


The pilgrim or worshiper walks around it, revolving the wheel at the 


car to cross the Gobi Desert, other than 
a racer, two racers having crossed it in 
the Peking to Paris race. No tire changes 
were made in the entire distance ; leather 
treads protected the back tires; the front 
ones ran bare; there was not even a 
puncture. Four months after our return 
from Urga (February, 1913) we heard 
directly that the car was running and 
giving good satisfaction. 


670 


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VoL. XXIV, No. 6 


WASHINGTON 


JUNE, 1913 


A GEOGRAPHIC 


HROUGH the courtesy of the 
/ Secretary of Agriculture, the Na- 

TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
reprints on pages 669-697 of this num- 


Fifty Common Birds of Farm and 


Orchard,” which was prepared under the 


direction of Henry W. Henshaw, Chief 
of the Bureau of the Biological Survey, 
and published as Farmers’ Bulletin 513 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
The illustrations are all from drawings 
made by Mr. Louis Agassiz Fuertes, the 
skillful painter of American birds. 

To obtain the exquisite and delicate 
colors of the pictures, which are such 
faithful portrayals of the birds, the 
printed sheets had to pass through the 
presses eight times, therefore Trepresent- 
ing nearly two million i impressions. This 
immense amount of work naturally in- 
volved a very large expense, but the 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacazineE felt 
justified in spending the many thousands 


of dollars to republish this wonderful 


bulletin in order that every reader of the 
GEOGRAPHIC may have in the household 
this helpful guide and the accurate and 
useful information that it contains. The 
huge outlay required-for this colored 
work would, however, not have been pos- 
sible but for the great recent increase in 
the circulation of the Magazine, which 
has enabled us to bring the cost per copy 
within reach by distributing the expense 


_ over the larger edition. 


With the help of these beautiful pic- 


tures and clear text the reader will be 


ACHIEVEMENT 


able easily to identify fifty of our com- 
mon birds. While this valuable contri- 
bution will be specially serviceable in the 
summer months, when our readers spend 
more time in the open, it will prove an_ 
equally convenient introduction to some 
of our feathered friends throughout the 
entire year. 

Just as remarkable as the fifty beauti- 
ful pictures is the quantity of concise 
information given about each individual 
bird, and which is the result of long study 
by some of the best bird men and women 
in America. For many years the experts 
of the Biological Survey have been mak- 
ing accurate tests to determine which 
birds are useful to man and which de- 
structive. The contents of the stomachs 
of ‘many thousands of specimens have 
been analyzed with a view of finding 
whether the bird helps the farmer by eat- 
ing injurious insects and noxious weeds, 
or hurts the farmer by eating his fruits 
and grain. 

These investigations have shown that, 
with rare exceptions, birds are useful 
everywhere, and that without their help 
successful agriculture would be impossi- 
ble. “The activity of birds in the pur- 
suit of insects is still further stimulated 
by the fact that the young of most spe- 
cies, even those which are by no means 
strictly insectivorous, require great quan- 
tities of animal food in the early weeks 
of existence, so that during the summer 
months—the flood time of insect life— 
birds are compelled to redouble their at- 


668 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tacks on our insect foes to satisfy the 
wants of their clamorous young’ (see 
page 671). “A nest with four young of 
the chipping sparrow was watched at dif- 
ferent hours on four days. In the seven 
hours of observation 119 feedings were 
noted, or an average of 17 feedings per 
hour, or 4% feedings per hour to each 
nestling. This would give for a day of 
14 hours at least 238 insects eaten by 
the brood” (see page 682). 

Even our hawks and owls, with the 
exception of Cooper’s hawk (see page 
694) and one or two others, are desir- 
able, and their presence around a garden 
or farm should be welcomed, because 
with their voracious appetites they keep 
down the numbers of mice and rats and 
other pests which may torment the coun- 
try home. As many as 100 grasshoppers 
have been found in the stomach of a 
Swainson’s hawk, representing a single 
meal; and in the retreat of a pair of 
barn owls have been found more than 
3,000 skulls, 97 per cent of which were 
of mammals, the bulk consisting of field 
mice, house mice, and common rats (see 
page 670). 

A lack of knowledge of the value of 
certain birds may prove disastrous and 
cause the destruction of valuable birds 
which cannot be replaced in years. Some 
years ago the legislature of the State of 
Pennsylvania offered a bounty on hawks 
and owls, which resulted in the killing of 
over 100,000 of these birds. As almost 
all of those killed were beneficial, it was 
calculated by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, then 
chief of.the U. S. Biological Survey, that 
the State of Pennsylvania sustained a 
loss of nearly four million dollars in 
eighteen months. The legislature soon 
realized its mistake and abolished the 
bounty. : 

Quite apart from any question of senti- 
ment, the preservation of our bird life 
is a matter of great national importance, 
and every effort should be made to assist 
our policemen of the air in keeping Na- 
ture’s balance true. 

The bird portraits in colors were 


printed by the Sackett & Wilhelms Litho- 


graph Company of Brooklyn, N. Y. 


LIST OF BIRDS DESCRIBED AND INDEX 


Robinw. 2 Sec 


Ruby-crowned 


Chickadee .. 2020.02 nea ae 
White-breasted nuthatch.................- 


Brown creeper 
House wren.. 


Brown thrasher............... oy leet ee 


Cathind: 2.0525 
Mocking bird. 


Myrtle warbler: 27.2350. 0a el ce e ee 
Loggerhead shrike:.......<.: 4 ss coe eee 


Barn swallow. 
Purple martin 


Black-headed grosbeak................... 


Rose-breasted 
Song sparrow. 


Chipping. sparrows. -.. 45 0.5. ee eee 
White-crowned sparrow................-- 
English ‘sparrow... . J: 0. <: soe eee 
Crow: blackbird: 2200.04; ..0 a eee 


Meadowlarks 


Red-winged: blackbird:.... ..... 2... 20 .eeeee 


Bobolink ..... 


Common Crowes o:.< eee eee 


California jay 
Blue gaye 227 2 
Horned lark. . 


Arkansas kingbird........... eee S.ceee 


Kingbird ="... 
Nighthawk ... 
Flicker. h.. 
Yellow-bellied 
Downy woodp 


Yellow-billed cuckoo........ ree = 


Screech owl.. 
Barn owl..... 
Sparrow hawk 


Red=tailed “hawk-.5.-. 45s) eee 


Cooper’s hawk 


Mourning dove... .. 05 2h s+. sae 


Ruffed grouse. 
Bobwhite ..... 
Killdeer ..... 
Upland plover 
Blackytern= ea. 
Franklin’s gull 


i 


ce ee) 


kinglet.....0% «0. 2's 


CC er 


Ce ee a | 


cr) 


CC ie 


ce | 


CC er ee | 


grosbeak.:. 2.45.42 7 nee eeee 


Ce CC ec) 


CC 
rd 


rr) 
ee 
ee a 
eC a | 
Ce) 


CCC) 


sapsucker:..< : /<cne0sr eee 
ecker sc: bss c0to eee 


ee a) 
ee ec as 


a ee ee) 
Pe ee ee 


eee es @. 8 8) ess os 0/6, ¥ Ke) ®) Me) 8 6 eee 
o ee wie ee sc 0,0 6 Se, vie 6 (6) 208) n © 1s) Cee 
wwe we ta tee 80 em 0 0 6 6 o 60.9) 2 6s) 8e 
ewer ere r sneer eseseseseeeee ee 
eee ae ne 00 we 8 aes 0 6 © 6 6 6 6-5 s im aie 


ee! @ feed's, ef a, eee eve re! melee) =) sie ae eee 


_—- 


FIFTY COMMON BIRDS OF FARM AND 
ORCHARD 


Prepared under the direction of Henry W. Henshaw, Chief of the 
Biological Survey, as Bulletin 513 of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, and reprinted in full in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
pages 669-697, by special permission of the Secretary of Agriculture. 


INTRODUCTION. 


This bulletin is intended to serve the very practical purpose of enabling our farmers 
and their boys and girls to identify the birds that frequent the farm and orchard. The 
material prosperity of State and Nation depends largely on agriculture, and any agent 
that serves to increase the size of crops and insure their certainty is of direct interest 
and importance to the farmer. Birds constitute one of the most valuable of these 
agents, since they depend largely for their food on insects which are among the farmer’s 
most dreaded foes. 

Entomologists have estimated that insects yearly cause a loss of upwards of 
$700,000,000 to the agricultural interests of the United States. Were it not for our birds 
the loss would be very much greater, and indeed it is believed that without the aid 
of our feathered friends successful agriculture would be impossible. A knowledge of 
the birds that protect his crops is, therefore, as important to the farmer as a knowledge 
of the insect pests that destroy them. Such knowledge is the more important because 
the relation of birds to man’s interests is extremely complex. Thus, while it may be 
said that most of our birds are useful, there are only a few of them that are always and 
everywhere useful and that neverdo harm. Insectivorous birds, for instance, destroy, 
along with a vast number of harmful insects, some parasitic and predatory kinds. 
These latter are among Nature’s most effective agents for keeping destructive insects 
in check. To the extent, then, that birds destroy useful parasitic insects, they are 
harmful. But, taking the year round, the good they do by the destruction of insects 
injurious to man’s interests far outweighs the little harm they do. It may be said, 
too, that of the birds usually classed as noxious there are very few that do not possess 
redeeming traits. Thus the crow is mischievous in spring and sorely taxes the farmer’s 
patience and ingenuity to prevent him from pulling up the newly planted corn. 
Moreover, the crow destroys the eggs and young of useful insectivorous and game 
birds; but, on the other hand, he eats many insects, especially white grubs and cut- 
worms, and destroys many meadow mice, so that in much (although not all) of the 
region he inhabits the crow must be considered to be more useful than harmful. Most 
of the hawks and owls even—birds that have received so bad a name that the farmer’s 
boy and the sportsman are ever on the alert to kill them—are very useful because 
they destroy vast numbers of insects and harmful rodents. 

Birds occupy a unique position among the enemies of insects, since their powers 
of flight enable them at short notice to gather at points where there are abnormal insect 
outbreaks. An unusual abundance of grasshoppers, for instance, in a given locality 
soon attracts the birds from a wide area, and as a rule their visits cease only when there 
are no grasshoppers left. So also a marked increase in the number of small rodents in a 
given neighborhood speedily attracts the attention of hawks and owls, which, by 
reason of their voracious appetites, soon produce a marked diminution of the swarm- 
ing foe. 

America is greatly favored in the number and character of its birds, which not only 
include some of the gems of the bird world, as the warblers and humming birds, but 


669 


on the whole embrace few destructive species. Not only do many birds satisfy our 
esthetic sense through their beautiful plumage and their sweet voices, but they are 
marvelously adapted to their respective fields of activity. No other creatures are so 
well fitted to capture flying insects as swallows, swifts, and nighthawks. Among the 
avian ranks also are wrens, trim of body and agile of movement, that creep in and out of 
holes and crevices and explore rubbish heaps for hidden insects. The woodpecker, 
whose whole body exhibits wonderful adaptation of means to end, is provided with 
strong claws for holding firmly when at work, a chisel-like bill driven by powerful 
muscles to dig out insects, and a long extensible tongue to still further explore the 
hidden retreats of insects and drag forth the concealed larve, safe from other foes. 
The creepers, titmice, warblers, flycatchers, quails, doves, and other families have 
each their own special field of activity. However unlike they may be in appearance, 
structure, and habits, all are similar in one respect—they possess a never flagging 
appetite for insects and weed seeds. 

One of the most useful groups of native birds is the sparrow family. While some 
of the tribe wear gay suits of marly hues, most of the sparrows are clad in modest brown 
tints, and as they spend much of the time in grass and weeds are commonly over- 
looked. Unobtrusive as they are, they lay the farmer under a heavy debt of gratitude 
by their food habits, since their chosen fare consists largely of the seeds of weeds. 
Selecting a typical member of the group, the tree sparrow, for instance, one-fourth 
ounce of weed seed per day is a conservative estimate of the food ofan adult. On this 
basis, in a large agricultural State like Iowa tree sparrows annually eat approximately 
875 tons of weed seeds. Only the farmer, upon whose shoulders falls the heavy 
burden of freeing his land of noxious weeds, can realize what this vast consumption 
of weed seeds means in the saving and cost of labor. Some idea of the money value 
of this group of birds to the country may be gained from the statement that the total 
value of the farm products in the United States in 1910 reached the amazing sum of 
$8,926,000,000. If we estimate that the total consumption of weed seed by the com- 
bined members of the sparrow family resulted in a saving of only 1 per cent of the 
crops—not a violent assumption—the sum saved to farmers by these birds in 1910 
was $89,260,000. 

The current idea in relation to hawks and owls is erroneous. These birds are 
generally classed as thieves and robbers, whereas a large majority of them are the 
farmers’ friends and spend the greater part of their long lives in pursuit of injurious 
insects and rodents. The hawks work by day, the owls chiefly by night, so that the 
useful activities of the two classes are continued practically throughout the 24 hours. 
As many as 100 grasshoppers have been found in the stomach of a Swainson’s hawk, 
representing a single meal; and in the retreat of a pair of barn owls have been found 
more than 3,000 skulls, 97 per cent of which were of mammals, the bulk consisting of 
field mice, house mice, and common rats. Nearly half a bushel of the remains of 
pocket gophers—animals which are very destructive in certain parts of the United 
States—was found near a nest of this species. The notable increase of noxious rodents 
during the last few years in certain parts of the United States and the consequent 
damage to crops are due in no small part to the diminished number of birds of prey, 
which formerly destroyed them and aided in keeping down their numbers. A few 
hawks are injurious, and the bulk of the depredations on birds and chickens charge- 
able against hawks is committed by three species—the Cooper’s hawk, the sharp- 
shinned hawk, and the goshawk. The farmer’s boy should learn to know these daring 
robbers by sight, so as to kill them whenever possible. 

From the foregoing it will at once appear that the practice of offering bounties 
indiscriminately for the heads of hawks and owls, as has been done by some States, 
is a serious mistake, the result being not only a waste of public funds but the destruc- 
tion of valuable birds which can be replaced, if at all, only after the lapse of years. 


670 


a” WA 


As a rule birds do not live very long, but they live fast. They breathe rapidly 
and have a higher temperature and a more rapid circulation than other vertebrates. 
This is a fortunate circumstance, since to generate the requisite force to sustain their 
active bodies a large quantity of food is necessary, and as a matter of fact birds have 
to devote most of their waking hours to obtaining insects, seeds, berries, and other 
kinds of food. The activity of birds in the pursuit of insects is still further stimulated 
by the fact that the young of most species, even those which are by no means strictly 
insectivorous, require great quantities of animal food in the early weeks of existence, 
so that during the summer months—the flood time of insect life—birds are compelled 
to redouble their attacks on our insect foes to satisfy the wants of their clamorous 
young. 

Field observations of the food habits of birds serve a useful purpose, but they are 
rarely accurate enough to be fully reliable. The presence of certain birds in a corn 
or wheat field or in an orchard is by no means proof, as is too often assumed, that they 
are devastating the grain or fruit. They may have been attracted by insects which, 
unknown to the farmer or orchardist, are fast ruining his crop. Hence it has been 
found necessary to examine the stomachs and crops of birds to ascertain definitely 
what and how much they eat. The Biological Survey has in this way examined 
upward of 50,000 birds, most of which have been obtained during the last 25 years 
from scientific collectors, for our birds are too useful to be sacrificed when it can 
possibly be avoided, even for the sake of obtaining data upon which to base legis- 
lation for their protection. 

It is interesting to observe that hungry birds—and birds are hungry most of the 
time—are not content to fill their stomachs with insects or seeds, but after the stom- 
ach is stuffed until it will hold no more continue to eat till the crop or gullet also is 
crammed. It is often the case that when the stomach isopened and thecontents piled 
up the pile is two or three times as large as the stomach was when filled. Birds may 
truly be said to have healthy appetites. To show the astonishing capacity of birds’ 
stomachs and to reveal the extent to which man is indebted to birds for the de- 
struction of noxious insects, the following facts are given as learned by stomach 
examinations made by assistants of the Biological Survey: 

A tree swallow’s stomach was found to contain 40 entire chinch bugs and fragments 
of many others, besides 10 other species of insects. A bank swallow in Texas devoured 
68 cotton-boll weevils, one of the worst insect pests that ever invaded the United 
States; and 35 cliff swallows had taken an average of 18 boll weevils each. Two 
stomachs of pine siskins from Haywards, Cal., contained 1,900 black olive scales and 
300 plant lice. A killdeer’s stomach taken in November in Texas contained over 
300 mosquito larve. A flicker’s stomach held 28 white grubs. A nighthawk’s 
stomach collected in Kentucky contained 34 May beetles, the adult form of white 
grubs. Another nighthawk from New York had eaten 24 clover-leaf weevils and 375 
ants. Still another nighthawk had eaten 340 grasshoppers, 52 bugs, 3 beetles, 2 
wasps, and a spider. A boat-tailed grackle from Texas had eaten at one meal about 
100 cotton bollworms, besides a few other insects. A ring-necked pheasant’s crop 
from Washington contained 8,000 seeds of chickweed and a dandelion head. More 
than 72,000 seeds have been found in a single duck stomach taken in Louisiana in 
February. 

A knowledge of his bird friends and enemies, therefore, -is doubly important to the 
farmer and orchardist in order that he may protect the kinds that earn protection by 
their services and may drive away or destroy the others. At the present time many 
kinds of useful birds need direct intervention in their behalf as never before. The 
encroachments of civilization on timbered tracts and the methods of modern intensive 
cultivation by destroying or restricting breeding grounds of birds tend to diminish 
their ranks. The number of insect pests, on the other hand, is all the time increasing 
by leaps and bounds through importations from abroad and by migration from adjoin- 


671 


ing territories. Every effort, therefore, should be made to augment the numbers of 
our useful birds by protecting them from their enemies, by providing nesting facilities, 
and by furnishing them food in times of stress, especially in winter. 

Important in this connection is the planting near the house and even in out-of-the- 
way places on the farm of various berry-bearing shrubs, many of which are ornamental, 
which will supply food when snow is on the ground. Other species which are not 
berry eaters, like the woodpeckers, nuthatches, creepers, and chickadees, can be 
made winter residents of many farms, even in the North, by putting out at convenient 
places a supply of suet, of which they and many other birds are very fond, even in 
summer. Hedges and thickets about the farm are important to furnish nesting sites 
and shelter both from the elements and from the numerous enemies of birds. 

Few are aware of the difficulty often experienced by birds in obtaining water for 
drinking and bathing, and a constant supply of water near the farmhouse will materially 
aid in attracting birds to the neighborhood and in keeping them there, at least till the 
time of migration. Shallow trays of wood or metal admirably serve the purpose, 
especially as birds delight te bathe in them. 

Considerable success has been met with in Germany and elsewhere in Europe by 
supplying artificial nest boxes for birds, and the same method of increasing the number 
of birds and attracting them to farms and orchards where their services are most needed 
should be extensively employed in this country. The experiment can the more 
easily be tried since several firms in the United States are now prepared to make and 
deliver boxes specially designed for martins, swallows, bluebirds, wrens, woodpeckers, 
and other species. The average farmer’s boy, however, if provided with a few tools, 
is quite equal to the task of making acceptable boxes for the commoner species, which 
are far from fastidious as to the appearance of the box intended for their occupancy. 

One of the worst foes of our native birds is the house cat, and probably none of our 
native wild animals destroys as many birds on the farm, particularly fledglings, as cats. 
The household pet is by no means blameless in this respect, for the bird-hunting 
instinct is strong even in the well-fed tabby; but much of the loss of our feathered 
life is attributable to the half-starved stray, which in summer is as much at home in 
the groves and fields as the birds themselves. Forced to forage for their own liveli- 
hood, these animals, which are almost as wild as the ancestral wildcat, inflict ‘an 
appalling loss on our feathered allies and even on the smaller game birds like the 
woodcock and bobwhite. If cats are to find place in the farmer’s household, every 
effort should be made by carefully feeding and watching them to insure the safety 
of the birds. The cat without a home should be mercifully put out of the way. 

In the present bulletin 50 of our commoner birds are discussed, including some 
that are destructive. They inhabit various parts of the country, and it is for the 
interest of the farmers of the respective localities to be familiar with them. A colored 
illustration of each species is given so as to enable the reader to identify the bird 
at a glance and to permit the descriptive text, at best an unsatisfactory method of 
identification, to be cut down or altogether dispensed with. The birds were drawn 
from nature by the well-known bird artist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. The accounts 
of the birds’ habits are necessarily brief, but they are believed to be sufficient to 
acquaint the reader with the most prominent characteristics of the several species, 
at least from the standpoint of their relation to man. 


672 


—— 


i 
; 
; 
i 
i 
: 
; 
I 


ee 


_ it takes no toll from the farm crop. The blue- 


Ce ee ee ee a ae eee a ee 


BLUEBIRD (Sialia sialis). 


- Length,* about 64 inches. 

Range: Breeds in the United States (west to 
Arizona, Colorado, mone, and Montana), 
southern Canada, Mexico, and Guatemala; win- 
ters in the southern half of the eastern United 
States and south to Guatemala. ¢ 

Habits and economic status: The bluebird is 
one of the most familiar tenants of the farm and 
dooryard. Everywhere it is hailed as the har- 
binger of spring, and wherever it chooses to 
reside it is sure of a warm welcome. This 
bird, like the robin, phoebe, house wren, and 
some swallows, is very domestic in its habits. 
Its favorite nesting sites are crannies in the 
farm buildings or boxes made for its use or 
natural cavities in old apple trees. For rent 
the bird pays amply by destroying insects, and 


bird’s diet consists of 68 per cent of insects to 

32 per cent of vegetable matter. The largest 

items of insect food are grasshoppers first and beetles next, while caterpillars 
stand third. All of these are harmful except a few of the beetles. The vege- 
table food consists chiefly of fruit pulp, only an insignificant portion of which is 
of cultivated varieties. Among wild fruits elderberries are the favorite. From 
the above it will be seen that the bluebird does no essential harm, but on the con- 
trary eats many harmful and annoying insects. (See Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 46-48.) 


ROBIN (Planesticus migratorius). 


Length, 10 inches. 

Range: Breeds in the United States (except the Gulf States), Canada, Alaska, 
and Mexico; winters in most of the United States and south to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: In the North and some parts of the West the 
robin is among the most cherished of our native birds. Should it ever become 
rare where now common, its joyous summer song and familiar presence will be 
sadly missed in many a homestead. The robin is an omnivorous feeder, and its 
food includes many orders of insects, with no very pronounced preference for any. 
Itis very fond of earthworms, but its real economic status is determined by the veg- 
etable food, which amounts to about 58 per cent of all. The principal item is fruit, 
which forms more than 51 per cent of the total 
food. The fact that in the examination of over 
1,200 stomachs the percentage of wild fruit was 
found to be 5 times that of the cultivated varie- 
ties suggests that berry-bearing shrubs, if planted 
near the orchard, will serve to protect more 
valuable fruits. In California in certain years 
it has been possible to save the olive crop from 
hungry robins only by the most strenuous exer- 
tions and considerable expense. The bird’s 
general usefulness is such, however, that all 
reasonable means of protecting orchard fruit 
should be tried before killing the birds. (See 
Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 44-46.) 


* Measured from tip of bill to tip of tail. 


673 


RUSSET-BACKED THRUSH (Hylocichla 
ustulata). 


Length, 7} inches. Among thrushes having 
the top of head and tail nearly the same color 
as the back, this one is distinguished by its 
tawny eye-ring and cheeks. The Pacific coast 
subspecies is russet brown above, while the 
other subspecies is the olive-backed thrush. 
oe ae below apply to the species as a 
whole. 23a 


and Canada and south to California, Colorado, 
Michigan, New York, West Virginia (moun- 


South America. 


are by many ranked first among American song- 

birds. The several members resemble one an- 

other in size, plumage, and habits. While this 
thrush is very fond of fruit, its partiality for the neighborhood of streams keeps it 
from frequenting orchards far from water. It is most troublesome during the 
cherry season, when the young are in the nest. From this it might be inferred 
that the young are fed on fruit, but such isnot thecase. The adults eat fruit, but 
the nestlings, as usual, are fed mostly upon insects. Beetles constitute the — 
item of animal food, and ants come next. Many caterpillars also are eaten. The 
great bulk of vegetable food consists of fruit, of which two-fifths is of cultivated 
varieties. Where these birds live in or near gardens or orchards, they may do 
considerable damage, but they are too valuable as insect destroyers to be killed if 
the fruit can be protected in any other way. (See-Biol. Surv. Bul. 30, pp. 86-92.) 


RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET (Regulus calendula). 


Length, about 44 inches. Olive green above, soiled whitish below, concealed 
feathers on head (crest) bright red. 

Range: Breeds in southern Canada, southern Alaska, and the higher moun- 
tains of the western United States; winters in much of the United States and 
south to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: In habits and haunts this tay ee resembles 
achickadee. It is an active, nervous little creature, flitting hither and yon in 
search of food, and in spring tp ing only long enough to utter its beau- 

iful song, surprisingly loud for the size of the 
musician. Three-fourths of its food consists 
of wasps, bugs, and flies. Beetles are the only 
other item of importance (12 per cent). The 
bugs eaten by the kinglet are mostly small, 
but, happily, they are the most harmful kinds. 
Treehoppers, leafhoppers, and jumping plant 
lice are pests and often do great harm to trees 
and smaller plants, while plant lice and scale 
insects are the worst scourges of the fruit 
gone fact, the prevalence of the latter 
as almost risen to the magnitude of a national 
peril. It is these small and seemingly insig- 
nificant birds that most successfully attack and 
hold in check these insidious foes of horticul- 
ture. The vegetable food consists of seeds of. 
poison ivy, or poison oak, a few weed seeds, 
and a few small fruits, mostly elderberries. 
(See Biol. Surv. Bul. 30, pp. 81-84.) 


674 


Range: Breeds in the forested parts of Alaska Ree 


tains), and Maine; winters from Mexico to 


Habits and economic status: This is one of a 
small group of thrushes the members of which. 


CHICKADEE (Penthestes atricapillus). 


Length, about 5} inches. 

: Resident in the United States (ex- 
cept the southern half east of the plains), 
Canada, and Alaska. 

Habits and economic status: Because of its 
delightful notes, its confiding ways, and its 
fearlessness, the chickadee is one of our best- 
known birds. It responds to encouragement, 
and by hanging within its reach a constant 
supply of suet the chickadee can be made a 
regular visitor to the garden and orchard. 
Though insignificant in size, titmice are far 
laa being so from the economic standpoint, 
0 to their numbers and activity. ile 
one locality is being scrutinized for food by 
a larger bird, 10 are being searched by the 
smaller species. The chickadee’s food is made 
up of insects and vegetable matter in the pro- 
portion of 7 of the former to 3 of the latter. Moths and caterpillars are favorites 
and form about one-third of the whole. Beetles, ants, wasps, bugs, flies, grass- 
og and spiders make up the rest. The vegetable food is composed of 

8, largely those of pines, with a few of the poison ivy and some weeds. There 
are few more useful birds than the chickadees. (See Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 43-44.) 


WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH (Sitta carolinensis). 


Length, 6 inches. White below, above gray, with a black head. 

Range: Resident in the United States, southern Canada, and Mexico. 

Habits and economic status: This bird might 
readily be mistaken by a careless observer fora 
small woodpecker, but its note, an oft-repeated 
yank, is very unwoodpecker-like, and, unlike 
either woodpeckers or creepers, it climbs down- 
ward as easily as upward and seems to set the 
laws of gravity at defiance. The name was sug- 
gested by the habit of wedging nuts, especially 
beechnuts, in the crevices of bark so as to 
break them -_ ar: blows from the sharp, 
strong bill. e nuthatch gets its living from 
the trunks and branches of trees, over which 
it creeps from daylight to dark. Insects and 
spiders constitute a little more than 50 per 
cent of its food. The largest items of these are 
beetles, moths, and caterpillars, with ants and 
wasps. The animal food is all in the bird’s 
favor except a few ladybird beetles. More than 
half of the vegetable food consists of mast, i. e., 
acorns and other nuts or large seeds. One- 
tenth of the food is grain, mostly waste corn. 
The nuthatch does no injury, so far as known, 
and much good. 


675 


BROWN CREEPER (Certhia familiaris 
americana and other subspecies). 


‘Length, 5} inches. 

Range: Breeds from Nebraska, Indiana, 
North Carolina (mountains), and Massachusetts 
north to southern Canada, also in the mountains 
of the western United States, north to Alaska, 
south to Nicaragua; winters over most of its 


ange. 

Habits and economic status: Rarely indeed 
is the creeper seen at rest. It appears to spend 
its life in an incessant scramble over the trunks © 
and branches of trees, from which it gets all 
its food. It is protectively colored so as to be 

- practically invisible to its enemies and, though 
delicately built, possesses amazingly strong 
claws and feet. Its tiny eyes are sharp enough 
to detect insects so small that most other species 
pass them by, and altogether the creeper fills 
a unique place in the ranks of our insect 
destroyers. The food consists of minute in- 
sects and insects’ eggs, also cocoons of tineid 
moths, small wasps, ants, and bugs, especially 
scales and plant lice, with some small cater- 
pillars. As the creeper remains in the United 

States throughout the year, it naturally secures hibernating insects and insects’ 

eggs, as well as spiders and spiders’ eggs, that are missed by the summer birds. 

On its bill of fare we find no product of husbandry nor any useful insects. 


HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes aédon). 


Length, 4} inches. The only one of our wrens with wholly whitish under- 
parts that lacks a light line over the eye. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States (except the South Atlantic and 
ule iaies) and southern Canada; winters in the southerr United States and 

exico. 

Habits and economic status: The rich, bubbling song of the familiar little 
house wren is one of the sweetest associations connected with country and 
suburban life. Its tiny body, long bill, sharp eyes, and strong feet peculiarly 
adapt it for creeping into all sorts of nooks and 
crannies where lurk the insects it feeds on. A 
cavity in a fence post, a hole in a tree, ora 
box will be welcomed alike by this busybody 
as a nesting site; but since the advent of the 
quarrelsome English sparrow such domiciles 
are at a premium and the wren’s eggs and 
family are safe only in cavities having -en- 
trances too small to admit the sparrow. Hence 
it behooves the farmer’s boy to provide boxes 
the entrances to which are about an inch in 
diameter, nailing these under gables of barns 
and outhouses or in orchard trees. In this 
way the numbers of this useful bird can be 
increased, greatly to the advantage of the 
farmer. Grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, 
bugs, and spiders are the principal elements of 
its food. Cutworms, weevils, ticks, and plant 
lice are among the injurious forms eaten. The 
nestlings of house wrens consume great quan- 
tities of insects. (See Yearbook t. S. Dept. 
Agric. 1895, pp. 416-418, and Biol. Survey 
Bul. 30, pp. 60-62.) 


676 


BROWN THRASHER (Toxostoma rufum). 


Length, about 11 inches. Brownish red 
above, heavily streaked with black below. 

Range: Breeds from the Gulf States to south- 
ern Canada and west to Colorado, Wyoming, and 
Montana; winters in the southern half of the 
eastern United States. 

Habits and economic status: The brown 
thrasher is more retiring than either the mock- 
ing bird or catbird, but like them is a splendid 
singer. Not infrequently, indeed, its song is 
taken for that of its more famed cousin, the 
mocking bird. It is partial to thickets and gets 
much of its food from the ground. Its search 
for this is usually accompanied by much scratch- 
ing and scattering of leaves; whence its common 
name. Its call note is a sharp sound like the 
smacking of lips, which is useful in identifying 
this long-tailed, thicket-haunting bird, which 
does not much relish closescrutiny. The brown 
thrasher is not so fond of fruitas the catbird and 
mocker, but devours a much larger percentage 
of animal food. Beetles form one-half of the 
animal food, grasshoppers and crickets one-fifth, caterpillars, including cutworms, 
somewhat less than one-fifth, and bugs, spiders, and millipeds comprise most of 
the remainder. The brown thrasher feeds on such coleopterous pests as wire- 
worms, May beetles, rice weevils, rose beetles, and figeaters. By its destruction 
of these and other insects, which constitute more than 60 per cent of its food, 
the thrasher much more than compensates for that portion (about one-tenth) of 
its diet derived from cultivated crops. (See Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agric. 1895, 
pp. 411-415.) 


CATBIRD (Dumetella carolinensis). 


Length, about 9 inches. The slaty gray plumage and black cap and tail are 
distinctive. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States west to New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, 
and Washington, and in southern Canada; winters from the Gulf States to Panama. 

Habits and economic status: In many localities the catbird is one of the com- 
monest birds. Tangled growths are its favorite nesting places and retreats, but 
berry patches and ornamental shrubbery are 
not disdained. Hence the bird is a familiar 
dooryard visitor. The bird has a fine song, 
unfortunately marred by occasional cat calls. 
With habits similar to those of the mocking 
bird and a song almost as varied, the catbird 
has never secured a similar place in popular 
favor. Half of its food consists of fruit, and 
the cultivated crops most often injured are 
cherries, strawberries, raspberries, and black- 
berries. Beetles, ants, crickets, and grasshop- 
pers are the most important element of its 
animal food. The bird is known to attack a 
few pests, as cutworms, leaf beetles, clover-root 
curculio, and the periodical cicada, but the 
good it does in this way probably does not pay 
or the fruit it steals. The extent to which it 
should be protected may perhaps be left to the 
individual cultivator; that is, it should be made 
lawful to destroy catbirds that are doing mani- 
fest d e to crops. (See Yearbook U.S. 
Dept. Agric. 1895, pp. 406-411.) 


MOCKING BIRD (Mimus polyglottos). 


Length, 10inches. Most easily distinguished 
from the similarly colored loggerhead shrike 
(see p. 679) by the absence of a conspicuous . 
black stripe through the eye. Cues 

Range: Resident from southern Mexico north 
to California, Wyoming, Iowa, Ohio, and Mary- 
land; casual farther north. 

Habits and economic status: Because of its 
incomparable medleys and imitative powers, 
the mocking bird is the most renowned singer 
of the Western Hemisphere. Even in confine- 
ment it is a masterly pee and formerly - 
thousands were trapped and sold for cage birds, 
but this reprehensible practice has been largely 
stopped by protective laws. It is not surpris- 
ing, therefore, that the mocking bird should re- 
celve protection se because of its ability 
as a songster and its preference for the vicinity 
of dwellings. Its place in the affections of the 
South is similar to that occupied by the robin 
in the North. It is well that this is true, for 
the bird appears not to earn protection from a 
strictly economic standpoint. About half of its 
diet consists of fruit, and many cultivated va- 
rieties are attacked, such as oranges, grapes, 
figs, strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries. 
Somewhat less than a fourth of the food is animal matter, and grasshoppers are the 
largest single element. The bird is fond of cotton worms, and is known to feed also 
on the chinch bug, rice weevil, and bollworm. It is unfortunate that it does not 
feed on injurious insects to an extent sufficient to offset its depredations on fruit. 
(See hee. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1895, pp. 415-416, and Biol. Survey Bul. 30, 
pp. 52-56. 


MYRTLE WARBLER (Dendroica coronata). 


. 
4 


Length, 54 inches. The similarly colored Audubon’s warbler has a yellow 
throat instead of a white one. 

Range: Breeds throughout most of the forested area of Canada and south to 
Minnesota, Michigan, New York, and Massachu- 
setts; winters in the southern two-thirds of the 
United States and south to Panama. 

Habits and economic status: This member of 
our beautiful wood warbler family, a family pecul- 
lar to America, has the characteristic voice, col- 
oration, and habits ofitskind. Trim ofform and 
graceful of motion, when seeking food it combines 
the methods of the wrens, creepers, and flycatch- 
ers. It breeds only in the northern parts of the 
eastern United States, but in migration it occurs 
in every patch of woodland and is so numerous 
that it 1s familiar to every observer. Its place 
is taken in the West by Audubon’s warbler. 
More than three-fourths of the food of the 
myrtle warbler consists of insects, practicall: 
all of them harmful. It is made up of small 
beetles, including some weevils, with many 
ants and wasps. This bird is so small and nim- 
ble that it successfully attacks insects too minute 
to be prey for larger birds. Scales and plant lice 
form a very considerable part of itsdiet. Flies 
are the largest item of food; in fact, only a few 
flycatchers and swallows eat as many flies as this 
bird. The vegetable food (22 per cent) is made 
up of fruit and the seeds of poison oak orivy, also 
the seeds of pine and of the bayberry. 


as es eS 


— oS ee 


i ee 


we ee a eee eee ee 


678 


SS Pee 


~ *¢ SoG 


LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE (Lanius ludovici- 


anus). 
L , about 9 inches. A gray, black, and 
white bird, distinguished from he somewhat 


similarly colored mocking bird by the black 
stripe on side of head. 

e: Breeds throughout the United States, 
Mexico, and southern Canada; winters in the 
southern half of the United States and in 
Mexico. 

Habits and economic status: The loggerhead 
shrike, or southern butcher bird, is common 
throughout its range and is sometimes called 
“French mocking bird” from a superficial re- 
semblance and not from its notes, which are 
harsh and unmusical. The shrike is naturally 
an insectivorous bird which has extended its 
bill of fare to include small mammals, birds, 
and reptiles. Its hooked beak is well adapted 
to tearing its prey, while to make amends for 
the lack of talons it has hit upon the plan of 
forcing its victim, if too large to swallow, into 
the fork of a bush or tree, where it can tear it asunder. Insects, especially 
grasshoppers, constitute the larger part of its food, though beetles, moths, 
caterpillars, ants, wasps, and a few spiders also are taken. While the butcher 
bird occasionally catches small birds, its principal vertebrate food is small 
mammals, as field mice, shrews, and moles, and when possible it obtains 
lizards. It habitually impales its a i prey on a thorn, sharp twig, or barb 
of a wire fence. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 9, pp. 20-24, and Bul. 30, pp. 33-38.) 


BARN SWALLOW (Hirundo erythrogastra). 


' Length, about 7inches. Distinguished among ourswallowsby deeply forked tail. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States (except the South Atlantic 
and Gulf States) and most of Canada; winters in South America. 

Habitsand economic status: This is one of the most familiar birds of the farm and 
one of the greatest insect destroyers. From day- 
light todarkontirelesswings it seeksits prey,and 
the insects destroyed are countless. Its favorite 
nesting site is a barn rafter, upon which it sticks 
itsmud basket. Most modernbarnsare sotightly 
constructed that swallows can not gainentrance, 
and in New England and some other parts of the 
country bara swallows are much less numerous 
than formerly. Farmers can easily provide for . 
the entrance and exit of the birds and so add 
materially to their numbers. It may be well to 
add that the parasites that sometimes infest the 
nests of ows are not the ones the careful 
housewife dreads, and no fear need be felt of 
the infestation spreading to the houses. Insects 
taken on the wing constitute the almost exclu- 
sive diet of the barn swallow. More than one- 
third of the whole consists of flies, including 
unfortunately some useful parasitic species. 
Beetles stand next in order and consist of a few 
weevils and many of the small dung beetles of 
the May beetle family that swarm over the 
pastures in the late rnoon. Ants amount 
to more than one-fifth of the whole food, while 
wasps and bees are well represented. 


679 


PURPLE MARTIN (Progne subis). 


Length, about 8 inches. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States 
and southern Canada, south to central Mexico; 
winters in South America. 

Habits and economic status: This is the 
largest as it is one of the most beautiful of the 
swallow tribe. It formerly built its nests in 
cavities of trees, as it still does in wild districts, 
but learning that man was a friend it soon 
adopted domestic habits. Its presence about © 
the farm can often be secured by erecting houses 
suitable for nesting sites and protecting them 
from usurpation by the English sparrow, and 
every effort should be made to increase the 
number of colonies of this very useful bird. 
The boxes should be at a reasonable height, 
say 15 feet from the ground, and made inac- 
cessible to cats. A colony of these birds on a 
farm makes great inroads upon the insect popu- 
lation, as the birds not only themselves feed 
upon insects but tear their young upon the 
same diet. Fifty years ago in New England it 
was not uncommon to see colonies of 50 pairs 
of martins, but most of them have now vanished 
for no apparent reason except that the martin houses have decayed and have 
not been renewed. More than three-fourths of this bird’s food consists of wasps, 
bugs, and beetles, their importance being in the order given. The beetles include 
several species of harmful weevils, as the clover-leaf weevils and the nut weevils. 
Besides these are many crane flies, moths, May flies, and dragonflies. 


BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK (Zamelodia melanocephala). 


Length, about 8} inches. 

Range: Breeds from the Pacific coast to Nebraska and the Dakotas, and from 
southern Canada to southern Mexico; winters in Mexico. 

Habits and economic status: The black- 
headed grosbeak takes the place in the West 
of the rosebreast in the East, and like it is 
a fine songster. Like it also the blackhead 
readily resorts to orchards and gardens and is 
common in agricultural districts. The bird has 
a very powerful bill and easily crushes or cuts 
into the firmest fruit. It feeds upon cherries, 
apricots, and other fruits, and also does some 
damage to green peas and beans, but it is s0 
active a foe of certain horticultural pests that we 
can afford to overlook its faults. Several kinds 
of scale insects are freely eaten, and one, the 
black olive scale, constitutes a fifth of the total 
food. In May many cankerworms and codling 
moths are consumed, and almost a sixth of the 
bird’s seasonal food consists of flower beetles, 
which do incalculable damage to cultivated 
flowers and to ripe fruit. For each quart of fruit 
consumed by the black-headed grosbeak it de- 
stroys in actual bulk more than 14 quarts of 
black olive scales and 1 quart of flower beetles, 
besides a generous quantity of codling-moth 
pup and cankerworms. It is obvious that 
such work as this pays many times over for 
the fruit destroyed. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 32, 
pp. 60-77.) 


680 


ois 


Aa 


sini 


ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK (Zamelodia 
ludoviciana). 


Length, 8 inches. 

Range: Breeds from Kansas, Ohio, Georgia 
ee: and New Jersey, north to southern 

anada; winters from Mexico to South America. 

Habits and economic status: This beautiful 
grosbeak is noted for its clear, melodious notes, 
which are poured forth in generous measure. 
The rosebreast sings even at midday durin 
summer, when the intense heat has silence 
almost every other songster. Its beautiful 
plumage and sweet song are not its sole claim 
on our favor, for few birds are more beneficial 
to agriculture. The rosebreast eats some green 
peas and does some damage to fruit. But this 
mischief is much more than balanced by the 
destruction of insect pests. The bird is so fond 
of the Colorado potato beetle that it has earned 
the name of te bird,’”’ and no less 
than a tenth of the total food of the rosebreasts 
examined consists of potato beetles—evidence 
that the bird is one of the most important enemies of the pest. It vigorously 
attacks cucumber beetles and many of the scale insects. It proved an active 
enemy of the Rocky Mountain locust during that insect’s ruinous invasions, and 
among the other pests it consumes are the spring and fall cankerworms, orchard 
and forest tent caterpillars, tussock, gipsy, and brown-tail moths, plum curculio, 
army worm, and chinch bug. In fact, not one of our birds has a better record. 
(See Biol. Survey Bul. 32, pp. 33-59.) 


SONG SPARROW (Melospiza melodia). 


Length, about 64 inches. The heavily spotted breast with heavy central 
blotch is characteristic. 

Range: Breeds in the United States (except the South Atlantic and Gulf 
States), southern Canada, southern Alaska, and Mexico; winters in Alaska and 
most of the United States southward. 

Habits and economic status: Like the familiar little ‘‘chippy,’”’ the song 
sparrow is one of our most domestic species, and builds its nest in hedges or in 
garden shrubbery close to houses, whenever it is reasonably safe from the house 
cat, which, however, takes heavy toll of the 
nestlings. It is a true harbinger of spring, and 
its delightful little song is trilled forth from the 
top of some green shrub in early March and 
April, before most of our other songsters have 
thought of leaving the sunny south. Song 
sparrows vary much in habits, as well as in size 
and coloration. Some forms live along streams 
bordered by deserts, others in swamps among 
bulrushes and tules, others in timbered regions, 
others on rocky barren hillsides, and still others 
in rich, fertile valleys. With such a variety of 
habitat, the food of the species naturally varies 
considerably. About three-fourths of its diet 
consists of the seeds of noxious weeds and one- 
fourth of insects. Of these, beetles, especially 
weevils, constitute the major portion. Ants, 
wasps, bugs (including the black olive scale), 
and caterpillars are also eaten. Grasshoppers 
are taken by the eastern birds, but not by 
the western ones. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 15, 
pp. 82-86.) 


O81 


CHIPPING SPARROW (Spizella passerina). 


Length, abodt 54 inches. Distinguished by 
the chestnut crown, black line through eye, and 
black bill. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States, 
south to Nicaragua, and north to southern 
Canada; winters in the southern United States 
and southward. : 

Habits and economic status: The chipping 
sparrow is very friendly and domestic, and often . 
builds its nest in gardens and orchards or in the 
shrubbery close to dwellings. Its gentle and 
confiding ways endear it to all bird lovers. It 
is one of the most insectivorous of all the spar- 
tows. Its diet consists of about 42 per cent 
of insects and spiders and 58 per cent of vege- 
table matter. The animal food consists largely 
of caterpillars, of which it feeds a great many to 
its young. Besides these, it eats beetles, includ- 
ing many weevils, of which one stomach contained 30. It also eats ants, wasps, 
and bugs. Among the latter are plant lice and black olive scales. The vege- 
table food is practically all weed seed. A nest with 4 young of this species was 
watched at different hourson4 days. In the7 hours of observation 119 feedi 
were noted, or an average of 17 feedings per hour, or 4} feedings per hour to eac 
nestling. This would give for a day of 14 hours at least 238 insects eaten by the 
brood. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 15, pp. 76-78.) 


WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW (Zonotrichia leucophrys). 


Length, 7 inches. The only similar sparrow, the white-throat, has a yellow 
spot in front of eye. 

Range: Breeds in Canada, the mountains of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, 
and Montana, and thence to the Pacific coast; winters in the southern half of 
the United States and in northern Mexico. 

Habits and economic status: This beautiful sparrow is much more numerous 
in the western than in the eastern States, 
where, indeed, it is rather rare. In the East it 
is shy and retiring, but it is much bolder and 
more conspicuous in the far West and there 
often frequents gardens and parks. Like most 
of its family it is a seed eater by preference, and 
insects comprise very little more than7 per cent 
of its diet. Caterpillars are the largest item, 
with some beetles, a few ants and wasps, and 
some bugs, among which are black olive scales. 
The great bulk of the food, however, consists of 
weed seeds, which amount to 74 per cent of the 
whole. In California this bird is accused of 
eating the buds and blossoms of fruit trees, but 
buds or blossoms were found in only 30 out of 516 
stomachs, and probably it is only under excep- 
tional circumstances that it does any damage in 
thisway. Evidently neither the farmer nor the 
fruit grower has much to fear from the white- 
crowned sparrow. The litile fruit it eats is 
mostly wild, and the grain eaten is waste or vol- 
unteer. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 34, pp. 75-77.) 


682 


ENGLISH SPARROW (Passer domesticus). 


Length, about 6} inches. Its incessant chat- 
tering, quarrelsome disposition, and abundance 
and familiarity about human habitations distin- 
guish it from our native sparrows. 

Range: Resident throughout the United 
States and southern Canada. 

Habits and economic status: Almost univer- 
sally condemned since its introduction into the 
United States, the English sparrow has not 
only held its own, but has ever increased in 
numbers and extended its range in spite of all 
= Its habit of driving out or even 
killing more beneficial species and the defiling 
of buildings by its droppings and by its own 
unsightly structures, are serious objections to 
this sparrow. Moreover, in rural districts, it is 
destructive to grain, fruit, peas, beans, and other vegetables. On the other hand, 
the bird feeds to some extent on a large number of insect pests, and this fact 
points to the need of a new investigation of the present economic status of the 
species, he gee as it promises to be of service in holding in check the newly 
introduced alfalia weevil, which threatens the alfalfa industry in Utah and 
neighboring States. In cities most of the food of the English sparrow is waste 
material secured from the streets. 


CROW BLACKBIRD (Quiscalus quiscula). 


Length, 12 inches. Shorter by at least 3 inches than the other grackles with 
trough-shaped tails. Black, with purplish, bluish, and bronze reflections. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States 
west to Texas, Colorado, and Montana, and in 
southern Canada; winters in the southern half 
of the breeding range. 

Habits and economic status: This blackbird 
is a beautiful species, and is well known from 
its habit of congregating in city parks and nest- 
ing there year after year. Like other species 
which habitually assemble in great flocks, it is 
capable of inflicting much damage on any crop 
it attacks, and where it is harmfal a judicious 
reduction of numbers is ry sound policy. 

It shares with the crow and blue jay the evil 
habit of pillaging the nests of small birds of 
eggs and young. Nevertheless it does much 
good by destroying insect pests, spend 
white grubs, weevils, grasshoppers, and cater- 
pillars. Amongthe ee arearmy worms 
and other cutworms. en blackbirds gather 
in large flocks, as in the Mississippi Valley, 
they may greatly damage grain, either when 

sown or when in the milk. In winter 
they subsist mostly on weed seed and waste 
grain. (See Biol. Surv. Bul. 13, pp. 53-70.) 


683 


BREWER’S BLACKBIRD (Euphagus 
cyanocephalus). 


Length, 10 inches. Its glossy purplish head 
distinguishes it from other blackbirds that do 
not show in flight a trough-shaped tail. 

Range: Breeds in the West, east to Texas, 
Kansas, and Minnesota, and north to southern 
Canada; winters over most of the United 
States breeding range, south to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: Very numerous 
in the West and in fall gathers in immense 
flocks, especially about barnyards and corrals. 
During the cherry season in California Brewer’s 
blackbird is much in the orchards. In onecase 
they were seen to eat freely of cherries, but 
when a neighboring fruit raiser began to plow 
his orchard almost every blackbird in the vi- 
cinity was upon the newly opened ground and 
close at the plowman’s heels in its eagerness 

to get the insects exposed by the plow. Cater- 
pillars and pupz form the largest item of animal food (about 12 per cent). Many 
of these are cutworms, and cotton bollworms or corn earworms were found in 10 
stomachs and codling-moth pupe in 11. Beetles constitute over 11 per cent of 
the food. The vegetable food is practically contained in three items—grain, 
fruit, and weed seeds. Grain, mostly oats, amounts to 54 per cent; fruit, largely 
cherries, 4 per cent; and weed seeds, not quite 9 per cent. The grain is prob- 
ably mostiy wild, volunteer, or waste, so that the bird does most damage by 
eating fruit. (See Biol. Surv. Bul. 34, pp. 59-65.) 


BULLOCK’S ORIOLE (Icterus bullocki). 


Length, about 8 inches. Our only oriole with top of head and throat black 
and cheeks orange. 

Range: Breeds from South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas to the Pacific 
Ocean and from southern Canada to northern Mexico; winters in Mexico. 

Habits and economic status: In the West this bird takes the place occupied 
in the Hast by the Baltimore oriole. In food, nesting habits, and song the birds 
are similar. Both are migratory and remain on their summer range only some 
five or six months. They take kindly to orchards, gardens, and the vicinity of 

' farm buildings and often live in villages and city 

- parks. Theirdiet islargely made up of insects 

that infest orchards and gardens. When fruit 
trees are in bloom they are constantly busy 
among the blossoms and save many of them from 
destruction. In the food of Bullock’s oriole 
beetles amount to 35 per cent and nearly all 
are harmful. Many of these are weevils, some 
of which live upon acorns and other nuts. 
Ants and wasps amount to 15 per cent of the 
diet. The black olive scale was found in 45 
of the 162 stomachs examined. Caterpillars, 
with a few moths and pups, are the largest 
item of food and amount to over 41 per cent. 
Among these were codling-moth larve. The 


cent) and in cherry season consists largely of 
that fruit. Eating small fruits is the bird’s 
worst trait, but it will do harm in this way 
only when very numerous. (See Biol. Surv. 
Bul. 34, pp. 68-71.) 


684. 


vegetable food is practicaily all fruit (19 per 


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MEADOWLARKS (Sturnella magna and 
Sturnella neglecta). 


Length, about 103 inches. 

Range: Breed generally in the United States, 
southern Canada, and Mexico to Costa Rica; 
winter from the Ohio and Potomac Valleys and 
British Columbia southward. 

Habitsand economic status: Our two meadow- 
larks, though differing much in song, resemble 
each other closely in plumage and habits. 
Grassy plains and uplands covered with a thick 

wth of grass or weeds, with near-by water, 

nish the conditions best suited to the meadow- 
lark’s taste. The song of the western bird is 
loud, clear, and melodious. That of its eastern 
relative is feebler and loses much by compari- 
son. In many localities the meadowlark is 
classed and shot as a game bird. From the 
farmer’s standpoint this is a mistake, since its 
value as an insect eater is far greater than as an 
a ph of pursuit by the sportsman. Both the 
boll weevil, the foe of the cotton grower, and 
the alfalfa weevil are among the beetles it habitually eats. Twenty-five per 
cent of the diet of this bird is beetles, half of which are predaceous ground 
beetles, accounted useful insects, and one-fifth are destructive weevils. Cater- 
pillars form 11 per cent of the food and are eaten in every month in the year. 
Among these are many cutworms and the well-known army worm. Grasshoppers 
are favorite food and are eaten in every month and almost every day. The vege- 
table food a per cent of the whole) consists of grain and weed seeds. (See 
Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr. 1895, pp. 420-426.) 


RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius pheeniceus). 


Length, about 94 inches. 

Range: Breeds in Mexico and North America south of the Barren Grounds; 
winters in southern half of United States and south to Costa Rica. 

Habits and economic status: The prairies of the upper Mississippi Valley, with 
their numerous sloughs and ponds, furnish ideal nesting places for redwings, andcon- 
sequently this region has become the great breed- 
ing ground for the species. These prairies pour 
forth the vast flocks that play havoc with grain- 
fields. East of the Appalachian Range, marshes 
on the shores of lakes, rivers, and estuaries are 
the only available breeding sites and, as these 
are comparatively few and small, the species is 
much less abundant than in the West. Red- 
wings are eminently gregarious, living in flocks 
and breeding in communities. The food of the 
redwing consists of 27 per cent animal matter 
and 73 per cent vegetable. Insects constitute 

ractically one-fourth of the food. Beetles 
faaaly weevils, a most harmful group) amount 
to 10 percent. Grasshoppers are eaten in every 
month and amount to about 5 percent. Cater- 
pillars Soaps them the injurious army worm) 
are eaten at all seasons and aggregate.6 per cent. 
Ants, wasps, bugs, flies, dragonflies, and spiders 
also are eaten. The vegetable food consists of 
seeds, including grain, of which oats is the fa- 
vorite, and some small fruits. When in large 
flocks this bird is capable of doing great harm to 
grain. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 13, pp. 33-34.) 


685 


BOBOLINK (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). 


Length, about 7 inches. 

Range: Breeds from Ohio northeast to Nova 
Scotia, north to Manitoba, and northwest to Brit- 
ish Columbia; winters in South America. 

Habits and economic status: When Ameri- 
can writers awoke to the beauty and attractive- 
ness of our native birds, among the first to be 
enshrined in song and story was the bobolink. 
Few species show such striking contrasts in the 
color of the sexes, and few have songs more 
unique and whimsical. In its northern home 
the bird is loved for its beauty and its rich mel- 
ody; in the South it earns deserved hatred by 
itsdestructiveness. Bobolinks reach the south- 

‘eastern coast of the United States the last half 

of April just as rice is sprouting and at once 
co to pull up and devour the sprouting ker- 
ne Soon they move on to their northern 
breeding grounds, where they feed upon insects, 
weed seeds, anda littlegrain. When the young 
are well on the wing, they gather in flocks with 
the parent birds and gradually move southward, being then generally known as 
reed birds. They reach the rice fields of the Carolinas about August 20, when 
the rice is in the milk. Then until the birds depart for South America planters 
and birds fight for the crop, and in spite of constant watchfulness and innumer- 
able devices for scaring the birds a loss of 10 per cent of the rice is the usual 
result. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 13, pp. 12-22.) 


COMMON CROW (Corvus brachyrhynchos). 


Length, 19 inches. 
Range: Breeds throughout the United States and most of Canada; winters gen- 
erally in the United States. 
Habits and economic status: The general habits of the crow are universally 
known. Its ability to commit such misdeeds as pulling corn and stealing oes 
and fruit and to get away unscathed is little 
short of marvelous. Much of the crow’s success 
in life is due to cooperation, and the social in- 
stinct of the species has its highest expression 
in the winter roosts, which are sometimes fre- 
quented by hundreds of thousands of crows. 
From these roosts daily flights of many miles are 
made in search of food. Injury to sprouting 
corn is the most frequent complaint against this 


tar most of this damage may be prevented. 
Losses of poultry and eggs may be averted by 
proper housing and the judicious use of wire 
netting. The insect food of the crow includes 
wireworms, cutworms, white grubs, and grass- 
hoppers, and during outbreaks of these insects 
the crow renders good service. The bird isalso 
an efficient scavenger. But chiefly because of 
its destruction of beneficial wild birds and their 
eggs the crow must be classed as a criminal, 
and a reduction in its numbers in localities 
where it is seriously destructive is justifiable. 
(See Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 22-23.) 


686 


species, but by coating the seed grain with coal. 


i“ =" * 


CALIFORNIA JAY (Aphelocoma californica). 


Length, 12 inches. Distinguished from other 
jays within its range by its decidedly whitish 
underparts and brown patch on the back. 

Range: Resident in California, north to south- 
ern Washington, and south to southern Lower 
California. 

Habits and economic status: This jay has the 
same general traits of character as the eastern 
blue Jay. He is the same noisy, rollicking fel- 
low and occupies a corresponding position in 
bird society. Robbing the nests of smaller 
birds is a favorite pastime, and he is a persist- 
ent spy upon domestic fowls and well knows 
the meaning of the cackle of ahen. Not only 
does he steal eggs but he kills young chicks. 
The insect food of this jay constitutes about 
ea @ cahen annual pate nce See baa 
sion 0: oppers and caterpillars es this 
part of the bird’s food in its favor. But the re- 
mainder of its animal diet includes altogether 
too large a proportion of beneficial birds and . 
their eggs, and in this respect it appears to be worse than its eastern relative, 
the blue jay. While its vegetable food is composed largely of mast, at times its 
liking for cultivated fruit and grain makes it a most unwelcome visitor to the 
orchard and farm. In conclusion it may be said that over much of its range this 
iy is too abundant for the best interests of agriculture and horticulture. (See 

lol. Survey Bul. 34, pp. 50-56.) 


BLUE JAY (Cyanocitta cristata). 


Length, 11}inches. The brilliant blue of the wings and tail combined with the 
black crescent of the upper breast and the crested head distinguish this species. 

eee: Resident in the eastern United States and southern Canada, west to 
the Dakotas, Colorado, and Texas. 

Habits and economic status: The blue jay is 
of a dual nature. Cautious and silent in the 
vicinity of its nest, away from it it is bold and 
noisy. Sly in the commission of mischief, it is 
ever ready to scream ‘‘thief” at the slightest 
disturbance. As usual in such cases, its re- 
marks are applicable to none more than itself, 
a fact neighboring nest holders know to their 
sorrow, for during the breeding season the Bl 
lays heavy toll upon the eggs and young of other 
birds, and in doing so deprives us of the serv- 
ices of species more beneficial than itself. Ap- 
proximately three-fourths of the annual food of 
the blue jay is vegetable matter, the greater 
part of which is composed of mast, i. e., acorns, 
chestnuts, beechnuts, and the like. Corn is the 
ag cultivated crop upon which this bird 
eeds, but stomach analysis indicates that most 
of the corn taken is waste grain. Such noxious 
insects as wood-boring beetles, grasshoppers, 
eggs of various caterpillars, and scale insects 
constitute about one-fifth of its food. (See 
Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 18-19.) 


687 


HORNED LARK (Otocoris alpestris). 


Length, about 73 inches. The black mark 
across the breast and the small, pointed tufts of 
dark feathers above and behind the eyes dis- 
tinguish the bird. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States 

- (except the South Atlantic and Gulf States) and 
Canada; winters in all the United States except 
Florida. 

Habits and economic status: Horned larks 
frequent the open country, especially the plains 
and deserts. They associate in large flocks, are 
hardy, apparently delighting in exposed situa- 
tions in winter, and often nest before snow dis- 
appears. The flight is irregular and hesitating, 
but in the breeding season the males ascend 
high in air, singing as they go, and pitch to the 
ground in one thrilling dive. The preference 
of horned larks is for vegetable food, and about 
one-sixth of this is grain, chiefly waste. Some 
sprouting grain is pulled, but drilled grain is safe 
from injury. California horned larks take much 

: more grain than the eastern birds, specializing 
on oats, but this is accounted for by the fact that oats grow wild over much of 
the State. Weed seeds are the largest single element of food. The insect food, 
about 20 per cent of the whole, includes such pests as May beetles and their larvee 
(white grubs), leaf beetles, clover-leaf and clover-root weevils, the potato-stalk 
borer, nut weevils, billbugs, and the chinch bug. Grasshoppers are a favorite 
food, and cutworms are freely eaten. The horned larks, on the whole, may be 
considered useful birds. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 23.) 


ARKANSAS KINGBIRD (Tyrannus verticalis). 


Length, 9 inches. The white edge of the feather on each:side of the tail dis- 
tinguishes this from all other flycatchers except the gray and salmon-colored 
scissortail of Texas. 

Range: Breeds from Minnesota, Kansas, and Texas to the Pacific Ocean and 
from northern Mexico to southern Canada; winters from Mexico to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: The Arkansas 
kingbird is not so domestic as its eastern relative 
and seems to prefer the hill country with scat- 
tered oaks rather than the orchard or the vicinity 
of ranch buildings, but it sometimes places its 
rude and conspicuous nest in trees on village 


87 per cent animal matter and 13 per cent vege- 
table. The animal food is composed almost 
entirely of insects. Like the eastern species, it 
has been accused of destroying honeybees to a 
harmful extent, and remains of honeybees were 
found to constitute 5 per cent of the food of the 
individuals examined, but nearly all those 
eaten were drones. Bees and wasps, in general, 
are the biggest item of food (38 per cent), grass- 
hoppers and crickets stand next (20 per cent), 
and beetles, mostly of noxious species, con- 
stitute 14 per cent of the food. The vegetable 
food consists mostly of fruit, such as the elder 
and other berries, with a few seeds. This bird 
should be strictly preserved. (See Biol. Survey 
Bul. 34, pp. 32-34, and Bul. 44, pp. 19-22.) 


688 


streets. The bird’s yearly food is composed of . 


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KINGBIRD (Tyrannus tyrannus). 


Length, about 8} inches. The white lower 
surface and white-tipped tail distinguish this 
flycatcher. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States 
(except the southwestern part) and southern 
Canada; winters from Mexico to South America. 

Habits and economic status: The kingbird 
is a pronounced enemy of hawks and crows, 
which it vigorously attacks at every opportu- 
nity, thereby affording efficient protection to 
near-by poultry yards and young chickens at 
Ke It loves the open country and is espe- 
cially fond of orchards and trees about farm 
buildings. No less than 85 per cent of its food 
consists of insects, mostly of a harmful nature. 
It eats the common rose chafer or rose bug, and 
more remarkable still it devours blister beetles 
freely. The bird has been accused of eating 
honeybees to an injurious extent, but there is 
little ground for the accusation, as appears from 
the fact that examination of 634 stomachs 
showed only 61 bees in 22 stomachs. Of these 
51 were useless drones. On the other hand, it 
devours robber flies, which catch and destroy honeybees. Grasshoppers and 
crickets, with a few bugs and some cutworms, and a few other insects, make up 
the rest of the animal food. The vegetable food consists of fruit and a few seeds. 
The kingbird deserves full protection. (See Biol. Surv. Bul. 44, pp. 11-19.) 


NIGHTHAWK (Chordeiles virginianus). 


Length, 10 inches. Not to be confused with the whippoorwill. The latter 
lives in woodland and is chiefly nocturnal. The nighthawk often flies by day, 


_ when the white bar across the wing and its nasal cry are distinguishing. 


Range: Breeds throughout most of the United States and Canada; winters in 
South America. 

Habits and economic status: The skillful evolutions of a company of night- 
hawks as the birds gracefully cleave the air in intersecting circles is a sight to be 
remembered. So expertare they on the wing that no insect is safe from them, even 
the swift dragonfly being captured with ease. 
Unfortunately their erratic flight tempts men 
to use them for targets, and this inexcusable 
practice is seriously diminishing their numbers, 
which is deplorable, since no birds are more 
useful. Thisspecies makes no nest, but laysits 
two spotted eggs on the bare ground, sometimes 
on the gravel roof of the city house. The night- 
hawk is a voracious feeder and is almost exclu- 
sively insectivorous. Some stomachs contained 
from 30 to 50 different kinds of insects, and 
more than 600 kinds have been identified from 
the stomachs thus far examined. From 500 to 
1,000 ants are often found inastomach. Several 
species of mosquitoes, including Anopheles, the 
transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other well- 
known pests destroyed by the nighthawk are 
the Colorado potato beetle, cucumber beetles, 
chestnut, rice, clover-leaf and cotton-boll wee- 
vils, billbugs, bark beetles, squash bugs, and 
moths of the cotton worm. 


FLICKER (Colaptes auratus). 


Length, 13inches. The yellow under surface 
of the wing, yellow tail shafts, and white rump 
are characteristic. 

Range: Breeds in the eastern United States 
west to the plains and in the forested parts of 
Canada and Alaska; winters in most of the 
eastern United States. 

Habits and economic status: The flicker in- 
habits the open country rather than the forest 
and delights in park-like regions where trees 
are numerous and scattered. It nests in any 
large cavity in a tree and readily appropriates 
an artificial box. It is possible, therefore, to 
insure the presence of this useful bird about 
the farm and to increase itsnumbers. Itis the 
most terrestrial of our woodpeckers and pro- 
cures much of its food from the ground. The 
largest item of animal food is ants, of which. 
the flicker eats more than any other common 
bird. Ants were found in 524 of the 684 stom- 
achs examined and 98 stomachs contained no 
: other food. One stomach contained over 5,000 
and two others held over 3,000 each. While bugs are not largely eaten by the 
flicker, one stomach contained 17 chinch bugs, ild fruits are next to ants in 
importance in the flicker’s dietary. Of these sour gum and wild black cherry 
stand at the head. The food habits of this bird are such as to recommend it to 
complete protection. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 37, pp. 52-58.) 


YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER (Sphyrapicus varius). 


Length, about 84 inches. Only woodpecker having top of head from base of 
bill red, combined with a black patch on breast. 

Range: Breeds in northern half of the United States and southern half of 
Canada; winters in most of the States and south to Costa Rica. 

Habits and economic status: The yellow-bellied sapsucker is rather silent 
and suspicious and generally manages to have a tree between himself and the 
observer. Hence the bird is much better 
known by its works than its appearance. The 
regular girdles of holes made by this bird are 
common on a great variety of trees; in all about 
250 kinds are known to be attacked. Occa- 
sionally young trees are killed outright, but 
more loss is caused by stains and other blem- 
ishes in the wood which result from sapsucker - 
punctures. These blemishes, which are known 
as bird pecks, are especially numerous in hick- 
ory, oak, cypress, and yellow poplar. Defects 
due to sapsucker work cause an annual loss to 
the lumber industry estimated at $1,250,000. 
The food of the yellow-bellied sapsucker is 
about halfanimal and half vegetable. Itsfond- 
ness for ants counts slightly initsfavor. Iteats 
also wasps, beetles (including, however, very 
few wood-boring species), bugs, and spiders. 
The two principal components of the vegetable 
food are wild fruits of no importance and cam- 
bium (the layer just beneath the bark of trees). 
In securing the cambium the bird does the 
damage above described. The yellow-bellied 
sapsucker, unlike other woodpeckers, thus 
does comparatively little good and much 
harm. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 39.) 


690 


as eee ay ee 


DOWNY WOODPECKER (Dryobates 
pubescens). 


Le ,6inches. Our smallest woodpecker; 
a with black and white. Dark bars on 

e outer tail feathers distinguish it from the 
similarly colored but larger hairy woodpecker. 

: Resident in the United States and 

the forested parts of Canada and Alaska. 

Habits and economic status: This wood- 
pecker is commonly distributed, living in 
woodland tracts, orchards, and gardens. The 
bird has several characteristic notes, and, like 
the hairy woodpecker, is fond of beating on a 
dry resonant tree branch a tattoo which to 
appreciative ears has the quality of woodland 
music. Ina hole excavated in a dead branch 
the downy woodpecker lays four to six eggs. 
This and the hairy woodpecker are among our 
most valuable allies, their food consisting of 
some of the worst foes of orchard and wood- 
land, which the woodpeckers are especiall 
equipped to dig out of dead and living oad. 
In the examination of 723 stomachs of this bird, 
animal food, mostly insects, was found to constitute 76 per cent of the diet and 
vegetable matter 24 per cent. The animal food consists largely of beetles that 
bore into timber or burrow under the bark. pars avery amount to 16 per cent 
of the food and include many especially harmful species. Grasshopper eggs 
are freely eaten. The vegetable food of the downy woodpecker consists of 
small fruit and seeds, mostly of wild species. It distributes seeds of poison 
ivy, or poison oak, which is about the only fault of this very useful bird. (See 
Biol. Survey Bul. 37, pp. 17-22.) 


YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO (Coccyzus americanus). 


Length, about 12 inches. The yellow lower part of the bill distinguishes this 
bird from its near relative, the black-billed cuckoo. 

Range: Breeds generally in the United States and southern Canada; winters 
in South America. 

Habits and economic status: This bird lives 
on the edges of woodland, in groves, orchards, 
parks, and even in shaded village streets. It 
ls sometimes known as rain crow, because its 
very characteristic notes are ae to fore- 
tell rain. The cuckoo has sly, furtive ways as 
it moyes among the bushes or flits from tree to 
tree, and is much more often seen than heard. 
Unlike its European relative, it does not lay its 
eggs in other birds’ nests, but builds a nest of 
itsown. This is, however, a rather crude and 
shabby affair—hardly more than a platform of 

igs sufficient to hold the greenish eggs. The 
cuckoo is extremely useful because of its 
insectivorous habits, especially as it shows a 
marked preference for the hairy caterpillars, 
which few birds eat. One stomach that was 
examined contained 250 American tent cater- 
pillars; another, 217 fall webworms. In places 
where tent caterpillars are abundant they seem 
to constitute a large portion of the food of this 
and the black-billed cuckoo. 


691 


SCREECH OWL (Otus asio). 


Length, about 8 inches. 
Our smallest owl with ear 
ioe ae are two cc 

ses of plumage, one grayi 
cad the other bright rufous. 

Range: Resident through- 
out the United States, south- 
ern Canada, and northern 
Mexico. 


The little screech owl inhabits 
orchards, groves, and thickets, 
and hunts for its prey in such 
places as well as along hedge- 
rows andin theopen. During warm spells in winter it forages quite extensively 
and stores up in some hollow tree considerable quantities of food for use during 
inclement weather. Such larders frequently contain enough mice or other prey 
to bridge over a period ofa week or more. With the exception of the burrowing 


owl it is probably the most insectivorous of the nocturnal birds of prey. It feeds 


also upon small mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish, spiders, crawfish, 
scorpions, and earthworms. Grasshoppers, crickets, ground-dwelling beetles, 
and caterpillars are its favorites among insects, as are field mice among mammals 
and sparrows among birds. Out of 324 stomachs examined, 169 were found to 
contain insects; 142, small mammals; 56, birds; and 15, crawfish. The screech 
owl should be encouraged to stay near barns and outhouses, as it will keep in 
check house mice and wood mice, which frequent such places. (See Biol. 
Survey Bul. 3, pp. 163-173.) 


BARN OWL (Aluco pratincola). 


Length, about 17 inches. Facial disk not circular as in our other owls; 
plumage above, pale yellow; beneath, varying from silky white to pale bright 
tawny. 

Range: Resident in Mexico, in the southern United States, and north to New 
York, Ohio, Nebraska, and California. ! 

Habits and economic status: The barn owl, often called monkey-faced owl, is 
one of the most beneficial of the birds of prey, since it feeds almost exclusively 
on small mammals that injure farm produce, nursery, and orchard stock. It 
hunts principally in the open and consequently secures such mammals as pocket 
gophers, field mice, common rats, house mice, harvest mice, kangaroo rats, and 
cotton rats. It occasionally captures a few birds and insects. At least a half 
bushel of the remains of pocket gophers have been found in the nesting cavity of 
a pair of these birds. Remembering that a gopher has been known in a short 
time to girdle seven apricot trees worth $100 it is hard to overestimate the 
value of the service of a pair 
of barn owls. 1,247 pellets of 
the barn owl collected from the 
Smithsonian towers contained 
3,100 skulls, of which 3,004, or 
97 per cent, were of mammals; 
92, or 3 per cent, of birds; and 
4 were of frogs. The bulk con- 
sisted of 1,987 field mice, 656 
house mice, and 210 common 
rats. The birds eaten were 
mainly sparrows and blackbirds. 
This valuable owl should be 
rigidly protected throughout its 
entire range. (See Biol. Survey 
Bul. 3, pp. 132-139.) 


692 


Habits and economic status: - 


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SPARROW HAWKE (Falco spar- 
verius). 


Length,about 10inches. This 
is one of the best known and 
handsomest, as well as the small- 
est, of North American hawks. 

Range: Breeds throughout the 
United States, Canada, and north- 
ern Mexico; wintersin the United 
States and south to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: 
The sparrow hawk, which is a 
true falcon, lives in the more 
open country and builds its nest 
in hollow trees. It is abundant 
in many parts of the West, where 
telegraph poles afford it convenient perching and feeding places. Its food con- 
sists of insects, small mammals, birds, spiders, and reptiles. Grasshoppers, crick- 
ets, and terrestrial beetles and caterpillars make up considerably more than half 
its subsistence, while field mice, house mice, and shrews cover fully 25 per cent 
of its annual supply. The balance of the food includes birds, pow and 
rong Contrary to the usual habits of the species, some individuals during 

e breeding season capture nestling birds for food for their young and create 
considerable havoc among the songsters of the neighborhood. In agricultural 
districts when new ground is broken by the plow, they sometimes become very 
tame, even alighting for an instant under the horses in their endeavor to seize a 
worm or insect. Out of 410 stomachs examined, 314 were found to contain 
insects; 129, small mammals; and 70, small birds. This little falcon renders 
good service in destroying noxious insects and rodents and should be encour- 
aged and protected. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 3, pp. 115-127.) 


RED-TAILED HAWK (Buteo borealis). 


Length, about 2feet. One of our largest hawks; adults with tail reddish brown. 

Range: Breeds in the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, Canada, and Alaska; 
winters generally in the United States and south to Guatemala. 

Habits and economic status: The red-tailed hawk, or ‘‘hen-hawk,’’ as it is 
commonly called, is one of the best known of all our birds of prey, and isa 
widely distributed species of great economic importance. Its habit of sitting on 
some prominent limb or pole in the open, or flying with measured wing beat over 
prairies and sparsely wooded areas on the lookout for its favorite prey, causes it 
to be noticed by the most indifferent observer. Although not as omnivorousas the 
red-shouldered hawk, it feeds on a variety of food, as small mammals, snakes, 
frogs, insects, birds, crawfish, centipedes, and even carrion. In regions where 
rattlesnakes abound it destroys considerable numbers of the reptiles. Although 
it feeds to a certain extent on poultry and birds, it is nevertheless entitled 
to general protection on ac- 
count of the insistent warfare it 
wages against field mice and 
other small rodents and in- 
sects that are so destruc- 
tive to young orchards, nur- 
sery stock, and farm prod- 
uce. Out of 530 stomachs 
examined, 457, or 85 per cent, 
contained the remains of mam- 
mal pests such as field mice, 
pine mice, rabbits, several 
species of ground squirrels, 
pocket gophers, and cotton 
rats, and only 62 contained 
the remains of poultry or game 
birds. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 
3, pp. 48-62.) 


093 


COOPER’S HAWK (Accipiter 
cooperi). 


Length, about 15 inches. Me- 
dium sized, with long tail and 
short wings, and without the 
white patch on rump which is 
characteristic of the marsh hawk. 

Range: Breeds_ throughout 
most of the United States and 
southern Canada; winters from 
the United States to Costa Rica. . 

Habits and economic status: 
The Cooper’s hawk, or “blue 
darter,’’ as it is familiarly known 
throughout the South, is pre- 
_ eminently a poultry and bird-eating species, and its destructiveness in this 
direction is surpassed only by that of its larger congener, the goshawk, which 
occasionally in autumn and winter enters the United States from the North in 
great numbers. The almost universal prejudice against birds of prey is largely’ 
due to the activities of these two birds, assisted by a third, the sharp-shinned 
hawk, which in habits and appearance might well pass for a small Cooper’s 
hawk. These birds usually approach under cover and drop upon unsuspecting 
victims, making great inroads upon poultry yards and game coverts favorably 
situated for this style of hunting. Out of 123 stomachs examined, 38 contained 
the remains of poultry and game birds, 66 the remains of other birds, and 12 
the remains of mammals. Twenty-eight species of wild birds were identified 
in the above-mentioned material. This destructive hawk, together with its 
two near relatives, should be destroyed by every possible means. (See Biol. 
Survey Bul. 3, pp. 38-43.) 


MOURNING DOVE (Zenaidura macroura). 


Length, 12 inches. The dark spot on the side of the neck distinguishes this 
bird from ali other native doves and pigeons except the white-winged dove. 
The latter has the upper third of wing white. 

Range: Breeds throughout the United States and in Mexico, Guatemala, and 
southern Canada; winters from the central United States to Panama. 

Habits and economic status: The food of the mourning dove is practically all 
vegetable matter (over 99 per cent), principally seeds of plants, including grain. 
Wheat, oats, rye, corn, barley, and buckwheat were found in 150 out of 237 
stomachs, and constituted 32 per cent of the food. Three-fourths of this was 
waste grain picked up after harvest. The principal and almost constant diet is 
weed seeds, which are eaten throughout the year and constitute 64 per cent of 
the entirefood. In one stomach 
were found 7,500 seeds of yellow 
wood sorrel, in another 6,400 
seeds of barn grass or foxtail, and 
in a third 2,600 seeds of slender 
paspalum, 4,820 of orange hawk- 
weed, 950 of hoary vervain, 120 of 
Carolina cranesbill, 50 of yellow 
wood sorrel, 620 of panic grass, 
and 40 of various other weeds. 
None of these are useful, and most 
of them are troublesome weeds, 
The dove does not eat insects 
or other animal food. It should 
be protected in every possible 
a} (See Farmers’ Bul. 54, pp. 


RUFFED GROUSE (Bonasa 
umbellus). 


Le ,17 inches. The broad 

black band near tip of tail dis- 

inguishes this from other grouse. 

nge: Resident in the north- 

ern two-thirds of the United 

States and in the forested parts 
of Canada. 

Habits and economic status: 
The ruffed grouse, the famed 
drummer and finest game bird of 
the northern woods, is usually 
wild and wary and under reason- 
able protection well withstands 
the attacks of hunters. Moreover, when reduced in numbers, it responds to 
protection in a gratifying manner and has proved to be well adapted to propa- 

tion under artificial conditions. Wild fruits, mast, and browse make up the 

ulk of the vegetable food of this species. It is ‘ipl fond of hazelnuts, beech- 
nuts, chestnuts, and acorns, and it eats practically all kinds of wild berries and 
other fruits. Nearly 60 kinds of fruits have been identified from the stomach 
contents examined. Various weed seeds also are consumed. Slightly more 
than 10 per cent of the food consists of insects, about half being beetles. The 
most important pests devoured are the potato beetle, clover-root weevil, the 
pale-striped flea beetle, grapevine leaf-beetle, May beetles, grasshoppers, cotton 
worms, army worms, cutworms, the red-humped apple worm, and sawfly larve. © 
While the economic record of the ruffed grouse is fairly commendable, it does 
not call for more stringent protection than is necessary to maintain the species 
in reasonable numbers. (See Biol. Survey Bul. 24, pp. 25-38.) 


BOBWHITE (Colinus virginianus). 
Length, 10 inches. Known everywhere by the clear whistle that suggests its 


name, 

Range: Resident in the United States east of the plains; introduced in many 
places in the West. 

Habits and economic status: The bobwhite is gee A every dweller in the 
country and is better known to more hunters in the United States than any 
other game bird. It is no less 8PI reciated on the table than in the field, and 
in many States has unquestionably been hunted too closely. Fortunately it 
seems to be practicable to pro te the bird in captivity, and much is to be 
hoped for in this direction. Half the food of this quail consists of weed seeds, 
almost a fourth of grain, and about a tenth of wild fruits. Although thus eating 

in, the bird gets most of it from stubble. Fifteen per cent of the bobwhite’s 
ood is composed of insects, including several of the most serious pests of agri- 
culture. it feeds freely upon 
Colorado potato beetles and 
chinch bugs; it devours also 
cucumber beetles, wireworms, 
billbugs, clover-leaf weevils, 
cotton-boll weevils, army 
worms, bollworms, cutworms, 
and Rocky Mountain locusts. 
Take it all in all, bobwhite is 
very useful to the farmer, and 
while it may not be necessary 
to remove it from the list of 
game birdseveryfarmershould 
yn Heian farm is not 
eple y eager sportsmen. 
(See Biol. Survey Bul. 21, 
pp. 9-46.) 


695 


KILLDEER (Oxyechus 
vociferus),. 


. Length, 10 inches. Distin- 
guished by its piercing and oft- 
nepenes cry—khildee. 

ange: Breeds throughout 
the United States and most 
of Canada; winters from cen- 
tral United States to South 
America. 


The killdeer is one of the best 
known of the shorebird family. 
It often visits the farmyard 
and commonly nests in pas- 
’ tures or cornfields. It is rather suspicious, however, and on being approached 
takes flight with loud cries. It is noisy and restless, but fortunately most of its 
activities result in benefit toman. The food is of the same general nature as that 
of the upland plover, butis more varied. The killdeer feeds upon beetles, grass- 
hoppers, caterpillars, ants, bugs, caddis flies, dragonflies, centipedes, spiders, 
ticks, oyster worms, earthworms, snails, crabs, and other crustacea. Among the 
beetles consumed are such pests as the alfalfa weevil, cotton-boll weevil, clover- 
root weevil, clover-leaf weevil, pine weevil, billbugs, white grubs, wireworms, 
and leaf beetles. The bird aiso devours cotton worms, cotton cutworms, horse- 
_ flies, mosquitoes, cattle ticks, and crawfish. One stomach contained hundreds 
of larvee of the saltmarsh mosquito, one of the most troublesome species. The 
killdeer preys extensively upon insects that are annoying to man and injurious 
to his stock and crops, and this should be enough to remove it from the list of 
game birds and insure its protection. (See Farmers’ Bul. 497, pp. 16-18.) 


UPLAND PLOVER (Bartramia longicauda). 


Length, 12 inches. The only plainly colored shorebird which occurs east of 
the plains and inhabits exclusively dry fields and hillsides. 

Range: Breeds from Oregon, Utah, Oklahoma, Indiana, and Virginia, north 
to Alaska; winters in South America. 

Habits and economic status: This, the most terrestrial of our waders, is shy 
and wary, but it has the one weakness of not fearing men on horseback or in a 
vehicle. One of these methods of approach, therefore, is nearly always used by 
the sportsman, and, since the bird is highly prized as a table delicacy, it has 
been hunted to the verge of extermination. As the upland plover isstrictly ben- 
eficial, it should no longer be classed as a game bird and allowed to be shot. 
Ninety-seven per cent of the food of this species consists of animal forms, chiefly of 
injuriousand neutral species. The vegetable food is mainly weed seeds. Almost 
half of the total subsistence is 
made up of grasshoppers, crick- 
ets, and weevils. Among the 
weevils eaten are the cotton- 
boll weevil, greater and lesser 
clover-leaf weevils, cowpea 
weevils, and billbugs. This 
bird devours also leaf beetles, 
wireworms, white grubs, army 
worms, cotton worms, cotton 
cutworms, sawfly larvee, horse- 
flies, and cattle ticks. In 
brief, it injures no crop, but 
consumes 2a host of the 
worst enemies of agriculture. 
(See Farmers’ Bul. 497, pp. 
14-16.) 


Habits and economic statue: 


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BLACK TERN (Hydrocheli- 
don nigra surinamensis). 


Length, 10 inches. In au- 
tumn occurs as a migrant on 
the east coast of the United 
States, and then is in white 
and gray plumage. During 
the breeding season it is con- 
fined to the interior, is ee 
black, and is the only dar 
tern occurring inland. 

Range: Breeds from Cali- 
fornia, Colorado, Missouri, and 
Ohio, north to central Canada; 
winters from Mexico to South 
America; migrant in the east- 
ern United States. 

Habits and economic status: This tern, unlike most of its relatives, passes much 
of its life on fresh-water lakes and marshes of the interior. Its nests are placed 
among the tules and weeds, on floating vegetation, or on muskrat houses. It lays 
from 2 to4 eggs. Its food is more varied than that of any other tern. So far as 
known apeye upon no food fishes, but feeds extensively upon such enemies of fish 
as dragonfly nymphs, fish-eating beetles, and crawfishes. Unlike most of its fam- 
ily, it devoursa great variety of insects, many of which it catchesasit flies. Dragon- 
flies, May flies, grasshoppers, predaceous diving beetles, scarabzeid beetles, leaf bee- 
tles, gnats, and other flies are the principal kindspreyedupon. Fishes of little eco- 
nomic value, chiefly minnows and mummichogs, were found to compose only a lit- 
tle more than 19 per cent of the contents of 145stomachs. Thegreat consumption of 
insects by the black tern places it among the beneficial species worthy of protection. 


FRANKLIN’S GULL (Larus franklini). 


Length, 15 inches. During its residence in the United States Franklin’s gull 
is practically confined to the interior and is the only inland gull with black 
head and red bill. 

Range: Breeds in the Dakotas, Iowa, Minnesota, and the neighboring parts of 
southern Canada; winters from the Gulf Coast to South America. 

Habits and economic status: Nearly all of our gulls are coast-loving species 
and spend comparatively little of their time in fresh water, but Franklin’s isa 
true inland gull. Extensive marshes bordering shallow lakes are its chosen 
breeding grounds, and as many such areas are being reclaimed for agricultural 
= it behooves the tillers of the soil to protect this valuable species. When 
undisturbed this gull becomes quite fearless and follows the plowman to gather 
the grubs and worms from the newly turned furrows. It lives almost exclusively 
upon insects, of which it consumes great quantities. Its hearty appetite is 
manifest from the contents of a few stomachs: A, 327 nymphs of dragonflies; 
B, 340 grasshoppers, 52 bugs, 
3 beetles, 2 wasps, and 1 
spider; C, 82 beetles, 87 bugs, 
984 ants, 1 cricket, 1 
hopper, and 2 spiders. About 
four-fifths of the total food is 

hoppers, a strong point 
in favor of this bird. Other 
injurious creatures eaten are 
billbugs, squash bugs, leaf- 
hoppers, click beetles (adults 
of wireworms), May tles 
(adults of white grubs), and 
weevils. Franklin’s gull is 
robably the most beneficial 
ird of its group. (See Farm- 
ers’ Bul. 497, pp. 19-22.) 


697 


OUR POLICEMEN OF THE AIR 


O ONE can read the preceding 
News without an immediate desire 

to become personally acquainted 
with each of the handsome creatures 
pictured. How indefatigably the wrens, 
swallows, nighthawks, owls, red-tailed 
hawks, etc., are working to lighten our 
labors on the farm and orchard. 

Birds are our best friends. They are 
our most efficient allies in the incessant 
warfare that must be waged by man 
against insect pests. Notwithstanding 
our efforts, insects are not diminishing 
in number, but in many localities are in- 
creasing. What would happen were 
birds exterminated no one can foretell 
with absolute certainty, but it is almost 
certain, says Dr. Henshaw, that within a 
limited time not only would it be impos- 
sible to grow fruits and grain, but the 
greater part of our vegetation would be 
destroyed.* The more carefully birds’ 
habits are studied and their food inves- 
tigated, the more apparent it is that man 
cannot do without them. 

Pages 669-697 are an admirable illus- 
tration of the educational work con- 
ducted by our U. S. Biological Survey. 
The temptation to shoot a hawk or owl, 
perching or flying, which now is aimost 
irresistible to many, will soon disappear 
when the man with the gun realizes that 
he is seeking to put a friend to death. 

But the Biological Survey does not 
confine its studies to birds alone; it also 
helps to protect us against four-footed 
pests. Its experts have shown how 
wolves, which in recent years have be- 
come very numerous and destructive on 
cattle and sheep ranges, may be de- 
stroyed by poison, and it has recom- 
mended measures which, if energetically 
and persistently pursued, will probably 
result in the practical extermination of 
these savage animals. In some sections 
of the United States the damage by 
meadow and house mice, by prairie dogs, 
rats, gophers, ground squirrels, and other 
small gnawing animals amounts to mil- 
lions of dollars a year. One of the small 


* See “Policemen of the Air,” by Henry W. 
Henshaw, in the Nationat GrocrapHic Mac- 
AZINE, February, 1908. 


ground squirrels of Washington State 
injures the wheat crop in a single county 
of that State to the extent of half a mil- 
lion dollars annually. The Survey men 
are successfully devising a method to de- 
stroy these pests, and thus relieve this 
serious drain on the farm. _ 

An important duty of the Biological 
Survey is to prevent the entrance into 
the United States of undesirable bird or 
animal immigrants. “The English spar- 
row serves as an ever-ready example of 
the disastrous consequences of the un- 
wise introduction of a species into a new 
home. Under the present law and sys- 
tem of inspection, this pest could never 
have obtained a foothold in America, 
since so well known were the bird’s 
habits in its native land that its disas- 
trous career on this continent would 
have been foreseen and its entry pro- 
hibited. ; 

“Under the mistaken idea that the 
mongoose would prove beneficial by de- 
voting itself to the destruction of small 
rodents, and ignorant of the fact that the 
animal is omnivorous and one of the 
most destructive creatures in existence, 
more than one attempt has been made to 
import it into the United States, where 
its successful: introduction would prove 
nothing less than a national calamity.” 

On pages 669-697 references are made 
to other publications of the Biological 
Survey. Several of them are out of 
print, but the majority may be obtained 
by persons desiring further information 
by applying to the Superintendent of 
Documents, Washington, D. C., and in- 
closing the price of the bulletins desired. 


Farmers’ Bulletin 54 and 497, each...... $0.05 
Biological Survey Bulletins 9, 13, 23, 

CACHES oo. hth occ pio ereeee ocean eee -05 
Biological Survey Bulletin 15.......... .10 
Biological Survey Bulletin 21.......... * 55 
Biological Survey Bulletins 30 and 44, 

(OQ... dco re See ac ee .20 
Biological Survey Bulletin 32.......... .25 
Biological Survey Bulletin 34.......... .40 
Biological Survey Bulletin 39.......... 367 
Biological Survey Bulletin 37...... a Baers |= 
Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, | 

BOOS icles wo Gas - 5 « segs ala con eee Rie ea -55 


Biological Survey Bulletins 3 and 24 are out 
of print and cannot be supplied. 


698 


7 
: 


BIRDS MAY BRING YOU MORE HAPPINESS 
THAN THE WEALTH OF THE INDIES 


By Frank M. CuapmMan 


The following article is reprinted from “Bird Life,” a most useful guide to 
the study of our common birds, by Frank M. Chapman, illustrated by 75 full- 


page colored plates after drawings by Ernest Seton Thompson. 


Mr. Chapman is 


Curator of Ornithology in the American Museum of Natural History; author of 
“Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America,” “The Warblers of North Amer- 


ica,’ “Bird Studies with the Camera,” 
and editor of “Bird Lore.” 


IRDS possess unusual claims to 
B our attention. They are prac- 

tically the only ones of the higher 
animals with which we may come in con- 
tact daily. Our large mammals have 
either been exterminated or driven from 
the vicinity of our homes, while most of 
the smaller species are nocturnal and 
therefore rarely seen. Reptiles and ba- 
trachians are difficult to observe and are 
not popular, while fishes, from the nature 
of their haunts, can be studied only under 
certain conditions. Birds, however, are 
everywhere—in field and wood and sky, 
in our orchards and gardens—and some 
of them are with us at all seasons. 

But birds’ merits do not consist merely 
in their abundance. In beauty of plu- 
mage, grace of motion, and vocal ability 
they are without rivals; in their migra- 
tion, mating, and nesting habits they not 
only display unusual intelligence, but ex- 
hibit human traits of character that 
create within us a feeling of kinship with 
them, and thus increase our interest in 
and love for them. Furthermore, as with 
increasing knowledge we begin to realize 
their economic value, we are more than 
ever impressed with the importance of 
becoming acquainted with them. 

How unusual it is to meet any one who 
can correctly name a dozen of our birds! 


One may live in the country and still 


know only two or three of the one hun- 
dred and fifty or more kinds of birds 
that may be found during the year. Nev- 
ertheless, these gay, restless creatures, 
both by voice and action, constantly in- 
vite our attention, and they are far too 
interesting and beautiful to be ignored. 
No one to whom Nature appeals should 
be without some knowledge of these, the 


' most attractive of her animate forms. 


An inherent love of birds is an un- 
deniable psychological fact, which finds 


“Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist,” 


its most frequent expression in the gen- 
eral fondness for cage-birds. If we can 
learn to regard the birds of the woods 
and fields with all the affection we lavish 
on our poor captives in their gilded 
homes, what an inexhaustible store of 
enjoyment is ours! 

It is not alone the beauty, power of 
song, or intelligence of birds which at- 
tracts us; it is their human attributes. 
Man exhibits hardly a trait which he will 
not find reflected in the life of a bird. 
Love, hate; courage, fear; anger, pleas- 
ure; vanity, modesty; virtue, vice; con- 
stancy, fickleness ; generosity, selfishness ; 
wit, curiosity, memory, reason—we may 
find them all exhibited in the lives of 
birds. 

Birds have thus become symbolic of 
certain human characteristics, and the 
more common species are so interwoven 
in our art and literature that by name at 
least they are known to all of us. Shake- 
speare makes over six hundred refer- 
ences to birds or bird-life. If we should 
-ob Wordsworth’s verses of their birds, 
how sadly mutilated what remained 
would be! 


THE NEVER FAILING CHARM OF THE BIRD 


But why leave a knowledge of birds to 
poets and naturalists? Go yourself to 
the field and learn that birds do not exist 
solely in books, but are concrete, sentient 
beings, whose acquaintance may bring 
you more unalloyed happiness than the 
wealth of the Indies. 

John Burroughs understands this when 
he writes of the study of birds: “There 
is a fascination about it quite overpower- 
ing. It fits so well with other things— 
with fishing, hunting, farming, walking, 
camping out—with all that takes one to 
the fields and woods. One may go a 
blackberrying and make some rare dis- 


699 


ee il 
at 


a 


i 
% 
+ 
: 
| 


as 


Photo by John Woodcock 
A RUFFED CROUSE ABOUT TO DRUM (SEE PAGE 695) 


Of all the characteristics of this superb game bird, its habit of drumming is perhaps 
the most remarkable. 


This loud tattoo begins with the measured thump of the big drum, 
then gradually changes and dies away in the rumble of the kettle-drum. 


It may be briefly 
represented thus: Thump—thump—thump—thump, thump; thump, thump-rup rup rup rup 
ry-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r.. The sound is produced by the male bird beating the air with his wings as 
he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch; and it is now quite well known to be 
the call of the male to the female—an announcement that he is at the old rendezvous. 


covery; or while driving his cow 
to pasture, hear a new song or 
make a new observation. Secrets 
lurk on all sides. There is news 
in every bush. What no man 
ever saw before may the next 
moment be revealed to you. 
What a new interest the woods 
have! How you long to explore 
every nook and corner of them!” 

The scientific results to be de- 
rived from the study of birds 
are fully realized by the natural- 
ist. But there are other results 
equally important. I would have 
every one know of them: results 
that add to our pleasure in field 
and wood, and give fresh interest 
to walks that before were event- 
less; that quicken both ear and 
eye, making us hear and see 
where before we were deaf and 
blind. Then, to our surprise, we 
shall discover that the forests 
and pastures we have known all 
our lives are tenanted by count- 
less feathered inhabitants, whose 
companionship will prove a 
source of endless enjoyment. 

I would enter a special plea 
for the study of birds in the 
schools ; for the more general in- 
troduction of ornithology in nat- 
ural-history courses. Frogs and 
crayfish serve an excellent pur- 
pose, but we may not encounter for 
either of them after leaving the 
laboratory; whereas birds not 
only offer excellent opportunities 
for study, but are always about 
us, and even a slight familiarity 


This 


with them will be of value long after 
school days are over. 
THE BIRD'S PLACE IN NATURE* 


About thirteen thousand species of 
birds are known to science. The struc- 
ture of many of these has been carefully 
studied, and all have been classified, at 
least provisionally. Taken as a whole, 
the class Aves, in which all birds are 


*On the structure of birds read Coues’s 
Key to North American Birds, part I] (Estes 


& Lauriat); Headley, The Structure and Life 
of Birds: Newton’s Dictionary of Birds. 
Articles: Anatomy of Birds and Fossil Birds; 


Martin and Moale’s Handbook of Vertebrate 
Dissection, part Il; How to Dissect a Bird. 


shores of 
haunts of the 


The 
chosen 
on some 
food or foe. 
please, just as you reach his danger line he drops from 


may 
limits of 
a wide detour and returns to the starting 


2hoto by Dwight Franklin 
LEAVING 


A KINGFISHER 


ITS NEST 


streams or ponds are the 
Silently he perches 
ever on the alert 
as quietly as you 


wooded 
kingfisher. 
limb overhanging the water, 
Paddle toward him 


his perch and with loud, rattling call flies on ahead 
be repeated several times, until finally the 
his wanderings are reached, when he makes 


point. 


placed, is more clearly defined than any 
other group of the higher animals—that 
is, the most unlike birds are more closely 
allied than are the extremes among mam- 
mals, fishes, or reptiles, and all living 
birds possess the distinctive characters of 
their class. 

When compared with other animals, 
birds are found to occupy second place 
in the scale of life. They stand between 


mammals and reptiles, and are more 
closely related to the latter than to the 
former: in fact, certain extinct birds s 


clearly connect living birds with reptiles 

that these two classes are sometimes 

placed in one group—the Sauropsida. 
The characters that distinguish birds 


Photo by J. M. Schreck 


A BLACK TERN ON ITS NEST (SEE PAGE 697) 


Its nest, of reeds and grasses rather closely woven, is found in grassy marshes or in 
vegetation floating in a slough. It is an abundant species in the interior of the United States 
and subsists chiefly on dragon flies and various aquatic insects. 


from mammals on the one hand and 
from reptiles on the other are more ap- 
parent than real. Thus flight, the most 
striking of a bird’s gifts, is shared by 
bats among mammals. Egg-laying is the 
habit of most reptiles and of three mam- 
mals (the Australian duckbill and the 
echidnas). But incubation by one or 
both of the parents is peculiar to birds, 
though the python is said to coil on its 
eggs. 

Birds breathe more rapidly than either 
mammals or reptiles, and their pneuma- 
ticity, or power of inflating numerous 
air-sacs and even certain bones, is unique. 

The temperature of birds ranges from 
100° to 112°, while in mammals it reaches 
98° to 100°, and in the comparatively 
cold-blooded reptiles it averages only 40°. 

The skull in mammals articulates with 
the last vertebra (atlas) by two condyles 
or balls; in birds and reptiles by only 
one. In mammals and birds the heart 
has four chambers; in reptiles it has but 
three. 


BIRDS ARE DESCENDED FROM REPTILES 


Maminals and reptiles both have teeth, 
a character possessed by no existing 
birds; but fossil birds apparently prove 


that early in the development of the class 
all birds had teeth. 

Thus we might continue the compari- 
son, finding that birds have no universal 
peculiarities of structure which are not 
present in some degree in either mam- 
mals or reptiles, until we come to their 
external covering. The reptile is scaled, 
and so is the fish; the mammal is haired, 
and so are some insects; but birds alone 
possess feathers. They are worn by every 
bird—a fit clothing for a body, which is 
a marvelous combination of beauty, light- 
ness, and strength. 7 

There is good evidence for the belief 
that birds have descended from reptilian 
ancestors. This evidence consists of the 
remains of fossil birds, some of which 
show marked reptilian characters and, as 
just said, are toothed. It is unnecessary 
to discuss here the relationship of the 
bird-like reptiles, but, as the most con- 
vincing argument in support of the theory 
of the reptilian descent of birds, I men- 
tion a restoration of the Archzopteryx, 
the earliest known progenitor of the class 
Aves. This restoration is based on an 
examination of previous restorations in 
connection with a study of the excellent 
plates which have been published of the 


702 


Photo by E. Van Altena 


WOOD THRUSH AND NEST 


His calm, restful song rings through the woods like a hymn of praise rising pure and 
clear from a thankful heart. It is a message of hope and good cheer in the morning, a 
benediction at the close of day. 


Photo by Charles H. Tolman 


SONG SPARROW (SEE PAGE 681) 


The song sparrow’s vast range in a dozen varying climates, its readiness to adapt itself 
to the different conditions in each of the regions it inhabits, its numerical abundance and 
steady increase while some of its family are dying out, its freedom from disease and vermin, 
and its perennial good spirits evidenced by its never-failing music—all proclaim that it is, 


indeed, one of Nature’s successes. 


Its irrepressible vivacity and good spirits in spite of all 


circumstances are aptly illustrated by the fact that its song may be heard in every month 
of the year and in all weathers; also by-night as well as by day, for nothing is more common 
in the darkest nights than to hear its sweet chant in half-conscious answer to the hooting of 
the owl or even the report of a gun —ERn«is?t THOMPSON. 


fossils themselves.* ‘T'wo specimens have 
been discovered, one being now in the 
British Museum, the other in the Berlin 
Museum. They were both found in the 
lithographic slates of Solenhofen, in Ba- 
varia, a formation of the Jurassic period, 
and, together, furnish the more impor- 
tant details of the structure of this reptile- 
like bird. 

This restoration, therefore, while doubt- 
less inaccurate in minor points, is still 
near enough to the truth to give a correct 


idea of this extraordinary bird’s appear- 
ance. 


*For papers on the Archeopteryx, see Nat- 
ural Science (Macmillan Co.), vols. v-viii. 


A PREHISTORIC REPTILE BIRD 


The Archeopteryx was about the size 
of a crow. Its long, feathered tail is 
supposed to have acted as an aeroplane, 
assisting in the support of the bird while 
it was in the air, but its power of flight 
was doubtless limited. It was arboreal 
and probably never descended to the 
earth, but climbed about the branches of 
trees, using its large, hooked fingers in 
passing from limb to limb. 

The wanderings of this almost quadru- 
pedal creature must necessarily have been 
limited, but its winged descendants of to- 
day are more generally distributed than 


704 


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LSHN SLI NO MOOOGOOM V DNIMOULS 


aa & 
Photo by A. L. Princehorn 


ROBIN AND NEST (SEE PAGE 673) 


Toward the last of June the young of the first brood, with the old mates, resort in 
numbers nightly to a roosting place. These roosts are generally in deciduous second growths, 
usually in low, but sometimes on high ground. The females are now occupied with the cares 
of a second family, and the males are said to return each day to assist them in their duties. 
Early in September, when the nesting season is over, robins gather in large flocks, and from 
this time until their departure for the South roam about the country in search of food, taking 
in turn wild cherries, dogwood and cedar berries. The songs and call-notes of the robin, 
while well known to every one, are in reality understood by no one, and offer excellent sub- 
jects for the student of bird language. Its notes express interrogation, suspicion, alarm, 
caution, and its signals to its companions to take wing; indeed, few of our birds have a more 


extended vocabulary. 


are any other animals.* They roam the 
earth from pole to pole; they are equally 
at home on a wave-washed coral reef or 
in an arid desert, amid arctic snows or 
in the shades of a tropical forest. This 
is due not alone to their powers of flight, 
but to their adaptability to varying con- 
ditions of life. Although, as I have said, 


*On the distribution of animals read Allen, 
The Geographical Distribution of North Amer- 
ican Mammals, Bulletin of the American Mu- 
seum of Natural History (New York city), iv, 
1892, pp. 199-244; four maps. Allen, The Geo- 
graphical Origin and Distribution of North 
American Birds, Considered in Relation to 
Faunal Areas ofNorth America, The Auk 
(New York: city); x, 1803, pp. 97-150; two 
maps. Merriam, The Geographic Distribution 
of Life in North America, with Special Ref- 
erence to Mammalia, Proceedings of the Bio- 
logical Society of Washington, vii, 1892, pp. 
1-64; one map. Merriam, Laws of Tempera- 
ture Control of the Geographic Distribution of 
Terrestrial Animals and Plants, NATIONAL 
GrocrapHic Macazine (Washington), vi, 1804, 
Pp. 229-238; three maps. 


birds are more closely related among 
themselves than are the members of 
either of the other higher groups of ani- 
mals, and all birds agree in possessing 
the more important distinguishing char- 
acters of their class, yet they show a 


.wide range of variation in structure. 


This, in most instances, is closely re- 
lated to habits, which in birds are doubt- 
less more varied than in any of the other 
higher animals. Some birds, like pen- 
guins, are so aquatic that they are prac- 
tically helpless on land. ‘Their wings are 
too small to support them in the air, but 
they fly under water with great rapidity, 
and might be termed feathered porpoises. 
Others, like the ostrich, are terrestrial, 
and can neither fly nor swim. Others 
still, like the frigate-birds, are aérial. 
Their small feet are of use only in perch- 
ing, and their home is in the air. 

If, now, we should compare specimens 
of penguins, ostriches, and frigate-birds 


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Photo by A. L. Princehorn 


A PAIR OF FLICKERS, OR YELLOW-HAMMERS, IN THEIR HOME (SEE PAGE 690 ) 


The habits, notes, and colors of this well-known bird are reflected in the popular names 


which have been applied to it throughout its wide range. 
have been recorded. The flicker is a bird of character. 
original to follow in the footsteps of others of his tribe. 


No less than 36 of these aliases 
Although a woodpecker, he is too 
They do not frequent the ground, 


but that is no reason why he should not humor his own terrestrial propensities, and we may 
therefore frequently flush him from the earth, when, with a low chuckle, he goes bounding 
off through the air, his white rump showing conspicuously as he flies. 


with each other, and with such widely 
different forms as humming-birds, wood- 
peckers, parrots, and others, we would 
realize still more clearly the remarkable 
amount of variation shown by birds. This 
great difference in form is accompanied 
by a corresponding variation in’ habit. 
making possible, as before remarked, the 
wide distribution of birds, which, to- 
gether with their size and abundance, 
renders them of incalculable importance 
to man. ‘Their economic value, however, 
may be more properly spoken of under— 


THE RELATION OF BIRDS TO MAN 


The relation of birds to man is three- 
fold—the scientific, the economic, and 
the xsthetic. No animals form more 
profitable subjects for the scientist than 
birds. The embryologist, the morpholo- 
gist and the systematist, the philosophi 
naturalist, and the psychologist all miay 
find in them exhaustless material tor 
study. It is not my purpose, however, 
to speak here of the science of ornithol- 
ogy. Let us learn something of the bird 
-in its haunts before taking it to the labo- 


ratory. The living bird cannot fail to 
attract us; the dead bird—voiceless, mo- 
tionless—we will leave for future dis- 
section. 

The economic value of birds to man 
lies in the service they render in prevent- 
ing the undue increase of insects, in de- 
vouring small rodents, in destroying the 
seeds of harmful plants, and in acting as 
scavengers. 

Leading entomologists estimate that in- 
sects cause an annual loss of at least two 
hundred million dollars to the agricul- 
tural interests of the United States. The 
statement seems incredible, but is based 
upon reliable statistics. This, of course, 
does not include the damage done to 
ornamental shrubbery, shade and forest 
trees. But, if insects are the natural 
enemies of vegetation, birds are the nat- 
ural enemies of insects. Consider for a 
moment what the birds are doing for us 
any summer day, when insects are so 
abundant that the hum of their united 
voices becomes an almost inherent part 
of the atmosphere. 

In the air swallows are 


and swifts 


797 


Photo by Mrs. F. W. Roe 


BLUE JAYS (SEE PAGE 687) 


The blue jay, I fear, is a reprobate; but, notwithstanding his fondness for eggs and 
nestlings, and his evident joy in worrying other birds, there is a dashing, reckless air about 


him which makes us pardon his faults and like him in spite of ourselves. 


Like many men, 


he needs the inspiration of congenial company to bring out the social side of his disposition. 
When at home he is very different from the noisy fellow who, with equally noisy comrades, 


roams the woods in the fall. 


coursing rapidly to and fro, ever in pur- 
suit of the insects, which constitute their 
sole food. When they retire, the night- 
hawks and whippoorwills will take up 
the chase, catching moths and other noc- 
turnal insects which would escape day- 
flying birds. The flycatchers lie in wait, 
darting from ambush at passing prey, 
and with a suggestive click of the bill 
returning to their post. 

The warblers—light, active creatures— 
flutter about the terminal foliage, and, 
with almost the skill of a humming-bird, 
pick insects from leaf or blossom. ‘The 
vireos patiently explore the under sides 
of leaves and odd nooks and corners to 
see that no skulker escapes. The wood- 
peckers, nuthatches, and creepers attend 
to the tree trunks and limbs, examining 
carefully each inch of bark for insects’ 
eggs and larve, or excavating for the 
ants and borers they hear at work within. 

On the ground the hunt is continued 
by the thrushes, sparrows, and other 
birds, who feed upon the innumerable 
forms of terrestrial insects. Few places 
in which insects exist are neglected; even 
some species which pass their earlier 


stages or entire lives in the water are 
preyed upon by aquatic birds. 


A CONSTANT WARFARE AGAINST INSECTS 


Birds digest their food so rapidly that 
it is difficult to estimate from the con- 
tents of a bird’s stomach at a given time 
how much it eats during the day. The 
stomach of a yellow-billed cuckoo shot 
at 6 o'clock in the morning contained the 
partially digested remains of 43 tent cat- 
erpillars, but how many it would have 
eaten before night no one can Say. 

Mr. E. H. Forbush, ornithologist of 
the Board of Agriculture of Massachu- 
setts, states that the stomachs of four 
chickadees contained 1,028 eggs of the 
cankerworm. The stomachs of four other 
birds of the same species contained about 
600 eggs and 105 female moths of the 
cankerworm. The average number of 
eggs found in 20 of these moths was 185, 
and, as it is estimated that a chickadee 
may eat 30 female cankerworm moths 
per day during the 25 days which these 
moths crawl up trees, it follows that in 
this period each chickadee would destroy 
138,750 eggs of this noxious insect. 


BROWN THRASHER (SEE PAGE 


Photo by R. H. Beeb: 


677) 


Hedge-rows, shrubbery about the borders of woods, scrubby growth, or thickets in dry 
Generally speaking, he is an inhabitant of the 
undergrowth, where he passes much time on the ground foraging among the fallen leaves. 
He is an active, suspicious bird, who does not like to be watched, and expresses his annoy- 
ance with an unpleasant kissing note or sharply whistled wheéw. 


fields, are alike frequented by the thrasher. 


Professor Forbes, Director of the IIli- 
nois State Laboratory of Natural His- 
tory, found 175 larve of Bibio—a fly 
which in the larval stage feeds on the 
roots of grass—in the stomach of a single 
robin, and the intestine contained prob- 
ably as many more. 

Many additional cases could be cited 
showing the intimate relation of birds to 
insect life and emphasizing the necessity 
of protecting and encouraging these little- 
appreciated allies of the agriculturist. 

The service rendered man by birds in 
killing the small rodents so destructive 
to crops is performed by hawks and 
owls—birds the uninformed farmer con 
siders his enemies. The truth is that. 
with two exceptions—the sharp-shinned 
and Cooper’s hawk—all our commoner 
hawks and owls are beneficial. In his 
exhaustive study of the foods of these 
birds, Dr. A. K. Fisher, Assistant Orni- 
thologist of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, has found that 90 
per cent of the food of the red-shoul- 
dered hawk, commonly called “chicken- 
hawk” or “hen-hawk,’” consists of in- 


709 


jurious mammals and insects, while 200 
castings of the barn-owl contained the 
skulls of 454 small mammals, no less than 
225 of these being skulls of the destruct- 
ive field or meadow mouse. 


HOW THE BIRDS HELP MANKIND 


Still, these birds are not only not pro- 
tected, but in some States a price is actu- 
ally set upon their heads! 

As destroyers of the seeds of harmful 
plants, the good done by birds cannot be 
overestimated. From late fall to early 
spring seeds form the only food of many 
birds, and every keeper of cage-birds 
can realize how many a bird may eat 
in a day. Thus, while the chickadees, 
nuthatches, woodpeckers, and some other 
winter birds are ridding the trees of 
myriads of insects’ eggs and larve, the 
granivorous birds are reaping a crop of 
seeds which, if left to germinate, would 
cause a heavy loss to our agricultural 
interests. 

As scavengers, we understand that cer- 
tain birds are of value to us, and there- 
fore we protect them. Thus the vultures 


Photo by Mrs. F. W. Roe 


A RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER 


This is a common bird in our Southern States and occasionally is seen as far north as 


Massachusetts. 


It inhabits alike coniferous and deciduous growths, but prefers the latter. 


It ascends 2 tree in a curious, jerky fashion, accompanying each upward move by a hoarse 


chiuh-chih. 


or buzzards of the South are protected 
both by law and public sentiment, aad 
as a result they are not only exceedingly 
abundant, but remarkably tame. But we 
do not realize tlat gulls and some other 
water birds are also beneficial as scaven- 
gers in eating refuse, which if left float- 
ing on the water would often be cast 
ashore to decay. Dr. George F. Gaumer, 
of Yucatan, tells me that the killing of 
immense numbers of herons and other 
littoral birds in Yucatan has been fol- 
lowed by an increase in human mortality 
among the inhabitants of the coast, which 
he is assured is a direct result of the 
destruction of birds that formerly as- 
sisted in keeping the beaches and bayous 
free from decaying animal matter. 

Lack of space forbids an adequate 
treatment of this subject, but reference 
to the works and papers mentioned be- 
low* will support the statement that, if 


*Notes on the Nature of the Food of the 
Birds of Nebraska, by S. Aughey; First An- 
nual Report of the United States Entomo- 
logical Commission for the Year 1877, Appen- 
dix ii, pp. 13-62. The Food of Birds, by S. A. 
Forbes; Bulletin No. 3, Illinois State Labora- 
tory of Natural History, 1880, pp. 80-148. The 
Regulative Action of Birds upon Insect Os- 


we were deprived of the services of 
birds, the earth would soon become un- 
inhabitable. 


WHAT THEY ASK IN RETURN 


Nevertheless, the feathered protectors 
of our farms and gardens, plains and 
forests, require so little encouragement 
from us—indeed, ask only tolerance— 
that we accept their services much as we 
do the air we breathe. We may be in 
debt to them past reckoning and still be 
unaware of their existence; but to ap- 
preciate the beauty of form and plumage 
of birds, their grace of motion and musi- 
cal powers, we must know them. 

The sight of a bird or the sound of its 
voice is at all times an event of such 
significance to me, a source of such un- 
failing pleasure, that when I go afield 
with those to whom birds are strangers 
I am deeply impressed by the compara- 


cillations, by S. A. Forbes; ibid., Bulletin No. 6, 
1883, pp. 3-32. Economic Relations of Wis- 
consin Birds, by F. H. King; Wisconsin Geo- 
logical Survey, vol. i, 1882, pp. 441-610. Report 
on the Birds of Pennsylvania, with Special 
Reference to the Food Habits, based on over 
Four Thousand Stomach Examinations, by 
B. H. Warren; Harrisburg, E. K. Meyers, 


710 


Photo by Frank M. Chapman 


AN OVEN-BIRD LOOKING OUT OF HER NEST 


As an architect, the oven-bird is distinguished. 
of coarse grasses, weed stalks, leaves, and rootlets 


Her unique nest is built on the ground 
, and is roofed over, the entrance being 


at one side. It thus resembles an old-fashioned Dutch oven, and its shape is the origin of 


its builder’s name. 


tive barrenness of their world, for they 
live in ignorance of the great store of 
enjoyment which might be theirs for the 
asking. 

I count each day memorable that 
brought me a new friend among the 
birds. It was an event to be recorded 
in detail. A creature which up to that 
moment existed for me only as a name, 
now became an inhabitant of my woods, 
a part of my life. With what a new in- 
terest I got down my books again, ea- 
gerly reading every item concerning this 
new friend—its travels, habits, and notes ; 
comparing the observations of others 
with what were now my own! 

The study of birds is not restricted to 
any special season. Some species are al- 


State printer, large 8vo, pp. 434, plates 100. 
The English Sparrow in North America, espe- 
cially in its Relation to Agriculture, prepared 
under the direction of C. Hart Merriam, by 
Walter B. Barrows; Bulletin No. 1, Division 
of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, 
1889. The Hawks and Owls of the United 
States in their Relation to Agriculture, pre- 
pared under the direction of C. Hart Merriam, 
by A. K. Fisher; Bulletin No. 3, ibid., 1893. 
The Common Crow of the United States, by 
Walter B. Barrows and E. A. Schwarz; Bul- 
letin No. 6, ibid., 1895. Preliminary Report 
on the Food of Woodpeckers, by F. E. L. 
Beal; Bulletin No. 7, ibid., 1805. (See also 


ways with us. Long after the leaves 
have fallen and the fields are bare and 
brown, when insect voices are hushed, 
and even some mammals are sleeping 
their winter sleep, the cheery juncos flit 
about our doorstep, the white-throats 
twitter cozily from the evergreens, tree 
sparrows chatter gayly over their break- 
tast of seeds, and crows are calling from 
the woods. Birds are the only living 
creatures to be seen. What a sense of 
companionship their presence gives ; how 
desolate the earth would seem without 
them! 

The ease with which we may become 
familiar with these feathered neighbors 
of ours robs ignorance of all excuses. 
Once aware of their existence, we shall 


many other papers on the food of birds in the 
Annual Report and Yearbook of the United 
States Department of Agriculture.) Birds as 
Protectors of Orchards, by E. H. Forbush: 
3ulletin No. 3, Massachusetts State Board of 
Agriculture, 1805, pp. 20-32. The Crow in 
Massachusetts, by E. H. Forbush; Bulletin 
No. 4, tbid., 1806. How Birds Affect the Farm 
and Garden, by Florence A. Merriam; re- 
printed from “Forest and Stream,” 1896, 16mo, 
pp. 31. Price, 5 cents. Useful Birds and their 
Protection, by E. H. Forbush; Massachusetts 
Board of Agriculture, 1907, and in the special 
publications of the United States Biological 
Survey. 


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712 


A BIRD IN 


see a bird in every bush and find the 
heavens their pathway. One moment we 
may admire their beauty of plumage, the 
next marvel at the ease and grace with 


which they dash by us or circle high 
overhead. 

But birds will appeal to us most 
strongly through their songs. When 


your ears are attuned to the music of 
birds, your world will be transformed. 
Birds’ songs are the most eloquent of 
Nature’s voices: the gay carol of the 
grosbeak in the morning; the dreamy 
midday call of the pewee; the vesper 
hymn of the thrush; the clanging of 
geese in the springtime: the farewell of 
the bluebird in the fall—how clearly each 
one expresses the sentiment of the hour 
or season! 


FEATHERED COMRADES 


Having learned a bird’s language, you 
experience an increased feeling of com- 
radeship with it. You may even share 
its emotions as you learn the significance 
of its notes. No one can listen to the 
song of the mocking-bird without being 
in some way affected ; but in how many 
hearts does the tink of the night- ne 
bobolink find a response? I never he 
it without wishing the brave little Aiea 
eler godspeed on his long journey. 

As time passes you will find that the 
songs of birds bring a constantly increas- 
ing pleasure. This is the result of asso- 


THE 


Photo by Frank M. Chapman 
HAND 


ciation. “The places and people that make 
our world.are ev ery changing; the pres- 
ent slips from us with growing rapidity ; 
but the birds are ever with us. 

The robin singing so cheerily outside 
my window sings not for himself alone, 
but for hundreds of robins I have known 
at other times and places. His song re- 
calls a March evening, warm with the 
promise of spring; May mornings, when 
all the world seemed to ring with the 
voices of birds; June days, when cherries 
were ripening; the winter sunlit forests 
of Florida and even the snow-capped 
summit of glorious Popocatepetl. And 
so it is with other birds. We may, it is 
true, have known them for years; but 
they have not changed, and their famil- 
iar notes and appearance encourage the 
pleasant self-delusion that we, too, are 
the same. 

The slender saplings of earlier years 
now give wide-spreading shade; the 
sc rubby pasture lot has become a dense 
woodland. Boyhood’s friends are boys 
no longer, and there has even appeared 
another generation of boys whose pres- 
ence is discouraging proof that for us 
youth has past. Then some May morn- 
ing we hear the wood-thrush sing. Has 
he, too, changed? Not one note; and as 
his silvery voice rings through the woods, 
we are young again. No fountain of 
youth could be more potent. A hundred 
incidents of the long ago become as real 


| 


A PIGEON AND ITS WHISTLE: CHINA 


These whistles, very light, weighing a few grams, are attached to the tails of young 
pigeons soon after their birth by means of fine copper wire, so that when the birds fly the 
wind blowing through the whistles sets them vibrating, and this produces an open-air con- 
cert, for the instruments in the same flock are all different (see page 715). 


as those of yesterday. And here we have 
the secret of youth in age which every 
venerable naturalist I have ever met has 
convincingly illustrated. I could name 
nearly a dozen, living and dead, whom it 
has been my valued privilege to know. 
All had passed the allotted three-score 
and ten, and some were over four-score. 
The friends and associates of their ear- 
lier days had passed away, and one 
might imagine that they had no interest 


in life and were simply waiting for the 
end. 


But these veterans were old in years 
only. Their hearts were young. The 
earth was fair; plants still bloomed and 
birds sang for them. ‘There was no idle 
waiting here; the days were all too short. 
With what boyish ardor they told of 
some recent discovery; what inspiration 
there was in their enthusiasm! 

So I say to you, if you would reap the 
purest pleasures of youth, manhood, and 
old age, go to the birds and through them 
be brought within the ennobling influences 
of Nature. 


714 


CHINESE PIGEON WHISTLES 


E ARE wont to speak of the 

Chinese as a sober, practical, 

and prosaic people, and to view 
them throughout in that light. Im- 
mensely rational they are, secular and 
worldly minded, bestowing their efforts 
on useful temporal affairs; but, never- 
theless, they are by no means lacking in 
purely emotional matters of great at- 
tractiveness. 


As early as the 11th century one of ; 


their greatest poets sang: 


“Upon the bridge the livelong day 
I stand and watch the goldfish play.” 

The domestication of the goldfish, the 
first species of which reached England 
only in 1691, and of the wonderful para- 
dise-fish as well, is justly ascribed to the 
Chinese, and it is remarkable to notice 
that their attempts in this direction and 
the amazing results achieved were not 
prompted by any utilitarian views they 
had in mind, as neither fish is of any 
practical advantage. On the contrary, 
their skillful breeding, so eagerly pur- 
sued, is due solely and exclusively to the 
esthetic tendency of the Chinese in their 
art of living and to their highly culti- 
vated sense of beauty, which delights in 
the bright coloration of the skin of these 
fishes, the graceful form of their bodies, 
and the restless motions of their long, 
flowing fins. 

While the almost Darwinian experi- 
ments to which Chinese breeders have 
subjected the goldfish, and their un- 
bounded admiration of this little crea- 
ture in its hundred and one forms and 
variations, illustrate well the intimate re- 
lation of the people to the element of 
water, their friendly associations with 
the world of birds are not less close and 
sympathetic. "The lover of birds does 
not permanently confine his pet in its 
prison cage, but he takes it out with him 
on his walks, carrying it on a stick, to 
which one of its feet is fastened by 
means of a thread long enough to allow 
it ample freedom of motion. Where the 
shade of some stately tree bids him wel- 
come, he makes a halt and permits the 
bird to perch and swing on a supple twig, 
watching it for hours. 

One of the most curious expressions 
of emotional life is the application of 


“I 


whistles to a flock of pigeons. ‘These 
whistles, very light, weighing a few 
grams, are attached to the tails of young 
pigeons soon after their birth, by means 
of fine copper wire, so that when the 
birds fly the wind blowing through the 
whistles sets them vibrating, and this 
produces an open-air concert, for the in- 
struments in the same flock are all differ- 
ent. On a serene day in Peking, where 
these instruments are manufactured with 
great cleverness and ingenuity, it is pos- 
sible to enjoy this aérial music while sit- 
ting in one’s room. 

There are two distinct types of whis- 
tles—those consisting of bamboo tubes 
placed side by side and a type based on 
the principal of tubes attached to a 
gourd. They are lacquered in yellow, 
brown, red, and black to protect the ma- 
terial from the destructive influences of 
the atmosphere. The tube whistles have 
either two, three, or five tubes. In some 
specimens the five tubes are made of ox- 
horn instead of bamboo. ‘The gourd 
whistles are furnished with a mouth- 
piece and small apertures to the number 
of two, three, six, ten, and even thirteen. 
Certain among them have besides a num- 
ber of bamboo tubes, some of the prin- 
cipal mouthpiece, some arranged around 
it. These varieties are distinguished by 
different names. Thus a whistle with 
one mouthpiece and ten tubes is called 
“the eleven-eyed one.” 

The explanation which the Chinese of- 
fer of this quaint custom is not very 
satisfactory. According to them, these 
whistles are intended to keep the flock 
together and to protect the pigeons from 
attacks of birds of prey. There seems, 
however, little reason to believe that a 
hungry hawk could be induced by this 
innocent music to refrain from satisfy- 
ing his appetite ; and this doubtless savors 
of an after-thought which came up long 
after the introduction of this usage, 
through the attempt ‘to give.a rational 
and practical interpretation to something 
that had no rational origin whatever ; for 
it is not the pigeon that profits from this 
practice, but merely the human ear, 
which feasts on the wind-blown tunes 
and derives zsthetic pleasure from this 
music. 


7) & S “ 
Photo from Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America 


HUNTING WITH EAGLES IN CHINA 


Falconry, that sport now long extinct, was one of the joys of our medizval ancestors. 
Like printing and the mariner’s compass, which are comparatively modern in the West, 
falconry has been known in China from time immemorial. In Europe the female of the 
peregrine falcon—one of the smallest of eagles—was alone used in this sport; but in China 
much larger birds are trained for the chase, birds far too large to sit on the hand, as the 
peregrines used to do wh'‘n our forefathers followed the sport. 


716 


THE NATION’S CAPITAL 


By James Bryce 


AutHor oF “THE AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH,” “IMPRESSIONS OF SouTH AMER- 
ICA, ETC., AND AMBASSADOR FROM GREAT BRITAIN, 1906-1913 


An address to the Committee of One Hundred on the Development of Wash- 


ington, D. C. Specially revised by Mr. 


Geographic Magazine. 


HAVE been asked to give you the 

impressions of a visitor who, having 

seen something of the capitals of 
other countries and having spent six 
happy and interesting years in Washing- 
ton, and having grown always more and 
more interested in your own plans for 
the adornment of Washington, may pos- 
sibly be able to look at the matter from 
a somewhat different angle from that at 
which most of you have seen it. 

It is, I think, impossible for any one 
who speaks our common language, who 
is familiar with your institutions and his- 
tory, who recognizes how much there is 
in common between us—your nation and 
mine—to live here without becoming for 
many purposes—morally and _ intellectu- 
ally, and for practically all purposes ex- 
cept, of course, political purposes—a citi- 
zen of the United States. That does not 
prevent him, I need hardly say, from re- 
maining a patriotic citizen of his own 
country. He is exempt from the duty 
from which, indeed, you are all exempt 
in the District of Columbia—of casting 
a vote—and from the other duty of get- 
ting on the platform to give his political 
views to his fellow-countrymen; but in 
every other respect his residence here 
gives him all the advantages which you 
have, in being able to follow the ins and 
outs of your politics and to appreciate 
the surprising changes which the whirli- 
gig of time brings about. 

Taking so keen an interest as I do in 
the welfare of the United States, I have 
often felt it somewhat difficult to refrain 
from offering advice which was_ not 
asked for. I trust that I have always 
refrained, but in this particular case the 
observations—I will not call them ad- 
vice—the observations on the city of 
Washington and what can be done for it 
have been asked for, and if you find they 
are only what you knew before, do not 


NI 


Bryce for publication in the National 


altogether blame me, but lay it to the 
misjudgment of the too kind friends who 
have asked me to come upon the plat- 
form. 


AN IDEAL SITE FOR A CITY 

It is impossible to live in Washington 
and not be struck by some peculiar fea- 
tures and some peculiar beauties which 
your city possesses. In the first place, 
its site has a great deal that is admirable 
and charming. There is rising ground 
inclosing on all sides a level space, and 
so making a beautiful amphitheater, be- 
tween hills that are rich with woods, 
which in many places, thanks to the hard 
ancient rocks of this region, show bold 
faces and give much more striking effects 
than we can have in the soft, chalky or 
sandy hills which surround Lendon. 
Underneath these hills and running like 
a silver thread through the middle of the 
valley is your admirable river. 

The Potomac has two kinds of beauty— 
the beauty of the upper stream, murmur- 
ing over a rocky bed between bold heights 
crowned with wood, and the beauty of 
the wide expanse, spread out like a lake 
below the city into a vast sheet of silver. 

Besides all this, you have behind Wash- 
ington a charming country. I am some- 
times surprised that so few of your resi- 
dents explore that country on foot. It 
is only on foot that you can appreciate 
its beauties, for some of the most at- 
tractive paths are too narrow and tangled 
for riding. On the north, east, and west 
sides of Washington, and to some extent 
on the south, or Virginia, side also, al- 
though there the difficulties of locomotion 
are greater on account of the heavy mud 
in the roads, the country is singularly 
charming, quite as beautiful as that which 
adjoins any of the great capital cities of 
Europe, except, of course, Constantino- 
ple, with its wonderful Bosphorus. 


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718 


THE NATION’S CAPITAL 


No European city has so noble a cata- 
ract in its vicinity as the Great Falls of 
the Potomac—a magnificent piece of 
scenery which you will, of course, al- 
ways preserve. 

Vienna has some picturesque country, 
hills and woods and rocks within a dis- 
tance of 25 or 30 miles. London also has 
very pleasing landscapes of a softer type 
within about that distance; but I know 
of no great city in Europe (except Con- 
stantinople) that has quite close, in its 
very environs, such beautiful scenery as 
has Washington in Rock Creek Park and 
in many of the woods that stretch along 
the Potomac on the north and also on the 
south side, with the broad river in the 
center and richly wooded slopes descend- 
ing boldly to it on each side. 

One may wander day after day in new 
walks all through these woods to the 
northwest and west of the city. One 
need never take the same walk twice, for 
there is an endless variety of foot-paths, 
each with its own vistas of woodland 
beauty. 


THE WOODED CHARM OF THE 
WASHINGTON STREETS 


Nor is Washington less charming in 
respect of its interior. I know of no city 
in which the trees seem to be so much a 
part of the city as Washington. Noth- 
ing can be more delightful than the views 
up and down the wider streets and ave- 
nues, especially those that look toward 
the setting sun or catch some glow of the 
evening light. 

Look southwestward down New Hamp- 
shire avenue, look northwestward up 
Connecticut avenue, or even westward 
along modest little N street, which passes 
the house where I live, and whose vista 
is closed by the graceful spire of George- 
town University, and you have the most 
charming sylvan views, and all this is so 
by reason of the taste and forethought of 
those who have administered the gov- 
ernment of the city and who have planted 
various species of trees, so that you have 
different kinds of sylvan views. 

When you want a fine, bold effect, 
what could be grander than 16th street, 
with its incline rising steeply to the north, 
and the hills of Virginia as the back- 
ground, where it falls gently away to the 


719 


south ? 
any city. 

[ do not mean to say that there are not 
many other capitals in this world to which 
Nature has been even more generous. 
You have not a beautiful arm of the sea 
at your doors, as has Constantinople, nor 
the magnificent mountains that surround 
the capitals of Rio Janeiro or Santiago 
de Chile, nor such a bay, or rather land- 
locked gulf, as that of San Francisco, 
with its splendid passage out to the 
ocean ; but those are very rare things, of 
which there are few in the world. As 
capitals go, few, indeed, are so advan- 
tageously situated in respect to natural 
charms as is Washington. 

All these considerations make one feel 
how great are the opportunities here of- 
fered to you for the further adornment 
and beautification of this city. Nature 
has done so much, and you have, your- 
selves, already done so much that you 
are called upon to do more. You have 
such a chance offered to you here for 
building up a superb capital that it would 
be almost an act of ingratitude to Provi- 
dence and to history and to the men who 


There are few finer streets in 


‘planted the city here if you did not use 


the advantages that you here enjoy. 


HOW WASHINGTON COMPARES WITH THE 
WORLD'S GREAT CAPITALS 


Perhaps you might like to hear a few 
remarks on some of the other great capi- 
tals of the world. Take Berlin. It stands 
in a sandy waste, perfectly flat, with here 
and there a swampy pond or lake, and a 
sluggish stream meanders through it. 
Parts of the environs have, however, been 
well planted with trees, and this redeems 
the city to some extent. The streets are 
now stately, adorned by many a noble 
building. It has become, through the ef- 
forts of the government and its own citi- 
zens, an imposing city; but the environs 
can never be beautiful, because Nature 
has been very ungracious. 

Take St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg 
has a splendid water front facing its 
grand river, the Neva, with its vast rush 
of cold green water, covered with ice in 
winter and chilling the air, and seeming 
to chill the landscape in summer. That, 
however, is the only beauty St. Peters- 
burg has. The country is flat and in 


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720 


THE NATION’S CAPITAL 7: 


many places water-logged, owing to nu- 
merous pools and swamps. It has no 
natural attraction either in its immediate 
or more distant environs, except the 
stream of Neva. 

Paris, again, has some agreeable land- 
scapes within reach, but nothing at all 
striking, nothing nearly so fine in the 
lines of its scenery as the hills that in- 
close the valley in which Washington lies, 
and no such charm of a still wild forest 
as Washington affords. The Seine, too, 
is a stream not to be compared to your 
Potomac. 

The same thing may be said of Madrid. 
It stands on a level, and the mountains 
are too distant to come effectively into 
the landscape, and its only water is a 
wretched little brooklet called the Man- 
zanares. They tell a story there about a 
remark attributed to Alexandre Dumas 
when he visited Madrid. He was taken 
to the lofty bridge which spans the ra- 
vine at the bottom of which the rivulet 
flows. The day was hot and, being 
thirsty, he asked for a glass of water. 
They brought him the water, and he was 
about to drink, when looking down and 
catching sight of the streamlet, he said, 
“No, take it away; give it to that poor 
river; it needs a drink more than I do.” 

Then there is our English London, 
which stands in a rather tame country. It 
is true that there are some charming bits 
of quiet and pretty rural scenery in Sur- 
rey and Sussex, within a distance of from 
20 to 30 miles, and there are pleasing 
beech woods covering the chalky hills of 
Bucks. Yet Nature has done nothing for 
London comparable to what she has done 
for Washington. The Thames, although 
it fills up pretty well at high tide, is no- 
wise comparable for volume or beauty of 
surroundings to your own Potomac. 

These cities I have named have, how- 
ever, something that you have not and 
cannot have for many a year to come. 
They are—and this applies especially to 
London and Paris—ancient cities. They 
have still, in spite of the destroying 
march of modern improvements, a cer- 
tain number of picturesque buildings, 
crooked old streets, stately churches, and 
spots hallowed by the names of famous 
men who were born there or died there 
or did their work there. 


bo 
_ 


_You are still in the early days of your 
history and are only beginning to accu- 
mulate historic memories which in four 
or five centuries will be rich and charged 
with meaning like those of European 
cities. 

But in every other respect you have in 
Washington advantages which these Eu- 
ropean cities do not possess. If you want 
to make any large street improvement in 
London or Paris it is a most costly busi- 
ness. The land is very dear. You can- 
not easily disturb the old lines of streets 
and the drains and water pipes and tele- 
phone lines that lie under them. Every 
improvement that has to be made in a 
city like London has to be made at a cost 
so heavy that where it is added to the 
necessary expenses of maintaining mod- 
ern appliances and carrying out sanitary 
regulations in an old city the cost is al- 
most prohibitory. 

But here you have still plenty of space, 
and though the city is extending very 
fast on almost all sides, still if you take 
forethought and consider your future, 
you can lay out the tracts over which 
Washington is beginning to spread in a 
way that will have results far more beau- 
tiful than are attainable in the growing 
parts of Londan and Paris, where land 
is SO expensive. 

London and Berlin and Paris are 
crowded and you are not yet crowded. 
You have still elbow room here to do 
what you want. 


A CITY DEDICATED ENTIRELY TO POLITICS 
AND GOVERNMENT 


You possess another great advantage in 
not being a large commercial or manu- 
facturing city. If you had manufactures 
you would have tall chimneys and, as it 
seems impossible to enforce an anti- 
smoke law in a manufacturing city, you 
would have black smoke, which would 
spoil the appearance of your finer build- 
ings, especially those constructed of 
limestone or sandstone, the soot cling- 
ing to them as it does now to Westmin- 
ster Abbey and St. Paul’s Cathedral in 
London. You would not have the same 
satisfaction in making things beautiful. 
A murky cloud would hang thick and 


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2 


IN THE RAPIDS OF THE 


dark over your city as it does over 
Pittsburgh and Chicago. Moreover, your 
streets would be overcrowded and diffi- 
culties of rapid transit would arise. 

With a much larger population, ideas 
of beauty would have to give way to 
those of commercial interests, whereas 
here the pressure of commerce is not 
such as to interfere with your ideals of 
beauty and convenience. 

With all these advantages before you 
in Washington, and with the bottomless 
purse of Uncle Sam behind you—I am 
coming presently to the use that Uncle 
Sam’s representatives may make of his 
purse for your benefit, but in the mean- 
time we may assume it is an inexhausti- 
ble purse, because we know how much 
money he is able to spend upon objects 
that are certainly of no more importance 
than the beautification of Washington— 
with all those advantages ready to yout 
hand, what may you not make of Wash- 
ington ? What may you not make of a 
city which is dedicated entirely to poli- 
tics and government and society ? 

Mr. Henry James, in one of his inter- 
esting and subtle studies of modern 


“J 


w 


Alfred G. Robi 


Photo by 
POTOMAC 


American life, called Washington the 
City of Conversation. That is a happy 
characterization, hz wing regard not only 
to Congress and politics, but also to ail 


the interesting talk that goes on here 
about science in the Cosmos Club, and 
elsewhere about many things that are 


neither scientific nor concerned with any 
kind of work. 
Washington is in a peculiar sense con- 


secrated to society and to the. higher 
charms of life; in fact, to all these things 


which make the delight of human inter- 
course ; and therefore it is especially fit- 
ting that it should be able to live w ithout 
the continual intrusion of those mighty 
factors of modern life—industrial pro- 
duction and commerci*l exchange — 
which dominate most of the cities of this 
continent and indeed most of the great 
cities of the modern world. 


WASHINGTON SHOULD BE THE EMBODI- 
MENT OF THE MAJESTY OF 
THE WHOLE NATION 


From all that in Washington you are 
free, and it is fortunate you are free, be- 
cause you are able to make a city of a 


LOOKING UP NEW HAMPSHIRE AVENUE FROM DUPONT CIRCLE, SHOWING THE BEAU- 
TIFUL ARCHING AMERICAN ELMS 


“IT know of no city in which the trees seem to be so much a part of the city as Wash- 


ington. Nothing can be more delightful than the views up and down the wider streets and 
avenues” (see page 719 


we 


ONE OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL OF WASHINGTON STREETS IN EARLY SPRING: A VIEW 
LOOKING NORTH ON SEVENTEENTH STREET FROM MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE 

respect to natural charms as is 
opportunities here 
Nature has done 
you are called upon to do 


ey ® . . 
‘As capitals go, few are so advantageously situated in 
Washington. All these considerations make one feel how great are the 
offered to you for the further adornment and beautification of this city. 


so much, and you have, yourselves, already done so much that 
more’ (see page 719). 


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different kind, a city of a novel type, a 
city to which there will be nothing like in 
this country and hardly anything like in 
any other country. 

It was, we shall all agree, an act of 
wisdom on the part of the founders of 
the Republic when they determined to 
plant its capital in a place where there 
was not already a city and where there 
was no great likelihood that either com- 
merce or industry conducted on a great 
scale would arise. It is true that one of 
the reasons assigned for choosing this 
spot was that here was the head of navi- 
gation on the Potomac, and that the spot 
would be a good commercial center for 
supplying the back country. Fortunately, 
that has not turned out to be so. The 
trade of Washington is not, and is not 
likely to be, a disturbing element. 

It was wise to have the Capital City, 
the seat of the legislative, executive, and 
judicial branches of the government, re- 
moved from the influences of an im- 
mense population. You are a great deal 
better here for the purposes of conduct- 
ing your politics in a calm and deliberate, 
a thoughtful and a philosophic spirit 
than if you were in New York, Phila- 
delphia, or Chicago. Your city, it is 
true, is large and growing larger, but 
it is not likely to be the home of any 
vast, excitable, industrial population such 
as is growing up in these other cities. It 
is not receiving those crowds of immi- 
grants which are making New York, 
Chicago, and, to a less extent, Cleveland, 
Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and St. Louis 
almost as much foreign as American. 

In these circumstances, may not the 
city of Washington feel that its mission 
in life is to be the embodiment of the 
majesty and the stateliness of the whole 
nation ; to be, as was well said by the pre- 
vious speaker, a capital of capitals, a capi- 
tal of the whole nation, overtopping the 
capitals of the several States as much as 
the nation overtops those States; repre- 
senting all that is finest in American con- 
ception, all that is largest and most lumi- 
nous in American thought, embodying 
the nation’s ideal of what the capital of 
such a nation should be. 

This it should accomplish partly by the 
stateliness and number and local disposi- 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - 


tion of its edifices; but above all by their 
beauty. What one desires is that this 
capital city should represent the highest 
aspirations as to external dignity and 
beauty that a great people can form for 
that which is the center and focus of 
their national life, and there is in the ef- 
fort to do this here nothing to disparage 
the greatness of other American cities 
which have much larger populations and 
larger pecuniary resources. 


WHAT A CAPITAL CAN DO FOR A NATION 


Paris is the most striking instance in 
the modern world of a capital that has 
exercised a powerful influence on a great 
country. Some have thought its influence 
was too great, for it used to be the home 
not only of art, but also of revolution. 
Paris sometimes assumed for all France 
the right of saying what form of govern- 
ment France should have and who should 
hold the reins of power; but notwith- 
standing that, we must not ignore the 
great things Paris has done for France. 
In polishing the language, in forming a 
brilliant type of social life, and in being 
the center of the literary and artistic cul- 
ture which has been radiated out over 
the whole country, Paris has done won- 
ders. 

But an even more striking instance of 
what a city can do is to be found in 
the ancient world; it is the instance of 
Athens. You all remember that wonder- 
ful speech in which the greatest of Athe- 
nian statesmen described what his city 
did for Greece, not only for the narrow 
territory of Attica, but for the whole of 
Greece. He showed how his city had 
made itself the finest embodiment of the 
Hellenic spirit. "The highest creative 
talent in literature and art was concen- 
trated in that one spot, where every in- 
tellectual influence played upon and re- 
fined every other; and as Athens repre- 
sented the finest embodiment of ancient 
culture, so you would like Washington to 
represent your American ideals. 

You would like it to give by its exter- 
nal splendor a sort of esthetic education 
to the people. You would like it to be a 
model of other cities, a model which the 
capitals of the greater States may all seek 
to vie with, as most of these States have 


A GOTHIC ARCH OF AMERICAN ELMS 


capital that this noble avenue, Maine 
of the ‘city 


It is one of the regrettable features of the nation’s 
avenue, is in one of the most unfrequented and unpopular sections 


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THE, NATION’S CAPITAL 


already imitated, in the construction of 
their State capitols, the Capitol at Wash- 
ington. 

What you want is to have a city which 
every one who comes from Maine, Texas, 
Florida, Arkansas, or Oregon can ad- 
mire as being something finer and more 
beautiful than he had ever dreamed of 
before; something which makes him 
even more proud to be an American; 
something which makes him wish to dif- 


-fuse the same ideas of beauty through 


his own State as he sees set forth in 
visible form here. 

You wish to have not only beautiful 
buildings, but you want to have every- 
thing else that makes the externals of 
life attractive and charming. You wish 
to have picture galleries. You wish to 
have museums. You have made advances 
in that direction already, for you have an 
admirable and constantly growing Na- 
tional Museum. You have the beginnings 
of a fine art gallery, and will doubtless 
add to it a national portrait gallery. You 
have admirable scientific institutions of 
many kinds, some of which will ulti- 
mately be housed in buildings finer than 
they have yet obtained. Some of the ad- 
ministrative departments of the govern- 
ment, especially the scientific depart- 
ments, are organized on a scale such as 
can hardly be found elsewhere. 

You have some splendid new build- 
ings; for instance, the new railway sta- 
tion, with its two long and noble halls, 
that yields only to the magnificence of the 
new Pennsylvania station in New York. 

You have also the Pan-American Build- 
ing. That seems to me to be one of the 
most finished and graceful, one of the 
most happily conceived and skilfully exe- 
cuted buildings that has been erected 
anywhere within the last 30 or 40 years. 


THE NEED OF A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY 


Let me add that there is one thing that 
is still wanting. There ought to be a 
great National American University in 
Washington. 

Through no fault either of the pro- 
fessors or of our friend who presides 
with so much wise care over the George 
Washington University here, that insti- 
tution has not received those funds and 


~J 
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—_ 


those buildings which are needed to 
make it worthy of the name it bears. 
his is rather a digression, but I would 
like to say, as I have mentioned the uni- 
versity, that the suggestion that a great 
central university is needed does not by 
any means imply that such an institution 
should be managed by the nation through 
Congress, or should necessarily even ‘re- 
ceive from Congress the funds needed 
for its support. 

You will all agree that a national capi- 
tal ought to have a great university, It 
need not be of the same type as the great 
State universities, nor set itself to do all 
the things that are done in universities 
located in or near great cities. You have, 
for instance, no great industrial estab- 
lishments here calling for a faculty of 
engineering or of other practical arts on 
such a scale as those universities must 
have, placed as they are, in great com- 
mercial centers. 

What seems most directly needed «is a 
university dedicated to three kinds of 
study—to theoretic science, to the arts 
and the “artistic side of life.” and to 
what are called the human studies of a 
philological, historical, and political or- 
der. There is of course no reason why 
you should limit your aspirations; but 
the more immediate need in this city is 
not for an institution fitting men to enter 
upon any kind of technical work, in 
manufacturing or mining or agricultural 
industry, but for something of a differ- 
ent type. 

You ought to have a fully equipped 
school of law, a complete and well staffed 
school of political science, and of eco- 
nomics, and therewith, also, a strong 
school of history. You have already in 
your government departments an unusu- 
ally large number of eminent, industri- 
ous, and distinguished scientific men, 
who are one of the glories of Washing- 
ton, and to match these you must also 
have a like galaxy of men pursuing those 
studies, such as history, economics, phi- 
lology, and law, which are the comple- 
ment of scientific studies. 

Through the liberality of private bene- 
factors, with perhaps some aid from the 
national government, it will surely be 
found possible before long to carry out 


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the great idea which the first President 
had when he urged that a university 
should be established in this city, which 
was the darling thought and hope of his 
old age. 


WHAT STILL NEEDS TO BE DONE 


I have been invited by some of you to 
make a few suggestions as to some of 
the things that may be considered with a 
view to the beautification of Washington 
and the turning of its natural advantages 
to the best account. 

It is hardly necessary to observe that 
there ought to be some method of secur- 
ing a measure of symmetry and harmony 
in buildings. The public buildings to be 
erected should not be planted haphazard. 
Each building ought to be placed with 
some reference to the others, so that they 
will form, if possible, a group together, 
and all go to make up a good general 
effect. 

In the same way, when laying out the 
streets, it is proper to consider the lines 
on which the streets may best be planned, 
so as to give the best scenic effect and so 
as to open up the best vistas. It is well 
to make some streets unusually wide, like 
16th street, and to turn them in such a 
way that they shall give the best north- 
western and western evening lights, and, 
if possible, a little piece of landscape ef- 
fect at the end. Nothing is more charm- 
ing than to see a bit of green landscape— 
trees or a grassy slope—at the end of a 
long street vista. There are some streets 
in the growing parts of Washington 
where that can be usefully done. 


ODDITY BETTER THAN MONOTONY 


I am far from suggesting that you 
should try to attain uniformity in your 
buildings, because uniformity usually ends 
in monotony. ‘That can be seen in the 
buildings of Paris. When the city was 
largely rebuilt by Haussman in ‘Louis 
Napoleon’s day, that error was commit- 
ted. While many of the boulevards of 
that time are very handsome, one gets 
tired of the repetition of the same de- 
signs and structure over and over again. 

There is no doubt something almost 
grotesque in the manner in which private 
houses are placed side by side here in 


NATION’S CAPITAL 


of 


Washington—a large and handsome cili- 
fice, perhaps in the style of a French cha- 
teau, by the side of a mean little building 
of brick, or perhaps even of a wooden 
shack. A piece of castellated Roman- 
esque in granite looks odd beside a colo- 
nial house in brick or stucco. Yet even 
this oddity is a better plan than the mo- 
notony of modern Paris or the far duller 
monotony of Harley street or Gower 
street in London. 

When considering the beautifying of 
streets, something should be done to take 
into account the “possibilities in the little 
open-space triangles that you have here 
in Washington at the intersection of 
streets and avenues. They are very 
pleasant places in the summer because 
they are green; but surely more might be 
made in a decorative way of them. You 
need not perhaps put up any more stat- 
ues, but treat these corners in some orna- 
mental fashion, so as to give them a 
greater landscape value than they have 
at present. 

Questions relating to the river and the 
Potomac Park constitute a very large 
subject. You have, since the low ground 
along the Potomac has been reclaimed, a 
magnificent open space, and you have 
running through it and spread out below 
it on both sides of the island a magnifi- 
cent expanse of water that is perhaps the 
strongest feature in Washington itself 
for scenic purposes (see page 720). 

Much thought ought to be given to the 
treatment of Potomac Park, on this side 
the river, and possibly to the ground on 
the other side also, if you ever gain 
power to control the other side, so as to 
produce the best scenic effects. 

I do not know whether any of you 
have been in Calcutta, but if so you will 
remember the only fine feature of that 
rather uninteresting city is the broad 
river and the very large, open grassy 
park which is called the Maidan, which 
borders on it. The river Hooghly and 
the Maidan redeem Calcutta. This park 
is a sort of huge Maidan for Washing- 
ton. Ought not pains to be taken to 
plant groups of trees, some large groups 
and more small groups, so as.to give fine 
combinations? One day these will grow 
to the size of old forest trees and the 


A CANOPIED SIDEWALK IN WASHINGTON : LOOKING DOWN MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE 
FROM DUPONT CIRCLE 


The sidewalk on each side of this noted avenue is lined with a double row of American 
lindens 


——— a 


THE NATION’S CAPITAL 737 


effect will be impressive. \Ve must take 
thought for even the distant future, for 
we are trustees in this way for posterity, 
and we want posterity to think well of 
us. Perhaps, too, a wild growth of 
small shrubs and herbaceous wild flowers 
might be encouraged over parts at least 
of the space, so as to make it as much as 
possible like a great natural park. 

Some of the finest general prospects 
of Washington are to be had from those 
hills on the other side of the Anacostia 
River. Such sites ought to be treated so 
as to get the greatest effect from them, 
so that any one looking across from this 
side will have a pleasing view presented. 
Small, mean shacks or little groups of 
hovels ought to be kept off fine sites. 

To care for these things ought not to 
be set down to personal fastidiousness. 
We are not to suppose that in thinking 
of the beauties of the city or country we 
are thinking of ourselves only, for beauty 
and ugliness have an effect upon the 
minds of all classes of residents. There 
are many places on the outskirts of this 
city which have become sordid and even 
hideous, owing to the habit of dumping 
refuse. It ought to be checked. I do 
not know what the powers of the Dis- 
trict Commissioners are, but if they have 
not sufficient power to stop that deface- 
ment of nature they ought to be given 
such power. I suppose this refuse could 
be burned, and if so it certainly should 
be burned, or perhaps buried, so it would 
not offend those who walk around the 
city and see the beauties of our environs. 

A reference to the Potomac leads me 
to speak of the splendid ridge of rocks 
forming the face of the hills on the Vir- 
ginia side. They have been sadly cut into 
by quarries, spoiling the natural beauty 
of the rocks; but Nature will one day re- 
pair those blemishes. Perhaps she will 
not do so within the lifetime of most of 
us, but in the course of years, with rain 
and frost and vegetation, lichens, moss, 
and grass, Nature will soften the harsh- 
ness of the rocks where the stone has 
been taken away, and you will again have 
picturesque cliffs along the banks of the 
Potomac, with the tall trees lifting their 
plumage into the sky behind. Those are 


very valuable elements in our Washing- 
ton landscape. 

It is desirable if possible to stop any 
further quarrying on the Potomac cliffs 
and to preserve the trees on the top of 
those cliffs on the Virginia side, and to 
make a good path, a walking path or rid- 
ing path, or possibly a not too obtrusive 
driving road, along the top, looking 
down onto the river, from which you 
could get fine prospects. The road might 
be kept a little back, so as not to be con- 
spicuous from below. 


THE MOST BEAUTIFUL VIEW OF WASHING- 
TON IS THREATENED 


May I mention a point of view that 
is now threatened and perhaps almost 
gone? You all know the spot at which 
Wisconsin avenue intersects Massachu- 
setts avenue, which has now been ex- 
tended beyond that intersection into the 
country. At that point of intersection, 
just opposite where the Episcopal Cathe- 
dral is to stand, there is one spot com- 
manding what is one of the most beauti- 
ful general views of Washington. You 
look down upon the city, you see its most 
striking buildings—the Capitol, the Li- 
brary, State, War, and Navy Depart- 
ment, and the Post-Office and other high 
buildings along Pennsylvania avenue— 
and beyond them you see the great sil- 
very flood of the Potomac and the soft 
lines fading away in dim outline in the 
far southeast. It is a delightful and in- 
spiring view. 

It is a view that reminds one of some 
of those ample prospects over Rome 
which the traveler is able to obtain from 
St. Peter Montorio, on the further side 
of the Tiber, or from Monte Mario. 

All that piece of land is being now cut 
up, and according to present appearances 
houses will be built there immediately, 
and after two years nobody will ever see 
that view again except from the tower 
of the cathedral when erected. Can it 
be saved? 

There may be other views of Wash- 
ington that are as good, but there is none 
better. It is a view that speaks not only 
to the eye, but to the imagination also. 
The top of the slope ought to have been 


~ i 
DH 


turned into a public park, and the houses 
below kept at such a height that if they 
were to be built they wouid not obstruct 
the view from above. 

Of course it is to be regretted that all 
of that piece of land on both sides of 
Massachusetts avenue, and especially the 
part between Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut avenues, was not kept for the 
Washington of the future. It is one of 
the saddest things we have seen, the way 
in which that beautiful bit of woodland 
country between Massachusetts avenue 
and Connecticut avenue, where some of 
us used to take our favorite recreation 
under the leafy boughs, listening to the 
songs of the birds in spring and to the 
murmuring of the little brooks that purled 
down the hollows, to know that this tract 
has now been leveled, the tiny glens filled 
up and the brooks turned into subter- 
ranean drains. It will soon be covered 
with villas or rows of dwellings, and 30 
years hence no one will know how charm- 
ing that side of Washington was. 


THE BEAUTIES OF ROCK CREEK PARK 


From these vain regrets let me turn 
to say something more about Rock Creek, 
where there is still time to save beauties 
that are threatened. 

To Rock Creek there is nothing com- 
parable in any capital city of Europe. 
What city in the world is there where a 
man living in a house like that in which 
we are meeting, in 18th street, can within 
less than 10 minutes by car and within a 
quarter of an hour on his own feet get 
in a beautiful rocky glen, such as you 
would find in the woods of Maine or 
Scotland—a winding, rocky glen, with a 
broad stream foaming over its stony bed 
and wild leafy woods looking down on 
each side, where you not only have a 
carriage road at the bottom, but an inex- 
haustible variety of foot-paths, where you 
can force your way through thickets and 
test your physical ability in climbing up 
and down steep slopes, and in places 
scaling the faces of bold cliffs. 

All that you have in Rock Creek Park. 
And yet I am told that a good deal of 
the land behind Rock Creek Park is 
being sold for building purposes. ‘The 
beauty of a portion of the park has al- 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ready been spoiled at the place where 
the Mt. Pleasant road goes down into the 
park toward Pierce’s-Mill, by the erection 
of a row of not too beautiful houses. A 
great deal of the land which lies north- 
west of Rock Creek Park, toward Con- 
necticut avenue, does not belong to the 
District. 

And yet it is quite essential to the 
beauty of Rock Creek Park that that 
tract of charming woodland should not 
be built upon. The builder has been 
stealing steadily forward to the edge of | 
the park. Before long much of this tract 
will be covered with buildings. There is 
still time to stop that. There is still time 
to see that all that is not yet touched by 
buildings—at least that. land between 
Connecticut avenue and Rock Creek, on 
the one side, and between Rock Creek 
and the continuation of Georgia avenue, 
toward Silver Spring, on the other— 
and, above all, to see to it that the valley 
of the creek itself, which is now thickly 
wooded, shall be kept forever as a part 
of the Rock Creek Park. 

I should like to go even further—al- 
though perhaps I am indulging in aspira- 
tions and not sufficiently thinking of ap- 
propriations—and consecrate the whole 
of Rock Creek Valley for 10 or 12 miles 
above Washington to the public. It is a 
very beautiful valley. If you will take 
the Chevy Chase car until it crosses Rock 
Creek and then follow the creek up to- 
ward the west for a few miles, and then 
turn back to the car line aforesaid and 
follow the creek down the whole way till 
you strike the Military Road, below Fort 
Stevens, you will pass through a variety 
of river and woodland scenery which it 
is extraordinary to find so close to a 
great city. 

Along one part of the stream there are 
places where the creek is deep and stag- 
nant, with sandy pools; at other places 
the water runs swiftly, and there are rip- 
ples in the stream and many tiny cas- 
cades, where the water splashes over 
ridges of rock and twists round huge 
boulders. You will find an endless va- 
riety of beauty. 

Some day or other such a piece of 
scenery will be of infinite value to the 
people of Washington, who want to re- 


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A WALK IN ROCK 


CREEK PARK 


“To Rock Creek Park there is nothing comparable in any capital city of Europe” (see 
page 738) 


fresh their souls with the charms of 
Nature. All along the creek they will 
see a great many water-loving birds— 
kingfishers and ouzels and others too 
numerous to mention. All along the 
slopes and in the meadows by the stream 
they can find a great many beautiful wild 
flowers. I have found some quite un- 
common and most lovely wild flowers 
growing there in the spring. 

There are leafy glades where a man 
can go and lie down on a bed of leaves 
and listen for hours to the birds singing 
and forget there is such a place as Wash- 
ington and such a thing as politics within 
eight miles of him. 

These things you have now still left, 
though daily threatened, and what a pity 
it would be to lose them! At this mo- 
ment the value of the outlying land I 
have referred to would not be very high. 
AA good deal of it is not very suitable for 


buildings. A good deal of it is not used 
to any extent for agriculture. 


A NATIONAL FOREST PARK NEAR THE 
CAPITAL, 


While on that subject I would like to 
refer to still another matter which has 
been mooted by those who are interested 
in public parks. It has found some favor 
in Baltimore and deserves to find favor 
in Washington. ‘That is the creation of 
a large forest reserve between Washing- 
ton and Baltimore, within, say, 25 miles 
of this city. There are lovely pieces of 
woodland on the Maryland side of the 
Potomac, behind Cabin John Bridge and 
above Cabin John, running along toward 
the neighborhood of Rockville. There is 
not much heavy timber; so the woods, 
though very pretty, cannot be of much 
pecuniary value. 

The land is not very valuable for agri- 


: 


Photo by Albert G. Robinson 


THE ENDLESS VARIETY OF 


“Along one part of the stream there are places where the creek is deep 


BEAUTY 


Photo by Albert G. Robinson 


OF ROCK CREEK PARK 


and stagnant, 


with sandy pools; at other places the water runs swiftly, and there are vipples in the stream 
and many tiny cascades, where the water splashes over ridges of rock and twists round huge 


boulders” (see page 738). 

cultural purposes or it would have been 
turned into cultivation. So far as ap- 
pears, nothing has been done or is be- 
ing done with the land to make much 
profit out of it. There are many other 
pieces of woodland of great beauty far- 
ther to the northeast and east. Most if 
not all of those woods could be bought 
at moderate prices. They could be man- 
aged so as to bring in a revenue which 
would with good forestry methods per- 
haps return a profit, or at any rate pay 
the cost of administration. 

What a thing it would be for the peo- 
ple of Baltimore and Washington to have 
an immense open space like that, where 
they could go out on Saturdays and Sun- 
days, especially in the summer months; 
where they could wander about, have 


“~ 


their picnic parties, and enjoy these pleas- 
ures of nature, which are the simplest 
and purest that God has bestowed upon 
his creatures the capacity of enjoying. 
Now, you may say this is all very fine 
and pretty, but where are the funds to 
come from? Well, considering that the 
District of Columbia Uncle 
property, and that his purse is a deep one, 
and that a wide-open region for recrea- 
tion will become more and more valu- 
able, and the obtaining it more and more 
costly time on, what you have 
got to do is to educate public opinion and 
induce Congress to spend a moderate sum 


Sam's 


is 


as goes 


for this purpose, while the people of 
Baltimore induce their city and the State 
of Maryland to do the like. No peopl 


\meri 


is really more idealistic than the 


yet 


IN THE SUBURBS 


can people, and if you once get hold of 
their imagination and appeal to their 
sense of the ideal, they will respond. 


REMEMBER THE STORY OF THE SIBYL WHO 
CAME TO KING TARQUIN 


You probably remember the old tale— 
I will not call it a threadbare story, but 
a time-honored story—of the sibyl who 
came to King Tarquin with nine books 
of prophecies to sell, and how when she 
named their price the king said it was 
too much. She went away and burned 
three of the books and came back, and 
still the king said the price was too much, 
and she went away and burned three 
more and came back with only three 
books and asked him to buy those, and 
then the king perceived there was more 
in the matter than he had supposed and 
gave her the price for the three that she 
had originally asked for the nine and re- 
gretted that the other six had been de- 
stroyed. Those three contained predic- 
tions and warnings which made the 
greatness of Rome. Who can tell how 
much longer the Roman Empire would 
have lasted if Tarquin had bought the 
whole nine. 


Bae sas Photo by Albert G. Robinson fe 
OF WASHINGTON a ee 


So some day the people are going to 
set the true value upon all these things— 
these spots of beauty around Washing- 
ton and all the tract behind the Rock 
Creek Valley and these woodlands I have 
spoken of. When that day comes one of 
two things will happen: Those who come 
after you will either have to pay far 
more for these pieces of ground than 
would have to be paid now, or else men 
will mourn in vain over opportunities of 
enjoyment forever lost. .This is the fa- 
vorable moment. The value of land near 
this great and growing city is rising every 
day. If you can but convince those who 
hold the purse-strings, it will be good 
business to buy now and dedicate to the 
public for all time to come. 


YOU HAVE NEVER SUFFICIENTLY FORESEEN 
HOW ENORMOUSLY RICH AND POPU- 
LOUS A NATION YOU ARE 
GOING TO BE. 


The trouble has been with you that 
you have not been sufficiently hopeful in 
those past years during which wealth and 
population were growing all through the— 
19th century. It may seem strange to 
say so to an American audience, because 


744 


A FARMING SCENE IN THE 


you are supposed, and rightly, to be the 
most sanguine of peoples. Nevertheless, 
you have never sufficiently foreseen how 
enormously rich and populous a nation 
you are going to be. 

I read lately a book in which a Eu- 
ropean traveler described the site of 
Washington as it was in 1795. He said 
it consisted of woods, through which he 
could not find his way from the village 
of Georgetown to the spot where now 
stands the Capitol. Just think what has 
been done since that time! 

Look at the pace at which your city 
has been growing. Within the last six 
years it seems to me it has extended it- 
self half a mile further into the country 
in every direction, covering what were 
then fields and woods with streets and 
squares. 

As the result of the amazing growth 
of the United States you are going to 
have an enormous Capital, even if it has 
no large industries. We made the mis- 
take in London of not foreseeing how 
London would grow. When. we began 
80 years ago to build railway stations we 
made little tiny stations, not realizing 


OUTSKIRTS OF 


Photo by Albert G. 
NATION'S CAPITAL 


THE 


that the country and with it London were 
going to grow enormously, and that far 
more space would be needed for our in- 
creased traffic. It seems strange now 
that every man of sense did not foresee 
this growth and the need for preparing 
to meet it. 

People ought to have realized 80 years 
ago what the progress of modern science 
was certain to achieve, what railroads 
were going to become, what larger facili- 
ties for transportation were sure to be 
required, how coal and steam power were 
going to increase wealth and industry, and 
how population would multiply. W hether 
any European countries will continue to 
grow as fast in the future as Britain and 
Germany have grown during the past 80 
years, I will not venture to conjecture; 
but about the continuing increase of 
wealth and population here in the United 
States there can be no doubt at all. 


GEORGE WASHINGTON’S FORESIGHT 


That increase seems destined to con- 
tinue here for at least a century and a 
half or two centuries to come, and at the 
end of that time no one can tell what 


Robinson 


Photo by Albert G. Robinson 
THE WOODS NEAR WASHINGTON 


“One may wander day after day in new walks all through these woods to the northwest 
and west of the city. One need never take the same walk twice, for there is an endless 
variety of foot-paths, each with its own vistas of woodland beauty” (see page 719). 


2 
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LE ESS ean 
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“What you want is to have a city which every one who comes from Maine, Texas, 
Florida, Arkansas, or Oregon can admire as being something finer and more beautiful than 
he had ever dreamed of before; something which makes him even more proud to be an 
American; something which makes him wish to diffuse the same idea of beauty through 
his own State as he sees set forth in visible form here” (see page 731). 


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your population may have become. That 
is the reason why you should think about 
these things now and make your prepa- 
rations for the future. The only man 
who seems to have foreseen the great- 
ness of this city, so far as I can learn, 
was George Washington himself. 

Although he died before Louisiana was 
purchased and long before you acquired 
territory on the Pacific coast, he ap- 
pears to have realized that this was go- 
ing to be an enormous country and ought 
to have a grand capital, and you ought 
to go back to his ideals and render the 
greatest tribute you can render to his 
immortal memory. 

What you have got to do is to make 
the nation feel that it has a real living 
interest in Washington. Make the man 
from Maine and from Minnesota and 
from Florida feel that Washington be- 
longs to him. It is not those only who 


THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


live here in Washington that are the 
owners of Washington, but these men 
also who dwell all over the country. 
Many of them, and all their representa- 
tives, come here every year, and as they 
are proud of the nation they ought also 
to feel proud of their nation’s capital. 

Having lived in this city among you 
with so much happiness and enjoyment 
during the past six years, it is with deep 
regret that my wife and I are now pre- 
paring to depart from you. But, re- 
membering the unceasing and unvarying 
kindness we have received from all of 
you here in Washington, we shall recall 
those six years with constant pleasure, 
continuing to cherish the recollection of 
our Washington friends, and our hopes 
and wishes will always be with those 
who are striving to make Washington 
beautiful, and a capital worthy of the 
majesty of this mighty nation. 


Photo by Albert G. Robinson 
A SCENE IN ROCK CREEK PARK, IN THE NATION'S CAPITAL 


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These hardy African mountaineers never knew a master until they were with difficulty 
subdued by the French. They are still impatient of control and from time to time are a 
source of trouble to the authorities. 


750 


The official costume of a mandarin in Annam 1s a rich robe of silk, covered with 
magnificent embroidery, having enormous open sleeves, lined \ ith silk of another color or 
with cloth of gold or silver. The head-dress is the most curious part of the official insignia; 
it consists of papier-machié hat, elaborately lacquered and gilded, in shape not unlike a 


bishop’s mitre. A servant holds over him a canopy of scented grass or feat 


hers. 


A FUNERAL IN YUNNAN 


Yunnan is a province in the southwest of China, lying next to Burma and Tibet, and is 
one of the richest in its mineral wealth, producing gold, silver, lead, and tin. Some of the 
best varieties of Chinese tea are also grown there. The people inhabiting it are Lolos and 
not Chinese, but they have adopted the Chinese language, religion, and customs, so that this 
picture is a typical Chinese funeral. The color of mourning is white, not black, and the 
men at the head of the procession are carrying flags of this color, which they will later erect 
over the grave. The curious-looking towers carried behind the coffin are supposed to ward 
off evil spirits and prevent their coming near the funeral procession. 


758 


LOLO WOMEN 


The aboriginal inhabitants of the province of Yunnan, the southw 
of China, are the Lolos, of all races the most intractable under Chines¢ 
hardy race of agriculturists and one of the most industrious types in | 
agriculture they are famous as miners, having manned the gover! 
first opening, countless centuries ago. The musicians of the private orches 
all over China are drawn from this people, who have also a gr 


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A BACHELOR'S CLUB IN NEW GUINEA 


The Papuans, as the inhabitants of New Guinea are called, have a curious method of 


educating the young men. At the age of ten years every boy goes to live at the “Ibitoe,” 
or Bachelors’ Club, which he does not leave until his marriage. These clubs are often very 
large and are always situated at the extreme end of the village. Between 15 and 16 years 
of age the boys are initiated as warriors by being sent alone upon hunting expeditions into 
the forest armed only with a long and somewhat brittle lance. When they pass the hunting 
test successfully they are then allowed to marry and to set up a house of their own. 


NG ON A LAKE IN NORTHEI 


This picture, with thre in exhibited at the World's Fair in 


yhotography at night. 


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Copyright, by George Shiras, 3rd 
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ON A LAKE IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN 
receiving the Grand Prize. This series of 


A FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPH BY GEORGE SHIRAS, 3rp, OF A DOE AND HER TWIN FAWNS FEEDING 
sold Medal. It was again exhibited at the World’s Fair in St. Louis, 


This picture, with three others by Mr. Shiras, was exhibited at the Paris Exposition by the United States Government, and received the 
pictures was the first to attract general attention throughout the world to the possibility of animal photography at night. 


SuPPLEMENT To THE NaTioNaAL GeoGrarHic MaGazine, Girsert H. Grosvenor. Epitor 


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From a photograph by Hiram Bingham 


HE great fortress of Sacsahuaman near Cuzco, Peru, is the most stupendous example in America of what 

prehistoric men could accomplish. Its builders had no better tools than stone hammers and fibre ropes, and 
understood no more advanced mechanical principles than the lever and the inclined plane. Many centuries 
ago, long before the days of the Incas, a primitive people constructed these walls. Like the inhabitants of ancient 
Greece, they were aware of the strategic value of salients and reentrant angles, a knowledge which had been lost 
in Europe before the era of the first Crusade. The ancient builders constructed three lines of salients, extending 


THE GREATEST ACHIEVEMENT OF ANCIENT MAN IN AMERICA 


on terraces, one above another, for a third of a mile across the back of the hill which overshadows the city of 
Cuzco. The terraces are faced with colossal boulders, some of which weigh over 20 tons, and most of which 
were brought from quarries in the mountains a mile or two away. Several stones in the lower tier, at the points of 
the salient, are over 20 feet in height. An idea of the enormous size of the units of construction may be formed 
by noticing the height of those members of the Expedition and their mules which may be seen standing in front 
of the lower wall. Notwithstanding the difficulty of handling and placing in position such enormous and extra- 


ordinarily irregular blocks, they were fitted together with great precision. N 
strength of the walls being due to the very irregularity of the bloc 
together. It is almost incredible that a primitive people should have h 
such an enormous undertaking. In the words of the Inca Garcilasso 
nation to conceive how so many and so great stones could be so a 
insertion of the point of a knife between them.” Sacsahu 


lo cement was used in the construction, the 
and the method in which they were locked 
ad the courage and the‘patience to carry out 
de la Vega, “It passes the power of the imagi- 
ccurately fitted together as scarcely to admit the 
aman is, indeed, one of the “Wonders of the World.” 


Copyright by the NATIONAL GeocrarHic MAGazint 


We 


Sees 
1916, Gilbert H. Grosvenor, 


Editor 


Photograph by Eddy 


an 
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Ri 
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MUTILATI 


LHASA—THE MECCA OF THE BUDDHIST FAITH Photo by John Claude White 


Situated ina Tibetan valley, some 12,000 feet above the sea, and with surrounding mountains rising 4,000 to 6,000 fect still higher, Lhasa is to its people “The Ideal City of the World." To the extreme left of the picture may be seen the tents of the British Punitive Expedition, commanded by Younghusband, which first opened “The Forbidden City" to the 
world, On the Potala Hill is the giltsroofed palace of the Dalai Lama, the Supreme Head of Buddhism, containing 490 rooms, Within the walled enclosure of the palace are the homes of some fifteen thousand priests and attendants. At the right, behind the trees, are the low-roofed buildings of the city, 
in the center of which stands the one-storied Great Temple of Lhasa, where, during the annual conference lasting three weeks 80,000 lamas, or priests, come daily to pray. 


Copyright,