UIV.IM
T
VOLUME XXXVI
JULY-DEC., 1919
THE NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE
INDEX
July to December, 1919
VOLUME XXXVI
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL
WASHINGTON, D.C.
&3.00A"
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
GEOGRAPHIC ADMINISTRATION BUILDINGS
SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C.
JOHN E PILLSBURY, President GILBERT GROSVENOR, Director
HENRY WHITE, Vice-president JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE, Vice-Director
O. P. AUSTIN, Secretary GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, Associate Secretary
JOHN JOY EDSON, Treasurer
EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR AND DIRECTOR
JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE, Associate Editor and Vice-Director
WILLIAM J. SHOW ALTER RALPH A. GRAVES FRANKLIN L. FISHER
Assistant Editor Assistant Editor
JESSIE L. BURRALL
Chief of School Service
Chief of Illustrations Division
1917-1919
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Inventor of the telephone
J. HOWARD GORE
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The
George Washington University
A. W. GREELY
Arctic Explorer, Major General
U. S. Army
GILBERT GROSVENOR
Editor of National Geographic
Magazine
ROBERT E. PEARY
Discoverer of the North Pole,
Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy
GEORGE OTIS SMITH
Director of U. S. Geological Sur-
vey
O. H. TITTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey
HENRY WHITE
Member American Peace Com-
mission, and Recently U. S.
Ambassador to France, Italy,
etc.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
CI
1C
I).
C.
O. T. r\j 01x11
Statistician
GEORGE R. PUTNAM
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of
Lighthouses
GEORGE SHIRAS, 30
Formerly Member U. S. Con-
gress, Faunal Naturalist, and
Wild-Game Photographer
GRANT SQUIRES
Military Intelligence Division,
General Staff, New York
1919-1921
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT
Ex-President of the United States
FRANKLIN K. LANE
Secretary of the Interior
C. M. CHESTER
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, For-
merly Supt. U. S. Naval Ob-
servatory
FREDERICK V. COVILLE
Botanist, U. S. Department of
Agriculture
RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN
Managing Editor The Evening
Star
T. L. MACDONALD
M. D., F. A. C. S.
S. N. D. NORTH
Formerly Director U. S. Bureau
of Census
JOHN E. PILLSBURY
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, For-
merly Chief Bureau of Navi-
gation
ORGANIZED FOR "THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE"
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded thirty-one years ago, the National Geographic Society
publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended
directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members
of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Magazine can use, generous remuneration
is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be ad-
dressed: Editor, National Geographic Magazine, i6th and M Streets, Washington, D. C.
Important contributions to geographic science are constantly being made through expeditions financed by
funds set aside from the Society s income. For example, immediately after the terrific eruption of the world's
largest crater, Mt. Katmai, in Alaska, a National Geographic Society expedition was sent to make observa-
tions of this remarkable phenomenon. So important was the completion of this work considered that four
expeditions have followed and the extraordinary scientific data resultant given to the world. In this vicinity
an eighth wonder of the world was discovered and explored "The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes," a vast
area of steaming, spouting fissures, evidently formed by nature as a huge safety-valve for erupting Katmai.
By proclamati9n of the President of the United States, this area has been created a National Monument. The
Society organized and supported a large party, which made a three-year study of Alaskan glacial fields, the
most remarkable in existence. At an expense of over $50,000 it has sent a notable series of expeditions into
Peru to investigate the traces of the Inca race. The discoveries of these expeditions form a large share of
the world's knowledge of a civilization which was waning when Pizarro first set foot in Peru. Trained geol-
ogists were sent to Mt. Pelee, La Soufriere, and Messina following the eruptions and earthquakes. The
Society also had the honor of subscribing a substantial sum to the historic expedition of Admiral Peary, who
discovered the North Pole April 6. 1909. Not long ago the Society granted $20,000 to the Federal Government
wnen the congressional appropriation for the purchase was insufficient, and the finest of the giant sequoia
trees of California were thereby saved for the American people and incorporated into a National Park.
Copyright, 1920, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved.
CONTENTS
PAGE
American Decorations and Insignia of Honor and Service 502
America's South Sea Soldiers. By LORENA MAC!NTYRE QUINN 267
Between Massacres in Van. By MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS 181
Camel of the Frozen Desert, The. By CARL J. LOMEN 538
Celebrating Christmas on the Meuse. By Captain CLIFTON LISLE 527
Curious and Characteristic Customs of the Central African Tribes. By E. TORDAY 342
Descendants of Confucius, The. By MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS 253
Exploring the Glories of the Firmament. By WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER 153
Exploring the Unknown Corners of the "Hermit Kingdom." By ROY C. ANDREWS 24
Geography of Games, The : How the Sports of Nations Form a Gazetteer of the Habits
and Histories of Their Peoples. By J. R. HILDEBRAND 89
Hunter of Plants, A. By DAVID FAIRCHILD 57
Isle of Capri, The : An Imperial Residence and Probable Wireless Station of Ancient
Rome. By JOHN A. KINGMAN 213
Land of Lambskins, The : An Expedition to Bokhara, Russian Central Asia, to Study the
Karakul Sheep Industry. By ROBERT K. NABOURS 77
Land of the Stalking Death, The: A Journey through Starving Armenia on an Ameri-
can Relief Train. By MELVILLE CHATER 393
Masters of Flight. Rotogravure insert. VIII plates 49
Mexican Land of Canaan, A : Marvelous Riches of the Wonderful West Coast of Our
Neighbor Republic. By FREDERICK SIMPICH 307
Progressive World Struggle of the Jews for Civil Equality, The. By WILLIAM HOWARD
TAFT i
Rise of the New Arab Nation, The. By FREDERICK SIMPICH 369
Romance of Military Insignia, The: How the United States Government Recognizes
Deeds of Heroism and Devotion to Duty. By Col. ROBERT E. WYLLIE, General Staff,
U. S. A 463
Shantung China's Holy Land. By CHARLES K. EDMUNDS 231
Shattered Capitals of Central America. By HERBERT J. SPINDEN 185
Syria : The Land Link of History's Chain. By MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS 437
Vanishing People of the South Seas, A : The Tragic Fate of the Marquesan Cannibals,
Noted for Their Warlike Courage and Physical Beauty. By JOHN W. CHURCH 275
Weavers of the World. Rotogravure insert. VIII plates 145
Where Slav and Mongol Meet. By MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS. Color insert. XVI
plates 421
Wild Ducks as Winter Guests in a City Park. By JOSEPH DIXON 331
INDEX FOR VOL. XXXVI (JULY-DECEMBER), 1919
AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX
ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES
"A"
Page
Aaronson, Julius, Private, U. S. Army, Company
G, logth Infantry: Decorated with the Distin-
guished Service Cross with bronze oak leaf
cluster 496
Abbot, Prof. Charles G 168
Acapulco, Mexico 37
Aces wearing trophies of war won in the air... ill. 492
Acre, Syria 440
Acropolis crowned by the sentinel city of Heizan-
chin ill. 47
Actium, Greece, Battle of 216
rvdams, English astronomer 157
Aden, Arabia, .ill., 387; 16x1,312,371,378-380,390-391
Advance Section, Service of Supply, U. S. Army:
Insigna of ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
Aerial acrobatics ill. 143
Aerial granaries, Bapinji tribe, Congo Free State..
ill. 355
^schylus, Greek poet 221
Afghanistan 462
Africa 371. 378, 443
Africa, The champion high jumper of ill. 130
Agha Khan, Moslem leader: Manifesto from 369
Agincourt, Poitiers and 100
Agriculture, Arabia 381
Agriculture, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.... 295
Agriculture, Mexico 309, 315
Agriculture, Syria 444
Agua Fria Ranch, Sonora, Mexico 319
Agua, Guatemala : Volcano 203
Ahkaf Desert, Arabia 380
Airplane engine, The development of ill. 139
Alaska 545-546, 548
Alaskan and his dumb friend, the reindeer: An
ill. 547
Alaskan Peninsula 539
Alban Mountains, Italy 227
"Al Bedoo," or "The Dwellers in the Open
Land" 373
Albert of Austria, Archduke 91
Albricci, General, Italian Army ill. 466
Albuquerque, Affonso de, Portuguese navigator
and conqueror 375
Aleppo, Syria ill., 456; 16x1,371,380,437,443,448
Alexander the Great: Use of mirror on Alexan-
drian Pharos 221
Alexandretta, Syria 437
Alexandria, Egypt 219
Alexandria, Egypt: Jewish population of i
Alexandrian Pharos, Mirror on: Old story of 221
Alexandropol, Russian Caucasus 407,414,418
Alexandropol, Russian Caucasus: Armenian or-
phans at ill. 409
"Al Hadr," or "Dwellers in Fixed Localities" . . . . 373
Ali, Fourth caliph 390
Allenby's crusade in Palestine 369
Alletly, Russian Caucasus: Population of 418
Allied generals honoring General Petain at Metz,
Germany ill. 4 66
Almada, Senor: Occasion of his daughter's mar-
riage 309
Aloe, or Maguey plant, Mexico 321
Altar screen, Church of the Cerrito de Carmen,
Guatemala City, Guatemala ill. 2 i i
Alvarado, Jorge de, Founder of La Bermunda 202
Alvarado, Pedro de, Founder of Ciudad Vieja 202
Alton Beach, Miami, Florida: Aquaplaning off, ill. 108
Amapala, Honduras 211
Amatitlan City, Guatamala 197
Amatitlan Lake, Guatemala i 97
Ambulance Service, U. S. Army: Insigna of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
America has contributed baseball and the city
playground to sport 105, 109, 121
Page
American Arabian Mission, Bahrein Islands, Per-
sian Gulf . 378, 389
American Committee, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus:
Work among the Armenian refugees 404
AMERICAN DECORATIONS AND INSIGNIA
OF HONOR AND SERVICE 502
American fashions feed frugal Chinese 253
American idea of Arabs 373
American large-fruited hawthorn 59
American Museum of Natural History: Expedi-
tion to Korea 25
American naval officers receiving the French
Legion of Honor Decoration: On board the
U. S. S. Pennsylvania ill. 468
American officers: British decorations received by
ill. 473
American papaw 59
American Red Cross Relief Camp, "Manuel Estrada
Cabrera:" Hospital section of, Guatemala City,
Guatemala ill. 206
American Relief Committee, Armenia 404,407,
409, 412, 417-418, 420
American relief train: Yezidi refugees stealing a
ride on an ill. 403
American rescued by Kikela from Marquesan
cannibals 302
American salesmen, Mexico 311
American steam-shovel: Mexican use of the... ill. 320
AMERICA'S SOUTH SEA SOLDIERS. BY
LORENA MAcINTYRE QUINN 267
''Am-nok" (green duck), name given Yalu River
by Koreans 48
Amur River, Asia 254
Anacapri Road, Capri Island, Italy 216
Anaezas, Arabia 371
Anatolia, Asia Minor 369
Ancestor worship is universal in Korea ill. 46
Ancestral city of Rothschilds, In Frankfort-on-the-
Main, the ill. 18
Andrews, Roy C. Exploring Unknown Corners of
the "Hermit Kingdom" 25
Andromeda nebula ill. 1 72
Animals, Arabia 383-384
Animals, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282
Animals, Wild, Arabia 384
Animals, Wild, Congo Free State 363-365
Animals, Wild, Mexico 319, 322
Annapolis Wireless Station 162
Annuaire des Establissements Francais de
1'Oceanie: Population, Marquesas Islands, Pa-
cific Ocean 306
Anthropological research, Central Africa 359
Antigua, Guatemala: Destruction of 203-204
Antigua, Guatemala's second capital 203
Antioch, Syria ill., 454-455 ; text, 446
Antioch, Syria: Roads to ill. 454
Antlers: Use made of by the reindeer 545-546, 554
Antung at the mouth of the Yalu River 48
Apia, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean 274
Apricot of China, The wild 66
Aquaplaning off Alton Beach: Miami, Florida, ill. 108
Arab camp at the foot of Mount Sinai, Persia, ill. 392
Arab fortifications, Specimen of ill. 389
Arab gateway to old Maskat, Oman ill. 375
Arabia ill., 370, 372, 375, 376-377,
379-382, 384-387, 389-392; text, 369-393
Arabia: Aristocracy of 375
Arabia: Division of by ancients 380
Arabia: Government of 371
Arabia : Map of ill. (map) 374
Arabia: Physical geography of 378-380
Arabia: Rise of the new 369, 371, 373, 393
Arabia: Turkish authority in 371
Arabian Desert 437
Arabian horses 383
IV
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
Page
Arabian influence upon Central African tribes. .360-361
Arabian Sea ^78
Arabia's trade with the United States .'.390-391
Arabic language, Terms from 378
Arabic name for Hebron is El-Khalil, The .'.'].' 8
Arable land of Korea ill. 2 8
Arabs: American idea of 373
Arabs as soldiers
_
Arabs, Central Africa ...................... 360-361
Arab's contribution to the science of medicine. 375,378
Arabs, Description of ...................... 373 ? 375
Arabs, Education of ........................... ' 375
Arabs, Modern ............................. ' ' ' 373
Arabs, Origin of the race ....................... 373
Arabs, Religion of ............................ 375
Arab's vision of Paradise ....................... 377
Ararat, Armenia .............................. I g I
Arax River, Asia ............................... 4^4
Arch of Ctesiphon: Ruins of ................ . 380
Arch of Titus, The .......................... ill. 6
Archery ............... ................... '.'...' IOO
Archery on horseback: Ancient .............. ill. 90
Arches, Pointed, Arabia ...................... ill. 375
Archimedes, Geometrician .................. 220-221
Arct ! c " .................................. 539, 54i
Arctic Ocean .......... ....................... 555
Argentina, Texas, and Palestine: Rural colonies
of Jews in .................................. 23
Argonne, France .............................. 443
Aristocracy of Arabia .......................... 375
Arizona .................................. 307,311
"Ark in Flood" Medals: Issue of, by Queen
Elizabeth of England ......................... 464
Armenia .............................. 181, 393-420
Armenia: Youthful volunteers who tramped from
Artemid to Van .......... ill., 182-184; text, 183-184
Armenian boy .............................. ill. 419
Armenian children begging a train-ride ........ ill. 404
Armenian children eating their dole of boiled rice,
Igdir, Russian Caucasus .................... ill. 412
Armenian children, Igdir, Russian Caucasus, .ill., 412;
text, 409,412-413, 417-418
Armenian children, Tragedy of ....... ill., 404, 408-410,
412-415, 417; text, 404, 407, 409, 412-413, 417-418
Armenian children weaving rugs in the American
Committee shops at Erivan, Russian Caucasus
HI. 413
Armenian orphans, Alexandropol, Russian Cau-
casus .................................. ill. 409
Armenian orphans, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus:
American Committee's work among ........ 404-405
Armenian orphans working under the direction of
an American Relief Committee ............. ill. 415
Armenian Plateau ............................. 254
Armenian refugees ...... ill., 396, 403-404, 406, 408-410,
412-415,417; text, 393-420
Armenian refugees carding wool in Tiflis, Russian
Caucasus ................................ ill. 396
Armenian refugees, Karakillisse, Russian Cau-
casus ....................................... 405
Armenian refugees, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus. . .403-404
Armenians seeking what warmth the sun can give
ill. 414
Army Artillery School, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Arnold, Matthew : Simile by .................... 388
Arpa-Tchai River, Armenia ..................... 407
Art of conversation in Georgia, Russian Caucasus. 401
Artemid to Van, Armenia: Youthful volunteers
who tramped from ........ ill., 182-184; text, 183-184
Artist's Model, Capri Island, Italy .......... ill. 229
Aseer, Arabia ................................. 380
Ash, Kashgar ................. ............... 75
Ashkenazim or German Jews .................... 5
Asia ......................................... 449
Asia: Card and board games developed in southern 91
Asia Minor ............................... 397, 462
Asiatic Archipelago ............................ 275
Asiatic Russia ................................. 393
Assur-bani-pal of Assyria ..................... ill. 90
Astronomers, Patience of ....................... 165
Ataona, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean ---- ill., 288;
text, 303
Atgamar. Russian Caucasus: Population of ...... 418
Athos, Monte: Turkey in Europe ............... 223
Atmosphere: Effect upon the telescope ........... 162
Augustus, Emperor: Occupation of Capri Island,
Italy ....................... 213, 216, 219, 229, 231
Australia, "Speering the alligator," An aboriginal *'
ceremony jn 6
Automobile race, Indianapolis. . . '. '. .'.'... ill i^g
Ava-Ava, or Ava-ti: Native intoxicant, " Mar^ '
quesas Island, Pacific Ocean 297
Ayesha, Favorite wife of Mohammed..
Azerbaijan, Persia ' ,,
Aztec trail
397
307
B"
379
Bab-el-Mandeb, Straits of..,
Babylonia .'!.'!.'!." 327
Babylonia: Seat of Jewish ecclesiastical authority.'
Babylonian Talmud
Bacchus Temple, Baalbek, Syria: Ruin's" of "the
ill., 450; text, 450
Backgammon as played in Burma 89
Bagdad, Mesopotamia 327,371,375,378,380,
Bagdad, Mesopotamia: One of the gates of . . '. .ill' 389
Bagdad railway 3 8 , 457-458, 462
Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf 372, 385, 388-390
Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf: Ownership of 380
Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf: Population of 390
Baja, ' or Lower California, Mexico 326-327
"Bajareque," San Salvador: A ill. X 86
Baker, Newton D., Secretary of War, United
States in 477
Baku, Russian Caucasus 399, 444
Bakwese native, A jn.' 350
Bakwese natives, Congo Free State ill., 343, 350;
Baldpate ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California'
JH-, 334J text, 331
Halkans OQQ
Baltusrol: Golf course at ill. 135
Baluchistan, India .' 462
Bambak Defile, Russian Caucasus 405
Bambala fashions in hair-dressing, Congo Free
v St ? t( T ',- "; '"' 3 f- 3 ' 35 ; text> 343> 345> 349-350
JSamnala idea of immortality 345
Bambala natives, Congo Free State. . .ill., 343, 346, 362;
text, 342-343, 345
Bambala traders, Congo Free State 359
Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 342, 345, 349,
Bamboo, Plantation of edible ill. 61
Bamboo cable ferry on the Siku River, A ill. 60
Bamboo hoods ill. 66
Band, Fita-Fitas, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 266; text, 272-273
Band, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Native
ill., 266; text, 272
Bandits, Shantung, China 265
Banias, Syria 448
Baobab tree, Tropical Africa ill. 354
Bapinji bellringer, Congo Free State ill. 348
Bapotos tribe, Congo Free State: Chief of the. .ill. 365
Barn owls 511. (rotogravure insert), Plate III, 49-56
Baseball to sport: America has contributed. . .ill., 136;
text, 105, 109
Basket made of straw braid, Shantung, China.... 257
Basoko natives, Congo Free State 359
Bassora, Arabia 380, 388, 391
Bat caves, Mexico 314-315
Bat hunters, Mexico 314-315
Battle of Hasting, The 100
Batum, Russian Caucasus 393, 396-397
Bay of Acre, Syria 440
Bav of Hakahetou, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 302
Bay of Hatiheu, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 302
Bay of Magdalena, Lower California, Mexico. .327, 329
Bay of Naples, Description of 213
Bay of Puamau, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Oc^an
282, 302
Bay of Pusa, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean... 283
Bay of Vaitahu, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean . 303
Bayanzi women, Congo Free State: Hair dress of
the ill. 358
Bazaar streets of Maskat, Oman ill. 370
Beacon signaling. Roman methods of 221, 224, 227
Beauty behind ''Blinkers," Arabia ill. 380
Beck Engraving Company 464
Bedouin camp in the Hejaz, Arabia: Milking
goats at a ill. 382
VI
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Bedouin clans, Arabia 37*
Bedouins, Arabia 37, 373, 375, 381, 384, 392
Bedouins training for war against the Turks... ill. 34
Beersheba, Palestine : Scene in ill. 4
Beersheba, Palestine: Wells of. .ill., 4475 text, 445, 447
Beilan, Syria ill- 446
Beirut, Syria, .ill., 438; text, 438, 442, 454, 456-457, 462
Beirut, Syria: Syrian Protestant College 454-456
Belle of the Bambala tribe, Congo Free State.. ill. 346
Belongings of the Armenian dead: Disposition
made of the 410-411
Beni Lamb tribes, Mesopotamia 37 1 > 37
Benson, Admiral, U. S. Navy ill. 476
Bering Sea 555
Berlin, Germany 380
Berlin-to-Bagdad route 437, 443-444
Bessel, Astronomer *55
Beta Aurigne 168
BETWEEN MASSACRES IN VAN. BY MAY-
NARD OWEN WILLIAMS 181
Bighorns, Mexico 322
Birds, Arabia 381, 383
Birds, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282
Birds, Mexico 3 19
Birejik, Syria 444
Bisharins, Egypt 379
Bjurstedt, Molla, of the twelfth century, Margot
was the 132
Black, General, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army:
Decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal 495
Black-death sorcery 9
Black Sea 10, 393, 396-397
Blashfield, E. H. Designer of Testimonial to be
given to American soldiers wounded in battle
during the World War ill. 465
Bloemfontein, Orange Free State 444
Blood as a tonic, Korea 31
Blue Grotto, Capri Island, Italy 216
Blue Grotto, Capri Island, Italy: Rugged path
leading from village of Capri to ill. 218
Blue heron (rotogravure insert), Plate V 53
Blunt, Lady Ann 380
Board games developed in southern Asia, Card
and 91
Boat racing ill. 1 28- 1 29
Boatman of Haifa, Syria 440-441
Boats, Congo River: Native ill. 363
Bagh-dolah 65
Bokale, A native of Congo Free State 367
Bokhara, Russian Turkestan. . 444
Bokhara, Russian Turkestan: Caravan arriving at
market ill. 84
Bokhara, Russian Turkestan, Hospitality in. . .ill., 82;
text, 79
Boleo Mine, Santa Rosalia, Mexico 329
Bolshevist revolution 397
Bond of play, The 140-141, 143
Bontoc Igorot, Slapping game of the Philippines
ill. 140
Books on scrolls: Jewish scribes at Saloniki writ-
ing sacred ill., 2 ; text, 3
Border problem between the United States and
Mexico 327
Boundary dispute between the Georgians and
Armenians 399
Bow : Shooting with the 89
Boxing 91, 125, 128
Boxing bout on a U. S. Training ship, A ill. 124
Boxing, Jack Broughton, English father of... 125, 128
Boy scouts of Armenia. .. .ill. (color insert), Plate IV,
Bracelet of a Muri, Bambala tribe, Congo Free
State 342
Branley, Scientist 158
Brasswork factory, Damascus, Syria 445
Bread line, Van, Armenia, ill. (color insert), Plate IX,
4 2 9
Breadfruit, Marquesas Island, Pacific Ocean, .ill., 298;
text, 283, 287, 298
Breadfruit, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean:
Pits for storing of 287, 289
Breaking a strike by kidnapping a tribe's women,
Congo Free State 361-363
Bremen, Germany 444
British decorations received by American officers
British light railwav. Arabia 380
British Navy General Service Medal 471-472
Page
British officers receiving the American Distin-
guished Service Medal from General Pershing
British soldiers: How they brought about peace
between Georgians and Armenians 399
"The Broad Way to Heaven," Path leading to
Tai Shan Mountain, Shantung, China 241
"Bronchos," Mexico 323
Bronze Badge of Courage: Red Cross nurses and
American soldier patients wearing the ill. 482
Bronze tablet in a Tai Shan temple, Shantung,
China ill. 243
Broughton, Jack: English "father of boxing". 125, 128
Brown, Lytle, General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Bufflehead ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California 331
Bulgaria 397
Bull-fight in Spain, A ill. 94
Bull-fighting 94, 100
Bull-fighting, Mexico 94
Bullock train laden with American flour ill. 416
Bunder Abbas, Persia 388
Burden-bearers, Korean ill. 29, 32, 44, 45
Bureau of Education: Introduction of reindeer
into Alaska '. SSL 555
Bureau of standards, Chinese ill. 257
Burma, India 444
Burros, Mexico 3 2 3
Burton, Sir Richard Francis 373, 380
Bushire, Persia 388
Cable ferry on the Siku River, A bamboo ill. 60
Caborca, Mexico 33
Cresar, Julius, Roman general 216
Cairo, Egypt 37L 393, 443-444
Cairo-to-Calcutta express 443-444
California, Gulf of 3*9
Caligula used loaded dice 92
Calisthenic drills ill. 131
Camel caravan from Birejik, Syria ill. 444
Camel. Disembarking of a ill. 372
CAMEL OF THE FROZEN DESERT, THE.
BY CARL T. LOMEN 538
Camel train. Terablus, Mesopotamia ill. 444
Camels, Arabia ill., 372; text, 383
Camel's thorn nlant. China 62-63
Camino Real, Roval Highway: Guatemala ill. 200
Camotan. Guatemala ill. 210
Camouflage Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of....
ill. "(colored), 517; text, 526
Camp Pontanezen, U. S. Army: Insiernia of....
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Campania from the limestone cliffs of Capri Island,
Italy ill- 227
Campania, Italv ill., 274, 226; text, 216
Cangne or Neck-stock, China ill., 232; text, 231
Cannibalism, Bambala tribe. Congo Free State. 353, 359
Cannibalism, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean...
275, 285, 306
Cannon, Muzzle-loadine. Muskat, Oman 376
Cantel, Guatemala: Market-place, Earthenware
sale i' 1 l. 200
Cantel. Guatemala: T>nnoramic v ''ew of ill. 208
Canvasback ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, Cali-
fornia ill., 332, 3345 text. 331-334
Cape of Good Hope 3"
Cape San Lucas 379
Cape Town. Africa 444
Capital of Armenia: Van, historic 181
Capri Island, Italy: Acquisition of by Augustus
216, 219
Caravans. China: Fnm'pment of 233
Carding wool in Tiflis, Russian Caucasus: Arme-
nian refugees ill. 396
Cathredal, Ataona, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean ill. 288
Canri Island, Italv ill., 214-215, 218-219,
221-221. 225-226, 228, 230: text, 213-231
Capri Island. Italy: Modern costumes of ill. 217
Capri Island. Ttalv: Panoramic view of ill. 230
Canri Island. Italy: Path leading from village to
Blue Gronn ill. 218
Capri T=land, Ttalv: "Pharos of 219-220, 224, 227
Capri Island, Italv: Seizure of bv English 219
Canri Island. Italy: V ; H->s clvnbering up rockv
cliffs of ." ill. 223
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
VII
Page
Caravan en route for the Wu Tai Shan, China:
Plant-collecting ill. s g
Caravan arriving at market, Bokhara, Russian
Turkestan ill. 84
Caravans, Arabia 37I
Caravansary, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus ill. 398
Carchemish, Mesopotamia: Ruins of 458,462
Card and board games developed in southern Asia 91
Card game, Holland, A ill. g$
Card games, Origin of 93
Cargo-boats, Grand Canal, China ill. 250
Caribou, Alaska 539
Carol service in the village church, Peuvillers,
France, Christmas, 1918 532-533
Carranza has abolished bull-fighting in Mexico.... 94
Cartago, Costa Rica 212
Carter, W. H., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Carthaginians and Phoenicians loved swimming.. 89
Casimir the Great of Poland 10
Caspian Sea 393
Caspian terns. . .ill. (rotogravure), Plates II, VII, 49-56
Castello de Barbarossa, Capri Island, Italy: Ruins
of ill. 226
Castiglione, Monte, Capri Island, Italy: Roman
and medieval ruins on ill. 219
Castle Rock, Van, Armenia, ill. (color insert),
Plate VIII, 421-436; text, 181
Cathedral, Antigua, Guatemala ill. 203
California 332
Cattle, Arabia 383
Cattle, Mexico i 311
Caucasus 462
Cave in Castle Rock, Van, Armenia 419
Cave of Machpelah 1 1
Cavo, Monte, Italy 227
CELEBRATING CHRISTMAS ON THE MEUSE.
BY CAPTAIN CUFTON LISLE 527
Cemetery, Guatemala City, Guatemala: Ruins of
ill. 207
Central Africa ill., 343-344. 346-358, 360-366,
368; text, 342-368
Central African tribes 342-368
Central America 185-212
Central America: Earthquakes ill., 186, 205-207,
209, 211 ; text, 185, 187,192,197,202-205, 211
Central America, Map of: Showing principal vol-
canoes ill. (map) 194
Central Park, New York Citv: Skating in ill. 116
Central Records Office, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Cerrito de Carmen, Guatemala City, Guatemala
ill., 208-209, 211-212; text, 204-205
Cerrito de Carmen, Guatemala City, Guatemala:
Destruction of by earthquake 204-205
Cerrito de Barmen, Guatemala City, Guatemala:
Rescued image, Services being held before.. ill. 212
Certificate of Merit 472, 475, 408-499
Certificate of Merit Badge, U. S. Army ill.
(colored), 504; text, 498, 502
Ceylon, Indian Ocean 539
Chandler, C. De F., Col., U. S A.rmy: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Chapel of the Angels, Church of the Holy
Sepulcher, Jerusalem 450
Character of the Jewish people i
Charlemagne sought to popularize archery 100
Charles I of England: Medals issued bv 464, 468
Charles II of England: Medals issued by 468
Charles V of Spain, Bull-fighting perpetuated
by 94, 100
Chart of the heavens ill. 170, 174, 176, 177, 179
Chart of the sky, A photographic ill., 178; text, 169
Chart showing the relative size of the sun, moon,
and maior planets ill. 180
Charter of general privileges to the Jews 10
Chateau-Thierry, France 253
Chateau-Thierry hero: Pershing decorating a.. ill. 49
Chater % Melville. _ The Land of the Stalking Death 393
Cheberi de Tustiniano, Antonio Maria, Conqueror. 205
Chekiang, China 251
Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. Armv: Insignia
of ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Chemulpo, Korea 25
Cherry, Tangsi 75
Chestnut, Chinese 75-76
Chief of the Bapotos tribe, Congo Free State. . .ill. 365
Chieh Chou, Southwest Kansu, China 73
Chien Lung, Chinese emperor..,
Chigri, Monte, Italy
Chili, China: A row of poplars 'in .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' .'ill'. 65
Children, Alexandropol, Russian Caucasus 407
Children, Armenia: Tragedy of ill., 404, 408-410,
r-u-i i 4I2 ; 4I > 4i7; text, 404, 407, 409, 412-413, 417-418
Children, Envan, Russian Caucasus: Single day's
rescue of
ill. 408
Children in the weaving shops, Igdir, Russian
Caucasus 409
Children, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. ... 295-296
Children, Mexico: Group of ill. 32 8
Children's Crusade, The .' 9I
Chilkat Indians of Alaska, Primitive loom of the
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate III, 145-152
Ch in Shih-huang, Builder of the Great Wall of
China 2 ,(.
China: Bamboo cable ferry on the Siku River
from Tibet to j\\ g o
China Relief Expedition Medal, U. S. Army .'
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507
China Relief Expedition Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 505; text, 503
China: Row qf poplars in Chili Province ill. 65
China's Atlantic City (Tsingtau, Shantung) . . . 258-259
"China's great sorrow" (Yellow River) ill., 236-239;
China's Holy Land (Shantung, China) .' 231-252
China's sidewalk restaurants ill. 256
Chinese bureau of standards, A ill. 257
Chinese caravan : Equipment of a 233
Chinese chestnut 75-76
Chinese draught men towing junks up the Yalu
River ill., 36 ; text, 48
Chinese elms 75
Chinese fishing boat ill. 258
Chinese fishing net ill. 261
Chinese globular-headed willow 75
Chinese hawthorns ill., 68; text, 59
Chinese hickory tree ill. 74
Chinese horse-chestnut 65
Chinese hot-houses and forcing-houses 66-67
Chinese jujube or Ts'ao ill. 72, 74, 75; text, 59, 75
Chinese junks ill. 259-260
Chinese, Lower California, Mexico 329
Chinese Lycium 65
Chinese mandarins under the old regime ill. 263
Chinese paeonias 67
Chinese persimmon, Tampoan seedless ill., 69;
text, 59
Chinese pistache tree ill., 64; text, 65, 76
Chinese refrigerator cars ill. 262
Chinese smoke tree (Rhus cotinus) 73
Chinese sumac (Rhus javanica) 73
Chinese tea olive, The 75
Chinese Turkestan: Kirghiz women at an inn in
ill. 59
Chinese white-barked pine tree, The ill., 70;
text, 65, 76
Chinkiang, Kiangsu, China 251-252
Chiquimula, Guatemala 205
Chon Chin or Seshin, Korea 28
Chou Kung, Founder of the Duchy of Lu. ....... 249
Christmas box from home: Soldiers receiving
their ill. 535
Christmas day on the Meuse: Sports indulged in.. 534
Christmas dinner on the Meuse, France 537
Christmas earthquake in Guatemala 197
Christmas in Northern France 5 2 7"537
Christmas in Paris with the aid of the American
Red Cross: Celebrating ill. 529
Christmas landscape in Northern France 527, 530
Christmas on the Meuse, France 5 2 7-537
Christmas tree presented Captain Clifton Lisle 527
Chugutchak, Mongolia 6.
Church at Camotan. Guatemala, on the road to the
ancient Mayan City of Copan, A ill. 210
Church, John W. : A Vanishing People of the
South Seas 275
Church of the Cerrito de Carmen, Guatemala City.
Guatemala ill., 208-209, 211-212; text, 204-205
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem ... 449
Cicatrices as tribal marks in Central Africa ill., 344,
346, 352, 365; text, .149, 352, 365
Cicatrization, Central African tribes ill., 344. 346.
352, 365; text. 349, 352, 365
Circeo, Monte, Italy 22-
VIII
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Circle Bar Company, Lower California, Mexico... 327
Citation Stars: America's unique. .. .ill. (colored), 505;
text, 499
Citations: Three types of 485-486
"City of Abraham the friend of God," El-Khalil
the 8
City of harrowing silence (Alexandropol, Russian
Caucasus) 407
City play-ground to sport: America has contributed
the 105, 109, 121
Ciudad Yieja: Account of the destruction of, by
Domingo Juarros 202-203
Ciudad Vieja, Guatemala's first capital 202
Civil Equality: The Progressive World Struggle
of the Jews for, by William Howard Taft i
Civil War Medal, U. S. Army ill. (colored), 504;
text, 502
Civil War Medal, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 508;
text, 506
Clark, Alvan G., Optician 155, 159
Clemenceau's speech to the Sultan's Grand Vizier. 371
Cleoxenus 223
Clerk-Maxwell, Scientist 158
Clerke, Agnes M., Astronomer 169
Climbing parasite of the Congo Free State, A. ..ill. 366
Club Dance: Fijians doing a ill. 97
Coco oil, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Use
of 289-290
Coco palm, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 284, 300; text, 282-283, 297
Code messages of the ancients. . .2-21, 223-224, 227, 229
Coffee, Wild, Mexico 314
Cojutepeque Lake, Salvador 197
Colorado delta 327
Colorado River 327
Coma Berencis, The nebula in ill. 169
Comet, Halley's : 153-154
Comet which lost its tail as it flew away, A ill. 154
Commandant of Van, Armenia ill. 184
Comonfort, Ignacio, Mexican soldier and states-
man 328
Concert on the sands, Tiburon Island, Mexico:
Seri Indians 324
Confucian cemetery, Kufu, Shantung, China.. 247,249
Confucian cemetery, Kufu, Shantung, China:
"Grove of the True Sage" 247, 249
Confucian temple, Kufu, Shantung, China: De-
scription of ill., 248; text, 242-243
Confucian temple, Kufu, Shantung, China: "Hall
of Perfection" 243
Confucian temple, Kufu, Shantung, China: Image
of Confucius in the 243, 246
Confucian temple, Kufu, Shantung, China: Stone
pillars of the ill., 248; text, 243
Confucius .... 231, 241-243, 246-247, 249, 252
Confucius, Image of, Confucian temple, Kufu,
Shantung. China 243, 246
Confucius, Septilrher of ill. 64
Confucius' tomb in Kufu, Shantung, China: Grove
surrounding ill. 247
Confucius' wife: Shnne to, Kufu, Shantung,
China 247
Congo Free State 342-368
Congo River, Central Afi Jca 342, 359
Congo xylophonists and their home-made instru-
ment ill. 34 8
Congress of Berlin 15, 1 7, 23
Congress of Nations at Paris, The 23
Congressional Philippine Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 505;: text, 475, 503
Convent, Ataona, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 303
Conversation in Georgia, Russian Caucasus: Art of 401
Cook, Captain, English navigator 282, 298
Cook, Capt. James, Discovery of Hawaiian Islands
ill. 99
Cook's occupation of the Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 282, 298
Coolie car express at Chon Chin ill., 34; text, 28
Coolie carrying a load of seaweed, A ill. 32
Coolies laboring to check the Yellow River, China
Coolies Shantung, China ill., 254-256;
_ _. . text, 253-254, 265
Cooper, Fenimore 213
Coots, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California, .ill., 335-336;
Copper, Santa Rosalia, Lower California, Mexico. .' 329
Page
Copra, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: How
made ill., 290 ; text, 303
Copra, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Manner
of weighing ill. 287
Copra, Medium of exchange, Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean. . . .ill., 284, 287, 290; text, 284, 287, 303
Coptic chapel, Church of the Holy Sepulcher,
Jerusalem. 449
Corn, Grinding on a metate to make tortillas. . .ill. 314
Cortez, Hernando, Conqueror of Mexico 307, 327
Coseguina, Nicaragua : Volcano 211
Costa Rica, Volcanoes 185, 205, 212
Costumes, Capri Island, Italy: Modern ill. 217
Costumes of Korean men 111.26,28,30,39-40
Costumes of Korean women. . .ill., 26, 27, 29, 30, 41, 45
Costumes, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Native
type of ill. 272
Cote d'Horgne, France 527
Cote de Morimont, France 527
Cote du Chateau, France 527
Cotswold and Lincoln ewes with their half-blood
Karakul lambs on a Kansas ranch. ill. 86
Council of Blood 100
Court of Honor, Hotel des Invalides, Paris: French
war herpes receiving American decoration, .ill. 469
Crap-shooting, North Africa ill. 92
Crater lake, San Salvador Volcano: Salvador,
A ill. 191
Crater, San Salvador Volcano, Salvador ill. 193
Craters of Izalco Volcano, Guatemala ill. 193
Craven, T. T., Capt., U. S. Navy: Decorated with
the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Crawford, Mr. L. M., Ranchman 77, 86
Cresta Run toboggan slide, St. Moritz ill. in
Cricket at Ladysmith, Englishmen played 105
Cricket game, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean, .ill., 270;
text, 272-274
Cricket game, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Na-
tives assembled to witness ill., 270; text, 273-274
Criminals, China: Treatment of ill., 232-233;
text, 231
Crockery menders, Samarkand, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert), Plate X ; text, Plate X, 421-436
Croix de Guerre 482-483, 488
Croix de Guerre: Red Cross nurses and American
soldier patients decorated with the ill. 482
Croix de Guerre: Y. M. C. A. workers decorated
with the ill. 483
Crowder, General, Provost Marshal General, U. S.
Army: Decorated with the Distinguished
Service Medal 495
Croz, Juan 205
Cruising ground of Sinbad the Sailor 379
Crusade, The children's 91
Ctesiphon, Arch of: Ruins of 380
Cuban Occupation Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 505; text, 503
Cuban Pacification Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 505; text, 50.*
Cuban Pacification Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507
Cucumbers in China and Korea 67, 69
Cueva, Beatriz de la, Widow of Pedro de Alvarado 203
CURIOUS AND CHARACTERISTIC CUSTOMS
OF CENTRAL AFRICAN TRIBES. BY E.
TORDAY 342
Customs, Central African tribes 342, 345
Cuttings, Packing of ill. 71
Cygnus, The Swan: Constellation of the ill., 179;
text, 177
Czecho-Slovak States: Jews 23
Czecho-Slovakia 437
"D"
Dakota 332
Daly, Dan, Sergeant of the U. S. Marines: Re-
ceiving the French Medaille Militaire ill. 489
Damascus, Syria 437, 458
Damoxene of Syracuse 97
Damvillers, France 530
Dan, Palestine 445
Dancing, Spanish ill. 95
Dandy of the South Seas, A ill. 305
Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the U. S. Navy
ill. 476
Dardanelles, Tiirkey 437
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
IX
Dates, Arabia 3 y x
Dates, Persian Gulf 59, 75
Daughter of a dying race (Marquesan girl) ill. 276
Dead Sea 1 44 g
Dearborn Observatory telescope 155, 159
Decline of their sports significant in the history of
nations, The 89, QI
Decorations, Foreign: Congress authorizes Ameri-
cans to accept 478-479
Dehna Desert, Arabia 380
Delano, Jane A., Distinguished Service Medal
awarded posthumously 495-496
Democlitus, Greek philosopher 223
DESCENDANTS OF CONFUCIUS, THE. BY
MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS 253
Devil devotees of the Caucasus, ill. (color insert),
Plate III; text, Plate III, 421-436
Devil screen to keep away evil spirits ill. 234
Dewey, B., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with the
Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Dewey Medal, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 509;
text, 474, 507
Diagram showing the usual method of mounting a
big telescope ill. 160
Dialects, Mexican 322
"Diaspora" or Second dispersion 2
Diaz, Lieut. General, Chief of Staff, Italian
Armies: Decorated with the Distinguished
Service Medal 495
Diaz, President of Mexico 328
Digging for water, Lower California, Mexico. . .ill. 330
Diseases, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. . . .ill., 298;
text, 283, 298-299, 306
Distaff of the spinster in the Douro District,
Northern Portugal, The, ill. (rotogravure insert),
Plate II, 144-152
"Distillers," Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean:
Native 297
Distinguished Service Cross: Aces wearing the, ill. 492
Distinguished Service Cross: Soldier wearing the
ill. 488
Distinguished Service Cross, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 504; text, 478, 496, 499, 502
Distinguished Service Cross: Winners of the.. ill. 480
Distinguished Service Cross with bronze oak-leaf
cluster 496
Distinguished Service Crosses: How made ill. 486
Distinguished Service Crosses: Presentation of,
City Hall, New York ill. 470
Distinguished Service Medal: First recipients of
the 495
Distinguished Service Medal men, decorated by
Secretary of War ill. 477
Distinguished Service Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 504; text, 478, 493, 495, 498-499, 502
Distinguished Service Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 508; text, 506
Distinguished Service Medals: Spraying the finish-
ing lacquer on, Philadelphia Mint ill. 487
District of Columbia Medal: Presentation of to
residents who served in the war ill. 485
District of Paris, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
Divers for pearls, Arabia 388
Diving and simming ill. 118-122
Division of Arabia by the Ancients 380
Dixon, Joseph. Wild Ducks as Winter Guests in
a City Park 33 1
Djimbu, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 359
Dodd, T. F. Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Doe and her offspring, Alaska, A ill. 545
Dog River, Syria 448, 452, 457
"Dog Star," Canis Major, Sirius the 154-155, 181
Dogs bred for food, Korea 33
Dominica, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 277
Doorway of a Bambala hut, Congo Free State.. ill. 364
Dormitory, Musan, Korea: A students' ill. 43
Douro District, Northern Portugal: The distaff
of the spinster in the... ill. (rotogravure insert),
Plate II, I44- 1 5 2
"Dragon prince's pool," Korea: Discovery by
missionaries 2 5
Drake, Sir Francis 3f>7. 327
Draught men towing junks up the Yalu, Chinese
ill., .76: text, 48
Drinking basins for ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland.
California ill- 33$
Droughts, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean..
Drummer boy and his audience, Congo Free State
Ducks, coots, and gulls at a drinking basin, Lake 349
Merritt, Oakland, California.. ill ,, 6
Ducks in flight, Lake Merritt, Calif ornia '.'.
Ducks that winter on Lake Merritt, Oakland
California
Ducks, Wild: Baldpate '.'.'
Ducks, Wild: Bufflehead
Ducks, Wild: Canvasback aC333,*334,*34o;
Ducks, Wild: Effect of city life upon!!??. 3 . 3 .
Ducks, Wild : Lake Merritt, Oakland, California '
r i \\r-i i i, 332-338, 340-341 ; text, 331-^
Ducks, Wild: Lake Merritt, Oakland, California-
Feeding of jjj .
Ducks, Wild: Lake Merritt, Oakland, California:' '
Migration of 331
Ducks, Wild: Lake Merritt, Oakla'nd,' Cal'ifornia: '
.Panoramic views of ill
Ducks, Wild: Pintail " V^'-m' -
Ducks Wild : Shoveler .' .' .' Yll. ,' 333; -
Duke Kung, The seventy-sixth descendant of Con- '
. . ill., 252; text, 247, ;
Durango, Mexico
Dyewood, Mexico: Use of .....'..'.'.'.' 315
Eagle, The golden ill. (rotogravure insert),
Earle, R., Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy: Decorated 5
with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Earth-eating, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State. . .' 352
Earth, moon, and planets around the sun, Illustra-
tion of the paths or orbits of the . .ill 166
garth, The l6s> l6?
Earthenware sale: Market-place, Cantel, Guate-
mala in 200
Earthquakes, Central America ill., 186,205-207,209,
21 1 ; text, 185, 187, 192, 197, 202-205,211
Earthquakes, Guatemala ill., 205-207, 209, 21 1 ;
text, 185, 197, 202-205
Earthquakes, Guatemala City, Guatemala. . .ill., 205-207,
209, 2n; text, 185, 197, 202, 205
Earthquakes, Honduras 205, 21 1
Earthquakes, Nicaragua 205,' 211
Earthquakes, Salvador ill.,'i86;
text, 185, 187, 192
Earthquakes, San Salvador, Salvador ill., 186;
text, 185, 187, 189, 192
Earthquakes, San Salvador, Salvador: Concrete
construction, Resistance of ill. 186
East India Company: Medals awarded by the.. 469-471
East Side, New York: A towel merchant ill. 22
Easter celebration, Jerusalem 449-454
Edible bamboo, An old plantation of the ill. 61
Edmunds, Charles K. Shantung China's Holy
Land 231
Egypt 369, 371, 393
Egypt, Manufacturing a floor covering of reeds...
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VII. 145-152
Eighteenth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of...
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Eighth Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 525
Eighth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Eightieth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 521
Eighty-eighth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 522
Eighty-fifth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of...
ill. (colored), 516; text, 521
Eighty-first Division, U. S. Armv: Insignia of....
ill. (colored), 513; text, 521
Eighty-fourth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of. .
ill. (colored), 516; text, 521
Eighty-ninth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 516; text, 522
Eighty-second Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored). 521; text. 516
Eighty-seventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 522
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Eighty-sixth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of...
ill. (colored), 516; text, 522
Eighty-third Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of...
ill. (colored), 516; text, 521
Eisenman, Charles: Decorated with the Distin-
guished Service Medal ill. 477
Electromagnetic wave, The 158
Eleventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
El-Hasa, Mesopotamia 380, 383, 390
Eliot, General, Commander at Gibraltar: Award
of Medal to members of the Hanoverian brigade 471
Elizabeth, Queen of England: Issue of the "Ark
in Flood" Medals 464
El-Khalil, The Arabic name for Hebron is 8
El-Khalil "The city of Abraham the friend of God" 8
Ellis Island, New York: A Russian Jew at ill. 22
Elms, Chinese 75
Emblem of the United States Marine Corps formed
by soldiers ill. 5 2
Engineers directing Shantung coolies in curbing
flood, Yellow River, China ill. 236
English explorations, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 282, 297-298
English "father of boxing," Jack Broughton.. 125, 128
English influence upon Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 282, 297-298
Englishman's death struggle with a leopard, Congo
Free State 363-364
Entrance to the Mosque of tiebron ill. 1 1
Epomes, Monte, Italy 216
Erivan, Russian Caucasus: Famine conditions in..
397, 399, 408-414
Eruption of San Salvador volcano, Salvador. . . .ill. 195
Erythrophloeum guineense, Congo Free State 345
Esarhaddon, Inscriptions of ill. 452
Escula Practica, Guatemala City, Guatemala: Ruins
of ill. 207
Eskimo woman in a blanket, Tossing a ill. 123
Eskimos 546, 55i, 555
Esther ill. 21
Esthetic wonder of the world (Capri Island, Italy)
213, 216
Etchmiadzin, Russian Caucasus: Population of... 418
Etchmiadzin, Russian Caucasus: Refugee burial
ground ill. 411
Eton, The water jump at ill. 107
Etraye, France 530
Euphrates River, Turkey in Asia 437,457-458
Euphrates Valley maiden: Costume of ill. 448
Euphrates Valley. Turkey in Asia 443-444
Eva, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 283
Eve. Tomb of. Jidda, Arabia 372
Evgilar, Russian Caucasus: Population of 418
Execution-cage, China.... ill., 233; text, 231
Expedition to Bokhara, Russian Central Asia, to
stuHv Karakul Sheep Industry, An. By Robert
K. Nabours 77
Expedition to Korea: The American Museum of
Natural History sent an 25
Expeditionary Ribbon, Marine Corps
ill. (colored), 505: text, 507
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMA-
MENT. BY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER.... 153
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "
"HKRMIT KINGDOM." BY ROY C. AN-
DREWS 35
Explosions on the sun ill., 163; text, 164
Exports, Arabia 391
Exports, Lower California, Mexico 329
Faes, or Huts, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill. 280, 292, 301
Fairchild, David, a Hunter of Plants 57
Family records, Marquesas Islands. Pacific Ocean. 275
Famine conditions, Igdir, Russian Caucasus
416-418, 420
Fansr-shan, The mountains near 66
Faraglioni, Capri Island, Italy ill. 215
Farm lesson from Mexico. A 315
"Father of boxing," Jack Broughton, English. 125, 128
Fathy Bev, Turkish aviator 438
Fat-rump sheep of Central Asia. . . .ill., 82; text, 83, 88
Fatuhiva, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Oc~an. . . 27 <;, 277
Fawn, Early life of the ill. 550
Page
Fei peach 71, 75
Feitcheng, China 71
Ferry on the Siku River from Tibet to China, A
bamboo cable ill. 60
Feysil Birr Turki, Former Sultan of Oman ill. 381
Fifth Corps, U. S. Army: Insigna of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524-525
Fifth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Figueroa, Spanish chronicler 277
Fijians doing a club dance ill. 97
Finney, J. M. T., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Fire, blight the curse of pear-growers. The 75
Firmament, Exploring the Glories of the. By Wil-
liam Joseph Showalter 153
First Army, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 510
First call for dinner ill. 338
First Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
First Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Fish caught in Maskat harbor ill. 385
Fish, Congo Free State ill., 361; text, 357
Fish, Gulf of California 319
Fish, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282
Fish, "Men-tai," Korean ill., 36; text, 28
Fish, Mexico 319
Fish net, Chinese ill. 261
Fish traps, Congo Free State ill. 357
Fishers of "Men-tai" ill., 36; text, 28
Fishing boat, Chinese ill. 258
Fishing, Capri Islands, Italy ill. 221
Fishing in the Wen-ho, China ill. 261
Fishing, Mexican method of 319
Fita-Fitas on parade in full-dress, Samoan Islands,
Pacific Ocean ill., 266; text, 267, 272
Fita-Fitas, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 266; text, 267, 272
Fita-Fitas, Semoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Band
of the ill., 266 ; text, 272, 273
Fita-Fitas, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Duties
of the 267, 272
Fita-Fitas, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Uni-
forms of the ill., 266; text, 267
Flashing volcano which acts as a lighthouse (Izalco,
Salvador) 197
Floor covering of reeds, Egypt: Manufacturing a
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VII, 145-152
Floors of modern observatories 162
Flora, Arabia 380-381
Flora, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .282-283, 285
Foch, Marshal, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied
Armies ill. 466
Foch, Marshal, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied
Armies: Decorated with the Distinguished Ser-
vice Medal 495
Fonseca, Gulf of, Salvador 205,211
Food, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 352-353
Food, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282-283, 287
Football ill., 137-138; text, 128-129,132
Forcing-houses, Chinese 66-67
Foreign decorations: How they should be worn.. 488
400-491
Forest of horns, Alaska, A ill. 543
Forest, Korea 39-42, 70
Fort Myer: Dr. Simon Newcomb and Professor
Michelson devised a speedometer for light at. . 157-158
Fortieth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. colored), 513; text, 518
Fortune-teller, Kokand, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert). Plate XV, 421-436
Forty-first Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Forty-second Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Fountain, Antigua, Guatemala ill. 204
Fountain in pasture at Antigua, Guatemala ill 204
Fourteenth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Fourth Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia- of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Fourth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Fox raising in captivity 77
Fox-hunting at Himbleton, Worcestershire, England
ill. 102
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XI
Page
France 369, 383
Frankfort-on-the-Main ill. 18
Franklin, Benjamin 101, 143
French influence upon Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 298-299, 303
French war heroes receiving American decorations,
Court of Honor, Hotel des Invalides, Paris.. ill. 469
French warship, Henry IV ill. 439
Frijole, Lower California, Mexico 327
Fruit, Arabia 38]
Fruit, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282-283
Fruit, Shantung, China 265
Fuego, Guatemala : Volcano 203
Fuger, Frederick, Colonel, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Funeral, Korea : A ill. 47
Funicular Road, Capri Island, Italy 216
Gade, J. A., Lieut. Commander, U. S. Navy:
Decorated with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Gallup's Hand Book of Military Signaling 224
Gama, Vasco da, Portuguese navigator 311
Gambling on the turn of pebbles 92
Game-hunting, The development of 123-124
Game reservations, Lake Merritt, Oakland, Cali-
fornia 33i
Games 89-144
Games, a key to geography 89, 91
Games developed in southern Asia, Card and
board 91
Games, effect of climate upon 91
Games, The Geography of. By J. R. Hilde-
brand 89-144
Ganges Valley, British India 444
"Garbanzo," or Chick-pea, Mexico 307,314
Garrison Cathedral, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus, .ill. 397
Gate of Justice in Granada, Spain ill. 14
Gate of Musan, Korea: Southern ..ill. 43
General Headquarters, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Georgia, Russian Caucasus 397. 405
Georgia, Russian Caucasus: Art of conversa-
tion in 401
Georgian and Armenian boundary dispute 399
Georgian blackmailer, Curbing the cupidity of a.. 405
Georgian mode of entertainment 4 2
Georgians, Characteristics of 403
Georgians, Customs of 4 2
GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES, THE: HOW THE
SPORTS OF NATIONS FORM A GAZET-
TEER OF THE HABITS AND HISTORIES
OF THEIR PEOPLES. BY J. R. HILDE-
BRAND 89
Gergeti, Russian Caucasus 400
Germany 369, 443
Ghengiz Khan 3 2 7. 37i
Ghettos of Europe, The 5,9. J 5
Gibercy, Fra-nce 53<>
Gibraltar, Spain 379
Gillain, General, Chief of Staff, Belgian Army..
ill. 466
Gillain, General, Chief of Staff, Belgian Army:
Decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal. 495
Glacier National Park, Hikers on Lower St. Mary
Lake ill. 113
Glaucus, Greek farmer boy 128
Glories of the Firmament, Exploring the. By
William Joseph Showalter 153
Goats at a Bedouin camp in the Hejaz, Arabia
ill. 382
Goethals, General, General Staff, U. S. Army:
Decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal. 495
Golden eagle, The ill. (rotogravure insert),
Plate I, 49-56
Golden Gate, San Francisco 3 2 9
Goldeneye ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland. Cali-
fornia 33 1
Golf ill. i35 i37
Golf had its beginning on ice i33 MO
Golovinsky Prospekt, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus
ill., 397; text, 397. 4<>i
Good Conduct Medal, U. S. Navy.... ill. (colored), 508
text, 506
Gorgas, General, Surgeon General, U. S. Army:
Decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal 495
Gortchakoff, Prince, Description of the Jews ____ 17-18
Government of Arabia .......................... 37I
Governor's inspection of Tutuila, Samoan Islands,
Pacific Ocean ................................ 2 j 2
Gracias. Honduras ........................ '.'.'.'.. 211
Grain fleets, Roman ....................... .' .'224, 231
Grain market, Samarkand, Russian Turkestan ____
ill. (color insert), Plate XI, 421-436
Granada from the summer palace of the Moors,
A glimpse of .............................. ill. 12
Granada, Spain: Gate of Justice .............. ill. 14
Granaries, Aerial, Bapinji tribe, Congo Free State
Grand Canal, China ........ ill., 250-251, 254; text, 249
Grand Shereef, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia. .. .369, 378, 375
Grand Vizier's appeal to the Council of Ten,
Peace Conference ----
Grand Pre, France ........................
Grant, General, U. S. Army: Decorated with a
gold medal for services in the Civil War ...... 472
Grant, W. S., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ........... ill. 477
Grazing land for reindeer, Alaska ............... 549
Great blue heron, The ---- ill. (rotogravure insert),
V, 49-56
~ ^ . ,
Great Britain .................................. 389
Great Darkness ("La Oscuridad Grande"), The.. 211
Great Dipper .................. ill.,i72; text, 170,174
Greece
213
Greek explorers 380
Greeks 216, 220, 223-224, 443
Lireen manuring, Mexico 315
Griffin, R. S., Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy: Decorated
with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Grosvenor, Gilbert: "Reindeer in Alaska" 539
"Grove of the True Sage," Confucian cemetery,
Kiif u, Shantung, China 249
Grove surrounding the Confucian tomb in Kufn.
Shantung, China ill. 247
Guadalajara, Mexico 318, 329
Guano, Mexico 315
Guatemala City, Guatemala ill., 205-207;
text, 185, 197, 202, 204-205
Guatemala City, Guatemala: Destruction by earth-
quakes 185
Guatemala, Earthquakes ill., 205-207, 209,211;
text, 185, 197, 202-205
Guatemala's first capital: Ciudad Vieja 202
Guatemala's second capital : Antigua 203
Guatemala's third capital: Guatemala City, Guate-
mala ill., 205-207; text, 204-205
Guaymas, Mexico ill. 312
Guija Lake, Salvador 197
Gulf of Akabah 378
Gulf of Fonseca, Salvador 205, 211
Gulf of Pechili, China 255
Gulf of Salerno, Italy 213
Gulls, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California ill. 336
text, 331
Gun-bearer bringing in the quarry, A Korean.. ill. 44
Gypsies of Spain dancing ill. 95
Gyroscopic top, Liberian native spinning ,the..ill. 141
Hackenschmidt of Nippon, Sukune was the 125
Hadr class, Arabia 373, 375
Hadramaut, Arabia 380
Hadrian, Roman emperor 2
Hail, Arabia 380
Haifa, Syria 437, 440
Haifa, Syria: Boatman of 440-441
Haig, Sir Douglas, Marshal, Commander-in-Chief
of the British Armies ill. 466
Haig, Sir Douglas, Marshal, Commander-in-Chief
of the British Armies: Decorated with the
Distinguished Service Medal 495
Hair-dress of the Bayanzi women, Congo Free State
ill- 3Si
Hair-dressing, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State
ill., 343, 35o; text, 345, 349-35
Hair nets, Shantung, China, Making of 253
Haitian Campaign Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507,
Ilakahetou, Bay of, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 30*
"The Hall of Perfection," Confucian temple,
Kufu, Shantung, China 243
"The Hall of Ten Thousand Fairies," Chinese
temple, Tai Shan Mountain, Shantung, China.. 240
Haller, General, Polish Army ill. 466
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Halley, Edmund, Astronomer iSS^SS
Halley's comet 153-154
Hambartsoumiantz, Governor of Van, Armenia..
182-184
Hanavave, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.. ill. 278;
text, 277, 280-282
Hanavave Valley, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean: Scene in ill., 278; text, 280
Hangchow, Hui, China 251-252
Han Wu-ti, Emperor of China 235
Harbor of Maskat, Oman ill. 376
Hardanger region, Norway, A girl of the
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate I, 145-152
Hardy River, Mexico 327
Harpastum. Roman ^me of football 129
Hastings, The Battle of :"'~~:A' l
Hatiheu, Bay of, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 302
Hats, Mexico, Importance of ill. 308
Hauran. Syria 444
Hawaii 2 75
Hawaii: Spearing fish at Kealakekua Bay ill. 99
Hawaii: Surf-board riding at Honolulu ill. 98
Hawker's flight across the ocean 101
Hawthorn, American large-fruited 59
Hawthorns, Chinese ill., 68; text, 59
Head-dress worn by the Arab women of Oman..
ill. 380
Hebrew orphans arriving in New York ill. 16
Hebron, Palestine ill. 8
Heizanchin, Korea: Picturesque ruins of ill., 47 =
text, 42, 48
Hejaz, Arabia ill., 377; text, 371, 380, 391
Hejaz, Arabia: Oasis scene in ill. 377
Hemp fiber, Korea 69
Henry IV (French warship) ill. 439
Henshaw, Henry W.: "American Game Birds".. 331
Hercules, Constellation of 172, 176
Herd of reindeer near Golovin Bay, Alaska ill. 553
"Hermit Kindgom," Exploring Unknown Corners
of the. By Roy C. Andrews 25
Hermitage of Santa Maria Citrella, Capri Island.
Italy ill. 220
Hermon, Mount, Syria 448
TIermosillo, Mexico 324, 326
Herodotus, Greek historian 221
Heron, The great blue.. ill. (rotogravure insert),
Plate V, 49-56
Heronje 373
Herschel, Astronomer 167, 180
Hertz, Scientist 158
Heyl, Charles H., Colonel, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Medal of Honor.... ill. 484
Hickory tree, China ill. 74
Hide and Karakul skin Bazaar, Bokhara, Russian
Turkestan ill. 84
Hide-and-seek government in Arabia 371
High jumper of Africa, The champion ill. 130
Highway near Quezalepeque, Guatemala: Blocked
by lava flow ill. 1 92
Hildebrand, J. R. The Geography of Games 89
Hillsides of Korea ill. 45
Himbleton, Worcestershire, England, Fox-hunt-
ing at ill. 1 02
Hinckley, R. M., Lieut. Commander, U. S. Navy:
Decorated with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Hines, General, Chief of Embarkation, U. S.
Army: Decorated with the Distinguished Service
Medal 495
Hippomaches, Greek boxer 1 28
Hirsch, Baron 23
Hittite sculpture, Carchemish, Mesopotamia. . .ill., 451;
text, 451, 457
Hiva, Native title for the Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean 275
Hivaoa, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .. .275, 298
Hodeida, Yemen, Arabia 380, 391
Hoiryong, Korea 70
Holbrook, W. A., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal, ill. 477
Holland : A card game in ill. 93
Holland: The Maranos' flight to 10, 13
Holy Duke Kung, The seventy-sixth descendant
Of Confucius ill., 252,; text, 247, 249
Holy Fire celebration, Jerusalem. 449-454
"Holy Mountain of the East" (Tai Shan, Shan-
tung, China) ill., 242-245; text, 235, 239-242
Page
Home of a wealthy Bokharan, Hospitality in the
ill., 82; text, 79
Homer, Description of the set-to between Epeus
and Euryalus 97
Homer's princess of Phrseacia 109
Homespun linen, Serbia: Weaving
ill. (rotogravue insert), Plate V, 145-152
Honey Valley, Syria 448
Honolulu, Hawaii, Surf-board riding at ill. 98
"Hoopoe" bird, Arabia 381
Horse-chestnut, Chinese 65
Horsemanship, Persian children taught 89
Horse-racing ill., 104; text, 124
Horses, Arabia 383
Horses, Korea 32
Hot-air furnaces, Korea ill., 38; text, 28-29
Hot blood as a tonic, Korea 31
Hotel made of doors (Hotel Roma, Guatemala
City, Guatemala) 202
Hotel Roma, Guatemala City, Guatemala 202
Hot-houses, Chinese 66-67
House-boats, Grand Canal, China ill. 250
House of reeds, Congo Free State ill. 356
Houses, Congo Free State: Native type of ill. 356
Houses, Kwilu River, Congo Free State: Native
type of ill. 356
Houses, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Con-
struction of ill., 290; text, 280
Houses, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Fur-
nishings of the 289
Houses, Northern Korea ill., 39; text, 28
Howe, A. G., Capt., U. S. Navy: Decorated with
the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Hozando, Korea: A tiger-hunting lodge at ill. 35
Hsuchowfu, Shantung, China . 254
Huahuka Chief, Taki ill. 282
Hula-hula, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean....
296-297, 299
Human pack-horse of Korea, The ill. 44
Human sacrifice, Jews charged with 10
Human sacrifices, China 65
Humboldt, Alexander von, German scientist and
author 309
Humphrey, Charles F., General, U. S. Army:
Decorated with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Hunter, Frank O'D., First Lieut., Air Service,
Pilot, 1 03d Aero Squadron: Decorated with the
Distinguished Service Cross and four Bronze
oak-leaf clusters . 406 498
HUNTER OF PLANTS, A. BY DAVID FAIR-
CHILD 57
Hurtada de Mendoza, Garcia, Viceroy of Peru..
275-276
Huss persecutions in Bohemia 9, 10
Hutu tree, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 233
Hwai River, China 251
Hwang-ho (Yellow River, China), Tantrums of.. 255
Hyenas, Congo Free State 364
Ibanez, A novel by 94
Ibn Batutah, Arab writer 388
Ichang, China 61, 73, 75
Ichang lemon, The wild 73
Igdir, Russian Caucasus 412, 414, 416-418, 420
Igdir, Russian Caucasus: Desolation of ... .414-418, 420
Igdir, Russian Caucasus: Starving women in the
town of ill. 40 6
Illustration of the paths or orbits of the earth,
moon, and planets around the sun, An ill. 166
Ilopango Lake, Salvador 197
Immortality: Bambala idea of 345
Imperial Valley, California 327
Imports, Arabia 391
Imuris, Mexico 329
India 443-444, 539
Indian Campaign Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 504; text, 502-503
Indian camps, Mexico 307
Indian girl washing clothes in the Yaqui River,
Mexico ill. 3I 6
Indianapolis Speedway Classic ill. 139
Indians, Mexico . . ->o7 121
Indus River, British India .' 373
Indus yalley, British India 444
Industries, Arabia , 384
Industries, Syria 444-445
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XIII
Page Page
Inn, Chinese Turkestan: Kirghiz women at an, ill. 59 Jews, United States ill 22- text 13 17 20
Inscriptions, Tai Shan Mountains, Shantung, Jidda, Hejaz, Arabia 384, 386, 391
China 240-241 . Jidda, Hejaz, Arabia: Port of 372
Inscriptions, Church of the Cerrito de Carmen, Jisan, Arabia $gi
Guatemala City, Guatemala 205 Jiu-jitsu was evolved from wrestling .'.'.' 125
Inscriptions of Esarhaddon ill. 452 Joffre, Marshal, French Army ill. 466
Inscriptions of Rameses the Great. . . ill. 452 Joffre, Marshal, French Army: Decorated with the
Insignia, U. S. Army . .ill., 464, 526; ill. (colored), 504- Distinguished Service Medal 495
505, 508-509, 512-513, 516-517; text, 463-526 Johnston, Gordon, Capt., U. S. Army: Decorated
Intermarriages, Arabia 378 with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Intoxicants, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Joinville, near Paris: The Pershing stadium at. .ill. 144
Native 297 Jones, John Paul, Capt., U. S. Navy : Awarded
Irazu, Costa Rica: Volcano 185, 212 a gold medal 472
Irazu, Costa Rica: Volcano, State of eruption. . . . 185 Jordan River 445, 448
Irrigation, Imperial Valley, California 327, 329 Jordan Valley 448
Irrigation, Mexico: Methods of 309 Juarros, Domingo, Central American historian:
Irriwaddy Valley, Burma, India 444 Account of the destruction of Ciudad Vieja. . 202-203
Irtish, Siberia, Vegetable gardens along the.... ill. 62 Juarros, Domingo, Central American historian:
Irwin, N. E., Capt., U. S. Navy: Decorated with Quotation from 185
the Legion of Honor ill. 476 Judea, Palestine 448
Ischia Island, Italy 216, 227 Judean Plateau, Palestine 448
Ishtar, Babylonian princess 385, 388 Jugo-Slav State; Jews 23
Island of Samos, Greece 216 Jujube or Ts'ao, Chinese ill., 72, 74, 75; text, 75
ISLE OF CAPRI, THE: AN IMPERIAL Junks, China ill., 259-260
RESIDENCE AND PROBABLE WIRELESS junks, Grand Canal, China ill. 260
STATION OF ANCIENT ROME. BY JOHN junks, Yalu River: Chinese draught men towing
A. KINGMAN 213 ill., 36; text, 48
Italian coast from the limestone cliffs of Capri Is- Jupiter, Planet ill., 180; text, 167, 168
land, Italy ill. 226 Jupiter's moons 157, 168
Izabel, Governor of Sonora, Mexico: Reward
offered Seris 325-326 "K"
Izalco, Salvador: Volcano ill., 198; text, 197
Izalco, Salvador: Volcano, Crater ill. 198 Kaiser's plan for a railway port on the Persian
Izalco, Salvador: Volcano, Description of. By Gulf 380
John L. Stephens 197 Kalmuck or Khirgiz settlement, A 63, 64
Izalco, Salvador: Volcano, Eruptions 197 Kang-ko, Korea 69
Kansu, China 73
"J" Kaomi, Shantung, China 254
Karakillisse, Russian Caucasus: Famine conditions
Jackson, Dr. Sheldon : Inerest in the reindeer in- in 405
dustry 555 Karakul lambs ill., 78-79. 88
James I of England: Medals issued by 464 Karakul rams in Bokhara, Russian Turkestan, .ill. 81
Japanese, Lower California, Mexico.. 329 Karakul sheep, America ill., 86, 88; text, 87-88
Japan's intensive efforts in developing Shantung, Karakul sheep as a solution 9f the world's fur
China 259, 265 problem .' 77
Jardine, W. M., President of the Kansas State Karakul sheep, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan 83
Agricultural College 77 Karakul sheep-breeding station near Samarkand, A 87
Jebbel Shamars, Bedouin, Arabia 371 Karakul sheep grazing in Bokhara, Russian Tur-
Jebel Akdar or Green Mountain, Oman 379 kestan : Flocks of ill., 78, 80
Jerablus, Mesopotamia ill., 444; text, 437. 444 Karakul skin Bazaar, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan
Jericho, Palestine 448 ill. 84
Jerusalem 1-3,369,437,445,448-454 Karakul skins arriving at market, Russian Tur-
Jerusalem at Easter time 449-454 kestan: Caravan of hides and ill. 84
Jerusalem: The Arch of Titus 6 Karakul skins, Baku, Russian Caucasus: Worth of 85
Jervey, General, General Staff, U. S. Army: Deco- Karakul skins, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan: Skin
rated with the Distinguished Service Medal 495 vats for curing V 3
Jehol north of Peking 61 Karakul skins, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan: Ware-
Jehovah, Hadrian substituted a temple to Jupiter house of .. ,Vr t!'
in the place of the temple to 2 Karakul skins, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan : Wash-
Jew at Ellis Island, New York, A Russian ill. 22 ing ! 84
jewett, F. B., Lieut. Col., U. S. Army: Decorated Kasai, Congo Free State 347
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477 Kashgar ash 75
Jewish character, Strength of the 20, 23 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan 2
Jewish communities appealed for relief after Na- Katanga. Congo Free State 3&3
poleon's fall, The *3 Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii: Spearing fish at ill. 99
Jewish history, The long dark night of 5, 7 Khan el Lubban. Palestine 448
Jewish people, The remarkable character of the. . . i Kiaochow, Shantung China . 259
Jewish population of the world 10 Kikela, Hawaiian Missionary: Rescue of Whalen
Jewish problem of today, The great 17-18 from Marquesan cannibals . 302
Jewish scribes at Saloniki writing sacred books on "Kim, Korean cook. 25, 27-2
scrolls.. * ill., 2; text, 3 "Kimshi," a favorite Korean dish :
Jewish soldiers '9 Kinchasa, Congo Free State. 3
Tews accused of black-death sorcery 9 Kingdom of Lu (Shantung, China) ... ... ; 2 -
TPW Alexandria Ecrvnt i Kingman, John A. The Isle of Capri: An Imperial
J'wl' *nf the S aVrf P iVen.briiihid candlestick. Residence and Probable Wireless Station of
Arch of Titus ill. 6 Ancient Rome . "I
Jews, Baltic Provinces'.'.'. . . . '3 Kirghiz or Fat-rump sheep of Central As.a.^. . . ^ ^
KM (Medicine), Ban,ba.a trte, C*. t~ ^
; 4
*
^SSSSJSSw^aai'KB: o--"' SI
7 -J K con g Free *.*
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Koran, The 375, 3.8', 385
Korea: Ancestor worship } 4&
Korea : Azalea-clad hillsides of { 45
Korea: Human pack-horse of . 44
Korea: Main street in a town of northern ill. 34
Korea: Map of .: *4
Korea: Millinery for men in ] 4O
Korea: Natives at a funeral llj - 47
Korea: Primeval forests 39-42, 70
Korea: Size of
Korean boy with malaria fever, A ill., 3 2 ', text, 33
Korean burden-bearers ill., 29, 32, 44, 45
Korean cook, "Kim" 25, 27-28
Korean counterpart of our fish-mongers, The.. ill. 32
Korean fish, "Men-tai" ill., 36; text, 28
Korean gun-bearer bringing in a quarry, A ill. 44
Korean "hotel" ilj ; , 39; text, 28
Korean house ill-, 39; text, 28
Korean men, Costume of ill., 26, 28, 30, 39-40
Korean mountains: A tiger hunt in the
ill., 35; text, 30-31
Korean sacred mountain, Paik-tu-san 38-42
Korean women, Costume of . . . .ill., 26-27, 29-30, 41, 45
Korean women spinning and weaving
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VIII, 145-152
Koreans Costumes of ill., 3; text, 33
Koreysh, House of, Arabia 375
Howeit, Arabia 380-381, 39
Krebs, William 330
Kreger, E. A., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 447
Kremlin, Mount, East Turkestan 254
Kreugas of Epidamnus 97
Kufa, Arabia 39<>
Kiifu temple, Shantung, China ill., 247
text, 242-243, 246-247
Kukn, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282
Kuldja, East Turkestan 63-64
Kunfuda, Arabia 39*
Kurd singer, Syria 458-459, 462
Kutais, Russian Caucasus 40*
Kwilu River, Congo Free State 342, 356, 358
La Bermuda, Salvador 192
Ladysmith: Englishmen played cricket at 105
Labor for public works in Mexico, Means of
securing 322
Ladd, E. F., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal. .... .ill. 477
La Fayette: Insignia of the Eleventh Division,
Camp Meade, Maryland ill. 523
La Garde, M., Administrator of the Marquesas
Islands, Pacific Ocean 306
Laguna Salada, California 327
Lake Amatitlan, Guatemala 197
Lake Cojutepeque, Salvador 197
Lake Guija, Salvador 197
Lake Ilopango, Salvador 197
Lake Merritt, Oakland, California
ill., 332, 334-335, 34O-34I J text, 331-342
Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua 211
Lake of Huleh, Syria 448
Lakes, Salvador 197
Lanchow, Kansu, China 254
Lambskins, The Land of. By Robert K. Nabours. 77
LAND OF LAMBSKINS, THE: AN EXPEDI-
TION TO BOKHARA, RUSSIAN CENTRAL
ASIA, TO STUDY THE KARAKUL SHEEP
INDUSTRY. BY ROBERT K. NABOURS... 77
Land of neglected resources (Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean) 298
THE LAND OF THE STALKING DEATH: A
JOURNEY THROUGH STARVING ARME-
NIA ON AN AMERICAN RELIEF TRAIN.
BY MELVILLE CHATER 393
Land ownership, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 295
Lane, F. K., Secretary of the: Importation of
reindeer 555
"La Oscuridad Grande" (The Great Darkness).. 211
La Paz, Lower California, Mexico 327
La Perouse Islands, South Pacific Ocean: A
weaver of Santa Cruz
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VI, 145-152
Lapland 541
Lapps 545-546, 555
Page
La Thinte River, France 527, 53
Lava flow, San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano....
ill., 188, 190-191; text, 189,192
Lava forms, San Salvador, Salvador Volcano, .ill. 191
Law of Moses 3
Lawn fete, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 268
Lawrence, Col. T. E 45i, 457-459,462
Lawrence, Col. T. E. Discovery of Hittite sculp-
ture at Carchemish, Mesopotamia ill. 451
League of Nations 23
Lebanon, Syria 445, 457
Lecky's "History of Morals in Europe" 10
Legion of Honor 488, 493
Legion of Honor: American major receiving the.
ill. 481
Legion of Honor: American naval officers receiv-
ing the French ill. 468
Legion of Honor bestowed upon U. S. naval
officers ill. 476
Leipzig, Germany: Calisthenic drill of 17,000
Turners in ill. 131
Leon, Nicaragua 211
Leopard's attack upon an Englishman, Congo Free
State 363-364
Leopard's attack upon Makoba, Congo Free State. 363
Leopards, Congo Free State 363-364
Lesseps, Ferdinand de 44*
Levant 393
Leverrier, French astronomer 157
Leviathan of the Congo Free State, A ill. 363
Liaison Service, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
Liberian native spinning the gyroscopic top ill. 141
Life-Saving Medals, ist Class ill. (colored), 505;
text, 506
Life-Saving Medals, 2d Class ill. (colored), 505;
text, 506
Lighthouses, Capri Island, Italy: Roman 219,224
Lighthouses, Roman: Representations on coins and
medals 219, 224
Lincoln and Cotswold ewes with their half-blood
Karakul lambs on a Kansas ranch ill. 86
Lincoln, President: Testimony and watch sent
Kikela 302
Lindsley, H. B., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 447
Lip plug, or Pelele natives, Congo Free State
ill., 351; text, 359-36o
Lions, Congo Free State 363-365
Lisle, Clifton, Captain, U. S. Army: Celebrating
Christmas on the Meuse 527
"Little Gibraltar" (Capri Island, Italy) 219
"Little Tai Shan," Chinese temple, Tai Shan
Mountain, Shantung China 240
Liu-Wang-Chuang, Shantung, China 232-
Live stock, Bambala tribe, Congo Free Stale 359
Living emblem of the United States Marine Corps. 520
Locks, Grand Canal, China ill. 250-251
Locks, Grand Canal, China: Operation of
ill., 250-251; text, 251-252-
Lodge, Sir Oliver, Scientist 1 58, 168
Lomami River, Congo Free State 351
Lomen, Carl J. The Ca-mel of the Frozen Desert. 538
"Long pig," or Human flesh, Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean 277, 285-286, 302, 306
Long White Mountain, Korea 25, 40-
Loom of the Chilkat Indians, Alaska
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate III, 145-152
Lord, H. M., General, U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 447
Lord Roberts and the Victoria Cross 484
Lowe, Hudson, British general 219
Lowell, Astronomer 168
Lower California, Mexico ill., 330 ;
text, 326-327, 329-330, 379
Luanu, Congo Free State 359
Lukula, Congo Free State 359.
Luzubi River, Congo Free State 363
Lycium, Chinese 65
Lyon, F., Capt., U. S. Navy: Decorated with the
Legion of Honor ill. 476
Lyra, The constellation of 172, 176
Lyra, The ring nebula in ill. 177
"M"
Me Andrews, J. R., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
xv
Page
Macdonald, Beatrice: Decorated with the Distin-
guished Service Cross 498
Madeba mosaic map ill. 460
Madera, Nicaragua: Volcano. 211
Madrid, Spain 254
Maeterlinck's "Blue Bird". .^ 413
Magdalena Bay, Lower California, Mexico
3 2 7 329-330
Magic circle of village charms, Congo Free State
ill. 355
Magic pearl, Story of 390
Mahrah, Arabia 380
Maies, or Sacred sacrificial groves, Marquesas
Islands, Pacific Ocean ill., 291 ; text, 285
Makoba, A native of Congo Free State: Leopard's
attack upon 363
Malay Peninsula 275
Man and a boy, Korea ill., 26; text, 33
"Manana" spirit, Mexico 318-319
Manchuria 254
"Manchuria" spinach produced by Mr. J. B.
Norton 76
Mandarins under the old regime, China ill. 263
Manila Bay Medal (Dewey Medal), U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 474, 507
Manioc, flour, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State.. 352
"Manuel Estrada Cabrera," American Red Cross
Relief Camp, Hospital section: Guatemala City,
Guatemala ill. 206
Manufacturing, Arabia 384
Manyema girl, Congo Free State: Cicatrizations
on ill. 346
Manzos, or "Tame" Yaquis, Mexico 323
Map, Central America: Showing principal vol-
canoes ill. (map) 1 94
Map, Korea 24
Map, Mosaic: Palestine ill. 460
Map of the heavens, A picture ill., 171 ;
text, 174, 176-177, 179
Map, Sketch: Arabia ill. (map) 374
Map, Sketch: Shantung, China ill. (map) 235
Map, Sketch: South Pacific Archipelagoes, includ-
ing the Marquesas Group ill. (map) 281
Map, Sketch: Syria ill. (map) 441
Map, Sketch: West coast of Mexico and the Penin-
sula of Lower California 310
Maranos' flight to Holland 10, 13
Marbles, Playing. . . ill. 100
Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, Celebrated Roman
general 220
March, General, Chief of Staff, U. S. Army:
Decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal. 495
Margot was the Molla Bjurstedt of the twelfth
century 1 3 2
Marine Corps Good Conduct Badge, U. S. Navy..
ill. (colored), 508; text, 506
Marine Corps, U. S.: Emblem of, formed by
soldiers ..ill. 5 2 o
Marines, U. S. Navy, Second Division: Decoration
of, by Secretary of the Navy ill. 467
Market, Guanajuato, Mexico ill. 3 22
Market-place, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan .... ill. 84
Market-place, Cantel, Guatemala ill. 200
Marquesan bringing home a load of fresh bread-
fruit, An old ill* 298
Marquesan children, Life of the 295-296
Marquesan dance (Hula-hulan) 296-297, 299
Marquesan home on the Island of Tahuar. . . .ill. 292
Marquesan maidens are the Island "distillers" 297
Marquesan marriage customs 295
Marquesan men ill., 282, 294, 298, 305;
text, 285, 294, 295, 298
Marquesan miracle: The legend of Uapu's sand-
flies 302
Marquesan natives illustrating the killing of a
victim to be used for sacrifice and "long pig"..
ill. 293
Marquesan rejection of civilized customs and loss
of his own 33
Marquesan women, Beauty of ill., 276, 296, 304;
text, 276-277, 285
Marquesan women, Life of 289-291
Marquesan women, Things forbidden 286, 287
Marquesans: Group of, in new costumes ill. 294
Marquesans, History of f 275
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean ill., 276, 278-284,
286-288, 290-294, 296, 298-301, 304-305; text, 275-306
Page
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Discovery of .. 275,
277, 282, 304
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: English occupa-
tion of 282, 298
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Family records
of 275
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: French occupa-
tion of 298-299, 303
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Naming of. 275, 277
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Natural beauty
of the ill. 3 oo
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Spanish influ-
ence upon 2 8i
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Spanish occupa-
tion of 275, 277, 281-282
Marriage customs, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 295
Mars, Planet ill., 180; text, 167, 168
Masahara Kondo Company, Lower California,
Mexico 329
Masaya, Nicaragua: Volcano 211
Maskat, Oman ill., 370, 375, 385;
text, 370-371, 375, 379, 383-385, 39o, 391
Maskat, Oman: Bazaar streets of ill. 370
Maskat, Oman: From the harbor entrance of.. ill. 376
Maskat, Oman: Gateway to old ill. 375
Massacres in Van, Between. By Maynard Owen
Williams 181
Massacres of the Jews under the Plantagenets 9
Massage, Marquesan art of 290
Massico, Monte, Italy 227
MASTERS OF FLIGHT. (Rotogravure insert)
VIII plates, 49-56
Mattress of kaoliang stalks and sacks of clay used
to check Yellow River, China. .. .ill., 237; text, 232
Matu tatua, or Family geneology, Marquesas
Islands, Pacific Ocean 275
Maxfield, L. H., Lieut. Commander, U. S. Navy:
Decorated with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Maya Indians, Mexico 323
Maya River, Mexico 323
Mazatlan, Mexico 311
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia 369, 371-373, 380
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia: Tourist traffic of 372-373
Mecca pilgrims in Beirut, Syria ill. 442
Medal for Naval Engagements in the West Indies
(Sampson Medal), U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 509;
text, 507
Medal of Honor: Bronze oak-leaf cluster 493
Medal-of-Honor men who won distinction on battle-
fields prior to the World War ill. 484
Medal of Honor Rosette, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 504; text, 502
Medal of Honor Rosette, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 508; text, 502
Medal of Honor, U. S. Army ill. (colored), 504;
text, 472, 475, 478-479, 488, 491-493, 498-499, 502
Medal of Honor, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 508;
text, 491-492, 506
Medals awarded a New Jersey doughboy ill. 494
Medals awarded by East India Company 469-471
Medals awarded St. Vincent Island Militia 469
Medals, badges, decorations, British Army: His-
tory of 464, 468-472
Medals, badges, decorations: Etiquette of wear-
ing 482-484
Medals, badges, decorations: History of 463-464,
468-475, 478-481, 491-493, 496, 498-503, 506-507, 510-
511, 514-515, 5i8, 521-522, 524-526
Medals, badges, decorations: Precedence of 487-488
Medals, badges, decorations, United States: His-
tory of 472-475, 478-479, 491-493, 496, 498-503,
506-507, 510-511, SM-SiS, 5i8, 521-522, 524-526
Medals issued by Charles I of England 464, 468
Medals issued by Charles II of England 468
Medals issued by James I of England 464
Medals issued by Queen Elizabeth of England.... 464
Medals issued by William and Mary of England
468-469
Medals (Military), Presentation of ill. 467-470, 473,
476-478, 480-481, 483, 485, 489-490
Medals: Ribbon of identification attached to 481
Medals, U. S. Army.. ill. (colored), 504-505; ill., 464:
text, 472, 474-475, 478-480, 491-493, 495-496,
498-503, 506
Medals, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 508-509;
text, 491-493, 506-507
Medals with clasps: Origin of the system of 471
XVI
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Medina, Arabia 37L 373, 380
Mediterranean pirates 219
Medium of exchange, Bambala tribe, Congo I'ree
State 359
Medium of exchange: Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean ill- 284
Medium of exchange, Shantung, China 265
Mei, or Breadfruit, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 283, 287, 289
Melon men of Samarkand, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert), Plate XII; text, Plate XX, 421-436
Melville. Herman, Author of "Typee" 36
Menameh, Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf 388
Mencius, Chinese philosopher 231, 249
Mendana, Alvaro, Spanish navigator 275, 277, 281
Mendana's occupation of the Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean 281
Mendelssohn, Moses, Jewish philosopher 5
"Men-tai," a Korean fish ill., 36; text, 28
Mercury, Planet ill., 180; text, 167
Meritorious Service Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 508; text, 506
Merivale, Charles, English historian 224
Merv, Russian Turkestan 62
Mesopotamia 323, 369, 371, 373, 378, 380, 437,443,
448, 462
Mess Hall of the isSth Infantry Brigade, Meuse,
France 535-536
Metius: Concentration of the rays of the sun in a
lens made of ice 158
Metz, Germany: Allied generals honoring General
Petain at ill. 466
Mexicali, Lower California, Mexico 327,329
Mexican Border Medal, U. S.. Army
ill. (colored), 505; text, 503, 506
Mexican Campaign Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507
Mexican children ill. 328
Mexican hats ill. 308
MEXICAN LAND OF CANAAN, A: MARVEL-
OUS RICHES OF THE WONDERFUL WEST
COAST OF OUR NEIGHBOR REPUBLIC.
BY FREDERICK SIMPICH 307
Mexican peon off for market ill. 308
Mexican rurales of the old regime ill. 328
Mexican women. Types of ill. 313
Mexico, .ill., 308, 310, 312-314, 316-318, 320-322, 325-
326, 328, 330; text, 307-330
Mexico, American immigrant's influence upon 309
Mexico and the United States: Hopeful sign of
better relations 311
Mexico: Development of 309
Mexico: Life in 318
Mexico: Lure of 307
Mexico: Map of the West Coast and the Peninsula
of Lower California, Mexico 310
Mexico: Outdoor weaving in sunny
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate IV, 145-152
Mexico: Wealth of 330
Meyer, Frank N., plant-hunter for the United
States Department of Agriculture, .ill., 76; text, 57-59
Meyer's gifts to America 75
Meyer's spinach substitute 76
Miami Beach, Florida 253
Miami, Florida, Aquaplaning off Alton Beach
ill. 108
Michelson, Albert A.: Erection of speedometer for
light, Fort Myer 157-158
Middle East. 369, 37', 385, 39O, 393
Milky Way, The 179-180
Milling, T. de W., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Mills, A. L., General, U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Milo of Crotona 91
Minerals, Lower California, Mexico 330
Minerals, Mexico 307, 309
Ming tombs, Shantung, China: Road to the ill. 264
Mio, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 283
Mirror of the Mount Wilson telescope ill., 164-165;
text, 158, 162
Mirrors, Use of by Romans for signaling 221
Miseno, Italy 213
Missile throwing 9 7> IO o
Missionaries, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
298-299, 302
Missionary teachers in front of one of Petra's
rock temples: Photograph of ill. 459
Page
Moab, Syria 445
Mobunda native, Congo Free State ill. 347
Mocha, Yemen, Arabia 380, 391
Mohammedan Scriptures: Studying the
ill. (color insert), Plate XVI; text, Plate XVI,
421-436
Mohammedans aid Allenby's crusade in Palestine
369, 37i
Momotombo, Nicaragua: Volcano 211
Money, Shantung, China: Forms of 265
Mongo tribes, Congo Free State ill. 344
Mongolia, Chugutchak 63
Mongolian lambs 86
Monte Athos, Turkey in Europe 223
Monte Cavo, Italy 227
Monte Chigri, Italy 223
Monte Epomeo, Ischia Island, Italy 216
Montefiore, Sir Moses 23
Monte Massico, Italy 227
Monte Solaro, Capri Island, Italy ill., 214;
text, 220, 227
Montfaucon, France 537
Moon and planets around the sun, An illustration
of the paths or orbits of the earth ill. 166
Moon at eighteen days old, The jjl. 155
Moon through z. 36-inch telescope, The ill. 159
Morley, S. G., Carnegie Instituion - 189
Mosaic map of Palestine and Egypt ill. 460
Moslem fighters of India 369
Moslem political power centered in Mecca 383
Mosque of Hebron, Entrance to the ill. n
Mosquitoes, Congo Free State 365, 367
Moss, Alaska 545
Mosul, Mesopotamia 380, 443
Moulton, Professor F. R 1 60, 1 81
Mount Ararat, Asia ill., 402; text, 408,414,420
Mount Baker, Washington: Mountain climbing, .ill. 112
Mount Hermon, Syria 448
Mount Kasbek, Russian Caucasus ill. 400
Mount Kremlin, East Turkestan . 254
Mount Newton on the moon ill. 155
Mount Ploskaya, Russian Caucasus 394
Mount Silpius, Antioch, Syria 454
Mount Wilson telescope, The loo-inch mirror of
the ill., 164, 165; text, 158, 162
Mountain climbing, Mount Baker, Washington, .ill. 112
Mountain Island of Capri, Italy ill. 214
Mountain scenery, Shan Hai Kwan, China. .. .ill. 63
Mountains near Fang-shan, The 66
Mounted courier of Alaska ill. 546
Mounting a big telescope, Diagram showing the
usual method of ill. 160
Mourning in Korea ill. 47
Mourning in the Congo Free State ill. 353
Moyanzi natives, Congo Free State ill. 343
Muk-luk, or Boot, Alaska 551
"Muniera, La," Spanish dance 95
Murad the Fourth 371
Muris, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 342
Muris, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State: Brace-
lets of 342
Muryantei, Korea 28-29
Musan, Korea ill., 43; text, 29-30
Musan, Korea: Southern gate of ill. 43
Musan, Korea: Students' dormitory at ill. 43
Musical instruments, Congo Free State. . . .ill., 348-349;
text, 348-349
Musical instruments of the Seri Indians, Mexico
ill., 326; text, 324
Nablus, Palestine 448
Nabours, Robert K. The Land of Lambskins 77
Nacozari, Mexico 309
Najob Azoura, Author of "Le Reveil de la Nation
Arabe" 369
Namu-ehi, or Koko, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean : Native intoxicant of 297, 303
Nanking, Kiangsu, China 235
Nantillois, France 537
Naples, Italy: Description of 213
National food, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 287
National Parks: Uncle Sam's matchless play places. 103
Natives, Armenia, .ill. (color insert), Plate V, 421-436
Natives, Capri Island, Italy ill., 217, 228-229
Natives, Congo Free State ill., 343-368
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XVII
Page
Natives, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. . .ill., 276;
text, 275-277, 285
Natives, Mexico: Types of 308, 313
Natives, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Courage
of 274
Navajo blanket, Southwest United States: Weav-
ing the multi-hued ill. (rotogravure insert)
Plate III, 145-152
Naval station, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, Pacific
Ocean ill., 271 ; text, 267
Naval Observatory, Washington 165
Naval Observatory, Mount Wilson 162
Navy Cross, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 508;
text, 478, 498-499, 506
Navy Distinguished Service Medal.. ill. (colored), 508;
text, 506
Near East 375, 392, 437
"Nebaa" issuing from a rock cliff, Syria: A.. ill. 449
Nebulae ill., 169, 172-175, *775 text, 180-181
Neck-stock or Cangue, China ill., 232; text, 231
Nef ud Desert, Arabia 380
Negro family outside the walls of Jidda, Hejaz,
Arabia ill. 379
Nejd, Arabia 380-381, 383, 390
Nejran, Arabia 384
Neptune, Planet ill., 180; text, 157, 167-168
Netherlands, The stilt and the skate are traced
to the 9I
Nevada 332
Newcomb, Dr. Simon 157,162
New Jersey 390
New Jersey doughboy: Decorations of a...*, .ill. 494
Newton, Sir Isaac 153
Ngombe tribe, Congo Free State 359
Nicaragua, Earthquakes .205, 211
Nicaragua Lake, Nicaragua 211
Nicaragua, Volcanoes 205, 211
Nicaraguan Campaign Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507
Nicholson, W. J., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Niebuhr, Eighteenth Century traveler 380
Nijni-Novgorod, Russia 254
Nile River . 4-57
Nile Valley 443
Ninetieth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 522, 524
Ninety-first Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of....
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Ninety-second Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Ninety-third Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Ninth Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 524
Nisibin, Mesopotamia 437
Nogales, Arizona 307
Nojido, or Nonsatong 31, 33, 40
Nonsatong, A wayside temple on the road to Korea
ill. 46
Nonsatong, or Nojido 31, 33, 40
Noonday siesta amid historic Petra's templed hills
ill. 459
North Africa: Crap-shooting, "Rolling the stones"
in in. 92
North Russia Expedition, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Northern France: Waste and wreckage of war. . . . 530
Northern Korea, Main street in a town of.... ill. 34
Norton, Mr. J. B., "Manchuria" spinach produced
by 76
Norway 539
Norway, A girl of the Harda-nger region
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate I, 145-152
Nebula in Coma Berencis ill. 169
Nukuhiva, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .275, 299
Nymph of Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 273
"Cannes" 385
Oasis scene in the New Arab kingdom of Hejaz
ill. 377
Obregon, General: Story of Yaqui Indian 323
Observatories 1 62
Occupations, Capri Island, Italy 221
Occupations, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean... 285,
289, 294-295, 303
Occupations, Shantung, China 253-254
Ojos Negros Ranch, Lower California, Mexico... 327
Old Medal of Honor, U. S. Army.. ill. (colored), 504;
Old Medal of Honor, U. S. Navy.. ill. (colored?, 508*
text, 506
Old Testament 3
Olympian and Pythian games, The .!!..! 109
Oman. ... 37 6, 378-379, 381, 383-384
Ometepe, Nicaragua; Volcano 2 ii
Ommiad dynasty 393
Omoo, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean '. 281
158th Infantry Brigade, U. S. Army: Christmas
on the Meuse, 1918 527
Onion sprouts, The forcing of 67
Orbits of the earth, moon, and planets around the
sun: An illustration of the paths or ill. 166
Orchard of Chinese jujubes, The first American
Order of the Cincinnati .' 475
Orders, Foreign 480-481
Organ in a shattered church, Northern France..
Orion, A view of the great nebula in. .ill., 175; text, 181
Ornaments, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 349
Orosi, Costa Rica: Volcano 212
Ottoman Empire 369, 371, 393
Outdoor exercise and sports, The ardor of British'
women for 89
Owls, Barn.. ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate III, 49-56
Pacaya, Guatemala: Volcano 205
Pack-horse of Korea, The human ill. 44
Paddlers, Wagema tribe, Congo Free State ill. 360
Paeonias, Chinese 67
Paepaes, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 280, 301 ; text, 280, 285, 301
Pagoda, Taian, Shantung, China.. ill., 246; text, 234-235
Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ill., 271;
text, 267
Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Naval
station of ill., 271 ;,text, 267
Paik-tu-san, Korean sacred mountain 38-42
Palace of the Grand Shereef, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia 369
Palatine Hill, Rome 227
Palestine 369, 378, 437
Palestine: Madeba mosaic map of ill. 460
Palestine : Scene in 3
Palestine : Tourists in ill. 7
Palestinian Talmud 3
Palgrave, Sir Francis 380
Palmer, Bruce, Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Palms, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 274
Palo verde bushes, Mexico 307, 323-324
Panama Canal 311
Pan-American Peace Palace, Cartago, Costa Rica:
Destruction of, by volcano 212
Pandanus, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .283, 289
Pan Lu, Mountain road (China) 240, 243
Panorama of Cantel, Guatemala ill. 208
Papaw, American 59
Parachuting from an airplane ill. 142
Paris 388-389
Paris, Congress of Nations at 23
Park Commissioners, Board of: Oakland, Cali-
fornia 331
Parka (A combination coat and overcoat), Alaska
ill., 544; text, 548, 551
Parks, Oakland, California: Wild ducks in 331
Parthenope (Naples) 228
Patriotic groups, U. S ill., 519-520, 522-523, 525;
text, 519-520, 522-523, 525
Patriotic Societies, United States: Growth of 475
Peace Conference, Grand Vizier's appeal to the
council of ten 371
Peach, Fei 7 ' , 75
Peach of China, The wild ill., 67; text, 66, 75
Pear forests, Wild 61
Pear-growers, The fire blight the curse of 75
Pear, Ussurian 75
Pearl divers, Arabia: How they work 388
Pearl ports, Arabia 388
Pearls, Arabia 385, 388-389
Pearls, Arabian legend on the origin of 389
Peasant women, Korea ill. 29
XVIII
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Pechili, Gulf of, China 255
Peking, Jehol, north of 61
Peking pear 66, 73
Pelele, or Lip plug natives, Congo Free State.. ill., 351;
Pelican, The.. ill. (rotogravure insert), Plates IV, VI,
49-56
Peninsula Medal 47 1
Pennsylvania, U. S. S.: American naval officers
receiving the French Legion of Honor decora-
tion, on board the ill. 468
Peri of the Marquesan paradise, A ill. 304
Perim Island, Arabia 379, 37
Perkins, James H., Lieut. Col., U. S. Army: Deco-
rated with the Distinguished Service Medal.. ill. 477
Pershing, John J., General, Commanding General
American Expeditionary Forces ill. 466
Pershing, John J., General. Commanding General,
American Expeditionary Forces: Bestowing the
American Distinguished Service Medal on a
group of British officers ill. 478
Pershing, John J., General, Commanding General,
American Expeditionary Forces: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal 495
Pershing, John J., General, Commanding General,
American Expeditionary Forces: Decorating a
Chateau-Thierry hero ill. 49O
Pershing stadium at Joinville near Paris, The.. ill. 144
Persia 37 r , 389, 393, 444, 462
Persian children 89
Persian Gulf 376, 378-380, 385
Persian Gulf coast country. 379
Persian Gulf date 59,75
Persian lambs . 85
Persian wrestlers ill. 125
Persimmon, Chinese ill., 69 ; text, 59
Perugia-, Stone-throwing in i oo
Pests, Mexico 3*9
Petain, General, Commander-in-Chief of the French
Army ill. 466
Petain, General, Commander-in-Chief of the French
Army: Decorated with the Distinguished Service
Medal 495
Peters, Pupil of Bessel 155
Petroglyphs, Mexico 322
Peuvilliers, France: Christmas service of the Third
Battalion 530, 532-533
Pharos. Alexandria, Egypt: One of the seven
wonders 219, 224
Pharos, Capri Island, Italy 219-220, 224, 227
Philip IV of Spain, Bull-fighting was perpetuated
by 94, i oo
Philippine Campaign Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 507
Philippine Occupation Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 505; text, 503
Philippines, A tug-of-war in the ill. 126
Philippines, Bontoc Igorot slapping game of the
ill. 140
Philo of Alexandria, Jewish philosopher 5
Phoenicia 256
Phoenicians 443
Photograph of missionary teachers in front of one
of Petra's rock temples ill. 459
Photographic chart of the sky, A.... ill., 178; text, 169
Phraeacia, Homer's princess of 109
Physical geography of Arabia 378-380
Pickering, Astronomer 168
Pictorial geography: An ancient idea of ill. 460
Pigs, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 282
Pilgrims from Mecca besieging a Russian steamer
ill. 439
Pillars, Confucian temple, Kiifu, Shantung, China
ill., 248; text, 243
Pine tree, Chinese ill., 70; text, 65, 76
Pintail ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California
ill.. 333-334; text, 331-333
Pirates, Mediterranean 219
Pirates of Pompey's day 216, 219
Pistache tree, Chinese ill., 64; text, 65,76
"The Place of Thanksgiving," Chinese temple,
Tai Shan Mountain, Shantung, China 240
Planets around the sun, An illustration of the
paths or orbits of the earth, moon, and ill. 166
Plantagenets, Massacres of the Jews under the. ... 9
Plantations, Mexico 307, 309
Plant-collecting caravan en route for the Wu Tai
Shan, China ill. 58
Page
Play-ground to sport, America has contributed the
city 105, 109, 121
Play spirit, The 101,103
Play, The bond of 140-141, 143
Playing marbles ill. 100
Pleiades, A Yerkes photograph of some of the
nebulae of the ill. 174
Poas, Costa Rica: Volcano 212
Poincare, President of France 466
Point Barrow, Alaska 539
Pointed arches, Arabia ill., 375, 390; text, 375
Poipoi, or Fermented breadfruit: Preparation of
by Marquesan natives ill., 286; text, 287, 289
Poison ordeal employed as a judge, Bambala
tribe, Congo Free State 342, 345
Poitiers 100
Poland 437
Poland, Jews of 10
Polaris 170, 1 74, 1 76
Polo, International ill. 1 04
Polybius, Greek historian 223-224
Polybius, Signaling methods, ancient 223-224
Polydamas of Thessalia 91
Polynesians 275, 290
Pompey: Pirates of his day 216,219
Pontic Mountains, Russian Caucasus 401
Pontine Marshes, Italy 227
Poplars, Chili Province, China, A row of ill. 65
Population, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 282, 306
Port Clarence Bay, Alaska 539
Porter, American naval officers: Discovery of
Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 277
Porto Rico Occupation Medal, U. S. Army. . . .
ill. (colored), 504; text, 502
Portugal, The distaff of the spinster in the Douro
District, Northern. .. .ill. (rotogravure insert),
Plate II, 145-152
Postal Express Service, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored)^ 517; text, 525-526
Potaidon, Korea 42, 48
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE
JEWS FOR CIVIL EQUALITY, THE. BY
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT i
Promontory, Capri Island, Italy ill. 230
Pua, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 283
Puamau Bay, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean..
282, 302
Puamau Valley, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 306
Public square, Capri Island, Italy ill. 225
Puerto Barrios, Guatemala 202
Pukow, Kiangsu, China 235
Pulque, Mexico: Gathering of ill. 321
Pumbeditha, Babylonia 5
Punta Tragara, Southeastern promontory of Capri
Island, Italy ill. 215
Puryon, Korea: The old walled town of 28
Pusa, Bay of, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 283
Pushkin, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus ill. 398
"Putting on deer horns;" Favorite gesture of the
Yaquis ill. 318
Pweto, Congo Free State 364
Pythian games 1 09
Pythons, Congo Free State ill. 368
"Q"
Queen of Nukuhiva, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean ill. 283
Quezaltenango, Guatemala ill., 199; text, 205
Quieros, Spanish Chronicler 277
Quinn, Lorena Maclntyre. America's South Sea
Soldiers 267
Races in Mexico: -Diversity of 322
Racetrack of the reindeer, Alaska ill. 556
Read, Buchanan 1 80
Railheads Regulating Stations, U. S. Army: In-
signia of ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Railroad coaches, Mexico: Third class ill. 317
Railroad service, Russian Caucasus 396-397, 399
Railroads, Mexico 315, 318
Railroads, Syria 437, 443-444
Railway Artillery Reserve, U. S. Army: Insignia
of ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Rameses the Great: Inscriptions of ill. 452
Ranches, Mexico 309, 3 1 1
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XIX
Page
Ransom offered Marquesans by Kikela for Whalen's
release 302
Ras-al-Hadd, Oman 379
Read, Lieut. Commander, U. S. Navy: Welcome
of, upon his descent in the harbor of Lisbon,
Portugal ; ill. 474
"Rebekahs" of Sinaloa, Mexico ill. 313
Red Sea 372, 378-379, 39i
Red Sea coast of Arabia 379-380
Reeds, Egypt: Manufacturing a floor covering of
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VII, 145-152
Refracting telescope, The Yerkes ill., 161;
text, 159, 162
Refrigerator cars, Chinese ill. 262
Refugee burial ground outside Etchmiadzin, Rus-
sian Caucasus ill. 41 1
Refugees, Alexandropol, Russian Caucasus 407
Refugees, Armenian. .. .ill., 396, 403-404, 406, 408-410,
412-415, 417; text, 393-420
Regal, Dr., Botanizer 65
Reindeer, Alaska ill., 549-554, 556; text, 539-556
Reindeer, Alaska: Introduction of 546
Reindeer, Alaska: Value of the 545
Reindeer, Curious characteristics of 545-546
Reindeer, Description of 555
Reindeer herder, Alaska ill. 547
Reindeer, Increase of 541
Reindeer imported, Teller, Alaska: First 539
Reindeer industry, Alaska 539, 541, 555
Reindeer, Meat of the 555
Reindeer owned by the Eskimos, Alaska 551
Reindeer teams and their owners: Two champion
ill. 542
Reindeer, Travel records of the 556
Reindeer, Where it gets its name 541
Relay race, The start of a ill. 127
Relay stations for mirror signaling, Italy 227
Relief which decorates the Arch of Titus ill. 6
Reptiles, Arabia 383
Rescue of Whalen from the Marauesan cannibals
by Kikela 302
Rescued image: Services being held before, Cer-
rito de Carmen, Guatemala City, Guatemala, .ill. 212
Reserve Mallet, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Reville, France 527, 530, 537
Ribbon of identification attached to medals 481
Rickenbacker, Edward V., Capt., 94th Aero Squad-
ron, Air Service: Decorated with the Distin-
guished Service Cross, with two bronze oak-
leaf clusters 498
Ring nebula in Lyra, The ill. 177
Rio Grande 311
RISE OF THE NEW ARAB NATION: THE.
BY FREDERICK SIMPICH 369
Road to landing place on the south side of Capri
Island, Italy ill. 218
Road to the Ming tombs, Shantung, China ill. 264
Roads, Capri Island, Italy: Mountain type of....
ill. 222
Roads, Mexico 315,318
Roadways, Rock-hewn, Capri Island, Italy ill. 222
Robert College, Rumeli Hissar, Turkey 454
Roberts, T. A., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Rockhill, W. W., U. S. Minister to China. . 76
Roemer, Astronomer, Discovery of velocity of
light 157-158, 167
"Rolling the stones" in North Africa ill. 92
Roma Hotel, Guatemala City, Guatemala 202
Roman and medieval ruins, Summit of Castig-
lione, Capri Island, Italy ill. 219
Roman beacon signaling: Methods of ... .221, 224, 227
Roman Empire 229
Roman explorers 380
Roman lighthouses 219-221,224, 227
Roman lighthouses, Representations on coins and
medals 219, 224
Roman signaling methods . . . .219-221, 223-224, 227, 229
ROMANCE OF MILITARY INSIGNIA: HOW
THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT
RECOGNIZES DEEDS OF HEROISM AND
DEVOTION TO DUTY. BY COL. ROBERT
E. WYLLIE, GENERAL STAFF, U. S. A.... 463
Romans 219-221, 227
Romans baited balls, The 1 09
Romans excelled in engineering 227
Rome 213, 220, 224, 229
a.J?C
Roosevelt, Theodore, recreations of 103
Roosevelt, Theodore; Influence upon sports. . . .103, 143
Roses, Yellow bush (Rosa xanthina)
Rothschild family ill., 18; text, 11, 18,21
Rothschilds of Paris 329
Ruddy ducksj Lake Merritt, Oakland, California. 331
Rug merchants, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert), Plate XIII; text, Plate XIII,
Rugs, Bokhara, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert), Plate VI; text, Plate VI, 421-436
Ruins, Capri Island, Italy: Roman 216
Ruins, Heizanchin, Korea ill., 47; text, 42,48
Rural guards, Mexico 328
Rurales, Mexico ill. 328
Russian Central Asia, Life in 87
Russian Hebrew orphans arriving in New York
ill. i 6
Russian Jew at Ellis Island, New York, A ill. 22
Russian Jews 19
Russian steamer: Pilgrims from Mecca besieging a
ill. 439
Sacred books on scrolls, Jewish scribes at Saloniki
writing ill., 2 ; text, 3
Sacred mountain, Paik-tu-san. Korean 38-42
Sacred sacrificial groves, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean ill., 291 ; text, 285
Sadek Bey, Turkish aviator 438
Said ibn Sultan, ruler of Oman 381
St. Helena Island, Atlantic Ocean 219
"St. James of the Gentlemen of Guatemala". .202, 205
St. Mary Lake, Glacier National Park: Hikers on
Lower ill. 113
St. Menehould, France 536
St. Mihiel, France 530
St. Moritz, Skiing and Cresta Run toboggan slide
ill. 109-111
St. Paul, Minnesota, Carnival sports ill. 117-118
St. Peters, Rome, Italy 227
Saint-Seine, Captain, French Naval Attache. .. .ill. 476
St. Vincent Island, British West India Islands:
Medals awarded Militia 469
Salerno, Gulf of, Italy 213
Salina Cruz, Mexico 318
Salt, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 352, 359
Saltzman, C. McK., General, U. S. Army: Deco-
rated with the Distinguished Service Medal.. ill. 477
Salvador railroad, blocked by lava flow, between
Quezaltepeque and Sitio de Nino ill. 1 90
Salvador: Earthquake ill., 186; text, 185, 187,192
Salvador: Volcanoes 189, 197
Samaria road: Well on the ill. 453
Samarkand, Russian Turkestan 61, 442
Samarkand, Russian Turkestan: Karakul sheep-
breeding station near 87
Samarra, Mesopotamia 374, 437
Samcheyong, "Three bodies of water" 40, 42
"Samh" or Oatmeal plant, Arabia 381
Samoan athletes, Serpentine dance practiced by.. 274
Samoan feast, A 269
Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ill., 266, 268-274;
text, 266-274
Samoan serpentine dance 274
Samoan villages cluster close to the shoreline, .ill. 271
Samos Island, Greece 216
Sampson Medal, U. S. Navy ill. (colored), 509;
text, 475, 507
Samuel of Nehardea, Jewish patriarch 19
San Diego, California 329
San Diego, Salvador: Volcano 197
San Francisco, California 3'8
Sanga, A dog who gave danger signal of a lion
attack, Congo Free State 365
Sanhedrin, Jamnia 3
San Ignacio, Lower California, Mexico 329
San Jose, Costa Rica 212
San Miguel, Salvador: Volcano 197
San Salvador, Salvador: Destruction by earth-
quakes ' 85, 187
San Salvador, Salvador: Earthquakes ill., 186;
text, 185, 187, 189, 192
San Salvador, Salvador: Earthquake, Story of. By
Mrs. Martha Toeplitz 187
San Salvador, Salvador: Old-fashioned construc-
tion of ill- '86
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano, Activities, re-
cent 1 89, 192
San Salvador, Sa-lvador: Volcano, Crater of ill. 193;
text, 189, 192
San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano, Lava flow
ill., 188, 190-191; text, 189, 192
San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano, Steam appar-
ently turning into smoke ill. 196
San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano, Three stages of
eruption ill. 195
San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano, Vents ill., 188;
text, 187, 189
San Stephano, The treaty of 15
Santa Ana, Salvador: Volcano 197
Santa Christina, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 277
Santa Cruz, La Perouse Islands, South Pacific
Ocean, A weaver of
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VI, 145-152
Santa Magdalena, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 277
Santa Maria Citrella, Capri Island, Italy: Her-
mitage of ill. 220
Santa Rosalia, Lower California, Mexico 329
San Vicente, Salvador: Volcano 197
San Xavier, Arizona 329
Saracens, Jews granted full freedom by 5
Sarts, Ferghana, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert). Plate I, 421-436;
text, Plate I, 421-436
Sarts from Samarkand, Russian Turkestan 442
Saturn, Planet ill., 180; text, 168
Scandinavian Ski, Use of ill. 109
Scaup ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California.. 331
School, Jamnia 3
School building, Guatemala City, Guatemala:
Ruins of ill. 207
Schools, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 303
Schwan, Theodore, General, U. S. Army: Deco-
rated with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Scott, General, U. S. Army: Decorated with a gold
medal for services in the Mexican War 472
Scott, Hugh L., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Scott, John R., Private, U. S. Army, Company
B, Second Dragoons: Awarded the first Certifi-
cate of Merit 499
Scribes, Saloniki: Writing sacred books on scrolls,
Jewish ill., 2 ; text, 3
Scrolls, Jewish scribes at Saloniki writing sacred
books on ill., 2 ; text, 3
Sea-gull ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VIII, 49-56
Second Army, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 510-511
Second Corps School, U. S. Army: Insignia of. .
ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
Second Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Second Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Secretary of the Navy decorating U. S. Marines,
Vallendar, Germany ill. 467
Seeds, Packing of ill. 71
Seeking what warmth the sun can give: Armenians
ill. 414
Sejanus, Roman courier 224, 229
Semafora, Capri Island, Italy 227
Semafora, Monte Circeo, Italy 227
Seoul, A fertile Korean valley in vicinity of... ill. 28
Sephardim or Spanish Jews 5,9
Sepulcher of Confucius, The ill. 64
Serbia : Weaving homespun linen
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate V, 145-152
Seri Indians, Tiburon Island, Mexico ill., 313;
Seri Indians, Tiburon Island, Mexico: Musical
instruments of ill., 326; text, 324
Serpentine dance among Samoan athletes 274
Servants, Congo Free State 367
Service of Supply, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (color insert), 517; text, 526
Service ribbons 483, 485, 487-488
Seshin or Chon Chin 28
Seven-branched candlestick, Arch of Titus ill. 6
Seventh Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 525
Seventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Seventy-eighth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 521
Page
Seventy-ninth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 521
Seventy-seventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518, 521
Seventy-sixth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of. .
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Seven-year slaves, Arabia 378
"Sevillana," Spanish dance 95
Seyyid Taimur Bin Feysil, Sultan of Oman 381
Shanghai, Hui, China 251, 252, 444
Shan Hai Kwan, China, The inspiring mountain
scenery of ill. 63
Shansi, China 265
Shantung, China 253-265
Shantung, China: Japan's intensive efforts in de-
velopment of 259, 265
Shantung, China: Map of ill. (map) 235
Shantung, China: Vast reservoir of labor 265
SHANTUNG, CHINA'S HOLY LAND. BY
CHARLES K. EDMUNDS 231
Shantung coolies for France ill. 255
Shantung coolies in France ill. 256
Shantung coolies, Size of ill. 254
Shantung coolies, War work of 253
Shat-el-Arab River, Turkey in Asia 380
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL
AMERICA. BY HERBERT J. SPINDEN.... 185
Sheik of Koweit, Arabia 380
Sheik of the Beni Lam tribes in Mesopotamia.... 371
Shensi, China 265
Shereef of Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia 369,371,375
Shiba, Mount Hermon, Syria 448
Shield of the United States, formed by soldiers,
Camp Custer, Battle Creek, Michigan ill. 519
Shields, Walter C., Superintendent of the North-
western District of Alaska, Bureau of Educa-
tion : "The Ancient Ground" 548
Shinkarbachin village, Korea 48
Shitsu, Emperor of China 251
Shoulder insignia, U. S. Army.. ill. (colored), 512-513,
516-517; text, 463, 501, 510-511, 514-515, 518, 521-522,
524-526
Shoulder insignia, U. S. Army: How it came
about 501
Shoveler ducks, Lake Merritt, Oakland, Cali-
fornia ill., 333 ; text, 331
Showalter, ^William Joseph: Exploring the Glories
of the Firmament 153
Shrine to Confucius' wife, Kufu, Shantung,
China : A 247
Shuntehfu (Peking, China) 254
Siberia, Plants sought by Frank N. Meyer in 57
Siberia, Vegetable gardens along the Irtish ill. 62
Siberian American Expeditionary Forces, U. S.
Army: Insignia of ill. 526
Sidewalk restaurants, China ill. 256
Sidon, Syria 256
Signal drum of dried deerskin, Mexico ill. 325
Signaling, Greek methods of 223-224
Signaling methods, Ancient 223-224
Signaling, Roman methods of. .219-221, 223-224, 227, 229
Siku River from Tibet to China, A bamboo cable
ferry on the ill. 60
Silpius, Mount, Antioch, Syria 454
Silver River of Heaven, Japanese name for The
Milky Way 180
Simpich, Frederick: A Mexican Land of Canaan. 307
Simpich, Frederick: The Rise of the New Arab
Nation 369
Simpich, Frederick, and Juan Thomas, chief of the
Seris ill. 313
Sinaloa, Mexico 31 1,315
Sinbad the Sailor, Cruising ground of 379
Sipan, Armenia 181
Siren land charged with classical memories
(Naples) 213
Siren rocks of Capri Island, Italy ill. 228
Sirius, The "Dog Star," Canis Major 154-155,181
Sitio de Nino, Guatemala 190
Siva, The ancient worship of Java 275
Sixth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Sixth Corps, U. .S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 525
Skaters, Norway had a regiment of 91
Skates, Netherlands 91
Skating ill. 1 1 6, 1 1 &
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XXI
Page
Ski, in Scandinavia, The ill. 1091
Skiing ill. 109-110
Skin vats for curing Karakul skins: Bokhara, Rus-
sian Turkestan ill. 83,
Skins, Arabia 391
Skunk-raising in captivity 77
Slack, English boxer 128
Slapping game of the Philippines ill. 140
Slavery, Arabia 378
Sluices, Grand Canal, China ill. 260
Smallpox epidemic, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 299
Smoke tree, Chinese (Rhus cotinus) 73
Snakes, Congo Free State ill., 368; text, 367,368
Sodorus, A Greek 221
Solar system, The ill., 166; text, 167-169
Solaro, Monte, Italy ill., 214; text, 220, 227
Soldier receiving a Victory Button ill. 497
Soldier sharing his Christmas box with a French
peasant, A ill. 531
Soldier wearing the Distinguished Service Cross
ill. 48*
Soldiers gathered around a piano, singing Christ-
mas songs, Meuse, France ill. 532
Soldiers, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Native
ill., 266; text, 267, 272.
Soldiers singing the old songs of home and Christ-
mas, Meuse, France ill. 528
Soldiers taught to drill on ice, Holland 91
Sonora, Mexico 307, 311, 322
Sonorans "Ttie Yankees of Mexico" 309, 311
"Soul of Islam" (Mecca) 369
South Pacific 275
South Sea Islands, A weaver of Santa Cruz, La
Perouse Islands, .ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VI,
145-152
South Pacific Archipelagoes, including the Mar-
quesas group: Map of ill. (map) 281
South Sea hula-hula 296-297, 299
South Sea Islands 275-306
South Sea Soldiers, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 266; text, 267, 272
Southern Asia: Card and board games developed in. 91
Southern Bambala youths, Congo Free State. .. .ill. 362
Southern gate of Musan, The ill. 43
Soy beans, Basket for ill. 253'
Soy sauce in the making, Pots of ill. 66
Spain 393
Spain, A bull-fight in ill. 94
Spaniol or Ladino 5
Spanish American War Medal, U. S. Navy
ill. (colored), 509; text, 506-507
Spanish Campaign Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 504; text, 503
Spanish explorations: Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 275, 277
Spanish girl captured by the Seri Indians, Mexico. 326
Spanish influence upon Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean 281-282
Spanish inscriptions, Church of the Cerrito de
Carmen : Guatemala 205
Spanish Jews, Sephardim or 5, 9
Spanish War Service Medal, U. S. Army
ill. (colored), 505; text, 503
Spearing firsh, Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii ill. 99
"Spearing the alligator," An aboriginal ceremony,
Australia ill- 96
Spectroheliograph, The 164
Spectroscope, The 158, 162-165
Speech of the Jews 5
Speedometer for light, The Newcomb-Michelson. .
157-158
Spinach substitute, Meyer's 76
Spinden, Herbert J. : Shattered Capitals of Central
America 185
Spinning and weaving, Korean women
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VIII, 145-152
Spinoza, Jewish philosopher 5
Spiral nebulae, One of the ill. 172
Sports behind the lines, World War 103
Sports of Nations Form a Gazetteer of the Habits
and Histories of their Peoples, How the. By
J. R. Hildebrand 89
Sports, Christmas Day on the Meuse, France 534
Sports of today 122-123
Spraying the finishing lacquer on Distinguished
Service Medals at the Philadelphia Mint ill. 487
Stamboul (Constantinople) 37*
PclffC
Stanleyville, Congo Free State 360-361
Starving women in Igdir, Russian Caucasus ill. 406
Statue of Liberty, formed by soldiers, Camp Dodge,
Iowa ill. 522
Steam-shovel, American: Use of in Mexico ill. 320
Steese, J. G., Colonel, U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Stephens, John L. : Description of Izalco activities. 197
Stilts, Netherlands 91
Stone pillars of the Confucian temple, Kufu,
Shantung, China ill., 248; text, 243
Stone-throwing in Perugia, Italy 100
Strada Krupp, Capri Island, Italy 216
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb 379
Street attire of Seoul women ill. 26
Street in a town of northern Korea ill. 34
Street scene in Jidda, Hejaz, Arabia ill. 386
Street scenes after earthquake, Guatemala City,
Guatemala ill. 205-206
Student's dormitory, Musan, Korea, A ill. 43
Students of Syrian Protestant College, Beirut,
Syria ill., 452; text, 454-456
Studying the Mohammedan Scriptures
ill. (color insert), Plate XVI, 421-436
Subtiaba, Nicaragua 211
Suetonius, Roman biographer and historian 216
Suez Canal 380, 442, 444
Sugar Growing, Mexico 314
Sultan's control over Arabia 371
Sultan's Spring, Syria 448
Sumac, Chinese (Rhus javanica) 73
Sun, moon, and major planets, Chart showing the
relative size of the ill. 180
Sun, Explosions on the ill., 163; text, 164
Sunderland, A. H., General, U. S. Army: Deco-
rated with the Distinguished Service Medal.. ill. 477
Sungari River, Manchuria 254
Suppliant at the "Temple of Good Fortune," Korea
ill. 46
Surf-board riding, Honolulu, Hawaii ill. 98
Swimming and diving ill. 118-122
Swither, H. C., Colonel, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Symonds, English writer 213
Syracuse, Italy 220
Syria ill., 438-442, 444, 446-456, 459-461;
text, 369, 371, 373, 378, 437-462
Syria, Jews i
Syria: Boundaries of 437
Syria: Future of 443-445
Syria: Lack of a past 437
Syria: Map of ill. (map) 441
SYRIA: THE LAND LINK OF HISTORY'S
CHAIN. BY MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS. 437
Syrian Desert 380, 437
Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria 454-456
Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria: Students
of ill.. 4^2: text. 4S4.-4S6
Syrian woman ill. 440, 453
Syrian women at a wayside well on the Samarian
road ill. 453
Szechuan, China 255
"T"
Tacitus, Roman historian: Reference to long-dis-
tance signaling 229
Taft likes walking, Former President 103
Taft, William Howard: The Progressive World
Struggle of the Jews for Civil Equality i
Tahiti, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean 282,295
Tahitians ^75
Tahuara, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 292; text, 303
Taianfu, Shantung, China, A letter from 71
Taian, Shantung, China: Description of a journey
from Tsinan, to 233-235
Tai Miao, Chinese temple, Tai Shan Mountain,
Shantung, China 239
Taipi, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Valley of. 306
Tai Shan Mountains, Shantung, China
ill., 242-245; text, 235, 239-242
Taki, A Huahuka chief, Marquesas Islands, Pacific
Ocean " 282
Talismans, Tai Shan Mountains. Shantung, China. 241
Talmud .; 3. 5
Tamopan seedless Chinese persimmon. ill., 69; text, 59
XXII
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Tamping the layers of earth on the new dike work,
Yellow River, China ! 2 4O
Tangsi cherry 75
Tank Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of...
ill. (colored), 517; text, 525
Tank sports in France V H. IO 5
Tantrums of the Hwang-ho (Yellow River, China) 255
Tappa cloth, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .283, 289
Tappa cloth, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean:
Manufacture of -289, 303
Tapu, "The law and the prophets" of the Mar-
quesans , 2 "
Tara (A piano): The pride of the mess hall on the
Meuse, France 536-537
Tashkent, Russian Department of Agriculture at.. 87
Tashrift, Arabia 373
Tatars 397, 407, 4*4
Tattoo artist, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
291, 303
Tattooing, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 349
Tattooing, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Art
of . 291, 294, 303
Taurus Mountains, Turkey in Asia 437
Tavera, Charles, Lieutenant, French Army ill. 47 6
Taylor, D. W., Rear-Admiral, U. S. Navy: Deco-
rated with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Taylor, General, U. S. Army: Decorated with a
gold medal for services in the Mexican War.. 472
Tcherkesoff, Georgian anarchist 395
Tchita, Siberia 254
Tea olive, Chinese 75
Tehia: Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 295
Tehuantepec, Mexico 309. 3 J 8
Tehuantepec Railway, Mexico 318
Tekrit, Mesopotamia 437
Telav, Russian Caucasus 395
Telescope, Dearborn Observatory 155, 159
Telescope, Diagram showing the usual method of
mounting a big ill. 160
Telescope, The 159-160,162-163
Telescope, The Yerkes refracting ill., 161 ;
text, 159, 162
Teller, Alaska: Reindeer imported at 539
Temple of Bacchus, Baalbek, Syria: Ruins of the
ill. 450
"Temple of Good Fortune." Korea ill. 46
Temple on the road to Nonsatong, Korea ill. 4.6
Temples near the summit of Tai Shan Mountains,
China ill. 24*
Temples, Shantung, China ill., 245; text, 239-240
Tennis: The ancestry of ill., 132-134; text, 132-133
Tenorio, Costa Rica: Volcano 212
Tenth Division, U. S. Army, Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Tepic, Mexico 315
Terns, Caspian, .ill. (rotogravure insert), Plates II, VII,
49-56
Testimonial to be given American soldiers wounded
in battle during the World War ill. 465
Testimony and watch sent Kikela by President
Lincoln 302
Texas, Rural colonies of Jews 23
Thayer, W. S., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Third Army, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Third Corps School, U. S. Army: Insignia of....
ill. (colored). <U7: text. 52
Third Corps, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 516; text, 524
Third Division, U. S. Army; Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 511
Thirteenth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of....
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Thirteenth Engineers, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 517; text, 526
Thirtieth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Thirty-eighth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of. .
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Thirty-fifth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 511: text. si*. *i8
Thirty-first Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Thirty-fourth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Thirty-ninth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Page
Thirty-second Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Thirty-seventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of.
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Thirty-sixth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 518
Thirty-third Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Thrasyllus, Athenian commander 229
Ti, or Marquesan mango, Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean 283
Tia Juana, Mexico .199
Tiber River, Italy 444
Tiberius, Emperor: Occupation of Capri Island,
Italy 213, 224, 229
Tiburon Island, Mexico 323
Tientsin, Chili, China 235, 255
Tiflis, Russian Caucasus ill., 397, 398;
text, 396, 401-404, 408
Tiflis, Russian Caucasus: American Committee's
work among Armenians 404
Tiflis, Russian Caucasus: Pushkin Avenue ill. 398
Tiger hunt in the Korean mountains, A ill., 35;
text, 30-31
Tigris, Turkey in Asia 372, 380
Tigris Valley, Turkey in Asia 181, 443-444
Tiki, or God, Marquesas Islands,. Pacific Ocean....
285-286
Tobacco, Korea 70
Toboggan slide, St. Moritz ill. >i 1 1
Tobogganing, St. Paul, Minnesota ill. 117
Toeplitz, Mrs. Martha: San Salvador volcano,
Description of stages of eruption ill. 195
Toeplitz, Mrs. Martha: San Salvador earthquake,
Story of 187
Toledo : Jews 5
Toltecs, Mexico 321
Tomas, Juan, Chief of the Seri Indians, Mexico
ill.. TIT: text. 127-724. 726
Tomb of Ali, "The Lion of God," Nejef, Arabia. 390
Tomb of Eve, Jidda, Arabia 372
Torday, E. Curious and Characteristic Customs of
Central African Tribes 342
Tortillas, Mexico 314
Tossing Eskimo women in a blanket ill. 123
Tou, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean 283
Tour d'Ordre, Boulogne, France 219-220
Tourists in Palestine ill. 7
Towel merchant, East Side, New York, A ill. 22
Trade, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State 359
Trade route across Syria and Mesopotamia 443
Transcaucasian Commission 397
Transcausasus 409, 414
Transit of Venus 165
Transportation, Mexico 315, 318
Traveling behind the reindeer, Alaska ill. 548
Treaty of Berlin 1 7, 23
Treaty of San Stephano, The 15
Treaty between Korea and the United States.... 25
Triangulum, Nebula in the constellation of.... ill. 173
Tribes, Central Africa 342-363
Ts'ao, or Chinese jujube. .. .ill., 72, 74-75; text, 59, 75
Tsetse-fly, Congo Free State 364
Tsinan, Shantung, China 231-232,259, 265
Tsingkianpu, Kiangsu, China 252
Tsingtau, Shantung (China's Atlantic City) ... .258-259
Tsining, Shantung, China 241, 249
Tsowhsien, China 249
Tucson, Arizona 322
Tug-of-war in the Philippines, A ill. 126
Tumacaciri, Arizona 329
Tumen River, The 25, 31, 38, 42
Tumen Valley, The 31, 33, 38
Turkestan 371, 462
Turkestan Agricultural Society 87
Turkestan: Kirghiz women at an inn in Chinese
ill. 59
Turkey 369, 389
Turkish Armenia 414
Turkish authority in Arabia 371
Turkish Empire 385
Turkish light artillery 371
Turkish troops 405
Turkoman of Russian Turkestan: A
ill. (color insert), Plate VII, 421-436
Turkoman skipper with his desert ship makes the
port of Merv, Russian Turkestan: A
ill. (color insert), Plate II, 421-436
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVI, 1919
XXIII
Page
Turks ........... ........................... 37I> 378
Turners, Leipsic ....................... ..... ill. 1 3 1
Tuscany : Italy ................................ 2 \-\
Tutuila, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean ____ 267-268, 272
Tutuila, Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean: Gover-
nor's inspection of ........................... 272
Tweedie, Colonel: Author "The Arab Horse" ..... 383
Twelfth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of ......
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514
Twenty-eighth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of.
ill. (colored), 512; text, 515
Twenty-ninth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of..
ill. (colored), 513; text, 515
Twenty-seventh Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 514-515
Twenty-sixth Division, U. S. Army: Insignia of
ill. (colored), 512; text, 51 A.
Typhus, Igdir, Russian Caucasus ................ 418
Tyre, Ancient city of Phoenicia ................ 256
Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy .......................... 227
"U"
Uapu, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. .297, 299, 302
Uapu, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean: Sand-
flies of ..................................... 302
Ukraine, Jews ................................ 23
Ulysses, Hero of the Trojan war ................ 228
Uma, or Native sweet potato, Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean ............................... 283
Uniforms, Tiflis, Russian Caucasus .............. 401
U. S. Army: Insignia of ................. ill. 464, 526
U. S. Army: Insignia of ...... ill. (colored), 504-505,
508-509, 512-513, 516-517; ill., 464, 526; text, 463-526
U. S. Army: Insignia of (Divisional) ..........
ill. (colored), 512-513, 516-517; ill., 526; text, 463,
501, 510-511, 514-515, 518, 521-522, 524-526
U. S. Army: Medals of the .................. ill. 464
U. S. Army: Medals of the.... ill. (colored), 504-505;
text, 472, 474-475, 478-480, 491-493, 495-496, 498-503
5O6
U. S. Army, isSth Infantry Brigade: Christmas on
the Meuse .................................. 527
United States, Jews ......... ill., 22; text, 13, 17, 20, 23
U. S. Naval officers receive the Legion of Honor
from France ............................... ill. 47 6
U. S. Navy: Medals of the ...... ill. (colored), 508-509;
text, 491-493, 506-507
United Stales: Shield of the ................. ill. 519
United States' trade with Arabia ............. 390-391
U. S. Training ship, A boxing bout on a ...... ill. 124
Uranus, Planet ............. ill., 180; text, 157, 167-168
Ures, Mexico ................................. 309
Ussurian pear ................................. 75
Utensils, Seri Indians, Tiburon Island, Mexico..
Vaehehu, Queen of Nukuhiva. Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean ............................. ill. 283
Vaitahu, Bay of, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 303
Vallendar, Germany ........................... 467
Valley in the vicinity of Seoul, Korea ........ ill. 28
Van, Armenia: Youthful volunteers who tramped
from Artemid to .............. ill., 182-184; text, 183
Van, Armenia ................................. 181
VANISHING PEOPLE OF THE SOUTH SEAS,
A: THE TRAGIC FATE OF THE MAR-
QUESAN CANNIBALS, NOTED FOR THEIR
WARLIKE COURAGE AND PHYSICAL
BEAUTY. BY JOHN W. CHURCH ......... 275
Vanishing race : Marquesans, A ........ ......... 306
Vats for curing Karakul skins, Bokhara: Skin.. ill. 83
Vegetable gardens along the Irtish, Siberia ---- ill. 62
Vegetables, Mexico ......................... 307, 314
Vegetables, Shantung, China .................... 265
Veiled figure bespeaks the Near East .......... ill. 391
Velocity of light ........................ 157-158, 167
Vents, San Salvador, Salvador: Volcano ..... ill., 1 88;
text, 187, 189
Venus, Planet ................ . .ill., 180; text, 167-168
Verdun, France ............................... 527
Victoria Cross ................................ 484
Victory Button: Soldier receiving a .......... ill. 497
Victory Button, U. S. Navy ...... ill. (colored), 508;
text, 502
Victory Buttons, U, S. Army ...... ill. (colored), 504;
text, 479, 502
Victory Medal ill., 4 6 4 ; text, 479-480, 50
Vila di Tiberio, Capri Island, Italy: Ruins Tof ... ! 220
Villa Jovis, Capri Island, Italy
Villages, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State: How
governed , e
Villas, Capri Island, Italy. ..'.'.'.'. '.'.*. '.'.'.'.'. .'/ill 22 \
Vines, Congo Free State: Climbing parasite. .. .ill. 366
Violin virtuoso of Tiburon Island, Mexico ill. 326
X? r 8j* 2l6 221
Vital statistics, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean.' 306
Vo can de Agua, Guatemala 203, 205
Volcan de Fuego, Guatemala 203
Volcano that blew off its own head (Coseguina,
Nicaragua) an
Volcanoes, Central America, .ill., 1 88,' ipi ,"193*, "195-196
__ 198, 210; text, 185, 189, 197, 205, 211-212
Volcanoes, Costa Rica l8s , 205 , 21,
Volcanoes, Good gift of . 2 i?
Volcanoes, Guatemala .' ' ' " 2 ' \ 20 <;
Volcanoes, Honduras . . . j ' 2O s' 211
Volcanoes, Italy : Monte Epomeo '. . " ' 2l f
Volcanoes, Nicaragua 205, 2n
Volcanoes on the moon jn l ec
Volcanoes, Salvador 189 197
Volcanoes, Salvador: Izalco ill., 198; text] 197
V olcanoes, Salvador: Izalco, Crater ill. 19?
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador .ill., 1 88;
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador: Activities, re-'
cent jgg jg 2
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador, Crater'. '.'.'ill., '193;
text, 189, 192
V olcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador, Early descrip-
tion Of jgg
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador. Lava flow!!!
ill., 188-191; text, 189, 192
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador, Steam appar-
ently turning into smoke ill. I9 6
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador, Three stages
of eruption jn. 1 95
Volcanoes, Salvador: San Salvador, Vents ...ill., 188;
text, 187, 1 88
Volunteers who tramped from Artemid to Van,
Armenia: The boyish company of ill., 182-184;
Vries, Hugo de, Dutch botanist .' . . . 58
"W"
Wadonville, France 537
Wagema tribe, Congo Free State: Paddlers of the
ill. -jfin
Wahabees, Nejd, Arabia 779
Walker, Yankee filibuster 327
Walking Club, The "Wanderlusters": Washington's
Wall in Bokhara, Russian Turkestan
ill. (color insert), Plate XIV, 421-436
Walls of Jidda, Negro family outside the ill. 379
Wanderlusters: Washington's Walking Club, The
Wan-li, Chinese emperor 241
War a blessing in dreadful disguise, The 19-20
Warble fly, Alaska: Effect upon the reindeer. .547-548
Warehouse of Karakul skins, Bokhara, Russian
Turkestan : A ill. 85
Washing Karakul skins, Bokhara, Russian Turke-
stan ill. 85
Washington, George: Enjoyed hunting and fishing
141-143
Washington, George, General, U. S. Army:
Awarded a gold medal 472
Washington's Walking Club, The "Wanderlusters"
ill. 114
Watch presented Kikela by President Lincoln.... 302
Water, Digging for, Lower California, Mexico.. ill. 330
Water-hammers, Korea all., 37; text, 31
Water jump, Eton, The ill. 107
Water, Syria 445, 448-449
Waterloo Medal 471
Waters, Dr. H. J., President of the Experiment
Station of the Kansas State Agricultural Colleee. 77
Way of the devout Chinese pilgrim: Path leading
to summit of Tai Shan Mountains, Shantung,
China ill. 244
Wayside temple on the road to Nonsatong, A.. ill. 46
Weaver-bird nests, Kwilu River, Congo Free State
ill. 358
XXIV
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Weaver of Santa Cruz, La Perouse Islands, South
Pacific Ocean, A.. ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VI,
145-152
WEAVERS OF THE WORLD. (Rotogravure
insert.) VIII Plates '45
Weaving homespun linen, Serbia .
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate V, 145-152
Weaving, Mexico, Outdoor
ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate VIII, 145-152
Weaving shops, Igdir, Russian Caucasus: Children
in the 409
Weaving the Navajo blanket, Southwest United
States ill. (rotogravure insert), Plate III, 145-152
Weihaiwei, Shantung, China 253
Well on the Samaria road, Palestine ill. 453
Wells of Beersheba, Palestine 445
Wen-ho River, China 241
Wen-ho River, China: Fishing in the ill. 261
West Coast, Mexico 307. 39, 3M. 3 l8 . 3*9
Westervelt, W. A., General, U. S. Army: Deco-
rated with the Distinguished Service Medal.. ill. 477
Weygand, General, Chief of Staff to Marshal Foch
ill. 466
Whalen, American whaler: Capture by Marquesan
cannibals 302
WHERE SLAV AND MONGOL MEET. BY
MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS
color insert, XVI Plates, 421-436
Where the mountains often tremble (Central
America) 185
White-barked pine tree, The Chinese ill., 70;
text, 65, 76
White man's vices and virtues, Marquesas Islands,
Pacific Ocean 297, 299
Whittlesey, Charles W., Lieut. Colonel, U. S.
Army: Decorated with the Medal of Honor. .492-493
Wild apricot, China 66
Wild Cattle, Mexico 311, 314
WILD DUCKS AS WINTER GUESTS IN A
CITY PARK. BY JOSEPH DIXON 331
Wild ducks in parks, Oakland, California: Cost of
feeding 33i
Wild fowl, Lake Merritt, Oakland, California 331
Wild fowl, Mexico 319
Wild peach, China ill., 67 ; text, 66, 75
Wild pear forests 61
Wilgus, W. J., Colonel, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Wilhelmina, Queen of Holland 329
William and Mary of England: Medals issued by
468-469
Williams Bay, Wisconsin: The Yerkes Observatory
at ill., 156; text, 160, 162
Williams, Maynard Owen. Between Massacres in
Van 181
Williams, Maynard Owen. The Descendants of
Confucius 253
Williams, Maynard Owen. Syria: The Land Link
of History's Chain 437
Williams, Maynard Owen. Where Slav and Mon-
gol Meet color insert, XVI plates, 421-436
Willow, Chinese 75
Wilson, Henry B., Vice-Admiral, Commander-in-
Chief of the American naval forces in France:
Decorated with the Legion of Honor ill. 476
Wilson, John M., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Medal of Honor ill. 484
Wingate, G. A., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Winslow, E. E., General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Wireless stations, Capri Island, Italy: Ancient. .220, 224
Woevre River, France 530, 534
Women, Bambala tribe, Congo Free State. .. .ill., 346;
text, 345-346
Women, Korea: Life of 41
Women, Korea: Street attire of ill. 26
Women, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean
ill., 276, 296, 304; text, 277, 285-287, 289-291
Women receiving the Croix de Guerre from the
French High Commissioner ill. 483
Page
Wood carvers, Marquesas Islands, Pacific Ocean. 303
Wood, Leonard, General, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Wood nymph of Samoan Islands, Pacific Ocean, .ill. 273
Woolley, C. Leonard 457-458, 462
World Struggle of the Jews for Civil Equality,
The Progressive. By William Howard Taft i
World's greatest tourist town (Mecca) 372
Wyllie, Robert E., Col., U. S. Army. The Ro-
mance of Military Insignia: How the United
States Government Recognizes Deeds of Heroism
and Devotion to Duty .^ 463
Wyllie, Robert E., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Wrestlers, Persian ill. 125
Wrestling 91, 125, 128
Writing sacred books on scrolls, Jewish scribes at
Saloniki ill., 2 ; text, 3
Wu Hu north of Nanking 61
Wu Tai Shan, China: Plant-collecting caravan en
route for the ill. 58
Xerxes, King of Persia 221
Xochitl, Indian girl of the Toltec tribe 321
"Y"
Yachting ill. 1 06
Yale-Harvard boat-race, New London, Connecticut
ill. 128
Yalu River, China, The 25, 40, 42, 48
Yalu River: Chinese draught men towing junks
up the ill. , 36 ; text, 48
Yang tao, China 73
Yangtze River, China 57, 61, 235, 249, 251, 255
Yangtze Valley, China 444
Yankee mining company, Nacozari, Mexico 309
Yaqui boy soldiers and their signal drum of dried
deerskin ill. 325
Yaqui Indians, Mexico ill., 316, 318; text, 318, 323
Yaqui River, Mexico: Indian girl washing clothes
in the ill. 316
Yaquis, Favorite gesture of the ill. 318
Yaqui Valley, Mexico 307, 309, 319
Yellow River, China: Dike work ill.- 240
Yellow River, China: Engineers directing Shan-
tung coolies in curbing flood ill. 236
Yellow River, China (Hwang-ho) ill., 236-239;
text, 232-233
Yellow River ("China's Great Sorrow") . .ill., 236-239;
text, 232-233, 255
Yellow Sea 255
Yemen, Arabia 380-381, 383-384, 391
Yenchow, Shantung, China 241, 249, 252, 261
Yentzu, Favorite disciple of Confucius 241, 249
Yerkes Observatory at Williams Bay, Wisconsin,
The ill., 156; text, 160, 162
Yerkes photograph of some of the nebulae of the
Pleiades, A ill. 174
Yerkes refracting telescope, The. .ill., 161 ; text, 159, 162
Yezidi refugees stealing a ride on an American
relief train ill. 403
York, Alvin C., Corporal, U. S. Army: Decorated
with the Medal of Honor 493
Young, C. C. : Purchase of Karakul sheep 87
Young, H. H., Col., U. S. Army: Decorated with
the Distinguished Service Medal ill. 477
Y. M. C. A. workers receiving the Croix de Guerre
ill. 483
Yucatan, Mexico 322
Yuma, Colorado 327
Yung Cheng, Chinese emperor 243
Zappo Zap tribe, Congo Free State: Women from
the ill. 347
Zerafshan, River of Russian Central Asia 87
Zionist movement, The 23
PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER INC., WASHINGTON D. C.
'
VOL. XXXVI, No. 1 WASHINGTON
JULY, 1919
THE
ATDOMAL
OGSSAP
A//^ A ^77 TT
(To A\ //
^Jj/r^\/zUJi
THE PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF
THE JEWS FOR CIVIL EQUALITY*
BY WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT
AUTHOR, IN THE; NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, OF "SOME RECENT INSTANCES OF NATIONAL ALTRUISM,
"THE ARBITRATION TREATIES/' "WASHINGTON: ITS BEGINNING, ITS GROWTH, AND ITS FUTURE,"
"GREAT BRITAIN'S BREAD UPON THE WATERS/' "THE HEALTH AND MORALE OF
AMERICA'S CITIZEN ARMY," AND "THE LEAGUE of NATIONS"
WITHIN the limits of this article
one can hope to give only the
merest sketch of the history
which the subject of the Jews involves.
I need not pause to emphasize the re-
markable character of the Jewish people.
They are unique in that for eighteen hun-
dred years they haver- had no country,
have been dispersed to the four quarters
of the globe, and yet have retained their
religion, their cohesion, their intellectual
capacity, their loyalty to their race, and
have, whenever there was any pretense
of equality of opportunity for them,
forged their way ahead into positions of
prominence, influence, and power in
business, professions, in philosophy, in
art, in literature, and in government.
They have at the same time made loyal
subjects or citizens of the countries in
which they have lived whenever they
have been accorded any reasonable pro-
tection of civil rights. No other people
has ever been subjected to such continu-
ous persecution in denial of opportunity
to make a living and pursuit of happi-
ness, in humiliating restriction unon their
liberty, in exclusion from education, and
*An address delivered bv the ex-President.
William Howard Taft. before the National
Geographic Society at Washington, D. C
indeed in actual physical cruelty and
massacre.
THE: DISPERSION OF THE JEWS BEGINS
During the three hundred years before
Christ, the Jews were under Greek con-
trol and influence. Jerusalem was at-
tacked many times and sacked, with the
consequent dispersion into other coun-
tries of many of its people. They mi-
grated into Syria, into Arabia, into
Egypt, and became numerous and promi-
nent in Alexandria. Indeed, there were,
it is said, as many as a million Jews in
Egypt before the Christian era.
When the Roman and the Parthian
empires constituted the world, Jews were
to be found in every commercial center,
and in each there was a Jewish com-
munity and synagogue and a relationship
maintained with Jerusalem.
The Jews flocked to Rome. Tiberius
issued an order excluding them, but it
was only enforced for a short time and
they returned in great numbers. Al-
though the Emperor Claudius announced
his intention of banishing them again,
they were so many that he gave it up.
In the first and second centuries after
Christ, Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Trajan,
and Hadrian found the Jews of Palestine
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from R. S. Cresswell
JEWISH SCRIBES AT SALONIKI WRITING SACRED BOOKS ON SCROLLS, AS IN THE
OLDEN DAYS
This work is very beautifully executed on parchment in strong black ink. The Oral Law,
so called, of the Jews was codified by rabbis, after the expulsion from Jerusalem, into the
Palestinian Talmud. The written law was the law of Moses, contained in the Pentateuch
and known as the "Torah." The remainder of the Old Testament was divided into the
"Prophets" and the "Writings" (see page 3).
unruly and undisposed to yield to their
authority and campaigns were waged
against them. Jerusalem was taken in
the year 70 by Titus and the Temple de-
stroyed. In the year 135 it was taken
again by Hadrian's generals and the city
destroyed.
THOUSANDS SENT IN BONDAGE TO SPAIN
Hadrian rebuilt the city and substi-
tuted a temple to Jupiter in the place of
the temple to Jehovah. The Jews were
expelled from the city and forbidden to
come within sight of its walls. This
brought about the great "diaspora," or
second dispersion, which sent the people
of Israel to the uttermost parts of the
earth, some going voluntarily and others
taken as prisoners. It is said that 80,000
prisoners were sent to Spain, where they
found the Jewish communities which had
moved on from Rome.
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams
A .SCENE IN PALESTINE, WHERE THE JEW HAS HEEN A STRANGER IN HIS OWN LAND
FOR CENTURIES
After two' millenniums of exile, the Jew may now return in safety to the land of his
fathers and abide there with the assurance that his civil as well as his religious liberty will
be safeguarded by civilized nations.
After the expulsion from Jerusalem,
the scribes and Pharisees established a
school and Sanhedrin at Jamnia, in Pal-
estine, and somewhat later the center of
church authority became Tiberias, on the
Sea of Galilee, and for two hundred
years an autonomous patriarchate under
the Roman Empire flourished there.
Here were institutions of learning in
which the rabbis codified the traditions
called the Oral Law into the Palestinian
Talmud.
The seat of Jewish ecclesiastical au-
thority then passed from Tiberias, in
Palestine, to Babylonia, where great
schools were established at Nehardea and
Sura. In Babylonia three institutions of
learning were conducted by the rabbis,
who in the course of two hundred years
framed the Babylonian Talmud.
The written law was the law of Moses,
contained in the Pentateuch and known
as the "Torah." The remainder of the
Old Testament was divided into the
"Prophets" and the "Writings," so called.
WITHOUT HOME OR COUNTRY
In the laws of Moses and the Talmud
was to be found a collection of rules of
conduct physical, social, political, re-
ligious, moral, and philosophical a strict
and literal compliance with which became
the life of the Jew. They offered a field
for his study and mental occupation and
discussion with his brethren which never
ended. His duties thus prescribed were
to be performed in the home and in the
synagogue and in the academy, and these
centers supplied to him what the father-
land was to others more fortunately situ-
ated.
The Torah and the Talmud established
a direct relation to God on the part of
each individual and an accountability for
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
every minute of his waking hours that
absorbed his attention and his interest.
With no home, no country, no kindly
sympathy from any one but his own
kind, he found his happiness within his
own circle and in the refuge from sorrow
which his life within the law gave him.
Their great historian says of the Jews :
"In the vicissitudes of their fate for a
great many centuries they were saved
'by their own inner life, pure home life,
idealism of the synagogue, and belief in
ultimate Messianic redemption' from
utter demoralization and despair."
JEWS GRANTED FULL FREEDOM BY
SARACENS
From Pumbeditha and Sura, in Baby-
lonia, in the eleventh century, the seat of
Jewish ecclesiastical authority seems to
have passed to Spain, where, under the
Saracens in Cordova and Toledo and
Granada, the Jews were given full free-
dom and scope for their activities and
for the practice of their religion, and for
the further discussion of the Jewish
faith and philosophy.
The two Talmuds are very voluminous,
and in the centuries after their issue
their legal contents were digested and
condensed into more usable form jfor
daily consultation and use. From time
to time philosophers and leaders of Jew-
ish thought appeared.
Philo of Alexandria, Maimonides of
Spain, and Moses Mendelssohn were the
three great lights, the first in the begin-
ning of the Christian era, the second in
the Middle Ages, and the third in the
eighteenth century and late enough to
furnish the type to Lessing for that won-
derful character of Nathan der Weise.
False Messiahs appeared and misled
many to their sorrow. Mysticism played
its part and books promoting it were
written, causing protest and controversy.
Commentaries were published by some
Jewish leaders of thought which were
pronounced heretical by others. Spinoza,
the great philosopher, was excommuni-
cated by the Dutch rabbis.
But in spite of these differences, con-
stantly during the seventeen centuries of
gloom and woe, somewhere in the world
was a religious center of Jewish authority
to which Israel turned for hope and in-
spiration.
The strictly orthodox Jews have al-
ways adhered closely to the rabbinical
law of the Talmud, but under the influ-
ence of Mendelssohn and the leadership
of other liberals among his successors a
division occurred, and there arose a lib-
eral and reformed school among them,
which grew in number as the conditions
for their assimilation with the local en-
vironment became more favorable and
they were relieved from the forced ex-
clusiveness and misery of the Ghetto.
TWO JEWISH TONGUES
The speech of the Jews has had an in-
teresting history. Hebrew, Aramaic,
Greek, Arabic, and all European lan-
guages were from time to time spoken by
them. Finally, in their wanderings, there
grew up two hybrid mediums one the
Yiddish, or Jargon, and the other the
Ladino.
The former, which has an extensive
literature, is based on the medieval Ger-
man, but is written in the Hebrew char-
acters and is mixed with Hebrew and in-
fluenced by the vernacular. It is used by
the Ashkenazim, or German Jews of
northern and eastern Europe.
The latter, the Ladino, or Spaniol, is
Spanish in its basis and mixed with He-
brew and Turkish. It is used by the
Sephardim, or the Spanish Jews, and has
been carried by them to Africa, Turkey,
Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece.
Recurring now to the history of the
race after the second dispersion : In
Rome, after the Christian era, Jews and
Christians flocked in great numbers. In
the chaos of skepticism, religions, and
philosophies, there was a cult among
some of the Romans that led them to
embrace Judaism ; but generally the Jews
were exclusive, unexpansive, and con-
temptuous of other religions. They were
especially hostile to the Christians, whom
they regarded as traitors to their race for
failing them in the wars of Vespasian
and Titus, and whom they did not hesi-
tate to accuse of many shortcomings in
order to stir up Roman hostility against
them.
THE LONG, DARK NIGHT OF JEWISH
HISTORY
The Christians differed from the Jews
in that they were most active mission-
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TOURISTS IN THE HOME LAND OF THE CHOSEN
No other region of equal size on the face of the earth has exercised so potent an influence
on civilization as Palestine, the geographical cradle of the Children of Israel.
aries, and they thus brought down on
their heads persecutions which were di-
rected nominally against both Jews and
Christians, but the severities of which
the Jews were able to escape.
The result of this situation in Rome
and elsewhere placed the Jews at a great
disadvantage when the Roman Empire
became Christian under Constantine, and
from that time on, in one form or an-
other, we find constant Christian perse-
cution of the Jews.
In the long, dark Jewish night, after
Christianity became the creed of the Ro-
man emperors, down to the nineteenth
century, there were only two or three
countries and comparatively short periods
in which the Jews enjoyed tolerance,
prosperity, and power and were able to
develop the genius of their race.
In the eighth century Charlemagne,
correctly estimating their value as sub-
jects of his empire, granted them toler-
ance in religion and encouraged them in
the.development of a trade which greatly
helped his empire and made many of
them rich merchants. The fact that
there were Jewish communities in every
great commercial center, even of the
most distant parts, gave them a marked
facility in conducting international trade.
Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis
the Pious, continued his father's wise and
kindly treatment of them.
THE JEWS FLOURISHED IN SPAIN
A little earlier than Charlemagne the
Moslem invasion of Spain in 711 estab-
lished the Crescent in the peninsula.
Arabian and African Jews, who, after
the persecution of them by Mahomet and
Omar, had ingratiated themselves with
their successors and had been given op-
portunity for education and development,
accompanied the Saracens into Spain and
there met their brethren, who had been
greatly abused by the Visigoths and who
were only too glad to unite in aiding the
following of the Prophet to establish a
kingdom.
There they developed trade, poetry,
philosophy, science, and literature and
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
9
art. They became ministers of the gov-
ernment and its representatives abroad.
The kindly Saracenic soil for their
growth gave a full development to the
race, and the Spanish, or Sephardic, Jews
were fine specimens of physical and in-
tellectual manhood. They became in a
way the aristocracy of the house of
Israel.
This favorable condition continued
until the reconquest of Spain by the
Christians began, and lasted in lessening
degree to the expulsion of the Moors
from Granada, in the fifteenth century.
Meantime every great upheaval seemed
to increase Jewish persecution and Jew-
ish misery.
The First Crusade, in 1096, which de-
veloped such wonderful religious spirit
in the middle and upper classes, led the
scum and the rabble to a persecution of
the Jews. This recurred in the Second
Crusade, in 1146.
MASSACRES OF THE) JEWS UNDER THE
PLANTAGENETS
A cruel massacre of the Jews occurred
in 1189 in England, at the time of the
coronation of Richard I, although the
king favored them and they had acquired
a hold in England to such an extent that
there had been established a Jewish ex-
chequer, where Jews had to register all
their transactions and through which the
financial troubles of the Plantagenets
were greatly remedied by Jewish gold.
They were, however, expelled in 1290
from England by Edward I, it is said
at the instance of the Queen Mother
Eleanor, whose religious intolerance
could not brook their presence.
The Fourth Lateran Council, under
Innocent III, among many anti-Jewish
measures, required Jews to wear a dress
or badge indicating their race. Soon
after in all the cities of Europe they were
compelled to live in a particular quarter
surrounded by walls and were locked in
at night. Hemmed in and congested in
these ghettos, the Jewry of Europe lived
out their painful lives until the middle of
the eighteenth century.
St. Louis of France expelled the Jews
in 1254, treated them badly, and then in-
vited them back. Philip IV expelled
them, and nine years afterwards, in 1315.
his successor, Louis X, recalled them.
They were finally expelled by Charles VI
in 1394.
ACCUSED OF BLACK-DEATH SORCERY
In 1348 and 1349 there came the plague
of the "black death" all over Europe.
Probably because of the hygienic effect
of the Mosaic and Talmudic law, to
which the Jews conformed with rigidity,
they escaped the ravages of the epidemic.
This was noted among the people, and
at once the report spread that the plague
had come from wells poisoned by the
Jews, and another series of massacres of
these poor people followed everywhere.
During the plague, Pope Clement VI
issued two bulls in an attempt to protect
the Jews.
The Popes in the course of the centu-
ries, however, issued many bulls against
the Jews. The bulls were enforced with
much greater severity in other countries
than by the Popes themselves, who in
actual administration often exhibited
much leniency toward this unfortunate
race. Canon law had forbidden the tak-
ing of interest or usury by Christians;
but this did not apply to the Jews, and as
the Jews had the money, they did the
lending.
They thus became objects of interest
to the kings of the various countries who
had to borrow money, and they were
made private servants of the monarchs,
servi camarce, a position of apparent
privilege which, however, in the end only
subjected the Jews to greater persecution.
CHARGED WITH HUMAN SACRIFICE
An uncertain tolerance was the only
relief from constant persecution, which
was their usual condition after the cru-
sades and the black plague. Every ex-
cuse for attacking them was seized. Huss
in Bohemia proclaimed his adherence to
the teachings of Wycliffe in 1420. He
was persecuted by the church but so,
too, were the Jews for his agitation
among Christians, with which they had
naught to do.
In 1481 the Inquisition was set on foot
in Spain, and in 1492, after Granada fell,
the Jews were expelled. They were
driven into northern Africa, into Turkey,
and into Italy.
10
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Whenever bitterness or prejudice or
private motive prompted hostility to the
[ews, a common form of accusation was
that of murder, and offering of a sacri-
fice of a Gentile child in their religious
ceremonies was charged. A trial was
had and, whether conviction followed or
not, persecutions ran riot.
This method of attack has, as we know,
continued down to the present genera-
tion in some countries. Lecky, in his
"History of Morals in Europe," points
out that this form of charge was made
against a great many different sects in
pagan Rome against the Christians as
well as others. It has survived only
against the Jews.
POLAND ONCE A LAND OF REFUGE
The effect of the crusades, the black
plague, the Inquisition in Spain, the Huss
persecutions in Bohemia, and the annual
massacres in Austria in the time of Ru-
dolph of Hapsburg, was to drive the
Jews to seek refuge in a country where
life was possible. The country toward
which they turned their eyes was Poland.
Poland was consolidated under Casi-
mir III, the Great, in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and was made still greater by the
marriage of his grand-niece and heiress
to Yaguello, the Grand Duke of Lithu-
ania, who thereupon became the King of
Poland and the founder of a dynasty
which ruled from the latter part of the
fourteenth to the latter part of the six-
teenth century.
At the height of its expansion the Pol-
ish monarchy reached from the Baltic to
the Black Sea and covered an area which
down to this day harbors the great bulk
of the Jewish population of Europe. If
we leave out Prussian Poland and Aus-
trian Galicia, the Russian present Jewish
pale of settlement nearly coincides with
the boundaries of this ancient Poland.
A "JEWISH JUDGE" APPOINTED
In 1334 Cassimir the Great of Poland
confirmed a charter of general privileges
to the Jews which had originally been
given by a predecessor in 1264. The
charter insured the economic progress of
the Jews and gave guaranties of their
personal and religious security.
They were exempted from the juris-
diction of the ecclesiastical as well as
the municipal law courts and a "Jewish
judge," so called, was appointed to act
in their cases, significant of the abuses to
which they had been subjected.
Cassimir's liberality attracted Jews
from every quarter of Europe and greatly
increased their number in Poland.
After the Yaguello dynasty the power
passed from the kings to the Polish no-
bility, or Shlakta, and the protection to
the Jews grew less and less. The burgh-
ers were hostile to them because of their
competition, and the nobility, while using
them as agents to conduct their estates,
were arbitrary, cruel, and tyrannical.
Chaos ensued and the condition of the
Jews grew worse. They were forbidden
to hold land. The nobility manufactured
the liquor, and they were willing and
anxious to have the Jews sell it, who
thus, for lack of other occupation, be-
came the innkeepers, the purveyors in
the demoralizing liquor business.
The reduction and elimination of the
Polish Kingdom during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries transferred the
bulk of the Jews of the world to the ju-
risdiction of Russia, Germany, and Aus-
tria. Poland lost many of its provinces
to Russia before the three formal parti-
tions in the eighteenth century.
Except in the part of her Empire which
Russia acquired from Poland, Russia
never had and has not now but a very
few Jews. Her eager acquisition of her
large share of Poland, however, placed
nearly half of the Jews of the world
within her jurisdiction. They had not
sought it.
THE FLIGHT TO HOLLAND
The adoption of the Inquisition by
Spain in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries led many of the Spanish Jews
to become baptized into the Catholic
Church and to go through the form of
Christian worship, retaining secret alle-
giance to Judaism and observing its law
as far as possible. They were called
Maranos. This was a notable exception
to the usual tenacity of the Jews in not
only retaining their 'faith, but in avowing
it under the most terrible ordeals.
The Maranos did not escape persecu-
tion by the Inquisition, however, and
ENTRANCE: TO THE MOSQUE OF HEBRON, BUILT BY THE CRUSADERS IN THE
TWELFTH CENTURY
This ancient edifice, sacred alike to Jew, Gentile, and Mohammedan, is supposed to stand
over the Cave of Machpelah, purchased from Ephron the Hittite by Abraham as a family
burial place. Besides the patriarch and his wife Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Leah
are believed to have been buried here.
ii
(0 Underwood and Underwood
A GLIMPSE OF GRANADA FROM THE SUMMER PALACE OF THE MOORS
In few periods of their history since the Dispersion have the wandering Jews found such
cities of refuge as those of Spain in the days of the Moors. There they developed poetry,
science, literature, and art. They became ministers of the government and its representatives
abroad (see pages 5 and 7).
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
13
they fled, many of them, to Holland,
where they engaged in trade and where,
after a time, they resumed their relations
to the synagogue.
Their skill in international trade and
familiarity with colonial matters soon
gave them wealth and standing among
the Dutch. Charles II while in exile
dealt with these Jews. At the same time,
one of them visited Cromwell in 1655 and
pressed upon him the wisdom of allow-
ing the Jews to return to England,
whence they had long before been ex-
pelled.
Cromwell made no formal agreement,
but intimated that he would tolerate their
return, and they went back.
Charles found them there when he was
restored, and while they were not politi-
cally emancipated in England completely
until 1850, they suffered no oppression
and were able to develop their faculties
for business and finance and were well
treated and became a strong and loyal
supporting element of the British Crown.
SAFETY IN AMERICA
When the Constitution of the United
States was adopted, Jews, of course,
were treated on a full political equality.
Some of them were of the greatest aid
to this country in the Revolution. While
there were religious qualifications for
suffrage in several of the States, they
rapidly disappeared, and in this country,
at least since the adoption of the Consti-
tution, in 1789, Jews have had complete
emancipation and perfect legal equality
of opportunity.
When the French Revolution came on,
in 1789, Mirabeau and Abbe Gregoire led
the movement for the emancipation of
the Jews ; and while they met resistance,
they were successful.
Napoleon did not disturb this condi-
tion. On the contrary, he extended it
and gave equality of civil rights to the
Jews in many countries over which he
exercised power, though he was the
author of at least one restrictive ordi-
nance affecting them. France may,
therefore, be counted as the next nation
after the United States to give the Jews
complete legal equality.
Louis XVIII, who succeeded Napo-
leon, continued this freedom for them,
though in actual administration, under
the influence of ecclesiastics, there was
some discrimination against the Jews.
When Louis Philippe succeeded, in 1830,
his Minister of Education proposed a bill
which became a law, providing for the
same payment of rabbis and for syna-
gogues out of the public treasury as in
the case of the Christian clergymen and
churches.
In Holland the Jews were given politi-
cal and civil equality in 1796. In the
British colonies they enjoyed it from
1740, much earlier than they did in the
mother country.
PLEADING FOR RELIEF AFTER NAPOLEON'S
FALL
In Prussia the Jews had been given
greater civil and political rights in 1812,
and in Mecklenburg and in Baden.
When Prussia united with England, Aus-
tria, and Russia to put down Napoleon,
the young Jews of Germany played their
part with vigor and effect and made a
valuable addition to the Prussian and
German forces.
After Napoleon was beaten, in 1814,
the Holy Alliance, with Hardenberg and
Metternich as leaders, met at Vienna, and
the Jewish communities from the Hanse
towns and Frankfort appealed for relief
from their governments. So bitter, how-
ever, was the resistance of the free towns
and of Frankfort that only a friendly
resolution was passed and inserted in the
German constitution, but it had no moral
binding effect. The Rothschilds were
nearly driven from Frankfort because of
the bitterness of the Frankfort Senate
and their desire not to grant equal rights
to the Jews, although the Jews had paid
half a million dollars as a consideration
for such a grant.
About this time a professor named
Riihs, of the University of Berlin, began
propaganda against the Jews and aroused
a bitter feeling. The truth is, that Prot-
estant Germany has never been liberal
in this regard.
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY PRACTICALLY
GRANTED
The popular movements all over Eu-
rope in 1848, however, on the Continent
brought not only equality of opportunity
d and Underwood
THE GATE OF JUSTICE IN GRANADA I A PHRASE SIGNIFICANT TO SPANISH JEWS
When the Saracens carried the Crescent to the Iberian Peninsula at the beginning of the
eighth century, they were accompanied by the Jews who had ingratiated themselves with the
followers of Mahomet.
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
15
and religious freedom to the Jews, but
brought into the various parliaments a
number of the leading Jews, and from
that time on they have had little real
trouble with the law in Austria, Ger-
many, France, Holland, and England.
In Spain the Inquisition was revoked
in 1834, and the Jews have since been in-
vited back. By the Congress of Berlin,
in 1878, to which I shall refer more in de-
tail later, the Jews secured political and
civil equality in Bulgaria and Serbia.
Turkey had already granted it to them.
On the whole, then, at the present
time, the sons of Israel have little to com-
plain of in statutory law except in Ru-
mania and Russia. This is not to say
that they do not encounter social preju-
dice in all countries, which in some coun-
tries has grown into bitter Anti-Semi-
tism and popular agitation against them.
Prejudice cannot be banished by law.
It can only fade out as conditions pro-
ducing it change. It of course affects the
happiness and comfort of them against
whom it is directed ; but it does not limit
their useful activities nor the achieve-
ments of great success.
WHY ARE: THE JEWS PERSECUTED?
What are the reasons for this almost
constant persecution of the Jews from
the fourth century to the nineteenth? I
regret to say that it must be mainly at-
tributed to the religious intolerance of
the Christians. Other causes may be
pointed out in the characteristics of the
race which mistreatment and self-protec-
tion either developed or increased and
hardened. But, in the last analysis, the
initial cause was in religious prejudice.
We find this prejudice in the hostility
of Constantine after his conversion ; we
find it in the bulls of the Popes, begin-
ning in the fourth century and continu-
ing through the Middle Ages to the
Council of Trent, in 1563; we find it in
the course of St. Louis of France; we
find it in the religious frenzy of Queen
Eleanor of England, of Elizabeth ^of
Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria;
we find it in the Inquisition in Spain ; we
find it in the words of Martin Luther
against them.
Luther said: "Why should the Jews
complain of their captivity among us?
We Christians suffered persecution and
criticism at their hands for nearly three
hundred years, so that we might com-
plain that they took us captives and killed
us, and to this very day we know not
what devil brought them into our land.
We did not bring them from Jerusalem.
Besides that, no one keeps them. The
country and the roads are open to them.
Let them return to their own land. We
will gladly give them presents if we can
be rid of them, for they are a heavy bur-
den upon us, a plague, a pestilence, a
sore trial."
FORCED TO MAINTAIN THEIR
EXCLUSIVENESS
We find the same spirit of religious
persecution in the reintrodnction by Pius
VII of the Inquisition against the Jews
and his ordinance that the Jews should
forfeit the freedom enjoyed under the
first Napoleon's rule in Rome and for-
sake their beautiful houses and return to
the Ghetto ; and we find it today in the
attitude of the Russian Greek Church and
the severe methods adopted to secure the
baptism of the Jews.
The persecutions which this religious
prejudice has engendered have stimu-
lated the Jews in self-protection to main-
tain their exclusiveness, to continue their
religious life and rigid adherence to their
ceremonials, and to avoid assimilation
with such an uncomfortable and hostile
environment.
It increased their intense activity, their
cunning in business, in order that they
might live at all against such opposition,
and it produced in them the traits that are
now made the basis for denouncing them.
In 1877, Russia declared war against
Turkey because of the atrocities com-
mitted by the Turks against the Christian
peoples in the Balkans, and ultimately
won the war. She made the treaty of
San Stephano with Turkey, and then the
great Powers insisted that there must be
a congress to revise that treaty.
RELIGIOUS AND CIVIL LIBERTY URGED
The congress was called at Berlin in
1878 and under it were established the
separate governments of Serbia, Bul-
garia, and Rumania, who thus really
owed their freedom to Russia.
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
17
France, England, and Germany in-
sisted that the new governments to be
constituted should embody in their con-
stitutions a declaration in favor of re-
ligious and civil equality for all domiciled
within their jurisdiction.
This was not favored by Russia and
was very bitterly opposed by Rumanians.
Nevertheless, on the approval of Prince
Bismarck, who presided in the congress,
the treaty required that, as a condition
of recognition by European governments,
the constitution of Rumania should con-
tain declarations and guaranties of civil
and religious liberty and equality for the
Jews, and Russia signed the treaty.
The Rumanian authorities deliberately
framed a plan by which to evade the re-
quirement of the treity. They provided
in their constitution, Article VII;
"The difference of religious creeds and
conditions does not constitute in. 1 RUT
mania an obstacle to the acquirement ,.of
civil and political rights and their exer-
cise."
EVADING THE TREATY IN RUMANIA
They then provided for naturalization
and enacted that naturalization could
only be granted by a law and individu-
ally. It was held by their government
that Jews were aliens, although they had
been living in Rumania for hundreds of
years and had been subject to draft into
the Rumanian army and had served as
soldiers. In this way they avoided the
effect of the constitution upon Jews, and
their statesmen openly prided themselves
on their acuteness.
By adopting the constitution to which
I have referred, the Rumanians procured
the recognition of European countries.
Since then they have heckled and harried
the Jews by restrictions upon their liveli-
hoods, by refusing admission to the ele-
mentary public schools of more than 5^
per cent of their number, and in second-
ary schools of more than 7^ per cent,
and in many other ways.
Although' this is in direct violation of
the Treaty of Berlin, the signatories to
the treaty have not thought it best to
intervene.
Bulgaria and Serbia complied with
their obligations.
THE: PALE; OF THE: SETTLEMENT
The law which required the Jews in
Russia to live in the cities of the Pale of
Settlement produced a great congestion.
They were forbidden to engage in so
many trades and callings that their means
of livelihood was most limited. They
had no political rights and were thus
kept excluded from government employ.
They were denied secondary and uni-
versity education except to the extent of
a very small per cent of their number,
and they were so hemmed about with
police restrictions as to subject them to
oppressive blackmail. The result lias
been that the great majority of them are
ignorant, and even before the war at
least a third of them were in direst
misery and destitution.
There are in the world over fifteen
million Jews. Of these, six millions are
to be found in the ten provinces of
Russian Poland and the fifteen prov-
inces called "the Pale of Settlement."
There are upward of 2,250,000 Jews in
Austria and Hungary. There are 615,-
ooo in Germany. There are 270,000
Jews in Great Britain, 100,000 in France,
45,000 in Italy, half a million in Asia,
250,000 in Rumania, and there are 3,-
300,000 in the United States, of whom a
million or more live in the city of New
York.
The Jews in the United States, down
to 1880, did not exceed a quarter of a
million, but since the oppression, po-
groms, and massacres in Rumania and
in Russia immigration has increased to
the figures given (see also page 20).
THE GREAT JEWISH PROBLEM OF TODAY
As I have said, in all parts of Europe
and America, except Russia and Ru-
mania, legal discrimination against the
Jews has largely ceased and civil equality
is accorded them. The present great
problem, therefore, is to secure civil
equality for them in Russia and Ru-
mania. How is the present condition in
those countries explained?
Prince Gortchakoff in the Berlin Con-
gress described the Russian and Ru-
manian Jews as a great scourge upon
18
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
IX FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIX, THE ANCESTRAL CITY OF THE ROTHSCHILDS, THE
MOST FAMOUS FAMILY OF FINANCIERS IN THE WORLD
Mayer Anselm Bauer, the founder of this family of Jews, was the son of a small mer-
chant. The boy became a money-lender instead of a rabbi, as had been planned, and from
the counter of the sign of the "Red Shield" (Rothschild) there developed a financial institu-
tion which became more powerful during the nineteenth century than any monarch in Europe.
It was Rothschild's gold which enabled Britain to carry on the Napoleonic wars, and it is
said that the English Rothschild was present at the Battle of Waterloo to witness the triumph
of Wellington.
any people. Bismarck's answer was that
the policy of restriction had given them
the character which is now made the
basis for complaints against them.
Mirabeau in the French Assembly said,
in answer to a similar charge: "If you
wish the Jews to become better men
and useful citizens, then banish every
humiliating restriction, open to them
every avenue of gaining a livelihood.
Instead of forbidding them agriculture,
handicrafts, and the mechanical arts, en-
courage them to devote themselves to
these occupations."
RUSSIA'S PLAINT AGAINST THE JEWS
It is probably true that the Russian
Jews do devote themselves to trading in
money, and that the Russian moujik is
subject to abuse in this respect of which
the Jews take advantage, but it must be
borne in mind that the restrictions upon
the Jews as to livelihood have been and
are such as to drive them into money-
lending. Indeed, this cause dates from
the middle ages, when, as already said,
canon law forbade among Christians the
lending of money on interest and left
that business open for the Jews, who
perforce became the money-lenders of
Europe.
The few avenues of employment for
Jews forced them into the conduct of
inns and the selling of liquor. This, as
I have pointed out, was a heritage from
the Polish nobility.
Even if the charge made against the
Russian Jews of fraud and trickery has
PROGRESSIVE WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
19
foundation, it is not to be wondered at,
when man's hand is against them, when
they are desperate in their efforts to live,
when they have a faculty in trade born
of the severest necessity. The objection
to them that they work together in the
interest of each other may well be true.
When general society is against them all,
they naturally stand together for self-
protection and for self-support.
THEY MAKE: GOOD SOLDIERS
One can hardly expect that they should
feel entirely grateful to a government
which makes life so hard for them, or
that the desire to serve in the army
should be strong in them. And yet the
reports from the World War indicate
that they have made good soldiers, and
the history of the Jews in all countries in
which they have settled has been that
they have rallied to the support of the
government under which they lived.
Their patriarch, Samuel of Nehardea,
sixteen centuries ago laid down the rule :
"The law of the government is the law" ;
and in the eighteen or nineteen centuries
in which the Jews have been wandering
over the face of the earth, rebellion and
treachery to the government under which
they lived have not been frequent among
them.
A number of them in Russia under
the old regime doubtless had revolution-
ary and subversive tendencies, apparently
confined to Jews of university education,
who found difficulty in earning a live-
lihood under the restrictions and who
naturally cherished resentment.
With their active minds/ with their
genius for trade, cultivated by centuries
of necessity, they prefer trade to manual
pursuits, but many of them are skilled
artisans in many countries.
DENIED EDUCATIONAL PRIVILEGES
They do not follow agricultural pur-
suits because they have long been for-
bidden to own land, and by this long
deprivation their tastes have been formed
for city life. They have been cooped up
in ghettos of the city and, perforce, have
formed the habits of an urban popula-
tion.
Denied the opportunity for education,
they are ignorant; but no people in the
world manifest so much anxiety to se-
cure education and improve the opportu-
nities when offered with such earnest-
ness and success.
It cannot be good for a country like
Russian Poland and the Pale to continue
6,000,000 of its inhabitants in such a per-
sistent condition of poverty and demor-
alization. It must interfere with the
proper development, prosperity, and
health of the rest of the population. So
large a congestion of this kind must make
a sore spot in the economic, political, and
social life of this part of Russia.
In spite of their deplorable condition
and the immigration it stimulates, the
Russian Jews are very prolific and their
number is not diminishing. Their pres-
ence in Russia has been a continuing fact
and the policy pursued in respect to them
up to the Revolution did not remove it or
alter it and it was not a success.
In aid of the Christian peoples of the
Balkans and Armenia, the Russian Gov-
ernment did a great work, for which
those peoples should be very grateful.
The conduct of Russia toward them was
in marked contrast to its attitude toward
the Jews within its own jurisdiction. Is
it too much to hope that the drastic ex-
perience of ihis war may lead Russia to
a different view?
A BLESSING IN DREADFUL DISGUISE
If the war does help the Jew, it will
indeed be a blessing in dreadful dfsguise.
One-half the Jews of the world have had
to bear its miseries, its cruelties, its suf-
ferings. They lived in the theater of
war between Russia and Germany and
Austria. In this region, almost without
ceasing, the campaign continued. The
Russians laid waste the country in order
to embarrass their pursuing enemies, and
between the two armies the population,
of which the Jews were a large part,
suffered untold horrors.
As soon as the war came on, as soon
as mobilizations were initiated, Germany
and Austria, on the one hand, and Rus-
sia, on the other, vied with each other in
a cultivation of the good-will of the Poles
and the Jews.
Russia promised that an autonomous
20
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Poland would be created from all three
of the incomplete tribal districts of the
partitioned kingdom. Some of the lead-
ers of the Austrian Government an-
nounced an intention of giving autonomy
to Galicia.
When the war came to an end, tremen-
dous governmental changes occurred in
the countries where the Jews are so
greatly congested (see also page 23).
The dreadful destruction of life, the
necessity for rehabilitation of these coun-
tries where the war raged with such vio-
lence and destruction, must necessarily
give greater economic value to every man
who survives. The loyalty which the
Jews have shown to their respective gov-
ernments in these countries under a most
trying ordeal ought to impress their gov-
ernments with the claim that they make
to enual treatment.
While it is true that in the past much
of the cruelty to the Jews has been imme-
diately prompted by popular prejudice,
nevertheless it is also true that, with the
increase of popular control in all coun-
tries, their condition has ultimately been
much improved. A war like this, which
must be carried on by the people, in-
creases their ultimate power.
REPRESSIVE MEASURES ALWAYS HARMFUL
Harsh and repressive measures have
not helped the solution of the Jewish
question. The result reminds one con-
stantly of ^sop's fable of the contest be-
tween the wind and the sun in removing
a man's coat from his back. The harder
the wind blew, the closer the man held
the coat to his body. It was only when
the sun with its warm rays increased the
temperature and created discomfort that
the man removed his coat.
The harshest persecution and injustice
merely strengthen the peculiarity of the
Jew in his adherence to his ancient cus-
toms, in his exclusiveness, in his use of
cunning to avoid outrage, and in his ad-
herence to his religion and its ceremo-
nials. Give him the sunlight of freedom
and the balmy encouragement of equality
of opportunity and he assimilates himself
to his environment with all the quickness
of perception, all the energy, all the en-
terprise, all the persistence with which
he is so remarkably endowed.
If education and opportunity and free-
dom and equality are extended to them
in the next generation, the traits to which
objection is made will become less and
less conspicuous, and Russia's great do-
main, which needs people of energy, peo-
ple of keenness, people of enterprise,
people experienced in trade, people of
financial genius, will find a benefit in the
presence of the Jews.
JEWS IN UNITED STATES
From the East End of New York and
through centers of population in this
country where Jews are gathered, by the
million and hundreds of thousand, come
the youth of the race who soon manifest
a spirit of Americanism and get on.
They succeed in trade, they succeed in
the professions, they succeed in business,
and they move their homes to less
crowded districts and acquire all the
taste and views and fashions of their
fellow-countrymen.
They cultivate little or no solidarity in
politics, and they manifest a disposition
to disintegrate as a community. They
retain a loyalty to the race, but not a
strict adherence to the ceremonial, and
they intermarry with Gentiles.
A number of modern books written by
Jews deplore this fact. They fear that
Israel will be swallowed up in the na-
tions. They are an excellent, law-abiding
part of our population. Of course, crim-
inals come from among them, poor and
miserable as some of them are, but the
criminal statistics do not show their per-
centage of criminals to be as great as that
of the entire population.
When we consider the congestion in
New York in the East End of one million
Jews, and that this has come within the
last thirty years, it seems remarkable that
it has not given more trouble to our civ-
ilization and our government than it has.
These are the lessons which an investi-
gation by Russian statesmen into our ex-
perience would furnish.
STRENGTH OF THE JEWISH CHARACTER
The Jews of the world, in countries
where they have had equal opportunities,
have won their way not only to great
financial power, but to places of com-
manding influence in journalism, in the
Edward Gross Company
(g> Curtis Publishing Company
ESTHER
Even in the days of Ahasuerus, who ruled "from India even unto Ethiopia the Jews
were objects of persecution; but they found deliverance at the hands of Esther the niece ot
Mordecai, who not only was "fair and beautiful," but courageous and resourceful. 1 he story
of this Jewish heroine, aside from its religious significance, is one of the most appealing in
all literature.
2T
PROGRESSIVE: WORLD STRUGGLE OF THE JEWS
professions, and in business. They have
retained always an acute interest in the
welfare of their coreligionists through-
out the world. Their religious training
has inculcated in them the duty of charity
to all Jew and Gentile and they have
given unsparingly to aid. their brethren
in distress.
Individuals like Sir Moses Montefiore
have given much time, money, and effort
all over the world to the cause of their
race. Baron Hirsch and Baron Roths-
child have planned and carried through
rural colonies of the Jews in Palestine,
in Argentina, and in Texas.
The Zionist movement to secure a mi-
gration of Jews back to Jerusalem does
not meet with the undivided support of
the Jewish people, but it certainly has
substantial strength as one project for
relief of the congestion in east Europe.
During the World War the Jews of
this country and elsewhere raised a fund
of nearly $25,000,000 with which to aid
their poor peoples suffering in the train
of the war.
In the countries where they have
money, power, and influence, great Jew-
ish committees have long been organized
to help in securing civil rights, religious
freedom, and equal opportunity for the
oppressed of their race.
The influence of the leaders of the
Jews in Europe and America upon the
Congress of Nations at Paris in behalf
of the better treatment of the Jews has
been weighty and we can be sure that it
was courageously and wisely exercised.
The direct interest we have in the Jew-
ish question in these Eastern countries
was stated by Secretary Hay to the
signatories of the Berlin Treaty in pro-
test against Rumania's persecutions and
breach of her treaty obligation, to wit,
that we are the world's refuge for such
people, driven out by measures of op-
pression and restriction, and their coming
in great numbers in their present condi-
tion imposes an unfair burden upon us.
We may rejoice that more than half
the members of this great race have won
their long progressive struggle for merely
an equal chance with other men ; but we
cannot tear out that distressing page in
the history of Christiar. civilization con-
taining the record of seventeen centuries
of persecution.
THE: JEWS IN THE: NEW STATES TO BE
PROTECTED
The result of the war and the breaking
up of Russia and the giving reign to the
principle of self-determination of racial
units have created seven independent
European States in central and eastern
Europe. Of these, the Baltic Provinces,
Poland and the Ukraine, as well as the
Czecho-Slovak State and the Jugo-Slav
State, have many Jewish citizens. In
addition to this, the Greater Rumania,
which is to receive Transylvania from
Hungary, is another State which will
have many Jewish citizens.
The German treaty specifically pro-
vides that the five great Powers shall
make future treaties with Poland and
with the Czecho-Slovak State securing
the religious liberties of the people who
constitute a minority in those States ; and
it is understood that similar provisions
are to be included in the Austrian treaty
in respect to the Jugo-Slav State and
Rumania.
It is to be hoped that the securities ex-
acted in these treaties will be of a char-
acter more effective than were the re-
quirements of the Congress of Berlin in
respect to Rumania. Indeed, we can be
sure that they will. The prejudice against
the Jews still remains in those countries,
and cannot of course be eliminated by
mere legislation. But Jews can be given
equal rights and be protected in those
rights, and secure the equality of oppor-
tunity through such protection.
The League of Nations is to be a con-
tinuous body and will have power enough
to see to it that treaties of this character
are performed by nations which the war
has in fact created and which will con-
tinue to be dependent for some years
upon the League for their own integrity
and independence.
Sam cheuonq$> Nbnsa.1 on
,v_~ 'r ' (Nojido)
oPotaidoi
Heizmiehii
A MAP OF KOREA: THE REGION TRAVERSED BY MR. ANDREWS' EXPEDITION (SEE
ACCOMPANYING ARTICLE) EXTENDS ALONG THE UPPER COURSES
OF THE TUMEN AND THE YALU RIVERS
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE
"HERMIT KINGDOM"
BY ROY C. ANDREWS
AUTHOR OF "SHORE-WHALINC: A WORLD INDUSTRY'
With Photographs by the Author
A' THOUGH Korea has a civiliza-
tion extending nearly 4,000 years
into the past, many of the na-
tives in the north have never seen a white
man. They are living among the hills
today much as did their ancestors cen-
turies ago, worshiping mythical gods in
the rocks and trees on every mountain-
top, keeping their women in semi-slavery,
and dying in ignorance that beyond the
narrow confines of their own peninsula
lies a world replete with undreamed of
wonders.
Wrapped in the mantle of Oriental se-
clusion, for centuries Korea successfully
guarded the secrets of her mountains and
her people ; but at last the clamor of for-
eigners at her doors could no longer be
stilled, and she yielded reluctantly inch
by inch, although realizing that the foun-
dations of her weak government were
crumbling beneath her.
It was in 1882 that the first treaty with
Korea was signed by the United States,
and foreigners took up their residence
with official sanction at Chemulpo, the
seaport of the capital, Seoul. Even with
this foothold in the new country the un-
welcome visitors pushed their way but
slowly into other parts of the kingdom,
and as late as 1897 only a relatively
small portion had been visited by white
men.
SECRET OF THE "DRAGON PRINCE'S POOI/'
DISCOVERED BY MISSIONARIES
After the Russian-Japanese war of
1904, however, when the country was
freely opened to foreigners and its rail-
way had been completed, the exploration
of the northern part progressed by leaps
and bounds, until the only extensive un-
known area lay along the north central
boundary between the Tumen and Yalu
rivers.
This was said to be a region of treach-
erous swamps, densely forested plateaus,
and gloomy canons a vast wilderness,
treasuring in its depths the ghostly peak
of the Long White Mountain, wonder-
fully beautiful in its robes of glistening
pumice. The secret of its summit, where
the "Dragon Prince's Pool" lies far down
in the ancient crater, had been learned as
early as 1709 by two Jesuit missionaries,
coming from the north through Man-
churia, but the approaches to its base
from the south and west in Korea had
never been traversed by a white man.
Its zoology, except by inference from
that of remote surrounding regions, was
less known than its geography, and this
led the American Museum of Natural
History to send an expedition to make
a study of its fauna.
JAPAN AIDS THE AMERICAN EXPEDITION
P>efore any non-resident foreigner can
go into the interior, permission must be
obtained from the Bureau of Foreign
Affairs at Seoul, for the Japanese insist
on knowing the "reason why" for the
visits of all foreigners to the remoter
parts of their newly acquired possession.
The Museum's expedition was given the
enthusiastic support of the government,
however, and was furnished with one of
their official interpreters, a Japanese who
spoke Korean, Chinese, and a little Eng-
lish. A Korean cook who knew some
English was also engaged, and developed
into a valuable assistant after he had be-
come convinced that he wa^ not the
leader of the expedition.
At first he was the source of endless
trouble : for, like all Koreans, he saw in
his position as "man of all work" an op-
portunity for extensive graft. He began
by affecting an extraordinary aversion to
Japanese food and begging money for
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26
OUT FOR A STROLL IN SEOUL
Women of the middle class in Seoul invariably wear for their street costume either a white,
a green, or a red long coat over their heads like veils. The garment reaches to the knees (see
also illustration, page 26).
Korean "chow," continued by annexing
a relative as camp-follower and general
parasite, but ended abruptly when I
caught him paying for some vegetables
and pocketing half the money himself.
He made an excellent football for some
moments afterward ; but the medicine,
although severe, effected a complete cure,
and from that day to the end of the trip
"Kim" was my devoted slave.
He was a- quaint little fellow and very
amusing. One day I asked him if he
was a Christian and he replied, "Yes,
some times. It takes plenty time to be
Christian. When I got no work, then I
be Christian, but when I have good job
then I no chance for waste time in such
silly things." And I am afraid that
Kim's attitude is that of many other Ori-
entals, where western religion is con-
cerned.
I talked with him often about the
early history of his country, in which he
was well versed, and once asked him if
the Koreans liked the Japanese and the
new rule. He looked up very solemnly
and said, "I tell you, Misser Andrews,
when Japanese near by, then Korean say
27
28
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A FERTILE VALLEY IN THE VICINITY OF THE CAPITAL CITY OF SEOUL
Korea is about as large as New York and Pennsylvania combined, but the arable land com-
prises only about one-fourth of its area. A range of barren mountains and scantily clad hills
extends throughout the entire length of the peninsula.
he like him because he must, but way
down in his stomach he no like Japanese
at all."
NO ACCOUNTING FOR KOREAN TASTES
Our expedition landed at Chon Chin,
or Seshin, as the Japanese call a little vil-
lage on the northeast coast about 150
miles south of Vladivostok.
The first part of our journey on an
interesting little railway, up which we
were pushed on hand-cars, was along the
seacoast, where the native fishermen were
bringing in great nets full of "men-tai."
This fish is used as a basis for a favorite
dish of the northern Koreans, called
"kimshi," which is made from onions and
garlic, a whitish doughy substance, a
plentiful supply of red pepper, and a
little water. A fish which has reached
an advanced stage of decomposition is
added and the mess placed to one side to
ripen. After several days it is generally
considered to be "high" enough for the
most discriminating epicure.
From the old walled town of Puryon
we were pushed up the railway to Mur-
yantei and spent the night there in a
Korean "hotel." It was my first experi-
ence and one which I shall never forget,
for the ordinary house is inhabited by an
extraordinary variety of insect pests.
Lice, bed-bugs, fleas, cockroaches, and
spiders literally swarm under the matting
and over the walls, making the night un-
bearable to any one save a native. I had
a folding canvas bed, but the insects
crawled up its legs, and after further
experience I learned that the only way to
rest comfortably in a native house was
to spread a circle of insect powder about
the cot, get inside a sleeping-bag, and pull
the cover tightly over my head.
Structurally the huts are. interesting,
for the Koreans have anticipated our hot-
air furnace by many hundreds of years
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "HERMIT KINGDOM
29
THE KOREAN PEASANT WOMAN'S NECK MUSCLES ARE AS WELL DEVELOPED FOR
BURDEN-BEARING UPON THE HEAD AS ARE THOSE OF THE SOUTHERN DARKY
The man of the family usually prefers to do his bit between his shoulders, his load being
strapped to a bamboo rack (see illustrations on pages 32 and 44).
Every house is raised a foot or two above
the ground, and a wide flue runs beneath
the floor, emerging at the other end in a
tall chimney, made in the north from a
hollow log. When a fire is built at the
entrance to the flue, the smoke and heat
are drawn beneath the house, keeping the
rooms warm during even the coldest days
of winter (see page 38).
At Muryantei we left the push railway
and, with our equipment piled in three
creaking bull-carts, proceeded westward
toward Musan, the largest town in north-
eastern Korea. The valley up which we
traveled was extensively cultivated, and
with its two rows of telephone and tele-
graph poles along the road presented an
astonishingly occidental appearance. Ex-
cept where a group of picturesque, thatch-
roofed huts nestled into the hillside or
strung themselves along the edge of a
streamlet, there was little to suggest that
we were not among the foothills of Mon-
tana or Wyoming, in my own country,
10,000 miles away. It was most disap-
pointingly civilized, but interesting withal
30
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Till- KOREANS OF THE NORTH DRESS MUCH UKE THEIR BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF
THE SOUTH
The men wear loose, baggy trousers tied at the ankle, short jackets, long, flowing
kimonas, and the peculiar horse-hair hats which are the pride of every Korean's heart and are
worn both indoors and out by the married men only.
Musan was reached in two days, and
it was a revelation. Here, on the very
edge of Korea, lies this wonderful an-
cient city, its grim old walls bearing five
centuries of history. It was like stepping
backward to another world, into a story
of the Arabian Nights. I was enchanted
ind wandered about the half-ruined build-
ings, reading fascinating bits of history
from the faded inscriptions and public
monuments, forgetting for the time that
my mission called me farther.
A TIGER HUNT IN THE KOREAN
MOUNTAINS
Few white men have been fortunate
enough to wander inland to the gates of
this ancient city. During the Russo-Jap-
anese war several Russians took refuge
there, and since then a half dozen for-
eigners have,discovered it ; but, except for
these stragglers, Musan lies unknown to
the western world. The great central pal-
ace, or reception hall, remains intact, and
close by, in partial ruins, is the temple
guest-house. The smaller public build-
ings, the gates, the watch-towers, and,
most of all, the walls themselves, each one
has its own peculiar fascination, telling
its own story or adding a chapter to that
of its neighbor.
A company of Japanese gendarmes is
stationed in the old military quarters of
Musan, and the commander, Lieutenant
Kanada, showed us the greatest kindness.
At the time of our arrival the town was
much excited over two tigers that were on
a mountain some 12 mihs away, at the lit-
tle "village" of Hozando, and we spent
nearly three weeks hunting there.
These northern tigers are splendid ani-
mals, more beautiful than their relatives
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "HERMIT KINGDOM" 31
of India or the Malay Peninsula, and
range among the bitterly cold mountains
of China, Korea, and Manchuria, far up
into Siberia.
DRINKING HOT BLOOD AS A TONIC
On the first day's hunt at Hozando a
deer was shot. The bullet, passing
through both lungs, filled the thorax with
clotted blood, and as soon as the animal
was opened Paik, my Korean gun-bearer,
plunged his face into the half-liquid mass,
drinking and eating until the last drop
was gone; then removing the steaming
red liver, he cut it into slices, swallowing
them as fast as possible.
I was tremendously surprised, but
learned afterward that the Koreans be-
lieve the blood of a deer or any wild
animal, if drunk when warm, to be a
splendid tonic. Tigers' claws, whiskers,
bones, and teeth are especially valuable,
and preparations made from these ma-
terials were often given to soldiers before
a battle or any especially hazardous enter-
prise, since they were believed to incul-
cate great bravery.
AN IMPOSING CAVALCADE)
When we returned to Musan to pre-
pare for our trip into the wilderness,
trouble began. It was almost impossible
to procure horses and men, because of
the fear of the Chinese robbers, who were
said to range along the borders of the
forest. My party were demoralized, and
had it been possible to procure any "tiger-
bone tonic," they would have been given
a liberal dose ; but none was to be had,
and it was only after strenuous and forci-
ble efforts by the gendarmes and myself
that we finally got away, with six horses
and five tnafus (drivers), besides my
cook, interpreter, and gun-bearer. We
made rather an imposing party, but the
hearts of the Koreans were heavy and
their spirits at lowest ebb.
Our objective was the little village of
Nonsatong, just at the edge of the unex-
plored wilderness, 40 miles away. The
first portion of the journey lay over the
picturesque hills above the Tnmen River,
which forms the northeastern boundary
line between Korea and Manchuria, and
when we were well noon the mountain
slopes the view was magnificent. Far
below us were oat and millet fields and
villages of tiny, dirty huts, about which
white-garbed natives lounged in the sun-
shine, smoking their long pipes, or per-
haps lazily drove a pair of huge bulls
back and forth across a field, dragging
after them the primitive wooden plow
used by the Koreans of the north.
THE: CURIOUS KOREAN WATER-HAMMERS
Everywhere the log water-hammers,
made for pounding grain, were rising and
falling ceaselessly like things of life. The
hammer is constructed from a 12-foot
log, one end of which is hollowed deeply,
the other being weighted with a heavy
post set at right angles to the shaft. The
log is so placed that its concave end will
rest under a stream which has been di-
verted to flow in the desired direction,
and a tub for the grain is sunk deep
into the ground, where the post will fall
within it (see page 37).
When the concave portion is filled
with water the log rises and the water is
tipped out ; the opposite end then becomes
heavier and the pestle falls into the tub
beneath it; thus the hammer alternately
rises and falls so long as the water flows.
This invention probably came from China
and is not found in the southern of cen-
tral parts of the peninsula.
We had our first sight of forests in
Korea when we reached Nonsatong, or
Nojido, as the Japanese call it. This is
the last settlement on the edge of the
wilderness and consists of 10 or 12 small
and very dirty huts strung out along a
branch of the Tumen Valley.
The inhabitants had never seen a white
man, and the curiosity with which we
regarded each other was mutual. At first
they were inclined to be somewhat shy
and contented themselves with standing
silently, watching my every movement ;
but, after learning that I was not averse
to being examined, they crowded about
for closer inspection of the strange per-
son who had suddenly appeared among
them as if from another world.
NATIVES MARVEL AT THE BLUE-EYED
STRANGER
They were most interested in the fact
that my eyes were blue, and not black,
brown, or dark gray, as were their own
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EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "HERMIT KINGDOM'
33
or those of the Japanese. Although they
had heard of the blue-eyed men (Rus-
sians) who had come to Musan, one had
never been seen at Nonsatong. They
were curious to know if I could see well,
and in order to test my sight would hold
objects at various distances or select a
tree or rock a few hundred yards away
and ask me to tell them what it was.
As a matter of fact, their doubt as to
my ability to see perfectly is not so curi-
ous after all. I remember distinctly that
when as a boy I visited the "dime side-
show" of a traveling circus and saw an
albino man, the first question I asked was
whether or not he could see as well as
others. My lighter complexion did not
cause comment, for many of the Korean
women and girls, especially those of the
higher classes, have skins almost as white
as a European.
While the eye-tests were going on, a
dog stopped upon the summit of a hill
about 250 yards away, and they asked if
I could see it. I said "Yes," and more-
over that it could be killed from where
we stood. They laughed incredulously,
and, since the owner of the dog was not
present, suggested that the experiment be
tried.
Resting the heavy repeating rifle on a
stump, I shot the animal through the
fore quarters. The Koreans gasped, and
when they saw the dog's body, torn and
mangled by the soft-point bullet, their
astonishment was ludicrous. It was not
a useless sacrifice of canine life, for it in-
spired the greatest respect for my fire-
arms, and, moreover, what remained of
the dog was quickly boiling for the din-
ner of four hungry natives.
DOGS BRED FOR FOOD
Dogs are bred for food, since the Ko-
reans are great meat eaters. At one time
they did much hunting ; but the Japanese
confiscated all fire-arms, and now wild
game is caught only in traps and pits.
Lyike all the natives of the interior, the
people at Nonsatong are dependent for
food upon what they grow. They are
much more industrious farmers than the
Koreans of the south and raise quantities
of oats and millet, but it seems to be im-
possible to cultivate rice successfully in
the Tumen River Valley.
Their dress was like that of the south-
ern natives. The men wear loose, baggy
trousers tied at the ankle, a short jacket,
a long, flowing kimona, and a peculiar
horse-hair hat, which is the pride of
every Korean's heart. The hat is always
worn in the house as well as out of it,
but only by those men who are married
and have thus obtained a definite social
position in the community.
A "MAN" n YEARS OLD AND A "BOY"
OF 47
One day when on the way to the Yula
River we passed through a village where
I noticed a little fellow wearing a hat,
with his hair knotted on the top of his
head. He was only a child, and I said to
the cook, "Is that little boy really mar-
ried?" "Whom do you mean," he asked,
"that man?" pointing to the child.
I said, "Yes," and learned that the little
fellow was only n years old and had a
wife of 10. They were legally married,
but were both living with their parents,
and would continue to do so for the next
two or three years. The boy was re-
ferred to as a "man," however, and had
all the privileges in the community of a
full-grown member (see page 26).
Near the "man" was a fellow of 47
wearing his hair parted in the middle and
hanging in a long braid down his back.
He was unmarried, could not wear a hat
or tie up his hair, and would always be
considered a boy, no matter what age he
reached. The two were photographed
side by side, to the great displeasure of the
n-year-old-man.
When we first arrived at Nonsatong
one of the natives was ill with malarial
fever and came to my camp in a pitiable
condition. Just under the collar of his
jacket he was wearing a slip of paper on
which was written a prayer petitioning
the god of the valley to bring him health
again. I gave the boy a five-grain tablet
of quinine, telling him to swallow it at
once, which he did. I then wrapped five
other tablets in a bit of paper and told
him to take one every two hours; but
hardly was my back turned before he
swallowed all five at once ; he thus got 30
grains of quinine in less than 10 minutes.
We spent some time at Nonsatong and
found the shooting good. On the fifth
MAIN STREET IN A TOWN OF NORTHERN KOREA
The furrows in the center are combination cart ruts and municipal sewage system. Except
for the occasional thatch-roofed huts nestling into the hillsides or strung along the banks of a
stream, a traveler in this part of Korea might imagine himself in the foothills of Montana or
Wyoming.
AI,!, ABOARD ON THE TWO-COOUE CAR EXPRESS AT CHON CHIN !
The American Museum's Expedition traveled a short distance from this seacoast town on
the Push Railway, each little car being propelled by man power. Note the Japanese flags dis-
played at the door of the station.
34
s^gs
THE HUT IN THE MIDDLE DISTANCE) WAS OCCUPIED AS A LODGE DURING THE
EXPEDITION'S TIGER HUNT
This bleak, snow-covered region is in striking contrast to the dense jungle haunts of the
Bengal species of tiger. The Korean animal ranges over the bitterly cold mountains of China
and Manchuria far up into Siberia.
A TIGER-HUNTING LODGE AT HOZANDO
The tigers of northern Korea are magnificent creatures, more beautiful than their jungle-cat
cousins of India and the Malay Peninsula (see text, page 30).
35
FISHERS OF MEN-TAI
This sea food is captured in vast quantities by means of nets. When the fish has reached
an advanced stage of decomposition, it forms the basis of a favorite Korean dish called
"kimshi," which, when seasoned with onion, garlic, and red pepper, is a rare delight for the
Korean epicure.
CHINESE DRAUGHT MEN TOWING JUNKS UP THE YAI<U
The huge brown sails do not supply sufficient motive power to overcome the swift current
of the stream. From seven to eight weeks are required to tow the boats from the west coast
to the head of navigation, and only one and a half round trips can be made in a season before
winter sets in and ice blocks the stream (see page 48).
36
AN HYDRAULIC HAMMER A LA KOREA, USED IN POUNDING GRAIN
This crude but effective mechanism for utilizing water-power is believed to have been
borrowed by the natives of northern Korea from the Chinese. It is not in use in the southern
portion of the kingdom. The log is hollowed at one end, and into it a stream of water runs.
When the end of the log has become full of water it tips up, the water runs out, and the log
falls, pounding the meal (see photograph below).
THE HAMMER AS IT RISES FROM THE MORTAR (SEE TEXT, PAGE 31)
37
38
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE KOREANS HAD HOUSES HEATED BY HOT-AIR FURNACES LONG BEFORE WESTERN
CIVILIZATION THOUGHT OF SUCH A CONVENIENCE
Each house is raised a foot or two above the ground and a wide flue runs beneath the floor,
emerging at the other end in a tall chimney made from a hollow log. Even though the houses
are poorly constructed, this method of heating is effective in the severest weather.
day, when returning to camp from the
usual morning hunt, we came upon seven
men from the village kneeling at the base
of a great rock bearing a larch tree, in
front of which they had placed brass
dishes containing nicely cooked chicken
and millet, beside several cups of sake.
They were making their annual spring
offerings to the god of the valley, asking
for good crops, fine weather, and the
birth of many horses and children. The
food had been prepared near by, the
dishes having been carefully cleaned and
boiled in order to remove all traces of
human touch before they were presented
to the god.
After the praying was finished I was
invited to join in the feast which fol-
lowed. The interpreter hurried to camp
for the kodak, and several pictures were
taken during the meal, but we were too
late for the opening ceremonies. They
said the food could not again be offered
to the god, since it had already been
tasted by men.
They were greatly pleased because the
white yang-ban (nobleman) had con-
sented to eat with them, for they believed
that their valley would be blessed with
unusual good fortune. I have often won-
dered since whether the old joss was as
honored by my presence as they thought
he would be.
CONTENDING WITH THE TIMIDITY
OF NATIVES
When the collecting at Nonsatong was
finished, we started early one morning
on the trip through the primeval forests
to the base of the Paik-tu-san. Our des-
tination was a log cabin, some 14 miles
up the Tumen Valley, which had been
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "HERMIT KINGDOM" 39
THE WALLS AND FLOOR OF THIS TYPICAL NORTHERN KOREA HOUSE ARE MADE OF
CLAY; THE THATCH is OF RICE STRAW
The average native house is an insect incubator. The only way for a westerner to sleep in
comfort under such a roof is to draw about his canvas cot a magic circle of insect powder.
By covering his head he avoids intermittent showers of fleas and roaches during the silent
watches of the night (see text, page 28).
built a number of years before by a Ko-
rean hunter. Few of the natives of Non-
satong had been even as far as this hut
and only two beyond it. For many years
wandering gangs of Chinese and Korean
bandits have ranged along the forest
borders, keeping the natives in terror and
exacting tribute from every caravan
which passed through the territory under
their control. If the tribute was not paid
destruction was certain. The Japanese
have now pretty well cleared the country
of these marauders ; but though few re-
main the fear of them, inbred in the
peace-loving Koreans, will live for years
to come.
Our horsemen were reluctant to ven-
ture into the forest, and had they not
realized that the commands of the Japa-
nese gendarmes gave no alternative, they
could not have been forced to go at all.
Nearly an hour was spent praying at a
little shrine on the edge of the woods,
and, with gloomy faces, they followed
the half-obliterated trail which led to the
log cabin. We traveled along the Tumen
River, passing through groves of oak,
birch, and larch trees into a beautiful
park-like valley covered with long, dried
grass. It was hard to realize that before
us stretched thousands of acres of un-
known forests, through which a white
man had never passed.
PLUNGING THROUGH THE PRIMEVAI,
FOREST
We found the log cabin to be in good
condition, although it had not been occu-
40
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
MILLINERY FOR MEN IN KOREA
This sedate citizen is not wearing a lamp
shade, but an oiled-paper umbrella to protect
from the rain his pill-box hat of horse hair
perched upon a tightly coiled queue. Note his
long pipe.
pied for years, and on the hillside above
it was a row of little bark shrines, each of
which had been built as an offering to
the god of the mountain by a native who
had hunted there. My gun-bearer set
about the construction of another while
the horses were being unloaded, and to-
gether we brought a cup of sake and a
little rice to propitiate the joss.
The hut was on the very outskirts of
the dense forest which stretched far
away to the northwest up the slopes of
the Long White Mountain ; but shooting
was poor and we left in a few days.
The wilderness became thicker as we
ascended the plateau and the oak and
birch trees disappeared, giving place to
larches, from 60 to 100 feet in height,
strung with long gray moss. We saw
but few birds and no mammals, and even
at night when the traps were set the bait
remained untouched.
The silence and the subtle influences
of the forest began to work upon the
imaginations of the Koreans, and after
we had been threading our way for five
days through the mazes of an untouched
wilderness the natives were discouraged
and asked to return. They knew not
where they were going or why, except
that we were to reach the base of the
Paik-tu-san. When we were high upon
the mountain slopes the snow had become
so deep that it was difficult to proceed,
and we made the last camp in a driving
storm of sleet and rain which kept us in
the tents for two days.
I had heard before leaving Nonsatong
of what the Koreans called the Samche-
yong, "Three bodies of water." The de-
scription sounded much like lakes, which
were not supposed to exist in Korea, and
it seemed well worthy of investigation.
My gun-bearer had been at the Samche-
yong 1 8 years previously, when a boy, and
I had learned its general location in ref-
erence to the Paik-tu-san. It was decided,
therefore, to return two or three days'
march, strike directly through the forest
to the Samcheyong, and make our way to
the Yalu River, which could be descended
to the west coast.
The Koreans were delighted to turn
southward, and after reaching an open
glade on the bank of a creek we camped
for a few days, trying to trap. We caught
EXPLORING UNKNOWN CORNERS OF THE "HERMIT KINGDOM 1
41
nothing and saw no birds. A few old
deer tracks still showed near the stream,
but the animals had not been there for
months.
WE FIND LAKES FORMED BY AN ERUPTION
OF A SACRED MOUNTAIN
When we broke camp and I told the
Koreans that we were to go to the Sam-
cheyong, there was an open mutiny, but
with considerable difficulty they were per-
suaded to go on.
I spent two sleepless nights about the
camp-fire with the rifle on my arm to
prevent the horses being stolen, but the
third day we marched into a vast burned
track thousands of acres in extent.
A tremendous fire had devastated the
forest 10 or 12 years before and left in
its wake a cheerless waste of blackened
tree skeletons and charred stumps. All
day we tramped through this area of
desolation, and at night camped on the
shores of a beautiful lake 3,700 feet
above the level of the sea. We found
that there really were three lakes and a
long connecting pond between two of
them.
They seemed to have been formed by
some violent eruption of the Paik-tu-san
many years ago, for the basins and shores
were of volcanic ash, and my gun-bearer
said that if we dug down about 12 feet
charcoal would be found. All were cir-
cular, the largest about three miles in cir-
cumference, and beyond them rose the
beautiful white slopes of the Paik-tu-san,
the sacred mountain of the Manchus.
By building a log raft to enable us to
take soundings, we found the largest lake
to be about 8 or 10 feet deep, but during
the season of rain or melting snow the
water would undoubtedly rise greatly.
In the center of the lake was a beautiful
little island, heavily wooded, with a long
sand-spit projecting toward the shore.
I was greatly disappointed upon re-
turning to Seoul to find that the lakes
were known to the Japanese. A military
map showed them under the Korean name
of Samcheyong, and they were probably
located either from some ancient Chinese
map or from the statements of Koreans.
So far as I have been able to learn, none
of the foreigners in Seoul or other parts
of the country knew of their existence.
KOREA'S SWEET SIXTEEN
The lot of the average woman of the Hermit
Kingdom is not an enviable one, as she is kept
in semi-slavery by her master. Plural mar-
riages are not recognized by the Koreans, but
concubinage has a definite status in their social
life, as it has had throughout the Far East for
many centuries.
42
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
We remained at the Samcheyong for
several days and then started to cross the
watershed toward the Yalu River. After
leaving the summit of the mountain the
forest became denser than that near the
Paik-tu-san and the trees larger. Great
larches stretching up 150 feet were on
every side, their trunks and branches cov-
ered inches thick with lichens and moss
and their bases buried in tangled under-
growth. The ground was soft and wet,
and soon we were in a series of swamps
which made travel well nigh impossible.
The only way in which they could be
passed was to cut down trees or drag
heavy logs, lay them end to end, and
drive the horses over.
LIFTING OUR HORSES OUT OF THE SWAMP
\Yhen an animal slipped off the logs and
became mired, it would lie quietly in the
water until the packs had been removed,
and even then make not the slightest ef-
fort to extricate itself. Fortunately the
horses were small, and with six men lift-
ing at the legs, head, and tail, and the
cook shouting with all his strength we
could usually get the brute upon the
bridge again. During the whole day we
covered only six miles, but the swamps
were finished.
Two days more of cutting our way
through the wilderness and we came into
a thin forest, where a broad trail led
down the mountain side. Picking our
way among huge boulders, which in
many places the horses could barely pass,
we descended nearly 2,000 feet to the
valley below. There, in a clearing just at
the ed^e of the forest, were four log
houses constituting the village of Poti-
san, the first habitations on the Yalu side
of the watershed. We remained over
night, and the next day crossed another
heavily wooded mountain to the village
of Potaidon.
WHITE MAN ATTRACTS A MULTITUDE
OF THE CURIOUS
Although Japanese gendarmes often
come there, the Koreans had never seen
a white man, and I was an object of even
greater curiosity than to those on the
Tumen River side of the watershed. We
camped not far away, in a little grove of
trees on the bank of the river, and my
tent was surrounded by a curious crowd
of natives within a very few minutes
after it had been pitched. The next day
Koreans were coming from every direc-
tion to see our camp and the strange
man there.
After collecting at Potaidon for some
time, we started across the mountains
toward Heizanchin, on the Yalu River,
the largest city in north central Korea.
A good road led over the hills, and upon
the top of one we came to a picturesque
little temple, where I found a poor old
man almost crippled with rheumatism.
For five days and nights he had been
praying at this shrine, called the "Tem-
ple of Good Fortune," asking the god to
relieve his sufferings, and, although it
had been raining much of the time, the
old fellow had been sleeping on the wet
ground.
Beyond the temple we descended into
a treeless valley where, in one of the huts,
a funeral was in progress. A woman
had died and the corpse was lying in the
largest room of the house, while a great
many relatives and friends, all dressed
in coarse cream-colored cloth, were sit-
ting about the door and courtyard drink-
ing quantities of strong sake and keeping
up a continuous monotonous wail. As
soon as I appeared the corpse lost all its
attraction, and every man in the entire
assembly rushed outside to get a look at
me, the women alone remaining within
to continue the dismal wail of eigo!
eigo! So long as I remained near the
house the funeral was forgotten.
THE PICTURESQUE RUINS OF KOREANS
SENTINEL CITY
The country which we traversed was
becoming more and more deforested, and
in many places somewhat reminded me
of the Egyptian sand-hills near Cairo.
There was little vegetation except on a
hilltop now and then, where a few trees
had been left to shelter a Korean grave.
Nearing one of the tributaries of the
Yalu River, however, we found the hill-
sides covered with beautiful flowers.
Purple azaleas, buttercups, and violets
were everywhere, and, farther on, the
banks of a rushing mountain stream
WHEN THE WESTERN TRAVELER PASSES THROUGH THIS SOUTHERN GATE OF MUSAN,
HE ENTERS ANOTHER WORLD
Here on the very edge of Korea rises this wonderful ancient city, its half-ruined buildings and
crumbling walls bearing the faded inscriptions of five centuries of fascinating history
A STUDENTS' DORMITORY AT MUSAN FOR MEN WHO COME TO TAKE THEIR
EXAMINATIONS IN THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS (SEE PAGE 30)
This house, in which they live as guests during the examination period, is five centuries old.
43
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A WAYSIDE TEMPLE ON THE ROAD TO NONSATONG
Buddhism held sway in Korea from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries, but has been
discredited in the kingdom for more than three hundred years, and the priests are an ignorant,
immoral, and despised cast. While Confucianism is the official cult, ancestor worship is uni-
\ersal. Belief in malignant demons is so widespread that much of the substance of the aver-
age Korean is dissipated in the propitiation of evil spirits.
A SUPPLIANT AT THE "TEMPLE OF GOOD FORTUNE"
For five days and nights he slept on the wet ground, praying at this shrine for relief from
rheumatic pains.
AN ACROPOUS CROWNED BY THE SENTINEL CITY OF HEIZANCHIN
The flat-topped hill rises abruptly out of the level Yalu River valley and forms a natural
fortress. For hundreds of years this city played a major role in the history of the country and
was the scene of many fierce conflicts between Koreans and Chinamen (see page 48).
NATIVES AT A FUNERAL I WHITE IS THE EMBLEM OF MOURNING IN KOREA
The mourning period is three years, and upon the death of a royal person all the people
must put on white. These facts are said to account for the adoption of white cloth for ordi-
nary wear. Thus the Koreans are ever prepared for the inevitable end of man, whether in
their own family or in the royal household.
47
48
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
were massed with lilies of the valley,
which perfumed the air for yards about.
Two weeks after leaving Potaidon we
reached the city of Heizanchin. A high,
flat-topped hill rises abruptly out of the
level river valley and forms a natural
fortress, on the summit of which is the
ancient town. For hundreds of years
this sentinel city of Korea took an im-
portant part in the history of the coun-
try and was the scene of many fierce
struggles between the Koreans and the
Chinese, their neighbors across the river.
But its work has long been done ; the
grim old watch-towers have decayed and
the crumbling walls are almost obscured
by a luxuriant growth of vines and ivy.
Nothing remains of the city iself ex-
cept the picturesque gateway and an old
shrine, standing on the very verge of the
hill overlooking the valley below, where
the Japanese have built a new and unin-
teresting town on the banks of the Yalu
(see page 47).
The influence which a great river ex-
erts, almost to its very source, on the
country through which it passes was
brought forcefully to my attention in Ko-
rea. As soon as we neared the Yalu we
began to see evidences of lumbering and
of the civilization which a great commer-
cial enterprise invariably brings with it,
one of the first indications being a party
of Koreans carrying ordinary black um-
brellas. These people had seen either
very few white men or none at all, but
were using many foreign articles brought
by the Japanese.
YALU BOATS OPERATED BY MAN POWER
Lumber rafts were continually passing
Heizanchin on their way down the river ;
but there were too many rapids in the
vicinity to make the journey a safe one
for our baggage, and so we continued
across country about 50 miles, to the vil-
lage of Shinkarbarchin. A log raft was
secured there, and with our baggage
piled aboard we floated some 375 miles,
to the mouth of the river on the west
coast.
The scenery on the upper Yalu is
beautiful, but rather monotonous. Hills
and mountains rise abruptly from the
river on either side, leaving in many
places hardly room enough for a foot-
path along the water's edge. At times
the hills slope away far enough to give a
few hundred yards of ground for culti-
vation, and there Korean and Chinese
huts have found a resting place.
The river for the first 100 miles is ex-
ceedingly rapid, and a boat can float
down it as much as 50 or 60 miles in a
day. As it widens the force of its cur-
rent decreases, the hills become lower,
and villages appear at. intervals. One of
the most picturesque sights was the Chi-
nese junks, loaded with salt or corn,
which were being towed up the river by
the natives.
The journey is a tedious one, for the
boats must be hauled the entire distance
against the strong current by man-power,
receiving but little assistance from their
huge brown sails (see page 36). It takes
seven or eight weeks for the journey
from the west coast up the river, and
even by making the best possible time a
junk cannot do more than one round
trip and half of another before the winter
ice stops navigation. The Yalu is called
by the Koreans the "Am-nok" (green
duck), from the color of the water in the
early spring.
At Antung, at the mouth of the Yalu,
our expedition took th* train to Seoul,
where the collections were packed for
shipment to New York.
INDEX FOR JANUARY-JUNE, 1919, VOLUME READY
Index for Volume XXXV January-June, 1919 will be mailed to members upon request
MASTERS OF FLIGHT
THE GOLDEN EAGLE: KING OF BIRDS
"He clasps the crag with hooked hands;
Close to the sun in lonely lands,
Ring'd with the azure world, he stands."
I
William Lovell Finley
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
William Lovcll Finley
CASPIAN TERNS
One of the most graceful .of birds, the flight of the tern is unusual. It has been described as
"unlike that of any other bird, whether of sea or land; buoyant and slightly wavering, it reminds one
a little of the high, apparently uncertain flight of a large-winged butterfly; and it is in perfect harmony
with the idea of a being whose life is spent amid wind and mist and fluctuating wave."
vll
-
MASTERS OF FLIGHT
William Lovell Finley
BARN OWLS: THE POLICEMEN OF THE FARM
A family of barn owls on the place constitutes a valuable asset, for these birds are the most
effective natural check on rats, mice and other destructive rodents. Due to their extremely rapid
digestion they are always hungry and a half grown owlet will eat more than its own weight in a single
night. An old owl will catch more mice than a dozen cats. "*
III
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
IV
MASTERS OF FLIGHT
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101
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
t
VI
'
MASTERS OF FLIGHT
VII
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
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A HUNTER OF PLANTS
BY DAVID FAIRCHILD
AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER, IN CHARGE OFFICE OF FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION,
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE -.;
Among explorers no individual receives less recognition for signal service to
civilisation than the hunter of plants. His name is not ivrittcn upon new-found
lands nor upon hitherto uncharted seas. But through his vision, his daring, and
his fortitude he enriches the ivaste places of his home land and helps to' feed
thousands of today and millions of the future. The plant-hunter is an unsung
Columbus of horticulture.
IT -IS one thing to go hunting for
wild animals and quite another to
go hunting for plants. In the one
case there is the excitement of the per-
sonal danger and the immediate result of
the game, followed by the memories that
crowd in as one sits before the open fire
and talks of the days that are past.
In the other, the excitement of per-
sonal danger exists to a lesser extent,
there is no game to be immediately eaten,
but with each passing year there is the
increasing interest which comes from the
growth and spread of the plants one has
found and imported; the orchards or
avenues or fields of grain or the beauti-
fication of thousands of city dooryards.
Frank N. Meyer was a plant-hunter
for the United States Department of
Agriculture. He hunted plants in China
and Siberia and Turkestan and in the
Caucasus, and he was drowned on the
second of June last, in the muddy waters
of the Yangtze River, after nine of the
most picturesque years that any one could
imagine, spent in the dense forests of
northern Korea, in Chinese temples
perched on distant sacred mountains, and
in wanderings through the orchards, gar-
dens, and cultivated fields of that vast
Oriental country.
A LJFE OF ADVENTURE AND SERVICE
What a life! To wander with a defi-
nite, soul-absorbing object, on foot, from
village to village, inquiring his way and
learning as he went of some new plant
variety which, because of its perfume, the
deliciousness of its fruit, the color of its
flowers, the shade it cast, its alkali resist-
ance, or its hardiness in bleak northern
regions, might be worthy of sending to
this country for our farmers, horticul-
turists, or lovers of dooryard plants to
grow.
As Meyer stood before one of these
new plants to which chance and his flair
for new things had led his footsteps, he
tried to picture in his imagination the re-
gion in the United States where it would
grow; to wonder in what particular it
might prove better than that which
Americans were then cultivating, and
what use they would make of it after it
developed to full size and produced its
fruit or flowers. It was his business to
look ahead and predict the future of his
discoveries. His was different work
from that of the botanical explorer who
collects for a museum, who is only look-
ing for species that are new and have
never before been collected and placed
in the great herbaria of dried specimens.
While Meyer did indeed find a new
species of hickory, new to science had
a new lilac named after him, and added
thousands of specimens to the herbaria
of the country, his work was primarily
the getting of living material of culti-
vated useful plants or their relatives.
He sent in hundreds of shipments of
living cuttings and thousands of sacks
filled with seeds of the useful plants of
the countries through which he traveled,
with the result that there are now grow-
ing in America fields and orchards and
avenues and hedges of Meyer's plants
which, could he only have lived, would
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
^
PLANT-COLLECTING CARAVAN EN ROUTE FOR THE WU TAI SHAN : CHINA
Unlike the gold-diggers' caravans, the mules are not loaded with picks and shovels and
panning outfits. They are carrying bales of the moss in which florists pack plants, sacks ^in
which seeds are shipped, and driers in which botanists press leaves and flowers. It was with
this kind of an equipment that Frank Meyer traveled many thousands of miles in the out-
of-the-way parts of Asia, looking for the relatives of our cultivated plants and others which
could be grown somewhere in America and give pleasure and prosperity to millions.
have gladdened his heart and made him
realize in a tangible way what a great
pioneer work he was doing.
AN ENRICHER OF THE GARDENS OF THE
WORLD
To Meyer, plants appealed just as to
some people dogs or horses do, and this
intense interest made him pack his col-
lections with infinite patience, wrapping
them in moss and Chinese oiled paper
and burlap with his own hands before
sending them by mail from some point in
the interior of China to Washington.
Meyer was a Hollander by birth and
spent his childhood among the gardens
of Amsterdam, rising through his own
talents to be the assistant of Hugo de
Vries. His passion for travel took him
on foot across the Alps and into Italy to
see the orange groves and vineyards of
the Mediterranean, and later led him to
explore America and northern Mexico on
foot. This restlessness, combined with
his love for plants, drew him to my at-
tention at a time when we were searching
for some one who could travel over the
roadless regions of China.
Meyer's work has always seemed to
have a peculiar fascination for magazine
and newspaper writers, and numerous
are the picturesque accounts of his "ex-
periences." Somehow, when I stand in
an orchard and reach up into one of the
trees and pick from its gray branches
some of the large seedless persimmons
which are the result of his work, I feel
that he has left something more tangible,
more inspiring, as a result of his travels,
than is represented by the stories of mid-
night attempts on his life by ruffians in
Harbin or threatened shootings by Chi-
nese soldiers in the Kansu Province, ex-
citing as those experiences were.
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
59
MEYER'S FELLOW-INMATES OF AN INN IN CHINESE TURKESTAN
"This is the^ house where we stopped for the night/ The three Kirghiz women were
much interested in the photographic apparatus and wanted their pictures taken. A Dsun Can,
the host, did not know exactly what to think of such an instrument. We were twelve people
in this house, representing six different nationalities." From one of Meyer's letters.
In addition to the actual introduction
of seeds and plants, Meyer has rendered
great service to our horticulture by show-
ing us what the Chinese have done to im-
prove their native fruits. They have de-
veloped their native persimmon from
wild, inedible forms to varieties four
inches in diameter and delicious as fruits
can be ; their native hawthorns they have
made as large as small crab-apples, with
an excellent flavor and texture all their
own, suiting them peculiarly for preserv-
ing, and out of the native jujube, or
Ts'ao, they have evolved scores of varie-
ties, some of which are as large as apri-
cots and with a. flavor which puts them
when candied into the class with the Per-
sian date (see pages 68, 69, 72, and 74).
HE DISCOVERED METHODS AS WELL AS
PLANTS
Our horticulturists can be proud of
what they have done for many plants,
but they have' not yet begun to improve
the native papaw, which is the largest
wild fruit growing within the confines of
the United States ; nor have they selected
our own large-fruited hawthorns, of
which we have many more varieties than
the Chinese.
While Meyer's travels were not in the
main in what a geographer would call un-
mapped regions; while he made no geo-
graphic discoveries, his observations on
the plants which the people use and their
manner of using them constitute a real
contribution to our knowledge of the
foreign countries through which he trav-
eled.
His first expedition in the years 1905-
8 was into North China, Manchuria, and
northern Korea; his second, in 1909-11,
through the Caucasus, Russian Turkes-
tan, Chinese Turkestan, and Siberia ; his
third, in 1912-15, through northwestern
China into the Kansu Province to the bor-
ders of Tibet, and his last expedition in
search of plants began in 1916, when he
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AN OLD PLANTATION OF THE) EDIBLE BAMBOO
Thousands of hillsides in China are covered with bamboo groves. Through their thin
green leaves the sunlight falls with a greenish tint. Their plume-like stems rise 50 feet into
the air and for 30 feet are without a branch just jointed, brilliant green tubes, the most
fascinating things in the world to put one's hand on. For decades these groves furnish to
their owners an abundance of young shoots in the early spring shoots which are as good
to eat as asparagus and poles so light and from which so many things can be easily and
quickly made that they belong in a class by themselves. This bamboo can be grown from the
Carolinas to Texas, and there is no reason to doubt that our grandchildren will wander, as
do the Chinese children, through beautiful groves of this wonderful plant.
went in quest of the wild pear forests in
the region of Jehol, north of Peking, and
the region around Ichang. He was caught
at Ichang by the revolution and for many
months was unable to escape. The con-
finement and uncertainty with regard to
the great war and an attack of illness had
by this time combined to bring on a re-
currence of a former attack of what
amounted to nervous prostration, and be-
fore he could reach the encouraging com-
panionship of people of his own class he
was drowned in the waters of the
Yangtze River near the town of Wu Hu,
thirty miles north of Nanking.
IIIS LETTERS PICTURE STRANGE
CIVILIZATIONS
Meyer's letters are the letters of a
real traveler. When written from cold,
dirty inns, they reflected his surroundings
of discomfort; from the sublime moun-
tain tops or mountain passes of the Cau-
casus, they were filled with his quaint
philosophy of existence. From Buddhist
temples in the Kansu Province of China,
on the borders of Tibet, they gave pic-
tures of that strange civilization forty
centuries old.
LEFT ALONE IN TURKESTAN
Writing from Samarkand, Turkestan,
he said:
"Alone in Samarkand! My assistant
yesterday got tidings from home that his
presence was urgently needed, as the man
in charge of his farm was severely in-
jured by a horse, and he left me. The
interpreter had left the clay before, as
his eyesight and general health had be-
come rather poor these last days on
account of the great heat, and so it has
come to pass that I am left alone in this
far-away land, with only a mere smat-
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
VEGETABLE GARDENS ALONG THE IRTISH : SIBERIA
Imagine the agricultural explorer walking through these gardens in southwestern Siberia,
examining each variety of plant, in the hope that among them somewhere Jie might find a
new kind or a new strain of vegetable which would prove better in some particular than those
which we already have growing in America.
tering of Russian and no knowledge at
all of the Sart language, which is much
spoken here. I'll get out of it, however.
"On Saturday, June n, we wanted to
leave early, but I got a message from the
police to appear before them. Something
new, I thought. Well, we went and the
whole thing was nothing but a curiosity
to see me.
"The captain, or whatever his rank was,
asked my interpreter whether I really was
a botanist, whether I only had interest in
plants, and more of such suspicious ques-
tions. He then told me that permission
had come from St. Petersburg allowing
me to photograph trees and plants only,
and that for every locality I wanted to
visit I had to get a special permit, either
written or verbal, depending upon the im-
portance of the place. But under no
consideration would I be granted permis-
sion to go to the Afghanistan frontier, as
foreigners were not allowed!
"We left the same day for Merv,
where we arrived after midnight. The
next day was exceedingly hot and the
light so intense as to make one almost
dizzy. We took out the collected herba-
rium material, which wasn't all dry yet,
and gave it an airing much trouble her-
barium material causes on a journey!
"In Merv there is a pretty park, where
tall specimens of poplars occur. I also
saw there, for the first time in my life,
fine, large specimens of Karakash elms.
Very striking trees they are, with their
umbrella-like shape and a dense mass of
rather small foliage. These trees will be
highly appreciated by our settlers in the
desert regions.
"On Monday, June 13, there was a
great market held in Merv. Turkomans,
Afghanistanese, Kirghizes, and many
other wild-looking inhabitants of these
regions here mingled one with another-
I bought some barley, millet, and wheat,
but found little new.
THE CAM-EL'S THORN OF THE DESERT
"The desert around Merv is quite inter-
esting. The camel's thorn covers tens
of thousands of acres of land. It was
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
63
THE) INSPIRING MOUNTAIN SCENERY OF SHAN HAI KWAN, CHINA
Among the enviable things about the explorer's life are the scenes which his eyes are
permitted to rest upon. A wonderful forest once covered the slopes of China's mountains,
now denuded as the result of the lack of a forest policy.
in full bloom and its small pinkish-purple
flowers, produced by the million, gave
color to the landscape, just like the heath
in northwestern Europe.
"This camel's thorn is a very useful
plant here. First, it is a great feed for
the camels, which are said to love this
plant better than any other wild herb.
Second, it is mown, dried, and used as
a fuel. Nearly all of the bricks in the
oases are baked through the heat of this
plant. Third, it is a great sand-binder,
growing even in pure, sterile sand, and
being leguminous it prepares the soil by
enriching it for better vegetation."
THE TRIALS OF THE TRAVELER
Writing from Chugutchak, Mongolia,
the explorer says:
"Of the fourteen nights we spent en
route I was under cover only four of
them, and out of the other ten, one night
we were disturbed by a wolf, two nights
by rain, four nights by robbers prowling
about, and the remaining three we made
the most of.
"But on the whole it was not a bad
journey, so far as personal comforts were
concerned, for the sheep and goats had
just lambed, and wherever we struck a
Kalmuck or a Kirghiz settlement we were
able to obtain a goodly quantity of either
sour or sweet milk. The spring had
really started and the cold at night was
not very great. A few times our milk
and tea froze overnight, but we are so
hardened that we didn't suffer from the
cold.
"We had serious trouble with the
guides. I hadn't been able to obtain a
man for the whole journey in Kuldja ; so
we took one from one village to another.
The first four days it wasn't so bad, but
on the fifth day, having entered a robber
district, our Kirghiz guide deserted us
and, worse than that, took with him the
general letter of introduction with which
he was supplied by the Chinese prefect
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE: SEPULCHER OF CONFUCIUS
"The sepulcher of Con-fu-tse is surrounded by old trees," wrote Meyer of this sacred
spot. "The large black trunk to the left belongs to an old male specimen of Pistachio chinen-
sis which is several centuries old. The stems in front are Juniper us chinensis. This whole
group exhales a spirit of the gray, hoary past, from which influence one cannot escape."
of Kuldja. There we were, without any-
body knowing the roads and in a district
considered dangerous.
"We marched according to a map I
have and with the aid of a compass, and
we finally reached a Kalmuck village,
where I was received with great honors.
The native chief had a special tent erected
for me, killed a sheep, and was very
friendly; and that was in the dreaded
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
65
Bogh-dolah, where
the Kirghiz guides
had told us that
men are sometimes
butchered like
sheep for sacrifice.
It seems those
things did occur
some twenty - five
or thirty years ago,
but now I hardly
think anything like
that would happen.
In the days when
Dr. Regel was bot-
anizing here,
strange things were
reported; even the
Chinese practiced
human sacrifices in
times of epidemics
and famines."
FINDING THE FA-
MOUS PEKING
PEAR
Here is a letter
postmarked P e-
king :
"On December
29 we started from
Peking, en route to
the Western Moun-
tains. On the way
I secured some pic-
tures of white-
barked pine trees
and some cuttings
and seeds of a
large L y c i u m.
That night we slept
in a temple in the
mountains where it
was pretty cold, as there was no fire in
these airy rooms.
"The next morning a fine snow fell,
but about one o'clock it cleared up and
we got bright, cold weather. I utilized
that time to get a lot of scions of the
male and female pistache trees and had
several men and boys at work to try to
get a quantity of good pistache seeds, for
A ROW OF POPLARS IN CHILI PROVINCE, CHINA
The trees, planted along the edge of a field bordering a stream and
trimmed up high so as to make poles, had a peculiar appeal for Meyer.
They may have reminded him of some scene in Holland or of some
Dutch painting.
same color as the ground from which
they have to be picked. Notwithstanding
my offer of a Mexican dollar for a small
linen bag full, the natives were not will-
ing to do the job.
"The pistache is a fine shade tree, espe-
cially the male form, and for the mild-
wintered regions of the United States it
will be a nice acquisition.
most trees bore simply empty capsules. "In a temple yard that same day I col-
"I paid many 2O-cent pieces and got lectcd a quantity of :
but few seeds. These are very hard to
scions of the Chinese
horse-chestnut, which will probably be a
get, for they are small and have about the good shade tree for the United States.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
POTS OF SOY SAUCE IN THE MAKING, COVERED WITH BAMBOO HOODS
The manufacture and consumption of this salty sauce in China and in Japan is com-
parable to the making and consumption of butter in Occidental countries. It is as universal
in the Chinese dietary as butter in ours. The photograph shows a courtyard rilled with jars
in which a mixture of soy-beans, wheat, and salt is fermenting, and this mixture is protected
from the sun and rain by cleverly woven hoods of split bamboo stems. Mr. Meyer made a
careful study of this great soy-bean sauce industry and introduced a large number of varieties
of the bean. "
"The last day of the year found us on
the road in search of the famous Peking
pear, for which I have been looking ever
since I came to China and for which
fruit I made quite a few trips in vain.
"I didn't strike it until New Year's
Day, but then my joy was great to start
the year in such a nice way. I procured
a whole lot of scions from this pear and
from other varieties, and I would strongly
recommend the Department to distribute
every scion or bud not needed, and to
give them to practical, successful growers
only ; for these pears will probably give
us an entirely new strain of this fruit.
A HAZARDOUS MOUNTAIN JOURNEY
"The soil is rather sandy where these
pears grow, and a short distance from the
orchards it seems to be entirely sand.
To prevent this sand from being blown
away, the Chinese have planted long rows
of small poplars. I send some cuttings of
them; they may be of use in the United
States for the same purpose.
"On January 2 we proceeded on donkey
back to the mountains near Fang-shan.
We had to proceed dismounted most of
the time on account of the passes be-
tween the rocks, which were very steep.
"I had heard there were some nice
specimens on an old imperial tomb in
these mountains, but to my great disgust
[ found that the trees in question had all
been cut down some years previously.
Yet the trip wasn't in vain, for I found
in these mountains the genuine wild
peaches and apricots growing between the
rocks. It seems that there are several
varieties of these peaches. I send you
herewith cuttings of three kinds, but
doubtless there are more.
"Besides outdoor plants, the natives
have hothouses constructed of sorghum
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
PEACH PITS FROM THE WILD PEACH OF CHINA
The wild peach of China is a species different from our cultivated peach. It grows on
dry lands and lives where there is too much alkali in the soil for our fruit. The fifteen
hundred pounds of pits shown in the photograph were imported into America, and there are
now orchards on alkali soil in California, the underground parts of which are Chinese roots
produced by these seeds.
stems heavily plastered with mud and
with vertical paper windows on the south
side only. They are heated by flues, and
to keep the air moist large open vessels
filled with water are placed at short dis-
tances from one another.
"In the forcing houses, also, large open
vessels are kept filled with liquid night-
soil, so as to promote a healthy growth.
That the atmosphere in these places is
far from being pleasantly odorous, one
may imagine. To my amazement I saw
forced cucumber plants with nice cucum-
bers hanging on them. If a young cucum-
ber shows a tendency toward being
crooked, the Chinese simply hang a piece
of stone, tied to a string, on it and force
it in that way to be straight. If we could
only do this thing to crooked people/too!
CUCUMBERS AT 50 CENTS EACH IN CHINA
"I asked the price of these cucumbers
and was told 50 cents apiece (Mexican).
So this proves that Chinamen can afford
to pay much for these luxuries. They
do not grow their cucumbers in benches
like we do, but have a few plants in a
pot, first in a little soil, and when the
plants get older more earth is added.
"They also had fine Paeonias, which
were forced into bloom in the ground
above the flues, and when in bloom they
were planted in pots. They sell for 50
cents per bloom. They certainly looked
fine.
"A totally novel industry was the forc-
ing of onion sprouts. There was one
house just chuck-full of these. The tem-
perature inside was about 90 F., and I
ate my lunch there and was treated to
onion sprouts, tea, and forced young
leaves of the 'tree of heaven/
"Eight coolies, half naked, were work-
ing among the plants and a furnace was
burning. The scent of the onions and
the odors from vessels with certain liq-
uids referred to, together with the heat,
the novel food, and the change of tern-
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A CLUSTER OF CHINESE HAW FRUITS
Every American boy who has lived where hawthorns grow knows that the fruits in this
photograph are nearly, if not twice, as large as most of the American haws. They have the
flavor of the wild haw, but are not so mealy in texture, and one becomes very fond of them
as a fruit to eat from the tree, just as one does the crab-apple. Nobody in this country or
in Europe has set out an orchard of haws. In China, on the other hand, the haw is a culti-
vated fruit; it is grown just as our apples are grown, on grafted trees. It is of a beautiful
red and orange color, has a flavor characteristic of the haws, and when dipped in melted
sugar or when made into jelly it is delicious.
perature while going from one house to
another it was about 20 outside com-
bined to produce an effect upon my consti-
tution which made me feel far from well
for a couple of days.
"While in search of more seedless per-
simmon orchards, we happened to strike
a bleak region, and having eaten very
little at breakfast, I got hungry at eleven
o'clock. The first village we struck
couldn't accommodate us, but the villagers
said, 'One mile from here is a nice place
to get food and tea.'
"We proceeded only to find out it was
an absolute falsehood. These natives in
turn said, 'About one and a half miles
farther on you will find an inn.' And
again when reaching that spot there was
nothing to be found. The natives kept
that game up until at last, at three o'clock
in the afternoon, I came to a place where
I could stretch out my cold, weary limbs
on a brick bedstead with at least a nice
fire underneath.
"I closed my doors rather hard, for I
was disgusted and angry at this lying;
but after having had a pretty substantial
meal, I began to feel better and to think
that the natives probably had deceived us
to prevent our becoming discouraged at
the thought of the long journey which
was before us."
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
G9
From Kang-ko, Ko-
rea, he sent this pic-
ture of customs and
costumes :
"This Korean coun-
try is totally different
from any other in the
world. The people,
for instance, are all
dressed in white
some clean, most of
them not, but still all
are in white. In
their houses the whole
floor is heated, in
most of them the year
round. The entrances
to the rooms are like
windows, so small
that one virtually has
to crawl in.
"The food is totally
different, too. Rice
is the national food,
and mostly it is a poor
quality of red grain,
boiled with some
beans. Cucumbers
are the most favored
vegetable, and at one
meal one gets them
prepared in three or
four ways cucumber
soup, salted cucum-
ber, fresh sliced cu-
cumber, and cucum-
ber water. From a
baby who is hardly
able to walk, up to the
old gray-haired men,
everybody eats cu-
cumbers, and prefer-
ably unpeeled.
"Tea is unknown here ; so the national
drink is water. But now we come to a
most interesting fact they consume all
their food and drinks out of brass bowls
and cups; and there seems to be very
little digestive trouble. How these peo-
ple have come to learn the fact that
copper is a good preventive for alimen-
tary complaints would be worth finding
out.
"Koreans all dress in clothes made of
hemp fiber, and the material is hand-
woven. Even their sandals are made out
THE TAMOPAN PERSIMMON AS IT FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA
This Oriental persimmon which Frank Meyer introduced into
America is worthy of the widest consumption. The fruits in the
photograph, which were raised in California at the government plant-
introduction garden, are three and and a half inches across and are
seedless. They are of a deep orange color, with a characteristic deep
groove around them, and when properly ripened they are delicious.
of the same fabric. The hemp is cut
young, just before it comes to bloom, and
the stems are placed in a closed clay oven
and heated for some days. Then the
bark comes off easily and with a little
washing the fiber is ready to be dried and
used.
"The main crops here in the north are
sorghum in some varieties, small millets,
wet rice, different varieties of soy-beans,
maize, and buckwheat. The vegetables
are cucumbers, pumpkins, chili peppers,
onions, and a poor, weedy cabbage. Gar-
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
. A WHITE-BARKED PINE TREE THREE CENTURIES OLD,
NEAR PEKING, CHINA
Pinus bunyeana, the white-barked pine of central China, as Meyer
remarks, is "rather insignificant looking when less than a century
old, but trees of 200 or 300 years of age are beautiful and serene
enough to worship." Minister Rockhill expressed himself to Meyer
several years before his death as wishing that he might rest under a
white-barked pine. Thousands of these have been grown and sent
out to parks, cemeteries, and private places throughout America.
The contrast between the brilliant white bark and the dark-green
foliage makes it a most striking landscape tree (see page 76).
den beans are also grown, mostly for the
dry beans, though.
"Fruits are absolutely unknown. Here
and there one sees a wild pear or a wild
plum, but the natives do not cultivate any.
TOBACCO THE FAVORED PLANT OF KOREA
"A plant of great importance with the
Koreans is the tobacco. They give it
the best place in their
fields, as the whole
race is addicted to ex-
cessive use of the leaf.
Some very large-
leaved varieties are
grown in this country,
some of which I have
never seen elsewhere.
I haven't been able
yet to obtain seeds of
it, for these people
live by the day. They
don't have any seeds
for a bad year or so
oh, no ; let the day of
tomorrow take care
of itself! In agricul-
tural seeds, too, they
sow everything at
once, and if some is
left, mix it up with
other seeds and eat it.
The new crops are not
ripe yet, so there are
no seed to be had."
THROUGH PRIMEVAL
FORESTS IN KOREA
In going to Hoi-
ryong, Korea, Meyer
relates that for many
days he traveled
through primeval for-
ests, camping at night
in log cabins which
had been erected for
the accommodation of
hunters.
"These forests are
splendid," he writes.
"They consist mostly
of larches, then fol-
low spruces, then
pines and lindens,
birches, poplars, and
gigantic willows,
found in patches or as solitary specimens.
The willows attain the same enormous
size as the conifers from 100 to 150
feet tall. I measured larches that had a
diameter of four feet, five feet above the
ground, and by counting the annual rings
of some of the felled giants, I found that
most of the trees are between 120 and
180 years old.
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
71
"Tremendous for-
est fires rage at
times, and so we
traveled sometimes
for days through
burned areas. A
pitiful sight it is,
but in these areas
one can see the sun
and the sky a
thing which is well-
nigh impossible in
the unburned for-
est.
"To explore the
primeval forest is
simply impossible.
There is generally
only one trail
through it, and as
soon as one leaves
it he is in the entan-
glement of vines,
fallen and dead
trees, undergrowth,
peat - bogs, m u d-
holes, and heaven
knows what else.
"Traffic is exceed-
ingly light some
days we didn't see
a single man or
beast and food is
not to be found;
neither is water,
except at a few
places.
"There is an aw-
ful gloom in these
forests ; birds are
seldom seen o r
heard, and the qui-
etude is almost op-
pressive. Even the drivers of the horses
come under the spell of the solitude, and
our caravan proceeded in silence, except
for the noise of breaking branches of
trees and the sound of the horses' hoofs
touching rocks or tree stumps in the
track. In some places a monarch of the
forest had fallen across one's trail, and
then we had to make wide detours to
keep clear of it."
This is a letter from Tai an fu, Shan-
tung, China:
"Yesterday I returned from a hurried
A PLANT HUNTER'S HAUI,
How the packages of seeds and cuttings used to come in from Meyer.
He packed them with great care, sewing each package in cloth, but the
long distance and the rough handling generally tore the outer wrapping
to pieces. This is part of a collection of rare specimens which Meyer
made in Chinese Turkestan.
trip to Feitcheng, bringing back with me
eight grafted trees of the famous Fei
peach.
"We had much trouble in getting these
peaches, as the people demanded the most
fabulous prices ; for instance, $40 and
$50 per tree. My interpreter, through
some diplomatic dealings, got a plot con-
taining eight trees for $40, but we had
to leave Feitcheng hurriedly, because the
relatives of the man who sold to him
had not been consulted and they wanted
to take the trees back or destroy them
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72
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
73
Two of the trees are safely on the road
to America now, however, and the others
go with me tomorrow.
BEDLAM IX A CHINESE IX X
"I cannot make tip my accounts here,
for conditions in the inn are too fierce to
allow one to confine one's thoughts to such
work," wrote the explorer from Chieh
Chou, southwest Kansu, China. "Imag-
ine an overcrowded inn, with merchants
and coolies shouting and having angry
disputes; with partitions between the
rooms so thin as to make them almost
transparent, with people gambling with
dice and cards all night long; others
smoking opium; hawkers coming in, sell-
ing all possible sorts of things, from raw
carrots to straw braid hats from Szech-
uan, and odors hanging about to make
angels, even, procure handkerchiefs.
"Here you have a picture of 'the best
inn in town/ '
OPPRESSED BY LOXELIXESS
Occasionally, during the last year of
his travels, a note of loneliness was
sounded in his letters :
"Of course, this exploration work, with
its continuous absence from people who
can inspire one, gets pretty badly on one's
nerves. One must be some sort of a
reservoir that carries along all sorts of
stores. Soldiers in the field have more
dangers to face, but they get at least com-
panionship and often recreation supplied
to them.
"For about one month now I haven't
seen a white person.
"My new interpreter is of the sponge
variety that is, absorbing all and giving
back little or nothing and this work of
mine is very hard for the Chinese to un-
derstand anyway. They seem to consider
it a silly thing to spend so much money
for a few seeds or plants."
"Here I am sitting in a small hole of a
town, all surrounded by high mountains,
on which a slight snowfall has been de-
posited during the past night," begins a
letter written from a place designated as
six days' march west of Ichang, Hupeh.
"The flanks of these mountains are
brown with withered vegetation, but here
and there a tallow tree stands out as a bit
of flaming red and purple ; some scrub of
Rhus cotinus (the native smoke tree) is
blazing carmine and a few bushes of Rhus
javanica (another variety of sumac)
are of an indescribably warm hue of
orange-red. The Indian summer is speed-
ing to its close and soon winter will set
in. I am trying to round up several
things which we would have collected
long ago had those wild pears not kept
me down at Kingmen.
THE YANG TAO GOOSEBERRY, RHUBARB,
PINEAPPLE, AND GUAVA IN ONE
"A few hours ago I delivered to the
local post-office here a small wooden box,
made to order, addressed to the American
Consul General at Shanghai, marked D.
A. 29 and containing twelve fruits of the
wild Ichang lemon and some fruits of a
smooth variety of a native fruit called the
Yang tao. How these fruits will arrive
after their long journey in winter time I
have no idea. It is only an attempt, like
so much in life is.
"I am highly pleased with the Yang
tao, and the more I see of it the more
thoroughly convinced I am that it is a
coming fruit for the southern United
States.
"The fruits keep well into winter, and
they ship well, especially after having
been subjected to a few frosts. They are
of excellent flavor, being a combination
of gooseberry, rhubarb, pineapple, and
guava. They have the habit of setting
one's teeth on edge, just like pineapples
and blueberries, and they are laxative !
"But the vines are not hardy. Where
one finds them growing well, one notices
coir palms, loquats, privets, and bam-
boos around the farmsteads. Zero tem-
peratures may hurt them badly, I am
afraid.
"The plants also will have to be grown
like muscadine grapes that is, on high
arbors and they might have to be bruised
to make them bear heavily. In the wild
state, at least, I noticed that plants sub-
jected to strong mountain winds, which
twist them around at times, bore much
more heavily than those growing well
sheltered.
"I am sure that in the rolling sections
of the Carolinas, Georgia, northern Flor-
ida, etc., where loquats survive for ten
f
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74
A HUNTER OF PLANTS
75
or more years, the Yang tao will do well,
and of course in many parts of California
it should thrive, too.
CUT OFF FROM COMMUNICATION WITH
THF, WORLD
"I wonder whether these parcels will
ever reach you ! I have not received mail
now for a few months. Conditions here
are as upset as ever ; travel is nearly im-
possible, except by an occasional Japan-
ese steamer. Food supplies are running
low, fighting has occurred near and
around the city almost hourly during these
last weeks, and everybody feels de-
pressed from this long-drawn state of
suspense.
"The foreigners here have formed a
defense committee, but, of course, a mere
handful of white residents can do noth-
ing against brigands in uniform, as nearly
all of these Chinese soldiers are, and there
are several thousands of the parasites
around us. Last week I saw that some of
these fellows took the hearts out of men
whom they had shot, and mutilated the
corpses in unspeakable ways. They are
going to eat these hearts to get courage !
"Of late I have been assisting many of
the foreign residents in changing their
gardens and transplanting large and small
trees. It took twenty-five coolies to re-
move one large tea olive a thing never
before attempted in Ichang. Should all
of these various trees pull through, my
work will be tied up with this city for a
hundred years to come."
SOME OF MEYER'S GIFTS TO AMERICA
It would be inappropriate here to give a
complete list of the hundreds of plant spe-
cies and varieties which Meyer sent into
this country. But when the roses bloom
in New England, his Rosa xanthina,
the hardiest of the yellow bush-roses, will
be a mass of pale gold. When the ground
thaws on the bleak plains of the Dakotas,
thousands of his Chinese elms will put out
their leaves and take their place in the
wind-breaks of that treeless region. All
the way up from Florida and Georgia
and over the Canadian border this elm
is now growing a remarkably adaptable
tree.
His ash from Kashgar will spread its
branches over the alkali soils of Nevada.
When cherries are ripe in California, his
Tangsi cherry will be the earliest to ripen
by a week or ten days.
The peach-growers of California are
watching orchards now five years old, the
trees of which all have for their root sys-
tems those of a wild Chinese peach which
is resistant to drouth and alkali and
which Meyer found was in common use
as a stock by the Chinese.
As the autumn peaches ripen, the trees
of the Fei peach will attract unusual at-
tention, for it is the pound peach of the
Shantung Province and bids fair to take
a special place among the canning peaches
of this country. It was so rare a variety,
and living peach budwood is so hard to
ship, that Meyer had to make two long
special trips of several weeks on foot to
get it.
In parks and cemeteries, wherever it
will grow well, the globular-headed wil-
low deserves to find a place, and the first
specimens, now growing at Chico, Cal-
ifornia, and on the banks of Rock Creek
Park, in Washington, D. C., are worthy
of a special visit.
THE DELICIOUS JUJUBE
The curse of pear-growers is the fire
blight, which often ruins the growth of
years in a single season by killing the
twigs and branches and even the trunk
of the tree. Just how far the hardy
Ussurian pear, sent to us by Meyer, will
prove to be immune to this disease we do
not yet know ; but Professor Reimer, of
Oregon, who is an authority on the sub-
ject, declares it is the most resistant of all
the species of the pear genus.
Until Meyer brought back the grafted
varieties of the Chinese jujube and we
planted an orchard of them in California,,
the name itself recalled only the jujube
paste of our fathers' time, which was
used for coughs and colds. It bore no
relation to the fruits, as large as good-
sized plums, which, when processed, are
as delicious as Persian Gulf dates (p. 74) .
When the boys and girls go chestnut-
ting and see with growing concern that
their favorite chestnut trees are dying
and realize that unless we do something
theirs may be the last generation to have
the pleasure of gathering these most in-
teresting of all nuts, it may be a comfort
76
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE EXPLORER MEYER WITH A BRANCH OF JUJUBE IN HIS HAND
In 1906, when Meyer first saw orchards of this new fruit in China, he wondered if the
trees would grow in America. He lived to learn that the trees not only would flourish, but
would bear abundantly in this country, and he was gathering bud wood of all the horticul-
tural varieties which he could find (see pages 72 and 74).
to them to know about the little Chinese
chestnut trees which Meyer has intro-
duced and which are very resistant to
the chestnut-bark disease. While this
Chinese chestnut will not take the place
of the American chestnut as a timber
tree, we may expect from it an abundance
of good, sweet chestnuts.
MEYER'S SPINACH SUBSTITUTE
In our hot summers, spinach, that most
popular of vegetables, does not grow, but
Mr. J. B. Norton, through careful selec-
tion, has produced a strain, which he calls
"Manchuria," from seed which Meyer
gathered in Manchuria.
Guarding, as it were, the tomb of the
great Confucius, stands a century-old
tree of the Chinese pistache. In summer
it casts a dense shade, and in autumn its
scarlet foliage makes the landscape bril-
liant, like the oaks in the Berkshires.
There is now an avenue of these superb
trees forming the entrance to our Chico
Plant Introduction Garden, and it has
already begun to furnish ample seed sup-
plies to plant the country (see page 64).
The white-barked pine, one of the
most striking landscape trees of China,
its brilliant white trunk contrasting with
its dark-green needles, we have scattered
by the hundreds through the drier re-
gions of this country from large quanti-
ties of seed which Meyer secured. One
of them is growing over the grave of the
most enthusiastic plant lover of all of
our diplomats, the late W. W. Rockhill,
U. S. Minister to China (see page 70).
Imagine the old age which such a
hunter as Meyer might have had when
in place of fading memories of forest
encounters he could put his hands upon
the trunks of great trees grown from
tiny seeds which he had collected in his
travels as a young man, or see with fail-
ing eyesight the masses of flowers pro-
THE LAND OF LAMBSKINS
77
duced by shrubs and trees which he first
saw on the mountain slopes of China !
To those who chase through life from
one adventure to the next, heedless of
whether they leave a trail or not, this
may, perhaps, appeal but little; but to
those who look ahead, imagining a better
world here on this wonderful planet, the
idea of having so definite and tangible a
share in its enrichment must be very
satisfactory.
While without the hearty support of
a force of men and women who have
cared for his introductions, Meyer's
work would have been impossible, it is
fitting that his name should stand out
prominently, for his was the pioneer's
work and it depended peculiarly on his
individual initiative.
Meyer's life activities have ceased, and
the real causes of his death will always
be a mystery. He came to this country
a Hollander, a gardener by profession;
he became an American citizen and he
has given to this land of his adoption
a host of lasting benefits.
THE LAND OF LAMBSKINS
An Expedition to Bokhara, Russian Central Asia, to
Study the Karakul Sheep Industry
BY ROBERT K. NABOURS
OF THE KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
With Photographs by the Author
SINCE time immemorial man has
made use of the skins, hair, wool,
and fur of animals to protect him-
self from the elements and for purposes
of adornment. However valuable and
universally used are vegetable substitutes,
the clothing products furnished by ani-
mals are now demanded in larger quanti-
ties than ever before ; so much so that
consumption has overtaken production,
and the situation for the future is con-
sidered critical by competent observers.
Especially is this true with regard to
the production of furs; it appears that
the advancement of civilization increases
the demand, while at the same time it de-
creases the number of wild animals
which, since time out of mind, have fur-
nished mankind with this indispensable
commodity.
As wild fur-bearing animals have de-
creased in numbers and the scarcity and
prices of furs consequently increased,
many individuals have been led to under-
take the rearing of fur-bearers in captiv-
ity, as, for example, the efforts to breed
foxes in Canada and parts of the United
States, and the wide-spread interest in
skunk-raising. It is of significance that
in one State alone the game warden,
within a period of two years, issued more
than fifty permits for breeding skunks in
captivity.
KARAKUL, SHEEP AS A SOLUTION OF THE
WORLD'S FUR PROBLEM
Attention has been directed recently to
the ancient industry of Karakul sheep-
raising to aid in restoring the equilibrium
between the increasing demand and de-
creasing supply of furs. The pelts of the
young lambs of this breed of sheep, be-
cause of their special qualities of warmth
and beauty, appeal to persons of both
sexes, old and young, of all stations in
life and of all nationalities. There is,
perhaps, greater possibility of restoring
to mankind a supply of furs from this
source than from any other.
Recently, through the generous coop-
eration of Mr. L. M. Crawford, ranch-
man ; Dr. H. J. Waters, then president,
and President W. M. Jardine, then di-
rector of the Experiment Station of the
Kansas State Agricultural College, the
author traveled in Russia, Bokhara, and
other parts of Turkestan largely for the
purpose of studying Karakul and other
sheep.
On my first expedition to the East to
study the Karakul, my Bokhara inter-
preter, a man of education and influence
FLOCK OF KARAKUL SIIKKP GRAZING IN BOKHARA
The feeding of animals is a serious problem in a country where green fades from the
landscape except in the brief spring that stands between piercing cold and cruel heat.
KARAKUL LAMB AND EWS I BOKHARA
The kindly shepherd vies with the soft-eyed ewe in caring for the wobbly-kneed young-
ster that is so soon to sacrifice his curly coat to some follower of fashion. Throughout the
Near East there is a community of life and trust between the sheep and his shepherd which
has been the theme of many a prose poem since the time when David, the shepherd boy,
sang the song that has cheered the ages "The Lord is my shepherd."
THE LAND OF LAMBSKINS
79
m ' ,
in affairs of trade,
government, and
religion, gave me
cordial and enjoy-
able entertainment
for two nights at
his home in the
oasis. During that
time I did not se-
cure a glimpse of
any of his three
wives or the older
daughters among
his seventeen living
children. Our host
informed us, how-
ever, that we were
being duly scruti-
nized by his wo-
menfolk, as well as
by the neighbors,
through " p e e p-
holes."
The women re-
mained, for the
most part, in the
kitchens preparing
food and tea and
sending them out
to be served to us
by the boys of the
family.
In order to con-
verse with the na-
tive it was neces-
sary to address,
first, an English-
Russian-spea'king interpreter, and he, in
turn, passed the message on through an
interpreter who spoke Russian and the
native dialect. The part taken by the
native in the conversation would then
come to me reversely through the same
interpreters.
My conversation with actual breeders
of Karakuls was confined, for the most
part, to the owner of a flock of 800 who
resided at the juncture of the oasis and
desert steppes of Bokhara, where are
found the outlying irrigation ditches,
which during ordinary years contain
water for only short periods a situation
that had forced this ranchman to move
in and out at intervals and to depend
upon wells continually.
On arriving at the headquarters of the
BORN LAMB I STEPPES OF BOKHARA
The pursuit of beauty too often leads to cruelty, and some of the
methods of securing unborn lambs are quite revolting. Demand for
objects of beauty, wholesale destruction, popular indignation, conserva-
tion, and scientific development these are the stages through which the
gathering of furs, feathers, and flowers has progressed. Now the ac-
quaintance of even the fearsome skunk is cultivated in order that beauty
may be perpetuated.
Karakul sheep-owner, our party was re-
ceived with kindly consideration, though
with much curiosity and even suspicion,
by the proprietor and two of his sons.
However, as we sat on the rugs in his
quarters, in Oriental style, with shoes re-
moved, and drank tea, cordiality soon de-
veloped, and one after another of the
men and boy attaches of the establish-
ment joined the circle.
At first the conversation, carried on
with great difficulty through the two in-
terpreters, consisted of questions about
sheep-raising, the taking of pelts and
marketing, with the cautious replies ; but
as time passed, the situation became more
mutual, till eventually the tables turned
and they were quizzing me concerning
affairs in my country.
80
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
At noon we were
served with a sump-
tuous feast of de-
licious, well - cooked
Karakul - Kirghiz
mutton, with the very
palatable Tatar bread,
and sheep milk for
those who desired it,
and always tea.
THE KARAKUL FLOCK
AND ITS PANICKY
SHEPHERDS
After the feast we
went out on the
steppes through a ter-
rific sandstorm and
fierce July heat, over
shifting dunes, where
vegetation was con-
spicuous largely by its
absence.
Here we found a
considerable flock of
Karakuls in care of
two shepherd boys so
ignorant and "so terri-
fied by the presence
of westerners that
only extreme devo-
tion to their sheep
kept them from run-
ning away. In fact,
when they first saw
us approaching the
flock was started off
in such haste and
driven so rapidly that
the sheep and the
boys were brought
to a standstill only by
great exertion on the
part of some of the
men, who, fortunately
for the object of the
excursion, were on
horses instead o f
camels.
So panic - stricken
were these boys, or
young men, that it
was some time before
we could calm them
| and secure their co-
operation in corral-
ling, sorting, and
THE LAND OF LAMBSKINS
81
otherwise assisting in
the study and photo-
graphing of the ani-
mals.
While the inspec-
tion was in progress
a lamb was born, the
hair being a splendid
type of Persian lamb,
with beautiful black
luster and tight, even
curl (see page 79).
As an illustration
of the close personal
attention the lambs
receive till they are
able to care for them-
selves, the ewe and
one of the shepherds
seemed to vie with
each other in attend-
ing this helpless ar-
rival. The flock
drifted away and the
lamb was unable to
travel, so the ewe and
shepherd remained,
and finally the boy
gathered it in his
arms and came on up
with the crowd.
These shepherds,
although extremely
ignorant, especially in
any civilized sense,
and living the lives of
the sheep night and
day for months at a
time, are said to know
the members of their
fl o c k s individually
and the parentage of
each sheep, even
among large numbers*
INTERBREEDING O I?
KARAKUIy AND
KIRGHIZ SHEEP
Since numbers of
the ewes of the fat-
rump Kirghiz mut-
ton sheep are yearly
placed among the
Karakul flocks for the
purpose, as related by
the owner, of keeping
up the vigor, and since
no written records are
A YOUNG KARAKUL RAM ON THE STEPPES OF BOKHARA
A KARAKUL RAM IN BOKHARA
Curiosity is a passion stronger than fear in many cases, and the
timid Sarts and Bokharans who first fear the camera man soon
bring their dearest possessions to him in order to have them photo-
graphed. The story current in many parts of the East that camera
lenses are made from the eyes of murdered children may explain
why many a fond mother protects her infant from the recording eye
of the kodak fiend.
KIRGHIZ, OR FAT-RUMP, SHEEP OF CENTRAL ASIA (SEE PAGE 83)
In Syria, where the fat-tailed sheep are fed by hand, the fat of the tail forms the basis
of some of the most delicious and indigestible pastries, and the tail develops until it touches
the ground, and sometimes is so heavy that it must be supported by a trailer on wheels.
HOSPITALITY IN THE HOME OF A WEALTHY BOKHARAN
The host, on the right, owner of 800 Karakuls, spoke to the native dialect-Russian
interpreter, holding the fan, who communicated with the author through the Russian-
English interpreter, who is taking the photograph. Questions and responses went to the
host through the same channel. Some one has spoken of talking through an interpreter as
"compound fracture of speech, followed by mortification."
82
SKIN VATS FOR CURING KARAKUL SKINS I BOKHARA
Salt and barley meal are mixed with water to form the curing bath for the precious
lambskins that will later form the fashionable fur collar. It takes two weeks to cure a skin
before it can be rinsed and dried. Even after months of use, these sheepskin vats are still
soft and pliable.
retained, the observations and memory of
the shepherds must be depended upon for
knowledge of the grade of any individual.
These Kirghiz sheep, fat rumped and
tailless, and producing no fur, reach an
extraordinary size, some of the largest
weighing as much as 400 pounds. Their
flesh is of excellent quality and remark-
ably free of the often objectionable "mut-
tony taste" of western sheep. An edible
fat is the principal component of the huge
rump, which weighs many pounds and,
when cooked, is used as a substitute for
butter.
Although undoubtedly shepherd boys
do have remarkable memories of a kind,
which is probably the main stock of their
intellectual equipment, and their knowl-
edge of the parentage of any particular
Karakul is to some extent employed in
the selection of breeders, my host stated
that the breeding males and, to a less ex-
tent, the ewes to be bred are selected al-
most exclusively on the appearance of
their fur at birth. The retention of an
individual in the flock, especially a male,
depends upon the value of the pelts of
his progeny.
There does not appear to be any well-
defined Karakul breed with precise stand-
ards, as among English and American
sheep. The full-grown animal varies
greatly in size, from quite small to me-
dium, with black face and legs. The
fleece of the adult sheep is long and
coarse, the outside usually gray, and those
with the least underwool are preferred..
As a rule, the Karakul is inferior in con-
formation to the well-known breeds of
English and American sheep.
The male lambs, except those to be re-
served as breeding rams, are killed at
birth or soon after and the pelts taken.
If the pelts are not secured when the
lambs are very young, the hair loses its
curl and luster. Most of the ewe lambs
of all grades are reserved for breeding
purposes.
Baby Karakul is obtained by the killing
of old ewes just prior to the birth of
what would probably be their last lambs,
and especially if they are believed to
carry twins.
Some of the methods of obtaining
lambs just before birth are quite revolt-
ing, such as running the ewes, at the
proper stage of pregnancy, up and down
steep inclines or actually beating them, in
order to cause abortion.
Karakul sheep are found almost ex-
clusively in the emirate of Bokhara, Rus-
sian Central Asia (Turkestan).
CARAVAN OF HIDES AND KARAKUL SKINS ARRIVING AT MARKET I BOKHARA
All camel trails in the Emirate of Bokhara, like the roads to Rome, lead to the market-
place in Bokhara City, where furs are bartered for shoes, camel trappings for green tobacco,
and rugs, whose beauty is destined to grace the home of wealth, for gaudy bead necklaces.
The market-place at Bokhara is one of a vast chain of world stores where the native product
is bartered for the exotic novelty one link in the bond that is fast binding the peoples of
the world through taste for a universal bill of fare.
HIDE AND KARAKUL SKIN BAZAAR
The same hot sun of the desert that acts as a mordant for the lovely dyes of the rug-
weaver serves to perfect the pelts that are shipped from Bokhara to all parts of the world.
From here the pelts were formerly shipped to the great fall fair at Nizhni Novgorod, on the
upper Volga, but more and more the buyers are dealing with the producers in Turkestan
itself. Priceless treasures piled in dusty squares and almost ignored by those who depend
upon their sale for livelihood that is one's fleeting impression of a Bokhara market.
84
WASHING KARAKUL SKINS: BOKHARA
Karakul lambskins are commonly seen in the United States and Western Europe in the
form of overcoat collars, overcoats and wraps, and, more rarely, muffs, neck pieces, and caps
The skins are divided into several classes : Persian lamb, broadtail, Astrakhan, Shiraz
tfoknaran, and Karakul lamb. The term Astrakhan is best known, and once included all
sorts, from the flat, glossy broadtail, rippling beneath the hand like watered silk, to the hcavv
skins o cheaper grade whose curl is loose and coarse.
A WAREHOUSE OF KARAKUL SKINS I CITY OF BOKHARA
In Baku, in the soring of igi8, a good Karakul skin was worth two hundred rubles.
The rich Tatars use this skin for their papachs and officers used the lighter grades for trim-
ming their military overcoats, which were lined with sheepskin. In the Orient priceless
treasures are obscured behind mud walls, and furs that are the envy of the followers of
fashion are handled in the same impersonal way the bank cashier handles money.
85
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THE LAND OF LAMBSKINS
87
"Elsewhere the light descends from
above; in Bokhara it radiates upward,"
tradition gives as among the last words
of Mohammed as he was being translated
to heaven. Between the ninth and four-
teenth centuries Bokhara was the gather-
ing place for the most studious men of
Asia. It still has nearly a hundred col-
leges where students learn to read the
Koran, and there are more than 300
mosques. It remains a center of Islam-
itic learning, though greatly diminished
within recent years. The observer is im-
pressed with the dignity, reserve, and con-
servatism of the men. The women when
out of their abodes are invariably heavily
veiled.
A more unfavorable situation for rais-
ing live stock can hardly be conceived
than that encountered in this region.
Grass, to any extent, is available only
from the first of March, soon after the
winter breaks, till the latter part of May.
A HAPPY, PRIMITIVE PEOPLE
On the journey from the city of Old
Bokhara to the steppes to study the Kara-
kul sheep, across the Zerafshan and its
innumerable tributary irrigation ditches,
one encounters a considerable population
of apparently satisfied and happy people,
engaged for the most part in intensive
agriculture.
All work is carried on in the most
primitive fashion and with hand-made
instruments of the kinds dating back
thousands of years. One sees during the
day horse, camel, or man-motived wheels
raising the irrigating water from one
level to a higher, the cutting of alfalfa
with hand scythes and transporting it on
the backs of donkeys, the reaping of
grains, also by hand, and threshing with
flails or by the tramping of goats, camels,
and donkeys, and winnowing in the man-
ner of Biblical times.
Slow-moving, crude water-power mills
on the main canals clean the rice and
grind the grains. Occasional small flocks
of sheep and goats, chaperoned always by
some one, usually an old man or boy,
even when there are only two or three,
are seen grazing on the banks of ditches
or vacant small fields.
For many years the Russian Govern-
ment kept several of its best engineers
engaged in devising means of extending
the irrigated areas as far as the available
water allows. At the outbreak of the
war this work was making good progress
and considerable areas were being added
to cotton culture.
^ A beneficial influence was being exer-
cised on the agriculture of Turkestan
through the Department of Agriculture
at Tashkent, an excellent general experi-
ment station and the special dry-farming
station, both located near Tashkent, and
a Karakul sheep-breeding station, near
Samarkand.
The semi-official Turkestan Agricul-
tural Society was performing valuable
services to the country in studying soils,
climate, crops, introducing modern ap-
pliances, and improving the markets. I
have never become acquainted with a
more intelligently active body of men.
So far as could be observed, the ad-
ministration of the country was highly
beneficial. The Russian railways af-
forded transportation for exports and
imports, and although the natives were
badly cheated by the Western traders,
many of whom were entirely without
business ethics, their produce at least
brought them something, and they were
enabled to purchase many necessities a
situation undoubtedly greatly improved
over the times prior to the Russian occu-
pation.
Whatever may be said of the short-
comings of the former Russian Govern-
ment (and most that I have read and
heard about it does not coincide with my
observations), it appeared that the na-
tives were being aided in many ways and
under very great difficulties, with the
least possible disturbance of their re-
ligion and customs.
It must be remembered that, as in case
of most of their own races with whom
the Russian officials had to deal, these
people are extremely ignorant and at the
same time excessively conservative. It is
not claimed that conditions were ideal, or
ever promised to become so, but they
were greatly improved and showed prom-
ise of still further betterment.
Fifty- four head of Karakul sheep,
I mostly rams, have been brought from
Russia to America since 1909 by Mr.
C. C. Young. These and their offspring
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A KARAKUL LAMB NlvWLY BORN IN KANSAS, SHOWING BEAUTIFUL GLOSSY CURL
have been distributed widely over the
United States and Canada, and the rams
have been largely mated to ewes of
American breeds. Marshall estimated
that in 1915 the flocks owned in Texas,
Kansas, and New York numbered 1,000
head of grades having one-half or three-
quarters Karakul blood and 60 head of
the pure Karakuls.
Since then the numbers have certainly
increased, and some very high-grade in-
dividuals have been produced. But it
will be necessary to import a number of
new animals in order to get the industry
properly under way.
It is also desirable that some of the
fat-rump, tailless Kirghiz sheep (seepage
83) should be imported, since the suc-
cessful production of Karakul skins in
Bokhara is undoubtedly connected with,
if not entirely dependent upon, the use of
the large and vigorous Kirghiz ewes.
VOL. XXXVI, No. 2 WASHINGTON
AUGUST, 1919
TH
ATD
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
How the Sports of Nations Form a Gazetteer of the
Habits and Histories of Their Peoples
BY J. R. HlLDEBRAND
A CURIOUS paradox: the maddest
war men ever fought has had a
tendency to turn the world to
simple, wholesome play.
Your Englishman no longer makes
excuse for the time he spent at the bat
or in the saddle. Centuries of cricket,
tennis, and riding to the hounds forti-
fied his home land in time of terrible
stress. Some five million Americans,
many of them snatched from desk and
counter, are pouring back, having sensed
the tang of open sky and outdoors while
playing their games, football to ping-
pong, behind the lines, as they waited
to get into the biggest game of all.
And other men from every clime
black, yellow, and tan carry home the
games they saw these sturdy Britishers
and wiry Americans playing. The
French played, too played in a way
peculiarly expressive of their national
temperament.
GAMES A KEY TO GEOGRAPHY
Note the reverse of the picture. Ger-
many, with clanking armor and un-
sheathed sword, gone stale from over-
training for the fight she picked, may
find in her neglect of play one reason
for a colossal failure at arms and her
maladroit diplomacy.
Sports and games ever were magic
touchstones to geography and to those
allied sciences which provide the surest
clues to how peoples live, and work,
and think.
In countless ways science has learned
about climates, and products, and cus-
toms, and peoples of the past from toys,
games, and sports. An entire new field
of investigation was opened by the dis-
covery that backgammon, as played in
Burma, also was known to the pre-
Columbian Mexicans.
A new light is shed on an ancient
civilization when we learn that there
was a law among the Persians by which
all children were to be taught three
things: horsemanship, shooting with the
bow, and telling the truth.
Carthaginians and Phoenicians owed
something of their maritime glory to a
love of swimming, the sport by which
they first mastered their fear of the sea.
One wonders whether the more rapid
strides made in England toward the
political emancipation of women may
not be traceable to the ardor of British
women for outdoor exercise and sports.
Equally significant in the history of
nations is the decline of their sports.
While the Persians observed the rigid
regimen of the chase, as prescribed by
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
91
Cyrus, their armies were victorious.
While Spartan youths followed the rig-
orous discipline of Lycurgus, their city
was inviolate. Led by Alexander the
Great in ways of abnegation and exer-
cise, the Macedonians were invincible.
The Romans extended their civilization
so long as their gymnasia prepared
youths to endure long marches and bear
crushing burdens.
CLIMATE DETERMINES THE KIND OE
GAMES WE PLAY
It is fairly obvious that coasting is a
sport of the zone where snow falls, and
reasonable that those peoples most gen-
erally proficient in swimming should be
found in the equatorial islands, where
limpid waters invite surcease from the
scorching sun, but less well known, per-
haps, that card and board games devel-
oped in southern Asia, where zest for
play is just as keen, but temperature
dampens the ardor for exertion.
The reactions of geography and sport
are mutual. To the Netherlands are
traced the stilt and the skate, which even
yet have their work-a-day use in flooded
and frozen areas, but are playthings for
the rest of the world.
The Governor of Namur once made
an oracular promise to Archduke Albert
of Austria that he should see two troops
of warriors who fought neither on foot
nor horseback. The Archduke was so
impressed with the giantlike soldiers on
stilts that he exempted the city perpetu-
ally from duties on beer. Norway had
a "regiment of skaters" and Holland's
soldiers were taught to drill on ice.
THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE
Sometimes sports spread beyond na-
tional boundary lines and express the
common ideals of an age. Thus the
tournaments of the middle ages were
the normal symptoms of the adventur-
ous spirit reflected in the quests for the
Holy Grail. In that period, too, was a
striking, if pathetic, illustration of the
imitative spirit which translates the se-
rious business of adults into sport for
children.
In Franconia and Teutonia thousands
of boys, some only six years old, hoisted
banners bearing the Cross and started
for Jerusalem. Some turned back at
Mayence, some went as far as Rome,
but of the multitude that went out on
this play expedition few returned.
Games invariably adapt themselves to
the individual need for a balanced life,
mental and physical. This fact was illus-
trated by comments of civilian writers in
the war zones, who told how English-
men and Americans sought diversion in
active play, while Frenchmen relaxed in
more quiet fashion smoking, reading,
or day-dreaming by the side of a wel-
come fireplace. Many noted this as a
contradiction, in view of the supposed
sprightly temperament of our Gallic
cousins.
But a sporting writer, in an article
printed years before the World War,
relates how, "unlike his English coun-
terpart, who seeks his relaxation by at-
tending a football match and mauling the
umpire when he does not approve of a
decision, the workingman of France re-
"pairs to the comparative solitude of the
'jardin de Tare' and there practices the
peaceful sport of archery" ; to which
the writer appends this illuminating
comment: "Probably this is typical of
their different natures. The English-
man, phlegmatic during his work, seeks
excitement as a relaxation, while the
more animated Gaul needs quiet during
his leisure."
IN THE AGE OF PERSONAL COMBAT
Just as the individual adopts games
which meet his bodily need, so it seems
that national pastimes are modified to
foster and fortify the peoples who play
them.
In the age of personal combat there
were men like Milo of Crotona, a veri-
table Samson, reputed to have been able
to break a cord wound about his head by
swelling the muscles ; or Polydamas of
Thessalia, said to have slain an infuri-
ated lion, and to have been able to hold
a chariot in its place while horses tugged
at it.
Those were the times when boxing
and wrestling, most ancient of sports,
were in their heydey, though they were
not always gentlemen's diversions, reck-
93
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FIJIANS DOING A CLUB DANCIv
In this land where wives were buried with their husbands before civilized restraints were
imposed, and where cutting off a finger still is a common sign of mourning, these most cruel
and barbarous of the South Pacific islanders show a human love for song, dance, and story-
telling. Their famous club dance is a martial exercise, with a low comedy motif, and the
costumes of the picture are supposed to be extremely clownish.
oned by modern standards. Homer de-
scribed the set-to between Epeus and
Euryalus, wherein the latter was carried
away, insensible, "his legs hanging pow-
erless, his head dropping on his shoulder,
and dark blood flowing from his mouth."
Even that combat was mild compared
to the fistic encounter of Kreugas of
Epidamnus and Damoxene, an historic
"heavy-weight slugger" of Syracuse.
Kreugas landed a hammerlike left on
his opponent's pate, but Damoxene coun-
tered with a mighty clout of his right to
his adversary's stomach. His nails were
long and his hand bound with thongs. It
is recorded that the Damoxene terror's
fist "sunk into the entrails, pulled them
forth, and scattered them upon the arena,
the poor wretch, of course, dying on the
spot."
When missile-throwing became the
technique of warfare the Italian city
97
99
100
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
KNUCKLES DOWN !
Photograph by Harry F. Blanchard
youth reduced stone-throwing to a fine
art, and in winter made use of snowballs
on fete days. In Perugia as many as
2,000 would engage in this game. Defen-
sive armor was worn, but many fatalities
resulted. Mothers and wives protested,
it is safe to assume; but there, as in
Sparta, heed to feminine counsels was
held to be unmanly.
Old English statutes furnish evidence
of the encouragement of archery, and
the reason therefor may be found in
the fact that the Battle of Hastings saw
the Saxons panic-stricken at the effective
use of the longbow by the Normans, al-
though later, at Poitiers and Agincourt,
Englishmen won lasting fame by their
employment of that weapon.
Charlemagne sought to popularize ar-
chery; Edward III forbade all other
sports on holidays and Sundays, thus
making the pastime subserve universal
military training.
BY THEIR PLAY YE SHALL KNOW THEM
It almost seems as if by a people's
sports you shall know them. Taine
thought literature was a sure criterion.
But literature is not always precisely
expressive, because it may become over-
self conscious under the influence of a
Dryden; or it may bend to winds of
fashion, driving a Shaw to preach soci-
ology in plays and a Browning to teach
philosophy in verse; and nearly always
it seeks out the exceptional, sometimes
focusing a people all awry, as if heroic
France were to be adjudged through
some of her erotic fiction.
Play is more spontaneous. There is a
wealth of suggestion in the fact that bull-
fighting in its most cruel form was an ob-
session in the years when the Council of
Blood was making revolting sport of hu-
man life in the Netherlands. Charles V,
by no means a robust monarch, felt called
upon to celebrate the birth of his son,
Philip II, by slaying a bull. .It was that
same son who sent the Duke of Alva.
upon his barbarous mission to the North
Country.
One could all but write the history of
classic Greece from a knowledge of its
games, and tell something of its philos-
ophy, too. Plato, in our time, while not
engaged on a Chautauqua circuit, would
be urging municipal playgrounds and
swimming pools.
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
101
Photograph by R. R. Sallows
THIS SPORT WAS TOO BIG FOR ANY SMALL BOY TO RESIST
The prospective victim being the largest man in Goderich, Canada, who weighed 460 pounds.
"Every well-constituted republic," he
said, "ought, by offering prizes to the
conquerors, to encourage all such exer-
cises as tend to increase the strength and
agility of the body." He advocated State
provision for teaching girls to dance and
the use of arms for self-defense
THE) PLAY SPIRIT AS A PIONEER FOR
PROGRESS
A Hawker sets out to fly across the
Atlantic as a sporting proposition and
helps chart the course that soon will be
plied by air carriers of work-a-day com-
merce. Whirring motors churn about a
banked speedway as thousands sense the
zest of a breathless and death-defying
game, but the play spirit which the con-
test arouses the spirit that ever drove
men to higher attainment generates the
stimulus for bringing nearer to perfec-
tion man's new-found servant, the auto-
mobile. Benjamin Franklin, employing
a boy's familiar plaything, snatched from
the clouds a secret that outdoes the
pranks of a magic carpet.
102
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
103
Invention of the rubber bladder made
football popular, of the gutta-percha ball
added immensely to golf, and of the
encased sphere made tennis a keener
sport; and so the story might continue
to the mighty industries that provide the
amusement to be had from motion-pic-
ture play or from phonograph record.
COLONEL ROOSEVELT'S INFLUENCE: ON
SPORTS
Theodore Roosevelt's influence is gen-
erally accounted in social, political, eco-
nomic, and literary fields ; yet time may
show that one of the most profound
lessons he impressed upon American
people was a deeper regard for health-
ful, vigorous, strenuous outdoor sport.
The story of how the weakling Roose-
velt went to the open places of the West
and played at broncho-busting and cattle-
herding, and later relaxed in African
jungle from seven years in the hardest
job in the world, is an oft-told tale.
Such an uprooting of one's life, thanks
to our national parks, is not necessary
today. More and more is it the habit
of young men and old to seek the
health-giving recreations to be had in
Uncle Sam's matchless play places.
Walking is one of the most healthful
and invigorating of all pastimes and free
to every one. Yet it is much neglected
by Americans. Perhaps the automobile
is to blame, in some degree ; but the fact
that walking is deliberate and lacking in
that element so dear to the American
heart, competition, also must be taken
into account.
To the seasoned pedestrian "joy rid-
ing" cannot compare with "joy walking."
The latter affords the devotee intellec-
tual delights that neither speed nor
rivalry can offer. To him walking is
truly a royal road to learning a ma-
triculation in the God-given university of
nature. To walk is to open the book of
natural wonders to see the flowers and
the trees, to hear and know the birds and
all the voices of the outdoors symphony.
Then, too, there is a walk for every
mood and temper. Gladstone loved to
walk in the rain ; Browning delighted to
stroll by night; Charles Lamb turned to
the crowds of busy streets, while Words-
worth stole away to the silent places.
That protean sportsman, Theodore
Roosevelt, counted walking among his
favorite recreations, and found a plunge
through untraveled woods, across
streams, up and down the hills, strenu-
ous enough for him. Former President
Taft likes walking, but prefers the sights
of the city streets.
Europeans have a higher regard for
walking than most Americans. Viscount
Bryce, when ambassador at Washington,
by his daily tramps learned to know the
environs of the National Capital as do
few of the residents. He frequently
.covered 15 or 20 miles in an afternoon.
SPORTS BEHIND THE LINES HELPED TO
WIN THE WORLD WAR
The World War has helped stress a
higher claim for sport, more potent than
the fact that plays and games register
the habits and habitats of bygone peo-
ples or that they stimulate mechanical
invention ; for it has proved that sport
conditions the moral fiber of a people
and tempers those mental qualities that
advance civilization.
Right up to 1914 it was almost bro-
midic to laugh at the Englishman for
putting his recreations in his "Who's
Who," alongside of matters considered
more weighty; for publishing massive
tomes and cyclopedias of sport ; for
waging mighty word battles in print
over the relative merits of the breech-
loader and muzzle-loader for shooting
grouse. Now the world knows that the
Derby at Epsom, the cricket at Rugby,
and the fox-hunts of Northamptonshire
had everything to do with the bulldog
determination with which he "carried
on" one heartbreaking summer after
another against vicious Hun onslaughts
in Flanders.
It is significant that the wise men of
Washington, London, and Paris made
every effort in war time to maintain
the amusements of the people. "Millions
for morale," a familiar American slogan,
was another way of saying "millions for
play." At the government's behest, one
welfare organization alone sent 25,000
baseballs and 15,000 baseball bats to
France before half our men had arrived
there.
Even the sport-loving Britons are said
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RAPID ACTION I INTERNATIONAL POLO
The exciting moment pictured here affords an extraordinary study of equine feet. The
hind feet of the center horse are both off the ground and the pony in the foreground is giving
a splendid demonstration of ankle action. In his sudden stop, two of his four fetlocks are
touching the ground.
Photograph by National Photograph Co.
WHERE THE HORSE STILL HOLDS HIS OWN
Throughout the ages the horse has stood second only to the. dog as man's best friend and
playmate. Feats of horsemanship date back to the first "thoroughbreds" of Arabia, which,
according to Moslem tradition, were descended from horses that Solomon bestowed upon the
Arabs. Modern racing had its beginning with the charioteers of the Olympiad. Only in
recent times has horse-racing in the western world been associated with gambling. In the
Middle Ages tennis was played for heavy stakes, and a Puritan writer of Elizabeth's time,
who excoriates most other sports, commends horse-racing as "yielding good exercise."
104
ONE: REASON WHY FRENCH CHILDREN ADORED THE BOYS IN KHAKI
This was one of a series of "tank sports," which had no reference to the British tanks,
though they were about as rough.
to have admired and wondered at the
American dough-boy, whacking out
three-baggers amid the booming of Big
Berthas, issuing occasional rain-checks
in mid-inning when the downpour of
bursting shell became too distracting.
In one cramped trench, so the story
goes, was a quartet of Yanks who ex-
hibited the same spirit in playing "five
hundred;" in others it was poker or
"rummy." A whizzing shell all but
ripped off the thatched roof. Drawled
a lank, prairie-bred Yank: "Gosh, if
Fritz does that again, I'll trump my
partner's ace."
Not that taking one's games to war
is an American invention; the Yanks
merely did it on a larger scale. Drake
insisted on finishing a game of bowls
before going out to encounter the Span-
ish Armada. Englishmen played cricket
at Ladysmith while the enemy shells
burst above them. When the sea was
calm, Captain Cook, on his long voyages,
made his men dance the hornpipe to
keep in trim.
Qualities of initiative and courage and
endurance implanted upon American
gridiron and diamond shone with glori-
ous luster at Cantigny, at Chateau-
Thierry, and in the Argonne. That is
why one of the most valuable by-
products of this crucible of suffering
will be a realization in this country that
the sinews which won the war are just
as needful for the rigorous, bloodless
battles of peace.
AMERICA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
WORLD'S PLAY
Back home, before the war, America
had contributed two new things to sport :
baseball and the city playground.
It has been noted that sports of a
nation afford an almost invariable ba-
rometer of its progress in civilization.
Baseball is one of the most complicated
and highly organized pastimes known to
any people. It is a veritable instrument
of the most delicate precision in the
world of sport. A South Sea islander
no more could play it than he could
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SKIING DE) LUXE) AT ST. MORITZ
G. R. Ballancc
Long the auto of Scandinavians, the ski, like the skate and the stilt, had a military use,
Had there been a league of north European nations some centuries ago, its international
army, passing in review, would/ have disclosed a Swedish ski regiment, a skating battalion
from Norway, and Hollanders on stilts.
operate a linotype machine or deftly
handle the paper money in a bank teller's
cage.
Yet the instincts baseball satisfies the
zest of racing to a goal ahead of the ball,
the deep satisfaction of diverting a swiftly
moving object to serve his own ends, the
mere impact of the speeding sphere
against the instrument he controls, bag-
ging the spheroid as it flies afield, the
suspense of nine men as they await the
batter's fate each and all find their
counterpart in play as old as animals
that walk on two feet and have enough
gray matter atop their spinal columns to
control nature's laws for their human
purposes.
The foot-race ever was the most popu-
lar of the twenty-four Olympian events.
The Romans batted balls with the fore-
arm swathed with bandages, and the Gil-
bert islanders wrap cocoanut shells with
cord so they will rebound to a blow from
the open palm; Homer's princess of
Phaeacia is represented in the Odyssey as
jumping to catch a ball tossed by her
maids of honor; and the Chinese had a
game in which a suspended ball was
kept hurtling to and fro by blows from
the players. Perhaps there was more
sport than economy in the old Dutch
habit that Washington Irving tells about,
of having a lump of sugar swinging
above the dinner table from which vari-
ous guests at a New Amsterdam banquet
took successive nibbles.
Some historians assert that the Greek
games formed the foundation for the
lucid thinking and the lofty art con-
cepts that made her product classic.
Yet the Olympian and the Pythian games
at their best afforded no such spontane-
ous, and at the same time intricate, inter-
play of muscle and mind as baseball.
Throwing, catching, and running are
as old as man ; but it took the American
genius for play, no less distinctive than
the American genius for science, indus-
109
Photograph by Kenneth D. Smith
YOU CUP THE CLOUDS AND SEEM TO GROW WINGS
A Dartmouth College athlete making a ski jump of about 75 or 80 feet, in perfect form.
no
THE WORLD'S MOST FAMOUS TOBOGGAN SLIDE
G. R. Ballance
This is Cresta Run, at St. Moritz, Switzerland, known as "battledore and shuttlecock"
because the coaster is tossed about by a series of corners, curves, and grades, no two of
which are alike.
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THE WANDERUJSTERS
Photographs by W. R. Ross
WASHINGTON'S WALKING CLUB
Exercise need not be strenuous to be invigorating. These city folk are enjoying the
world's oldest and most democratic sport, traversing a few of the beauty spots that abound
in the environs of the National Capital (see also page 103).
114
Photograph by R. R. Sallows
THE BOYS' EXCUSE; WAS, "SOMEBODY STOLE OUR CLOTHES!"
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THE: SCISSORS DIVE:
Every Roman girl was a Kellermann, from Martial's description of water games and
fetes, wherein maidens would "sport in a chariot like that of the fabled nereids and group
themselves in the most varied designs"; and diving was an essential industry among the
Syrians, who went out in fleets to dive for sponges, as do the old salts of Gloucester, Mass.,
to fish.
119
OFF
Swimming was included in a Roman woman's education. But of all swimmers perhaps
the pre-Columbian Indians were the most proficient One explorer reported, perhaps with
some exaggeration, that the Brazilian and Peruvian natives would remain in the water eight
days at a time. Photographs by Paul Thompson.
120
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
121
try, and commerce, to
weld these motifs into
a game that puts a
premium on skill, yet
admits of infinite va-
riety ; that rawest
youth or trained ath-
lete may play; and
that Presidents and
office boys steal away
to watch.
THE PLAYGROUND'S
BIRTHPLACE
If the Greeks paved
the way for classic
art by teaching adults
to play and Great
Britain followed in
her fcctsteps with a
more spontaneous and
democratic f e r v o r,
America now appears
as the most forward-
looking nation in her
attention to children's
playgrounds. In fact,
the playgrounds for
children may be con-
sidered the distinctive
contribution of this
country to the world's
play.
To gather statistics
of play is like count-
ing the sands of the
sea or the children of
the nation ; but it is
significant of the
awakening interest in
play to note that in
1918 more than 400
cities maintained
nearly 4,000 p 1 a y-
grounds, and the chil-
dren who found relaxation on 340 of
these playgrounds from which reports
were had on any one day would have
numbered scarcely less than the total
population of Boston.
Moreover, this was but a fraction of
the opportunities for normal play, for it
does not take into account the thousands
of boys' clubs and provisions for their
special clientele which churches, parishes,
private schools, and organizations like the
Photograph by Paul Thompson
TAKING A HEADER AT A FANCY DIVING MEET
An officer of Captain Cook's crew tells how, on a trip to the South
Sea Islands, he handed some beads to a six-year-old youngster and
they fell into the water. The child plunged from her canoe after
them. Other trinkets were thrown into the water and the native
men and women dived for them, showing such skill and staying
under the water so long that the English "could scarcely help re-
garding them as amphibious."
Y. M. C. A., Boy Scouts, Knights of
Columbus, and numerous others make.
One of the most characteristic adjuncts
of the American school, city, town, or
country district is its playground ; and
few are the city parks where the old
"Keep Off the Grass" signs have not been
superseded by invitations to play, and
special provisions for games.
There is nothing artificial about the
games taught to children on American
122
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Paul Thompson
'ALL SKT
Despite our prowess in athletics, swimming is one field in which the palm must be con-
ceded the ancients, if credence be given the marvelous tales of their aquatic feats. Plutarch
tells how Antony engaged divers to attach fish to his hooks so he might impress his picnic
companion, Cleopatra; but that shrewd lady engaged other divers the following day, and
Antony found himself pulling in stale, salted fish amid peals of laughter from the Alexandria
belle. Three of the world's speediest swimmers are shown set for a race, the one on the
right being a Hawaiian champion.
playgrounds. They are products of a
rich heritage of play tradition. Neither
written history nor the faint traces of
prehistoric times carry us back to a
period when children did not play.
THE TESTIMONY OP TOMBS
Excavators in Central America found
tiny rattles of bone and clay, as old as
the pyramids of Egypt, in graves along-
side baby skeletons. In Attica's tombs
were uncovered dolls of pre-classic days,
made of ivory and terra cotta. Little
Hippodamia had a miniature bed, with
slats, for his dolls. Roman children's
toys were held in such high esteem by
their elders that when the children grew
too old for them they were offered to
patron gods. Even today a similar as-
sociation of religious ceremony and
games is preserved, only it is with the
acquisition of the toys, and not with their
disposition, that Christmas and Easter
are connected.
For one who would study the deriva-
tion of games, the average playground,
no matter how crude, is a veritable mu-
seum of archaeology. Tools and weapons
of one age frequently become the play-
things of the next; and centuries later,
when adults have deserted the sport,
children adopt it.
Many sports today are the survivals of
obsolete industries. The canoe was the
Indian's common carrier, and the Tierra
del Fuego women who paddled their
craft astern while their masters fished
from the prows, and plunged into icy
waters to anchor their barks, were pio-
neers of women in business and far from
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
123
Photograph by Kenneth Kerr
AN ESKIMO IDEA OF A GOOD TIME
No, the lady is not being punished for witchcraft ; she merely is being crowned Queen
of Love and Beauty by an Alaskan swain. The photograph was taken by a missionary at
Point Barrow. There it is the custom for the Eskimo whaler making the biggest catch to'
be honored by the tossing of a woman in a blanket. Formerly this ceremony was observed
after a victory in battle. The blanket is held taut by Eskimo boys and men. The more blase
belles always land on their feet ; but a subdebutante is likely to have her head turned or her
neck broken if this honor is too suddenly thrust upon her.
paddlers or divers for sport's sake. The
Samoans who fashioned pearl shells to
resemble small fish and attached tiny
feathers for the fins may have been the
precursors of fly fishers but their liveli-
hood depended upon the catch.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GAME-HUNTING
Game-hunting marked an important
development in the life of primitive
races. The Indian who stalked deer, the
Semang black man who tracked snakes,
the naked savage who hunted the rhi-
noceros, snared wild birds at their drink-
ing places, and trapped the tiger were
not out for a summer's sport.
Methods of hunting were exceedingly
primitive at first, but some tribes early
developed an amazing technique. The
Eskimo would wrap himself in skins and
lie by the hour alongside an ice-hole to
harpoon a seal. The Tarahmares of
Mexico felled trees by the score to get
squirrels occasionally caught as the trees
fell.
More ingenious were the Tasnianians,
who would clear a forest oasis by burn-
ing, wait for the grasses to grow and
attract animals, and then would set fire
to a barricade of brush they arranged in
the meantime, with exits near which
they would take their stand and spear
the frightened animals as they sought to
escape.
Malay wild men killed elephants by
lying in wait until an animal descended
a hill, and then they would drive a poi-
soned bamboo splinter into its heel.
Some African tribe c men camouflaged
their spear-heads with bird feathers.
124
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A BOXING BOUT ON A U. S. TRAINING SHIP
Fuegians attained a low visibility by
daubing themselves with mud and clay.
Florida Indians donned skin and horns
of deer to enable them to approach their
prey.
Ways of setting traps for animals and
of poisoning spears were known thou-
sands of years before Christ. The
sportsmanlike Greeks shrank from use of
poisoned darts in warfare for the same
reason that they regarded archery as a
savage practice in combat. Even in
war they declined to use instruments
which would give one side an unfair ad-
vantage.
It was long before the horse, ridden
so skilfully by the Arab and the Moor,
became either a beast of burden or man's
plaything at the races. And whatever
the civilized opinion of bull-fighting, that
sport is a far cry from either the combat
to death of human beings or the lack-
sport diversion of watching two animals
tear each other to pieces. The Span-
iard will defend his national pastime by
citing that the matador runs a far
greater risk than the hunter of the big-
gest game, with the advantage of his
firearms.
Horse-racing is another sport that
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
125
Photograph from Mabel D. Merrill
PERSIAN WRESTLERS
From the Nilesian country, where tombs bear pictures of ancient wrestling, this patriarch
of sports spread to many lands, and varies in its style and rules from the jiu-jitsu of Japan
to the "catch-as-catch-can" >iode, as reported by that veteran sporting writer, Homer, when
he wrote, "He lifts Ulysses, \Vho, having now recourse to his extraordinary skill, kicks Ajax
in the hamstring and makes him bend the knee. Ajax falls upon his back, dragging with
him his adversary."
dates back to remote antiquity. Prob-
ably the French were the pioneers in turf
sport as practiced in modern times, but
it was natural that the English, with
their love of outdoors and of animals,
should have cultivated the horse for the
race as they did the dog- for the hunt.
James I seems to have been the first
royal patron of racing and Queen Anne
further encouraged it.
Even the austere Cromwell could not
part with his brood mares. One of them
was concealed in a vault by the court
master of the stud at the time of the
Restoration, when diligent search was
made to confiscate the Protector's per-
sonal property. Thus the animal became
known in tradition and picture as the
"coffin mare."
Boxing and wrestling are the more
humanized forms of individual contests
of strength. Naturally the programs of
the Olympic games, veritable encyclope-
dias of ancient sports, included boxing
and wrestling. Moreover the Greeks had
one game, the pancrace, which combined
both.
Wrestling, at least, is much older than
Greece, as indicated by the bouts pic-
tured on tombs along the Nile.
In Greece, boxing fell into disfavor
in Sparta for an unusual reason. The
Greeks had developed sportsmanlike rules
for the game, eliminating kicking, biting,
and ear-pulling, and the bout closed when
one boxer admitted his defeat. Lycur-
gus held it improper for any Spartan to
acknowledge defeat, even in a game !
The Japanese have been devoted to
both sports for ages. Sukune, Hacken-
schmidt of Nippon, in the days when
John was foretelling the coming of
Christ, was deified, and from wrestling
jiu-jitsu evolved. Boxing today is ex-
tremely popular throughout the empire.
Jack Broughton, English "father of
126
127
128
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ompson
THE FINISH OF A YALE-HARVARD BOAT RACE
NEW LONDON
Rowing is one of the oldest known means of transportation and the newest form of
racing. Trials of speed on the water were not common until a little more than a century
ago, and to that fact is ascribed the slight advance of vessels of that day over those of
ancient times. But as soon as boat and oar making were touched by the magic wand of
sporting competition, radical improvements resulted.
boxing" as it is practiced today, is be-
lieved to have invented the modern box-
ing glove and the division into rounds,
but he scorned to train in order to meet
a butcher named Slack, who belied his
name, with a blow like a cleaver, and
put the idol of British sportdom in the
ex-champion class.
Slack's "punch" recalls the story of
the mighty swing of Glaucus, a Greek
farmer boy, whose father, after he saw
him use his bare hand to pound his plow-
share into place, thought him fit material
for Mount Olympus. Matched with an
adversary skilled in the fine technique
of Greek boxing, Glaucus waxed de-
cidedly "groggy" until, so the story
goes, his father shouted "Strike, my son,
as you did on the plow;" whereat the
lad from the farm lulled his opponent
to a swift sleep with a hammerlike blow.
Avoidance of brutality in even the
most grueling of the early Greek con-
tests is indicated by the heavy penalty
a contestant was compelled to pay if he
inflicted death upon his opponent, and
again in a peculiar style of boxing,
which consisted almost wholly in defen-
sive tactics. There is a legend concern-
ing Hippomaches, who defeated three
opponents successively by sheer attrition
and left the field without having inflicted
a single blow.
FOOTBALL WAS A ROUGH GAME EVEN IN
ELIZABETH'S DAY
Running, throwing, hitting, and kick-
ing are the fundamental muscular op-
erations of America's characteristic
sports baseball, football, tennis, and
golf. The peoples of antiquity mani-
fested all these instincts in cruder form.
Luzon hillmen, the Polynesians, and
the Eskimo and Sumatra islanders had
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
129
Photograph by Paul Thompson
THESE; BATTER-DAY APOIXOS ARE FIT SUBJECTS FOR THE CHISEL OF A RODIN
games played by kicking a ball. Greeks
played it, and the Roman game, harpas-
tum, derived its name from the Greek
"I seize," which is evidence that carrying
the ball was practiced then. With shoes
of hide, the medieval Italians played a
game which seems the direct ancestor
of the Anglo-Saxon college sport. Gae-
lic scholars point to a football game in
Ireland before the time of Christ, and
until comparatively recent times Shrove
Tuesday was distinctively an occasion
for football as is our Thanksgiving
today.
In old England football was even
rougher than most sports of those hardy
times. James I thought it was "meeter
for lameing than making able the users
thereof." Henry VIII and Elizabeth
ruled against it. Edward II frowned
upon it for its interference with archery
and also because of the commotion it
aroused. In those times it was played in
the city streets. A writer of the sixteenth
century called it a "devilish pastime'' and
charged it with inciting "envy and some-
times brawling, murther. and homicide."
Nevertheless, by the time of Charles II
football had become firmly established at
Cambridge. It was ever held in high
CHAMPION HIGH JUMPER OF AFRICA
The East African native here shown is jumping from a small termite heap a foot high. The
best jumpers of his region attain astounding heights of 8 feet 5 inches.
130
Photographs by Paul Thompson
CAUSTHENIC DRILL OF I7,OOO TURNERS IN LEIPSIC
131
132
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Edwin Levick
A PHENOMENA!, SERVICE STROKE
A former United States national tennis
champion in action.
esteem in Ireland. There, when all other
sports were prohibited for archery's sake,
"onely the great footballe" was exempt.
Women joined with the men in playing it
on Shrove Tuesdays. So many partici-
pated that few knew the whereabouts of
the ball. An expedient, which not so long
ago aroused a furore in the American
sporting world, was adopted by a player,
who shook out the shavings with which
the balls of those days were stuffed and
carried it under his shirt to the goal.
Abandoned as a general pastime be-
cause of its roughness, it was retained in
colleges until, within the past half cen-
tury, it sprang into renewed- popularity
in greatly modified form.
The British carried football into Jeru-
salem when they recovered the sacred
city. Missionaries have taught it to
heathen tribes.
The reason why it has become a hand-
maiden of civilization and is so popular
among college men of America was sum-
marized by Howard S. Bliss, writing
about the Syrian Protestant college at
Beirut, of which he was president, in an
article for the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE :
"You will find the son of a prince play-
ing football under the captaincy of a peas-
ant or the son of a cook. We believe in
football there and we have 17 or 18 dif-
ferent football teams in college. The
game develops the ability to receive a
hard blow without showing the white
feather or drawing a dagger. This
means that when the men get out of col-
lege they will stand upon their feet as
men.
THE ANCESTRY OF TENNIS
Likewise one must go back to the
Greeks and Romans for the origin of ten-
nis, which descended to England by way
of France. In the twelfth century a game
with ball and plaited gut bat was played
on horseback. Then came "La boude," in
which the horses were abandoned. This
was a "royal game," at least from the time
that Louis X died after excessive playing
had induced chills. Chaucer wrote : "But
canstow playen racket to and fro," while
the church found it necessary to prohibit
priests on the continent from spending
too much time upon it.
Margot was the Molla Bjurstedt of the
twelfth century, famed especially for her
back handstroke. Henry VIII of Eng-
land was a youthful devotee, while Louis
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
133 ,
Photograph by Edwin Levick
THE GAME WHERE EVERY MUSCLE COUNTS
Few sports call into play so many muscles or combine mental and muscular activity to
such a degree as tennis. Evidence that Romans soon forsook the Greek ideal of a sound mind
in a sound body is found in the fact that Horace and Virgil could not join their patron,
Maecenas, at tennis because of weak eyes and poor digestions. It was a truly royal game
when kings of France and England played it ; and it typified the democracy of the New World
when ambassadors, generals, politicians, and cowboys joined Roosevelt's famous "tennis
cabinet" back of the White House executive offices.
XIV's heavy expense accounts show sal-
aries paid to caretakers of his courts.
Complaint was heard at one time that
there were "more tennis players in Paris
than drunkards in England." In Shake-
speare's Henry V are these lines:
"When we have match'd our rackets to these
balls
We will, in France, by God's grace play a set
Shall strike his father's crown into the
hazard."
Manufacture of the accessories of the
game became so flourishing an industry
in England in the sixteenth century that
appeal was made for a protective tariff
against imported balls.
Until that century the hand continued
to be used for batting, but soon the racket
came into general use. A match, probably
played on a Windsor Castle court, is re-
corded in which the King of Castile gave
his opponent "fifteen" because the latter
used his hand.
Even tennis, like all medieval sport, was
not free from the taint of gambling and
charlatanism. It was charged that "cer-
tayne craftie persons arranged for crack
Lombard players to meet Henry VIII."
The monarch was induced to make
wagers with these players until, losing
large sums, he became suspicious and
played only with amateurs. In one
famous match the Emperor Maximilian
was his partner, the two playing against
the Prince of Orange and the Marquis of
Brandenborow.
HAD ITS BEGINNING ON ICE
If tennis has a royal lineage, golf,
which was later regarded as a rich man's
135
SAFE:!
SLIDING HOME
Photographs by Paul Thompson
136
A BUNKER SHOT
Photograph by Edwin L,evick
NAVY TRYING FOR A FlEXD GOAI, PLACE KICK
King James found football "meeter for lameing than making able the users thereof,"
and another writer charged the game with inciting "brawling, murther, and homicide." Small
wonder, for entire towns engaged in it, and the whereabouts of the ball was of minor conse-
quence. It remained for American colleges to put the ball back into football and take enough
of the "kick" out to make it a red-blooded and humane sport (see page 129).
137
138
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139
140
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Dean C. Worcester
THE BONTOC IGOROT SLAPPING GAME OF THE PHILIPPINES
There are two contestants in this remarkable pastime. One man sits on a bench with
the thigh exposed to his opponent, who administers a blow with the flat of his hand with all
the strength he can muster. After the stroke, judges examine the thigh of the man who has
been struck. If the blow has been sufficiently hard to cause the blood to show beneath the
skin, the striker has won the game, but if not then the opponents change places. The first
contestant who causes the blood to show beneath the other's skin is declared the winner.
Note the knots of muscle that spring out on the striker's arm, back, and legs as he strikes.
game, had most plebeian beginnings.
Contrary to a widespread belief, it seems
not to have originated in Scotland, but in
northern Europe. Apparently it was first
played on ice, being one of the winter
sports adapted to the physical geography
of the Low Countries. Even in the north,
though, it evolved to a terra firma stage,
as indicated by a sketch in a book illu-
minated at Bruges, which shows three
players, each with a ball and one club,
playing on turf.
By the fifteenth century golf had at-
tained such vogue in Scotland that it
threatened the cherished archery, and it is
classed with "lute-ball" and other "un-
profitabll sportis" by James IV. That
monarch, however, seems to have disre-
garded his own edict, as did enough other
Scotchmen to keep the game alive.
Like tennis, golf was played by both
sexes. Critics of Mary Stuart cited in
evidence that her husband's fate weighed
so lightly upon her heart that she was
seen playing the game in the fields near
Seton.
To the Romans also is ascribed a
game that suggests modern golf. It was
played with a feather-stuffed ball, and
called "paganica," because the common
people played it another evidence of the
game's lowly origin.
THE BOND OF PLAY
America's love of play is a distinctive
part of her Anglo - Saxon heritage.
Where two or more English-speaking
people get together, be it in Bagdad or
Buenos Aires, their common tongue
makes the point of contact, but it gener-
ally is their love of active play that forms
the tie that binds their comradeship.
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GAMES
141
Photograph by G. N. Collins
SIBERIAN NATIVE SPINNING THE GYROSCOPIC TOP
Two of the inexplicable facts of science are that the primitive tribes of Liberia should
have discovered the principle of the gyroscope long before it was known to civilized peoples,
and that the Australian natives, who have not even advanced to the agricultural stage, should
wield the boomerang, involving another principle of advanced physics, in a manner that white
men cannot equal. The Liberian keeps his top spinning in the air for any desired time by
repeated strokes with the small whip in his right hand.
Certain oriental dignitaries visited
London some years ago and were deeply
impressed by their lavish entertainment.
One thing puzzled them. Inquired one,
when his curiosity got the better of his
restraint, "Why make the women of your
own families dance and why play so
many games yourselves? We can get
dancing girls and minstrels to entertain
us ?" Nearer neighbors than that never
can understand why Englishmen and
Americans play so hard.
No explaining is needed among Anglo-
Saxons for mountain-climbing, baseball,
walking, or other active exercise. Colo-
nial Americans brought the sports of
England with them. George Washing-
ton's diaries attest his love of hunting
Photograph from Central News
PARACHUTING FROM AN AIRPLANE, WOMAN'S LATEST SPORT
Descent by parachute from the old-fashioned hot-air balloon used to inspire awesome
"Ahs !" from the assembled thousands at county fairs and on circus grounds, but floating to
earth after "cutting loose" from a gently swaying bag provided a far less exciting sensation
than the sudden drop from a swift-flying airplane, such as this daring aviatrix is experienc-
ing. The parachute of modern aviation is the aerial navigator's life-belt. When the great
British dirigible R-34 made its epochal transatlantic flight a few weeks ago, every officer and
member of the crew was provided with one of these emergency .devices, and by this means
one of the officers descended from a height of 2,000 feet to superintend the anchoring of the
craft at Mineola, Long Island. It is not improbable that the airship inspection service of the
future will be rigorous in its insistence that every passenger on a transoceanic aerial express
shall be provided with a parachute, just as today ocean-going vessels are required to provide
a life-preserver and seating place in a lifeboat for each person on board.
142
Photograph by International Film Service
THE NEWEST SPORT: AERIAL ACROBATICS
Standing on the top plane of one "ship," a very military aviator is seen here waiting
to grasp the rope ladder suspended from another machine a feat which he successfully
accomplished recently after several attempts. Transferring from one airplane to another
while both are speeding a hundred miles an hour should furnish "the thrill that comes once
in a lifetime."
and he, like Grover Cleveland, enjoyed
fishing.
Most great Americans have played.
Benjamin Franklin, who prized his min-
utes and his pennies, was as enthusiastic
a sportsman as that other versatile Amer-
ican, Theodore Roosevelt. Franklin was
an expert swimmer, as well as a pioneer
fresh-air advocate, and once seriously
considered an offer to become a swim-
ming instructor. Lincoln has been widely
acclaimed for burning the midnight pine
knots; but he has received too scant
credit for his daily practice of wrestling
and running which developed his mar-
velous endurance and capacity for werk.
143
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WEAVERS OF THE WORLD
A GIRL OF THE HARDANGER REGION, NORWAY
The people of this part of Scandinavia have to a large extent retained their medieval style of dress.
The women wear a black skirt with a long white, deeply embroidered apron and a white waist with a
short velvet jacket embroidered in intricate design with brightly colored beads. Married women
wear a white cap which almost entirely conceals the hair, and bridal crowns are passed from mother
to daughter. These women excel in embroidery and weaving.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE DISTAFF OF THE SPINSTER IN THE DOURO DISTRICT, NORTHERN
PORTUGAL
^ The spindle and the distaff are still employed here for producing the best linen thread used in the
beautiful laces for which Portugal is famed. Woolen yarn for the family clothing is also spun by this
primitive -method. Rustic life in Portugal is not a dull, dreary grind, for each epoch of the farming
year is celebrated with a festa, and of fairs and such gatherings there is no end.
II
WEAVERS OF THE WORLD
WEAVING THE MULTI-HUED NAVAJO BLANKET: SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES
Such a primitive loom as this is said by ethnologists to have originated with _the Chilkat
Indians of Alaska. This tribe still produces some wonderful blankets, but those of the Navajos of the
Southwest are better known to the world at large. The warp is hung over a long pole, as shown in
the picture, and mythological figures are woven into the piece in brilliant colors.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
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VI
WEAVERS OF THE WORLD
VII
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
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VIII
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE
FIRMAMENT
BY WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER
AUTHOR OK "CHICAGO TODAY AND TOMORROW," "NEW YORK, THE METROPOLIS OF MANKIND," "STEEL,
INDUSTRY'S GREATEST ASSET," "How THE WORLD is FED," ETC.
DEALING with distances in the
endless reaches of space where
a million miles are but as an
inch in terrestrial measurements ; study-
ing worlds that are as much larger than
ours as a mountain is bigger than an
ant-hill ; gauging the velocities of celes-
tial travelers that outfly the speediest
Spad that ever chased a Hun as an ex-
press train outruns a snail ; reckoning
with forces that make the tremendous
eruptions of a Katmai seem weaker than
the bursting of a mustard seed, the as-
tronomer is an explorer of realms that
overpower the layman's comprehension
and overwhelm his imagination.
But luckily this layman can check up
the celestial geographer in a way at once
dramatic and convincing. The grapes
brought back by Joshua when he was
sent to spy out the Promised Land were
not half as sure a corroboration of his
story as are the fulfilled prophecies the
astronomer brings back from his incur-
sions into the depths of space.
He tells of stars that are trillions
aye, sextillions of miles away; of suns
that are hundreds, and even thousands,
of times as bright as the orb of our
day; of forces that are thousands, and
even millions, of times as great as the
power with which the earth sweeps
round the sun.
ASTRONOMER AT THE BAR
Does he know what he is talking
about ? Let us put him on trial and see.
Our witnesses shall be heavenly bodies
and forces themselves. The first one we
shall call, out of the thousands who could
testify, is a comet Halley's. Here is its
evidence ;
"Yes, I'm a comet. For countless
generations I had been swinging through
space. When I approached the earth
men believed me a messenger of evil.
They knew precious little about me or
my kind. In 1682 I appeared on one
of my excursions into realms bounded by
the earth's orbit. A little before that Sir
Isaac Newton had worked out the funda-
mental principle of celestial mechanics,
namely, the law of gravitation.
"He had a friend by the name of
Halley. This man undertook to see
whether or not I was subject to that law,
and whether, indeed, Newton's interpre-
tation of it was correct. Looking back
over the twenty-four comets that had
been recorded as invading the precincts
of space set aside for the earth, he found
that three of them had traveled a similar
path and all the others diverse paths.
"Applying Isaac Newton's law to me,
he said that I was traveling thirty-four
miles a second when I was nearest the
sun, and that I had turned round and
was headed for the regions whence I
had come. He said I would travel out
into space some three billion miles, my
gait slowing down as I journeyed, and
that when I got ready to make the turn
to come back I would be loafing along
at the celestial snail's pace of a mile a
second.
PREDICTED 75 YEARS AHEAD
"Furthermore, he figured out my mass
and many other details about me. Then
he said that if he was right I would come
back in about seventy-six years, the exact
month of my coming depending on how
much influence Jupiter and other planets
would have upon me, which he had not
had time to calculate.
"I knew that he had fathomed my
mystery and solved my secret. But the
people of the earth did not. They said:
'Oh, yes, Halley is a cheap- John notori-
ety-seeker. He is trying to get fame by
a prediction that will attract attention,
but he postpones the date of the comet's
reappearance to a time when he is dead
and his forecast forgotten !'
"But Halley 'stood pat' and called on
an impartial posterity to witness that it
154
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
A COMET WHICH LOST ITS TAIL AS IT FLEW AWAY A SORT OF TADPOLE OF
THE HEAVENS
Before the time of Halley the visitations of comets were looked forward to with dread.
So ephemeral are most of them, however, that Barnard has observed a central passage of one
of them over a star of the ninth magnitude, yet the star remained distinct and seemed to be
floating through the comet instead of the latter's passing before it.
was an Englishman who had first pre-
dicted the return of a comet. Sure
enough, in the language of the street, 'he
had my number/ With less proportion-
ate departure from his schedule than
the Congressional Limited makes in its
Washington-New York run, I reap-
peared, having traveled some seven bil-
lion miles in the interim. So I have to
admit that Halley must have known what
he was talking about."
SIRIUS, KING OF THE STARRY EMPIRE,
TESTIFIES
The next witness is a star Sirius by
name. His evidence may be somewhat
self-incriminating, but perhaps it is even
more valuable therefor. It makes the
seven billion miles that Halley's comet
travels between its earthly visits seem
only a morning constitutional. Here's
his testimony:
"For untold centuries I had been
shining down upon the sons of men with
my bluish-white light. I was the king
of kings of the starry empire, ruling my
own constellation, Canis Major, and at
the same time excelling all of the other
stars in the heavens for brightness. I am
third among fixed stars that is, those
outside the solar system in nearness to
the earth, but I was to men only a star
and nothing more. They called me the
'Dog Star' and said my constellation was
one of the hounds of Orion.
"But one day that man they call Ed-
mund Halley got to studying my habits.
He made a series of notations in the
year 1718 to the effect that I was not
behaving as fixed stars are supposed to
deport themselves, drawing attention to
the fact that I frequently changed my
position on the path I was traveling.
He hinted that it might be that I was
departing from the straight and narrow
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
155
TIIK MOON AT D
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
DAYS oij)
By measuring the length of their shadows, astronomers have been able to determine the
height of the mountains of the moon. Mount Newton is 24,000 feet high, and there are
twenty-eight that are more than three miles high. There are volcanoes on the moon with
diameters of 125 miles.
way, though he made no charges that
such was the case.
"More than a century later another
astronomer qame along Bessel was his
name and he undertook to interpret my
behavior. Although I was forty-seven
trillion miles away from him, he and
his pupil, Peters, pronounced me a 'gay
dog/ with an affinity they could not see,
though only because they lacked tele-
scopes powerful enough. They said my
affinity and I were coming in the sun's
direction, overtaking that luminary at
the rate of nearly six miles a second,
and that we traveled around a common
center of gravity once every 48.8 years.
"Another half century passed, and
meanwhile telescopes were undergoing
improvement. The circumstantial evi-
dence against me was mighty strong, but
still no one had yet seen my affinity, and
I felt pretty safe. Then came along that
gifted optician, Alvan G. Clark. He was
adjusting what is now the Dearborn Ob-
servatory telescope. When he trained
that instrument on me, I saw that the jig
was up with my secret. My affinity her-
self was seen, and I have to admit that
Bessel and Peters knew what they were
talking about."
156
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
157
The next witness is a planet, Neptune
(see pages 167 and 168).
NEPTUNE TELLS HIS STORY
"If you please, sir, I long flattered my-
self with the thought that I was an uncle
that you Earth-ites never knew you had.
I am an elder brother of Mother Earth,
though for ages and ages she and her chil-
dren never suspected my existence.
"But back in the 'forties' of the nine-
teenth century my brother Uranus over-
took me in our Marathon around the
sun. Though our track is a billion miles
wide and he has the rail, yet whenever
he passes me I fret him so much that
he gets a case of 'nerves.'
"Two astronomers, Adams of England
and Leverrier of France, each working
without knowing that the other was en-
gaged on the same problem, undertook
to diagnose my brother's case of nerves
and to explain his perturbations. Each
finally reached the conclusion that the
trouble was caused by me, as yet an un-
discovered planet.
"They figured that I, though undis-
covered, must be nearly a billion miles
farther out in space than Uranus; that
I must be eighty-five times as big and
sixteen times as heavy as the earth.
They also calculated that I must have a
year twice as long as that of Uranus
and 165 times as long as the earth's.
"They said that the perturbations of
Uranus were due to the fact that every
now and then he got between the sun
and this hypothetical me, and that the
rival pulls of the sun and myself upon
him were responsible for his nervous-
ness. And then they, in effect, made a
most audacious prophecy. They said
that if they were right about it I would
put in my appearance at a certain hour,
on a certain day, in a certain spot of
the heavens, to answer whether their
conclusions were right or not.
"And, sure enough, I was right there,
Johnny-on-the-spot, exactly on schedule
time and in my assigned position. I am
quite ready to testify, therefore, that a
man who can project his mind nearly
three billion miles into space and recog-
nize my unseen presence by the effect
I have on my brother comes pretty near
to knowing what he is talking about."
Our next witness as to the credibility
of astronomers is a ray of light. We
will hear its story:
"Yes, I am a ray of light. Once
men thought I was instantaneous. They
tried by various devices and expedients
to ascertain whether I was or not. But
by no experiment they could make were
they able to discover that it required any
interval of time for me to pass from one
place to another.
"However, a man by the name of
Roemer finally found that an eclipse of
Jupiter's moons seemed to occur about
sixteen minutes later when the earth was
on the side of the sun away from Jupi-
ter than when on the side nearest that
planet.
"He concluded that this was not be-
cause the moons were behind time, but
because it took me sixteen minutes longer
to come to the earth when crossing its
orbit than when not having this extra
distance to travel. Here was evidence
that I was not instantaneous and indi-
cations that I travel at the rate of about
eleven million miles a minute.
"But these astronomers were not sat-
isfied with that deduction or the tests
that followed. Finally Dr. Simon New-
comb and his associate, the talented Pro-
fessor Michelson, decided to put me to
a test I could not dodge.
DEVISING SPEEDOMETER FOR LIGHT
"They erected a great revolving mir-
ror in the grounds at Fort Myer, over-
looking the Washington Monument, 2*4
miles away. At the latter's base they
set up a stationary mirror. Then they
turned the revolving mirror at the rate
of 250 revolutions a second, which sent
me hurtling through space toward the
fixed reflector. It caught me and hurled
me back as though it were a tennis player
and I the ball. If on returning I should
reach the identical spot on the revolving
mirror from which I had departed, they
would know that I was instantaneous.
"On the other hand, if I did not come
back to that identical spot, they could
conclude that it took me some time to
make the trip the time represented by
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the interval required for the revolving
mirror to move the distance between the
spot of my departure and that of my
return. They found, by noting the di-
rection I was hurled after returning,
that the mirror had turned 2*4 degrees
between my going and coming, which,
at 250 revolutions per second, amounted
to i/4OOOOth of a second. I had trav-
eled \ l /2 miles in that time. So they
knev/ that my velocity is 186,330 miles
pei second seven times around the
world before you can say 'Jack Robin-
son' ! Thus was Roemer's deduction
conclusively sustained.
"Then other men invented a wonderful
instrument called the spectroscope which
forces me to write my life story on a
photographic plate (see page 162). By
this means they can tell whether I origi-
nated in an incandescent gas or from a
solid body ; whether or not I came
through a cool gas in leaving the star that
started me ; and, if, so, whether that gas
was under pressure or free.
"Now every message I bring, whether
from the nearest planet, the farthest
star, or the remotest nebula, can be de-
coded and read.
"In the words of Abbot, the message
may be faint and hard to read, but it tells
of the materials of which the stars are
made, their temperature, their velocity,
their brightness, their distance, etc."
A WIRELESS WAVE WITNESS
The last witness to the credibility of
the astronomer is the electromagnetic
wave. It deposes as follows :
"Yes, I take my hat off to these astron-
omers. After that canny Roemer proved
that light is not instantaneous, another
eminent scientist undertook to find out
what it really consists of. By purely
mathematical processes, this Mr. Clerk-
Maxwell came to the conclusion that light
is a matter of waves, some of them inap-
preciably short and others tremendously
long ; many too short to be seen and some
too long.
"I knew he was getting close to my
secret, for I am a long wave, sometimes
many miles long, whereas the X-rays are
often less than the billionth of an inch in
length. Then came another man, Hertz
by name. He placed a great sheet of
metal against the wall of a room and
sent me toward it. I was reflected like
sound by a sounding-board. There were
two points in the room where the spark
would not jump the gap. They were
half a wave-length distant from one an-
other. He was thus not only able to de-
tect me, but to measure my length and
my velocity.
"Then Branley found how to make an
extremely sensitive detector which would
catch me. Sir Oliver Lodge developed
this into a coherer and employed it in
signaling. Wireless telegraphy followed
apace, and every boy who has a wireless
set uses me because these astronomers,
mathematicians, and physicists calculated,
detected, and harnessed me."
Thus endeth the testimony, which could
be added to, corroborated, and reinforced
a thousandfold.
A PENETRATING EYE
A visit to an astronomical observatory
and a study there of two or three of the
instruments with which the astronomer
works gives some clue to the secret of
the vastness of his power, as compared
with the layman's, in penetrating the
mysteries of space.
Of course, the first thing that claims
our attention is the big equatorial tele-
scope, which multiplies the power of the
astronomer's eye as much, perhaps, as a
locomotive throttle multiplies the power
of an engineer's arm. It is a far cry
from the lens fashioned from a block of
ice, with which Metius concentrated the
rays of the sun and set fire to a piece of
wood, to the great loo-inch reflecting
mirror of the new Mount Wilson tele-
scope (see pages 164 and 165).
The pupil of the human eye is about
one-fifth of an inch in diameter. It
brings to a focus on the retina only so
many rays of light as fall within such
an area. If it were one inch in diameter
and could bring to a focus all the rays
entering it, our vision would be twenty-
five times as strong; if six inches, and the
rays entering could be centered on the
retina, we could see an object nine hun-
dred times as faint as those visible with
the unaided eye.
We cannot regulate the size of the
pupils of our eyes at will, but we can
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
Photograph from Lick Observatory
HOW THE MOON LOOKS THROUGH A 36-iNCH TELESCOPE
A day on the moon is four of our weeks long. If our mountains were as high in propor-
tion to the size of the earth as those on the moon, they would be fifteen miles high; a man
there would weigh only as much as a five-year-old boy here. Note the size of the sphere in
the telescope by extending the arc in the upper left-hand corner into a circle (see page 165).
build an artificial pupil that serves the
same purpose. Men call such artificial
pupils telescopes. Imagine trying to fill
a narrow-necked bottle by catching rain-
drops as they fall. Rain falls all around,
but only a few drops go into the bottle.
Put a wide-mouthed funnel into the neck
of the bottle and see how much more
water you catch. The telescope is merely
a light funnel, wide-mouthed enough to
catch many rays of light and to bring
them so close together that they can all
enter the pupil of the human eye.
Many of these huge instruments have
tubes of greater diameter and length than
the dimensions of the most powerful gun
ever built. They have grown larger and
stronger in a way that is startling. In
1861 the i8-inch Dearborn telescope was
the biggest in existence. It was when
adjusting that instrument that Alvan G.
Clark discovered the elusive companion
of gay Sirius (see pages 154 and 155).
THE) BIG YERKES INSTRUMENT
Typical of the big refracting telescopes
is the 4O-inch equatorial at the Yerkes Ob-
servatory. The outstanding impression
one gets when studying the surpassing
delicacy of its mechanical manipulation
is that our knowledge of the infinitely
large comes from our mastery of the in-
finitely small (see page 161).
The big lens of this instrument weighs
a thousand pounds and is carried in the
upper end of the six-ton, 62-foot tube,
which is 52 inches in diameter at the
center. To train this big spyglass on a
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Hour circle
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE USUAL METHOD
OF MOUNTING A BIG TELESCOPE
The big telescopes are so mounted that the
principal axis is on the meridian and parallel
to the axis of the earth. Then, as the earth
moves from west to east, a clock movement
carries the barrel of the telescope in the oppo-
site direction, so that it always points at the
same spot in the sky as long as an observation '
is being made. The other or declination
ax i s i s a t right angles to that of the earth,
and is used to train the instrument on the path
of the star under observation.
star and keep it there requires that it be
mounted on two bearings, one at right
angle to the other.
To understand the function of these
two bearings, imagine yourself on a
merry-go-round, looking through a spy-
?lass at a house away off in the distance,
n order to keep the house in the field
of vision, you would have to move the
big end of the glass backward as you
traveled forward. The earth is the
merry-go-round and the star is the house
in the distance.
So there has to be one bearing that
will permit the line of vision in the tele-
scope to move backward just as fast as
the earth moves forward. Our terres-
trial merry-go-round is rotating at the
rate of about 1,040 miles an hour at the
Equator, but the sun and the stars are
so distant that we seem to pass them
very slowly, though their speed as well
as their brightness is magnified in the
telescope.
To keep the telescope moving back-
ward as the earth flies forward is at once
a very big and extremely delicate task.
Imagine swinging a huge instrument 64
feet long and weighing, with its movable
parts, 22 tons, through the air with such
nicety of poise that the spider thread in
the eyepiece, which is 1/6000 of an inch
in diameter, is kept constantly cutting in
two a star image that is 1/2500 inch in
diameter.
Yet that is what is done at the Yerkes
Observatory with the big telescope. In
the case of the Mount Wilson loo-inch
reflector, the parts to be moved weigh 100
tons. In all the instruments the move-
ment is made by a huge clockwork that
carries the big barrel as steadily as ever
an hour-hand of a full- jeweled watch was
driven by its mechanism.
"SHOOTING" THE STARS
But if we imagine ourselves in the
merry-go-round and looking at the house
in the distance through a spyglass, we not
only have to turn it backward as we move
forward in order to keep the house in
view, but we cannot see it at all if the
glass be pointed too high or too low.
However, when we get our spyglass at
the proper elevation we do not have to
raise or lower it thereafter.
So also with the big telescope. The
astronomer has to put it in the nightly
path of the star across the sky before he
can -follow it in its journey. To do this
requires a second bearing, or axle.
The observer consults his star tables to
see exactly how far above the Pole the
star's path is. He then moves the lever
of an electric motor, and the great tube
begins to rise until it is trained on that
path. A big graduated circle, distinctly
marked and numbered, tells the approxi-
mate position. For the exact position, it
is adjusted with a slow motion, the ad-
justment being determined by a very fine
circle, the marks on which are read
through microscopes.
The astronomer now consults his star
tables again and finds the star's position
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
THE LARGEST REFRACTING INSTRUMENT IN THE WORLD I THE YERKES
4O-INCH TELESCOPE
This "big gun" of the astronomical world is a Brobdingnagian eye, 40,000 times as power-
ful as the human optic. A human eye to be as powerful as it is would have to be 25 feet in
diameter, and the man who could possess such an eye would have to be 1,200 feet high (
also page 158).
T6r
162
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
in its apparent nightly path at that mo-
ment. He pulls a switch, and the big
instrument sweeps along the star's well-
beaten track until its approximate posi-
tion is reached. The slow motion is
brought into play, and the big barrel
swings directly on the star, which the
clockwork, in turn, causes the telescope
to follow as it journeys across the
heavens.
Suppose that with your merry-go-
round spyglass you should have two
spider threads crossing one another
at right angles, and that the house you
were looking at was a mile away ; and
then suppose that the glass was so pow-
erful that you could see the head of a
nail at that distance ; and then further
suppose that you kept the intersection
of the two spider threads trained on
that nail-head. Then you have a fair
measure of the delicacy of the adjust-
ments of the Naval Observatory, Yerkes,
and Mount Wilson telescopes.
Formerly the floor of the observatory
was stationary, on a level so low that
when the instrument was pointed at the
zenith a man sitting in an ordinary chair
could look into the eyepiece ; but when
looking at a star nearer the horizon the
observer had to climb up a glorified step-
ladder twenty or thirty feet high and
observe his star from such an unstable
perch.
Now, however, the floors of modern
observatories can be raised and lowered
like an elevator. The domes are made
to revolve, so as to bring the shutter-
opening over the object end of the tele-
scope (see page 161).
TAKING PICTURES OF DISTANT WORLDS
Many of the star observations are not
made with the eye. A majority of them
are made with a photographic attach-
ment. Often a photographic plate on
the big telescope will record in minutes
what would require days to work out
with eye observations. At the Mount
Wilson Observatory some photographs
are taken that have to be exposed for
four nights.
Think of the wonderful perfection of
a driving clock that makes possible four
all-night exposures of a given group of
stars, no adjustment being required for
speed, but the photographer having to
keep a constant watch for such changes
as the quality of the air, so as to adjust
the instrument to meet them !
Powerful as the big telescopes are,
they have their limitations. An instru-
ment that magnifies six thousand diame-
ters might be employed, theoretically, in
low-altitude work. Such a telescope
would bring the moon to a distance of
only forty miles.
ATMOSPHERE: LIMITS THE TELESCOPE
But the power that would bring the
moon so close, except on high mountains,
would also magnify greatly the tendency
of the air to obstruct our sight ; and, as
the late Dr. Simon Newcomb once said,
the moon might be brought that close,
but our view of it would be as though
we were looking at it through a tiny
pinhole and several yards of running
water. Under such a view the whole at-
mosphere would look like the air over a
hot automobile engine or above a stove
full of heat waves. It is those waves
that cause the fixed stars to twinkle.
The observatories on mountains and
high plains get rid of so many atmos-
pheric difficulties that it is possible to
magnify one hundred diameters for each
inch of diameter of the mirrors. The
big loo-inch reflector on Mount Wilson
therefore has a magnifying power of ten
thousand diameters. In other words, an
object two miles distant would appear as
big as if it were only 12^ inches in front
of the unaided eye. The big mirror will
gather in a quarter of a million times as
many rays as the pupil of the eye receives
unaided.
But next to the big equatorial tele-
scope in an observatory the spectroscope
claims chief interest. A wonderfully
versatile instrument it is in applying the
third degree to light. Light is composed
of waves of an infinite variety of lengths.
The shortest wave-length the eye can see
is 1/70000 of an inch long and the long-
est is 1/40000; yet the Annapolis Wire-
less Station makes use of wireless waves
more than ten miles long, and the Bureau
of Standards employs X-rays a billionth
of an inch short (see also page 158).
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
163
Photograph from the Mount Wilson Observatory
TERRIFIC EXPLOSIONS ON THE SUN
Think of eruptions so powerful that they hurl streams of gas farther from the sun than
the moon is from the earth, with a velocity frequently of a hundred miles a second and some-
times of two hundred. They leap up in great jets and flames, often changing their appearance
greatly in a quarter of an hour. The highest "prominence" here depicted reaches about ninety
thousand miles into space (see page 164).
The spectroscope takes the visible rays
and their closest neighbors above and be-
low the ultra-violet and the infra-red
tears them into shreds, and assorts them
according to their wave-lengths with as
much certainty as a banker assorts the
different denominations of his money.
It not only analyzes the light that comes
from the sun and the stars, but lights that
come from all the earthly elements. It
tells with equal fidelity whether a red par-
ticle is dried blood or colored paste, or
whether a ray of light came from iron or
from soda. It once revealed new lines
in an European mineral water. Forty
tons of the water had to be evaporated to
get two teaspoon fuls of the element, but
the spectroscope had detected its presence.
In our childhood days we all recited
the stanza, "Twinkle, twinkle, little star" ;
but we no longer need to "wonder what
you are"; for now, as one authority tells
us, "Unto the midnight sky we the spec-
troscope apply."
A photograph of the sun through some
of the more powerful spectroscopes shows
several million of the telltale lines. So-
dium has only two, calcium has seventy-
five, and iron has more than two thou-
sand. Thirty-nine of the common ele-
ments in the earth show lines that have
perfect matches in position, arrangement,
and character in the sun.
HOW UGHT IS TORN APART
There are three classes of spectro-
scopes : In the one type the light is broken
up by being passed through prisms; in
the second class the light ray is torn apart
by the lines of a diffraction grating
through the same process that gives the
opal its color; in the third kind the light
is separated by being passed through a
"stairsteps" of optical glass.
The telescope has proved that the same
laws of mathematics and mechanics that
govern the fall of an apple, the dropping
of a tear, or the rise of steam from a tea-
164
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from Press Illustration Service
"THE SUPREME COURT OF THE HEAVENS"
This hundred-inch mirror, which has just been installed at Mount Wilson Observatory,
California, will bring a hundred million new stars into the ken of man. Are the nebulae
masses of gas or are they other universes in the great sea of infinity? Are the dark spots
known as "coal sacks" holes in the heavens through which astronomers can peer into starless
space, or are they black masses of gas curtaining off from our view worlds beyond them?
Scores of such questions have arisen and are to be submitted to this wonderful mirror for
answer.
kettle apply as well to the sun of the day
and to the stars of the night. But the
spectroscope proves that the chemistry
of coal-stove and test-tube is also the
chemistry of sun and star. With it man
went 93,000,000 miles away to find the
helium that is in the very air we breathe
and that soon will give buoyancy to the
dirigible airships of our navy.*
FIERY FLAMES LEAPING INTO SPACE
It is thirty years since solar promi-
nences, those fiery flames that shoot out
from the sun to distances greater than
that from the earth to the moon, were
first discovered. Formerly they could be
observed only during the few minutes of
*See "Helium the New Balloon Gas," in
the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for May,
1919.
total eclipses of the sun, and it was pos-
sible to study them for only fifteen min-
utes in a quarter of a century. Then
Professor Huggins found that by screen-
ing off the disk of the sun and widening
the slit of the spectroscope we may see
these prominences at any time.
With the spectroheliograph it is pos-
sible to get pictures of the sun and these
prominences in the light of a single sub-
stance, so that the astronomer is now able
to study them any bright day. Think of
explosions so powerful that they hurl
material three hundred thousand miles
into space with a velocity of two hundred
miles a second! (see page 163).
Not only does the spectroscope tell us
of the materials of which the sun and the
stars are composed, but it also tells us
whether a star is headed toward us or
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
165
TRANSPORTING THE: PRICELESS HUNDRED-INCH MIRROR FROM PASADENA TO
MOUNT WILSON (SEE PAGE 164)
The motor truck carrying this treasure of the astronomical world up the great mountain was
geared down to four miles an hour.
away from us, is coming or going, and
how fast.
Did you ever notice, in traveling, when
meeting a train on a double-tracked rail-
road, how much higher the pitch of the
bell is as it comes toward you than when
going from you? More sound-waves
reach your ears as the train comes toward
you than as it goes from you. The same
is true with the light-waves in the spectro-
scope. If the star is coming toward us,
the lines shift toward the violet or higher
pitch; if receding, toward the red. And
these shifts are always proportional to the
speed of the star; so that not only the
coming and the going are recorded, but
the velocity as well.
THE PATIENCE OF ASTRONOMERS
The patience with which astronomers
make their studies in their unrelenting
pursuit after truth is unsurpassed in any
field of human inquiry. At the Naval
Observatory in Washington computations
based on a single series of observations
have been in progress for a period of
nineteen years, but are not yet completed.
The results of the various expeditions
that observed one of the transits of
Venus were for half a century under cal-
culation and comparison.
A single investigation of the inequali-
ties of the changes of the moon required
9,000 hours of hard calculations by a
trained mathematician. There were
13,000 multiplications of series, contain-
ing some 400,000 separate products. The
whole computation required the writing
of nearly five million digits and plus and
minus signs. And even then the author
felt that much remained to be done be-
fore he could construct the tables he had
undertaken to make.
OUR STUPENDOUS INSIGNIFICANCE
Before starting out to explore the
heavens and to make a biographical sur-
vey of its more prominent folk, one here
might well revert to that old, old ques-
tion : "What is the good of it all ?" Are
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166
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
167
the fruits of astronomy worth all the
labor and thought expended on it? The
thoughtful man, realizing how vastly it
enlarges his appreciation of the great
First Cause, how wonderfully it teaches
us the stupendous smallness of our place
in the universe, finds it both good and
profitable.
But even to the man who looks for
direct physical benefits and every-day
good, its worth will appear. Parallels
of latitude and meridians of longitude
depend upon it, time signals are born of
it, safe navigation at sea were impossi-
ble without it. State and national boun-
daries are often fixed by it.
Yet the indirect benefits excel, if that
may be, the direct ones. When Roemer
discovered the velocity of light, little did
he suppose that the interpretation of his
discovery would lead to wireless com-
munication.
It is interesting to have a look at our
own earth in its relation to the worlds
that people the sky. When a mighty
storm sweeps over the ocean, when a
great war devastates a continent, when
a Katmai blows off her head, when an
earthquake destroys a populous city, men
stand overwhelmed and awed at the spec-
tacle !
But how little and insignificant are
such forces, measured by the majestic
might of the earth as it sweeps on its
course around the sun!
An eminent physicist has estimated that
the power developed by a million Niag-
aras in a million years would not equal
the energy expended by the earth in a
single second as it circles round the sun.
And yet so perfect is the mechanism
that, flying around its axis at an equa-
torial speed of more than a thousand
miles an hour, and around its orbit at
more than eleven hundred miles a min-
ute, all the mundane influences of which
astronomers know could not change the
length of its day as much as a second in
a hundred thousand years.
WHERE: THE EARTH BECOMES A DROP IN
A RESERVOIR
But as soon as one looks out into space
with the eye of the astronomer, there
comes the discovery that in all its seem-
ing greatness the earth is so small that
even a telescope ten thousand times as
powerful as the strongest instrument
now in existence would not reveal it to
an astronomer on any fixed star.
Compared even with the sun, our
planet's insignificance becomes evident.
More than 1,300,000 spheres like ours
would be needed to make a bulk equal to
that of a single sun (see pages 166, 180).
Perhaps our most graphic picture of
the solar system is given by Herschel.
Imagine a circular field two and a half
miles in diameter; place a library globe
two feet in diameter in the very "center;
eighty-two feet away put a mustard
seed. The globe will represent the sun
and the mustard seed Mercury.
At a distance of 142 feet place a pea,
and another at 215 feet. These will rep-
resent Venus and the earth, both as to
size and distance. A rather lar^e pin-
head at a distance of 327 feet will speak
for Mars, and a fair-sized tangerine a
quarter of a mile distant will stand for
Jupiter. A small lemon at two-fifths of
a mile will play the role of Saturn, !i
large cherry three-fourths of a mile will
answer for Uranus, and a fair-sized
plum at the very edge of the field will
proclaim Neptune (see pages 157, 180).
SIGHT-SEEING THE SOLAR SYSTEM
In our celestial tour there is time for
only a passing reference to the moon
and the planets. Eighty moons would be
required to make one earth. A player
there could throw a ball six times as
far as it can be thrown on American
diamonds. A man weighing 150 pounds
there would weigh 900 on the earth.
The earth receives as much light and
heat from the sun in thirteen seconds
as it gets from the moon in a whole
year.
Mercury is almost the "unseen planet."
Being very close to the sun, it is nearly
always engulfed in the rays of the dawn
or overwhelmed in the haze of twilight,
and thus rarely gets a chance to shine
out. At some 'stages of its journeyings
Mercury almost breaks the solar system's
speed limit, dashing wildly along at a
pace of more than two thousand miles
a minute.
168
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Venus was an unusually interesting ob-
ject in the sky during July of this year.
Not again until February, 1921, will it
appear as bright and fair in the evening
sky. It has phases like the moon, and
these can be seen even through a good
field-glass. Its day is believed to be the
same length as its year, which is 224 of
our days.
WILL A STAR FORETELL OUR WEATHER?
Mars always challenges interest. Its
day is about the same length as ours, but
its year is nearly twice as long. Al-
though astronomers generally take less
interest than laymen in the surmise as to
whether other planets and stars are in-
habited, since they, more than laymen,
realize that this is a problem that must
in all human probability remain un-
solved, the question is more often asked
about Mars than any other planet.
It is quite generally believed that Mars
has ice-capped poles. The telescope re-
veals white spots at the poles that have
every appearance of being like our ocean
Polar region. They advance toward the
Equator in winter and retreat in sum-
mer. In the summer of 1916, Pickering,
who, with Lowell, has led the school of
astronomers who believe they can see
canals on Mars, said that he found the
white caps stretching farther down to-
ward the Equator than he had ever seen
them before.
He said that if there was any connec-
tion between the weather of Mars and
that of the earth, the winter of 1916-17
would be the coldest in many years.
And it was. May it yet be possible to
do long-range weather forecasting on
the earth by studying the waxing and
the waning of the ice-cap on the South
Pole of Mars ?
Swinging around the sun at a distance
five times as remote as that which sepa-
rates the earth from the source of its
light, having a year nearly twelve times
as long as ours and a day less than half
as longjupiter is as much bigger than the
earth as a tangerine is larger than a pea.
He has nine satellites, seven of them re-
volving around him in one direction, the
other two pursuing an opposite course.
Saturn, with its wonderful rings, is one
of the finest objects in all the skies
through a telescope of even moderate
size. Uranus is barely visible to the
naked eye, while Neptune (see page 157)
can be seen only with a telescope.
Whether studied as the head of the
planetary family to which the earth be-
longs, or whether as an average member
of the great household of suns that dwell
in the distant skies. Old Sol has many
thrills for the student.
To the inhabitants of the earth the fact
that he shines is the most important phys-
ical consideration in life. From him we
derive warmth, light, and power; without
him the oceans and even the air itself
would freeze ; and, of course, under such
conditions, life would be impossible.
TIES THAT 15IND
With what firm ties he holds his family
together well-nigh defies the imagination.
Prof. Charles G. Abbot estimates that
a steel column five hundred miles thick
would be required to keep Neptune in its
path around the sun if the force of
gravity were removed. Sir Oliver Lodge
has estimated that the pull between the
components of the double star Beta Au-
rigas is twenty million times as great as
the force that keeps the earth in its path.
Prof. F. R. Moulton says that the heat
that reaches us from the sun amounts to
more than two trillion horsepower, in
spite of the fact that two billion horse-
power goes off into space for every single
horsepower that comes to the earth itself.
While the stars appear to us about as
much like the sun as the fireflies of a
summer night, yet the patient investiga-
tions of astronomers show not only that
the sun is a star, but that it is by no
means either the largest or the brightest
of the celestial family.
Assured that it is a star and know-
ing that the next nearest one is three
hundred thousand times as far away,
astronomers addressed themselves to the
task of learning about the other stars
by studying our own. They found that
there are some like it, giving out the
same kind of light, though most of them
send us, through the spectroscope, mes-
sages that tell quite different stories.
With the fundamental facts about the
sun in hand, -most astronomers are now
engaged on star studies. A photographic
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
169
Photograph from Mount Wilson Observatory
NEBULA IN COMA BKRENCIS
A little poleward from a line drawn between Regulus and Arcturus is the constellation
Coma Berencis (see the chart on page 170). The nebula shown here is a part of it, and is
thought to be so far away that a light ray leaving it today will not arrive on the earth for
thirty thousand years. It is the fastest-moving object yet discovered m the heavens. Travel-
ing at the speed it is going in its headlong flight through space, we could go around the earth
in one minute.
chart of the whole sky is being prepared
by the observatories of the world. This
chart requires the taking of 22,000 photo-
graphs, each covering four square de-
grees of sky (see page 178).
MAPPING A UNIVERSE}
Each photograph has in it several stars
whose positions have been fixed by direct
observation. From them the position of
every other star shown on the plate can
be fixed by measuring, with a machine
employing high-power microscopes, their
exact places in the photograph. The
completion of this work will record the
position of at least eight million stars.
When we consider the solar system
with its great sun, its eight planets and
their twenty-seven moons, and its eight
hundred asteroids as occupying an area
whose diameter is nearly six billion miles
(some six million times as far as from
New York to Chicago), it is amazing to
think that there may be millions of other
solar systems as large or larger than our
own, comparatively close to us as star
distances go, though so remote that their
planets could not be seen by the astrono-
mers of the earth, even with telescopes
as much more powerful than the biggest
ones now in use are stronger than the
naked eye.
THE} ACM]$ OF ISOLATION
So careful an astronomer as Agnes
M. Clerke tells us that a skiff in a vast,
un furrowed ocean could not be more ut-
terly alone than is our solar system in
its little corner of the universe. She
continues :
"Yet the sun is no isolated body. To
each individual of the unnumbered stars
strewing the firmament, down to the
faintest speck of light, ... it stands
in some kind of relationship. Together
they master its destiny and control its
movements. Independent so far as its
domestic affairs are concerned, it is
170
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
by Albert II. Bumstead, National Geographic Society
A CHART OF THE HEAVENS AS THEY WILL APPEAR TO RESIDENTS OF THE UNITED
STATES AND SOUTHERN CANADA AUGUST 15 AT IO P. M., AUGUST 22 AT 9.30
P. M., AUGUST 29 AT 9 P. M v AND SEPTEMBER 5 AT 8.30 P. M.
The lines on this chart corresponding to meridians are separated from each other by the
distance the stars appear to move across the sky in one hour. The lines corresponding to
parallels show the direction of the stars' paths from the time they rise to the time they set.
By remembering that the stars within the space bounded by two meridian lines sink into
the western horizon every hour, and that a corresponding stretch of new sky arises out of
the eastern sky in the same time, the major portion of the chart will be usable hours after
the time named. This, of course, does not apply to stars near the North Pole, like the Great
Dipper. They never set the daylight merely puts them to sleep.
Do you belong to that innumerable throng who have never made personal friends of the
stars? If so, you are missing one of the easiest and most delightful diversions of- evenings
in the open. The first formality is to meet the Great Dipper, which might be called the
supreme announcer. Its pointers, Merak and Dubuhue. will then escort you over to Polaris,
king of celestial directions. All the roads of heaven lead to his throne and all the highways
of earth are oriented with reference to his position (see pages 1/3-179).
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
171
Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead, National Geographic Society
A PICTURE MAP OF THE HEAVENS, CORRESPONDING TO THE CHART OF THE STARS
PRINTED ON THE OPPOSITE PAGE
The center of this map, with the bright star Vega outstanding, represents the part of the
sky directly overhead, and the circumference represents the horizon. On account of the
absorption of light by the atmosphere, the stars near the horizon are rarely visible, and then
only the brightest ones. The map, however, is complete down to the horizon. The map is
made for latitude 40, but is approximately correct in other latitudes within the United States
and southern Canada.
To locate a star or a constellation in the heavens, first find it by name on the chart on
the opposite page. You can then easily transfer your eye to the same spot on this page.
After forming a mental picture, face that section of the horizon which is nearest the
object and hold the map, so that the corresponding section of it is at the bottom. Then run
your eye up from the horizon until you find the star or group that corresponds to the picture.
Vega will interest you greatly. Old Sol is carrying us, and indeed his whole family, in
a headlong flight toward her, at a gait of more than 700 miles a minute (see page 172).
The stars that mark the handle of the Great Dipper will take you on their sweeping
curve to Arcturus, a sun so bright that it outshines ours, as a flashlight outshines a lightning-
bug, yet so distant that it seems only a point of light to us. From constellation to constella-
tion you can go, making acquaintances that will give you the friendship of the royal hosts of
heaven all through the years (see page 176).
172
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
ONE OF THE SPIRAL
This wonderful mass of whirling matter is at about the center of a circle that would be
made by the continuation of the arc which forms the curve of the handle of the Big Dipper.
One of the same type the great Andromeda Nebula is said to be approaching the earth at
the wonderful speed of 12,000 miles a minute. Astronomers generally hold that of such
whirling masses as these are worlds created (see page 177).
bound up, as a star, to the other stars
by influences reaching across the un-
imaginable void that separates them."
A TERRIFYING PACE
Spectroscopic studies and sky observa-
tion alike tell us that our sun and his
family are all headed in a great migra-
tion across the sky toward a point be-
tween the constellations of Hercules and
Lyra (see picture, page 177).
The speed with which we are travel-
ing in that direction is twelve miles a
second. The velocity of an artillery
shell is around 3,000 feet a second ; that
of the sun 63,000 feet. An artillery shell
with the velocity of the solar system
through space would, according to Kip-
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
173
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
A VIEW OF A NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION TRIANGULUM
There are cradles and tombs in the heavens, with mewling infancy, gay youth, settled
middle age, mellow advanced years, and lightless death as stages of the journey between them
(see text, page 181).
pax, penetrate a sheet of steel four city
blocks thick.
Think how far we travel every year
and how complex our journey! In the
first place, those of us who live near the
Equator cover upward of nine million
miles in our flight around the earth's
axis. In the second place, in our jour-
ney around the sun we travel nearly
six hundred million miles. While we
are doing all this we are also being car-
ried off into new and untried regions
of space at the rate of four hundred
million miles a year.
Is our great family journey through
space along a straight road, or is it re-
volving around some greater body, even
as the earth revolves around the sun
and the moon around the earth? The
astronomer tells us frankly that if the
sun has an orbit its curve as yet defies
detection.
174
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph trom Yerkes Observatory
A YERKES PHOTOGRAPH OF SOME OF THE NEBUI^E IN THE PLEIADES
Imagine a drop of water expanded into a sort of supersteam so attenuated that it would
fill a globe sixty-two miles in diameter. It is believed that some of the nebulse may be com-
posed of gases as rare as that.
Referring to the picture of the heavens
on page 171, and to the map accompany-
ing it, let us survey the sky as it will
appear at the hours and on the dates
given therewith.
Of course, the Great Dipper will first
claim our attention, as it is the princi-
pal "landmark" of the heavens. It will
be seen westward from the Pole Star,
with its Pointers guiding the eye to
Polaris and its handle sweeping in a
broad curve toward Arcturus and Spica.
THE GREAT DIPPER
The star at the bend of the handle of
the Great Dipper is known as Mizar.
Insignificant though it looks in its small-
ness, it radiates more than a hundred
times as much light as the sun, and is
nearly five million times as far away.
Its light has to travel three-quarters of
a century to reach the earth. It is a
great triple luminary. The combined
mass of two of its members is many
times as great as that of our sun ; they
swing around their common center of
gravity every twenty days.
Following the line of the Pointers
eastward, one's eye picks up Polaris, the
only bright star in its neighborhood.
Shining down upon us from a point
almost midway between the zenith and
the northern horizon in the latitude of
Washington, this humble star of the
second magnitude tells little of its glory.
Yet it is so distant that the light-waves
entering the eye as one looks at it today
left it forty-five years ago and have been
traveling at the rate of more than eleven
million miles a minute to reach us.
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
A VIEW OF THE: GREAT NEBULA IN ORION (SEE PAGES l8o-l8l)
''The central portion of the Huyghenian region in the nebula of Orion is the opening of
a colossal cavern in the primordial stellar floor. The nebula is no longer a flat surface. One
peers within cosmic deeps; one looks into a chasm before which all powers of imagination
are submerged, and feasts the eye with supernal splendors. Tt is like looking in at a door
and to the rear of a cave, deep within glittering nebulosity. The chasm is the most beautiful
object visible to human sight. Pillars, columns, walls, fagades, bulwarks, stalactites, and
stalagmites are within deeps of deeps. They glow and shine superbly with pearly light."
175
176
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Not one star, indeed, but three a triple
sun i s Polaris. Until recently it was
supposed to be a double star, but the
newer high-power telescopes reveal that
the brighter of the two companions has
a closer companion of its own.
VEGA AND ITS COMPANIONS
In the zenith is Vega, the bluish-white
star of the first magnitude that shines
down with beautiful brilliancy from the
constellation Lyra, the Harp. Any
doubt in identifying Vega, otherwise
Alpha Lyrae, can be dispelled by observ-
ing the close equilateral triangle formed
by it and its companions, Epsilon and
Zeta Lyrae, this being the only triangle
of its kind in the whole heavens.
If with the unaided eye we viewed the
sun from the distance of Vega, it would
appear as one of the dimmest stars.
Vega is said to be eight million times as
far from us as we are from the sun.
Epsilon Lyrae is a double star. Nei-
ther Persian, Arab, Greek, nor, indeed,
any primitive people, seems to have dis-
covered that fact, though with good eyes
it can be seen as such on a clear night.
May not this indicate that the eyesight
of the human race is improving? With
a telescope we can see that each part of
this double star is itself a double in
other words, that Epsilon Lyrae is indeed
a magnificent system of four suns.
LIGHT THAT MUST TRAVEL 5,000 YEARS
TO REACH us
A little past the zenith is the constel-
lation Hercules. It isn't a particularly
bright group, not a single star in it being
brighter than the third magnitude ; but
it has an easily found trapezoidal figure
of five stars, the base turned toward the
north. On the west side of this trape-
zoid, about one-third of the distance from
the base, is what appears to be a faint
and fuzzy little spot, visible only on the
clearest nights ; but train a high-power
telescope on it and you will see one of
the finest star-clusters in all the heavens.
Ritchey's photograph of this cluster,
taken with the big 6o-inch Mount Wilson
reflector, discloses that it is made up of
more than fifty thousand stars, very many
of them as big and as bright as our own
sun. Photographing the cluster first with
plates sensitive to blue light and then
with others sensitive to red indicates that
they are giant red-and-yellow worlds like
Arcturus and Antares.
How far away they are cannot be said,
for they are too remote for measure-
ment with the finest instrument yet de-
vised. It is certain, however, that they
are at least so distant that the light com-
ing to the earth from them this year may
have started on its hurtling journey
through space about the time of Joshua's
conquest of Jericho.
In other words, if a space-penetrating
eye on one of the stars of this Hercules
cluster could be looking down on the
earth today it might be watching the
armies of the Lord encircling the doomed
city.
SUNS THAT PUT OURS TO SHAME
To the west of Hercules, easily located
by continuing the curve of the handle of
the Great Dipper for a distance approxi-
mately equal to that which separates-
Polaris from the nearest Pointer, is Arc-
turus, king bee of the constellation
Bootes, the Hunter.
Of a deep orange color and of the
first order of brightness, Arcturus is a
sun that makes our own pale in com-
parison as a tallow dip pales before an
arc lamp. Indeed, it is thought to radi-
ate five hundred times as much light as
our sun.
Away down toward the southwestern
horizon, as viewed from Washington, is
Antares, two hours past the meridian.
The starry heart of the Scorpion, this
blazing sun is fiery red in hue and gives
off two hundred times as much light as
the orb of our day.
Altair, the bright star of the constel-
lation Aquila, the Eagle, forms the head
of a great cross, of which the Pole Star
is the foot and Vega and Deneb the two
arms. Far brighter and bigger than our
sun, Altair is rushing toward us at the
rate of eight hundred million miles a
year.
THE LETTER WRITTEN IN THE HEAVENS
About as far east of the meridian as
Hercules is west is the constellation
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
177
THE RING NEBULA IN LYRA, TAKEN WITH THE 6O-INCH MOUNT
WILSON TELESCOPE
The power of the big telescopes is strikingly shown by this picture. With the naked eye
one cannot see this nebula, which is in the neighborhood of Vega (see chart on page i/o).
A cube, whose sides equal the distance across this nebula, would occupy a space large enough
to provide room for hundreds of millions of solar systems like ours.
Cygnus, the Swan, with Deneb as its
principal star. Deneb is so far away
that the light rays entering our eyes from
it this year left it during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. It is driving through
space toward us at the rate of nearly two
thousand miles a minute, spectroscopic
advices say.
Eastward from the Pole about as far
from Polaris as the latter is above the
northern horizon is Cassiopeia, the
Woman in the Chair. The major stars
of this constellation form a letter "W."
The star at the middle of the third stroke
is a double, its two members revolving
around a common center of gravity in a
period of about two hundred years. If
either of them has a family of planets,
their system of day and night, as well as
their seasons, must be powerfully com-
plicated.
Well down toward the eastern horizon
is the constellation Andromeda, the
Chained Woman. It contains no first-
magnitude stars, but has a line of stars
of the second magnitude extending from
the northeast to the southwest, by which
it can be located. About fifteen degrees
178
EXPLORING THE GLORIES OF THE FIRMAMENT
179
directly south of the brightest star
of the group is a little patch of light
that can barely be seen. Whether
this is a nebula, or whether another
universe so immeasurably distant
that its light is only a haze, has not
been determined. The spectroscope
seems to translate its light message
as saying that it is composed of
solid or liquid material surrounded
by cooler gases (see picture, page
172).
Down on the northeastern hori-
zon is the constellation Perseus, the
Champion. Its brightest star is the
center of a twinkling field regarded
by many as the finest spectacle in
the heavens when viewed through
field-glasses. Its second star has
been called Algol, the Demon. It
varies in magnitude, losing two-
thirds of its light between its bright-
est moments and its darkest, which
follow one another every sixty-odd
hours. these are in the heavens of the daytime
One might pass by Pegasus, the in late August and therefore not visible
Winged Horse, with its famous square, at night.
in the southeastern heavens; Delphinns, But next March they will be in their
the Dolphin, with its closely grouped glory in the night sky, vying in beauty
stars, lying between Pegasus and Aquila ; with the Milky Way. To know them is
but away down on the southern horizon, to add new joy to a walk in the open air
on the very meridian, is a constellation, on a clear winter's night.
Sagittarius, the Archer, which rivets the One fain would pass on to ten thou-
beholder's attention. It lies in a region sand others of the hosts of heaven and
full of star-clusters and nebulae of great to the wonderful stories they can tell.
Photograph from Yerkes Observatory
A RIFT IN THE SKY
This picture shows how thickly the constellation
of the Swan is peopled with stars. But why the ap-
parent abyss in the center? Astronomers are seeking
the answer.
beauty.
The variable stars, like Algol, in which
With the exception of a few minor the brighter member of a double star is
constellations, this completes the list of
the principal people of the sky visible at
the hour named. But those who will take
the trouble to watch as the months go
by will see many others of rare beauty
and striking appearance.
Aldebaran, a star that is well past mid-
eclipsed by a darker one at regular pe-
riods, are hard to pass by.
SPKED MERCHANTS OF THE
HEAVENS
So, also, are the "runaway stars" that
are speeding through space at gaits that
die age, as disclosed by its color, and yet astound the astronomer. In the southern
driving toward us at the heart-breaking heavens is a runaway called "243 in the
speed of two thousand miles a minute ; fifth hour of right ascension, in the Cor-
Capella, so distant that our sun could doba Zone Catalogue." It is traveling
barely be seen by us if as remote, but so 170 miles a second eight times as fast
bright that it outshines our sun as a as the average star. No. 1830, Groom-
candle outshines a fire-fly; Rigel, so hot bridge, in the Great Bear, has a velocity
that it would roast- us alive if it were to of perhaps 200 miles a second. At that
come as close to us as the sun ; Betel-
guese, Sirius, Procyon, Castor and Pol-
lux, Regulus, Spica and Fomalhaut all
rate it could fly around the earth in a
shade more than two minutes.
Either the universe is vastly more ex-
180
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Drawn by Albert H. Bumstead
CHART SHOWING THE RELATIVE SIZE OF THE SUN, MOON, AND MAJOR PLANETS
The stupendous size of the sun in comparison with the several members of its planetary
family is emphasized by the distance of the moon from the earth as here plotted on the face
of the sun. The differences in their sizes play peculiar tricks of gravity. A hundred pounds
would weigh 2,764 pounds on the sun, 252 pounds on Jupiter, 36 pounds on Mars, and 16
pounds on the moon. Spots on the face of the sun are often six times the diameter of the
earth, and prominences frequently reach so far into space that they would completely envelop
our moon if they started from the earth (see also page 166).
tensive than the most advanced astrono-
mer dares think or else these stars will
run clear through it and out into God only
knows where, unless they shall sooner
pass close enough to some bigger star that
can tame them.
THE MILKY WAY
Called the Silver River of Heaven by
the Japanese, pronounced by the ancient
mythologists the dust stirred up by Per-
seus as he hastened to the rescue of An-
dromeda, the Milky Way sweeps in a
vast circle around the celestial sphere.
Herschel said it might be likened to a
great grindstone. It is made up of mil-
lions of small stars that cannot be sepa-
rated without optical aid.
This great star stream, coursing its
way around the heavens, in a sweep that
may require as much as two hundred
million years for its circuit, seems to
have captured the vast majority of the
folk of the universe, and is flowing in
unending procession onward and on-
ward. Here it branches and flows around
an island in space ; there it is crossed by
a bridge of blackness ; at another place
it is narrow, as though passing through
a gorge; and elsewhere it widens out as
though flowing through an alluvial valley.
Composed of great clusters of multi-
tudinous suns, many of the individual
members vastly larger than our own, one
who looks upon the Milky Way can feel,
with Buchanan Read, that the stars that
are faintest to us may to diviner vision
be the noblest of them all.
Nor is it easy to neglect those wonder-
ful objects of the sky, the nebulae, those
BETWEEN MASSACRES IN VAN
181
wonderful aggregations of gas or micro-
scopic dust. Look on a winter's night
at Orion. Between Betelguese and Rigel
is his belt, and suspended from this belt
his sword. The central star of this
sword appears to the naked eye as merely
a fuzzy little fellow that might be passed
over without thought.
THE INUTTERABLE GREATNESS OF THE
But train a big telescope on it and in-
stead you see the most magnificent nebula
in the heavens. Its diameter is thought
to be twenty million times as great as that
of our sun. Even if its density were as
much more attenuated than air, as air is
lighter than lead, it would still be, ac-
cording to figures suggested by Professor
Moulton, as much heavier than the sun as
the great Pyramid of Cheops is heavier
than one-tenth of an avoirdupois grain
(see page 175).
Of such attenuated material as this
are worlds called into being under laws
made in the beginning. How many
worlds have met, and are meeting, the
description, "the earth was without form
and void" ! And from such new-born
worlds, with their blazing white light, of
which Rigel is a type, down through the
bluish white of which Sirius is a repre-
sentative, and then through the yellow,
like our sun and Procyon and Arcturtis,
to the red ones, like 19 Piscum, and again
to those that are black and eclipse their
brighter neighbors in the variable stars,
we run the gamut of star life, with here
mewling infancy, there gay youth, else-
where sturdy manhood and ripe age. And
in the end come clead<sfns, derelicts in
the ocean of space.
When the sweet singer of Israel sang
that "the heavens declare the glory of
God and the firmament sheweth His
handiwork," he had never seen more
than five thousand stars. With the lat-
est Mount Wilson reflector three hundred
million will write themselves upon the
photographic plate.
IN DAVID'S TIM ic AXD OURS
What in David's time and with the
naked eye were only gems to render a
sky more beautiful and wondrous for
mundane dwellers, are revealed, through
such powerful instruments, as worlds and
systems, immeasurably distant the one
from the other, but each and all actuated
by laws so all-pervading that they apply
alike to infinitesimal and to infinite, so en-
during that they survive all wreck and
change, so powerful that all things created
are controlled by them, and yet simple
enough that with patient endeavor the as-
tronomer and the chemist and the physi-
cist are learning their principles one by
one.
BETWEEN MASSACRES IN VAN
BY MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS
THE scene is Van, historic capital
of Armenia, whose antiquity is
proven by the inscriptions of the
conquering kings of many tribes carved
in Castle Rock.
Tragedy is depicted in each ruined
home, but the background is one of strik-
ing charm. To the left, or southwest,
there lies the majestic line of snow moun-
tains which separate Armenia from the
Tigris Valley.
Before us are the peculiarly lovely
waters of the lake of Van, with Nimrud's
cratered peak showing hazily forty miles
away. A little to the north, one sees the
graceful cone of Sipan, where the ark of
Noah first sought rest, only to have this
hoary-headed mountain resign its fame
to mightier Ararat, still farther north.
To the right a ribbon of dark brown
across the snow expanse there runs the
road of the retreats, the way that leads
to the Valley of the Shadow of Death.
My part has been building barracks out
of fire-scarred mud shells, where once
choice carpets and silk hangings gave a
touch of Oriental luxury to a city of
beautiful homes and green gardens, and
providing work through which proud
women could earn bread.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
PART OF THE: BOYISH COMPANY OF VOLUNTEERS WHO TRAMPED FROM ARTEMID
TO VAN: ARMENIA
Through winter snows they came to petition the Armenian Governor for real guns with
which to defend their homes. The oldest of these boys was twelve. They were self -trained
and set out on their six-mile tramp without the permission or knowledge of their guardians
in Artemid.
In one huge house carpenters are fash-
ioning windows and doors to make more
habitable the hovels where the people
herd. And tons of matted wool are there
being cleaned, carded, and spun for cloth-
ing to protect weakened womanhood
from piercing cold.
American charity is at work where
misery is anesthetised by hope for future
peace, where barefoot children, trudging
through the crunching snow, smile as
they swing small blackened pails in which
they hope to get some watery soup to
soften the black bread on which their
lives depend.
The Governor and I are closest friends.
When he was young he ran an elevator
in Boston and learned his English from
BETWEEN MASSACRES IN VAN
18S
the kindly people
w h o m he served.
Now his is the task
of husbanding this
pitiful group of Ar-
menians until victory
shall come to the
Allied arms and lib-
erty to the land he
loves.
As we returned one
day from our tasks
to the modest mud
house which was the
humble home of gov-
ernment, we were
confronted by a gro-
tesque group of tiny
lads whose ages ran
from eight to twelve.
The Governor sa-
luted the small, but
dignified, commander
gravely and asked :
"What can t h e
Governor do for these
loyal citizens?"
"We have come to
exchange these wood-
en guns which we
have made for real
guns. We want to
protect our country."
"We have great
need for all our guns,
my men," said the
Governor. "We only
issue rifles to those
who can drill."
The reply was immediate :
"We can drill, sir !"
The busy man's eyes twinkled a little
at this delay, but he said :
"Let me see what you can do."
The 12-year-old leader gave a sharp
command, and 28 wooden guns, carved
from light boards, came to the snowy
street with a thud.
Up they came again to "present arms,"
back to "right shoulder arms," and
then to "charge bayonets." Not a smile
showed on the youthful faces.
Then the untanned skin moccasins
shuffled back and forth in fours and
around to "company front" just such
play at soldiering as makes us smile
TWO PRIVATES IN THE ARTEMID ARMY OF SMALL BOYS
proudly, but with a little catch at the-
throat, whenever we see this youthful
imitation of a world at war.
But most of these small lads had a.
murdered father or a suicide mother,
hounded to her death by Kurdish fiends,,
as his background.
The Governor was deeply moved.
"Where are your homes?" he asked,
expecting that they came from some near-
section of the city.
"We come from Artemid, sir!" was
the challenging reply, mentioning a lake-
side village six miles distant on the road
to the Turkish lines.
The day before there had been a heavy
snow and the afternoon shadows were
already lengthening. Even a strong man.
184
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE COMMANDANT OF VAN, SON OF ONK OF ARMENIANS POETS, PRESENTING A
WOODEN SWORD TO THE CAPTAIN OF THE GROUP FROM ARTEMID
would have difficulty in reaching Artemid
that night.
So Governor Hambartsoumiantz called
in the youthful cmmandant and myself
to a council, which resulted in the issue
of an army ration of black bread, tea, and
sugar to the boys, while a room was pro-
vided for them in the headquarters of
the city troops. Still the lads said they
would not return to their homes unless
they were given guns.
Relief work is not a matter of stom-
achs alone, but of morale. So in the
morning my head carpenter set to work
on the choicest board we could find, and
wjiile he was fashioning it into a blade
with all the curves of Saladin's sword,
the boyish company inspected the varied
industries which American relief had es-
tablished, and each received a pair of
heavy woolen socks.
Then the lads drew up at attention on
the flat mud roof of our premises.
There the young commandant, son of
one of Armenia's famous poets, grace-
fully presented the 12-year-old captain
with a saber, whose wooden fabric could
not conceal the lines which were smil-
ingly, yet tearfully, worked into it by the
master carpenter, who entered with all
his heart into this simple commission of
love.
"This time we can only give your
leader a sword," said the Governor, who
had left an important conference to wish
these lads farewell.
"But I wish you to keep up your disci-
pline and training, for the time may come
when we shall need your aid. Hold your
command in readiness, Captain, for your
country may call on you."
"We shall be ready, sir!" said the
proud possessor of the new sword.
Then he turned to his motley gang:
"Right shoulder arms ! Column right,
march !" And the volunteer army of
Artemid started proudly on their long
tramp to the village through which, a
month later, the Turkish hordes passed
on their way to massacre in Van.
VOL. XXXV, No. 3
WASHINGTON
SEPTEMBER, 1919
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL
AMERICA
BY HERBERT J. SPINDEN
DOMINGO JUARROS, the his-
torian, begins his account of the
earthquakes that overwhelmed
the first two capitals of Guatemala with
this pious generalization:
"From the time the first transgressors
were expelled from Paradise, miseries,
misfortunes, and calamities have formed
a prominent part in every history."
The man-made cataclysms of the
Great War have held the attention of
the world to such an extent that titanic
disturbances due to blind forces of na-
ture have been all but overlooked. Even
now the destruction wrought by re-
peated earthquakes in Central Amer-
ica destruction as grim and heartbreak-
ing as that made by steel and flames along
the battle line in France takes its chief
sentimental interest from the fact that
the Republic of Guatemala has been a
sincere associate of the United States in
the Great War.
The city of San Salvador, capital of
the Republic of Salvador, was destroyed
on June 7, 1917; but it was rapidly re-
built, and early in 1919 showed few in-
dications of the terrible shaking it had
received. On April 28, 1919, however, a
still greater catastrophe overwhelmed the
city, and practically all houses that had
been restored were again leveled and
many more deaths resulted.
In December, 1917, and January, 1918,
the total destruction of Guatemala City
occurred, the heaviest shock coming on
January 24, 1918. In October and No-
vember of 1918 and as late as 1919 in-
tense vibrations were still being felt.
At the present time the volcano of
Irazu, in Costa Rica, is in a state of erup-
tion, possibly due to the seismic disturb-
ances farther north.
WHERE THE MOUNTAINS OFTEN TREMBLE
The recent catastrophes in Central
America are but the latest of a long list
recorded since the coming of the Span-
iards. Scarcely a city between the fron-
tiers of Mexico and Panama but has suf-
fered from the dreadful instability of
Mother Earth. Many have been de-
stroyed and rebuilt at other sites only to
be again destroyed. The coats of arms
and other insignia of the Central Amer-
ican republics commonly show volcanoes.
A certain volcanic quality seems to have
entered into their political history.
The circumstances of the recent earth-
quakes in Salvador and Guatemala were
strikingly different. The first was asso-
ciated with a tremendous eruption of
lava, but in connection with the other
there was no eruption of any sort ; only
tremendous shakings, as though a giant
with mountains heaped about his shoul-
ders were struggling to free himself.
Both these earthquakes were probably
caused by a slipping or faulting of the
earth crust, although there are no surface
THE OLD-FASHIONED CONSTRUCTION OF SAN SALVADOR
Built with earthquakes in view, it is called Bajareque, and consists of a lattice of upright
poles and horizontal cane rods, the interstices being filled in with mud and the whole surfaced
with plaster. Almost all the destruction results from the ravages of termites (white ants),
which eat the bases of the uprights so that the walls collapse when the quake comes.
A HOUSE OF LIGHT CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION REDUCED TO A PILE OF DEBRIS BY THE
EARTHQUAKE: SAN SALVADOR
Structures of heavily reinforced concrete weathered the vibrations for the most part.
186
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
187
indications of this. In the case of San
Salvador the earthquake doubtless oc-
curred as a result of the eruption of the
lava and the spectacular activity in the
old crater that followed it.
WHERE MISERY AND MADNESS REIGNED
From the vivid story sent to the
National Geographic Society by Mrs.
Martha Toeplitz, I quote as follows :
"It is Corpus Christi day in Salva-
dor's beautiful and flourishing capital.
Churches and dwellings are decorated
and the streets filled with a throng in
festal mood. The procession approaches,
led by a band of musicians fiddling and
scraping away in truly Southern fashion.
White-clad maidens, with wreaths of
flowers and veils flowing in the soft,
w"arm breezes, priests and choir boys, the
images of saints borne aloft, and the
people the typical 'festa' crowd.
"Suddenly rumbling and grumbling
below, darkness, crashing walls, cries
and screams from the panic - stricken
people. What a never-to-be-forgotten
contrast ! The bright sky, the festa, the
pretty homes and gay shops, the fruit of
years of labor and industry wiped out in
less time than it takes to tell.
"Where there was peace and happi-
ness, misery and madness reign, and
the earth, breathing heavily, shakes as
though she wished to rid herself of all
man-made ballast. Edifices crumble like
packs of cards, showers of brick sweep
the air, dull thuds and terrible crashes,
screams and prayers for mercy, and with
it all the wild, uncanny song of the
church bells.
"The world seems to have come to an
end and Hell opens her gates. A new
crater suddenly forms on the mountain
side, acids explode in the drugstores,
mains break, and the town, quivering in
every limb and stone, becomes a sea of
flame.
"In vain do the bells chime in broken
towers ; in vain the tears and prayers !
The quakes increase in violence till not a
house remains standing, and a hundred
red tongues of fire lick the ruins in mad
fury.
"Everything is broken, shattered, and
burned ; but the furious elements are not
yet appeased. Terrific thunder-storms
beat down upon the helpless people hud-
dled together in the park, enter every
hole and crack, and destroy whatever
the earthquake and fire have left.
"Days and nights follow without food
or shelter, until very, very slowly the
quakes become more infrequent."
The first shock at San Salvador came
without warning, at 6.50 p. m., June 7,
1917. Although this quake was felt
throughout a large part of Central Amer-
ica and was recorded on the scrolls of
seismographs in the United States, it was
not the one that did the most serious
damage in that city. It appears, how-
ever, to have been responsible for the
opening of the lava vents on the side of
the volcano opposite that on which the
capital is situated.
HOW THE SHOCKS BEGAN
The first shock was followed at inter-
vals of ten minutes by two others which
drove the entire population of the city
into the streets and open squares.
Then at 9.05 came the heavy shock
which caused the greater part of the de-
struction in San Salvador. An hour or
so before this time the sky had been
illuminated by the outpouring of liquid
stone from the new vents, and it is not
impossible that a slumping of the earth's
crust under the city itself resulted from
the release of pressure after a large
quantity of lava had run off.
At this time a pounding sensation un-
der foot was noted, as well as a horizontal
wave movement, and cracks are said to
have opened and closed.
Many persons declare they heard
sounds of rushing water and some aver
that the water-level in wells rose and
sank. But it is too much to ask for
steady nerves and scientifically exact ob-
servations when the earth shakes at night
and the lights go out, when the air is
filled with shrieks and prayers and chok-
ing dust, and when in the dark the heavy
tiles cascade from the roofs and the walls
sway and fall.
It is capable of proof, however, that
temperatures under the earth's crust near
San Salvador were greatly increased.
Artesian wells being dug on the Finca
Modelo showed at first an increased
water pressure and later an increased
THE) NEW VENTS IN THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR FROM WHICH THE LAVA
POURED OUT ARE GREAT CREVASSES RATHER THAN CRATERS
Steam still rises in puffs from one or two of the vents, especially from a vent to which the
name "Thunderer" has been given.
LOOKING OUT OVER THE FUMING LAVA A FEW DAYS AFTER THE FLOW OCCURRED
Many plantations were drowned by this strange flood, whose onslaught was so sudden that
some of the natives were caught and buried by it.
188
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
189
temperature. The drills had to be with-
drawn because at a depth of 2,000 feet
they were greatly overheated.
A I,AVA FLOW WHICH WOULD KILL TWO
' PANAMA CANALS
The lava flowed out from a series of
eight or more vents, apparently situated
along a fissure running down the moun-
tain side. The area covered by the lava
has a length of nearly seven miles, a
breadth of over three miles, and an aver-
age depth of perhaps thirty feet. The
quantity of liquid stone that belched
forth from the fiery mouths must equal
twice the 200,000,000 cubic yards exca-
vated from the Panama Canal.
^ The lava is mostly dead black, but some-
times brown with a metallic luster. It
has a porous, stringy appearance, with
bubbles elongated in the direction of the
flow. The current structure is very in-
teresting, and one sees petrified ripples,
eddies, cascades, and foaming crests.
Near the vents one finds very strange
and beautiful forms, where lava has
streamed and dripped like molasses and
has then solidified before it could spread
and lose its stringy quality.
In company with a party of diplomatic
officials and Mr. S. G. Morley, of the
Carnegie Institution, I made a visit to
the lava where it had blocked the high-
way and the railroad, and again higher
up the mountain side, where it had swept
down through coffee plantations.
Both Mr. Morley and I went far out
over the broken crust to some fuming
vents. It was apparent that the lava
solidified quickly on the surface, and that
the top crust was lifted bodily on the
living streams below.
The flow is not level, but extremely
irregular, and in many cases the slabs are
piled up in pressure ridges. The sides
and the advancing front did not have
sufficient heat to fire the vegetation, and
even far out in the flow there are giant
ceiba trees around which the lava has
heaped itself like ice above a bridge pier.
The vents from which the lava issued
are not especially spectacular. For a
long time they were too hot to permit a
very close inspection, but now they can
be approached easily. Steam and smoke
rise from the vents and especially from
one called the "Thunderer." The high-
est of the new mouths is considerably
below the level of the bottom of the old
crater.
An early description of the volcano of
San Salvador runs as follows :
"The city is situated on the flank of a
very high volcano, of wide circumfer-
ence, which is now extinct, probably be-
cause it consumed all the materials of a
combustible nature which were in it dur-
ing the period of its activity. It has an
enormous crater, half a league broad and
very deep.
"In descending into it are found two
terraces, or platforms, similar to those
in limekilns. From the lower terrace
rises a smoke so offensive that a Span-
iard who reached there barely escaped
suffocation. The mountain is covered
from top to bottom with great cedars,
pines, and forests of other trees." . . .
In this description no mention is made
of the lake which in recent times filled
the bottom of the crater and on which
a rowboat had been launched for the
pleasure of hardy picnickers (see page
A SIGHT THAT OVERWHELMED THE SENSES
The recent activities in the crater be-
gan some time after the lava had run out
from the side of the mountain. It is not
unlikely that the earthquake opened up
the sealed chimney sufficiently to let
water come in contact with the super-
heated core of the mountain, and that
the steam then blew out the obstructions.
At any rate, the lake, with a fountain in
the middle, boiled furiously for days.
Then a black mass of cinders and lava
forced itself spasmodically above the
water.
When the phenomenon was at its best,
we climbed a steep road, through maize
fields and coffee plantations, to the rim
of the crater, nearly four thousand feet.
The thickly peopled valley rolled out
before us as we ascended, and far below
us in the distance was Lake Ilopango,
itself a great crater, and mountain rid^e
upon mountain ridge beyond that. But
the sight in front, from the rim of the
crater, overwhelmed the senses.
Before us was a great funnel, over a
mile in diameter and a thousand feet
THE LAVA FLOW FROM THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR
It had swept through a coffee plantation and had come to halt in a maize field. Finger-like
side flows run off from the main stream, which is six or seven miles long.
WHERE THE LAVA FLOW BLOCKED THE SALVADOR RAILROAD BETWEEN
QUEZALTEPEQUE AND SITIO DE NINO
The lava covered the track for a distance of over three miles. The railroad now passes
directly over the lava.
190
STRANGE FORMS OF LAVA THAT DRIPPED IN A FINE STREAM AND SOLIDIFIED BEFORE
THEY COULD FUSE AGAIN INTO SOLID MASS
AN OLD CRATER LAKE
After the lava had flowed out from the side of the mountain (see pages 188-190) the lake
in the old crater (see page 193) boiled dry and the old volcano of San Salvador, which had
been quiescent for several hundred years, resumed its activity (see pages 195 and 196).
191
192
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
WHERE THE LAVA FLOW BLOCKED THE HIGHWAY NEAR
QUEZALTEPEQUE
This spot is miles distant from the vents and yet the black
lava is piled up to a height of 30 feet or more in rough pres-
sure ridges. The vegetation was not set on fire because the
stream of liquid stone was pushing forward and dropping on
either side masses of lava already solidified and cooled.
noise, while the earth trem-
bled.
When the black geyser
had forced itself to a height
of perhaps four hundred
feet, the steam burst out in
jets of purest white from
the poised mass. Then the
cinders rained down and
the lava slabs fell like the
crinkled ash of burnt paper
around the mouth of the
tube. The columns of
white steam almost blotted
out the background, as it
blossomed into clouds and
rose high above the rim of
the crater.
At this time there still
were pools of violently agi-
tated water near the mar-
gin of the old lake. Later,
when these were all con-
sumed, the steam turned to
smoke and the display of
fireworks at night was
worth the discomfort en-
tailed by a visit to the
crater's rim.
As the days passed, a
little cone grew up around
the mouth of the tube. The
process of volcano-building
was dramatized for a hand-
ful of humans in a gallery
far above the stage.
A CITY OF EARTHQUAKE
SORROWS
deep. The walls were banded rocks, dull
red and dark gray in color, showing the
rings of growth by which the volcano
had built up its cone.
LOOKING DOWN INTO AN ACTIVE CRATER
Clinging to the shelves and the sheer
cliffs were vines and trees silvered with
ash. In the dusty center of the dried-up
lake was an opening like the mouth of a
sunken tube, and from this opening a
black geyser of cinders and lava frag-
ments shot up at intervals, with a throaty
The first city of San Sal-
vador was founded by
Jorge Alvarado at La Ber-
muda in 1528, but after about ten years
the seat of government was changed to
its present location.
San Salvador has been visited many
times by disastrous earthquakes, espe-
cially noteworthy being those of 1575,
1593, 1625, 1656, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873,
and 1917. Aside from the volcano of
San Salvador which apparently had been
dormant since the Spanish occupation
until its recent outburst, there are many
other volcanoes in Salvador, and some of
them have been very active.
THE CRATER OF THE) VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR AS IT APPEARED BEFORE THE
RECENT ERUPTION
A lake occupied the bottom of the crater and the steep slopes were covered with pine and
other trees. Contrast this peaceful lake with the present scenes (see pages 191, 196).
193
194
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195
TOWARD THE END OF THE ACTIVITY OF SAN SALVADOR VOLCANO THE STEAM TURNED
TO SMOKE OR AT LEAST SEEMED CHARGED WITH VOLCANIC DUST
The old trail down the precipitous crater walls has been destroyed by landslides. The walls
rise about 1,000 feet above the lake.
196
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
197
The volcano of Santa Ana was espe-
cially violent in the sixteenth century.
For the year 1643 an eruption is accred-
ited to San Vicente. In 1844 a great
lava flow, analogous to the recent one of
San Salvador, broke out of the volcano
of San Miguel. But the most romantic
story is that of the formation of Izalco
volcano in historic times.
A CASHING VOLCANO WHICH ACTS AS A
LIGHTHOUSE:
This cinder-covered peak, nearly five
thousand feet high, has built itself up
from what was level plain at the base of
Santa Ana volcano in 1770.
During its long periods of activity
Izalco throws up clouds of smoke and
steam in great puffs, lit from below by
the flame in the crater. These clouds
rise high above the volcano and scarcely
dissolve before others take their place.
From this flashing effect, which can be
seen far at sea, the volcano is known
along the coast as the lighthouse of Cen-
tral America.
John L. Stephens, in his inimitable
journals, describes a view of the activi-
ties of Izalco in 1840:
"We came out suddenly upon an open
front, higher than the top of the vol-
cano, commanding a view of the interior
of the crater, and so near it that we saw
the large stones as they separated in the
air and fell pattering around the sides
of the volcano. In a few minutes our
clothes were white with ashes, which fell
around us with a noise like the sprink-
ling of rain.
ERUPTIONS AT REGULAR INTERVALS
"The crater has three orifices, one of
which was inactive ; another emitted con-
stantly a rich blue smoke ; and after a
report deep in the huge throat of the
third, appeared a light-blue vapor, and
then a mass of thick black smoke, whirl-
ing and struggling out in enormous
wreaths and rising in a dark, majestic
column, lighted for a moment by a sheet
of flame ; and when the smoke dispersed,
the atmosphere was darkened by a
shower of stones and ashes.
"This over, a moment of stillness fol-
lowed, and then another report and erup-
tion, and these continued regularly, at
intervals, as our guide said, of exactly
five minutes, and really he was not much
out of the way. The sight was fearfully
grand."
Salvador has many fine lakes that oc-
cupy craters. Of these Lake Ilopango is
perhaps the most interesting to the trav-
eler. Lake Cojutepeque, with its sheer
walls, is situated in the flanks of the
great volcano of Santa Ana, which has
been scarred and scored by so many wars
of the giants.
^ Lake Guija, on the boundary between
Salvador and Guatemala, was formed
by a lava dam from an eruption of San
Diego volcano. Stories are current of
towns submerged beneath its waters.
The level of the lake is sufficiently above
the level ^ of the old valley to offer great
possibilities of water-power below the
lava dam.
THE CHRISTMAS EARTHQUAKE IN
GUATEMALA
The series of earthquakes culminating
in the heavy shocks that destroyed Guate-
mala City began on November 17, 1917,
with a shock centering in the region of
Lake Amatitlan. A large part of the
town of Amatitlan was then thrown
down. From this date on the trembling
of the earth was continuous, from ten to
thirty light quakes being recorded every
day. Naturally the populace became
more or less hardened to them, but there
was much uneasiness concerning the out-
come.
The first disastrous earthquake fell on
Christmas night, at about 10.20. It did
considerable damage and served as a
strong warning, which doubtless saved
many lives, for at 11.23 came an ex-
tremely heavy shock, which brought
down many houses and killed, perhaps,
fifty persons.
All night, with a full moon in the un-
troubled sky, the populace huddled in
parks while the earth trembled.
On December 29, in the afternoon, a
heavy vibration again ran through the
shaken city, and more walls fell. At
10.40 p. m., on January 3, a long and
heavy shock brought down the towers of
the cathedral and many other landmarks,
198
199
GUATEMALA: CAMINO REAL (THE ROYAL HIGHWAY)
Photographs from M. Rohde
EARTHENWARE SALE: MARKET-PLACE AT CANTEL, GUATEMALA
200
Photograph from M. Rohde
A WAYSIDE SCENE: IN GUATEMALA: AGAVE: (NOT THE: KNOWN
201
202
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
while on January 24 came the fourth and
heaviest earthquake, sufficient to ruin
nearly every edifice.
A HOTEL MADE OF DOORS
A bit of personal narrative may not
be out of place here. I was fortunate
enough to arrive in Guatemala City about
twenty minutes before the earthquake of
January 24, 1918. As has been said,
three other heavy shocks had already left
their mark upon the city. All the hotels
were ruined and temporary shelter had
to be sought in shacks set up in open
squares. I secured a bed at the new
Hotel Roma, which was constructed of
doors taken from the old hotel of this
name and erected in the old carriage
yard in front of the railroad station.
The sun had scarcely set and a full
moon was rising in an unblemished sky.
For me there was not on this occasion
any premonition, although at other times
I have sensed the coming vibration for
a brief moment, as one senses a coming
storm. The dishes on the table began to
rattle and dance and the walls and tin
roof to creak and sway.
We crowded through the doors into
the open street, stumbling and falling.
From near and far came the roar of fall-
ing walls. The yellow dust arose, ob-
scuring the moon. Then the trembling
died away and ceased, but the dust pall
lay over the stricken city.
These last shocks apparently centered
under Guatemala City, with a radius of
destruction measuring thirty miles. Fear
was felt lest the earth should give way
before the fearful convulsions and a
volcano form in the city itself.
The deep cuts of the railroad running
to Puerto Barrios were filled in, time and
again, and only through untiring labor
was the line kept open for long enough
periods to rush in supplies.
Not only were houses ruined, but water
mains were broken and the people ex-
posed to the dangers of using water
which had oozed up in the streets. In
the cemeteries the skeletons were shaken
out of the burial cists and many remains
were afterwards cremated. The loss of
life in Guatemala City probably did not
exceed two hundred.
Only a few broken walls remain to
mark the site of Guatemala's first capital,
now known as Ciudad Vieja. The site
was selected by the conqueror, Pedro de
Alvarado, on St. James Day, 1524, and
the actual building was commenced three
years later by Jorge de Alvarado. The
official title of the city was "St. James
of the Gentlemen of Guatemala." The
arms granted by Charles V in 1532 were
"a shield charged with three mountains
on a field gules, the center one vomiting
fire, and surmounted by the Apostle St.
James, on horseback, armed and bran-
dishing a sword ; an orle, with eight
shells or, on a field azure ; crest, a crown."
MYSTERY IN THE DESTRUCTION Otf
GUATEMALA'S FIRST CAPITAL
There is some doubt whether the de-
struction of Ciudad Vieja should be
ascribed to an earthquake, to a cloud-
burst, or to the two combined, but it
seems hardly likely that it can properly
be ascribed to an actual eruption of the
Volcan de Agua.
The crater of this volcano is a grassy
basin, containing a few pine trees, at the
very summit of an almost perfect vol-
canic cone, and there are no signs that
a lake ever existed in it. The account
given by Juarros of the destruction of
Ciudad Vieja on September n, 1541,
runs as follows :
"It had rained incessantly and with
great violence on the preceding days,
particularly on the night of the loth,
when the water descended more like the
water of a cataract than rain. The fury
of the wind, the incessant, appalling
lightning and dreadful thunder were in-
describable. The general terror was in-
creased by eruptions from the volcano to
such a degree that in the combination of
horrors the inhabitants imagined the final
destruction of the world was at hand.
"At 2 o'clock on the morning of the
nth the vibrations of the earth were so
violent that the people were unable to
stand ; the shocks were accompanied by a
terrible subterranean noise which spread
universal dismay. Shortly afterward an
immense torrent of water rushed down
from the summit of the mountain, forc-
ing with it .enormous fragments of rocks
and large trees, which, descendmr.upon
the ill-fated town, overwhelmed arid de-
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
203
stroyed all the houses
and buried a great
number of the inhab-
itants under the ruins ;
among the many,
Dona Beatriz de la
Cueva, the widow of
Pedro de Alvarado,
lost her life."
THE; SECOND CAPITAL
IS ALSO DESTROYED
The capital was re-
moved to a new loca-
tion, a few miles far-
ther away from the
base of the Volcan de
Agua, and rebuilt in
great magnificence, as
befitted the govern-
mental and ecclesiasti-
cal center of all Cen-
tral America (as well
as Chiapas, Mexico).
This second capital is
now called Antigua
Guatemala.
The various orders,
including the Fran-
ciscans, Dominicans,
Capuchins, Jesuits,
Recollects, Merceda-
rians, Bethlehemites,
etc., and the sister-
hoods of Santa Clara
and Santa Teresa,
built monasteries, nun-
neries, hospitals, col-
leges, churches, and
shrines and the civil
government erected
many public buildings,
including the splendid
Palace of the Captains.
But numerous earthquake shocks, often
associated with eruptions of the Volcan
de Fuego, continued to disrupt the most
solid constructions. Great damage was
done in 1565 and again in 1575-76 and
1577. In : 58i there was an eruption of
the volcano, and such vast quantities of
ashes were thrown out that lights were
necessary in midday.
The years 1585 and 1586 were mem-
orable for an association of earthquake
and volcanic eruptions, beginning on
ONE OF OVER FORTY CHURCHES IN THE SHATTERED CITY OF
ANTIGUA GUATEMALA
This is a view of the ancient cathedral, looking from the apse
toward the front. The central part of the nave has fallen, as has the
dome. Antigua was the second capital of Guatemala and was de-
stroyed by natural forces in 1773 (see text, page 204).
January 16 of the former year and ex-
tending till December 23 of the latter,
when the greater part of the city was de-
stroyed and many persons killed. On
February 18, 1651, there were violent
vibrations that caused much damage. A
chronicle states:
"The tiles from the roofs of the houses
were dispersed in all directions, like light
straws by a gust of wind ; the bells of
the churches were rung by the vibra-
tions ; masses of rock were detached
from the mountains ; and even the wild
204
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
AN ANCIENT FOUNTAIN IN A PASTURE AT ANTIGUA GUATEMALA
There are many such details to impress one with the quondam beauty of this shattered and
abandoned capital.
beasts were so terrified that, losing their
natural instinct, they quitted their re-
treats and sought shelter among the
habitations of men."
TIME BEAUTIFIES A CITY IN RUINS
Other disasters are recorded for 1679,
1681, 1683, 1684, 1687, 1689, and 1705.
In 1717 the citizens became so alarmed
at the terrifying phenomena that they
asked leave to abandon the city, but be-
fore the license arrived they had recov-
ered from their fears. The fate of
Antigua Guatemala was sealed by the
formidable earthquakes of 1773, culmi-
nating in the dreadful convulsion of
July 29.
Today one finds a peaceful town domi-
nated by majestic ruins that the soft
hand of Time has made beautiful. The
refurbished fagade of the cathedral looks
down upon the central square of the -city
and conceals a vast extent of broken
vaults. Through a side gate you enter
the broken nave and pass down under
the central dome, where the pendentives
are rich with angels and labyrinthine
scrollwork ; or you climb to the roof and
walk gingerly over the grass-grown hum-
mocks of egg-shell vaulting to the low
parapets of the cornice.
Throughout the modern town and, in-
deed, far beyond its limits, one encoun-
ters the wrecks of temples or comes
unexpectedly on fountains or wayside
shrines. There are said to be over forty
edifices of divine worship in Antigua
Guatemala some restored in part, others
utterly deserted.
SEEKING SAFETY FOR A CITY IN THE
SHADOW OF A CHURCH
When it was apparent that Antigua
should be abandoned, the government
cast around for a likely spot for the capi-
tal and finally decided on the present lo-
cation of Guatemala City.
The deciding argument for this site
SHATTERED CAPITALS OF CENTRAL AMERICA
205
A STREET IN GUATEMALA CITY
For mile after mile, houses are tangles of rafters and heaps of plaster and adobe. The ground
will in most cases have to be cleared before reconstruction or restoration can take place.
was the church of the Cerrito de Car-
men, which in 150 years had not been
damaged by earthquakes. So St. James
of the Gentlemen of Guatemala was re-
established in 1776 and until Christmas
of 1917 did not experience a devastating
earthquake a record of nearly three
hundred years for the site.
Over the doorway to this church of
the Cerrito de Carmen, leading in from
the court, one may read in old-fashioned
Spanish the following inscriptions:
Right: "He who aided the foundation
of this house was the illustrious Don
Antonio Maria Cheberi de Justiniano,
conqueror."
Center: "The Virgin Mother of God,
conceived without the original sin. In
1620 I. H. S. (Jesus Savior of Men)."
Left: "The founder of this was Juan
Croz, religious of the seraphic national
order of the Lordship of Genoa."
And now the church that stood on the
rock for three hundred years is a ruin,
its solid faqade shattered, its roof fallen,
its dome broken like an egg-shell. But
the image has been rescued from its
shrine and set up under a temporary
roof. Before it services are held.
From the -fixed face of the painted
Christ one has only to turn the head to
see the streets of the "city that was,"
spread out like a map deserted streets
blocked by fallen houses ; and beyond the
far-stretching ruins rise faintly through
the haze the toothed summit of Pacaya,
and to the right of this the cone of the
Volcan de Agua.
NICARAGUA AND HONDURAS THE) SCENES
OF MANY EARTHQUAKES
We need not sketch in detail the vol-
canic actions that have been so ruinous
in this part of Guatemala, especially in
the cities of Quezaltenango and Chiqui-
mula, but before closing let us review
briefly the experiences of Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (map, page
194).
Honduras lies almost entirely outside
the area of active volcanoes and repre-
sents a geologically old land-mass. How-
ever, her territory comes down to the
Gulf of Fonseca, which is a hotbed of
THE HOSPITAL SECTION OF THE) AMERICAN RED CROSS RELIEF CAMP "MANUEL
ESTRADA CABRERA," IN GUATEMALA CITY
Located opposite the Military Academy, in the Reforma, 4,000 tents were loaned by the
War Department, U. S. A. These were rushed from Key West. At the time this snap-shot
was taken between 1,100 and 1,200 of these tents were set up and nearly all occupied, and
foodstuffs were being distributed ; medical attention was provided and 8,000 persons had been
vaccinated for small-pox and 5,000 for typhoid and paratyphoid. Escula Practica is in the
background.
GUATEMALA CITY
Photographs from W. G. Luckhardt
Looking north on i6th Street east from nth Avenue. Typical of the destruction of
the houses.
206
ESCULA PRACTICA, IN GUATEMALA CITY
This handsome school building, in which the children of the republic were to receive
manual training and instruction in the applied arts, had been completed, but not yet occupied,
when the catastrophe occurred, reducing the edifice to a mass of ruins. The city of Guate-
mala has a population of 100,000, of whom nearly five-sixths are of European origin.
Photographs from W. G. Luckhardt
ADJOINING THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, IN GUATEMALA CITY
Nearly all tombs were destroyed and opened. It is estimated that IT,OOO bodies and four tons
of human bones were gathered and cremated.
207
208
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IN THE VOLCANO OF IRAZU, COSTA RICA, ACTIVITY IS NOW TAKING PLACE
This volcano has several craters, but the flow from these is mud rather than lava.
A CHURCH AT CAMOTAN, GUATEMALA, ON THE ROAD TO THE ANCIENT MAYAN CITY
OF COPAN
An example of the splendid edifices erected by the Indians under supervision of Spanish
priests. Camotan is a village of perhaps 500 population.
210
Photograph by YaMcavcllano
THE ALTAR SCREEN OF THE CHURCH OF CERRITO DE CARMEN
This beautiful little church, the most beloved in the city, and regarded by many persons
as the very symbol of the stability of Guatemala City, has crumpled and crumbled before the
reiterated shocks. While the church itself has been destroyed, the image has been preserved
and set up under a temporary shelter. The worshiper can turn from contemplation of the
figure of Christ to see the ashes and the debris of "a city that was" spreading beneath him in
a panorama of devastation.
volcanoes, and her principal southern
port, Amapala, is situated on Tigre
Island, a typical volcanic cone. Ancient
lava flows and deposits of volcanic mud
hardened into a light, friable stone are
found in central Honduras. Earth-
quakes have not entirely forgotten this
Republic, for only a few years ago the
flourishing town of Gracias was utterly
wrecked.
Nicaragua, almost equally with her
northern sisters, has suffered heavily in
the past from earthquakes and volcanoes.
Leon, the metropolis of Nicaragua, was
formerly located on the shores of Lake
Nicaragua, near the base of Momotombo.
This capital was destroyed in 1609 and
removed to its present site, in the fertile
valley of Subtiaba. Even here, how-
ever, it has not ceased to suffer.
Masaya volcano was active in 1522,
when the Spaniards first entered Nica-
ragua, and again in 1772, 1858, and 1908.
Momotombo, which is nearly always
smoking, has had periods of great activ-
ity, especially in 1/64 and 1852. Ome-
tepe and Madera, with smoke issuing
from their summits, dominate the scenery
of Lake Nicaragua.
A VOLCANO THAT BLEW OFF ITS OWN HEAD
But perhaps the most sensational erup-
tion recorded in the annals of Nicaragua
is that of Coseguina, at the entrance of
the Gulf of Fonseca. In 1835 this vol-
cano blew off its head and scattered dust
far and wide. The black pall obscured
the sun for days, and old Indians still
fix their ages and other events in rela-
tion to "La Oscuridad Grande" The
Great Darkness. The dust settled thickly
over field and forest, and wild animals
as well as tame died by thousands from
thirst and hunger.
2TT
2\'2
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Valdeavellano
RELIGIOUS SERVICES BEING HELD BEFORE THE RESCUED IMAGE OF THE CHURCH Otf
CARMEN
In Costa Rica the Cordillera rises to
heights above 11,000 feet and boasts a
string of volcanic peaks, some extinct
and others occasionally active. Orosi
and Tenorio are situated near the south-
ern end of Lake Nicaragua,' while the
more famous peaks of Poas and Irazu
are close to the old capital, Cartago, and
the modern one, San Jose.
Both of these volcanoes have been
active in recent years, and the latter
(Irazu) had a period of marked activity
in 1723 and 1726. Cartago was wiped
out by an earthquake on September 2,
1841. Although it never afterwards rose
to its former importance, it was rebuilt
in part, only to be destroyed again on
May 4, 1910, when the newly constructed
Pan-American Peace Palace was over-
thrown.
THE GOOD GIFT OF VOLCANOES
Lest the reader should close with the
thought that these calamities render life
and property too unsafe, be it understood
that there are sometimes compensations.
We all know that the annual flooding of
the Nile in Egypt leaves a film of sedi-
ment over the valley and restores the soil
for the next crop. Similarly, in Central
America the volcanoes from time to time
throw out a vitalizing dust that enriches
the soil beyond the possibilities of costly
fertilizers. Throughout the world, vol-
canic regions are ones of heavy popula-
tion and great productiveness. There
are losses yes, but "out of death com-
eth forth life."
In the case of Guatemala City there
are no compensating features, unless it
be that this metropolis and diplomatic
capital of Central America shall be re-
built in a more modern and beautiful
fashion. The city can hardly be re-
moved to another site, since it is a rail-
road and commercial center, situated on
the divide between the Atlantic and Pa-
cific. Rebuilding has been slow because
of the difficulty in obtaining materials,
but, now that the Great War is ended, it
should proceed apace.
THE ISLE OF CAPRI
An Imperial Residence and Probable Wireless Station of
Ancient Rome
BY JOHN A. KINGMAN
IN NO part of Italy is the natural
scenery more astonishing and de-
lightful than in the Bay of Naples.
The Italian travel literature of the last
hundred and fifty years is rich in at-
tempts to describe the picturesqueness of
the district ; but in the old days the tour
usually ended at Naples, and by that
time the fatigued diarists had pretty
much run out of adjectives. Symonds,
one of the best of the English writers on
Italy, has done well by the locality; our
Fenimore Cooper has written some
agreeable bits about it, and the half-for-
gotten American poet, Willis, epitomized
all descriptions when he called it a col-
lection of beauties which seems more like
a miracle than an accident of nature.
Owing to the striking contrasts caused
by the meeting of mountains, sea, and
mountain islands, much of the charm of
the bay can be caught by the camera.
The painter has little advantage over a
machine which reproduces the sculptured
forms exactly, whereas the colors and
curious quality of the atmosphere are be-
yond both.
Many lovers of Italy feel that a coun-
try like Tuscany, with its softer color-
ings and gentler contours, is more rest-
ful and somehow more wholesome to
live with, and that the Neapolitan
scenery is too much like theater cur-
tains come to life. Nevertheless, every
person who arrives at Nanles under fair
skies and beholds this littoral for the
first time cannot help being affected by
its loveliness.
A SIREN LAND CHARGED WITH CLASSICAL
MEMORIES
Many of the visitors feel something
deeper than admiration ; for them all of
the coast scenery from Miseno to Sa-
lerno has a strange and lasting fascina-
tion. Then there are the siren wor-
shipers who have heard the mystic song
and are content to let body and soul rest
here forever ; and to such willing victims
of the picturesque, Naples is not a noisy,
nerve-racking modern city, full of beg-
gars and rogues and fleas; it is the old
"new city" Neapolis.
In the Bay of Naples the very at-
mosphere, to such Neapolitan specialists,
seems more bland and limpid than else-
where on the peninsula, lending to the
distances a more magical and haunting
charm ; the curving shore is picked out
and decorated with countless beauties,
and high mountains descend abruptly
to a tideless sea streaked with color,
in which are set ethereal lilac-tinted
islands.
This southern Siren Land, in addition
to its gorgeous aspect, is so charged
through and through with classical mem-
ories that it has much of the glory of
Greece and the grandeur of Rome.
From this rare vintage is expressed a
heady beverage esteemed by siren wor-
shipers and lotus-eaters, numbers of
whom have lived hereabout for genera-
tions and who have found a particularly
choice place of residence on one of its
fairest spots the mountain island of
Capri, the Caprese of the great em-
perors, Augustus and Tiberius.
AN ESTHETIC WONDER OF THE WORLD
Viewed from Naples, Capri is a con-
spicuous object in the seascape twenty
miles to the south. Its profile resembles
the storm-tossed waves, or a sphinx, or
a vast heap of clouds brooding at sea, or
a sarcophagus, or a crocodile depend-
ing on whether your viewpoint is that of
Lord Byron, or Richter, or Willis,
or Gregorovius, or Colonel Mackowen.
Thus is seen the futility of description.
213
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Capri is an esthetic wonder of the
world. Its area is but six square miles ;
but surely nowhere else in the world are
so much loveliness and so many interest-
ing things packed in so little space.
Artists have always flocked to Capri,
each year bringing a fresh brood, con-
fident in its ability to paint the unpaint-
able cliffs and sea. Some of these lin-
gered on, some to marry the handsome
Capri girls; and Howell's Englishman
who came to the island for three months
and stayed for thirty years is not a
unique case in this respect.
Capri has the odd reputation of mak-
ing its foreign residents eccentric, and
there are many strange tales told on
the island of their peculiar behavior. It
has always been rather noted for its
queer characters and human flotsam and
jetsam.
THE LURE OF THE GROTTO
The fame of the Blue Grotto has made
Capri a show-place, and for upward of
a hundred years, day after day, the tide
of seasick tourists has flowed and ebbed.
In spite of these daily caravans, how-
ever in spite of the Anacapri Road,
the Funicular Road, the Strada Krupp,
much tasteless villa-building, and the vast
hordes of Germans Capri is still essen-
tially unspoiled.
It is true that the Capri women gave
up wearing their costume thirty years
ago; that the old Greek forms have
dropped out of the island speech ; that
the old days have gone forever; but, de-
spite this, there has been a gain in con-
venience and comfort of living for both
Capresi and Forestieri, even at a loss of
picturesqueness ; and the comforting fact
remains that Capri's beauty is rugged
and perennial, not to be destroyed by
man.
After the murder of Julius Caesar, in
B. C. 44, there was confusion, civil war,
until the battle of Actium produced a
lasting peace and seated Augustus firmly
on the throne. When Actium was won
the future Emperor retired to the Island
of Samos, and as a matter of pleasant
association must have enjoyed island life
ever after. In B. C. 29 he left Asia and
returned to Italy, and before his three
days' triumph at Rome visited Naples
and near there heard Virgil read his
Georgics. He also came to Capri and
acquired it for a royal residence.
The statement in Suetonius that some
withered oak branches came to life when
Augustus landed, and that this so pleased
him that he obtained the island, must be
taken with the modern skeptic grain of
salt. "The usual compliment to great-
ness," Mabie calls it.
Augustus, though doubtless as super-
stitious as any Roman, bought Capri be-
cause that was the object of his visit.
These miraculous incidents have a way
of happening all over Italy in all days
and generations.
THE EMPEROR MAKES A DEAL IN ISLANDS
It is not known whether Augustus had
visited the island before. The Roman
historians merely say that he received
Capri from Naples, in whose possession
it had been for hundreds of years, and in
return gave the larger and more fruitful
island of Ischia.
Islands were in style at this time. But
Ischia, perhaps, was discarded because
of its reputation for eruptions of the vol-
cano of Monte Epomeo, one of which oc-
curred in B. C. 92 ; and there were prob-
ably earthquakes, too. Besides, Capri
was more intimate and exclusive and
more easily transformed into an imperial
domain than the much larger and more
thickly populated Ischia.
In the opinion of the writer, who spent
the greater part of one spring browsing
about the Roman ruins on Capri, the
property was acquired as much for state
reasons as for private ones. In the first
place, it was an outlying island which
probably needed protection a strategic
point, logically destined to become crown
property. Undefended and neglected, it
could be easily captured ; but a small gar-
rison could hold it against any attack.
The island at that time was twenty feet
higher out of the water and even more
inaccessible than now.
PIRATES A PEST IN POMPEY'S DAY
Capri was the first point in Campania
where the Greeks obtained a foothold,
and Augustus possibly did a far-sighted
thing by securing it for the Empire, thus
preventing its seizure by enemies or by
THE; WOMEN OF CAPRI NO LONGER WEAR THE PICTURESQUE NATIVE COSTUME
The attractive black lace veil is still seen occasionally, however. Frequently Grecian
features are to be observed in the women, a reminder of their ancient ancestry (see text,
page 216).
217
THE ROAD TO THE LANDING PLACE ON THE SOUTH SIDE
Photographs by Edith P. Kingman
ON THE RUGGED PATH LEADING FROM THE VILLAGE OF CAPRI DOWN TO THE
WORLD-FAMOUS BLUE GROTTO
The soles of the shoes worn by the natives of Capri are made of rope, as a precaution against
slipping on the steep rocky slopes of which the island is in the main comprised.
218
Photograph by Edith P. Kinginan
BOTH ROMAN AND MEDIEVAL RUINS COVER THE SUMMIT KNOWN AS
THE CASTIGUONE
Important excavations unearthed walls, pavements, and bas-reliefs of rare archaeological
value. A few years later the thrifty peasants covered the ruins with soil and planted vines
over the spot where once stood the palace of an emperor.
pirates. There was certainly the matter
of pirates to be considered. They have
always been a pest of the Mediterranean.
At the time of Pompey's celebrated cam-
paign against the Mediterranean pirates,
67 B. C., they were well organized and
intrenched; they had naval stations and
beacon towers in various places. Cen-
turies later the English actually did seize
Capri, in 1806, and called it the "Little
Gibraltar." They might have held it,
perhaps, to this day but for the ill luck
and incompetence of Colonel Hudson
Lowe, later Napoleon's jailer at St.
Helena.
The ruin of the Capri Pharos, the
ancient lighthouse, so close to the largest
of the ruined palaces on Capri, is a para-
mount point in the archaeology of the
island. The selection of Capri by Au-
gustus was most likely biased to a con-
siderable degree by the fact that it was
ideally situated for the Pharos. This
was one of the most important light-
houses of antiquity.
The limit of this article does not per-
mit of any elaborate disquisition on
Roman lighthouses, but enough informa-
tion exists regarding them to show that
they were permanent, costly structures
and abundant, too, not merely in Italy,
but also in Gaul and Britain.
PHAROS, ONE OF THE SEVEN WONDERS
The name Pharos comes from the
enormous structure at Alexandria, built
in B. C. 285, one of the seven wonders
of the ancient world, and which stood
until the thirteenth century. This light-
house was very high, owing to the low
coast; but the practical Romans, wher-
ever possible, placed their beacons on
commanding headlands and made them
relatively short and massive. One of
them, Tour d'Ordre, at Boulogne, on the
French coast, is illustrated in an old
print. It stood until the middle of the
seventeenth century. This was probably
typical a strong masonry tower with a
fire that was kept burning at the top.
As to details of design, the views that
have come down to us, on medals, coins,
reliefs, and Pompeian wall paintings,
show a great variety of elevations.
219
220
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Edith P. Kingman
EAST OF THE SUMMIT OF MONTE SOLARO IS THIS FORMER HERMITAGE OF
SANTA MARIA CITRELLA
Not far away are the extensive ruins of the Villa di Tiberio. "Imperious Caesar, dead
and turned to clay, might stop a hole to turn the wind away" ; and the corridors and vaulted
rooms of the once magnificent retreat of the mighty Tiberius are now used as sheds for the
cows of the workaday Caprians.
The existing lower portion of the
Capri structure is a mass of burned
Roman brick, forty feet square and fifty
feet high, sufficiently conspicuous to
show in photographs taken from Monte
Solaro, at the other end of the island,
two miles away. Its original appear-
ance is entirely problematical. It may
have had two or three stories. The
tower at Boulogne had several stories
and was 200 feet high. The Capri
tower was not any higher than this, and
in all probability not so high, as the ele-
vation of the headland is about one thou-
sand feet above the sea. It is one of the
most valuable and interesting ruins on
the entire island.
THE ANCIENTS SIGNALED LONG DISTANCES
^ What right have we to assume that
Capri was a signal station an imperial
wireless station of ancient Rome?
In the first place, we know that the
ancients signaled in various ways and
over long distances. They signaled by
beacon fires, by beacon smoke, by pig-
eons, by flags, and by shouting from one
sentinel to another.
Lighthouses are as old as the earliest
chapters of the Bible. Beacon fires and
beacon smoke were commonly used by
the early Greeks, and there was no rea-
son why the more practical Romans
should not have employed improved
methods, such as heliographing.
We do know that at the siege of Syra-
cuse by Marcellus mirrors were em-
ployed by Archimedes; and though we
may doubt the burning of vessels from
shore by mirrors, as stated of that occa-
sion, we can appreciate the blinding effect
of many mirrors on the eyes of the navi-
gators of the attacking vessels. That is
what probably happened during that con-
THE ISLE OF CAPRI
221
Photograph by Edith P. Kingman
FISHING IS ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE MEN OF CAPRI
Cultivation of the olive tree and of the vine are also profitable pursuits, but the inhabitants
rely chiefly upon the annual tourists' crop for their livelihood.
flict. At any rate, it shows that the
great Archimedes, at least, had found
some use for mirrors other than the
usual one.
THE USE OF MIRRORS BY THE ROMANS
In imperial times the Romans had
mirrors large enough to reflect the en-
tire person ; they even had mirrors of
glass backed with tin instead of quick-
silver.
Although there are no references in
ancient writings to the use of signaling
by mirrors, such a simple and effective
method surely must have been employed.
A most significant thing is the old story
of a mirror on the Alexandrian Pharos :
"Alexander the Great placed on the
top of the tower a mirror constructed
with so much art that by means of it he
could see the fleets of his enemies at 100
leagues distance" ; and, to enter still more
into particulars, "a Greek named Sodorus,
after the death of Alexander, broke the
mirror while the garrison of the town
was asleep."
Now any tradition, no matter how dis-
torted, has its roots in truth ; and this
one leaves us with the feeling that there
was a mirror en the tower. The most
likely reason for its presence there is
that it was used to signal with in day-
light hours ; in other words, it was used
for heliographing.
Signaling was certainly a common
military practice among the ancients,
and ancient writers, such as Virgil,
^Eschylus, and Herodotus, frequently
alluded to it.
CODE MESSAGES OF THE ANCIENTS
An interesting case of long-distance
signaling by relaying is mentioned by
Herodotus, in which it appears that cer-
tain tidings were sent to Xerxes in Asia
by means of a line of beacon fires ar-
ranged through the Greek islands.
The ancients went further than sim-
THE ROCK-HEWN ROADWAYS OF CAPRI ZIGZAG SKYWARD AT DIZZY ANGLES
In ancient days the inhabitants were accustomed to mounting from one village to another by
flights of steps.
222
Photograph by Edith P. Kingman
UKE CLINGING IVY, VII^AS CLAMBER UP THE SIDES OF CAPRI'S ROCKY CUFFS
The ancient home of the pleasure-loving Roman tyrant Tiberius is visited annually by 40,000
tourists in normal times.
ply announcing some prearranged mes-
sage; they had codes and sent long
messages. The Greeks signaled on one
occasion 100 miles at one jump. This
was from Mt. Chigri, 1,698 feet, to Mt.
Athos, 6,500 feet.
The subject is one of absorbing inter-
est, but little touched on by archaeologists.
Polybius, the Greek historian, has de-
scribed ancient signaling methods in con-
siderable detail, particularly an ingeni-
ous and elaborate method invented by
Cleoxenus and Democlitus and perfected
by Polybius himself.
Briefly, this method was about as fol-
lows, the letters of the alphabet being
arranged on five boards :
A F K P U
B G L Q V
C H M R W
D ' I N S X
E J O T Z
To send any letter, such as H, the sig-
naling party raised two torches, because
H is in the second column. Next, three
torches were raised, as H is the third
letter in its column. Very briefly, this
was the theory.
223
224
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
The system was effective at about ten
miles, and, though designed for torches,
it could be easily modified for mirror
signaling, as it contains the fundamental
principle of the best modern system of
signaling.
If the Greeks could invent such a
theory of communication, it would seem
likely that the Romans, a century and
a half later, could have perfected its
practice by using mirrors. Even our
American Indians, having mirrors, sig-
naled with them extensively, both on the
plains and in the Rockies, the chief fre-
quently being enabled to direct his war-
riors with certainty from a distant point
overlooking the field.
MIRROR SIGNALS SEEN AT A DISTANCE OF
I 60 MILES
Gallup's Hand Book of Military Sig-
naling states that "under favorable con-
ditions the distance to which messages
may be sent and received is only limited
by the curvature of the earth ;" also, that
"square mirrors are better than round
ones only because they contain about
one-quarter more reflecting surface for
the same packing space." Round mir-
rors are used now. Mirror signals have
been seen with the unassisted eye at dis-
tances of 160 miles. While this is, per-
haps, a record, and although there is no
statement as to the size of the mirror,
it probably did not exceed twelve inches
square.
The reasonableness of the Capri "wire-
less" station theory tempts one to specu-
late as to how much signaling was done
and how it was done. It will be remem-
bered that Tiberius, the unpopular suc-
cessor of Augustus, spent eleven years
of his reign on Capri, and without com-
ing to Rome directed most successfully
the affairs of the vast Empire. He even
foiled the conspiracy of his trusted min-
ister, Se janus, who was supposed to have
general charge of affairs after Tiberius
retired to the island.
Though Tiberius went to Capri an old
man, he was the actual ruler emperor
in fact and his heavy hand was felt all
over the Empire until the very end.
With regular news bulletins and reports,
received daily if need be, containing con-
fidential information, he would be able
to issue instructions and manage affairs
as thoroughly as if he were in Rome.
BEACON FIRES BY NIGHT, MIRRORS BY DAY
Possibly the Publica acta (Senate
Journal) and the Dhtrna acta (author-
ized news) were sent to Capri by signal
instead of by messenger. We can con-
ceive that such a system, organized most
likely under Augustus, must have oper-
ated very smoothly after some years of
experience and practice. I hazard the
theory of mirrors because of its simplic-
ity and convincing character. Signaling
by beacon seems too primitive for the
wonderful civilization of the Empire.
Of course, at night-time beacon fires
would have to be employed ; mirror sig-
naling was a fair-weather method.
It is not entirely clear how /the Roman
lighthouses were managed. If the early
representations on coins and reliefs do
not mislead us, we may imagine a squat
tower on a headland, perhaps 100 feet
high and perhaps twelve feet square on
top, with fire blazing all over the top
platform. How long would the resinous
wood fire last ? During the long hours of
darkness? It would not burn that long.
Obviously, the fires must have con-
sumed immense quantities of wood and
been replenished at intervals throughout
the night. In periods of storm and rain
the operation of the Pharos must have
been a trying task. Just how the fire
was replenished is not very clear. The
Capri Pharos appears to have been pro-
vided with an outside staircase by which
billets of coniferous wood could be car-
ried up and thrown on the fire.
ROMAN LIGHTHOUSES OPERATED EIGHT
MONTHS OF THE YEAR
It is most improbable that any Roman
lighthouse could have been operated
throughout the entire year. It was kept
alight during the passage of the grain
fleets and possibly then allowed to go
out. Navigation began in March and
came to an end in November. Accord-
ing to Merivale, the sea was not used for
one-third of the year.
A little island like Capri would be de-
forested in a short time, a year or two,
THE PUBUC SQUARE OF THE VILLAGE OF CAPRI WHICH NESTLES AMONG THE ROCKS
NEARLY 5OO FEET .ABOVE THE SEA
This is the center of life on the island. As its capital, the village has a population of
four thousand.
235
OVERLOOKING THE ITALIAN COAST (CAMPANIA) FROM THE LIMESTONE CLIFFS
OF CAPRI
A PICTURESQUE REMINDER OF THE FREQUENT VISITS OF PIRATES TO CAPRI IN
OLDEN DAYS
Contrary to the custom of christening a castle after its builder, this historic pile, Castello de
Barbarossa, bears the name of the freebooter who destroyed it in 1544.
226
THE ISLE OF CAPRI
227
with such a greedy Moloch swallowing
untold cords of firewood every night.
However, wood was a cheap commodity
in the Empire. There were trackless
forests all over it.
In England, and in fact everywhere
on lighthouses, the exposed beacons of
the ancients were used until recent times.
The exposed "chauffer" type of beacon
light burned, say, 400 tons of coal a year,
in addition to vast quantities of wood.
Coal fires were in use until 1816.
The mirror system would cost no
money to operate, would be easy to use,
and by it long signals could be sent. In
times of stress, the primitive beacon
would have to be employed when there
was no sun. Under the practical rule
of the Romans, beacon signaling was
doubtless somewhat advanced and by it
long signals could be sent, perhaps by
making the beacon flare up by adding
periodically small quantities of oil.
THE: ROMANS EXCELLED IN ENGINEERING
This is a mere surmise, without basis
other than the general advanced charac-
ter of Roman civilization, which lacked
little we have today. The Romans were
not artistic, but they were wonderful
mechanics, hydraulic engineers, sani-
tary engineers, and great builders of all
kinds of structures and highways. They
had water pumps. They had perfected
shorthand writing. The old writers do
not tell us very much of Roman culture.
None of them mentions a certain famous
surgical instrument found at Pompeii,
but it is there just the same.
The distance in an air line between
Rome and Capri is 130 miles too long
for direct signaling; but if we look along
the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea we find
numerous mountains affording points
where the signals could be relayed. The
frequency of the relaying would depend
on the conditions. The highest point on
Capri is Monte Solaro, 1,980 feet. Sig-
nals were probably not sent from here,
but from the eastern headland. The
Pharos was about 1,000 feet above sea-
level. A line drawn from the Pharos to
Monte Circeo, on the Campanian coast,
just grazes the Island of Ischia ; but the
line of sight would be well above the isl-
and, as the summit of Circeo is 1,775
feet.
REXAY STATIONS FOR MIRROR SIGNALING
On a clear day it is possible to stand
on this storied summit and, facing north,
see the dome of St. Peter's in Rome, and,
turning to the south, see Ischia and
Capri. "From the mountain promontory
of Circe, now called Circeo or Cir-
cello, from almost any point on the
Bay of Naples sufficiently elevated to
get the sea horizon toward the west-
northwest, we can see the high mass
connected with the mainland by the
Pontine marshes, whose low shores are
invisible at this distance." There is a
semaforo at Monte Circeo in actual oper-
ation today, just as there is also a sema-
foro on the "telegrafo" hill at Capri.
From Capri to Monte Circeo in an air
line is 77 miles a long shot for mirror
signaling when we consider that the
record for heliographing with the . un-
assisted eye in America in modern times
is 160 miles. Still it was not impossible
with a large mirror in the clear air of
ancient Italy. Probably also the vision
of the ancients was exceedingly keen,
and doubtless signaling was in the
hands of those gifted with extraordinary
powers of vision.
Nothing could have been easier than
to increase the number of relay stations,
although we may be sure the efficient
Romans would signal over as long dis-
tances as possible.
TACITUS REFERS TO LONG-DISTANCE
SIGNALING
A suggested line of stations with no
range more than 44 miles long is sub-
mitted to those of a speculative turn of
mind. Rome to Monte Cavo, in the
Alban Mountains, 18 miles; thence to
Monte Circeo, 39 miles ; thence to Monte
Massico, 44 miles; thence to Capri, 44
miles. A Pompeian fresco of quite recent
discovery shows Monte Cavo as being
very conspicuous when viewed from the
Palatine Hill. The clear summit is
boldly visible. Perhaps the Palatine Hill
was the "sending" station in Rome.
THE: SIREN ROCKS OF CAPRI
The city of Naples was originally called Parthenope, in honor of the siren of that name,
who drowned herself because Ulysses, hero of the Trojan War, succeeded in eluding her
fatal embrace by putting wax in his ears so that he could not hear her seductive song.
FOUR NATIVES OF CAPRI ..
The two in the doorway are waiting for an invitation to dance the tarantella, for which
they will expect a half franc each from the spectators. The dog and the cat are quite content
to be left alone.
228
THE ISLE OF CAPRI
229
When Tiberius re-
tired to Capri he took
with him, among oth-
ers, the mathematician
and astrologer, Thra-
syllus, who would be
an expert on optics, if
there were any such at
this time. Moreover,
the Emperor was the
greatest general of his
time and would be
intimately acquainted
with long-distance sig-
naling in its every
detail.
There is a passage
in Tacitus that refers
to signaling from
Rome to Capri. This
is as follows : "Mean-
while he [Tiberius]
was upon the watch
from the summit of a
lofty cliff for the sig-
nals which he had or-
dered to be made if
anything occurred,
lest the messengers
should be tardy. Even
when he had quite
foiled the conspiracy
of Sejanus, he was
still haunted with
fears and apprehen-
sions, insomuch that
he never once stirred
out of the Villa Jovis
for nine months."
Without undue ef-
fort of the imagina-
tion, we can picture Tiberius receiving
the signals from Rome announcing the
treachery of Sejanus, and we can sympa-
thize with him in this final distress.
Added to the enforced early separation
from Vipsania, his first wife, a lifelong
sorrow ; the disgrace of Julia, his second
wife; the death of his splendid son,
Drusus, and other personal domestic
afflictions this final disappointment, the
defection of his friend and trusted min-
ister, must have come as a cruel blow to
the old man.
Photograph by Edith P. Kingman
HIS PICTURE HANGS IN MANY GALLERIES
This sedate gentleman is not a painter, but the most famous artist's
model of Capri.
The fact that Augustus and Tiberius
made Capri their special retreat gives it
a deep and lasting significance. The
island was the favorite home of them
and their families for nearly seventy
years. They are the two greatest execu-
tives in history ruling consecutively
both clear-headed, hard-working admin-
istrators, whose labors established the
supremacy of the Roman Empire and
brought about a wonderful period of
peace unequaled in history, before or
since. They both lived long, full lives
A -3
230
SHANTUNG CHINA'S HOLY LAND
231
and died natural deaths in an age when
murder or enforced suicide or violent
death of some sort was the almost in-
variable end of greatness.
After these towering personalities,
Capri drops out of history and for
some reason does not seem to have
been patronized further by the imperial
family.
But though Capri was never revisited
by the emperors, the Pharos still guided
the precious grain fleets through the
channel between the island and the main-
land for many centuries.
SHANTUNG CHINA'S HOLY LAND
BY CHARLES K. EDMUNDS
PRESIDENT CANTON CHRISTIAN COLLEGE
THE ancient Kingdom of Lu, now
the Province of Shantung, is
China's Holy Land. As the scene
of many remarkable events in the early
history of the people up to 200 B. C., and
containing the highest of the five sacred
mountains of China, which for two score
centuries has been a great Mecca for de-
vout pilgrims, this region would be justly
famous. But it is particularly celebrated
as the birthplace of Confucius and Men-
cius, philosophers and statesmen whose
fame has gone over the earth.
In ascending the sacred mountain and
in visiting the birthplace, temporary
abodes, and the final resting place of
Confucius, we are carried back to things
hoary with age, and to the sources of the
power that has so long held China in its
grip.
The people of Shantung are, on the
whole, rather conservative in their atti-
tude toward foreigners and things for-
eign. The chief manufactures are strong
fabrics of wild silk, ornaments of a vit-
reous substance like strass, snuff-bottles,
cups, etc., straw braid, glass, and excel-
lent rugs of many sorts.
The streets of Tsinan, the capital, are
wider than in the south of China, where
carts, and even barrows, are practically
unknown. Here the deep ruts in the
granite slabs of the street pavement in-
dicate the stream of traffic that grinds
along on squeaky wheels. The shops
all open upon the street, the fronts being
boarded up at night. The sign-boards,
in colors gay and characters large, relieve
the monotony of gray brick and uniform
structure of the buildings.
A STRANGE FORM OF CRUELTY TO
CRIMINALS
One of the most striking buildings
which one sees shortly after leaving the
railway depot at Tsinan is the new police
station and jail. In most of the large
cities of China today there has been a
marked improvement in the police sys-
tem and in the treatment of criminals.
But on one occasion, along one of the
main streets of the city, we saw three
men exposed in a neck-stock or cangue
which has long been used in China as an
effective punishment for minor misde-
meanors. The culprits stood day after
day on a prominent street, exhibiting on
the cangue their names and offenses.
H. E. Wu Ting Eang, formerly Chi-
nese Minister to the United States, was
charged on his return to China with the
revision of the penal code, and the more
cruel forms of punishment are not so
frequent now as formerly. Nevertheless
the accompanying illustration (page
233), secured in Tsinan, shows that the
terrible method of cage-executions was
still in use up to a few years ago. After
several days of public exhibition and
starvation in a wooden cage, the victim
was strangled by the removal of the
bricks from under his feet, so that he
hung on the wooden frame about his
neck. Sometimes a mass of quicklime
was placed on the floor of the cage so
that the victim's feet dangled in it.
232
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by C. K. Edmunds
NECK-STOCK OR CANGUE WAS FORMERLY THE INSTRUMENT USED IN
PUNISHMENT FOR MINOR MISDEMEANORS
Culprits were forced to stand day after day on a prominent thoroughfare with their names
and the nature of their offenses displayed on the heavy wooden yoke.
If there were space, we would refer in
more detail to other evidences of the
change now under way in China, such
as the rise of militarism and the rapid
development of educational facilities,
perhaps the most important and signifi-
cant change of all. Tsinan boasts a large
and flourishing provincial college and
many lower schools. But the chief inter-
est of our journey lies outside Tsinan.
CURP>ING "CHINA'S GREAT SORROW"
Only six miles away runs the Yellow
River, known as "China's Great Sor-
row," because of the frequent, changes of
its course and consequent flooding of
this the most densely populated region of
the whole country.
The last serious break in the dikes oc-
curred in September, 1902, near Liu-
Wang-Chuang, and fche illustrations on
pages 236-238 show the remarkable way
in which Chinese "engineers" effected its
repair. The original breach of 1,500
yards was reduced by building out from
each side successive buttresses composed
of kaoliang stalks (Barbados millet) and
sacks of clay, each buttress being secured
to the previous one by ropes and piles.
The final opening of 55 feet was, after
two disastrous attempts, effectively closed
in March, 1903, by lowering a huge mat-
tress of kaoliang stalks and clay by
means of more than one hundred ropes,
each eight inches in circumference, which
at a given signal were let out one foot on
each side.
The rush of water through the open-
ing was reduced by the construction of a
projecting groin on the upstream side,
and to prevent canting of the mattress,
due to the impact of the current, which
had frustrated the earlier attempts, it
was anchored to the opposite side of the
river by many 1 5-inch hawsers.
The width of the river abreast of the
SHANTUNG CHINA'S HOLY LAND
233
breach had been 600 feet,
but was reduced to 300
feet by the formation of a
sand-bar on the opposite
side of the river. Hordes
of workmen with baskets
and barrows were set to
work on the top of the dike
"bringing material to rein-
force the repaired section.
THE EQUIPMENT OF A
CARAVAN
From Tsinan our journey
was ten days by cart over
typical rough Chinese roads
in a general southwesterly
direction. Our party con-
sisted of myself, a student-
interpreter and recorder, a
cook, and three carts (with
carters whose bad behavior
we shall not soon forget),
in which food, tents, cloth-
ing, and bedding packed in
huge baskets were carried,
but in which we did not
often ride, for the carts
had no springs. For this
reason also our surveying
instruments were carried on
the shoulders of two men,
.a third being supplied for
relief.
This caravan advanced
.about 25 miles a day. After
the first stage to Taian, we
were accompanied by a
military guard of two so-
called soldiers, who were
expected to keep the un-
ruly carters in check, but
who proved to be nearly as bad as they.
For the most part we lived on the
country as we went. Sweet potatoes,
gg-plant, cabbage, turnips, and carrots
were easily secured. Good rice, such as
we know it in south China, was scarce,
"but chickens and eggs, pork, persimmons,
"hard pears, a few peaches, and abundant
dates, supplemented with a few tinned
goods, enabled us to live sumptuously.
As a rule, we stopped at the regular
village inns, crude and uncomfortable,
but affording needed shelter for the
Photograph by C. K. Edmunds
THE EXECUTION-CAGE IN WHICH A CONDEMNED CHINA-
MAN IS STRANGLED TO DEATH
Not to be confused with the cangue, or neck-stock (see
page 232), this instrument of torture takes the place of Western
civilization's gallows, electric chair, and guillotine. The victim,
standing on a pile of bricks, is placed on exhibition with his
head through a wooden collar. Day by day a brick is re-
moved until the culprit is starved and strangled to death.
Frequently there is an added refinement of torture in causing
the man's feet to dangle in quicklime.
whole party of eleven souls and three
cart-mules.
The roads through this section of
China 'are mostly ruts, which sometimes
attain a depth of 70 feet in the loess de-
posits. For a good part of our way the
road lay along the bank of a wide, shal-
low river cutting across the loess for-
mation. To judge from the height of
bridges and the markings on the land, the
tributaries to this stream, although dry
when we saw them, must be violent tor-
rents during the rainy season.
234
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by C. K. Edmunds
A DEVIL SCREEN TO KEEP AWAY EVIL SPIRITS
Chinese -"devils," or evil spirits, unlike the more clever foreign variety, can only travel
in straight lines. Hence the rich property-owner puts up a devil screen to keep them out
just as a photographer makes a box light-proof because the rays don't like to turn dark
corners. This blank wall lends itself to decoration of various kinds and soon the open space
in front fills up with rickshas or itinerant barbers. Pneumatic-tired rickshas have now almost
driven out the old iron-tired variety. While superstition is still rife in China, a rapid develop-
ment of educational facilities is in evidence in Shantung.
This is the most densely populated re-
gion of the whole country. Villages are
very numerous and they are wonderfully
alike. Even the smaller hamlets have a
grocery shop or so, and most of the
larger villages have temples. Most of
the temples have ancient trees in their
courtyards, and tablets recording restora-
tions in the reigns of various emperors
from about 1500 A. D. down.
PLOWS DRAWN RV OXEN, DONKEYS, AND
WOMEN
Y\ e found most frequent restorations
made by' the famous monarch Chien
Lung, who reigned for sixty years in the
middle of the eighteenth century.
The village street is usually a streak
of deep black mud. Outside the villages
the roads are stony or sandy, as the na-
ture of the land decrees.
The level and gently sloping parts of
the country are closely cultivated. Farm-
ers plough in the field with three don-
keys abreast, or two donkevs and an ox,
or a donkey, an ox, and a woman ! The
hills are generally very barren, owing to
the ruthless cutting of all timber and the
long-continued raking of the ground for
leaves and grubbing of the soil for roots,
the great population being sore pressed
for fuel.
This process has robbed the soil of a
natural fertilizer and lessened its ability
to retain water, so that the hillsides are
the more rapidly made bare and the
stream beds raised, thus contributing to
a chronic condition of floods and famine.
The chief products of the region are
peanuts, sweet potatoes, straw braid, and
peanut oil, many loads of which passed
us on their way to the rail end at Tsi-
nan, on huge barrows with very squeaky
wheels, always pushed by one man, some-
times pulled by a second, while in case of
an excessive load the man-power was
assisted by a small burro.
After two days of heavy carting, about
noon of the third day, we sighted the
pagoda, which stands as a sentinel guard-
SHANTUNG CHINA'S HOLY LAND
235
118
120
122
Drawn by R. M. Parker
SKETCH MAP 01? SHANTUNG, CHINA'S HOLY LAND
The area in black is the territory of Kiaochow, to the west and beyond the limits of which is
the town of the same name.
ing this approach to the city of Taian, at
the foot of Tai Shan. Taian can now
be reached by rail, on the line running
from Tientsin to Pukow, on the left bank
of the Yangtze opposite Nanking.
According to Chinese records, Tai
Shan was the "Holy Mountain of the
East" and was visited and prayed to as
a god by the patriarchs and monarchs of
the hoariest ages. Certainly its sacred-
ness was a well-established doctrine in
the earliest historical times. It is men-
tioned in the Shu King (Book of His-
tory) as where Shun sacrificed to heaven
B. C. 2254. It is accordingly celebrated
for its historical as well as its religious
associations. The monarch was supposed
to visit it every five years, or at any rate
once in his reign.
The ascent in the early days must have
been far more arduous than it has since
become. Probably only the most active
potentates ventured to pay their devo-
tions at the summit. The redoubtable
Ch'in Shih-huang, builder of the Great
Wall and unifier of China, did so 200
P>. C., and left two obelisks to commem-
orate the fact, one at the top and one at
the bottom of the mountain.
A hundred years after Ch'in Shih-
huang, the Emperor Han Wtt-ti planted
cypress trees a few yards to the east of
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237
this lower obelisk and built or
rebuilt a temple there, the
nucleus or forerunner of the
present temple Tai Miao,
which in its turn is the nucleus
of Taian city.
BUDDHIST, TAOIST, AND
CONFUCIAN
The principal business of
this "very religious'' city is to
cater to the whims and wants
of the thousands of pilgrims
who annually throng her
streets. Everything is on sale
from little yellow mud tigers
to portraits of the "Mother of
Heaven" and fine brass works
and silks.
Tai Miao is the "great tem-
ple" which has grown up since
the time of the Caesars, and
probably has been mostly re-
built toward the end of the
Sung Dynasty (1020-1120
A. D.) to accommodate the
large number who, though
coming to worship at the Holy
Mountain, are unable to make
the ascent.
Passing the ferocious door-
guards, we traverse the main
hall of the temple, on the walls
of which are fine, large fres-
coes representing a horde of
officials and gentry making a
pilgrimage to Tai Shan, and
enter the inner shrine to be-
hold the image of the "God-
dess of Mercy."
Leaving the city by the
north gate and journeying
about a mile across the plain,
we see Tai Shan towering
high above all other peaks in
the range, as if keeping soli-
tary watch over the country
roundabout. On its slopes
every sect, Buddhist, Taoist,
and Confucian, has its tem-
ples and its priests practicing
manifold superstitions to at-
tract pilgrims to their shrines.
The number of beggars who
beset the road to the summit
indicates the great crowds of
239
240
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by C. D. Jameson
TAMPING THE LAYERS OF EARTH ON NEW DIKE WORK ALONG THE YELLOW RIVER
A circular disk of iron or stone, about eighteen inches in diameter and from two to two
and one-half inches thick, is attached to some ten pieces of rope with a man on each rope.
With a song to keep the laborers in time, the disk is thrown into the air and falls with a most
efficient thud. Piles of from four to six inches in diameter are often driven in this manner,
the weight being slightly guided in its fall by one of the men.
pilgrims whose offerings support such a
vast and wretched throng.
TEN THOUSAND PILGRIMS A DAY
The great pilgrimages occur in Febru-
ary and March, as many as 10,000 per-
sons per day making the ascent. The
contributions of the faithful, even after
deducting a good slice for the local au-
thorities, not only provide the upkeep of
the numerous buildings scattered from
base to summit and of the far more
numerous priests, but have sufficed for
the construction and maintenance of one
of the most remarkable mountain roads
in the world, the Pan Lu, which, begin-
ning just outside the north gate of the
city, winds up to the very summit, some
six miles of a broad, evenly paved path-
way, the steep parts, which are frequent,
since it rises 4,700 feet in five miles, con-
sisting of well-laid steps, of which there
are some 6,600 in all.
Every few hundred yards in the lower
part is a temple, the most prominent be-
ing known as "Little Tai Shan," chiefly
patronized by old women and young
girls who can go no farther. Another of
these lower temples is known as "The
Hall of Ten Thousand Fairies" and an-
other as "The Place of Thanksgiving."
All the way up, one is struck with the
freat number of inscriptions cut in the
ace of prominent rocks, sometimes in
the most inaccessible places. These have
been done at the instigation of pilgrims,
who thus vie with each other in exhibit-
ing their devotion.
SHANTUNG CHINA'S HOLY LAND
241
All along the names given to special
spots are very picturesque. The whole
road is called "The Broad Way to
Heaven." An especially large projecting
boulder has its title cut deep in it, "The
Pillar Supporting the Left Side of
Heaven."
At one place, where the mountain
stream has smoothed a broad, flat rock,
are cut large characters, expressing
prayers of the devoted. At another
place, where the stream plunges over a
high wall of rock, the latter bears the
quotation from the classics, "A running
brook is clear in itself."
For some distance the mountain slopes
on each side of the paved way are fairly
covered with trees, cypresses mostly up
to 3,000 feet, cedars above that level.
The upper part of the ascent is very
steep and begins at an arch called the
"Stopping Horse Arch" and mounts past
the "Upper Gate of Heaven" to the last
eighteen flights, along the sides of which
heavy iron chains are hung for the use
of pilgrims who reach this stage ex-
hausted from their previous toils.
On the sides of the gulch appear in-
scriptions directing the pilgrims to
"Enter gradually the Better Place" and
"Cautiously approach the Region of
Beauty." At the very top is the inscrip-
tion, "Ten thousand generations ador-
ing."
AT THE: TOP OF THK MOUNTAIN
These eighteen flights end in a massive
portal which gives entrance to the court
of the middle temple group. We note
the highly ornamented roof of the cen-
tral pavilion, the huge bronze urn for the
burning of written prayers, and the tall
bronze tablet commemorating the visit of
the Emperor Wan-li.
Besides the chief shrine to the Budd-
hist "Nurse or Mother of Heaven," there
are two other temple groups at the sum-
mit, one to Confucius, containing a rep-
lica of the large image of the Sage which
we shall see in the temple at Kiifu, where
he was born, while on the very topmost
knoll is one to the Taoist "Emperor of
the Sky/; Yu-Huang.
The view from the summit is wonder-
ful, but not so wonderful as the reach of
vision ascribed to Confucius and Yentzu
on their visit two dozen centuries ago.
That they saw the sea, as claimed, is not
unlikely, for from an elevation of 5,100
feet the horizon is some 85 miles in ra-
dius, and the sea even now is only 100
miles away, but the strain on our cre-
dulity comes when we are told that Yentzu
spied what he took to be a white silk cur-
tain and something blue in front of it by
the gates of Soochow. "No," said Con-
fucius, "that is a white horse, and the
thing that looks blue in the distance is a
bundle of beans." "So great," adds the
commentator, "was the holy perspicuity
of the Sage."
Great, indeed ! for Soochow is a full
400 miles away in a straight line.
STONES THAT ACT AS TALISMANS
In all the cities and villages of Shan-
tung, and even in adjacent provinces,
stones from Tai Shan are much in de-
mand as talismans. It is believed to be
unlucky for a house to be so built as to
face a turning or a cross-road. To ward
off evil spirits, stones from Tai Shan are
inserted in the wall of the house so situ-
ated, with the inscription, "A stone from
Tai Shan. Who dares come this way?"
Evidently the day of leisure which our
carters had enjoyed while we visited the
Holy Mountain had spoiled them, for on
resuming our journey they gave no end
of trouble, until at last we were forced to
present them to a district magistrate for
reprimand and discharge.
After that we proceeded on foot, with
a convoy of carrying coolies, straight to
Tsining, on the Grand Canal, where
through the magistrate we hired a cart
and an excellent pair of mules with a
well-behaved driver, who carried us to
Kiifu, the birth and burial place of Con-
fucius, and back in three days by way of
Yenchow.
On the road in the early morning we
passed long lines of pack-donkeys, carry-
ing grain and tobacco, and merchants
riding to the markets on the backs of
diminutive burros, accompanied by their
attendants on foot.
In crossing the Wen-ho by a granite
causeway we saw a number of fishing
nets operated in characteristic Chinese
fashion.
We reached Kiifu in mid-afternoon,
242
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Richard M. Vanderburgh
WHERE THE ASCENT OF TAI SHAN BEGINS
Like the Japanese Fujiyama, Tai Shan is the favored
shrine of millions. During February and March nearly
two thousand people to the mile may be using the paved
road that leads to the summit from the city wall of
Taian. Some pilgrims are carried to the heights in
native chairs, while others, old and bent, but determined
to reach the summit through their own exertions, fight
heat and hardship and fatigue to reach the prize they
seek a pilgrimage to the sacred mountain where the
Emperor Shan worshiped two .thousand years before
Christ and nearly fifteen hundred years before Con-
fucius was born.
When one has seen one temple
in China, one has seen them all,
but when one has seen all the
temples in China, there is still
the temple at Kiifu to see. The
buildings and arches are much
the same as any other similar
edifice, and there are doubtless
larger temples, but there is a cer-
tain air of respectability, a cer-
tain atmosphere inherited from
the past, that makes a deep im-
pression on the observer.
The approach to the temple is
made along a wide avenue at
right angles to the axis of the
temple grounds, being in fact a
section of the main street of the
city, treeless and shut in on both
sides by high walls.
Within the gates, one's atten-
tion is first called to the small
forest of stone tablets, five to ten
feet high and three or four feet
wide, which line the pathway,
commemorative of imperial
visits.
The buildings stand in a park
of splendid cypress trees, one of
which, said to have been planted
by Confucius himself, has its
ancient roots carefully inclosed
in a marble parapet, and from its
twisted stump a tall and vigorous
stem, itself some centuries old,
projects straight aloft to pro-
claim that the old root has sap
and life in it even yet. As such
it seems to typify or foreshadow
a revival of that which is the
most vital and worthy in the
philosophy and teaching of the
Sage.
HOW THE VENERATION
CONFUCIUS GREW
FOR
and, having sent ahead our military guard
to secure guides for the temple and
cemetery, we lost no time (although we
did lose considerable money in gratui-
ties) in seeing the wonders of this proto-
type of all Confucian temples throughout
the realm.
This Confucian temple, an
enormous and magnificent place,
occupying with its grounds the whole of
one side of the town, is the model of the
Confucian, temples found in all the cit 
