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1946
Nat'l. Soc.for the
Study or Education'
370.6 2?7y
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THE
FORTY-FIFTH YEARBOOK
OF THE
NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY
OF EDUCATION
PART II
CHANGING CONCEPTIONS
IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
ALONZO G. GRACE (Chairman), HEBOLD C. HUNT, GRAYSON N. KEFAUVER,
GORDON N. MACKENZIE, AND GEORGE D. STODDARD
Edited by
NELSON B. HENRY
Distributed by
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO 37, ILLINOIS
1946
Published by
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR TEE STUDY OF EDUCATION
" ; : ; :\ 5835 KIMBARE AVENUE, CHICAGO 37, ILLINOIS
COPYRIGHT, 1946, BY
NELSON B. HENRY
Secretary of the Society
No part of this Yearbook may be reproduced in any form without
written permission from the Secretary of the Society
The responsibilities of the Board of Directors of the National
Society for the Study of Education in the case of yearbooks
prepared by the Society's committees are (1) to select the sub-
jects to be investigatedj (2) to appoint committees calculated in
their personnel to ensure consideration of all significant points
of view, (#) to provide appropriate subsidies for necessary
expenses, (4) to publish and distribute the committees' reports,
and (5) to arrange for their discussion at the annual meetings.
The responsibility of the Yearbook Editor is to prepare the
submitted manuscripts for publication in accordance with the
principles and regulations approved by the Board of Directors
in the "Guide for Contributors."
Neither the Board of DirectorSj nor the Yearbook Editor,
nor the Society is responsible for the conclusions reached or the
opinions expressed by the Society's yearbook committees.
Published 1946
First Printing, 4,000 Copies
Printed in the United States of America
ii
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY
1945-1946
Board of Directors
(Term of office expires March 1 of the year indicated)
WILLIAM A. BROWNELL (1948)
Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
W. W. CHAPTERS (1948)
Stephens College, Columbia, Missouri
FRANK N. FREEMAN (1946)
University of California, Berkeley, California
ERNEST HORN (1949)*
State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
T. R, MCCONNELL (1949)**
University of Minnesota,. Minneapolis, Minnesota
ERNEST 0. MELBY (1947)
New York University, New York, New York
GEORGE D. STODDARD (1947)
State Education Department, Albany, New York
NELSON B. HENRY (Ex-offido)
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Secretary-Treasurer
NELSON B. HENRY (1948)
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
* Re-elected for three years beginning March 1, 1946.
** Elected for three years beginning March 1, 1946.
THE SOCIETY'S COMMITTEE ON CHANGING
CONCEPTIONS IN EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
ALONZO G. GRACE (Chairman), Commissioner of Education, State De-
partment of Education, Hartford, Connecticut
HBROLD C. HUNT, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Missouri
fGRAYSON N. KEFAUVER, Dean, School of Education, Stanford Uni-
versity, California
GORDON N. MACKENZIE, Professor of Education, Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York, New York
GEORGE D, STODDARD, Commissioner of Education, State Education
Department, Albany, New York
ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORS
CHARLES BTJRSCH, Chief, Division of Schoolhouse Planning, State De-
partment of Education, Sacramento, California
J. PAUL LEONARD, President, San Francisco State College, San Fran-
cisco, California
ALFRED DEXTER SIMPSON, Associate Professor of Education, Graduate
School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
WILLARD B, SPALDING, Superintendent of Schools, Portland, Oregon
t Deceased.
EDITOR'S PREFACE
Several proposals relating to educational administration were pre-
sented to the Board of Directors within the decade preceding the launch-
ing of the present volume in February, 1942. In the majority of these
proposals the emphasis was placed on current theory and practice; in
others, some specific objective such as making administration more
democratic or clarifying the issues with respect to the control of educa-
tion was the central theme of the suggested plan for a yearbook. At the
request of the chairman of the Board, Mr. Brueckner reviewed the
various proposals prior to the February meeting in 1940 and prepared
a new outline embodying the significant features of the plans on which
those proposals were based. This outline was then referred to Messrs.
Brueckner and Kefauver for further consideration in consultation
with the authors of the earlier proposals. The ensuing conferences re-
sulted in the proposal presented by Mr. Kefauver at the San Francisco
meeting in February, 1942. The proposed plan was approved by the
Board and the yearbook committee was selected. Mr. Kefauver was
appointed chairman of the committee and served in this capacity until
he was sent to London as the representative of the State Department at
the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education, at which time he
asked to be relieved of the responsibilities of the chairmanship. At the
request of the Board of Directors, Commissioner Grace, who was a mem-
ber of the committee, accepted appointment as chairman.
Originally planned for publication in 1945, this yearbook was post-
poned for one year in recognition of the need for more immediate con-
sideration of the tasks involved in adapting the curriculum and the
structural organization of school systems to emerging conceptions of the
role of education in postwar years. In a series of conferences in 1943,
appropriate revisions of the original plan of the present yearbook were
developed by the committee and the Board of Directors in light of the
projected plan for the Forty-fourth Yearbook, American Education in
the Postwar Period, Parts I and II of which were presented under the re-
spective subtitles, Curriculum Reconstruction and Structural Reorganiza-
tion. In harmony with the motive of the two volumes of the preceding
yearbook, Changing Conceptions in Educational Administration is de-
voted to the particular aspects of administration which are most inti-
mately involved in the types of improvement and extension of school
vi EDITOR'S PREFACE
services visualized in the most authoritative planning for postwar edu-
cational reconstruction. In a very real sense, therefore, the present year-
book is to be regarded as supplementary to the two volumes of the year-
book for 1945. It is confidently expected that the three volumes will
prove to be a serviceable guide to desirable innovations in school prac-
tice in keeping with current conceptions of the purposes of education in
American society.
NELSON B. HENRY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOB 1945-1946 iii
THE SOCIETY'S COMMITTEE oisr CHANGING CONCEPTIONS IN EDU-
CATIONAL ADMINISTRATION iv
ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORS iv
EDITOR'S PREFACE v
CHAPTER
I. REORIENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ... 1
GRAYSON N. KEPATJVER
Introduction 1
Educational Administration as Social Statesmanship . . 2
Leadership in Educational Administration ..... 3
Educational Planning 4
Democracy in Educational Administration 5
Sununary 6
II. THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 7
ALONZO G. GRACE
The Purpose of the State Department of Education . . 7
Principles of State School Administration 10
Local Initiative versus Centralization 17
III. DEVELOPING ANI> ADMINISTERING THE CURRICULUM AND
PUPIL SERVICES 20
GOBDQN N. MACKENZIE
Basic Administrative Policies 20
Administration of the Curriculum . 30
Administration of In-service Education and Curriculum De-
velopment 41
Administration of Pupil Services 48
vii
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
IV. ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL OF A DEMOCRATIC SCHOOL
SYSTEM 53
WILLAED B. SPALDING
Basic Improvements 58
The Participatory Process 77
The Improvement of Morale 79
Summary of Basic Principles 82
Toward Better Schools 84
V. PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION AND PLAN-
NING 86
HEROLD C. HUNT AND J. PAUL LEONARD
School Services and Community Needs 86
Responsibility of School Administrators in Over-all Pro-
vision for Youth 88
Making a Community Survey 93
Organization of the Community for Youth 96
Development of Co-ordination 97
Administrative Problems Involved in Operating the Plan . 98
The Teachers and Community Participation .... 109
School Administrators and Staff Officers 110
Conclusion 112
VI. THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION 113
AUFEED DEXTEB SIMPSON
Introduction 113
Federal-State-Local Fiscal Relations 118
Financing School Personnel 148
VII. PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING FOR SCHOOLS ... 161
CHARLES BTTRSCH
The School-Plant Lag 161
Considerations Basic to Sound Plant Expansion ... 163
Financing Capital Outlays 168
Educational Specifications for a School Plant .... 169
Co-operation with the Architect's Office 171
Building and Construction 173
Occupying arid Using the Building 174
Program of Action 174
Conclusion 175
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
CHAPTEB PAGE
VIII. THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OP SCHOOL PERSONNEL . 176
ALONZO G. GRACE
Responsibilities of Training Institutions 176
Some Reasons for Failure in the Administrative Field . . 179
Some Recommendations on the Training of School Admin-
istrators 181
INDEX 183
CONSTITUTION i
SYNOPSIS OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS . ix
TREASURER'S REPORT xiii
LIST OF MEMBERS xv
INFORMATION CONCERNING THE SOCIETY xliii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY xlv
CHAPTER I
REORIENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
GRATSON N. KEFATTVER*
Stanford University
Stanford University, California
INTRODUCTION
The changes in educational administration in recent years have been
extensive and fundamental. It is probable that further changes will be
made in the future along the general lines of these recent developments.
Hence, it is appropriate to refer to these changes as a reorientation of
educational administration. The conception of educational administration
which has been gradually shaping up in theory and in practice will re-
ceive fuller consideration in the chapters of this yearbook. A brief charac-
terization of some of the more important elements in this reorientation
will be presented in this introductory chapter.
When schools and school systems became large and complex, and re-
quired persons to organize and to administer them, the practice devel-
oped to place an experienced teacher in the administrative post to ad-
minister the educational program. Early in the history of educational
administration, operations were largely on a personal and practical basis.
Men were selected-, not because of their special technical training, but
rather because of their success in dealing with the public, teachers, and
students. The conception of administration of that period tended to re-
flect the existing practices in business and industry whereby the manager,
with the approval of the board of directors, determined policy and direct-
ed the operations of the company and the work of its employees. The
inadequacies of this conception for education were gradually recognized.
It was especially criticized as being too autocratic and allowing too little
responsibility and participation by teachers, parents, and students.
The development of precise techniques of procedure and a body of
professional literature on educational administration and a growing
recognition of the requirement that educational administrators have
special training for their work furnished the basis for the introduction of
* As this yearbook was in process of manufacture, announcement was made of the
death of Dr. Kefauver at Los Angeles on January 4, 1946.
1
2 REORIENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
technical and "scientific" administration. The subjective judgment was
reduced in emphasis and great importance was attached to objective or
"scientific" evidence. In time, "scientific administration" was sharply
criticized as placing excessive importance on readily securable data and
as lacking in broad educational and social direction. The limitations of
methods and data, which were frequently accepted uncritically when
first utilized, gradually became recognized. "Scientific administration" is
not objectionable when it represents an effort to secure meaningful and
valid data bearing on administrative problems if the data are not given
exaggerated importance and if other important factors, for which data
cannot be obtained, are not ignored. The careful investigation of educa-
tional problems is highly desirable to give a fuller understanding of the
problems and to aid in the development of a program for their solution.
In the discussion of new emphases or new orientation of educational
administration new terms must be used. While general labels give only a
slight clue to their meaning, merely listing the headings of the remaining
sections of this chapter gives some suggestion of the conception which is
here referred to as a new orientation in educational administration.
They include educational administration and social statesmanship, lead-
ership in educational administration, educational planning, and democ-
racy in educational administration.
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AS SOCIAL STATESIHANSHIP
To refer to educational administration as social statesmanship is to
place it in proper perspective. It is too limited a view to think of educa-
tional administration in strictly operational terms. The management of
educational institutions is only a part, although an important part, of
educational administration. Educational programs have, at times, suf-
fered because the executives have lacked broad social perspective and
the program lacked purpose and direction.
Educational administration approaches statesmanship when there are
clearly formulated long-term policies and objectives, and when day-by-
day activities and problems are dealt with under the guidance of the
perspective given by such long-term policies. Particular problems can be
appraised and dealt with more wisely if they are related to such a general
directing policy. Lacking a long-term policy, there will be a tendency to
deal with the immediate operations and difficulties with a very limited
regard to where the program is leac&ng. Also, the administration and the
faculty will be handicapped in the development of the program if they
lack the general orientation which such a long-term policy would provide.
The term, social statesmanship, is made appropriate, too, by the bear-
Ing which educational policy and social policy have on each other. The
KEFAUVER 3
achievement of important social ends is dependent on the understand-
ings, attitudes, and skills possessed by the people. In a democracy this
dependence is especially critical. Likewise, educational policy has its
origin in the society which it serves. The school is devoted to and en-
gaged in the service of the basic democratic principles and goals, recogniz-
ing, at the same time, its service to the individual and to the progressive
improvement of society.
An important fact to be recognized, sometimes to the discomfiture of
the educational administrator, is that educational policy is not a concern
of the educator only. It is an appropriate and legitimate concern of
people in all walks of life. This is true not only because of their interest in
the education of their own children but also because of their concern for
general social welfare and policy, with which educational policy is so
closely and significantly related.
LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Educational administration is concerned not only with the plan of
organization and the procedures being utilized. It is concerned, also,
with the process by which these practices are adopted, support for them
is maintained, and new practices are considered and instituted. The ad-
ministrator is responsible for expediting a process which brings all the
persons with legitimate interests in a program into effective collaboration
in planning for it. By bringing persons of different training and experi-
ence into active participation, the full experience of all groups can be
drawn upon.
Actual leadership, as judged by the contribution made to the solution
arrived at, may come from a classroom teacher, a parent, or the ad-
ministrator. The role of the administrator may or may not involve the
introduction of the idea finally accepted. In many situations, the ad-
ministrator's leadership role will be that of encouraging and assisting
others to participate effectively.
Such a program not only increases the likelihood of developing wise
procedure but, in addition, it gives a basis for adaptation to the judgments
and reactions of those who must give the program their support if it is to
succeed. The process itself is educative, bringing to many persons under-
standing of the program which is finally adopted Of great importance
for the faculty, it encourages initiative and inventiveness and it con-
tributes to the general development of the individual teacher.
The problem and process of leadership is well illustrated by noting
what is involved in effecting an important change in the educational
program. Not only must the desirable new procedure be determined but
the teachers, the governing board, the parents, and, in some instances,
4 REORIENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
the students must understand and accept the new practice. In addition,
those who are directly responsible for the operation must have the skill
to make the program succeed.
Change in educational and social practice involves a shift of loyalties
from the earlier values and practices to the new. The challenging of all
practices and the presentation of new ideas is a process which goes on
continuously in an active democratic social group. Among the faculty
and the parents there will usually be a minority who press for the adop-
tion of a new practice long before it is feasible to take the recommended
step. Another minority group may resist the innovation which is pro-
posed. It will not be wise to delay action until all are favorable for the
new practice, but it is very important that the amount of support be
sufficient to insure its success. The democratic leader will encourage free
presentation of ideas for the improvement of the educational program.
The conception of administration here presented would attach a great
deal of importance to the progressiye development of the program as a
natural outgrowth of vital intellectual activity in all interested groups.
Violation of this principle may cause a new program to experience em-
barrassment after it has been introduced. Especially is this the case if
the change in practice is made without there having been a corresponding
change in the values and the thinking of those most affected by the
shift,
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Certain aspects of educational planning have been noted in earlier
sections of this chapter, but the importance of this phase of educational
administration is such as to make desirable a formal reference to it. City
and state curriculum-development programs are illustrations of im-
portant planning efforts. The problem of developing an educational
system adequate for the complex interdependent world in which we are
living is one of very great difficulty. There is a tendency in education as
in other social institutions to perpetuate existing practices. The social lag
is already great and the rapidly changing national and world picture
presents urgent demands for recognition in current planning for the
education of children, youth, and adults.
One illustration will suffice. Several new international organizations
are being set up to facilitate greatly extended co-operation among the
governments and peoples of the world. Education for tomorrow is truly
an education for a world community as well as for the local, state, or
national community. To achieve an adequate recognition of this critically
important problem is a large assignment. But it is only one of the many
items in the postwar world which merits recognition in an adequate pro-
gram of education.
KEFAUVER 5
Educational planning appropriately goes forward on many levels. In
the United States, with the independent educational systems in the
different states, the state becomes the largest direct planning unit. How-
ever, planning activities of national agencies have great influence on
educational practice. The United States Office of Education provides for
the joint consideration of common problems by state superintendents of
public instruction. The various commissions of the national associations
present reports and recommendations which are studied by local and
state groups and influence practice in the different states. When the
United Nations educational and cultural organization is established,
there will doubtless be reports of international commissions with recom-
mendations for the development of an education adequate for the world
community.
Within the states there will be state planning, city or district planning,
individual school planning, and planning by the individual teacher, with
such co-operation with other teachers as may seem desirable. Finally,
each student with the help of teachers and guidance specialists should
develop a plan for his own education. It is clear that educational planning
should allow for flexibility so that each planning unit will be able to make
adjustments to the needs of the group and the individual. For the larger
units of administration, the major functions can be defined and perhaps
the broad outlines of a program can be formulated. Endeavoring to
develop a scope and sequence for an educational program is a promising
approach in harmony with this conception.
The efforts at educational planning have very appropriately empha-
sized the desirability of bringing together persons responsible for the
different sections of the program so that the whole program can be seen
as a unit, perhaps even fused into a composite program more closely re-
lated to the interests and needs of the student and more nearly like the
real situations faced by the student outside the classroom. Also, it is im-
portant that educational planning be recognized as a continuing process.
DEMOCBACY IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
The concept of democracy in educational administration is now
generally accepted. There are still differences of judgment as to the de-
sirability of particular procedures, and it must be admitted that practice
has not advanced as far as theory. The rise in the standard of preparation
of teachers makes possible a more responsible role for the teacher. The
movement is encouraged by the greater attention being paid to education
for democratic citizenship and the belief that the practice of democracy
is a more effective teacher than mere talk about it.
A detailed consideration of administrative oi^anization and procedure
6 REORIENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
would show that the question of democratic procedure touches upon
many aspects of the life of the school. It affects the role of the adminis-
trator and the methods by which he carries on his work. It gives to the
staff and to the individual teacher a larger role. It gives to the students a
more active part in the life of the school. It calls for a modification of the
procedure in the classroom. It provides for a greater degree of co-opera-
tion of persons with a spirit of equality, with each contributing according
to his special experience. It is concerned with the equality of opportunity
for all students and with the flexibility required to make adaptation to
the special needs of the individual. It provides for leadership by the ad-
ministrator and by the teacher and by students. It increases the extent
to which agreement is sought and reached among all interested parties
in dealing with educational problems. It provides for the study of dif-
ferent alternatives when dealing with controversial questions so that
students can acquire the basis for making their own decisions.
SUMMAKY
The foregoing brief statement indicates only some of the items which
might well be referred to in an introductory statement concerning modern
theory and practice in educational administration. If space allowed, it
would have been desirable to refer also to the concern of educational ad-
ministration for teacher development, especially by providing opportuni-
ty for teachers to live in a manner favorable for continued growth and
development, and to note the relationship of the school to society, with a
trend in the direction of closer interweaving of in-school and out-of-
school experiences. But, the remaining chapters will deal with these and
other questions which will further illustrate the general reorientation
which has been made and is being made in educational administration.
CHAPTER II
THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
ALONZO G. GRACE
Commissioner of Education.
State Department of Education
Hartford, Connecticut
For nearly three hundred years America has regarded the state as the
responsible agent for the development and maintenance of a system of
public education, available to all the children of all the people, irrespec-
tive of race, creed, political affiliation, or economic status. Legally and
historically, then, education is a state function. The actual operation of
a school system, however, has been delegated to the people of a com-
munity and the operational control is exercised through their local board
of education. Thus, the local board of education, though an agency of the
state, is the policy-determining body for education in the town or the
school district. The state board of education, on the other hand, is
charged with the responsibility not only of determining policies for the
institutions that come under its immediate jurisdiction but also of pro-
viding the leadership, the service, and the research essential to the
establishment of sound educational policies throughout the state. In the
interest of democracy, it is imperative that the responsibility for ad-
ministering public education continue to be vested in the state and the
local community.
THE PURPOSE OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Each of the forty-eight states has a department of education of one
form or andther. In some states complete control of the schools is vested
in this central authority. In several states, however, the department of
education exists solely to carry out the policies of a state board of
education. In other states an elected superintendent of public instruction
is the representative of education.
If public education is to be conceived of as the cornerstone of the
democratic order, it is essential that the school system itself be organized
on a democratic basis. It is important, too, that local initiative and
responsibility be recognized as elements prerequisite to democratic ac-
tion. While it probably is true that progress may be made more rapidly
7
8 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
through procedures centralized in a state or federal agency, such prog-
ress frequently may not be clearly understood by the people. Efficiency
in government involves more than effective management. While it is
important that there be an efficient organization, it is infinitely more
important that the continued interest of the people be assured. Without
the sustained interest of the governed and the intelligent participation of
the people in the conduct of the government, efficiency is, at best, but
partial. One of the major problems today is that of insuring an intelligent
attitude toward the democratic organization. There is no better place to
start than in the educational system. The primary purposes of a state
department of education may, therefore, be described as follows:
Guidance and Leadership. Desirable leadership in a democratic order
makes full use of the wisdom of the individual members of the associated
group. A leadership of merit, in so far as a state department of education
is concerned, must be based on sound scholarship and the general ac-
ceptance of recognized basic principles. For example, the ideal of
quality in educational thinking must supplant past emphasis on quanti-
tative considerations. An implicit belief in local government as the basic
safety valve of democracy must be developed. There must be a willing-
ness to keep the schools close to the people and the people close to the
schools. Every effort should be exerted to provide the state with the best
possible educational system. One of the major problems is to get full
value for every dollar expended. This means constant appraisal and
adjustment of the school program. The leadership of a state department
of education is important in preventing lag in the educational system
and also in making the best possible use of available resources. There is
no substitute for common sense, however. A step-by-step program, well
conceived and widely discussed, will be infinitely more fruitful than
early and easy acceptance of untried theories.
The improvement of curriculums, the development of courses of
study, and new adimnistrative practices or improvement in administra-
tive procedures must grow from the bottom up rather than be super-
imposed by agencies of the state. The quality of leadership must be such
that local school systems will have confidence, not only in the advice and
suggestions which are developed on the state-department level, but also
in the scholarship and ability of the individual members of the state
department It is important that the contribution of the state be accepted
on the basis of its own worth. Statutory responsibilities should be carried
on in a statesmanlike manner.
Service, A second function of a state department of education is to
reader those services that cannot be provided by individual school
GRACE 9
systems or which may be supplied more effectively by the state. The
service function of the state department of education should be such as
to expedite the work of local school systems. It should neither impede
progress nor handicap the effective administrative operation of a school
system or the instructional process therein. This applies equally well to
the various institutions operated directly by the state board of education.
A service so effective and so valuable and so close to realism that it makes
itself indispensable to local school systems should be the goal of the
department of education.
Supervision is a service of the state department of education. Too
frequently in this country supervision, instead of becoming an aid to the
improvement of instruction, becomes merely an inspectorial or routine
procedure of little value in the ultimate progress of a school system.
Supervision should be regarded as scholarly, useful, worth-while assist-
ance in the development of an educational program and in the improve-
ment of teaching practices and procedures. The effectiveness of super-
vision is, therefore, contingent upon the personnel of a department.
Unless the individual is accepted because of his ability to contribute to
the improvement of a program and to the child's educational opportuni-
ty, his service frequently becomes of negligible value.
The state department of education renders outright service in many
directions. Supervision or the improvement of instructional procedures
has been briefly described. Likewise, in health, vocational education, job
analysis, guidance, and in many other areas, direct service may be
rendered profitably and effectively by the staff of a state department. It
is important, however, that the matter of expediting the work of the
local school system be emphasized. Too frequently the hampering
restrictions of "red tape/' misunderstanding, unnecessary services and
programs, and a host of other problems arise because of those who have
not visualized the true significance of service.
Research and Planning. Millions of dollars are spent for research in
industry and business. TTiere would be little progress were it not for the
confidence of our leaders in the value of research in these fields. Research
improves processes and products. In agriculture tremendous sums are
invested in the study of plants, animals, soil, poultry, fruit, and literally
hundreds of other objects of research. Obviously aot all research produces
fruitful results; nevertheless, the sums expended represent a large invest-
ment, and the returns to business, industry, and agriculture have been
well worth the cost.
Comparatively small amounts are spent for research by the state
departments of education and local boards of education. Yet the policies
10 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
of both the state board and the local boards of education should be
determined generally on the basis of objective data. It is the function of
the state department of education to provide research and planning.
The personnel or the division responsible for research and planning
should be completely free from gathering and compiling statistical
data about school systems. This is what might be termed a central
service function. Because a research division may be used in this ca-
pacity, scientific approach to the study of public education degenerates
frequently into a routine matter of accumulating statistical data.
While the division of research and planning in a state department of
education is concerned very largely with the <f here and now" problems,
that is, with immediate problems, there are fundamental problems in
education that require basic, long-time research. Occasionally the de-
partment of education may properly engage in this basic research. On the
other hand, this service is more expeditious and more in the interest of
the better use of existing facilities if channels to the sources of scholarly
research be developed. A state department of education should, there-
fore, lay these channels to the universities! and the colleges that have
demonstrated their ability to do basic research. The leadership for re-
search and for the co-ordination of research activities are, however,
functions of a state department of education.
PRINCIPLES OF STATE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
A principle in the prudential discipline such as administration may be
defined as a generalized rule of action which has achieved success in pro*
ducing desired results in repeated similar situations. In a modern public
organization the desired result is satisfaction of the public will with
ttrnxfrmmi service at minrmnm cost. Through many years of effort on the
part of administrators and scholars certain rules have been formulated
which seem to have more or less pragmatic validity in situations charac-
teristic of the various branches of public administration. The following
are principles of administration underlying the organization of the state
department of education.
The effective management of an enterprise requires the delegation of
aitihority and responsibility. ^Responsibility and authority run parallel
throughout a system. In other words, as authority is delegated to a
member of a staff, responsibility also must be delegated to and ac-
cepted by the individual. The two extremes of this principle should be
avoided; that is, the delegation of too much or too little responsibility
and authority. The delegation of authority should not, however, be con-
sidered a transfer of authority. It is a correlation of authority and a joint
responsibility.
GRACE 11
There must be a functional definition of each job if the morale and
efficiency of the organization is to be maintained. Failure to provide such
definition results in a petty jealousy arising over the functions of a person
or a bureau. The business of an organization is to get a job done, not to
build up vested interests.
There is no substitute for common sense, no substitute for sound
judgment. When a supervisor to whom authority and responsibility have
been properly delegated is confronted with a problem that requires
immediate action, that action should be taken and a decision rendered
irrespective of the lines of authority or the sentiment of those in direct
charge of divisions, bureaus, or sections. Much of the "red tape," the
delay, and the inefficiency in a structure might be avoided if adminis-
trative officers were willing to delegate authority and responsibility to
those immediately responsible for results. Those who make decisions,
however, must be willing to accept responsibility for decisions and to
face an accounting for action.
It is human to err, but the same error committed twice should result in
personnel adjustments. The individual must be held responsible for his
every act. The administrator, on the other hand, must adopt a code of
control based upon accepted standards and reliable information. In all
dealings with the staff an impersonal attitude must be assumed. Unless
this is done, rules of action become mere conveniences, and efficiency and
harmony suffer.
The purpose of the state should be to strengthen local control and local
initiative and not to supplant the local governmental structure. The trend in
the country over the past generation has been toward the strengthening
of state and federal government at the expense of the local unit. While
it is obvious that many units of government, conceived during the pioneer
era in the evolution of American democracy, no longer are able independ-
ently and separately to provide all the services now demanded by the
people, the solution does not lie in a superstate or a federal government
which will absorb the functions and the services of the smaller units. With-
out the sustainedinterest of the governed, the policy-determining function
which belongs to the people may be absorbed by those who make a
profession of government. Sometimes those too close to a job fail to realize
that the security of the democratic order is vested very largely in the
continuance of local units of government sufficiently large to provide a
reasonable service and to encourage the continuance of the interest of all
people in government.
It is the business of those employed by the state to think in terms of
the original purpose of the organization. A department of education
always should be concerned with the interests of the child, the youth, the
12 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
adult, and the state. Local autonomy and home rule will not disappear
because of the state's effort to guarantee equality of educational oppor-
tunity to all children.
It is the state's obligation, however, to guide the destiny of local school
systems at all times. The educational interests of the children as well as
those of the state must be protected against petty localism. This requires
that the state department of education not only guide the local school
systems through leadership, service, and research, as previously indicated,
but also that the state department, through wise administration, prevent
local controversies, jealousies, and selfish interests from jeopardizing the
educational interests of the children, the community, and the state.
Government exists for a people, not the people for government. The ma-
chinery of administration must expedite and not impede instruction.
The organization should attempt to secure the greatest return from every
dollar expended. Intelligent economy is the first principle of good ad-
ministration, whether it be in government, in education as a part of a
governmental structure, in social agencies, public or private, or in other
community associations. This is a principle that should prevail during
prosperous years as well as during periods of depression. It takes no
great administrative genius to spend money. This is especially true when
there appears to be no limit to the funds available. But it takes moral
courage and the ability to set aside personal convenience and political
expediency to administer an institution wisely and effectively. A govern-
mental agency is merely the custodian of the tax moneys supplied by
citizens for the services demanded by them and in the interests of
their own advancement and security. Capacity to pay or the purchasing
power of the many should be a criterion to observe in administering and
expending funds or increasing services and functions rendered to and for
the people. The benefits derived from these services and functions should
be the criterion for their continuance. The adequate financing of public
education and the effective management of school revenue is, however, a
matter of the deepest concern to each member of the department of
education and to the public. The ability to pay for education cannot be
disassociated from the ability to pay for the complete governmental
program. Governmental services and functions have expanded in many
directions during the past generation. This trend is, unquestionably, the
result of fundamental changes in the socioeconomic system and in exist-
ing social institutions. Many of these changes, on the other hand, have
originated because of the pressure of aggressive minorities. The matter of
origin is not so important as the fact the state is committed to a program
of state and local governmental services which involves a considerable
GRACE 13
outlay. The cost of public education, however, is reflected not only in
the financial outlay for the maintenance of the school's program but also
in the social consequences of the educational process.
Among the principles relating to the financing of public education the
following are presented here for our guidance:
1. The more intricate and complex the structure of an organization, the greater
the possibility of overlapping of functions, duplication of effort, lack of co-
ordination. The organization should be flexible and simple.
2. New services, functions, practices, or procedures should not be provided
without consideration of the ultimate cost involved, that is, cost in terms of
financial outlay and social consequences. Old practices and procedures should
be abolished when their usefulness has subsided.
3. Public expenditures should be balanced among functions in accordance with
the principle of marginal utility. There is a limit to the amount that can
be raised through public taxation for governmental functions. Ultimately the
people will have to make choices. What are those elements in the governmental
structure that are essential to the welfare of men and of the democracy of
which they are a part?
4. Capital expenditures should be made in accordance with a long-time plan.
Capital financing should be in terms of total cost over the entire period in
which the plant will be in operation.
5. The interrelationship and interdependency of governmental units make
necessary the transfer of services and functions to the unit most capable of
rendering effective service and efficient management,
6. Funds entrusted to a department should be expended in the same manner as
if they were personal funds. Sometimes it is the little things that count
the cost of travel, attendance at various meetings, the use of a telephone, the
use of postage, carelessness in the use of lights, wastefulness in the utilization
of the time of stenographic service. Each one should regard himself as responsi-
ble for the cost of the whole enterprise.
In preparation of the annual budget based on long-time plans and
work programs there should be integration by the chief administrator
and approval by the policy-determining body. The effective management
of funds entrusted to a department or agency is a primary function of
organization.
The successful operation and maintenance of an organization depends
largely upon the factor of good witt. This principle is of fundamental
importance to the administrator and to the organization. There must be
good will between the administrator and the personnel, between the
organization and the pubEc, and between the education department and
other governmental departments and agencies. In public relations the
individual must use tact and judgment. This means respect and sincerity
14 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
and not flattery. It does not mean the forfeiture of the right of independ-
ent thinking. It means sound judgment on the part of the individual
There is no need for one to go out of his way to antagonize those with
whom he comes in contact. The individual should not, of course, forfeit
his right of independent thinking. Snap judgment on matters should be
avoided in those cases involving policy. For example, it is not the busi-
ness of a state department to superimpose ideals or philosophies on
communities. A department of education should aid communities to
grow and to progress. It should be remembered, too, that mere change
does not indicate progress. Good will is of infinite importance to the
development of this type of organization.
An effective organization must have a program democratically deter-
mined. The strength of an organization depends upon the competency of
the individual members and their ability to work as part of the organiza-
tion. Each individual who is a member of the organization is an integral
part of that structure. It is essential, therefore, that the individual mem-
ber appreciate not only his relationship to the whole program but also his
responsibility for an integral part of the program. Whether one be a
stenographer or a specialist, he has a major job to perform. The staff
must, therefore, be kept informed on all matters pertaining to the
organization. Each individual member of the organization must know
the goals, the objectives, and the direction the organization is taking. It is
important, too, that each member of the organization have a voice in
those decisions which affect him and affect his ideas concerning the
administration of the organization.
Harmony must prevail in any organization if there is to be progress.
The place to discuss departmental matters is within the department. If
there be disagreement with a decision of the administrator, for example,
or his action or proposed action, there should be no reluctance in express-
ing an honest objection and constructive criticism. If there be disagree-
ment concerning a policy, this should be discussed with the administrator
and within the department. Differences of opinion within a department
should not be matters of public discussion or complaint outside.
The ideas of the individual should be respected. An individual with-
out ideas should not be in a place of responsibility. It is important,
however, that the individual be given full credit for his ideas; and that
in the production of departmental documents, those individuals who
have made the contributions be given due recognition. It is not the func-
tion of a division or bureau head to blue-pencil either the ideas
or the contributions of the individual staff member because these do not
agree with his particular philosophy. These matters should not, however,
GRACE
15
affect the relationship between one individual and another. They should
be cleared through administrative or supervisory councils, or through
whatever agency has been set up for a clearance of ideas and procedures.
While there must be organization for effective administration, the
organization should not be of the type that prevents any member from
discussing problems or procedures with others who may be able to
render assistance. It is important to understand that the organization
does not exist for the individual or to perpetuate a particular bureau or
division. It exists to provide leadership, to render service, and to
provide research as a basis for determining policies when and where they
are needed.
A dear separation between policy determination and administrative
functions is essentialin an effective organization. The establishment of edu-
cational policy is a major function of the state board of education. The
determination of policy involves the formation of underlying principles
rather than the development of details. The board will leave the details
for others. This is administration. Generally speaking, administrative
detail will be more effectively accomplished by the trained specialist. The
determination of policy is fundamental and the most important function
of the educational organization. On the basis of the objective evidence
derived through the program of research and planning, through ex-
perimentation, or through other channels, the board will be furnished
the basic evidence on which it may deliberate and form its policies.
Policies, as previously stated, are the principles upon which we operate
as a system of education.
What is meant by a policy? What is meant by administration?
Relationships between policies and administration are indicated in the
accompanying outline.
EDUCATIONAL POLICT
ADMINISTRATION
1. Leaves of absence for trade-school in-
structors to return to industry for
periods of three weeks, to keep pace
with changes in industry.
2. Adoption of rules and regulations
governing the certification of teachers.
3. Extension of a state grant system to
provide financial assistance for voca-
tional education.
4. Provision of supervision for rural
schools.
1. Designation of individuals to attend
schools conducted by industry; selec-
tion of industries to which individu-
als shall return,* determination of the
number compatible with budgetary
provisions.
2. Interpretation of rules and regula-
tions; issuance of certificates; evalua-
tion of credentials.
3. Allocation of funds to local communi-
ties; accounting; reporting,
4. Recommendation of supervisory areas;
determination of functions; allocation
of individuals to areas.
16 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
This analysis should be available in any organization. There should be
a clear understanding of the established or needed policies and a clear
understanding concerning administration.
Too frequently full information is not given to a board of education.
For example, in the matter of appointment, it is the function of the
chief executive officer to select and to nominate individuals for appoint-
ment but it is the fundamental prerogative of a board to elect. This
should be a mutual responsibility. That is to say, the board should have
complete information on the individual before it passes judgment. Free
and full discussion by members of a board not only should be encouraged
but should be a requirement for a final decision. It is only by putting all
the facts on the table that a satisfactory decision can be reached. The
establishment of sound policies and courageous administration are
equally essential in the conduct of a school system.
The organization should utilize to the maximum the special capacity of
the personnel and the material equipment. Each member of the staff so far
as possible should be assigned to the special work for which he is best
fitted. It is the primary purpose of the organization to place the person
best fitted for a given job in that job.
It should be the function of the organization to secure the maximum
use from the facilities available. In planning a program or in the addition
of new equipment, we should make certain, through proper scheduling of
classes or proper use of buildings and equipment; that the facilities are
used to the maximum in every respect. Poor scheduling of classes or
inability to use a building to its fullest capacity, for example, may mean
the addition of plant facilities or equipment which would not be required
if full consideration had been given to the matter of utilization.
There should be integration among the governmental units concerned with
the same problems or areas. The department of education should co-
operate with all other departments in the state government. There may
be other departments performing functions that normally belong in the
department of education. On the other hand, there may be areas in
which many departments must co-operate toward the attainment of a
particular goaL It should not be the desire of any department or the
objective of a particular agency to build up a bureau or to add services
merely for the sake of building a large department. We should utilize to
the greatest advantage the services that already are available in the state
or in the community, and in the long-time program every effort should be
made to place services in those areas in which the most effective results
naay be attained. There must be a clear division of functions between the
various levels and fields of government. It should be clearly borne in
GRACE 17
mind, too, that the policy for public education will be determined by the
state and local boards of education. This is essential because of the nature
of the educational process.
LOCAL INITIATIVE VERSUS CENTRALIZATION
It is a long but magnificent road from the discovery of fire to the era of
the electric telegraph, the steam engine, and representative democracy.
When men learned the use of fire, living conditions changed and articu-
late language developed. Invention and discovery and the growth of
institutions led to the growth and expansion of the human mind. No
doubt the first inventions of social organization were the most difficult to
achieve.
It is not possible in this discussion to trace the organized machinery
devised by men for their protection as individuals and as members of the
group. From the simple unorganized state of Paleolithic man to the
heterogeneous state of contemporary civilization, men have expressed a
variety of philosophies with respect to how the organized efforts of the
group might work best toward the perfection of the state of the individ-
ual. Shall the individual have a part in determining the policies that
affect his own destiny and that of his fellows?
The trend in our own nation over the generations has been toward the
strengthening of the central authority state and federal at the expense
of the parts from which authority emanates. It is obvious that many
units of government conceived during the pioneer era in the evolution of
American democracy no longer are able independentiy and separately to
provide all the services now required for the security of a people or
devised for their security by those who seek the perfect state. The solu-
tion does not, however, lie in the creation of a superstate.
Toulmin Smith in 1851 defined local self-government and centraliza-
tion as follows:
Local self-government is that system of government under which the greatest
number of minds and those knowing the most and having opportunity of know-
ing it, about the special matters at hand, and having the greatest interest in its
well working, have the management of it or control over it.
Centralization is that system of government under which the smallest number
of minds and those knowing the least and having the fewest opportunities of
knowing it, about the special matter in hand, and having the smallest interest
in its well working, have the management of it or the control over it. This may
be an oversimplification of a complex concept. 1
1 See John Fiske, Civil Government in the United Stales, p. 274. New York: Hough-
ton Miffin Co., 1891.
18 THE STATE AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
These definitions, obviously, would not be accepted by scholars, by
practical administrators, or even by those who determine policy today,
A new concept of the functions of government has been developing for
many years and perhaps a major need today is for a clear-cut definition
of functions before agencies are organized on any level. Perhaps, how-
ever, as John Fiske states in his comment on Smith's treatise, "An
immense amount of wretched misgovernment would be avoided ^if all
legislators and all voters would engrave these wholesome definitions
upon their minds." 2
How much government is essential to protect the sovereign people
from their own inadequacies? Are we able to distinguish administration
from policy determination? What is the capacity or the ability of people
to pay for an adequate system of social control? The solution to Amer-
ica's problem of self-government does not lie solely in effective organiza-
tion or effective management. Without the sustained interest of the gov-
erned, the policy-determining function which belongs to the people may be
absorbed by those not so seriously interested in democracy, by specialists who
may be more interested in the area of specialization than in the welfare of the
people, or by a great bureaucracy of vested interests.
The success or failure of government and the quality of service it
renders rest, in the last analysis, upon the capacity and the character of
the men and women who constitute it. There must be in government
men and women who have capacity and character and who believe
implicitly in rendering a service rather than in building up a vested
interest.
America will preserve local initiative and responsibility only if there be
a willingness on the part of all elements locally to improve the governmental
structure in the interests of the whole people instead of permitting ag-
gressive minorities and political expediency to dominate the needs o/ the
group. Unless local communities are willing to assume the responsibility
for a more effective organization, for the placement of men and women
of character and capacity in positions of government, and for continuous
citizen participation in the determination of policy, the trend will be
toward units of government far removed from the people.
There is no guarantee that centralization, on the other hand, means
more effective management or more efficient operation. Unless there is
confidence in the ability of the local unit to assume responsibility and
unless effective education stimulates its citizenship to assume such
responsibility, man's efforts to govern himself may succumb through
ibid.
GRACE 19
passive subservience to the centralized interest. Democracy, on the
other hand, will not function effectively until all the people of the com-
munity recognize that all of the people are part of the community.
Government has a responsibility and an obligation to see to it that
authority does not become the substitute for leadership and responsi-
bility. One of the most fundamental jobs confronting America is to create
an awareness of the problems that confront the community and, in the
larger measure, the nation. A vigorous self-propelled effort to aid in the
solutions of the problems next door should develop.
Recently we organized America for war thousands of committees
and councils throughout our country. Is it not possible that we may
approach the problems of education and government in times of peace
with as much enthusiasm and planning?
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPING AND ADMINISTERING THE
CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
GORDON N. MACKENZIE
Teachers College, Columbia University
New York, New York
As suggested in earlier chapters, administrative functions and policies
should be re-examined periodically to check their adequacy. Inasmuch as
administration is a service enterprise, or a means for helping to ac-
complish goals, it should contribute consistently to the development and
maintenance of an effective educational program. Recent and emerging
concepts of the curriculum and of guidance and other services provided
by the school in behalf of pupils imply the need for a reorientation of ad-
ministration. This chapter will indicate suitable administrative policies
pertaining to the educational program, point out major trends in the
curriculum and related pupil services, and suggest desirable modifica-
tions of administrative practice.
Administration of the schools operates in several areas: states,
counties, cities, and individual schools. The general policies and points of
view to be enunciated here apply to all levels or types of organization.
Administration at any point state, county, city, or local school may
handicap or facilitate the development of a sound educational program.
However, the individual school should be regarded as the most important
unit in administering the curriculum. Most of the discussion will, there-
fore, be directed toward the administrative process at this level.
BASIC ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES
Any aspect of the educational program as complex as the curriculum
or the various pupil services which are related to instruction presents
many important problems of administration. Schools operate under a
great variety of conditions, involve large numbers of pupils with varying
backgrounds, seek to contribute to many phases of pupil development,
provide numerous special services, and utilize a great variety of instruc-
tional materials. Effective administration of such instructional programs
demands a high level of competence.
20
MACKENZIE 21
Superintendents and principals have long been regarded as the spe-
cialized administrative officers of the school. More recently, supervisors
and teachers have come to be recognized as important influences in
administration. In the era of the one-room school the teacher was
typically the administrator. With the advent of the graded school and
departmentalized instruction, problems of organization and administra-
tion became increasingly complex, and failure to solve them sometimes
prevented the attainment of sound educational programs. Accordingly,
special administrative services were introduced and rapidly extended. In
harmony with present-day conceptions of the functional relation of
education to democracy as a way of life, teachers are again being
identified with important administrative functions. Thus, through
timely adjustments, policies and procedures have been adapted to the
needs of improved plans of instruction.
Recognizing the complexity of the administrative task, the varying
conditions under which schools operate, and the many functionaries con-
cerned, three general guides are presented.
1. Administration should be regarded as a means for attaining an
effective curriculum. In theory, at least, acceptance is generally accorded
the idea that the main purpose of educational administration is to con-
tribute to the education of children, youth, and adults. Thus, administra-
tion is essentially a service which facilitates the attainment of educa-
tional objectives. In practice, however, there are many illustrations of a
disavowal of this position. Administrative efficiency and smoothness ap-
pear to be the goal, the influence on the educational outcomes being
relegated to second place. For example, school supplies are often ordered,
inventoried, and distributed in such a way that their potential value is
not realized. Again, to save an exceedingly small percentage of the total
cost, or to follow some long-established but now unsuitable routine,
money is frequently wasted and educational goals are obstructed. Thus,
teachers may find it impossible to secure the supplies and materials best
suited to their needs at a time when they can be of maximum value. In a
similar manner, the plan for tho operation and use of the school plant
may prevent the introduction of some of the most valuable types of
educational experiences. Shutting off the heat, locking off certain parts of
the building, requiring the evacuation of a definite block of rooms so that
they may be cleaned, and numerous other prohibitions and regulations,
when their purpose or necessity is not understood, may discourage
teacher initiative and prevent the attainment of desired goals. Certainly
it is imperative to have regard for the expense involved in any activity,
and some organization and system are essential in tlie operation of any
school. Yet, regulations should not be arbitrarily arrived at when it is
22 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
relatively simple to get full-staff determination of most desirable goals
and to establish conditions which will aid in attaining them.
In similar manner the system of records and reports may contribute to
or make difficult the provision of a sound program. The kind of lesson
plan required by an administrator may encourage planning in terms of
the needs of boys and girls or it may operate to fasten on the schools a
deadly type of lesson learning. Similarly, marking systems may direct
attention toward or away from desirable outcomes. Extensive demands
on teachers for clerical work may prevent full attention to pupils.
These simple examples should not lead to the conclusion that ad-
ministration must do nothing more than keep from inhibiting or blocking
sound programs. Instead, administration has an important leadership
role and can serve as a powerful constructive influence if it is focused on
ways and means of attaining the purposes of the educational program.
This requires much more than management or keeping the machinery
operating smoothly. It demands a continuous study of goals to see how
they can be most surely attained, and a constant consideration and
analysis of the physical facilities, tools, equipment, materials, and
personnel to determine how all resources can be utilized most completely.
Further, administrative leadership of the finest type will be creative and
imaginative. It will search unceasingly for new and better ways, the
sights to be set constantly on the attainment of a better curriculum and
improved pupil services.
2. Administrative plans and procedures should be developed co-operatively
by the educational staff, the parents, and the pupils. If administration is
truly a service for furthering progress toward educational goals, all those
who are concerned with and affected by administrative procedures should
participate in appropriate aspects of the program. There is no other way
that administration can be fully informed as to goals and needs. It is well
recognized that administration is a professional service requiring special
training and experience. However, administration can be more effective
if those involved in the enterprise share in defining goals and outlining
policies-
There are several reasons why shared planning is important. As will be
elaborated later, breadth, balance, and continuity in the experience of
children and youth can be achieved only as all who contribute to educa-
tion supplement one another. Thus, each teacher must not only see how
he functions in relation to other teachers, parents, and pupils, but he
must also be aware of the relevance of appropriate administrative con-
trols. Similarly, parents need to be conscious of the purposes sought, to
be informed as to means for supporting school efforts, and to recognize
their potential contribution. This need for mutual assistance is not re-
MACKENZIE 23
stricted to those who come into direct contact with the learners. It is
equally important for administration to see its contribution to a well-
rounded program, in view of its responsibility for facilitating co-ordina-
tion between such major aspects of the program as grades, subjects, units
of school organization, special and general teachers, and relations with
the community.
Another reason for co-operative planning is that only in this way can a
framework be established within which individuals agree to function and
supplement one another. Charts are often prepared to indicate the re-
sponsibility of each member of the administrative staff. However, unless
plans are co-operatively arrived at and thoroughly accepted by all
parties involved, there is little likelihood that the organization will
function as anticipated. This is naturally to be expected, for plans which
are accepted only on the basis of tradition or administrative decision are
seldom well understood by any substantial portion of the participants.
In so far as understanding is incomplete, continuous improvement
through suggestion and individual effort is unlikely. Often, in education,
there is great loss in efficiency because teachers, parents, and pupils
those who are intimately involved in the details of any program have no
well-established means through which they can suggest and effect desir-
able modifications. Continuous co-operative planning prevents such
On the state level there are several examples of lay participation in the
formulation of policy concerning public education. For some years the
superintendent of public instruction in Michigan has had a lay advisory
commission on education. 1 On a great variety of policy questions coming
before the superintendent, it has been common practice to turn to lay
groups for assistance in formulating plans of action. In Georgia there has
recently been very widespread discussion of the state's educational pro-
gram for the purpose of securing understanding, suggestions, and
support. 2
In a rural school district near Salt Lake (Sty, Utah, where there are
seventeen elementary schools and 175 teachers, a council of twelve
teachers, four principals, two supervisors, and the superintendent was
organized as an advisory group. This group met every two weeks during
the school year and discussed many problems of general importance.
Attention centered on "(a) an evaluation of the existing program, (6)
tin No. 305A. Lansing, Michigan: State Department of Public Instruction, 1937.
* "Georgia Plans Postwar Educational Programs/' Education Jor Victory, III
(August 21, 1944), 9.
24 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
discussion and formulation of a basic philosophy for use in planning pro-
grams in the district, (c) a survey of textbooks and supplies in use,
(d) the evaluation and selection of new textbooks, (e) a survey of promo-
tion practices in the district, (/) problems of the elementary school and
the war emergency." Probably the most significant contribution was on
the problems of grouping children, a study of existing practices and
conditions resulting in a statement of policy for the guidance of schools. 3
In Springfield, Missouri, there has been wide participation in formu-
lating policy on a variety of problems. Teachers have aided in establish-
ing salary schedules and selecting new teachers as well as in planning in-
service programs and developing postwar plans for the schools. 4
An example of pupil sharing in administration is found in the student
organizations at New Trier Township High School. 5 Here a student
council, a boys 7 club, a girls' club, and a girls' athletic association have
wide powers and carry extensive responsibility for important phases of
the school's program. In co-operation with the student council, various
organizations sell activity tickets and plan a budget for financing the
various extra-curriculum activities. In a large school such as New Trier
this becomes an important venture. The council, over a period of years,
has also taken leadership in other matters, such as setting up self-
governing study halls. These are now firmly established and operate
successfully. Over one thousand students are now in such groups. In addi-
tion to the council work, the boys' and girls' clubs handle a wide range of
social and service problems in an effective manner.
One of the obstacles to shared consideration of plans and procedures
resides in the failure to analyze carefully the areas in which this method
of working can be most profitably employed. Any group at work on its
problems needs to give time and careful consideration to defining ap-
propriate areas for consideration. Surely, group attention to administra-
tive details is to be avoided unless administrative arrangements are
failing to give maximum service in furthering the program. In most
situations the following will probably be the major areas for co-operative
planning.
First, the continuous clarification and redefinition of the purposes of
the curriculum and related pupil service is a most important and funda-
mental concern of parents, pupils, teachers, and administrators. Partici-
patioa of all is necessary to secure clarity of understanding and careful
direction of action. Administration not only can contribute but also needs
* Gr&up Planning in Edueati0n t pp. 103-5. Yearbook of the Department of Super-
vision and Curriculum Development of the National Education Association, 1945.
Washington: National Education Association, 1945.
* Ibid., pp. 121-28. Ibld n pp. 64-70.
MACKENZIE 25
this interaction with other groups as a constant guide to its own efforts.
Only in this way can it obtain an adequate basis for making administra-
tive policy and action a positive force in attaining major goals.
Second, the preparation of program plans and policies is a suitable area
for co-operative planning. Where purposes have been jointly determined,
the formulation of broad plans is a logical next step. While parents are
concerned with only the general aspects of planning, teachers can con-
tribute to the over-all arrangements as well as to the preparation for day-
to-day activities. Pupils will naturally and easily participate at the
points where they are directly involved.
Third, following the definition of purposes and the preparation of pro-
gram plans, all parties to the educational process are naturally concerned
with and can contribute to an evaluation of the effectiveness of the cur-
riculum and related pupil activities. Parents, teachers, pupils, and
administrators have contributions to make. Further, through carefully
conducted evaluations, in which all share, administration can learn much
as to the value of its specialized activities.
Finally, there is a fourth area in which group action is profitable. No
program for the shared consideration and whole-staff development of
administrative plans and procedures is likely to succeed unless an or-
ganization or method is established to make co-operative action possible.
Definite arrangements need to be made so that participation of all con-
cerned will be facilitated.
A plan of organization has been suggested by Koopman, Miel, and
Misner for a single school which is based on four assumptions:
1. That teachers as a professional group, charged with important social re-
sponsibilities, should continuously study their own professional problems if
the school is to function as a dynamic social agency. The need for such study
suggests the formation of a committee which is called here the "Teacher-
Affairs Committee." The essential functions of the Teacher-Affairs Com-
mittee are:
o. Keeping faculty members informed concerning the activities of professional
organizations to the end that the rights and responsibilities of all profes^
sional agents may be recognized and discharged effectively.
5. Facilitating the personal and professional growth of all agents by making
available the services of specialists and results of the significant studies,
reports, and writings which will help each person to become an increasingly
alert, informed, and useful member of the profession and of society.
c. Promoting optimum security for teachers,
d. Providing opportunities whereby professional agents may participate in
recreational and social activities which will further normal human rela-
tionships.
e. Representing the faculty in the translation of accepted policies into action.
26 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
2. That a public school needs the application of intensive group thinking to the
end that its activities may have unity of purpose. Opportunity for such group
thinking is provided by a committee which is called here the "Curriculum-
Activities Committee." The essential functions of this committee are:
a. Adapting general curriculum policies for use in a given building.
b. Organizing the learning experiences of students, including student partici-
pation in the administration of the school, and planning the use of special-
ists.
c. Developing techniques of evaluating the curriculum experiences of stu-
dents.
d. Keeping curriculum records.
e. Planning the instructional budget.
/. Planning utilization of school plant.
g. Planning replacements and additions to school plant.
3. That real experiences must be the basis of the educative process and, therefore,
that the total environment in which persons live must be recognized as the
source of the most important learning experiences. This suggests the need for
a committee that is called here the "Community-Relations Committee." The
essential functions of the Community-Relations Committee are:
a. Facilitating the participation of all members of the community in plan-
ning, executing, and appraising educational policies and activities.
6. Planning interpretative programs and exhibits.
c. Making available objective data concerning community educational needs
through the technique of the continuous community survey.
d. Co-operating with community groups in the continuous development of
effective agencies and activities of adult education.
4. That the activities of these basic committees must be co-ordinated if they are
to be effective in promoting socialization. This requires the organization of a
co-ordinating committee which is called here the "Socialization Committee."
The essential functions of the Socialization Committee are:
c. Surveying and evaluating social life in order better to criticize the func-
tions of the school in society.
b. Interpreting results of evaluation activities in terms of the unitary objec-
tive of education democratic socialization.
c. Determining steps, emphases, and sequences the strategy of school ad-
ministration.
d. Reviewing, co-ordinating, and integrating activities of students, teachers,
specialists, and community groups.
e. Maintaining balance among the activities of students, teachers, and com-
munity groups. 6
This plan thus provides for an over-all co-ordinating group, the
Socialization Committee, and three other committees which clear
* G. Robert Koopman, Alice Miel, and Paul J. Misner, Democracy in Sckod Ad-
ministration, pp. 78-80. New York: D, Appleton-Century Co., 1943.
MACKENZIE 27
through this central agency. These three committees are the community-
relations committee, the teacher-affairs committee, and the curriculum-
activities committee. Glencoe, Illinois, has worked successfully for sever-
al years with a modification of this plan.
Larger school systems will of necessity have to provide for the co-
ordination of building units. The organization proposed for a single
building can be adopted with appropriate modifications for city and
county school systems and thus provide needed unity and continuity. 7
Denver, Colorado, has developed a city-wide organization which
places major responsibility on local units. Individual school faculties
work with their principals through (1) teacher planning groups, (2)
problem committees, and (3) the building committees on instruction.
The city-wide organization for guidance and instruction consists of three
committees on instruction: one for elementary schools, one for junior
high schools, and one for senior high schools. Each of these is a repre-
sentative group of teachers, administrators, and supervisors. An execu-
tive board, consisting of representatives from the various types of educa-
tional workers, co-ordinates the activities of the three city committees
on instruction. Not only do individual buildings have great freedom of
action but the city committees on instruction have great authority and
provide leadership and initiative in developing programs and in guiding
local activities.
It is particularly appropriate to have staff co-operation in the ad-
ministration of schools in a democracy. Educational organizations which
are to teach democracy must, of necessity, provide extensive opportunity
for practicing democratic ways of behaving and working. Only thus can
appropriate skills and attitudes be secured. Unless democracy is exempli-
fied by the administration, it is unlikely that much success in this direc-
tion can be achieved through the educational program. Unfortunately,
this need is not adequately recognized in the schools of the country. Ad-
ministration all too often is a dominant force, making decisions on major
matters of policy without consultations with those concerned. Some-
times this appears to be a simpler and quicker way. Over a long period of
time, however, it is not the most effective process. Undemocratic ad-
ministration fails to capitalize on the talents and ideas of the group and
is a denial of the democratic way as a desirable goal for our schools.
3. The educ^ionaL program should be conceivedj planned, and adminis-
tered as a whole. The welfare of children and youth, and thus effective
administration, necessitates planning and operating the curriculum and
related pupil services as a unit. This is important in order to secure both
>. 84-92.
28 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
vertical and horizontal unity. Vertical unity is needed to facilitate the
normal and sequential growth of the individual. Consistency of guidance,
in terms of the needs of individuals, from level to level, is to be desired.
There is no apparent justification for gaps between grades or units of the
system or for marked differences in the curriculum organization from one
grade to the next. Planning on any level should be in harmony with the
over-all organization of the curriculum and related pupil services.
Faculty members at one level should be closely associated with those
working with younger or older pupils. The present school organization
frequently makes this difficult because the individual segments operate
as entirely separate entities. Administration faces an important re-
sponsibility in bringing about continuity in the program.
Horizontal unity is equally necessary. Education is increasingly effec-
tive as the individual develops in ability to integrate and relate his
various experiences. The plan and operation of the school program can do
much to facilitate this integration. If the educational offering is planned
in relation to a basic analysis of the total life of the child, it is more likely
that balance and relationship can be achieved. However, special atten-
tion and continued effort must be directed to this problem if real unity is
to be secured. The tendency is to break the program into subjects and
compartments and to establish special and independent services. Not
only should the regular classwork be organized to help the individual
unify his experiences but also the recreational and extra-class activities as
well as the special services, such as guidance, health, and the school
cafeteria, should be operated so as to support, extend, and otherwise
make effective the total program. This calls for more than management
on the part of the administrative staff. Leadership is needed in discover-
ing new and better arrangements than are found in most schools today.
Planning and administering the educational program are important at
the state level as well as in county, city, or individual schools. However,
the effect of administrative policy is particularly crucial at the point
where it touches the individual child. Thus, while over-all co-ordination
Is necessary for each unit, whether it be the fiscal, attendance, or ad-
ministrative unit, the individual school should be responsible for plan-
ning and administering the educational program. Only in this way can
appropriate adaptations be made to the needs of individual children and
youth and to local community conditions. Full participation by teachers,
parents, and children is needed at the local level in developing adminis-
trative plans and procedures suitable to goals. This is possible and prac-
tical only where the responsible unit is small enough for the participants
to be directly affected by decisions.
Unfortunately, in many cities and counties throughout the nation, the
MACKENZIE 29
individual school is not the really effective unit for planning and ad-
ministering the educational program. Administration of the individual
school is not only directed but also frequently dominated by controls from
a city or county office. Courses of study are outlined in detail and ad-
ministrative procedures are prescribed. In such situations authority
flows down to the school from the next higher administrative unit, rather
than up from the parents, teachers, and pupils in a particular school.
Some of our larger cities reveal the formalizing and routinizing effects of
such an arrangement. A few cities and counties are pointing the way out
of these difficulties by releasing individual schools and making it possible
for them to plan and administer their own programs in terms of the needs
to be met. A desirable measure of co-ordination is, of course, maintained,
and services to individual schools are provided by the central office.
The Denver organization described in the preceding section makes the
individual school the unit in developing the educational program. This
plan permits a maximum of adaptation to a particular community and its
children. In enables a school to be organized and to function as a unit in
relation to its unique conditional factors and it places responsibility upon
the staff of the individual school for developing an effective program.
There is, however, a considerable measure of co-ordination and service
provided through the central organizations.
Several types of administrative units have been successful in establish-
ing an organization which facilitates the participation of the various
groups interested in curriculum improvement. In Wisconsin the State
Department of Public Instruction and the Wisconsin Education Associa-
tion co-operatively initiated a program in September, 1944, which is
referred to as the Wisconsin Co-operative Educational Planning Pro-
gram. Although the state superintendent of public instruction has legal
responsibility for preparing a course of study, this is not interpreted to
mean that a fixed course of study should be prepared. Instead, the state
agency gives leadership and unity to a program which stimulates local
initiative in the cities and counties. Emphasis is placed 013. the exchange
of information and experiences among schools, assistance in the clarifica-
tion of the task of the school, help to local agencies in carrying out the
responsibilities of public education, and work with lay organizations in
studying educational needs.
While the total Wisconsin program provides for a broad attack on a
wide range of educational problems, the work in the curriculum area
illustrates the means used for encouraging the individual school or school
system to become the major determiner of detailed plans of operation.
There is a central planning group called the curriculum-guiding com-
mittee which includes representatives from various types of educational
30 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
workers throughout the state that is responsible for the direction of the
program. Much of the actual work is carried on with and through (1)
local liaison committees, (2) the curriculum staff, and (3) state-wide com-
mittees. The local liaison committees are selected by the various cities
and counties participating in the program. They serve to co-ordinate
state and local activities and to stimulate local effort. The curriculum
staff is a large group, mostly staff members from teacher-training insti-
tutions who volunteer to serve as consultants for local curriculum study
groups. The state-wide committees have responsibility for preparing
curriculum guides which may deal with subject areas, with a prob-
lem approach to teaching and learning, with intergroup relations, and
with various other problems. The emphasis is on developing materials
of a resource type which can be used as a basis for planning by an indi-
vidual teacher. The curriculum guiding committee, as the over-all state
committee, has prepared various types of bulletins intended to stim-
ulate local groups to study their own responsibility, to plan with lay
citizens, to use available consultant help, or in other ways to take initia-
tive in developing a satisfactory program geared to meet local needs.
This, of course, places great demands on the leadership of city and
county superintendents and principals in the individual schools. 8
To regard the individual school as the unit for planning and adminis-
tering the educational program makes necessary many changes in ad-
ministrative structure and operation. For example, system-wide super-
visory and curriculum services need to be modified to place emphasis on
aiding each school to develop its own program. The principal and staff of
the individual school must accept greater responsibility for over-all pro-
gram planning and development in each school. Also, questions of
budgeting, expenditures, and selection of new staff members are typical
of other areas in which greater participation by the individual school is
needed if the curriculum and related pupil services are to be conceived,
planned, and administered as a whole.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE CUKRICULTJM
The curriculum is defined as the experiences which boys and girls have
under the direction of the school. Thus, it encompasses the whole educa-
tional program. This section will deal with the total body of pupil ex-
periences, and subsequent sections will single out various pupil services
for special consideration. This procedure avoids certain difficulties in-
volved in relating many pupil services to the schools' total program.
* Ida A. Ooley, "Growth through In-Service Action," Educational Leadership, HI
{December, 1945), 126-28, 135; Gordon N. Mackenzie, "Organization for Cruriculum
Planning/' Wisconsin Journal of Education, LXXVII (December, 1944), 173-76.
MACKENZIE 31
As already indicated, administrative functions are planned to serve
or to further the educational program. These functions which relate
specifically to the curriculum can, therefore, be best described in relation
to the type of curriculum contemplated. A series of statements, descrip-
tive of a desirable curriculum, and the means for its development, are
herewith presented. A few examples of implications for administration
are indicated.
1. Administration should assist in providng a balanced program of
living for boys and girls. Because of changes in the home and other social
institutions, an increasingly heavy responsibility has been placed upon
the school to co-ordinate the various forces impinging on boys and girls
and to help them achieve a balance of such factors as work, rest, relaxa-
tion, stimulation, and nutrition. This task is infinitely more complex
than the provision of a program for teaching certain prescribed subjects.
Classwork, extra-class activities, and out-of-school pursuits need to be
properly related in planning pupil experiences of educational value. This
calls for administrative co-ordination and leadership. Administration can
do much to help teachers focus attention on the need for providing a
balanced program of living. Administrative rules and regulations may
force a narrow and unbalanced program on a school or may aid in secur-
ing proper consideration for all aspects of pupil growth and learning. Ad-
ministrative vision is essential for bringing various educational influences
into harmonious and reinforcing relationships.
The problem of providing a balanced program for boys and girls has
long been the concern of many faculty groups. The school day in some
schools has been organized with proper regard for physical and mental
health of pupils. Appropriate variety of activity has sometimes been
planned with the total welfare in mind, In some situations faculty mem-
bers devote much time to co-operative planning in order that the whole
program may be on a sound basis and that individual pupil cases can be
considered to be sure that each is receiving appropriate stimulation as
well as adequate rest and relaxation.
Few schools, however, have given full attention to the educative re-
sources of the community and the bringing of school programs into prop-
er relation to them. Some communities have made considerable progress
in organizing co-ordinating councils of the various agencies concerned
with education and welfare. Frequently, these agencies consciously sup-
plement one another, by exchanging information on pupils and planning
co-operatively to provide the best possible service to individuals and the
total group.
The parents, teachers, and pupils in Glencoe, Illinois, have made a
very unique contribution to the development of a balanced program of
32 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
living for their boys and girls. In a little booklet, Together We Learn, they
have attempted to show "the whys of school for ways at home." Proceed-
ing on the assumption that education should be a partnership between
home and school, they have prepared a curriculum guide for parents and
used many illustrations from children's drawings. The guide is intended
as an aid to the home and the school in providing "learning experiences
that are continuous, unified, and rich in meaning and purpose." After an
introductory section which makes explicit the way in which the home and
school can work together, the various aspects of the school programs are
discussed and interpreted, and numerous suggestions made as to po-
tentially valuable relations between in-school and out-of-school activi-
ties. The booklet is written so that parents will want to read and re-read
it. Undoubtedly a project such as this helps to introduce balance and con-
sistency into the lives of many boys and girls. 9
2. Administration should assist in securing a curriculum which will aid
children and youth with their needs, interests, and concerns and help them re-
late these to broader social problems. Needs are here defined as any basic
physiological or mental requirements which should be satisfied, or any
social demands which must be met, if the individual is to attain max-
imum self-realization. Interests are viewed as motivating forces in the
life of the pupil. Concerns are those matters about which the individual is
bothered or worried. The broader social problems include a wide range of
issues which must be resolved if our citizens are to live a full and rich life.
In theory, at least, educational programs have accepted a responsibility
to both the individual and to society. Actually, schools have had only
partial success in relating their programs to the immediate needs and
interests of pupils and to the development of a sensitivity for and an
ability to deal effectively with the great social problems of our day. Ad-
ministration has a significant service to perform in furthering progress
toward these goals.
A curriculum centering on the needs and interests of pupils requires
f reedom for teachers to work and plan for individuals, as well as leader-
ship from administration in finding ever better ways of serving children
and youth. Administration should continuously stimulate teachers to
study the children in their classes, to gain added proficiency in recogniz-
ing needs associated with each stage of growth and development, and to
utilise learning experiences which are of the greatest potential effective-
ness for the outcomes sought. It is important that teachers be able to
recognize the wide differences among children and that standards as to
learning time, content of the program, and results anticipated be indi-
We Learn. Cfeaeoe, DHacaa: Board of Education, September, 1942.
MACKENZIE 33
vidualized. This argues for flexible marking and promotion systems. Too
often an attempt has been made to meet individual differences solely on
the basis of administrative adjustments such as ability grouping. The
attempt to solve problems of individual differences through administra-
tive arrangements has always proved inadequate. It is now generally
recognized that the grouping is a relatively minor matter, which can often
be cared for within single classes. The more important and more difficult
problem is that of adjusting the curriculum, or selecting learning ex-
periences, in accordance with individual needs.
The present high schools have good examples of administrative ap-
proaches to the problem of differences. Multiple programs have been set
up, such as college preparatory, commercial, industrial, and general
offerings. For each, a series of courses is listed. The supposition is then
often made that, by distributing pupils to these programs, their individ-
ual differences will be met. In recognition of the inadequacies of such a
plan, a constant-with-variables program has frequently been advocated.
Under this arrangement certain courses are required or made constant
for all pupils, with a range of eleetives or variables offered in addition. In
connection with these programs, guidance has sometimes been regarded
as an administrative arrangement for distributing pupils to the ap-
propriate courses. These programs give a semblance of orderliness to
planning and operation but are entirely unsatisfactory if used alone. Un-
less they are supplemented by a modification of the course content, that
is, by proper consideration for the experiences that individual pupils
have, they fail to meet individual needs. If the problem of individual
needs and differences is to be realistically attacked, attention must be
centered on what happens in the individual classroom. It would seem,
then, that administration might well focus effort on providing leadership
to secure appropriate modifications of the curriculum rather than to rely
on mere administrative rearrangements.
In connection with the state curriculum program in Wisconsin great
emphasis has been placed on studying children as they grow and develop
in their school and community. A study guide has been prepared and has
received extensive use throughout the state. This state program recog-
nizes the importance of trying to have each of the 20,000 teachers in the
state more consciously determine the curriculum in his classroom, and so
seeks to aid teachers in studying their own pupils and in developing ap-
propriate programs, 10
18 The Task of the School: A Stitdy Gwde for Use by Professional and Lay Groups.
Curriculum Guiding Committee, Bulletin No. 1. Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Co-
operative Educational Planning Program.
34 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
The Commission on Teacher Education of the American Council on
Education has recognized the importance of each teacher understanding
his pupils and has provided help for both preservice and in-service
groups, 11 Dr. Daniel A. Prescott, who headed this program, has since
been providing leadership to study groups in many sections of the
country. In the state of Maryland, for example, numerous groups of
teachers are organized to study the children under their direction as a
basis for guiding their development.
The problem of meeting individual interests and capacities takes a
somewhat different form in elementary as contrasted with secondary
schools. Under present arrangements, with one teacher to a class, there is
difficulty in offering as wide a range of opportunities as would seem de-
sirable. While the plan of one teacher to a class is essentially sound, it
seems important to make possible the use of numerous laboratory situa-
tions in the fine, industrial, and home arts so that the variety of learning
experiences may be suited to the broadened purposes of the modern
school. On the secondary level the elective system is the chief administra-
tive arrangement for meeting individual variations in capacity, interest,
and concern. However, the extra-class activities help to serve youth
more satisfactorily. Unfortunately, both the elective system and extra-
class activities are usually rather formal and mechanical adjustments.
They make possible the reaching of a large number of individuals, but by
no means assure it. Teachers in the classroom must find ways and means
of keeping experiences in harmony with the level of development of
individuals. Staff members who really know boys and girls must guide
them toward suitable experiences, wherever they may be had. On both
the elementary and secondary levels there is an urgent need of more
effective means for the discovery of worth-while interests. To help teach-
ers progress in this whole area might well be an important goal of ad-
ministration*
Administrative arrangements for class groupings frequently make it
difficult for teachers to really get to know their pupils. In those ele-
mentary schools where class size is reasonable, teachers can become
familiar with the backgrounds and ambitions of their pupils, as well as
with the out-of-school influences which condition their development. By
introducing a wide variety of free and flexible activities into the program
of instruction they can come to know their pupils and guide them in-
telligently. Conditions in the secondary school are usually less favorable.
Teachers having five classes with 150 to 200 pupils per day find it im-
possible to become sufficiently well acquainted to work out plans with
11 Sfeaff of tne Division on Child Development and Teacher Personnel, Helping
Teachers Und&&bmd Ck&drm* Washington: American Council on Education, 1945.
MACKENZIE 35
any considerable number of them in terms of their interests, needs, and
concerns. Adding a brief home-room period to a heavy schedule of pupil
contacts is not an adequate remedy. Some major reorganization is needed
in order that each pupil may be well known by at least one staff member
and have an opportunity to work with him for a considerable period of
tune. The introduction of core courses has been a useful approach to this
problem. As another attack, some schools have organized what is re-
ferred to as a school within a school so that a team of three to five teach-
ers might carry major responsibility for a specific group of 90 to 150
pupils. Problems in this area are difficult to solve and continuous ad-
ministrative leadership is needed to secure the proper basic working ar-
rangements and to focus attention on the real problems.
Over a period of years the secondary schools of Denver, Colorado,
have experimented with a general education program based on a core or
guidance sequence. In the junior high schools a class is under the direc-
tion of one teacher for a substantial block of time. In the senior high
schools there is a similar arrangement but with considerable variation
from school to school. Whatever the plan for instruction, a pupil usually
has continuing contact for guidance purposes with one staff member
throughout each three-year period. This makes it possible for each pupil
to have at least one staff member who knows him well and with whom he
is thoroughly acquainted. In addition, there is a co-ordinator in each
school with time to aid staff members in co-operatively planning for
their groups.
Staff members hi East High School in Denver are organized in half-
grade committees, such as 10A, 10B, 11A, and 11B. These committees
include the general education teachers for the particular grade and other
teachers representative of the various subject departments. These com-
mittees carry full responsibility for the total school activity of their
group and seek to co-ordinate regular instruction, extra-class activities,
and special services, such as guidance. Teaching programs are arranged
so that members of these half-grade committtees can meet on school time
during the regular school day. These half-grade committees start with a
class one semester before it enters the school and stay with that group
until graduation.
Another administrative arrangement, known as the school-within-a-
school, makes possible a great variety of adjustments. One of the most
fully developed examples of this plan is to be found in the Evanston
Township High School. 12 Although this is a somewhat atypical situation,
in that a staff group working within the larger school has, for almost ten
12 Charles M. MacConnell, E. O. Melby, and C. O. Arndt, New Schools for a New
Culture. New York: Harper & Bros., 1943.
36 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
years, guided specially selected groups of pupils, the idea could well be
applied to any situation with groups of three to five teachers carrying
responsibility for one to two hundred pupils.
Records and reports which are sometimes viewed only as administra-
tive techniques or necessary evils, can, with proper use, serve to help
teachers understand their pupils. With stimulation and direction,
interest can be created in gathering significant information and studying
individual children. The techniques employed in making records, and in
providing for their use, may have profound influence on their contribu-
tion to an understanding of boys and girls.
The task of aiding children and youth to relate their needs, interests,
and concerns to the broader social problems has seldom been well handled
by the schools. It is a complicated and difficult matter, demanding
breadth of understanding, skilful teaching, and careful guidance of
pupils. By helping to maintain a climate favorable for the attainment of
desired goals, administration can markedly affect the results secured. If
it be accepted that the school should be directed by the society in which
it operates, a first and most basic aspect of the problem involves the
guidance of pupils toward broad social-value patterns which are in
harmony with the democratic way. Only as values are defined and
analyzed will pupils develop bases for making decisions involving per-
sonal and social affairs. Certainly administration needs to assist teachers
in their study of ways of operating more effectively through the in-
structional program to aid pupils in the clarification of values. This is a
difficult responsibility to discharge, but, aside from this, administration
can do much to secure relationships within and without the school which
will contribute to democratic living. Through the method of operating
the school, as well as through the encouragement of full faculty and
community participation, an environment can be established which is
favorable to growth of democratic behavior and action. For example,
extra-class activities can be operated so as to provide opportunity for all.
Regulations set up to guide the activity program can be arranged so as
not to penalize pupils who could profit from participation. Individual
organizations, which are often exceedingly undemocratic in their mem-
bership policy and method of operation, can be led to modify their prac-
tices. These and similar matters are appropriate objects of administrative
concern.
If the curriculum emphasizes broad social questions which are of
immediate concern to pupils, certain administrative problems are
eimted. The purpose of giving direct attention to real, live topics and
questions is to provide an education which really makes a difference.
Schooling is too often limited to relaying knowledge which pupils might
MACKENZIE 37
be expected to use in solving problems of living more adequately. In
contrast, the position taken here is that children and youth will profit
from extensive and continuous experience in analyzing and solving real
problems. This necessitates the use of a great variety of instructional
materials and learning experiences. Community contacts become es-
sential and so administrative leadership is needed to interpret the basic
reason for the program and to aid the whole Community in contributing
to the education of boys and girls. If real problems are to be considered,
some of them will inevitably be controversial. The need for community
understanding and support is, then, particularly important.
During the 1944-45 school year pupils at Merrill, Wisconsin, organized
a club which sent panels to lead discussions at service clubs and other
community meetings. As an outgrowth of their classwork pupils pre-
pared themselves to present subjects such as full employment and re-
forms needed in education. Citizens participated freely and developed
a respect for the pupils' thoroughness and competence. Numerous mem-
bers of the community obtained new insight into the program of the
schools and were in a position to speak directly on the degree of under-
standing the boys and girls had acquired of the various aspects of the
problems presented.
A curriculum which aids children and youth with their needs, interests,
and concerns and helps them relate these to social problems probably re-
quires a pattern of organization and administration different from that
commonly found in elementary and secondary schools. A strict subject
organization appears to be inefficient, if not actually detrimental to
focusing on needs and problems. As has already been suggested, it is im-
portant to have experiences involving a variety of activities and drawing
upon various subject areas. It is necessary to have time to work on indi-
vidual needs, interests, and concerns or on wider social problems without
being limited to any subject field or being restricted by the pressure of
other ground to be covered. The experience of schools has revealed the
value in relatively long periods of work as two to three hours. This fa-
cilitates the introduction of a variety of activities centering around some
topic or problem, encourages the use of many kinds of laboratory situa-
tions, and even enables class groups or individuals to leave the school
building as the conditions indicate this to be wise. Under such a program
the basic skills of language, number work, and thinking are very im-
portant, and direct instruction is given as needed. Separate subjects, as
such, have significance for special interests and skills and continue to
receive major attention in any program. In schools totally organized on a
subject basis, the development of the broad experiential phase of the
instructional program to include a block of uninterrupted time presents
38 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
problems in relation to the assignment of staff, the scheduling of classes,
the rethinking of the guidance program, and the participation of parents.
The experience of schools with such programs has been such as to reveal
the practicality of making the administrative arrangements needed.
3, Administration should foster a curriculum which builds competence in
the basic tools and methods of work. School programs have long included
the three R's, but more and more attention is being given other funda-
mentals such as methods of study, problem-solving, getting on with
others, and habits of work. The greatest need for improvement in the
teaching of the three B/s is that of providing meaningful experience for
boys and girls. Too large a portion of pupil time is devoted to barren and
somewhat fruitless instruction in reading and arithmetic. Administration
can lead the way to more significant effort with economy of time and
better outcomes. The teaching of skills in a purposeful setting and the
use of improved materials promise more adequate results. In most situa-
tions direct and carefully guided teaching will have to supply a wealth of
supplementary experiences.
The scope of the so-called fundamentals needs to be broadened. The
three R's alone are no longer adequate. The ability to solve problems, to
get along with others, and to work effectively are suggestive of new and
important objectives of good educational programs. Opportunity for
pupils to grapple with day-to-day problem situations under the guidance
of teachers who are able to help them improve their skill and techniques
will be a necessity. Direct study of human relations, opportunity to work
and play with others of various ages, and frequent attention to the skills
involved are necessary emphases, Work experience centering in the home,
school community, business, industry, or farm can well be an important
feature of every program. Progress in these areas will necessitate in-
service education of teachers and constant guidance by administration to
introduce provision for these learnings. The administrative problems in-
volved in such ventures are numerous, but here administration can pro-
vide valuable leadership by revealing how these vital and necessary
activities can be conducted as a part of a modern program of education.
4. Administration should encourage pupil planning and self-direction.
The best schools today are free from rigid disciplinary control and have
fewer and fewer teachers who dominate and drive children and youth.
The emphasis is upon leading, upon working co-operatively with pupils
in planning what they will do or how they will do it, and upon evaluating
tbeir progress toward selected goals. Planning is an important part of the
educative process and pupils require extensive and continuous oppor-
tunities to engage in purposeful planning under guidance, if they are to
gain control of the methods of social participation and to learn to plan
MACKENZIE 39
habitually with care. In so far as programs are in harmony with the
needs, interests, and concerns of the learners, it is only logical and ap-
propriate that the individual pupil should assume considerable re-
sponsibility for working out his own plan of action. Where real pupil
purposes exist, pupil planning naturally follows.
Pupil participation in planning has other justifications. First, such ex-
periences are fundamental in democratic living. Shared responsibility
necessitates a willingness to contribute to group thinking and action, and
an understanding of the procedures for co-operative planning increases
the individual's personal satisfaction and effectiveness. Second, the use of
teacher-pupil planning is an important aspect of a program which seeks
to provide for individual differences and needs. Certainly the value of
specific experiences varies from individual to individual. Through
teacher-pupil planning it is possible to guide individual programs in ac-
cord with needs.
In Montgomery County, Maryland, continuous attention has been
given to problems of co-operative pknning. Within individual classrooms
there has been extensive participation by pupils in planning a great vari-
ety of special activities as well as what should be studied within certain
areas and how individuals and groups should proceed in attacking prob-
lems. One middle-grade group has very successfully planned and carried
through a project which involved checking erosion and beautifying the
school grounds. Planning in another elementary school has become a
school-wide activity. Through individual classrooms and the school
assembly, children have shown enthusiasm and growing proficiency in
planning for the improvement of their school and accepting responsi-
bilities defined by group action.
Teachers require help in developing their ability to share planning
responsibilities with pupils, and conditions which are favorable to this
aim should be maintained. Administration can facilitate in-service
growth in this area. Among other things, it is necessary to have ad-
ministrative recognition of the importance of planning procedures, as
well as specific assistance in the development of techniques and freedom
for teachers to follow through on the basis of plans developed. The rigid
prescription of subject matter to be taught seriously handicaps the
teacher in planning. However, the clear definition of outcomes ix> be
sought and agreement upon a broad outline of areas within which teacbr
ers and pupils may plan for specific experiences are desirable kinds of
guides. Effective teacher-pupil planning requires that each classroom be
a laboratory situation. Books and other materials, appropriate to the
level of maturity and the areas of interest in the class, should be readily
available. Further, there should be ea$y access to supplies and materials
40 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
not usually kept in the classroom. Furniture arrangements so flexible as
to permit much small-group and individual activity are conducive to
good planning. There should be a minimum of limitations covering pupil
affairs such as groups leaving the classroom or building or individuals
going to teachers other than their own or using other resources in the
school or community. These suggestions do not imply that a lack of
system or order is an aid to pupil planning; nor do they disregard the
need for consideration of the maturity level of the learners. Many of the
problems of such a program and their implications for administration are
quite clear. Difficulties are particularly great where a transition is neces-
sary from a rigid, fully prescribed program dominated by teacher or
administrator.
5. Administration should aid in using the community as a laboratory.
The effectiveness of the educational program in elementary and second-
ary schools will be very largely influenced by the relation existing be-
tween school and community. Meaning and understanding result from
using the community and its resources, from seeing problem situations
and conditions as they actually exist. In so far as schools become in-
timately related to the life and environment in which they operate, it
becomes possible for them to contribute to the improvement of commu-
nity living. Through surveying, studying, and analyzing various aspects
of community needs and resources, the educational experiences of pupils
may be enriched; and through rendering services to a great variety of
community enterprises, the schools can become a constructive force in
the betterment of community life.
Before any educational program can become closely related to the life
of the community it is necessary that citizens understand something of
the needs of children and of the ways in which schools and communities
can advantageously serve one another. To make progress in this direc-
tion, administrative leadership in the systematic and continuous study of
community interests and agencies is essential. Interpretations of the
possible areas for co-operative school-community activity must be made
repeatedly. Participation of adult citizens in planning for school-
(X>mmunity co-operation is a basic necessity, A single teacher, or even
two or three teachers working alone, can do very little. It is necessary for
a faculty to work together under {sympathetic and forceful leadership if
worth-while results are to be secured.
6. Admnistratwn shoidd be adjusted to the type of (xwriculum planned.
Desirable features of a modern curriculum as outlined above are suffi-
ciently in contrast with much current practice to necessitate considerable
adjustment in administrative viewpoint and procedure. Emerging cur-
riculums present problems and difficulties for administration because
MACKENZIE 41
adequate techniques and controls have not been established through ex-
perience with such curriculums. There' is need for much pioneering in this
area.
The foregoing statements, indicating the phases of curriculum de-
velopment which administration should foster, emphasize the importance
of the three basic administrative policies outlined in the first part of the
chapter: (1) Administration is an important means for the attainment of
effective curriculums. (2) Administrative plans and procedures should be
developed co-operatively by the educational staff, the parents, and the
pupils. (3) The educational program should be conceived, planned, and
administered as a whole.
The importance of these policies is particularly great when the cur-
riculum is of the type herein suggested. As the emphasis shifts from
teaching subject matter to guiding boys and girls toward the develop-
ment of desirable kinds of behavior, the need for co-operative effort in
planning and executing a unified educational program is increased. All
must be willing to modify personal interests and pleasures and work to-
gether in serving each child or youth.
The discussion thus far indicates that administration is regarded as
having a broader function than that involved in the organization and
management of a school. These are essential, but leadership is also im-
portant. Especially within the individual school, where the curriculum is
finally determined, administration has a vitally necessary directing or
guiding function. This can be exercised best through curriculum study,
supervision, or in-service education. The following section will indicate
the kind of in-service program through which it is believed administra-
tion can function best.
ADMINISTRATION OF IN-SERVICE EDUCATION AND
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
In characterizing the modern curriculum, continuous reference has
been made to the need for teachers to study their pupils as well as the
problems of teaching and learning with which they are confronted. The
role of the administrator as a stimulator and guide, rather than as a mere
manager or trouble-shooter, was stressed. Whether the function of ad-
ministration is referred to as being one of in-service education or of
curriculum development does not seem important. The essential con-
sideration is that problems in this area should be attacked through
methods which are in harmony with the kind of curriculum desired and
with sound principles of learning. In this case, teachers, administrators,
and other specialized workers are the learners, and only in so far as they
modify their behavior can the appropriate changes be made in the edu-
42 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
eational program. Curriculum development, as is the case with in-
service education, is fundamentally a problem of changing the people
concerned. It is not, basically, a matter of writing courses of study. Ap-
proaching the subject on the basis of these assumptions, several guides
for administration seem to be pertinent.
1. In-service education should focus directly on the improvement of pupil
learning experiences. Time is often wasted by centering the effort and
attention of in-service education programs on some aspect of teaching
without any assurance of favorable influence on the learning of pupils.
All too often energy is expended to secure a general improvement of
teachers through inspection, appraisal, and counsel by the administrator
or supervisor. In this process the relationship between specific teaching
acts and particular learning outcomes remains somewhat uncertain, and
teacher enthusiasm for self-improvement is only slightly motivated by
the thought that someday it may be of value. If, however, attention is
centered on pupil learning experiences and ways of improving them, it is
possible to secure an eagerness on the part of teachers which is certain to
result in professional growth and a desirable modification of behavior. It
is important that teachers have a purpose which they wish to achieve.
Improvement will then come from getting a better conception of the kind
of pupil learning experiences needed and from the effort to find better
means of providing them.
In Santa Barbara County, California, supervisors in co-operation with
teachers have organized field trips to study, first-hand, important aspects
of the natural environment or of local industries. Such excursions have
been voluntary and were usually under the direction of expert leadership.
In many cases guides and suggestions were prepared by teachers or the
county office after the visit, for anyone wishing to take pupil groups
through the same experience. These trips and the resulting guides en-
abled teachers to conduct similar tours with their own students on a
much higher level of effectiveness than if they had not previously made
their own carefully planned investigation.
In Denver, Colorado, teachers have been studying the health interests
and concerns of their pupils and otherwise seeking to improve their in-
structional program. As they have worked during the 1945-46 school
year they have come to see the need for more information and under-
standing in the health area. They have requested assistance, and semi-
nars have been established to enable them to better handle the teaching
problems they are encountering. This type of direct attention to improv-
ing the learning opportunities of boys and girls, given at a time when it is
recognized as being needed, has promise of materially improving the
effectiveness of instruction.
MACKENZIE 43
2. Programs of in-service education should be products of co-operative
staff activity. Many efforts at in-service education have failed because
they were planned by administrators or supervisors to achieve some im-
proved educational program or procedure which they alone could visu-
alize. Lack of success in such instances has not always been a result of
presenting proposals that were unsound. Some efforts have resulted in
failure because teachers did not recognize the need implied in the recom-
mendation and hence did not accept wholeheartedly the suggested plan
of action. The conclusion should not be drawn that administrative stimu-
lation is undesirable. In most schools there is urgent need for leadership
from a supervisor, administrator, or faculty group in bringing problems
to the attention of the entire staff and in initiating activity. However, the
actual work undertaken by individuals or by the group should be that
which seems significant to them. The process by which an in-service
program can be built is similar to that of teacher-pupil planning in which,
after an initial and carefully developed interpretation of problems or
issues by individuals or a committee, members of the group list interests
that may become the center of attention for one or more participants.
This is followed by the co-operative planning of a program for working
on the various issues enumerated by the group. It is important that all
staff members, regardless of position, work together as friends with a
mutual regard for one another. Those with administrative or other lead-
ership responsibilities should provide conditions under which a staff can
define its problems co-operatively, develop plans, and work out a program
of action. Real education in service can be expected to result from such
efforts.
3. Programs of in-service education should be flexible and should include
many varied activities. In-service education, such as is sometimes synony-
mous with faculty meetings, is frequently in bad repute. Reorganization
is necessary to make possible a sufficient variety of activities to meet
individual needs and to contribute to the attainment of many different
purposes. Trips, excursions, workshops, individual projects in arts or
science laboratories, and research hi preparing resource units are but a
few of the possible and desirable learning opportunities. There are many
purposes which may be served by in-service programs. Some members of
the staff may wish to re-examine the definition of their job or may desire
help in clarifying the purposes of the educational program. Others may
want assistance in studying the community or in meeting and working
with citizens. Some may seek help in evaluating outcomes of instruction.
A few may find it profitable to prepare resource units. It is exceedingly
important that there be opportunity to work on the specifics. Too many
programs have been limited to the discussion of theoretical questions.
44 TEE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
The illustrations cited above which relate to the use of field trips in
Santa Barbara County and the provision of health seminars in Denver
suggest means for giving direct help to teachers.
In many situations in-service education has been regarded narrowly
as a total group effort in which all staff members contribute to the same
general project. If recognition is to be given to individual interests and
needs, and if each person is to work at tasks which are significant to him,
and on which he can make a contribution, considerable variation must be
provided within any one program. Undoubtedly, desirable intra-group
stimulation results from co-operative work on a common enterprise, and
provision should be made for such opportunities. In small schools it may
be necessary to relate most individual projects to some over-all program
in order to get sufficient interaction and co-operation. In larger faculties,
however, many small groups may be established. Also, there can well be
many individual projects where sufficient motivation and self-direction
are present.
At Tuskegee Institute in Alabama there are four laboratory schools
participating in the teacher-education program; one is located on the
campus, three are rural schools. Because all schools are small, staff mem-
bers seem particularly anxious to work as a total group. In spite of travel
difficulties, staff members assemble at a central location approximately
once a month for an afternoon and evening work session. A workshop in
the early summer has been an additional means which has been used to
further work on their common problems. During the 1945-46 school year
a careful analysis of major problems was made and three areas or group-
ings of problems were selected for intensive work. These were designated
as (1) guidance and instruction > (2) health and recreation, and (3) econom-
ic conditions in the community served by the school. Each staff mem-
ber is working in one of these areas and it so happens that teachers from
a single school are well distributed with respect to the three groups. The
development of this organization through discussion, the provision for
flexibility in terms of group interests, and the pooling of efforts among
staff members in small schools result in a commendable plan of organiza-
tion for the problems being attacked in this type of situation.
In-service education sometimes has been centered entirely on a study
of the philosophy of education; at other times it has dealt with the me-
chanics of schpol operation as though it were appropriate to consider
operation apart from the purposes of the school or from the life of the
community. Balance is needed. Staff groups not only should contact the
professional materials in the basic areas of child development, learning,
educational sociology, and philosophy but also should become familiar
with the current social ideas and the traditional values which have
MACKENZIE 45
operated in the evolution of our culture. An acquaintance with such
sources will help immeasurably in securing a vision of the possibilities of
education in the years ahead.
It is quite uncommon for in-service education to involve participation
on the part of children, youth, and the adults of the community. It is re-
garded more often as a bookish activity involving only the professional
staff. Proposals already made indicate the need for going outside the
school and encompassing a wide variety of projects. Many problems
relating to the purposes and methods of schooling cannot be adequately
handled unless lay citizens and pupils are brought into the deliberations
and planning. The maintenance of channels for the continuous inter-
change of opinions and points of view among the professional staff,
children and youth, and the adults of the community will do much to
keep in-service programs focused on significant aims and problems.
The group working on "economic conditions in the community," in
the Tuskegee program, is concerned with discovering ways and means
of improving living conditions in the school community. Immediate
problems of housing and nutrition, as well as the long-term economic
conditions, are being studied to determine the ways in which the school
can contribute most effectively. Effort is being concentrated in one rural
district for the present. Representatives from various departments at
Tuskegee Institute, as well as parents and children, are analyzing current
conditions and possible solutions. Immediate attention is being given to
the building of a new school through the co-operation of the Institute
staff, the parents, and the children. Materials and methods will be used
which it is hoped will lead to a reconstruction of homes in the com-
munity.
This kind of in-service program deals in a realistic way with the
problems teachers encounter in developing a school program which
serves major community needs. The close co-operation of parents and
children almost assures that attention will center on real and urgent
questions.
In-service education should result in improved practice. Frequently it
has been limited to study and deliberation. Administration has an im-
portant responsibility to encourage the trial of carefully developed plans
and to give support through the uncertain periods likely to accompany
experimentation with new approaches. Without this encouragement,
little significant change is likely to be made in school programs. Unless a
staff has opportunity to carry deliberative study through to action,
enthusiasm will not long be maintained. As has been suggested earlier,
many changes are needed in school programs, and modification of prac-
46 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
tice should be regarded as a significant means of in-service education as
well as a logical outcome.
In-service programs should have a quality of flexibility. In-service
plans are sometimes outlined a year or more in advance and followed in
detail, almost regardless of intervening events. If programs are to be
established on a co-operative basis, in terms of individual interests and
needs, it should be possible to make changes speedily in any manner that
individual or group judgment may deem to be desirable. It should be
possible to establish new groups easily and to abandon nonproductive
activities promptly.
The focus of the above illustrations on professional problems is not an
indication that the personal development of the staff member should be
disregarded. The general education of the teacher is highly important.
The person who is to provide leadership in a modern school should have
many interests. Thus, general reading, participation hi civic and cultural
activities, as well as travel and other broadening experiences, can well be
regarded as significant elements of in-service education and should be
encouraged and fostered by the administration.
4. Programs of in-service education should be included within the
regular school program. Usually in-service activities have been conducted
on after-school time when staff members have already devoted a full day
to tiring activities. Any measure as important for the improvement of
education as is the in-service education program deserves time definitely
scheduled as part of the regular day and year. Potential values in im-
proved teachers and more effective educational programs justify the
expenditure of sufficient funds to make this possible. In many com-
munities the public may need to be educated to the importance of in-
service education, but administration should not find this particularly
difficult in view of the overwhelming evidence which can be presented.
Teachers may well carry many in-service activities on their own time,
but scheduled provision should be made for the major program of in-
service activity as a regular part of the school day.
Several plans for doing this are becoming increasingly common:
(1) scheduling staff meetings for a period of several days before the open-
ing or at the close of the school year; (2) using workshops conducted by a
teacher-training institution or by the school system itself; (3) scheduling
staff meetings during the regular day, either by assembling teachers who
are not working with children at a particular time or by dismissing chil-
dren from school; (4) employing substitute teachers to free staff members
for work on special projects involving occasional meetings or continuous
work over a period of weeks; (5) employing teachers on a twelve-months'
basis with a portion of the year given to in-service education. These pro-
MACKENZIE 47
posals are merely suggestive. Other means have been found by different
schools to give appropriate time to this important phase of the education-
al enterprise. Administration has, of course, a major responsibility for
making arrangements for such procedures as have been suggested.
5. In-service education should be recognized as an integral part of the
total school program. Sometimes the assumption is made that in-service
education can take place in isolation from the Various conditions within
the school. This is, of course, impossible. It is difficult to imagine the
existence of an eagerly accepted in-service program where morale is low
or where there is general faculty dissatisfaction. Conversely, the poten-
tial beneficial influences of in-service activity on morale should not be
overlooked. If properly handled, it may be a constructive force. If the
program is the creation of an enthusiastic staff, it will most certainly
build morale.
There are other attendant circumstances which are of significant im-
port in producing effective in-service education. Probably the most vital
single factor is administrative support and leadership. This is a major
concern not only in launching and sustaining a program but also in mak-
ing sure that results of staff action find an outlet in school practices.
Often the success of faculty efforts is dependent on physical facilities,
instructional supplies and materials, administrative arrangements for
handling pupils, or the co-ordination of the activities of all functionaries.
Administration can help the staff to proceed with full knowledge of
possible obstacles and can aid individual teachers by giving them every
possible opportunity to observe progress and success.
6. The responsibility of administration for in-service education and cur-
riculum development should be clearly defined. While the organization and
management responsibilities of administration are well recognized, its
leadership role in maintaining and improving the educational program is
not as clearly recognized. Yet, the extent to which the schools achieve
their purpose is almost entirely a matter of the kind of curriculum they
provide. Administration at all levels, but particularly in the individual
school, will need to assume greater responsibility in curriculum develop-
ment if substantial improvements are to be made.
It is common to find administrators critical of teachers and teachers
critical of administrators when educators seek to explain many of the in-
adequacies and failures of present educational procedures. Too often
curriculum modification is regarded as merely a matter of writing or re-
vising a course of study. Certainly this is not adequate. There is urgent
need for a program of in-service education and curriculum development
which enlists the full participation and co-operation of the entire pro-
fessional staff and which leads to modifications in the behavior of school
48 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
personnel. The fostering of such programs as will be truly effective is one
of the most challenging tasks facing educational administration in the
next decade.
ADMINISTRATION OF PUPIL SEKVICES
- In an earlier section the curriculum was defined as the experiences
which boys and girls have under the direction of the school. Thus, the
curriculum was conceived of as being the total educational program. In
describing the responsibility of administration in relation to the cur-
riculum, attention was given to the full range of experiences which pupils
have through the classroom, the extra-class activities, and other pupil
services. Because of the complexity of the organization of many schools
and the distinctive educational contribution of various special pupil
services, some of these will be singled out for separate treatment in this
section in order that examples of administrative problems can be noted.
1. Extra-class activities should be planned as a part of the total educa-
tional program. This suggestion was made earlier in characterizing the
modern curriculum but deserves special attention because of its frequent
negation. There is no rigid line of demarcation between regular-class and
extra-class activities, the manner of classification for the same activities
varying from school to school. Yet, there is a series of activities, such as
student councils, class organizations, homerooms, honor societies, and
special interest clubs, which usually operate outside of the required class-
work for which credit is given. The "extra" character of these activities
frequently means that they are not given careful attention when staff
assignments are made and that the planning for them is most haphazard.
Experience with these activities, on both the elementary and the
secondary levels, has revealed their great potential educational signifi-
cance. They may improve and enrich the educational program or de-
tract from its effectiveness. Where extra-class activities are not well
supervised and planned they may contribute to behavior which is out of
harmony with the aims of the school. Frequently, on the secondary level,
they foster a form of undemocratic social behavior which is contrary to
the teaching objectives of regular classes. It is important, therefore, for
administration to work continuously with teachers and pupils to so con-
duct extra-class activities that they further, in a positive and direct
manner, the purposes of the school. These activities are particularly
valuable in broadening the curriculum, thus helping to meet special needs
and interests and to develop special abilities. In addition they can pro-
vide much opportunity for practice in citizenship. When properly or-
ganised, they go far in affording relatively unsupervised situations in
wtielx the p*ipil can test his accomplishments. Continuous guidance of
MACKENZIE 49
4
the extra-class program is essential to insure primary consideration for
pupil interest and welfare and to place greater responsibility on boys and
girls without removing desirable adult supervision. Effectiveness in work-
ing with extra-class programs should be one important indication of the
success of the teaching personnel. Careful and continuous guidance and
co-operative leadership from both the teaching staff and the administra-
tion are essential to the success of these activities.
2. Evaluation of pupil development should be based on the progress of the
individual toward goals which are suitable to him. In an earlier section con-
sideration was given to some of the administrative means, such as group-
ing of pupils and course-of-study provisions, which have been used to ad-
just the school organization to pupil needs. A general dissatisfaction was
expressed with most efforts to provide for normal individuals through
administrative arrangements alone. The possible contribution of admin-
istrative leadership in relation to curriculum development was stressed.
Administration definitely influences the adaptation of the school to
individual needs and interests at many other points. One of the most im-
portant areas of administrative responsibility is the evaluation of pupil
development. Policies with respect to promotion, for example, are usually
school-wide and thus control the actions of individual teachers. Semi-
annual promotions, which were instituted under a subject-matter-to-be-
learned concept of the curriculum, are still maintained in many schools.
One hundred per cent promotions have become the policy in some schools
without careful consideration of the needs of individuals and without
appropriate modifications in the curriculum and in the instructional pro-
cedures. Fixed promotion standards have generally been abolished, but
standards based on an adequate assessment of the progress of the indi-
vidual toward goals which are appropriate for him have not been widely
established. Marking systems are seldom well related to the stated pur-
poses of the educational program. Tests and other evaluation devices are
often used on a school-wide basis in such a way as to encourage adherence
to a single standard encompassing a narrow range of skills as the goal for
all pupils. The seriousness and complexity of these problems should en-
courage faculty groups to give them their continuous and serious atten-
tion. The kind of curriculum or educational program provided may be
fundamentally conditioned by the over-all administrative pofieies and
practices regarding the evaluation of pupil development.
Solutions in this area are not easy to find. While much can be ac-
complished by a clarification of rules and regulations, continuous partici-
pation of faculty groups in the study of this problem and in the perfecting
of techniques for meeting the situation will always be needed. Pupils
change and faculty groups shift from time to time. The establishment of
50 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
goals suitable to each individual is a difficult process. Yet, true education
for the general and all-round progress of boys and girls, education which
will help each attain his maximum self-realization, will of necessity be
realized in terms of individual rather than of fixed or standard goals.
Evaluation of progress, if cast in any other framework, may upset the
whole program.
3. Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of the instructional
program. In an earlier section outlining the desirable curriculum, guid-
ance was viewed as an inseparable aspect of the total educational process.
Because this frequently is not the case in practice and because the possi-
bility of achieving this goal is so dependent on administrative arrange-
ments, there is justification for special consideration of the problem.
Guidance is a term used to describe that phase of the educational pro-
gram which places emphasis on helping individuals to determine their
needs, to discover their capabilities, to develop purposes, and to work out
plans of action. Obviously, this is a central goal in the kind of education
described in this chapter. It cannot be achieved by a single counselor or
other specialized guidance worker who is responsible for a large number,
possibly 200 to 500 pupils. The task is sufficiently complex to necessitate
continuous contact over a relatively long period between a teacher and a
pupil who know one another well. Viewing guidance as a separate sup-
plementary service is a logical result of a rigid, prescribed course of study
which does not give adequate recognition to individual differences among
children and youth. For example, the establishment of the homeroom as
a means of guidance, apart from the regular instructional program, can
be viewed largely as a reaction against a nonfunctional curriculum. Too
often the homeroom is organized by the administration, and the teachers
responsible for it have little understanding of its relation to the purposes
or techniques of guidance.
If guidance is to be effective, it must be part of the instructional pro-
gram. To this end, teachers must be secured who are sympathetic to the
idea and who have the necessary skills. In view of existing programs of
preservice and in-service education, it is reasonable to assume that satis-
factory teachers can be obtained. It is imperative also to have a plan of
organization and administrative arrangements such that teachers can
really come to know and understand their pupils. Competent administra-
tive leadership is required to develop arrangements which will permit at
least one teacher to really know each student and be associated with him
in a considerable range of activities. In the elementary school, if classes
are kept to a moderate size, this does not present a particularly difficult
problem. In the secondary school, however, with the teacher meeting 150
> to 200 different pupils per day, some definite adjustment is needed. As
MACKENZIE 51
previously noted, the organization of core programs, which center around
problems significant to boys and girls and which enable one teacher to
work with a group for two or three hours a day, gives considerable prom-
ise of being an improvement over the usual pupil-teacher relationships.
To help teachers cany their guidance responsibility effectively and to
provide adequately for all pupils, specialists, such as counselors, psy-
chologists, psychiatrists, and vocational experts, are needed. Their role
and responsibility will be indicated in the following section.
4. Special services should be provided to meet the unique needs of pupils
and to supplement the competencies of teachers. One important task of ad-
ministration is that of co-ordinating the services of various functionaries
and making certain that pupil needs are adequately met. There are many
areas in which teachers do not have sufficient competence to provide a
satisfactory program. In such situations specialized assistance is required.
Some of these problems arise because certain pupils cannot be success-
fully handled in regular classes, thus making special provision necessary.
Specialized guidance services are required to deal adequately with the
full range of pupil needs and to supplement the kinds of assistance which
teachers can give through the regular instructional program. The analy-
sis of potential pupil capabilities frequently demands more expert testing
and psychological service than the classroom teacher is able to give. A
single area, such as vocational orientation and placement, calls for spe-
cial training and continuous concentration of attention to collect essen-
tial data and guidance materials.
In like manner doctors are needed for health examinations and con-
sultation on special problems. Even if the individual pupil be viewed from
the limited standpoint of progress in school work, there are frequently
cases where medical advice is important for an adequate diagnosis of
pupil difficulties and the provision of appropriate remedial procedures.
When schools seek to provide a balanced program of living for all pupils,
the value of specialized medical assistance is even greater. There are
other areas where the necessity for special help is very clear. Corrective
physical exercises, speech correction, and certain severe reading difficul-
ties can be handled effectively only by those with specialized training
and competence.
Special classes should be organized for certain types of exceptional
cliildren. For the marked deviates, special education in residential
schools under state or county auspices may be necessary and some home
teachers may be required. For many others, partially or completely
segregated classes under local educational authorities may be satisfac-
tory. There are several categories of exceptional children, such as the
blind and partially seeing, the deaf and hard of hearing, the mentally
52 THE CURRICULUM AND PUPIL SERVICES
deficient, the socially maladjusted, and the crippled. In many school
situations there are inadequate provisions for these groups with the re-
sult that their abilities are not fully developed and they do not become
competent to exercise maximum self care. There is considerable accep-
tance of the belief that these deviates should not be segregated to any
greater degree than necessary. However, their welfare, as well as that of
normal children associated with them, must be safeguarded at all times.
Major problems for administration center in determining the extent and
type of segregation which is desirable, defining the kind of education
which is appropriate and feasible for various groups, selecting pupils who
will profit from instruction in special classes, selecting specially trained
teachers, providing transportation and exceptional facilities where need-
ed, co-ordinating the services of public and private welfare agencies, and
administering and supervising the special programs. Unfortunately,
specialized services of the kind here suggested have not been well
developed, with the result that many handicapped children and youth do
not have adequate educational opportunities. The problem of providing
well-rounded education for all the children of all the people will demand
creative administrative leadership.
REFERENCES
BIMSON, OLIVER BL "Participation of School Personnel in Administration."
Doctor's Dissertation, University of Nebraska. Lincoln, Nebraska: Univer-
sity of Nebraska, 1939.
Democracy and the Gwricdum. Third Yearbook of the John Dewey Society.
New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1939. See especially chap. xvii.
EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Learning ike Ways of Democracy. Washing-
ton: Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association,
1940, See especially chap, TO.
Gr&up Planning in Education. Yearbook of the Department of Supervision and
Curriculum Development of the National Education Association, 1945. Wash-
ington: National Education Association, 1945.
KooPMAtf , G. ROBERT; MTEL, ALICE; and MISNKB, PAUL J. Democracy in School
Administration. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1943.
Leadership at Work. Fifteenth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and
Directors of Instruction of the National Education Association, 1943. Wash-
ington: National Education Association, 1943.
MUIL, AUCE. Changing the Cwriculvm: A Social Process, New York: D. Apple-
ton-Centiziy Co,, 1943.
PRALL, CHABLES, and CUSHMAN, C. LESLIE. Teacher Education in Service.
Washington: American Councfl on Education, 1944.
CHAPTER IV
ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL OF A
DEMOCRATIC SCHOOL SYSTEM
WILLARD B. SPALDING
Superintendent of Schools
Portland, Oregon
The purposes of education are as many and conflicting as are the pur-
poses of the various ideologies and social systems which man has invent-
ed. They may center around the development of unquestioning followers,
around raising the level of competence of individuals, around allegiance
to a religious organization, or around any of countless other ideas or
ideals. The school, as an institution, is set up by any given society in
order that the education which conforms with its mores will take place.
The school, as an institution, has but one purpose that of facilitating
learning. Whatever may be the ends toward which the supporting society
directs the activity of an individual school or a system of schools, the at-
tempt to reach these recognized goals is designed to insure that the
young people who attend school learn to do what is expected of them.
The schools of Nazi Germany facilitated the learning of devotion to the
fuehrer, of hatred of Jews, and of faith in the destiny of the master race.
The schools of Japan inculcated the learning of emperor-worship, of the
sublimation of the state, of the inferiority of women, and of the greatness
of the Japanese. The schools of the United States have as their funda-
mental social aim the learning of belief in the importance of the individ-
ual, of faith in democracy, and of the principles of justice for all. The
ends of these programs of education differ as the philosophies supporting
the societies which direct them differ. An educational system does not
proclaim or support an ideology alien to its community. It bends its
efforts toward the learning of those understandings, skills, and attitudes
which are approved by the culture of which it is a part. Its energies and
sciences are directed toward improving the qualities of that learning.
That is its constant and only purpose as an institution. Its success is
measured by the degree to which that learning is acquired.
The purposes of the program of education which the United States
as a democratic society sponsors and encourages are many and complex,
53
54 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
and, because democracy itself is a somewhat amorphous concept, rather
vaguely defined. Special interests, minorities, organized groups, and the
like, put forth their particular purposes and claim universality for them,
producing a welter of conflicting objectives which is characteristic of
democratic living. It is doubtful, therefore, that any statement of the
purposes of education can be made to which large numbers of persons
would not find some objection, unless the concept was couched in such
broad generalities as to be practically useless for specific guidance. It is
axiomatic that the larger the population considered, the lower the level
of the ideas which all persons accept.
Therefore, in considering the purposes of education, it might be wiser
to refrain from such generalizations and confine ourselves to particular-
izations on which we can find agreement. Instead of defining democracy
itself, we can set up the aims of education in terms of those behaviors of
persons which are believed to be best in a democratic society. Such a list
has been prepared by a group of teachers after careful study and re-
search. 1 This list reads as follows:
1. They respect the individual personality.
2. They consider the rights of others.
3. They co-operate with others.
4. They use their talents for both individual and social profit.
5. They discover and accept their own inadequacies and improve upon them if
possible.
6. They lead or follow according to their abilities for the benefit of the group.
7. They assume responsibilities inherent in the freedom of a democracy.
8. They solve their problems by thinking them through rather than by resorting
to force and emotions.
9. They govern themselves for the common good.
10. They accept the rule of the majority while respecting the rights of the mi-
nority.
11. They are tolerant.
12. They think, speak, and act freely, with due regard for the rights of others.
13. They adapt themselves to changing conditions in a democracy, for individ-
ual and common good.
14. They are constantly seeking to achieve the most effective democratic way of
living.
1$. They seek by their own example to lead other persons to live democratically.
If each new generation is to acquire these modes of behavior in a
democracy, they must be learned. They are not an American birthright
which comes to fruition merely by breathing American air. They must be
acquired by the individual precisely as arithmetic is acquired, or as the
1 WiUard B. Spalding and William C. Kvaraceus, "What Do We Mean by Democ-
racy?" Amenctm S&od Board Jwrnal, CVHI (February, 1944), 50,
SPALDING 55
ability to play football is acquired. The facilitation of such learning is the
purpose of the school. "Learning" in this discussion is used to mean both
a product and the process by which the product is secured. One speaks of
the "learnings" or bodies of knowledges and skills which the person will
get from his schooling. One uses the same term to express the activity by
which people acquire them, as learning arithmetic, language, and the
like. Whatever the subject or skill or activity may be, learning, as prod-
uct, simmers down to new ways of behaving or modifications of old ways
of behaving. Every usable fact or generalization or skill is a function of
behavior. Learning, as process, is made up of the observable behavior of
the individual while doing the things which produce these new ways of
behaving or modifications of old ways of behaving.
What is this "observable behavior" which we call learning and how
does it operate? The process of learning may be broken down into a series
of basic components. These include (1) an individual who is (2) motivated
(i.e., feels the need for achieving satisfaction). He is prevented by (3) a
problem-situation from reaching (4) the goal. He carries on (5) excess
and varied behavior (unsatisfactory efforts at finding a solution) until
finally (6) a response is successful in reaching the goal and in (7) reduc-
ing the motivation (easing the original tension). As he is confronted by
similar problem-situations the successful response occurs after a dimin-
ishing number of unsatisfactory responses, until it finally occurs without
any. This response may then be said to have been learned. The individual
can now behave in a more competent manner. The accompanying dia-
grams indicate this process. 2
This is the basic method by which learning, any learning, takes place.
It is the process by which American citizens learn to live in a democracy
just as it is the method by which the American citizen learns to repair an
automobile or solve a problem in algebra. In our society, learning to be
democratic is more important than any other kind of learning, and the
process in the one should be just as much in accord with the findings of
psychology as the process in other learning situations.
Any proposal for the improvement of schools in the United States of
America, and this involves the personnel working in them, should meet
both sets of criteria. It should result in the development of persons, both
teachers and students, who will behave in accordance with the purposes
of education in a democracy. It should facilitate learning by being in ac-
cord with the process by which man learns. It if does not, the best in-
tentions in the world will be of no avail. These sets of criteria will be used
* Of. "Learning," Encyclopedia of Educa^mal Research, p. 668. Edited by Walter
Momoe. New York: Macmillan Co., 1941.
56
ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
as guides to proposals discussed here for the organization of the personnel
of school systems toward greater efficiency.
School people are expected by the community which employs them to
be diligent seekers after ways of improvement, and rightly so, because
that is a universal phenomenon in the American milieu. The dynamics of
social interaction in this country results in the continuous upward push-
ing of many persons, making citizens of the United States more mobile
socially than are those in other nations. It also makes them more eager
to discover new and better ways of becoming successful in industry and
business, so they may reach a higher status. The constant movement of
individuals from one social class to another produces pressures by these
Learned
(7)
individuals upon the social agencies which they have created so that
they, too, develop the urge to become mobile and to improve. This is as
true of the public schools as of other social agencies. The difficulty lies in
the fact that lay ideas of what constitutes real improvement in education
are vague and often unreal. Public desire to have schools in the home
community better, at least in reputation, than those in neighboring
communities is definite and real. How they may become better in fact, as
well as in name, is not so clear in the lay mind. Often it is no clearer in the
professional mind. Most persons who are employed in public schools are
sincerely devoted to children and strive earnestly to help them, but their
ideas are often as vague and unreal as are those of the public, when they
seek to invent or to discover definite ways of improving the result. They
have high ideate, worthy intentions, and great purposes, but they have
made slight progress toward attaining the goals which both they and
their patrons have set up for American education.
SPALDING 57
Farnsworth 3 has shown that the lag between the existence of a need
and the time when the first school does anything about meeting it is
about fifty years. Much of this lag is due to the complicated nature of the
school, of society, and of the human organisms with which the school
deals. Much of it, however, is due to reluctance on the part of the person-
nel in the schools to seek actively for new ways of doing things and to
adopt them when such are discovered.
Improvement of the schools, desired by laymen and educators alike,
and reduction of the time lag between need and adaptation do not depend
entirely on methods of organization; or even on the administrative activi-
ty of leadership. Where these are effective, the beneficial results which
they produce depend on the way in which those who work in the schools
are encouraged to learn. Much has been written and more has been said
on the importance of leadership. Whenever a new superintendent is em-
ployed, the underlying implication is that the change in administrative
heads will result in new directives to the staff (a much abused word,
"directive"!) which will transform the system from a moribund institu-
tion to one of vitality and growth. Very often reorganizations do take
place. Supervisors are changed around; new departments are created; and
old ones refilled; new curriculums are projected; new policies enunciated.
For a time the scene is one of intense activity, but when the smoke
clears away we find merely another illustration of the French aphorism,
"Plus le change, plus la meme chose." The improvement has only been
a superficial one because the activity of the leader has been concentrated
on the administrative plane. It has not considered the ways by which
individuals learn better modes of behavior.
It is only as the personnel in a school system acquire new ways of doing
things, or modify old ways of doing things, that the system itself changes*
That means everybody in the employ of the system and not just its
administrators. No plan to improve the schools will be successful if it
omits provisions for facilitating learning by the persons who work with
children. No plan for getting the best out of the personnel in a school
system will be successful if it fails to include plans and programs which
will encourage them to learn to do their work in better ways. This con-
cern with the process of learning, operative within the whole system, is
the first important criterion of efficient organization. Implementing it
with democratic procedures will make the learning of better ways desira-
ble, easy of attainment, and productive of success.
Philo Taylor Farnsworth, Adaptation Processes in Public 8dw& Systems. Teach-
ers College Contributions to Education, No. 801. New York: Teachers CoEege, Col-
umbia University, 1940.
58 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
If schools are to develop persons who will behave democratically, they
should be staffed with teachers who are learning to behave in these ways.
It has been pointed out that democratic behavior, like any other, must be
learned. The individuals who are employed in our schools should acquire
these learnings and keep applying them as they work, since only those
responses are learned which are practiced successfully. The conditions
under which the personnel work and the rewards which may be achieved
should be such as will insure that democratic behavior will become satis-
fying behavior.
BASIC IMPROVEMENTS
City school systems face at least three major problems which need
consideration if they seek permanent improvement in operation and re-
sult. These problems are: (1) improvement in the methods used by edu-
cational and noneducational personnel in their daily work, (2) improve-
ment in the curriculums used by the schools to provide the optimum
educational environment for learning, and (3) improvement in the rela-
tions between the individuals in various branches of the system and the
administrative staff. Each of these problems will be considered in terms
of the major criteria relationship to the laws of learning and the further-
ance of democratic living. The same approach should be applied to all
other situations which affect the general aim to improve the efficiency of
the corps by administrative plan.
The program behind any particular organization of the personnel
should always be such as will be most effective in reaching specific ob-
jectives. The nature and type of the procedure which is chosen are func-
tions of the purpose toward which the activities of the organized group
are directed. Each procedure must conform to the two general criteria
which have been mentioned, but each also is likely to be unique in certain
respects because of the unique purposes which it is intended to achieve.
Each of the three problems to be discussed here in detail is different from
its fellows. It is different in the relationship between the persons involved,
in the qualities and backgrounds of these persons, and in the nature and
component elements of the problem itself. No single plan can meet the
varied situations which confront a school system.
Problem 1. Organizing the personnel toward the end of improving the meth-
ods used by employees in their work.
If school employees are to use new or modified methods of working,
they must acquire the capacity to make these changes through a learning
experience. It will not come to them by administrative fiat, or even by a
program of exposition and study. The process which they must be led to
follow by some plan of organization must be in accord with the way in
SPALDING 59
which man learns anything. This process, as has been explained above,
includes the elements of (1) individuals who (2) through some form of
motivation (3) meet a problem-situation, which (4) presents a desired
goal, and (5) by excess and varied activity, achieve (6) successful re-
sponse. These elements are basic aspects of the operation of any plan de-
vised by any administration to improve methods of work in the schools
and they are equally valid whether the prospective learner is a teacher, a
janitor, or a child in the kindergarten. Let us examine these elements
separately.
a) The persons. The persons who should be included in any program
directed toward this end are obviously those whose methods are inade-
quate, obsolete, inefficient, or otherwise unsatisfactory. The people
already using the proper techniques may have other qualities which
could stand improvement, but, in any plan for modernization of method,
attention should be directed to those who need it.
How are these people to be identified? There are several ways. The
administrative staff of the school system can examine records of the
efficiency of the employees. It can confer with principals of individual
schools. It can study the reports of supervisors and confer with them.
After securing all of the available information, it selects those persons
whose methods of work need improvement. These are the individuals
who are to be organized into learning groups or induced to go to some
learning center.
Sometimes members of the corps are themselves aware of their need
for performing more effectively. This makes the task of selection merely
one of guidance. The administrative staff may acquaint them, or groups
of them, with its willingness to assist them in acquiring the learning
experiences which they need. This it does in a variety of ways work-
shops, in-service training courses, experiments within their own class-
rooms, building projects, etc.
The established policy of the school system, as expressed in rules and
regulations, in salary schedule, or in credit increments, may be conducive
to continual improvement in the methods of work. The policy acts as a
source of motivation and the administrative staff presents specific pro-
grams each year which are available to those who respond. Those who
select a particular program become the individuals organized for im-
provement.
The personnel may be members of professional or craft groups which
seek, among other things, to improve the drill of the membership "on the
job." When this is the case the assistance of the administrative staff is
often requested, and the result is the organization of some portion of the
corps for an improvement program.
60 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
6) Motivation. Whatever method is used, that method results even-
tually in the selection of a group of persons who, for one reason or an-
other, seek to learn how to improve their professional techniques. If
these persons are to put maximum effort into this learning, they must
become motivated. Most employed individuals are already motivated to
a large extent. They feel a critical need of continuous employment with
its resultant income. They wish to be successful on the job* They desire
to receive the praise and to avoid the reprimand of those to whom they
are responsible. They may have some other inner drive, either of their
own initiation or because the group with which they are affiliated has
certain goals which an improvement plan will bring nearer. Whatever the
sources of motivation may be in the case of any individual, the important
consideration for the administrator is that the motivation be strong
enough to elicit the effort to attain the objective. If it is, the problem of
organizing these seekers-after-the-better-way becomes relatively simple.
Even if the selection of persons has been carried on wholly or almost
wholly by the administrative staff, many of these motivating factors will
still operate. It is true that the affective results of selection by the adminis-
trative staff are not always the most desirable ones. Teachers are expect-
ed to spend considerable time in meetings when they would prefer to be
elsewhere. They are aware of the fact that the administrative staff, by
the very act of choosing them, has labelled them as relatively less efficient
than their co-workers. The activities which they are expected to carry on
in order to become more efficient are in excess of the amount of work
which their fellows perform. These and other elements in the situation
are such as to produce undesirable attitudes toward the problem and
toward the staff.
The problem of motivating these persons should include provisions for
allowing them to act aggressively in order to reduce the amount of
frustration resulting from the process of selection. Anonymous question-
naires with opportunities for free responses are usable devices toward
this end. The Army calls it "griping," and recognizes its value as a safety
valve. The selection by the staff of a leader for the group who can sym-
pathize with them in their attitudes, rather than a person against whom
these attitudes are directed, is another usable device. If adequate pro-
vision is made for aggressive behavior, the undesirable attitude may dis-
appear and other, more favorable, factors prevail.
e) The prMem-situation. The problem-situation for any group in the
area under consideration is some particular improvement in methods of
work. This problem-situation should be refined and defined by the group
itself. It needs to be stated specifically, often in the form of many sub-
SPALDING 61
sidiary specie statements contributed by the persons who are involved.
Examples of such specific statements of problem-situations are as follows:
1. On the nonteaching level:
How can the floors of gymnasiums be kept in good shape?
What should be used to wash them?
How often should they be washed?
What machines should be used for this purpose?
How are these machines operated?
What finish should be used?
How is it best applied?
2. On the teaching level:
How should percentage be taught?
What is the desirable level of maturity at which pupils should begin the study
of percentage?
How is the topic introduced best?
What kinds of drill are desirable?
What relations with fractions should be pointed out?
What relations with decimals should be pointed out?
3. On the administrative level:
What procedure should be used in requisitioning materials for use in the
system?
Are different forms necessary for books, supplies, and equipment?
Should maintenance and repair items be requisitioned?
How should emergencies be handled?
Who should sign requisitions?
How should requisitions be routed?
The leader of the group should endeavor to secure as many suggestions
for the specific elements in the problem from the group as he can. He
should suggest other specific elements as they occur to him. Out of the
interaction of all participants will come the best possible definition of the
problem-situation.
d) Goal. Goals are closely allied to motivation and motivation to goals.
If the goals are sufficiently desirable, and in the case of most employed
persons, continuous employment, higher income, greater success on the
job, or the praise of the boss are in that category, then the prospect of
attaining them produces the motivation which, in turn, leads to better
types of behavior or the effort to acquire them.
Sometimes a particular group may be so professionally enthusiastic
that they will find adequate motivation in the mere hope of improving
their methods of working. The achievement of efficiency is their goal
just as with the artist the creation of abstract beauty may be enough to
drive him to almost unending labor. The explanation of the substitution
of a problem-situation for a goal involves a psychological discussion
62 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
which is too lengthy for the present purpose. When this happens, how-
ever, a series of subsidiary problem-situations arises. The selection by the
group of some original problem-situation as the goal of their co-operative
action is desirable and should be encouraged whenever possible. If the
leader is skilled and astute, he can produce this result.
e) Excess and varied behavior. After the problem-situation has been
defined specifically and in detail by the group, including the leader, the
next step to be taken involves a discussion of various avenues leading to
a possible solution. The group should be led to suggest the necessary
knowledge which must be secured before attempts to solve it can be made
and, further, to find out ways in which this knowledge could be secured.
In each instance the suggestions made by each one should be listed in de-
tail for the benefit and criticism of all members of the group.
At this point in the proceedings, when lists of what the group needs to
know and what the group needs to do are to be prepared, the leader
should suggest selection of a secretary, if no member of the group has
already done so. Frequently, the suggestion will have arisen earlier.
Whenever the occasion arises, this selection, like all others of the same
type, should be made in a completely democratic manner.
The leader should keep in mind the two general criteria which were
set up at the beginning, namely, that desirable changes in behavior are
the consequence of the laws of learning and that a change is desirable
only if it advances the cause of democracy. The process of organization
which he is using is, on the whole, patterned after the process of learning.
His own activity should be subordinated to the activities of the other in-
dividuals in his group. He should endeavor to enter into the picture less
and less, encourage the growth of competent leadership within the group,
and endeavor to allow the democratic process to flourish and become
strong. If the group wishes to select a chairman as well as a secretary, he
should welcome this action, allow the chairman to accept full responsi-
bility, withdraw into the background as an advisor, and, eventually, find
good reasons for being absent from some of the meetings.
When the group has completed its lists of things to know and tilings to
do f it will usually find that it has more suggestions than it can handle as
a group. This problem should be solved by the group. The usual and
probably the best solution is that of assigning topics, research, interviews,
and the like, to persons or to small committees. These may be chosen by
the group or may be volunteers. This again is democratic interaction.
The participants are solving an important problem-situation and are
practicing democratic processes as they do so.
The group should be encouraged to set up time schedules for its own
SPALDING f,3
actions and for those of its committees. These dead lines should be met.
If they are not, the group should take steps to correct the matter.
The facts as reported by the subcommittees and by individuals are
studied by the group. Tentative solutions are suggested. These are
studied, tried out if they show promise, and evaluated. Finally a solution
is proposed.
/) The successful response. If this final solution does result in better
care of the floors of gymnasiums, or in the better teaching of percentage,
or in the improvement of procedures in handling requisitions, it is success-
ful in solving the problem-situation. It must also be successful in terms of
reaching the goal. It should result in praise from the boss, in favorable
recommendation for continuous employment and the resultant income,
and (this is especially important) in the feeling of success on the job. The
administrative staff should make sure that these evidences of success are
attached to the desired responses.
School systems have looked down upon cash rewards as beneath the
high standards of the profession of teaching. Such attitudes are entirely
unrealistic, for teachers are in no way different from other human beings.
Business knows the way in which cash "on the line" acts as a very real
evidence of success. It uses cash as a reward for many of the activities
and improvements which it wishes its employees to learn. School systems
could profit from this example. This will be discussed a little later.
These suggestions for organizing the personnel in order to improve the
methods used at work on the job have been presented in some detail in
order to show how they parallel the way in which persons learn. During
all of the steps by which the completed organizations with their selected
officers are established, the democratic behaviors which have been listed
on page 54 are being practiced. The employees are co-operating with
each other and the leader. They are using their talents for individual and
group profit. They are discovering and accepting their own inadequa-
cies while endeavoring to improve them. In short, they are carrying on
these activities as important types of excess and varied behavior in at-
tempts to solve the problem-situation.
If these democratic ways of action are successful, they will become
learned and thereafter practiced. The administrative staff should make
sure that success does attach to them, unmistakably so. If it does, the re-
sult will be a constantly improving person as an employee of the school
system. The process may be slow, but unfortunately the human being
learns in no other way. It may seem easier and quicker to seek such im-
provement by just giving an order or by cracking the whip. The cry
sometimes comes out of school boards and lay groups for an administra-
tor to get tough. Such people confuse obedience with inner growth. Ad-
64 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
ministrative fiat may seem successful, but only on the surface. It takes
the educational process to build below the surface.
Problem 2. Organizing the personnel toward the end of improving the cur-
riculums in the school.
Improvement of curriculums is part of the continuous on-going ac-
tivity of a city school system. Departments to direct this activity exist in
all of the larger systems, with an expert professional staff whose duties
lie wholly in this area. These departments face particular problems in
developing individual curriculums.
It used to be the practice for administrations to issue courses of study
written by some member of the staff or by a small group and to impose
them on the corps. Such an approach to the problems of curriculum re-
vision is neither democratic nor efficient. It fails to recognize both the
nature and the purpose of a modern curriculum. It does not appreciate
what must happen inside the teacher, if the new curriculum is to function.
It pays no attention to the fact that the teacher must herself learn how to
use it, and that means adherence to the learning pattern outlined under
problem 1.
The necessity for deciding which among several curriculums should be
improved first, which next, and so on, recurs at such frequent intervals
that some plan of organization of personnel to be used regularly becomes
imperative. Such organizations are labeled curriculum councils, advisory
committee to the director of the curriculum, or some similar name. The
problem of nomenclature is insignificant. Any name is a good name if the
ones who bear it like it.
The persons who serve on this permanent group should be selected by
procedures which are in full accord with the democratic purposes of edu-
cation in our society. The methods for selecting persons given under
problem 1, on page 59 ff., are examples of methods which can be used
whenever the administrative staff is carrying on this particular activity.
One important addition to all of these methods should be noted in the
case of preparing curriculums. The selection is not made from or by the
school personnel alone. It is made /ram and by the community, of which
this personnel is but a part.
A curriculum is part of the program of education. Among other things
it sets up objectives which the school and its inhabitants will seek to
reach by experiences, content material, and suggested activities which
constitute the body of its text. These objectives state or imply changes in
the behavior of pupils which will be evident after they have lived and
worked with the new curriculum. Boys and girls will acquire new ways of
behaving or modify old ways of behaving:, if what is planned results in
SPALDING 65
action. The ultimate decisions about what is to be learned have never
been made by the school alone, even when it has attempted to make
them through curriculum councils and the like. These decisions are always
made by the society which supports the school. In some particulars the
school may educate the community to accept its ideas of what consti-
tutes progress, but it can seldom get too far ahead of it. It is important,
therefore, that society should be represented adequately on any council
or committee which is making these decisions. Otherwise the school as a
public agency may find itself without public support and its leaders may
be compelled to seek private support.
The administrative staff should seek to include a representative cross-
section of the community in any permanent group which is considering
the problem of what curriculums should be changed. Methods for select-
ing these will be found in the various discussions of lay participation in
professional literature. The topic has intrigued all progressive thinkers in
the field of education and we may be on the threshold of a new and much
stronger tie-up between community and school. The current work-study
development in many cities (part employment and part schooling) is
essentially a modification of a curriculum. It is also wise to encourage
selected students in the schools to be represented in such groups.
The duties of this central committee vary as conditions in various
communities may require. In general these duties include:
Decisions as to the order in which eurriculums are to be revised.
Selection or assisting in the selection of groups which will work on the im-
provement of some individual curriculum.
Receiving and evaluating tentative proposals for new curriculums.
Giving final approval to completed curriculums.
Guiding committees in the techniques which should be used in building a new
curriculum.
Conferring with teachers and supervisors about desired changes.
Introducing new curriculums to the schools.
Evaluating eurriculums while they are in use.
In some school systems these central committees also deal with estab-
lishing standards for the books, materials, and supplies which are used in
the schools. They may also initiate, guide, and recommend changes in the
educational aids themselves.
The committee should decide what officers it needs and should select
them. Representatives of the administrative staff or of the curriculum
department should hold office only when elected by the group. No person
should be chairman of such a committee by virtue of his position within
the school system. Domination by a superintendent or his representative
is all too easy and the result is likely to be fatal to the central principle
G6 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
of training the personnel to be more competent people. The democratic
process must be used at all times in all situations if the American way is
to be learned by those who serve on such a central committee.
When the permanent central committee has decided that an individ-
ual curriculum should be improved, a group should be organized to this
end. This group should include personnel of the schools, students in the
schools, and persons from the community.
Every one of these groups should be chosen, guided, and set to work in
terms of the two criteria which are fundamental to the thesis of this
chapter, namely, the laws of learning and the practice of democratic be-
havior. They should be motivated, should confront a problem situation,
should be encouraged to carry on excess and varied behavior, should find
responses which reach the goal, and should be made aware of their suc-
cess through appropriate recognition and reward. The democratic ways
of behaving will be learned as they achieve success in the practice of dem-
ocratic action.
As has been mentioned previously, central committees of this type
may have other duties besides the improvement of curriculums. Such
duties fall into the following major categories:
The selection of textbooks and reference books for adoption.
The selection of equipment for use in schools.
The development of educational specifications for school plants.
The development of standard lists of consumable supplies.
If the school system is not too large, these additional duties can be
carried on by such a central committee. There is a sufficiently close re-
lationship between curriculums and the educational aids which imple-
ment them to warrant this procedure. Even in the largest systems it is
probably best to channel all of these duties through a central committee
and to have allied with it a subordinate group concerned solely with the
construction or revision of curriculums.
In any school system permanent committees or councils should be
recognized as part of the official paraphernalia of administrative tech-
niques. Their duties should be defined broadly and generally, rather than
narrowly and specifically. They should be established by the action of the
board on recommendation of the administrative staff. Such a procedure
would give the committee official status and increase the satisfactions
which are an important factor in the learning process. Some plan for
continuing the committee while changing its membership constantly
should be included in the act of the board of education which establishes
it.
The establishing of subsidiary committees for particular purposes
should be possible at all times without action by the board. The right to
SPALDING 67
do this should be set forth clearly in the vote which sets up the original
committee and in the rules and regulations which govern its action.
In turn the proposals of the committee should be submitted to the
board by the superintendent. Opinion as to whether he should possess the
authority to veto these proposals is divided. There is general agreement,
however, that the authority, if it exists, should be used only upon rare
and infrequent occasions.
Problem 3. Organizing the personnel toward better relationship with the
administrative staff.
a) The principle of collective bargaining. School systems throughout the
country have not kept abreast of the progress which has been made in
methods of collective bargaining in business and industry. A revolution
of major proportions is taking place in this field, the implications of
which are of great importance in any area where employee-management
relationships exist.
The relationships between employees and management are best when
each group understands its duties, its rights, and its responsibilities and
is conscientiously endeavoring to act in accordance with them. In many
areas there appear to be conflicting interests between workers and those
who oversee their work. In industry these conflicts are usually resolved
by continuous effort to seek agreement. This can happen because the
employees are organized strongly and can bargain collectively. When
joint efforts to reach agreement fail, some provision is made to settle the
dispute by arbitration.
In school systems the personnel which correspond to the worker group
in industry are not as a rule well organized. They do not usually bargain
collectively because they do not feel themselves strong enough to demand
that right. The administrative staffs of some school systems oppose
the establishment of any stronger, more universal type of organization;
or, if they do encourage it, develop plans of organization which resemble
closely the company union in the industrial field. Such organizations do
not help their members to learn how to accept responsibility democrati-
cally. The administration deals continually with individuals rather than
with organizations, which tends to prevent the organizations from be-
coming strong. When areas of conflict are generated, we find that teach-
ers have no sense of unity; and, when agreements are made, it frequently
appears that they have not learned to accept the responsibility of utiliz-
ing them to the fullest extent.
Much of the weakness found in organizations of employees, and
particularly in those which are made up of teachers, centers around the
curiously unrelated ideas which are called "professional." Because teach-
68 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
ing is so labeled, teachers are expected to accept extra duties without
extra pay, such as coaching, serving on curriculum committees, attending
faculty meetings, acting as sponsors of extra-curriculum activities, and
the many tasks which are over and above the duties of the classroom.
Because teachers are members of a profession, they are supposed to seek
better pay and better working conditions only by making polite repre-
sentations to the administrative staff and through them to the board,
rather than by simple and direct request to the employing group for
these betterments because they have a basic and demonstrable right to
them. Because schools are operated to help boys and girls for the public
good, the teachers who work in these schools are continually reminded of
the fact that children come first and that it is unprofessional to do any-
thing which might be interpreted as meaning anything else. These ideas
are hokum of the rankest kind. Teachers are skilled employees working
in the public interest. So are the electricians and engineers on the public
payroll. Wliat is true of one is just as true of the other.
The persistence of this moralizing has been one of the greatest factors
in the continuance of low-level standards of pay and tenure imposed upon
teachers by the employing public. The issue needs to be clarified. Even
from the standpoint of the moralizers, the argument of subordinating the
teacher's welfare to the asserted interests of the child is none too valid.
Overworked and underpaid persons cannot render the type of service
which the youth of this country need. The public interest is not served
best by teachers or other school workers who are discouraged whenever
they make feeble attempts to better their lot by organized effort. The
extra duties which fall continually on teachers are not carried out
efficiently when they result in no other reward to the teachers than in-
creased fatigue and frustration. Schools will become better, boys and
girls will be served better, when the label of "unprofessional" is removed
from organized or individual attempts to improve the teacher's living
and working conditions.
Many of the arguments which are presented to defend the many
inequities and injustices which exist are similar to those which industri-
alists used in the last century in order to justify low pay, long hours, and
bad working conditions. Their contention that any change would be
harmful to the public interest has been refuted by the results of better
pay, better working conditions, and shorter hours. Production has been
increased and the prosperity of the country has grown until now the same
industrialists boast of America as a country with the highest standards of
living in the world. These gains have resulted from decades of effort by
organized employees. The same gains could be made in education by the
same forces.
SPALDING 69
It is true that in many ways education is a profession and, as such, has
its professional problems. These can be solved only as all members of the
profession work together to solve them. Organizations whose activities
are directed toward these ends should be open to all persons who work in
school systems or in schools. But not all problems confronting the teacher
are on the plane of educational science. Some of them affect the teacher
as a worker and an employee. Organizations which are created by teach-
ers as working employees seeking to better the pay, the hours, and the
working conditions of their members should be open only to teachers.
Management, the administrative staff of the schools, has no place in such
groups.
The existence of strongly organized, vigorously active organizations of
teachers, of custodians, of clerical employees, and the like, is a fundamental
prerequisite of any sound program for the improvement of morale, for the
redress of grievances, or for the bettering of any other aspect of employee-
management relations. For that reason the administrative staff should
encourage their growth not only for the sake of the individuals but also
as an essential part of the improvement of the school system.
In setting up the modus operandi of collective bargaining, the teachers,
custodians, secretaries, and other similar groups should each be expected
to select one organization, if they belong to several, to represent them in
collective bargaining. The selection of a single organization is necessary
because the administrative staff cannot expect all the employees of any
one type to be bound by several agencies. If there is any question as to
the proper bargaining agent for any group, all the workers in a given
category may petition for an election to determine the agency they wish
to represent them. If none receives a majority of the votes, then a run-off
election between the two receiving the largest number of votes should be
held. The organization finally receiving the majority of votes is the rec-
ognized agent in bargaining until the next election is held. This is done
only after a specified period of time when another petition is received. If
no request is made for a new agent, the original choice continues in-
definitely.
After the bargaining agent has been selected, its first duty is to
negotiate an agreement with the employing board. Both parties should
seek to reach a common understanding. In the event the attempt fails, a
procedure for arbitration should be agreed upon. This should occur only
on rare occasions. The board should then appoint a representative from
the administrative staff as its arbiter. The employees' organization
should appoint a similar representative from its membership. The two
persons should then select a third arbiter. These three make the final de-
cisions and all parties must agree beforehand to abide by their decisions.
70 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
In those cases where a larger arbitration board seems advisable, and
these are few, two or three arbiters may be chosen from each of the three
sources. This is usually unwise as the group becomes too large for effi-
cient work.
6) The nature of the basic agreement. The basic agreement between
school employees and employer should cover at least the following main
items as they apply to particular groups:
Activity of the employees' organisation during working hours
Arbitration of disputes
Assignments
Discharge
Duration and renewal of agreement
Enforcement of agreement
Examinations of other types
Hours of work
Improvement of efficiency in the school
Insurance and benefit pkns
Lay-offs and re-employment
Leaves of absence of all kinds
Meetings called by employer
Modification during life of agreement
Pay for extra duties
Pay for overtime
Pensions and retirement
Physical examinations
Procedures for handling grievances
Promotion
Rates of base pay
Rest periods
Resignations or quits
Seniority
Substitutes
Sunday and holiday work
Temporary employees
Transfers
Travel pay
Uniforms and equipment
Use of bulletin boards
Vacations
When items such as these are mutually agreed upon, the basis of much
misunderstanding and consequent friction disappears. Both the ad-
ministrative staff and the employees have had a part in arriving at the
final agreement. Each understands the problems of the other. Each has a
carefully prepared document to which he can refer for the definition of
SPALDING 71
his rights, his duties, and his responsibilities when he is in doubt. In the
absence of such an agreement, staff and employees' relations are char-
acterized by uncertainty, lack of uniformity, arbitrary action, and much
unnecessary ill-will.
A strong organization of employees will make it necessary for the ad-
ministrative staff to face the difficult problem of negotiating the many
items which enter into an agreement. This is an activity which few
persons who are on the administrative staffs of city school systems have
faced. Many may be reluctant to face it. When it is done, finally accepted
by both sides, and carried out in good faith, it offers respite from the
petty troubles and complaints which otherwise arise continually. In the
end it will mean less total work and effort than if separate and protracted
conferences and struggles were necessary over each new controversy. An
agreement is in operation over a period of time, and during that time the
road is clear for other constructive tasks.
c) The redress of grievances. Those grievances which arise wherever
large numbers of persons are employed can be dealt with best under the
provisions of an agreement arrived at through collective bargaining. If
this does not exist, and it usually does not, then some plan of organiza-
tion should be set up for the redress of just grievances. This is absolutely
necessary if relationships are to improve and harmony is to be restored.
A study of the nature and type of the special grievances which affect
school personnel is necessary before any plan is evolved. "A grievance
may arise from any number of causes adversely affecting the mental at-
titude of the worker toward his job. The cause may be real or imaginary.
But even an imaginary cause may point to some real source of dissatis-
faction. For example, complicated rules and regulations which are not
sufficiently explained may lead a worker to think he is being treated un-
fairly. Getting at the underlying conditions which give rise to the
grievances is essential to good grievance procedure." 4
Typical Examples of the Grievances of Employees in
City School Systems
Type of Grievance Usual Cause
A. The activities of principals and The employee feels that:
supervisors
1. Complaints about enforce- Principal or supervisor does not like him
ments of rules and picks on him.
Principal or supervisor did not explain
clearly what was expected.
* "Settling Plant Grievances," CoUedive Bargaining. United States Department of
Labor, Division of Labor Standards, Bulletin No. 60. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1943.
72
ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
Type of Grievance
2. Objection to a particular
principal or supervisor
3. Objections to methods of su-
pervisors or of rating em-
ployees
B. Salaries and salary schedules
1. Demand for change in rate
of pay for an individual em-
ployee
2. Complaints about the sched-
ule
C. General working conditions
1. Faculty meetings
2. Sanitary conditions
3. Duties outside of the class-
room
4. Pressure to join organiza-
tions
Usual Cause
Principal or supervisor will not listen to
any point of view but his own.
The principal or supervisor favors some
person above others.
The principal or supervisor is rude and
arbitrary and discourteous.
The principal or supervisor ignores com-
plaints.
The principal or supervisor has filed a rat-
ing sheet on the basis of no or few observa-
tions of the employee at work.
The principal attempts to judge the work
from the comments of pupils and parents.
He never gets but one side of the story.
The principal or supervisor is always find-
ing fault and never says a word of praise.
Other people with the same experience and
training are getting more money.
The method which is used in placing him
on scale is improper.
New employees get better salaries than he
did when he began.
Too much emphasis is placed on degrees
and too little on good work.
A teacher is so busy getting more training
that he does not have time to teach well
and to relax.
The principal talks too much.
The material which is presented could be
mimeographed and read. There is no need
for the meeting.
The meetings are too long.
Teachers are compelled to pay for food at
these meetings.
There are insufficient toilets for the em-
ployees.
There is not time enough for attention to
personal needs.
Extra duties are distributed unfairly.
Coaches are paid extra sums while persons
who carry on as difficult tasks are not.
There are too many meetings.
The principal insists on 100 per cent mem-
bership in the N.E.A.
Everyone is made to join the local building
association and to pay dues.
SPALDING
73
Grievances are not confined to complaints against the decisions or
practices of the employer. The administrative staff and the principals
may also have grievances about the practices and competences of the
employees. A good procedure for handling grievances works in both
directions. Whenever there are conditions which tend to create conflicts
between those who administer schools and subordinate members of the
staff, there is need for a definite plan of organization by which these can
be remedied.
Typical Examples of the Grievances of
the Administrative Staff
Type of Grievance
A. Dissatisfaction with an indi-
vidual employee
B. Dissatisfaction with organiza-
tion of employees
Common Cause
The administrator thinks that:
The employee is continually breaking
rules.
The employee will not do as he is told.
The employee is absent from work too fre-
quently.
The employee arrives late and leaves early.
The employee does not seek to improve
continuously.
The employee resists changes in methods of
work.
The employee will not carry on extra
duties.
The employee is a troublemaker in the
group.
The employee is harsh and unreasonable
with pupils.
The employee is discourteous to parents.
The organization never seeks to improve
the schools.
The organization has poor leadership.
The organization is always bringing faults
to the attention of the staff . It never makes
constructive proposals.
The organization misrepresents the atti-
tude of the staff toward its members.
The organization does not stack to an
agreement and does not attempt to keep
its members in line.
The organization encourages complaints
by presenting them without prior investi-
gation.
Irresponsible statements are made in pub-
lications of the organization.
74 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
If consistent decisions about grievances such as have been presented
in the two lists above are to be made, then there must be a continuing
group to make them. Such a group should work systematically and with
business efficiency. To this end, written records of previous decisions are
essential. A formal and standard procedure is desirable because:
1. It insures the use of established precedents and so reduces the number of con-
flicting decisions.
2. It makes certain that decisions are made by those who have the authority to
make them,
3. It reduces the number of petty and unnecessary complaints.
4. It insures the use of the same facts by both parties involved in any grievance.
5. It is impartial and impersonal.
6. It is readily understood by all parties.
A good formal grievance procedure will meet all of these objectives. It
will, in the long run, produce a high level of morale and better relations
between employees and administrators. It would be wise to have such a
procedure evolve out of co-operative planning by the interested parties.
In the absence of a strong organization of employees, the administrative
staff will need to find some way in which to select or to guide the selection
of the persons who are to do this planning. Care must be taken that those
chosen, whatever method is used, are actually representative of the em-
ployees. This is not easy where employees are knit together loosely.
School systems, when there is no collective bargaining, will encourage the
setting up of councils, conferences, assemblies, and the like, which are
recognized as the official voice of the employees. Some of these groups are
made up of representatives of existing agencies or organizations. Some
are made up of persons who are selected by secret ballot of all employees
for the purpose of representation. Some are constituted of persons select-
ed by the administrative staff. Once organized, the group usually selects
its own leadership or, if relations are cordial enough, the superintendent
acts as chairman. The closer the leadership and the membership of this
representative council are to the employees, the better.
The council should not by itself settle grievances. It should merely
develop a plan for handling them which both sides will accept. Such a
plan should be orderly in form. It should be operated smoothly. It should
be administered wisely. Here is an example of such a plan which appears
to be both practical and just.
Grievances arise on every job. If it is a school job, the responsibility
for handling "gripes" as they arise naturally falls on the shoulders of the
immediate supervisor of the employee, usually the principal of the school.
The efficient principal will encourage his subordinates to take their
grievances directly to him, and as quickly as possible. Most of them can
SPALDING 75
be handled very easily, if they are not allowed to grow and fester. It may
also be desirable that the employee have the support and assistance of a
fellow worker. Many people are too introverted to reveal their complaint
and argue it through. The central council should request each group of
employees at a school to select someone to act with the aggrieved person.
If there are but few employees of a single type at the school, such as cus-
todians or secretaries, the system-wide organization of such employees
should designate some one person to act with the aggrieved employee. The
use of this other person is at the discretion of the one who is making the
complaint. If he does not wish assistance, he acts alone.
The first step in the handling of a grievance, then, is that of presenting
it to the principal. This presentation should be an oral one. The principal
should be expected to handle most of these complaints fairly and to give
redress when such is needed.
No one in the school system is more important to good relations be-
tween the administration and the corps than the principal. He inter-
prets the policies of the system to his co-workers in his building. He is, in
effect, the school system in his relations with those who work in his
school. He must have authority to settle grievances, if the first step
toward that result is to carry weight. His decisions, of course, should be
subject to appeal and the machinery of appeal should be uncomplicated
and rapid in action, but, on the spot, he should be able to act as an
executive.
The representative of the employees within the school or in the entire
organization of employees should have authority from them similar to
that which the principal has from the board. He should make sure that
all of the facts are presented in each case. He should, in the case of an
existing agreement, live up to it in all of his acts. When he confers with
the principal, he is firm, courteous, and businesslike. He is not merely an
advocate; he is also a co-operator. He strives to make sure that each
grievance is settled on its merits. He follows grievances through the ap-
peal machinery if they have arisen within his jurisdiction. He keeps him-
self informed about principles and established precedents so that he may
guide those he represents whenever grievances arise in the future.
All grievances and complaints which are not settled by mutual agree-
ment between principal and employee should be placed in writing. For
this, a suitable printed form should be used which both sides have helped
to construct. The written grievance should be filed with the administra-
tive staff within a specified period of time, dating from the occurrence
which caused the employee to be aggrieved. A copy of this should also go
to the central grievance coDcxmittee or a sub-committee of the central
council of employees if collective bargaining has not taken place. If there
76 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
is an organization of employees which has been selected for collective
bargaining, a copy goes to their grievance committee, which takes the
place of any sub-committee of a council.
The grievance committee and the administrative staff investigate the
grievance and seek additional facts independently of each other. The
committee gets its facts from the report, the school representative, and
the aggrieved employee. The staff gets its facts from the principal. If the
grievance committee, after its investigation of the matter, is convinced
that the original decision of the principal was correct, it should so state,
notifying both the staff and the employee that it will not seek to further
the appeal. If the administrative staff is convinced that the principal was
in error and that the employee was right, then it should so state and give
relief without further delay. If neither of these conditions prevails, then
the staff and the grievance committee should confer and attempt to ad-
just the matter. Each should seek to dispose of the matter at this con-
ference if it is at all possible to do so.
Where this is not possible, the appeal should go to a final board of
arbitration. This board should be made up of the head of the organiza-
tion of employees, the superintendent, and a third party chosen by them.
The decision of this board should be final. When the appeal is sent to this
board it should be accompanied by all records of previous discussions and
action. The aggrieved employee should have the right to present his case
if he wishes to do so, either to the conference of the grievance committee
and the staff or to the final board of arbitration.
Settling grievances is a normal part of the activity of any school sys-
tem. The costs of doing so are a legitimate charge against any budget.
Employees and representatives of employees should be able to carry out
their responsibilities in this respect on time for which they are paid. They
should not be expected to present or consider appeals at odd and in-
convenient hours.
The administrative staff also has grievances. When it has a grievance
against the employees as a whole, the procedure begins at step two, the
conference between the grievance committee and the staff. The appeal
procedure goes on from there.
When the grievance is against an individual employee, two procedures
can be followed. The principal or some member of the staff may repri-
mand the subordinate, correct his error, and seek to guide him into
better ways. If the employee feels that this action is unjust, he proceeds
as he would with any other grievance. A second procedure is that of a
conference between the staff, or a member of the staff, and the grievance
committee. The reasons for the grievance are presented, the committee
then investigates them, confers with the employee, and, if it is convinced
SPALDING 77
that the complaint against him is sound, reprimands, corrects, and helps
him to avoid similar errors in the future. If it is convinced that the com-
plaint is unwarranted, it so reports to the administrative staff. If the latter
disapproves of the verdict, it may appeal to the board of arbitration.
Outline of a Grievance Procedure
Step 1: Aggrieved employee and representative attempt to settle with the princi-
pal. If this fails, the grievance is written and submitted to
Step 2: Grievance committee, which attempts to settle with the administrative
staff. If this fails, the grievance and accompanying records are sent to
Step 3: Arbitration committee (head of employees, superintendent of schools,
and third arbiter) for final settlement.
Such a procedure in handling grievances is democratic. It places re-
sponsibility for adjustment on employees as well as on the administrative
staff. It is simple in structure and speedy in operation. It will work well
where a central council sponsors and develops it. It will work better when
it is incorporated into an agreement between an organization and the
employing board which covers grievances, working conditions, and col-
lective bargaining.
THE PARTICIPATORY PROCESS
In the three problems which have been used as examples of ways in
which the personnel of a school system should be organized in accordance
with the criteria of democracy and the laws of learning, there have been
certain common procedures. Persons have been given responsibilities
along with opportunities to act freely. Employees have been encouraged
to work together to improve their lot and to work with other persons to
improve the schools. They have been given a voice in setting up the pro-
cedure by which their grievances are redressed and in the adjustments
which are made to redress them. They have, in short, participated in the
many activities which affect them.
This participation is made possible through specific planning based not
only on the dictates of humanitarianism, justice, and more harmonious
relationship, but also according to the principles by which all learning
takes place. It is this latter consideration which is neglected by those who
solve all their problems by formulas of expediency rather than of basic
science. If the members of a school system are ever to learn how to be-
have as responsible members of a group, how to avoid difficulties, or how
to settle them amicably once they have grown into grievances, then such
learning is possible only by following the methods which psychology has
found to be effective. The plans outlined here are in accordance with
these methods. Employees are motivated toward goals which are reached
by successful responses to a problem-situation after excess and varied
78 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
responses have been made. Among these successful responses are the
solutions which result in new curriculums, or better working conditions,
or the just settlement of grievances. These activities which are earned on
in the process of learning and which are democratic in nature make up
the participatory process.
The participatory process can be defined as the aggregate of those
activities which are carried on by persons who seek to solve problems by
co-operative methods, according to principles which are in accord with
the way in which man learns and which include the specific behaviors of
democratic people. Organization of the personnel is most effective when
it results in the use of this process. It is least effective when it is carried
on without participation.
The benefits of the participatory process come into play only when
several persons are genuinely bothered by a problem and are concerned
about securing a solution to it. This is another way of saying that those
who are to participate must be motivated if they are to be expected to
act. Motivation is a condition of the individual. That fact is frequently
overlooked in discussions on this subject. Motivation is constantly being
referred to as something apart from the persons. Occasionally it is even
used as an aspect of a plan. Sometimes we find references to motives
which appear to imply that these are environmental factors toward which
the individual acts. Such definitions of motivation and of motive are
unsound and tend to confuse people. The administrator does not moti-
vate persoms. He can only introduce incentives into the immediate en-
vironment of the employees. As these incentives appear to be desirable,
the lack or need of them produces those imbalances, tensions, differences
in potential, and changes in the chemistry of the body which are charac-
teristic of true motivation and which result in subsequent action. Once
the employees are motivated, the administrator can select individuals to
organize in such ways that they will use the participatory process. Evi-
dence that they are already motivated will form the basis for choosing
the individuals who will work on the problem. When he does this, the re-
sults are better in every way; the choice of highly motivated people will
produce more democratic behavior. Committees will seek the common
good rather than personal advantage. This encourages social rather than
antisocial behavior.
The participatory process, as its use is encouraged by the wise ad-
ministrator, develops more resourceful persons than do other procedures.
Each person who participates with others ia the solution of problems
which bother the group as a whole, acquires skill in the use of methods of
solution which can be employed on other occasions with profit to him and
to the schools. He also develops a sensitivity to the existence of problems
SP AIDING 79
which were previously beyond the scope of his experience and will seek to
solve them through co-operative interaction with others who are similarly
aware of them. As present problems are cleared up, as new problems are
discovered and solved, and as the practice which employees have in
solving problems continues to increase their competence in this work, the
school system improves rapidly and becomes dynamic.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF MORALE
Morale is one of those intangibles of the spirit which is essential if any
group is to put forth its best co-operative effort. It is often sought by the
administrator through effprts to improve rates of pay, working condi-
tions, hours of work, and other factors which affect employees adversely.
Sometimes it is sought through the media of group meetings, bulletins,
radio addresses, and other procedures which are directed toward "pep-
ping up" the employees. These activities and others like them arise out of
the belief that, because morale is a quality of a total group, it arises solely
out of what the administrator does with a total group. This belief is not
tenable.
Morale is made up of the attitudes, emotions, and consequent be-
haviors of individuals. Because of what has happened or is happening to
an employee, he feels in various ways. If what happens to him tends to
restore the integration of his personality, then his attitude toward the
school system which causes these happenings is favorable and his morale
is said to be good. If what happens tends to retard the integration of his
personality, then the reverse is true. It is doubtful that much happens in
the way of increasing morale within any individual, which does not stem
out of his personal satisfactions.
Allport 5 defines personality as follows: "Personality is the dynamic
organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that
determine his unique adjustment to his environment." Each individual
seeks to create a suitable environment in which he lives. While he is on the
job, his efforts may be fruitless or profitable as they are helped or hin-
dered by what the administrator does. If his actions are in conflict with
the demands of his environment, the results will be harmful, and his
morale will drop. Occasionally the conflict, in which the teacher is in-
volved is due to his own limitations. Sometimes it arises out of some
phase of the school system in which the employee works. Whatever the
sources of the conflicts between the personality of the individual and the
entire environment which impinges on it, they may cause feelings of in-
1 Gordon Willard Allport, Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. New York:
Henry Holt & Co., 1937.
80 ORGANIZING TEE PERSONNEL
feriority to arise which will lead to compensatory behavior. If this be-
havior is directed toward the solution of the problems which caused the
imbalance, the results may be beneficial, fitting into the needs of the
school system and of the other employees. When this happens in many
individual instances, morale is said to be high or good. On the other hand,
the compensatory behavior may be aggressive or antisocial, in that it
tends to be opposed to the school system or to other aspects of the
environment. When this happens in many individual instances, morale is
said to be low or poor. The compensatory behavior may take the form of
withdrawing, becoming absorbed in one's self, slow to act, extremely
cautious, or some other manifestation of introversion. Should this be the
case in enough individual instances, the school system might appear
peaceful on the surface, but the results would be equally poor and the
morale just as low.
Morale is not a general condition of a group independent of the spe-
cific individuals involved. Treating it as such will usually result in the
failure of any plan to raise or improve it. In general it is as inaccurate to
speak of the morale of school personnel as it is to speak of their intelli-
gence, health, stamina, and the like. One could not answer the questions,
"What is the intelligence of the teachers in a school system?" or "What
is their health?" or "What is their stamina?" except in terms of the de-
gree to which individuals are wise or well or strong. Any attempt to do
otherwise would result in meaningless generalizations or in valueless
abstractions. Modern education has centered around the individual
student for years, and modern administration of the personnel of a school
system should also center around the individual employee. The wise ad-
ministrator endeavors to encourage those activities which will help
individuals to become more nearly integrated. Improvement of group
morale will inevitably follow.
Redress of grievances, using the principles which have been presented
in this chapter, is one of the organizational activities which helps to
improve morale. One must be careful, however, to make sure that the
grievance which is being corrected is the true one. Complaints about
rates of pay, for example, may be corrected by a better salary schedule,
but the real difficulty of the employee may not be the poor pay itself.
Instead, it may be that he is involved with a loan shark who is taking a
great share of his wages. Mere increase in pay will not help him unless it
will also relieve him of his debt. The "morale "of this employee would
still remain low.
Whenever man is disturbed he tends to place the cause of his dis-
turbance outside of himself. He says, "The pupils are undisciplined,"
when the real cause of his unhappiness is that he has not been trained
SPALDING 81
thoroughly in carrying on an activity program and, therefore, is doing it
poorly. The situation will not be corrected by punishing pupils or by
transferring the teacher. Only by giving him more training so that he can
do well what he is expected to do will he become capable of overcoming
his difficulty with his pupils. He may say, "The principal is arbitrary and
autocratic/' when the real cause of the difficulty arises out of the fact
that the teacher has recently learned to do some new things of which he is
proud but finds no opportunity to demonstrate these talents in the
school. Correcting this situation will change his opinion of the principal.
The administrator, in dealing with employees, should always seek to
discover the real and not the merely asserted causes of disturbances and
help to remove them.
Remedial activities are necessary and desirable whenever grievances
occur, but positive, constructive action is also needed and will produce
far better results than corrective action. The participatory process out-
lined above is an ever-present aid in both directions.
Each individual person wishes to be important and to feel that his
importance is recognized. Each wishes to be accepted by the group with
which he works as one who meets the standards of conduct which it
approves. Each wishes to be recognized as "belonging." Each, in short,
seeks to associate himself with the many influences which impinge upon
him, in such a way that his personality becomes more nearly integrated.
Only then can he find the personal satisfactions which produce "morale."
The administrator wishes to secure loyalty to the school system, co-
operation within the entire corps, continuous improvement in methods of
work, and, in general, more efficient schools. Many of his activities to
secure these ends may tend to affect individuals adversely and so impair
"morale." This will not result if he uses the participatory process. With
it he accomplishes many desirable aims. First, he takes advantage of the
knowledge which many persons have acquired in their study and ex-
perience, and he uses this to improve the schools. Second, he provides
opportunities for individual employees to identify themselves with an
important human activity and to feel important because of this identifi-
cation. Third, he provides opportunities for them to gain recognition
from the group with which they work and from those for whom they
work. Fourth, he gives the entire system a broader understanding of and
sympathy with the problems which are faced by the administrative staff.
Fifth, he is enabled to get better performance from them because they
are carrying on activities which have resulted in a large measure from
their own planning and which they wish to demonstrate to be wise.
Sixth, he helps to facilitate the integration of each individual with many
factors which impinge upon him and so helps him in his efforts toward
82 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
integration of his personality. Seventh, he makes the work of the individ-
ual more interesting and purposeful as he becomes aware of its relation to
the work of others.
"Morale" improves as each employee improves in attitudes, skill,
ability, and understanding. The participatory process provides many
opportunities for this improvement. As it operates it reduces the amount
of conflict between employee and employer, the number of instances of
aggressive and antisocial behavior, and the frequency of the occurrence
of withdrawing or introversion. As these are reduced, more individuals
become well adjusted, and "morale" becomes high. More individuals
show loyalty to the school system, seek to co-operate with others, and
desire to improve the quality of their work and their technical skills. By
the use of this process both employees and administrators will reach the
goals which are most important to them with the greatest economy of
time and effort.
SUMMARY OF BASIC PRINCIPLES
In the material which has been presented, some principles of organiz-
ing the personnel of a democratic city school system for greater efficiency
have been stated. Other principles have been used and not stated. Both
are summarized below:
1. Procedures used in organizing the personnel should be in accord with the way
in which man learns.
2. The behaviors which make up democratic living should be used in the inter-
action between the various elements of the entire school population, includ-
ing all branches of the service.
3. The nature and type of organization to be used is a function of the ends to-
ward which it is directed,
4. Professional organizations which are directed primarily toward the improve-
ment of schools through research, study, and discussion of the problems of
education can draw their membership from administrators and employees
alike.
5. Organizations which are directed primarily toward the improvement of
schools, through bettering salaries, hours of work, and conditions, should
draw their membership solely from a single type of employee.
6. The effectiveness of any organization is measured by the extent to which it
changes the behavior of the personnel.
7. The persons who are included in any group organization change as the ends
toward which their organized activities are directed change.
8. The organization of personnel to any end should produce more persons who
are competent in democratic living by providing continuing opportunities to
practice it.
9. Most persons who work are motivated by considerations of personal advan-
tage, among the foremost of which is pay.
SPALDING S3
10. Tangible rewards are helpful whenever an organized group of employees
achieves success in improving the schools.
11. The leaders of an organized group should be chosen by the group.
12. The final plan or organisation for action should evolve from the group itself.
13. Lay participation in an organization is desirable whenever the interests of
the public are directly involved.
14. The administrative staff should give technical and procedural help to any
organized group which is trying to solve a problem. It should not influence
the nature of the proposed solutions.
15. The principal is the key person in any plan of organizing personnel on a sys-
tem-wide basis designed to improve the schools.
16. The administrative staff should encourage collective bargaining by strong
organizations of employees which have been chosen to act in this capacity by
a majority of workers in a particular field.
17. The distinction between the duties and responsibilities of the administration
of the schools and of the employees in the schools should be clearly defined*
18. Arbitration should be used to settle disputes between the administrative
staff and the employees only when sincere efforts to reach agreement have
failed.
19. A formally-agreed-upon procedure for handling grievances is desirable. It
should include provisions for appeal and for final adjudication.
20. There should be a basic contractual agreement between employees and em-
ployers which has been arrived at by collective bargaining.
2L Grievances of the administrative staff about the acts of employees should be
handled through regular channels for other grievances.
22. "Morale" is made up of the attitudes, emotions, and consequent behaviors of
individuals.
23. Those activities which tend to retard the integration of the personalities of
individual employees tend to lower morale.
24. Those activities which tend to facilitate the integration of the personalities
of individual employees tend to raise morale,
25. The participatory process includes many activities which tend to facilitate
the integration of the personalities of individual employees and few which
tend to retard it.
26. The board of education establishes the policies under which democratic
administration is carried out. Policies in respect to grievances, type of cur-
riculum, and other matters which involve personnel should be established
clearly by it.
27. The board of education should be informed continually about the developing
program for organizing the personnel and should participate at its level in
the processes which are part of organization.
28. Access to the board of education by individual employees should be through
the administrative offices of the school. This channel of communication
should be speedy and unhampered.
84 ORGANIZING THE PERSONNEL
29. The board of education should accept and carry out contractual items which
are arrived at through collective bargaining and should insist that employees
carry out contractual obligations which have been similarly determined.
TOWARD BETTER SCHOOLS
The human resources of the schools and of the communities which
support them are rich and varied. Unfortunately the yield thus far in
terms of vigorously growing school systems is slight when compared to
the potential returns. Unlike the mines of the earth, these human re-
sources refuse to surrender their values when attempts are made to secure
them through force. They willingly give them up when they feel that the
act is of their own initiation or when they are convinced that the cause is
worthy. Note how people who hate taxation poured out their money in
the war against fascism. They might be persuaded to do the same in the
war against ignorance. Creative co-operative imagination, vigorous
democratic interaction, and intelligent scientific solutions to problems,
coupled with public support, are the inevitable results of any process
which is based upon the full and free participation of those intimately
concerned, once the imagination is fired and the road to act made clear.
Organization is a tool by which these persons may co-operate to ac-
complish what they deem to be important. If it is to be an effective tool,
it must be forged and shaped by them and not for them. The adminis-
trative staff should be the master teachers who encourage people to learn
the techniques of organizing and of organized action, but it should not be
the major source of that action. Rather, it should bend its efforts to
develop persons who become increasingly effective in what they them-
selves do and increasingly competent in the use of the best methods of
doing.
Good schools can never be built by the few executives who administer
schools. The inertia inherent in the mass of persons in a city school
system is too great for the tiny forces of the administrative staff to over-
come. Motion forward, if it is to come, must germinate from within the
mass itself and come into full power out of its own resources. When this
happens, the kinetic energy is tremendous. Great changes occur with
amazing ease and thoroughness. The astute administrator is the one who
seeks to promote progress in this manner.
The schools which can be developed in this country are far better than
any one person can imagine. They will be created by the inventions and
adaptations of hundreds of individuals who seek to work together toward
the improvement of the goals and the processes of education. These
persons must have the courage and the strength to do this a courage
and a strength renewed and increased by the collective actions of fellow-
SPALDING So
workers. The citadels of intolerance, ignorance, poverty, and greed can-
not be stormed by the efforts, no matter how heroic, of single individ-
uals. They will fall only to the concerted action of inspired groups. And it
is not too much to hope that this will come to pass. Deep within each
human personality lies the desire and the will to face the battle for a
better world which the schools are designed to wage. This will can be-
come action if it is re-enforced by a similar determination in others. It
can stay hidden in wishful thinking, if it remains by itself.
Strong organizations of employees lend strength and courage and the
will to action to each person. Many of these initial attempts at improve-
ment will be of low intensity or perhaps even in the wrong direction.
This is to be expected since the intricate processes of group action toward
ever more desirable ends are not learned readily or executed perfectly.
They will never be learned, however, unless there are frequent oppor-
tunities to use and practice them. As persons become more skilled in
co-operation and in the scientific approach, the quality of their efforts
will improve and the number of errors become fewer. This way, and this
way alone, leads to the best schools for the children of the United States
of America.
CHAPTER V
PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
AND PLANNING
HEROLD C. HUNT
Superintendent of Schools
Kansas City, Missouri
and
J. PAUL LEONARD
President, San Francisco State College
San Francisco, California
SCHOOL SEBVICES AND COMMUNITY NEEDS
The war years added a long list of exceptional services to the already
heavy responsibilities of school administrators. The acceptable per-
formance of these services demonstrated the ability of the school
through its administration to accomplish effectively such extra tasks as
the needs of the community may require. In line with modern educa-
tional philosophy, which recognizes that "the school is the one institu-
tion touching all parts of the social fabric that is capable of serving as
this focal point of unification/ 71 these new functions were logically and
readily added to or incorporated into the existing school programs.
" Earliest of these so-called educational extensions, inaugurated when
the first peacetime conscription in history was still being debated in
Washington, during the period when aggression on three continents had
not yet merged into World War II, was the War Production Training
Program. Originally called the National Defense Training Program, this
program, designed to prepare workers for war-plant assignments to build
material largely consigned to lend-lease, was but an adaptation of vo-
cational education to the specialized needs of industries producing the
implements of war. The War Production Training Program served youth
and young adults, successfully bridging the gap between high school, with
its generalized occupational preparation, and the specialized needs of
intricate operations in war plants. In this program the pupils came to the
school for training or, where more convenient or more feasible, the school
1 George R. Koopman, Alice Miel, and Paul J. Misner, Democracy in School Admin-
istration, p. 279. New York: D. Appleton- Century Co., Inc., 1943.
86
HUNT AND LEONARD 87
set up the training program in the industrial plant itself. In either case,
educational organizations demonstrated their ability to serve specific
needs of out-of-school youth. With military service on the part of the
majority of the youth group, this same program served to train or re-
train older, more mature workers and successfully fitted them for vital
jobs.
On the other end of the educational ladder, school administrators were
also called upon to develop programs for large numbers of so-called pre-
school children. Opening nursery schools to accommodate children as
young as two years of age, the schools freed young adults from the day-
time responsibility for their young children and enabled them to engage
in essential war work. Extended day care for elementary-school children
to bridge the gap between school-dismissal time and the end of the work-
ing day was likewise helpful to the war production program.
Further extension of school services, developed because of the needs of
the emergency, included the summer programs for children of preschool
and elementary-school age to complete the necessary year-round care
and supervision that would coincide with their parents' year-round war
work. Likewise, the need for a rapid expansion of food service became
evident when it was found that parents were not available at noon to
prepare lunch for their children.
These are but instances of the increased responsibilities that have been
assumed during the past few years by school administrators throughout
the nation. That they have been carried on effectively there can be no
question, and that the effectiveness has demonstrated the soundness of
the school's assumption of o ver-aE responsibility for in-school and out-of-
school children and young people is also now a matter of record. The role
of the school in peacetime is certain to parallel this wartime record of
over-all responsibility for youth.
While the activities just mentioned have been nation-wide in scope,
some communities have found it necessary to make the school the center
for both youth and adults for all types of major community .improvement
activities health, recreation, economic improvement and experimenta-
tion, community planning, and even marketing and production co-
operatives. In other communities the school superintendent has found
himself the leader in forming over-all community planning groups or
commissions for studying and planning improvement of community life.
In smaller communities the school has tended to become more of a center
of community life than it has in the cities. However, the problem of try-
ing to divide the larger metropolitan communities into smaller centers of
neighborhood living gives expression to the idea of a community school
even in the heart of the more populous cities. In any community, how-
88 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
ever, the possibility of the school's assuming a greater responsibility for
social and community leadership is present, and the need for the ad-
ministrators to become more adequately trained to assume broader
administrative obligations is obvious.
RESPONSIBILITY OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS IN
OVER-ALL PROVISION FOR YOUTH
Discharge of these added responsibilities is but further evidence of the
logic of the placement of the responsibility for initiation of over-all
planning and provision for the youth of any community in the hands of
the educational administration. On the rolls of the school are registered
the entire body of youth of the area, and from this preliminary acquaint-
ance the school becomes increasingly familiar with the characteristics of
its pupil membership and more aware of the needs of each one of the
group as the acquaintance extends over a period of years.
Modern conceptions of education would, therefore, place in the hands
of educational administrators the initial responsibility for the over-all
community planning for its youth in the areas of schooling, health,
recreation, and, in appropriate situations, the prevention or correction of
juvenile delinquency . Today's conception of schooling is a far cry from the
erstwhile three It's, the specifications of an adequate education including
not only general education but also guidance to assure the best possible
adjustment of the individual during school years and for his out-of-
school career, and vocational education to yield a substantial measure of
occupational competence in the field into which aptitudes, interest, and
personal preference may lead him. Modern educational philosophy like-
wise recognizes the school's responsibility for the initial occupational
placement of youth. This is a development of the practical vocational
education which includes part-time work experience as an essential por-
tion of the educational program. Responsibility for determining work
experience opportunities and for co-ordinating and supervising the re-
sulting activity makes the initial placement function a logical responsi-
bility of the school administration. Such a service has been found to pro-
mote the further development of the educational program as well as the
interests of the individual pupils. Follow-up is a natural corollary of
placement and, in carrying on this activity, the school strengthens its
own guidance and placement services. Where the initial placement does
not yield the desired result and retraining becomes necessary, this re-
sponsibility, too, must be assumed by the school as the original training
agency. In the entire field of service to youth the school administration
serves as co-ordinaton
The areas of health and recreation are developed concurrently with
HUNT AND LEONARD 89
the educational program, and here again the school's responsibility is a
major one. Health has long been recognized as a part of general educa-
tion; and recreation, both in the aspect of extra-curriculum activities and
in the larger life-field of worthy use of leisure, is now likewise included in
the functional area of school training. The school's chief responsibility is
to build well-rounded citizens; and in the administration of its training
program attention must be given to all phases of individual growth and
development.
Correction, if necessary, has been listed as still another area of the
school's responsibility to youth. The preventive phase of this service has
long been a responsibility of school administrators and attention has
been consistently directed toward it. The service of visiting teachers in
the school system has avoided many referrals to the juvenile court. Close
co-operation with the court, however, assists in administering the cor-
rective phase when such becomes necessary. Here again the educational
administrator acts as co-ordinator.
The idea of the school assuming responsibility in these different areas
is not merely theoretical; it is a reality in many communities in America.
Several notable situations are described in recent reports. Among them
is the work done at the Roger Clark Ballard Memorial School in Jefferson
County, Kentucky, and at the Arthurdale School at Arthurdale, West
Virginia. Both of these schools took shape in communities where health,
recreation, and education were at "low tide." By skilful planning and
the enlistment of the co-operation of adults, these schools became im-
portant factors in promoting the health and welfare of the community. 2
Similar gains were made in communities scattered throughout the
drainage areas administered by the Tennessee Valley Authority. This is
one of the noblest examples of the enlistment of all the agencies of the
community in co-operative endeavor for improved community living.
Schools throughout the valley areas endeavored to strengthen communi-
ty understanding of the resources available for improved living. Such
schools as those at Wilson Dam and Gilbertsville are illustrative of the
indigenous character of educational programs in the area and of how they
improved health, recreation, and community understanding of the place
and importance of education in community progress. 5 These schools, as
* Elsie R. dappi Community Schools in Action. New York: Viking Press, 1939.
* Maurice F. Seay and William J. McGlothlin (editors), Elementary Education in
Two Communities in the Tennessee VaUey* Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service,
Vol. XTV, No. 3, University of Kentucky, 1942. For a challenging and fascinating de-
scription of the Tennessee Valley Project, see David E. Lilienthal, TV A: Democracy
on the March. New York: Harper & Bros., 1944. Published also in the Pocket Book
Edition, 1945.
90 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
well as the Arthurdale School, were founded on the principle that the
curriculum should not be hampered by traditional and formal courses of
study but should be planned to suit the special needs of the community,
that community activities should constitute the laboratory through
which the pupils will get their educative experiences. This means that the
community and the school are linked together. It means, furthermore,
that when pupils leave these schools they will have an understanding of
the place of education in the promotion of the general welfare. The prin-
ciple on which such schools are founded merits more widespread accept-
ance in America, for, if the school is to justify its large measure of public
support, it must teach men how to live better. It must teach them how to
use the tools at their command to turn the resources of their community
into human happiness and prosperity.
School leaders in many localities have been the creative force back of
co-ordinated community activity, and the schools in such areas have
frequently become the social as well as the intellectual center of com-
munity life. Many illustrations are available. Some of the less well-
known ones are excellent illustrations of the principles here advocated. 4
In recent publications of the Educational Policies Commission and of
the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, an educational
program for a rural community was proposed, one which indicated the
nature of community co-operation and the extent of community influ-
ence which could be exerted by the school. 5 This illustrative community,
called Farmville, centered its cultural life in the school and in a com-
munity-planning group of local leaders representing business, farming,
the school, government, and home life. In the school were located the
library, the health clinic, a community recreation center with indoor and
outdoor facilities, an agricultural laboratory for the study of farming
problems, an agricultural machine shop, and a group of community co-
operatives owned by adults in the community but operated for them by
boys and girls in the high school.
Some may think that these facilities were but the products of the
imaginative minds of the authors, but they were actually suggested by
the successful experiences of well-known communities. Carroll County,
Georgia, is a community of 37,000 people, some living on home-owned
farms, some on tenant farms, and others in a small center with four tex-
* See "New Dominion Series" and Extension Division publications of the University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.
8 Educational Policies Commission, Education for AU American Youth. Washing-
ton 6: Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association, 1944.
See also Planning for American Youth. Washington 6: National Association of Second-
ary School Principals of the National Education Association, 1944.
HUNT AND LEONARD 91
tile mills. Little theorizing is going on here, but many actual changes are
taking place. There are movements to grow cover crops and pastures for
livestock; dairy and poultry enterprises are replacing complete reliance
on cotton; more garden produce is being cultivated for home use and for
the Atlanta market. People are beginning to look to the school for leader-
ship in democratic living and are coming to believe that such assistance is
as important as the teaching of skills. For an illustration of what is hap-
pening, the Sand Hill community may be observed.
Sand Hill has centered its development in the vicinity of the consoli-
dated school, which also houses a co-operative cannery and a kitchen for
the preparation of school lunches. Another building houses the corn and
feed mills, an auto repair shop, a blacksmith shop, a woodworking shop
for building furniture, and a barber shop. The aim of the Sand Hill Co-
operative Association, the directing body, is to have a complete com-
munity-service center. The Association comprises six smaller communi-
ties which are included in the school district. Regular meetings of the
community for sociability and for the discussion of community problems
are held at the school in each of these centers. At Tallapoosa the school is
the center, but the community carries the responsibility. A woman's
clubhouse stands next door to the school, a cannery is close by, a feed
mill has been built with a sign over the door indicating that the people of
this community have paid for many feed mills but this one they really
own. Consideration is being given to setting up a repair shop, a dehydra-
tor, and a potato-curing house. The Smyrna School turned first to beauti-
fication of the schoolgrounds and to school sanitation and water supply.
Some wanted a potato-curing shed, but community interest was low.
Pupils in the school visited a near-by shed and reported on what was being
done for that community. Adults became interested and the shed was
built.
The school shops of Farquier County, Virginia, were opened to the
community. Immediately, fifty pieces of expensive farm machinery were
brought in for repairs. Junk was turned into workable equipment. New
parts costing $20 made new mowers worth $115. But the school shop
could not repair all the machinery; accordingly, the fanners were taught
how to set up a minimum repair shop in their own barns.
In Southside, Virginia, where the word "crop" means "tobacco," the
vocational-agriculture teacher became interested in promoting greater
crop diversification. Through the oi^anization of a group of farmers and
the boys in the agricultural classes, production of grain, soy beans, and
lespedeza was increased. Poultry and cattle production increased, and a
feed mill became necessary . One was built, and this in turn increased the
yield further to where a combine was needed. No one in the community
92 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
could afford to buy one, so one was purchased co-operatively, the plan
being worked out in the night-school class in agriculture for adults.
The people of Habersham County, Georgia, have found a way to insure
a varied and nutritious diet the year around by establishing a communi-
ty-owned food preservation center at the Clarksville high school. It
includes a quick-freezing and locker plant, a cannery, a dehydrator, a
flour mill, and a sweet-potato curing house. This center serves about one
thousand families within a radius of fifteen miles. The parents are taught
how to do their own processing and the teachers and pupils serve as
general managers of the project. Recently a community hatchery has
been added and there is community ownership of a combine, a tractor,
and a power mower. Those who have no ready cash can use the facilities
by "toll payment" of goods. The school lunchroom has become a benefi-
ciary of the toll system.
Fluvanna County, Virginia, needed a cannery, but the community was
not sufficiently interested to persuade the Board of Supervisors to grant
money to construct one. The principal of the school wrote a factual letter
and the pupils delivered copies to about 1,200 families. The result was
community pressure on the Board of Supervisors, the money being prompt-
ly appropriated. Purchase of a truck for hauling crops to the cannery
followed later, labor was swapped, and now other plans are under way.
Kents Store, Virginia, consolidated its schools and thereby abandoned
one of the buildings. Instead of tearing it down, the citizens made a com-
munity center of it, adapting it to many types of activities. It serves the
recreational needs of seven hundred children, and adult needs in health,
recreation, and sociability. It gives motion-picture entertainment and
serves as a U.S.O. center for Negro servicemen. It is open from 7 :45 A.M.
to midnight daily, and the cumulative attendance is approximately
twenty thousand each month. The summer program includes a workshop
for teachers, a community recreation center, a health clinic on two days
each week, canning and laundry demonstrations, and projects in food
production and conservation. The center has sponsored a health and
sanitation program for Negro homes, a home beautification program,
and home-garden and poultry-production programs, all based on a care-
ful survey of the needs of the Negroes in the area.
Another interesting community project was carried out in the Jordan
area of Greenville County, South Carolina. In a period of seven years, an
active community council developed a co-operative exchange, a credit
union, a dramatics club, a health center and a library, a co-operative
sharing program for exchange of cuttings, bulbs, and shrubs, a com-
munity cannery, wood and metal shops, and a potato-curing house. The
school curriculum has been entirely made over to fit the needs of the com-
HUNT AND LEONARD 93
munity and to serve adults as well as young poeple. One of the interesting
innovations was the development of a "pig chain," which has for its pur-
pose the improvement in quantity and quality of hogs raised in the
community. A boy is given a pig to care for, and when it produces a litter
he is to return two pigs which are given to two other boys who repeat the
process. A registered sow and boar started the chain.
These illustrations are actual living examples of the principles of
community co-operation centering around the school. After observation
of these and other projects, leaders in Virginia communities summarized
their conclusions regarding such activities as follows:
1. The total community must be kept in mind and the concept of community
relationships must be continuously growing.
2. Any project that meets a real need is a good starting-place.
3. Drawing in all existing agencies as early as possible is desirable.
4. Public sentiment must be enlisted. This is best done by keeping all people in-
formed at all times.
5. Agencies and individuals should be as quick to relinquish leadership as to as-
sume it at the right moment.
6. Projects undertaken should have reasonable chance of success,
7. Emphasis should be upon better living for the entire community.
8. One criterion for judging the soundness of a program is the extent to which
participating laymen can interpret it.
9. We found evidence that democracy can function at a high degree of efficiency.
10. In addition, we found evidence that one of the greatest values in community
programs is the spiritual and civic growth of the people. 6
Another illustration is the work done in the rural sections of Delaware
where the organization of communities for improved living began with
the studies of folk music and art in the area. Community groups came
together and out of this activity grew handicrafts, music festivals, and
greater community consciousness and co-operation. 7
MAKING A COMMUNITY SURVEY
If the educational administration is to discharge effectively its over-all
responsibility to youth, it must first take inventory of all that the com-
munity offers in behalf of its young people. When all opportunities are
known, a complete and well-balanced program can be developed. The
school should assume responsibility for setting up a central inventory
record in which the youth to be served are registered and the services
8 Plans without People. New Dominion Series, No. 65, March 1, 1945. Gfaarlottes-
ville, Virginia: University of Virginia, 1945.
* Enriched Community Living. Wilmington, Delaware: Division of Adult Educa-
tion, State Department of Public Instruction, 1936.
94 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
afforded are indicated. From such record the administration can determine
if there are those to whom the services are not available and if there are
some who are involved at times in too many activities. In every com-
munity today there are many agencies offering opportunities and facilities
for the advancement of youth. The school is in a position to determine
the nature of all these services. It is able likewise to discover whether
the offerings cover the entire area adequately, whether they recognize
and meet every need, and whether there is evidence of duplication of
service.
A community survey is essential for the purpose of listing all available
services. The organizations, their programs, and their offerings must be
determined. This can be accomplished in an informal manner in a small
community; in urban centers, an extensive formal survey may be desir-
able. In most instances, however, co-operative practice within the com-
munity readily permits a building principal and his staff, with the aid of
the pupils, to compile a fairly complete and accurate listing for the par-
ticular neighborhood. The several neighborhood lists can then be com-
bined into one community roster. Such a survey will bring to light many
little-known efforts, some of which may be strengthened and extended
through co-operative procedures. Conferences with representatives of
these agencies will afford additional information and furnish leads for the
complete rounding-out of the listing.
Likewise necessary, to serve both the youth and the educational pro-
gram of the community, is an occupational study of the area. Such a
study serves to reveal job opportunities within the community and the
requirements for those jobs. This type of study enables the school to pre-
pare its pupils more adequately for the employment they will enter and
to render more effective placement service for the pupils in the co-opera-
tive phase of their education as well as for full-time employment after
graduation. The occupational study, moreover, should be a more or less
continuing survey so that, as conditions change, immediate adjustments
can be made to new opportunities and new requirements.
In listing opportunities for youth, the school administrators should
include all the educational as well as the leisure-time and recreational
offering that are provided outside of the school itself. The educational
programs of the various agencies are exceedingly helpful to young people,
most of whom are generally eager to take advantage of any offerings that
satisfy their needs or interests.
Since the school has a complete register of the youth of the district, it
is logical that it should likewise maintain a record of those being served
by one or more youth agencies and of those needing such assistance or
service. In this manner the educational administration can help to direct
HUNT AND LEONARD 05
the services of community agencies so as to reach those who need them
most.
Many excellent illustrations of activities in the area of community
surveys could be cited. One example of a carefully conducted vocational
survey is to be found in Kansas City, Missouri, where business, industry,
labor, and the schools co-operatively studied the job opportunities and
the characteristics of these jobs in the greater Kansas City area. The
survey not only afforded the school much information which was needed
in planning an adequate program of vocational education but also joined
together the leaders in business, labor, industry, and education in a
common effort to solve the problems of the employment of youth. 8
In Des Moines, Iowa, a co-operating group of school and community
leaders compiled a useful report on the number and variety of community
resources available for educating youth. It served to make the teachers
aware of the value of these resources for teaching, and to make the
community cognizant of the fact that community institutions were the
extended classroom of the school. All community agencies were studied,
those dealing with business, consumer education, education, government,
health, home, industry, intercultural relations, occupational opportunity,
fine arts, public welfare, recreation, religion, and safety. The study was
based on the five channels by which the school reaches the community
excursions, guest speakers, pupil participation in community activities,
demonstrations, and visual materials. 9 As another example, the San
Francisco, California, teachers prepared a volume for the use of teachers
and other community workers which set forth the combined facilities of
the city for the recreation, education, and welfare of youth. This volume
was useful in acquainting all workers with the total facilities of the com-
munity and was of service to workers in guiding youth into those activi-
ties of most benefit to them. 10 Again, the teachers of Santa Barbara
County, California, surveyed their community resources in the county.
The report dealt with the history of the county, the topography and
natural resources, the population, health and safety, home and family
life, recreation, government, organized group life, and transportation and
communication facilities. The rest of the volume showed teachers how
8 Kansas City Public Schools, Occupational Study: Greater Kansas C&y Area. Kan-
sas City, Missouri: Board of Education, 1943.
* Des Moines Public Schools, Community Resources, Des Moines, Iowa: Board of
Education, 1940.
19 San Francisco Public Schools, Community Planning for the Leisure Tims of San
Francisco Youth. San Francisco: Board of Education, 1944.
96 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
these resources should be used as materials of instruction in the elemen-
tary and secondary schools. 11
One of the most extensive surveys of natural and social resources was
made in the State of Georgia. The movement started in 1937 with a group
of people seeking light on the paradox of their state its natural wealth
and its human poverty. Seventeen state-wide organizations later met and
started the Citizen's Fact-Finding Movement. These organizations rep-
resented about 5,000 local units and some 250,000 citizens. The purpose
of the movement was to collect and disseminate facts about Georgia in a
dozen areas of interest historical background, natural resources, indus-
try and commerce, health, political system, taxation, education, public
welfare, penal system, agriculture, and federal activities in the state.
Material was to be gathered for reports. Data for the report on agriculture,
for example, were secured by asking one thousand people in the state to
list what they thought to be the ten major agricultural problems in
Georgia. Three series of reports were published in the period from 1937
to 1941. One was a factual inventory of Georgia in each of the fields list-
ed; the second compared Georgia with other states; the third presented a
series of constructive suggestions for action. The group was not organized
as an action body, but as a fact-finding committee. Its reports have been
used by adult groups, by the extension services of colleges and universi-
ties, and by the public schools. Virginius Dabney, in his book, Below the
Potomac, has described the movement as "an indigenous movement
organized pursuant to the novel notion that the state ought to know the
facts concerning its affairs."
The examples here cited are indicative of the reorientation of school
administration in forward-looking communities. It is not, however, the
common characteristic of American schools that the center of education
lies in the problems of the community in which the school is located. The
idea has been current for years, but it has had to wage battle with the idea
that education is not related to time or place, a notion that has had
acceptance in high places and which in turn has formalized education and
kept it out of harmony with the life of youth in every lowly community
in America. Education will truly come into its own and improve the life of
mankind when its curriculum provides the needed correctives for condi-
tions which prevent men from living co-operatively and securely.
ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMTJOTTY FOR YOUTH
The pubEc school is the one agency in every community which devotes
full time to the advancement of an unselected group of youth of all ages.
u Santa Barbara County, Teachers Guide for the Use of Community Resources, Vol.
III. Santa Barbara, California; Schatter Printing Studios, 1941.
HUNT AND LEONARD 97
Since the responsibility of the educational administrator is to plan and
carry on a program for the maximum benefit and satisfying adjustment
of each pupil, it is logical that this same administrator should take the
initiative in helping the entire community to organize its over-all
program in behalf of youth.
Following the community survey an outline may be made of the serv-
ices that are available. It can likewise be determined as to whether or not
gaps exist and in which areas the offerings are weak or insufficient. Evalu-
ation of existing offerings should likewise be made so that the most ef-
fective program may be developed. By strengthening and enlarging ac-
tivities in areas where such need is indicated and by initiation of new
projects designed to complete the coverage in purposeful manner, the
maximum welfare of each individual will be assured, and complete and
satisfying adjustment both for the individual and the community will be
realized.
In its impartial operation the educational administration can assist
the community in setting up such a program. From its familiarity with
the entire body of youth in question and from its initial store of records
and information concerning its pupil membership, the school is in a posi-
tion to direct the collection of necessary data, to evaluate the operating
programs and to interpret the need for expansion and new development.
Because of its contact with the entire community and the various agencies
operating in behalf of youth, the school can likewise aid materially in the
formation of steering and executive committees to plan and carry out the
necessary projects.
DEVELOPMENT OF CO-ORDINATION
In all areas where more than one service is operating, a co-ordinator
should be provided to supervise the work and to see that each of the
areas is functioning at maximum effectiveness and that none is encroach-
ing upon the responsibility or field of another. In the area of planning in
behalf of youth, for the complete rounding-out of the life of each girl and
boy, many agencies must participate. Their services, although differing
in major interest, may overlap to a marked degree unless there is a
co-ordinating agency operating through a central clearinghouse.
The school may well serve as the clearinghouse, and the educational
administration should assume the responsibility of co-ordinator for the
establishment of a steering committee or advisory group to chart the
course for harmonious agency co-operation in. an effective and non-
overlapping program. With all programs evaluated in terms of other
existing offerings and plans developed for complete coverage of needed
areas, maximum effectiveness in meeting the needs of each individual
may be expected.
98 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
ADMINISTRATIVE PKOBLEMS INVOLVED IN
OPERATING THE PLAN
Guidance and Evaluation
Setting up an all-inclusive nonoverlapping program in behalf of youth
is but a part of the job of administering the community's youth-serving
agencies. There remains the even larger task of interpreting the offerings
to the girls and boys and of developing adequate guidance plans for direct-
ing all the youth into the programs best suited to their needs. Likewise,
there must be developed means of evaluating the services offered in terms
of their effectiveness in the realization of goals for those for whom they
are intended. Full determination of the evaluative process will require an
extended period of time, but careful checking along the way will indicate
the trend and reveal likely success or failure in time to institute appropri-
ate adjustments or major changes in the program.
Participation of youth in the program offered affords an adequate
measure of its effectiveness. Its continuing appeal is evidence of its ability
to meet the constantly changing needs of those whom it serves. Since the
entire program in behalf of youth is designed to provide for the well-
rounded development of personality, competence, and leadership, the
extent to which the offering encourages participation in the planning and
carrying on of activities will determine largely its ultimate success and its
favorable regard by the community and by the particular group it is
serving. Interpretation of the program is gained through such participa-
tion y and guidance of the individual into the activities is accomplished
readily when there has been adequate interpretation. Furthermore, eval-
uation is accomplished as a natural corollary of the democratizing and
interpretative process which is thus established.
A System of Referrals
For the carrying-out of the plan the school must develop a system of
referrals through which youth may become acquainted with and be
served by the agency best suited to the particular needs of the individual,
the one best able to render the most practical and immediate assistance.
The system of referrals, if maintained in the school, may be kept as an
exceedingly simple procedure. A brief personal-interest questionnaire to
the entire student membership will serve to indicate preferences and the
manner in which these are being met. These questionnaires are supple-
mented by information contained in the usual guidance records of the
school. Combined, these records furnish the complete picture educa-
tional, vocational, and avocational of every girl and boy. It then be-
comes an. easy task to determine which offerings will most adequately
HUNT AND LEONARD 99
round out the individual's development and, from such determination,
to initiate a referral to the proper agency. Where no program seems to
meet adequately a particular need, the community council should seek to
develop such an activity either as an extension of a program already in
operation, as a new venture of an existing agency, or by setting up an
agency to accomplish this purpose. In any event, the system of referrals
should lead to the most adequate meeting of the needs of each individual,
seeking his maximum adjustment in all areas. In educational programs,
guidance is providing the assurance of the best type of education to meet
individual needs for greater competence. It assures not only maximum
academic preparation but also direction into the most suitable vocational
field as detennined by aptitudes and interests. The same process can
likewise serve in the area of avocational interests and needs for the fullest
rounding-out of the individual.
There are many illustrations of community councils, the co-ordinating
council idea having been tried for years in American cities. California and
Ohio early assumed leadership in promoting community councils of
various types. Some of these have been large agencies with full-time paid
workers and executives. Others have been loosely organized affairs, with
success depending upon the co-operative interest and spirit of the mem-
bers. It is believed that this kind of council is preferable to the one with
paid officers, except in those metropolitan centers where the job becomes
too exacting for such volunteer leadership. In the majority of communi-
ties in America, however, the councils for community co-ordination and
co-operation can remain closer to the people they serve and enlist more
effective co-operation if they represent the community leaders at work on
the basic community problems without thought of prestige or economic
gains from their activities.
Two illustrations of types of councils may show the thinking in this
area. The first is drawn from Santa Barbara, California, where there is a
strong centralized guidance program in the school system. The other is in
the community of Palo Alto, California, where the youth-serving program
is decentralized but focused in the activities of a community youth
council.
In Santa Barbara, a city of about 40,000 people, there is a highly
trained and efficient director of child guidance in the school system and a
co-ordinator of recreation who serves both the schools and the city recre-
ation department. These people co-operate with every agency affecting
child welfare in the community and plan for the activities of youth borth
in and out of school. Whenever a boy or girl gets into difficulty or needs
special health or welfare service, the worker who comes into contact with
the case will find in the central school office a complete account of the
100 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
activities of the youth in and out of school. If a matter of delinquency is
involved, the guidance director will work with the police, the court, or the
juvenile worker in studying the situation and in helping to recommend
appropriate action for restoration of normal .living habits on the part of
the delinquent youth. No agency acts on cases alone without consultation
with the others which may be concerned. The activities of the workers in
the city and county are discussed in the meetings of the County Council
of Social Agencies, a body of workers in all these fields acting voluntarily
and without paid assistants to conduct the affairs of the council.
In Palo Alto, California, there are four regular youth agencies with
full-time executives Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, YMCA, and YWCA.
Municipal agencies also deal with youth and their problems, chief among
them being the Community Center Commission which operates the
recreational program of the city for both children and adults. Besides a
central group of buildings and playgrounds there are branch centers. The
central group contains large playgrounds, swimming pools, a junior
museum, scout headquarters, children's library, children's playhouse,
adult theater, a kitchen, and dance floors, as well as meeting rooms for
community groups. Many civic, religious, and other private interests are
working with youth also.
A Community Youth Council was organized four years ago and has
developed a vigorous program without any paid executive. Its three
officers are chosen from the council membership. The council is com-
posed of the f our paid executives of the youth agencies ; a representative
of each municipal agency dealing with youth, such as schools, recreation,
health, welfare, police; a representative from any community group
actively concerned with a program for youth, such as the Rotary Club,
the Parent-Teacher Association, the women's clubs; and four youths, two
each from the junior and senior high schools. The council surveys the
total activities of the community, experiments with new activities and
programs until it can turn them to the proper agencies to administer,
stimulates groups to new and improved programs, and keeps the com-
munity infonned of the success of the existing programs and the need for
others.
Whether the councils are sponsored by schools or by all groups in the
community working together is not of great importance. The vital thing
is for leaders to work together and to utilize all their resources so as to
afford youth the opportunity for orderly development and to insure the
community an efficient program of social service.
Other types of planning groups have achieved success in given com-
munities and have grown into co-operative enterprises. In Lexington,
Virginia, the Children's Clinic came into being as a result of startling
HUNT AND LEONARD 101
reports by the Health Department. Initiated by a group of women in the
community, the program now brings together the local hospital which
cares for youth, civic groups which provide funds, the schools which
supply hot lunches, the Girl Scouts who run a nursery, and the welfare
department which provides for increased distribution of milk- Similar
plans have evolved in the Pine Grove Community of Page County,
Virginia, where the work on community health was stimulated by the
Episcopal Church. The extensive program of recreation in Fairfax Coun-
ty, Virginia, had its beginning in 1942 when the children were noted
returning to school with many bad habits they had picked up during the
summer vacation. Some had even been in court. An interested group of
citizens organized a committee consisting of representatives from such
groups as the Parent-Teacher Association, the welfare department,
public and private schools, and the courts. Out of the disturbing situa-
tion grew the Fairfax County Recreation Association, and many agencies
are co-operating in the program.
Other planning groups have developed around other needs. Near
Fredericksburg, Virginia, is the Old Dominion Home Industries Co-
operative which was an established business before the war, but which is
temporarily closed. It grew out of the need for farm folk with skills and
resources on their own lands to produce handicrafts which could be sold
to give them some ready cash. The co-operative is a marketing agency
which collects materials from over the state and sells them to tourists. It
evaluates each article, keeping only the good objects for sale, and thus
stimulates increased quality of production, giving accent to learning as
well as providing a higher standard of living and a recreational and
evening hobby for many farm families. Similar marketing co-operatives
have been established for poultry, milk, aud other products where people
have come together and formed local planning groups, often under the
leadership of the school.
Another interesting rural county council is operating in Estill County,
Kentucky, where a survey to determine the needs of the county was
undertaken under the leadership of the county superintendent of schools.
From the survey, twenty needs were listed as follows: improvement of
health habits; improvement of diet practices, production of more and
varied types of food; better facilities for storing food; improvement of
sanitary conditions; better use of the health department; increased
planting of fruit and nut trees; improvement of educational programs;
improvement of recreational programs; provision for greater cultural
advantages; encouragement of home industries, such as weaving and
quilting; establishment of co-operative marketing; improvement of farm
practices; increased use of the services of the County Agent; prevention
102 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
of soil erosion; conservation of natural resources; provision of better
housing facilities; development of industries; preservation of community
churches; and better use of government agencies.
It would be hard to find a better and more realistic list of the needs of
most small communities in America. It is obvious also that most of these
needs are primarily educational in nature. An advisory council was
formed from which grew the Planning Council of Estill County, which
includes representatives of the schools and other community agencies.
This group set up four objectives: (1) to promote a total educational
program in which adults as well as pupils can have a part; (2) to locate
needs in Estill County and to find ways of meeting these needs; (3) to
secure the participation of all groups in the planning of an educational
program for Estill County; and (4) to provide a co-ordinated educational
program through co-operation of all county agencies.
Two types of planning councils have been described. The one at-
tempts to bring together the workers in all areas of youth activities to
discuss and co-ordinate the activities of the various groups; the other
centralizes the educational, recreational, and other community programs
for youth in the schools with all groups planning together. It might also be
pointed out that two ways of using community resources have been
illustrated: One of these is the type found in Santa Barbara County and
Des Moines, where the community is considered an extension of the
classroom a school laboratory, so to speak; the other is the community-
centered school, where the resources of the school and the community are
pooled and the problems of the community become the curriculum of the
school. In this instance the schools are actually geared to the com-
munity.
Follow-up
Perfection of programs depends in large measure upon the adequacy
of evaluation in the form of careful follow-up to indicate progress and to
determine if readjustment is necessary. Oftentimes, and because of vary-
ing factors and conditions, the original guidance of an individual into
vocational and avocational areas does not lead to a satisfying adjust-
ment. In such instances redirection is essential and, to effect the necessary
development, training must again be instituted. Periodic check-ups on
the individual are, therefore, essential, and a regular program for such
activity must be devised. A semiannual schedule is not too frequent for a
regular all-inclusive review and, in addition, there must be immediate
investigation and action on such individual cases as may come to the fore
because of either irregularity or unusual significance.
The system of follow-up, moreover, must be characterized by follow-
through as well. Where need for readjustment is indicated, it should be
HUNT AND LEONARD 103
attempted without delay; where need for retraining because of unsatis-
factory accomplishment, lack of competence, or loss of interest or where
inability to adjust becomes evident, such retraining must be provided at
once. Every day saved in initiating the steps that will lead to satisfactory
readjustment heightens the effectiveness of the follow-up procedure.
Co-operation for Co-ordination
For complete co-ordination of activity, full co-operation among all
agencies must be developed. The adjustment of programs is developed
through the activity of the co-ordinating council, but only through wide-
spread interpretation of what is being done is the fullest co-operation
assured. The co-ordinating council itself is an interpretative medium
because of its pooling and evaluating of ideas and its suggestion of plans
and activities. Council representation, covering the entire area, should
serve as an incentive to full and complete co-operation for the further-
ance of the democratic aims implied by the council organization.
The operation of the council serves to strengthen the identity of each
of the participating groups. Through the deliberations of the council the
function of each agency is defined; it is in following council objectives
that this function remains unique and individual. Carried on together, the
functions of the different agencies contribute to the development of the
whole program and serve in the complete rounding-out of the offering to
the community. Operating in its individual sphere each agency will
endeavor to make its program as far-reaching as possible. The inter-
change of ideas afforded through council participation assists the agen-
cies materially in the development of their own plans, and the interaction
of the various participatory activities results in a dynamic community
program.
Co-ordination of Local, State, and Federal Agencies
Establishing the co-ordinating council for a local area is but a begin-
ning in this field. In addition to its activities in co-ordinating existing
local activities and planning for additional service as needs become ap-
parent, the local council must likewise co-ordinate its program with the
activities and offerings of state and national councils, committees, com-
missions, and institutions. The alert community council will study and
evaluate the implications of the programs of these area organizations in
order that the opportunities and advantages offered by them may be
made to serve the local effort. Since state and national councils and com-
missions are usually set up to afford an equalization of opportunity
throughout the state or nation, participation of these agencies should be
accepted to the full extent of local need not otherwise served.
By virtue of its organization and over-all responsibility, the eo-
104 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
ordinating council is in a position to determine the extent to which state
and federal participation should be sought or accepted. At the same
time, operating relationships should be set up through the local council
for the co-ordination of offerings on all regional levels. Where local offices
of state and national agencies are established, these should be given rep-
resentation on the community council to assure co-ordination as well
as maximum participation. In this way inclusion of state and national
services is accomplished as simply as would be the addition of another
local agency which the council had proposed for the handling of a speci-
fied program. Participation stimulates co-operation at any level.
Where local representation of state and federal agencies is not afforded,
however, the co-ordinating council must, through contact with field
workers and the area offices, secure the information necessary to integrate
the offering into council activities and see that the maximum benefit of
the program accrues to the youth of the community. Likewise there must
be assurance that the state or federal program does not merely duplicate
a local effort. Where such becomes evident, the council should attempt
to redirect the governmental program as it affects the local situation or,
if this is not possible, the local duplication should be abandoned or the
effort guided toward another need.
The function of the co-ordinating council in developing harmonious and
effective operating relationships among local, state, and federal agencies
is a most important and significant one. In assuring the successful co-
ordination of all efforts and the participation of all known agencies, the
council fulfils its purpose and responsibility.
Interpretation of Programs and Policies
The co-ordinating council by its very nature is an interpretative me-
dium. Participation of representatives of all youth-serving groups
governmental, public, and private effects an interchange of thought and
an interaction of programs which serve to keep the council membership
informed of the plans of the co-operating agencies. For the general
public, however, systematic interpretation is necessary so that all may be
aware of what is being done by the council and by the individual agencies
and of how youth needs are being met.
The council in determining policies must see that interpretation is
provided as a means of acquainting the community with large-scale
objectives and broad aims. The school administrator, in his relations with
both the council and individual community groups, is in a position to
interpret the a-ima and objectives to a large part of the community. The
participating pupils can likewise interpret the various offerings to their
families.
HUNT AND LEONARD 105
Interpretation of objectives and aims permits, at the same time, at-
tention to unmet needs and ways of satisfying them. Following interpre-
tation, the council or any of its participants, individually or through
their agencies, can advocate programs of action for the community at
large or for any of the agencies. If the community is properly informed,
response is usually ready and the desired procedures may be promptly
initiated.
In interpreting the program to the community, however, every effort
must be made to focus attention on large-scale objectives lest interest be
absorbed in the numerous specialized and individual efforts. Through
community understanding of the broad aims of the program, the green
light will always be turned on to permit movement of the procession
toward the realization of the large over-all purpose.
Descriptions have been given of co-operating councils dealing with the
problems of children and youth, and illustrations have been supplied
showing how small rural communities and counties have banded together
to improve the total life of the community. Point has also been made of
the need for the representation of all community agencies on such
councils.
Another phase of this problem might be mentioned. In many com-
munities there are established large over-all community planning com-
missions which deal with the economic and political Hf e and plan for the
physical improvement and the industrial and business development of
the community. Many of these councils are under the mayor, the city
council, the chamber of commerce, the city engineer, or the executive
officer of the city planning council. Sometimes the chief school officer in
the community is included in the membership of such organizations,
while in other instances the school is not much concerned with the over-
all planning of the city life.
One of the best illustrations of a major job of over-all city planning can
be found in San Diego County, California, which gave attention to the
problem of what San Diego would be like after the war and what needs
it would then have. Under the direction of a committee appointed by the
chamber of commerce, a group of business and civic leaders, including
the superintendent of schools, spent three years in planning for the
postwar city of San Diego. The planning started with a survey of what
the 75,000 workers in the war plants and the workers in the Navy yards
would do after the war. From a survey of these conditions there grew.up
a program of recreation, business and industry, city building and zoning,
parks, roads, school building and curriculum planning for children and
adults, and the study of other phases of community life. The schools were
constantly kept before the community as the central agency for stimu-
106 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
lating public participation in community improvement, for educating the
workers for new jobs, for increasing familiarity among the workers who
had been drawn from other states with the ways of living in California,
and for cultural pursuits. Attention was also given to the needs for school
construction along with other community building programs. The school
became an active participant in the planning for improved living in San
Diego after the war.
One of the most helpful manuals for over-all community planning
came from the Department of Regional Studies of the Tennessee Valley
Authority, which has constantly given attention to community planning
in the area of the Authority and to keeping the people working together
on their own problems. While the manual is prepared to "stimulate an
understanding of the possibilities for southern community development
in the schools and among the citizens of the Tennessee Valley and the
Southeast/' it has equal value for the people of other communities and for
schools everywhere. 12
An example of community participation in educational planning on a
state-wide basis is provided by a recent co-operative movement in New
York. In the spring of 1944, the State Education Department published a
manual entitled Problems Confronting Boards of Education with subtitle,
A Manual for Community Participation in Educational Planning. This
project was launched with the active support of the New York State
Council of School Superintendents, the New York State School Boards
Association, and the New York State Association of District Superin-
tendents of Schools.
The publication was designed to encourage local school authorities to
enlist the co-operation of leading citizens and local groups in planning for
education after the war.
In designing the manual the Committee attempted to outline pro-
cedures that could be used by local school authorities in any community,
regardless of size, rural or urban. The plan of procedure consists of four
main steps, as follows:
1. What will the community (city, village, or school district) be like by 1950?
2. For this kind of community, what kind of education is needed and for whom?
3. In terms of the kind of education we want, what are the outstanding deficien-
cies in the present program?
4. How can the community move from where it is to where it wants to be?
The procedure called for the appointment by the Board of three sub-
committees. Committee One studied and reported on community factors
12 F. Stuart Chapin, Jr., Communities for Living. Athens, Georgia: University of
Georgia Press, 1941.
HUNT AND LEONARD 107
that would affect educational need; Committee Two concerned itself
with the kinds of education which would be needed in the community;
and Committee Three reported on the changes needed to achieve the
goals set by the second committee. With the reports of the three com-
mittees the board of education rendered the report on Question 4.
Boards of education report enthusiastic and willing response of citizens
invited to take part in these studies. In some communities, committees
have worked for a full year, not infrequently reporting ten, twenty, or
thirty sessions ranging from one to three hours each. Many of the com-
mittees have invited varied groups of people to participate in their dis-
cussions. The net result in the communities that have participated in the
study appears to be a general educational awakening, a better under-
standing of the problems that will confront the schools in the years ahead,
and the building-up of a public opinion that will support the board of
education in developing an educational program suited to the needs of
the community.
Operating Relationships
Operating relationships among the various agencies must be set up in
such a way as to permit co-operation through independent, nonrestric-
tive activity. Through participation in the council and from awareness of
programs and activities gained through such participation, the frame-
work is laid for the development of these desired operating relationships.
The central index of functions and services clears the way for unrestricted
activity in a designated area, avoiding interference in programs of other
agencies or duplication of effort.
In the development of these desirable operating relationships among
the agencies the central council can exert an important influence. In its
advisory capacity it is in a position to chart programs designed to reach
every area and serve every known need. In following up the findings of
the community survey it is able to indicate areas ,needing ^attention and
to suggest suitable programs.
Likewise, contemplated development of a new program or extension of
an existing activity on the part of any agency should be cleared through
the council before the enterprise actually gets under way. This clearance of
activity, through participation in the central organization, will result in
effective and desirable operating relationships.
Frequent meetings on a regular schedule of the advisory group will
afford opportunities for presentation of projected plans, as well as for re-
ports on functioning activity. Free discussion of these plans and activi-
ties not only provides the necessary clearance, but at the same time
yields helpful suggestions for carrying out the proposed program. At all
108 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
times, however, participation, co-operation, and interpretation are
essential to desirable operating relationships.
Training of Staff
In all service activity, successful functioning is dependent on the scope
and purpose of the program and on the effectiveness of the staff carrying
out the objectives. Training of the staff is, therefore, essential in order
that the over-all program may be developed in accordance with the major
objectives. Individual agencies must assume responsibility for the selec-
tion and direction of capable workers. For increased accomplishment and
greater efficiency, however, the central organization can be of much
assistance.
Assistance to staff members is, of course, rendered through the in-
terpretative activity of the council itself. Tangible and effective help may
be provided, however, through the scheduling of conferences, meetings,
workshops, and institutes at which specific guidance is given through
lectures by recognized authorities, or by means of discussions and pro-
grams directed by these leaders, but in which opportunity for wide
participation is afforded. Institutes and meetings of this kind furnish
information on how other communities are meeting similar problems,
thus providing both inspiration and concrete assistance in terras of suc-
cessful practice. In-service training of staffs is an important responsi-
bility of the central organization, the effective administration of which
contributes measurably to the successful operation of the program.
Standards for Determination of Effectiveness
It is likewise the responsibility of the central organization to establish
appropriate standards by which the effectiveness of any program may
be evaluated. Standards such as the number of referrals, the effectiveness
of the adjustments resulting from the operation of the program, and the
competence of the individuals reached by the program may be estab-
lished on the basis of actual and possible activity in the individual com-
munity. Minimum standards should be determined, however, and so
interpreted that they will serve as evaluation media. Satisfaction of
minimum standards may then be recognized as the qualifying require-
ment for enlargement or extension of agency activities. These standards
can be determined on the basis of the area to be served and the potential
youth group involved.
Supervisory Service
For the successful operation of any co-operative or co-ordinated pro-
gram there must be a system of supervisory service for the evaluation of
HUNT AND LEONARD 109
offerings and for the continued relating of activities to the over-all ob-
jectives. Operating as a part of the central organization, supervisory
workers will promote these essential objectives.
The central organization itself is primarily an advisory and policy-
forming body. For the determination of the extent of realization of ob-
jectives and the effective functioning of theindividual agencies there must
be some system of supervision. The success of the supervisory system
may well be the means of evaluation of the central organization itself.
A supervisory system so established will not only serve the evaluative
purpose already indicated, but will also be helpful in the area of in-
service training for the agency workers. Thesupervisor notonly assists the
worker in carrying on his program but also is helpful in pointing out, for
all-time recognition on the part of the worker, the over-all community
objectives and the ways of accomplishing them through co-operative en-
deavor.
The organization of the administration for a community youth-
service program does not differ from recognized organizational standards
for other educational programs. Such a program is but an extension of
service and an integration of all activity in behalf of youth. Leadership
of the school administration in this activity establishes the school organi-
zation in its rightful place as the heart of the community. Participation
in community planning serves to enlarge the scope of influence of the
school administration by adding to its already functioning organization
the extensions which afford maximum opportunity for growth and ad-
justment of every individual. The supervisory organization of the school
may well determine the pattern for the promotion of effectiveness of all
other services.
In planning for new school construction the larger sphere of influence
must be taken into account and the building should be designed with the
view of providing facilities for community activity. In so doing the school
administration participates whole-heartedly in the planning and in the
life of the community.
THE TEACHERS AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Teachers have not been trained to engage effectively in community
planning or even in many extensions of the services of the school into the
community. They know too little about the operation of community
affairs and frequently know too little about the community and its re-
sources to utilize them as tools of instruction. Too much emphasis has
been placed on the use of resources in the community only after the
regular materials of instruction have been taught, thus leaving the
110 COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
teacher little time for the very important but more difficult task of draw-
ing upon community resources for the enrichment of the learning ex-
periences of the pupils. A new orientation is needed in teacher-training
institutions and in the preparation of instructional materials. More time
must be spent on such problems as understanding community life and
using the resources of daily living to develop the abilities of boys and
girls.
In general, teachers have not been accustomed to taking part in many
community affairs. Many communities still do not expect such activity on
the part of their teachers, nor do they even desire it. A recent study of
the community of Red Wing, Minnesota, bears out this fact. When rep-
resentative adults were asked in what community affairs they thought
their teachers should engage, the parents replied with two suggestions,
church and youth activities; others in sizable numbers suggested civic
affairs of clubs; only a few (16 per cent) thought local or federal politics
was suitable; and a still smaller proportion (13 per cent) mentioned state
politics. 13 In other words, teachers are not generally expected to identify
themselves with the forces which control local, state, and national life.
They are not to participate actively in seeing that the proper people are
elected. They are to serve the community in which they teach lead
youth organizations, teach Sunday school classes, and speak to civic
clubs and serve on their committees, but they are not to be concerned
with the really stirring issuesof democracy. Little wonder that our schools
are sterile of the issues and the vitalizing forces of modern life! Until
communities come to realize that such attitudes are unintelligent, they
can expect neither vital teachers nor vital social learning.
The first and foremost responsibility of schools in a democracy is that
of developing social competence to act speedily and intelligently to
improve living in a democratic society. Community participation on the
part of both teachers and pupils is essential. The materials of instruction
are the problems of living; the process is the scientific method of analysis
and the co-operative method of arriving at group decisions. The
school is a vital factor in both of these, and when the school really comes
into its own it will be found to be a community laboratory with its
teachers a compelling force in community growth.
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS AND STAFF OFFICERS
Community problems are becoming so complicated that more extensive
training and experience in planning and carrying out major projects is
13 Nelson L. Bossing and Leo J. Brueckner, The Impact of the War on the Schools of
Red Wing. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1945.
HUNT AND LEONARD 111
necessary for school administrators. According to the concept developed
here, the chief school officer in the community is a master co-ordinator of
community activities affecting the education, recreation, and welfare of
children and youth. In addition, he must be able to take his proper place
with other community leaders to plan for the physical, the economic, and
the political improvement of the community. This means more training
than school administrators generally have secured and it means a dif-
ferent kind of training. The administrator must know more about com-
munity agencies and their work; he must acquire knowledge beyond the
areas of school buildings, school finance, personnel, and curriculum. He
need not be a specialist in all of the fields he administers, but he must
have a vision beyond any one field and he must possess the ability to
blend into a total pattern each area of activity which relates to the edu-
cation of the pupil. Each agency or activity worker with whom he
associates needs to have a feeling of security and understanding and to
recognize in the administrator a champion of all major interests. The
training of such administrators opens a new field of leadership training
for the universities.
The administrator needs also to surround himself with a competent
staff of specialists to assist him. All specialists need to possess a common
understanding of the totaJ needs of the community and of the existing
relations among the co-operating agencies and workers. They need to
have a point of view which goes far beyond their immediate specialty,
for without this they may become tyrants and break down entirely the
co-operative nature of all projects attempted. These specialists should
also be chosen for their ability to get their satisfactions from the success
of the total projects in the community; they should be well balanced
personally and be able to work without having to be constantly drawing
credit to themselves; and they should, of course, be highly competent in
their several special fields.
The size of the staff varies with the size of the community. In small
communities, it is better to secure one or two really competent people,
and then depend upon volunteer workers, than to secure a larger staff
of poorly trained or incapable people. Usually inferior capability and in-
security go together, and those are frequently followed by personnel con-
flicts over prestige. In communities of 50,000 or more population there
should be several competent workers. The following chart iUustrates a
sample pattern which can be enlarged along the same lines as the volume
of the work increases owing to the size of the community.
112
COMMUNITY CO-ORDINATION
Superintendent of Community Affairs
(Education, Recreation, Welfare, Correction)
Director of
Child Guidance
Staff made up of:
a) physician
ft) psychologist
c) counselors
d) juvenile workers
e) psychiatric social
worker
/) nurse
Director of
Recreation
Recreational and
health leaders
in department
and commu-
nity
Director of
School Curriculum
Supervisors
Principals
Teachers
Director of
Welfare
Staff made up
of visiting
teachers and
social work-
ers in com-
munity
The four directors listed should work with all special agency repre-
sentatives in the community. For instance, the director of child guidance
would work with the schools, the police department, the courts, and the
parents; the director of recreation would work with schools, city recre-
ation commission, and agencies operating recreational programs. The
same would be true of the other directors, each one endeavoring to se-
cure co-ordination of programs.
The directors should also work closely together on the interrelation-
ships of their problems. Many problems of behavior arise from a poorly
planned curriculum, or from poor home conditions or poor health.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter an attempt has been made to show the need for com-
munity co-ordination, the areas in which co-operation can best proceed,
the responsibilities and organization for co-operative planning. Illustra-
tions have been given of various kinds of community planning. If school
administrators can see the need for improved community service, with
the initiative taken by the school in many instances, the school can be-
come a far more significant institution in improving daily living. As it
does this it will be more vital and indispensable to those whom it serves.
CHAPTER VI
THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION 1
ALFRED DEXTER SIMPSON
Associate Professor of Education
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
Expanding educational needs, the stubborn facts of cost, and the
myriad difficulties involved in adequate support are fundamental to the
complex problem of financing education. Educational need derives from
the population and from the conditions of the society which it comprises.
Every element of need every element of educational policy carries
with it a presumption of cost, or, in other words, casts its cost shadow,
But cost, just as surely, presupposes support. The financing of education
thus becomes a very complex thing and constitutes a serious problem area
in education the more serious, indeed, as the whole fabric of social, eco-
nomic, and political conditions looms larger and itself becomes more
complex.
This very complexity of the financing of educational need forces us
into a certain selectivity in the development of a single chapter dealing
with this special field of educational administration. There is very little
room afforded for going into historical and philosophical aspects of
finance. We can hardly afford to review even the landmarks of the rich
contributions of research and practice in this area since the turn of the
century. We cannot take time to establish the real place of educational
finance in the field of the social sciences, nor even to trace its descendance
1 This chapter is the result of a co-operative undertaking on the part of a group of
advanced graduate students of administration at the Harvard Graduate School of
Education. While the one indicated as author has been the leader of the participatory
group, a major part of whatever value the chapter possesses is due to the contribu-
tions of the group of participants, consisting of; Mr. Car! M. Bair, Jr., Principal of
Littleton (Massachusetts) Hi$i School; Mr. James R. Foulger, High-School Teacher,
Ogden, Utah; Mr. John K. Moulton, Research Assistant in Educational Administra-
tion, Harvard Graduate School of Education; and Mr. Cyril G. Sargent, Teacher,
Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts.
113
114 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
from education and political economy. The exigencies of time and space
forbid the full coverage of the subject matter of the specific field itself.
Selectivity of treatment must be our primary consideration. This is the
way of yearbooks; and it is not bad withal, because it makes us adhere
to timeliness and to relative values.
What, then, shall be the scheme of this chapter? For better or for
worse let it be this:
First, to define the currently fundamental problems in the financing of
education as those of central aids and intergovernmental relations; and
within that frame to consider some of the problem aspects of federal-
state-local fiscal relations, with special emphasis on the great need of
federal support for education.
Second, to consider the financing of that great area of educational ex-
pansion which is now with us in the form of extended educational oppor-
tunity for older youth and adults.
Third, to consider the financing of the most strategic and expensive
functional segment of the educational system, namely, the personnel of
the public schools.
A few words may be important at the outset concerning the basis of
our selection of these clusters in the problem of educational finance. 2
Federal-State-Local Fiscal Relations. If the cumulative experience of
the past quarter-century or more has any one thing to teach us about the
financing of education, the lesson lies most clearly in the area of the in-
adequacy, inequity, and yet the necessity of the local tax base. Over a
hundred years ago we began to learn to avoid complete reliance on the
local property tax, but even now we lag as states in putting into practice
what experience and research have to teach us about the why or the how
of turning to the broader fiscal auspices of the state or nation. This hesi-
tance is likely due to our general devotion as a people to the democratic
way, and to our general fear of centralization and controls. With respect
to the latter, It is probable that our fears axe due to our lag in developing
understanding of them and effective means of handling both centraliza-
tion and controls. The whole difficulty is compounded by the expanding
concept of the service role of government, the need of education, and the
complexity of the educative process. Hence, when the traditional local
support is seen to be inadequate, we turn to the larger units, but at the
same time we feel certain that there is a true role for each of the govern-
* If we were to add a fourth cluster it would undoubtedly be on. plant financing.
Aside from the capital outlay features of this topic, and they are most clearly matters
of school business administration, plant financing is bound increasingly to depend up-
on federal and state aid, which will be dealt with as a general area herein.
SIMPSON 115
mental levels. In short, we are in the very midst of our problem of federal-
state-local relations.
It is only necessary to call attention to the fact that the research in
educational finance of the past quarter-century has been predominantly
in the fields of state and federal aid, to bring home the essential depend-
ency of our financing problem upon the broader problem of federal-state-
local relations and its counterpart, the relations of education and general
government. If it were not for the complexities of our relationship prob-
lem, founded as it is upon our sure belief in a true educational role for
each governmental level, the aid problem, as such, would be erased, leav-
ing us to be concerned exclusively with the budgetary aspects of finance.
This is not to say that we should make the erasure here predicted, but its
noting may assist in clarifying the relationship view of educational
finance.
The Financing of Extended Education to Older Youth and Adults. The
reason for the selection of this problem cluster for special consideration
must be rather clearly apparent. The whole force of external conditions
impacting upon education after World War I, during the depression,
and in future view during and after World War II has been to open up
the necessity of extending the scope of educational opportunity both
downward and upward. The extension downward is into the earlier years
of childhood, an area much neglected. But we are here particularly con-
cerned with the extension upward for increasingly large groups into the
years beyond the present high school, and then of broadening out this
opportunity for the adult population. The movement is clearly here. It
raises serious problems, not the least of which lie in the special field of
finance. In financing this extended education we are challenged both by
the very fact of our already inadequate support of the lower existing
schools and by the at least partial inapplicability of our present aid
techniques to the particular financial problems here considered.
The Financing of the Editcationd Personnel Here is no new problem
cluster in the field of finance. It has been an age-long concern and struggle
both to know how best to arrange salary policy and to secure the neces-
sary financial support. But the very fact that personal service is by far
the most significant cost element in financing education makes the inclu-
sion of this area a "must" in this chapter. The combination of salary level
and pupil-teacher ratio is the real determinant of the cost of schools at
any level. Hence policies in this area require constant research and de-
velopment. In our research at this point we seem to be on very much of a
pkteau. Our problem is alao compounded by a host of external condi-
tions which raise issues that need to be resolved.
116 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
The Significance of "External Conditions"
To a considerable extent education has kept its concern within its walls
and its thinking based upon the conditions within the function. Its con-
cern has been real and serious and the approach to its problems has been
commendable, but it may be fair to say that we have been too inatten-
tive to those great clusters of external conditions of a social, economic,
and political nature, and to their detailed elements which have their con-
tinuous impact upon our function. The factors conditioning the work of
schools are both internal and external. It is not to criticize ourselves
unduly that we call attention to the need of looking out upon these ex-
ternal conditions inventorying and analyzing them as we approach
problem areas in education but it is that we may take the broader and
perhaps the more realistic view of educational need and of ways of meet-
ing it. It may even be ventured that education's greatest neglect as a
professional field has been the failure to recognize and to study and
analyze its external conditions. We shall not go into these extensively,
but in each of the following sections some of these external conditions will
be enumerated as they bear upon the problem of financing education.
The Nature of Educational Finance
But what, let us first ask, is the field of educational finance and what
are its various relations? The more one works in the field and studies it in
its practical setting, the more distracted he becomes in the ramifications
of his experiences and the reflections they stimulate. But one thing is
certain. The field is as broad as all education; for, what element of the
educational program does not, as has been said, cast its financial shadow?
This is to say that the financing of education cannot be separated from
the whole of education, "Public finance 7 ' may be regarded as a special
field; and against too much of this view one in educational finance has to
be on guard. The pressure from without is upon him also to regard him-
self as the "watchdog of the treasmy." But this is not his role. Educa-
tional finance is education; this is not to be lost sight of, but, being re-
membered, must be held also to involve the principles, the content, and
the method that public finance in its true sense and range involves. Above
all, finance is means, not end. Its function is facilitating.
Furthermore, educational finance is not inclusive of school business
administration, however much the two fields may be related or together
treated, or, in fact, confused. The financing of education is concerned
with the support of education and the basis of support, as distinct from
the processes of business management. However questionable the term
"funding the educational program" may be, it describes well the major
SIMPSON 117
concern in educational finance, because it indicates that first there is the
program whose financing is the task. Educational finance, therefore, is
concerned with revenue, with the state and future of the economy, with
the fiscal auspices, with taxation, with cost, with the relationships
among supporting levels, with fiscal aids from central government, and
the like. Budgeting in its long-term planning aspect lies in finance, not in
business management. Thus regarded, a case may be made for the budget-
ary process as being broad enough, when properly conceived, to embrace
or to be coterminous with the whole administrative process. 3
In essence, with whatever the general educational administrator is
concerned, with each such element there is the financial aspect. One may
properly divide educational administration into some ten to twelve sub-
divisions of the field, broadly classified. But immediately he has to cau-
tion that these classes are not mutually exclusive," they overlap and are
interrelated. "The financing of education" is one of them; "intergovern-
mental relations" is another; hence, it is certainly as proper to choose to
approach the former as the latter.
Educational finance has its roots in several branches of the social sci-
ences, although its lineal descent is most directly from education. Its
basic disciplines are economics, political science, public law, and public
finance, including taxation. Included among its ancillary disciplines would
certainly be statistics.
The financing of education also has its principles. No one should think
that they have reached the stage of "laws." They are more in the nature
of guides or "requisites," grown thus far out of experience. Among these
are the following: (1) Adequacy which holds that any element of the
educational program requires an ascertainably adequate or appropriate
financial support attached thereto, lest it be destined to failure or, at
best, limited success; 4 (2) equity, within which is embraced the equaliza-
tion of educational opportunity, classically defined a quarter-century
ago by Strayer and Haig; 5 (3) adaptability, which is to "liberty" as equity
is to "equality," and requires of financing, within any administrative
unit, the leeway which gives the fiscal margin essential for adaptation
3 See Alfred D. Simpson, "The Budgetary Process as an Instrument for the Reali-
zation of Home Rule," Harvard Educational Review, XI (May, 1941), 33^-46.
4 See Schools in SmaU Communities* Twelfth Yearbook of the American Association
of School Administrators. Washington: American Association of School Administra-
tors, National Education Association, 1939.
5 George D. Strayer ai*d Robert Murray Haig, The Financing of Education in the
State ofNeu> York, p. 174. Educational Finance Inquiry, Vol. I. New York: Maemillan
Co., 1923.
118 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
to changed conditions; 6 and (4) prudence, which is prone to be mistaken
by many for parsimony, but which means "good stewardship 7 ' and "ad-
rninistrability," and is thus the connecting link, in principle, between
finance and business administration. 7
Thus, it will be seen that the financing of education is no dry-as-dust
field; it has dynamics; it has a soul. It is complex and it is a broad field,
changing in emphasis and need as the times and their conditions change,
but anchored in its line of progression to education and to educational
need. So orientated, let us proceed with our problem clusters in the field
of finance which we left for the purpose of this thumbnail sketch.
FEDERAL-STATE-LOCAL FISCAL RELATIONS
(With Special View toward the Federal Level)
Any discussion of the financing of education takes on a complexity,
but at the same time an intriguing interest, as the problems and issues are
indicated. At the same time, the seriousness of these can be easily seen
if one but considers the inequalities which exist among the various states.
These inequalities may be expressed in terms of educational opportuni-
ties, educational leadership and personnel, the extent and range of state
and local fiscal capacity, taxing programs, state financial aid to local sub-
divisions, and the like. While the estimated annual cost of education in
the postwar era has been set at such figures as $4,592,700,000 and
$6,100,000,000 (twice or thrice the amount of current expenses for pub-
lic schools in 193&-40) 8 these figures do not represent an undue increase, if
the national income stabilizes at something like twice the prewar high.
These estimates, at any rate, are not too large for a nation that has con-
fidence in democracy and that has the hope and desire to continue in
leadership among the nations. Nor need they become serious burdens for
a nation that puts real faith in educational growth as basic to national
vigor, even though the national income does not stabilize at hoped-for
high levels. They do become serious if national policy draws into an
ultraconservative shell. And they do veiy obviously become serious
unless we somehow succeed in coping with such disproportionate ratios
as those of 1 to 60 in educational expenditures of the different states,
* See Paul R. Mort and Francis G. Cornell, Adaptability of Public School Systems.
New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938.
7 For a discussion of this and other principles, see Paul R. Mort and Walter C.
Reusser, Puttie School Finance, pp. 95-113. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1941 ;
and Schools in Small Communities, op. ctt., pp. 348-52.
* Proposals for PiMic Education in Postwar America. Research Bulletin of the Na-
tional Education Association, Vol. XXII, No. 2. Washington: Research Division of
the National Education Association, 1944.
SIMPSON 119
which have been forcefully and recently called to our attention by Norton
and Lawler. 9
While a range of from 100 a classroom unit to one of more than $6,000
(1939-40) has been endurable in the past laughed off, as it were in the
name of freedom or rough-and-ready statehood, it cannot for long be
justified in a land of "equal opportunity." Although it is often argued
that some of those pupils in the low-expenditure schools may be getting
an educational experience equal to or superior to those in the higher
brackets, the Educational Conference Board of New York State has
found "more unusually good educational practices in schools where the
most money is spent per pupil per year." 10
To point up our problem more forcefully, one might take the following
statement:
For millions of children the opportunity for anything more than a modicum of
meager, formal education is conditioned largely by place of birth. In communities
where fertility is too low for family replacement, where the burden of child care
and education is light, where economic resources are more abundant, and where
the cultural-intellectual status of parents is high, we support education liberally.
In communities where the birth rate is high and the economically productive
age group is carrying a disproportionately heavy child population, where the
plane of living is low, where the cultural heritage is the poorest, and where the
home has the least to contribute to cultural and intellectual growth, we support
education niggardly. These conditions constitute a challenge to American demo-
cratic ideals. If, for a long period of years, we draw each succeeding generation in
disproportionately large numbers from those areas in which economic conditions
are poorest and the cultural-intellectual level the lowest, if the population re-
serves of the nation are to be recruited from a definitely underprivileged class,
and if we fail to make good the deficit by conscious educative endeavor, the effect
on our culture and on our representative political institutions may be appalling.
Education can be made a force to equalize the condition of men; it is no less
true that it can be made a force to create class, race, and sectional distinctions.
If formal educational attainments condition entrance to some economic and social
spheres, and if great opportunities for educational advance are open to some
groups while the educational facilities for others remain meager, it is obvious that
education becomes an instrument of social stratification and of regional and racial
inequality. If in some settings education becomes a vital, stimulating, intellectual
process, while in other situations it remains formal and disassociated from daily
life, the schools may function as a mechanism of social differentiation. The evi-
9 John K. Norton and Eugene S. Lawler, "An Inventory of Public School Expendi-
tures in the United States." Washington: American Council on Education, 1944
(mimeographed).
10 Education A Mighty Force! Washington 6: National Education Association. See
also What Education Our Money Buys. Albany, New York: Educational Conference
Board of New York State (152 Washington Avenue), 1943.
120 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
dence indicates clearly that continuance of present practices creates grave danger
that our schools, which we have heretofore regarded the bulwark of democracy,
may in fact become an instrument for creating those very inequalities they were
designed to prevent. 11
Many attempts have been made to develop formulas which would
adequately answer the problems. State after state has made attempts.
Yet, with each attempt, certain limitations have been accepted for prac-
tical purposes so that even the best of programs are compromises.
Some years ago the Research Division of the National Education As-
sociation published a valuable bulletin in an endeavor to determine the
efforts of the states to support education, with particular emphasis on
"adequacy" and "ability." 12 The conclusions are significant; they should
"give us pause" that the picture is unchanged for the better in ten years
in America:
1. In general, rich states provide more adequate support for their schools and
with less effort,
2. There is considerable range in the relative efforts of the states to support edu-
cation.
3. There is a wide range among the states in the relative adequacy of the financial
support accorded education.
4. There is no significant relationship between the two factors, "effort" and
"adequacy."
5. There is a significant, but low, negative relationship between the two factors,
"effort" and "ability," except in 1930 when, on the basis of Newcomer's data,
there was a fairly high negative correlation of .77
6. There is a rather high positive relationship between the two factors, "ability"
and "adequacy."
7. Many states could not provide a national defensible nrnnmntm program of
financial support, even with great effort.
These facts alone would indicate that even a state-supported financial
program, commensurate with abilities, as important as improvement in
this direction is, would not provide a solution in all of our states.
Grouping the ten highest states and the ten lowest in financial support
of education led Norton and Lawler to these significant conclusions:
Some states are rich in wealth, poor in children, generous in expenditures, low
in financial effort to provide these generous expenditures, and fortunate in their
educational results.
11 Newton Edwards, Equal Educational Opportunity for Youth, pp. 150-52. A Re-
port to the American Youth Commteiion, Washington: American Council on Educa-
tion, 1939.
M TAs Effort* of States To Support Education. Research Biilletin of the National
Education Association, Vol. XIV, No. 3. Washington: Research Division of the Na-
,tional Education Association, 1936.
SIMPSON 121
Other states which are rich in numbers of children, but poor in ability to pay
for their education, provide only a meager expenditure for their schools and get
inferior educational results, on tax rates which are high as compared with the
country as a whole. 13
The Need and Outlook for State Support
Obviously, the extension of state aid in the financing of education may
be expected, even though the history of the movement indicates that this
will come slowly and haltingly. The expansion of present efforts and the
correction of the present deficiencies seem certain to involve the develop-
ment of higher minimum standards and requirements. The process will
involve, first and foremost, the assurance of equitably distributed educa-
tional opportunity through the establishment of adequate state founda-
tion programs. It will require a more effective governmental structure of
education, including school-district reorganization, at the state and local
levels; longer school years; higher teacher standards; better salary laws,
schedules, and levels; better plant facilities; and, above all, great ad-
ministrative stature and developed skill in democratic leadership. These
and other things will have to be provided if state and local initiative are
not to degenerate into the mere right to lag behind need.
According to a chart in a recent issue of the Journal of the National
Education Association, 1 * state financial support of education varies within
the United States all the way from 1.4 per cent of the total school revenue
in one state to 92 per cent of the total in another. Eleven state govern-
ments provide more than half, and twenty-one states less than a fourth,
of their total school funds.
The state support situation and the outlook for it, based on the facts, is
very discouraging. States have the clear responsibility for educational
support under our constitutional structure. They just haven't lived up to
it. These low-level, state-aid states the 2 per cent to 10 per cent states
take a seeming pride in their almost complete dependence upon the local
autonomy, unmindful of the meagerness of the educational program
which this necessitates for many boys and girls. Other state, which have
moved to higher levels, often fail miserably in the methods of distribu-
tion, unmindful of, or failing to heed, the fundamental principle of equal-
ization of educational opportunity. After more than a quarter-century of
research and experience with modern state-aid patterns and techniques,
far too many of these federal states of ours lag either in level or in equi-
table distribution. They fiddle, while Rome burns.
There are valiant movements in the form of state studies. Practically
13 John K. Norton and E. S. Lawter, op. dt., p. 316.
" Journal of the National Education Association, XXXII (March, 1943),
122 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
every state in the Union has been competently surveyed and practical
programs have been developed, too often only to fail of enactment. Paul
Mort has done this job in state after state, and others, including the
writer, have done their part in several commonwealths. Forward-look-
ing, realistic, local educational leaders have led valiantly; their lagging
brothers have complacently looked on, some of them from the fiscally
favored local units wherein chance concentration of property values
makes possible the relatively stronger and more adaptable school systems.
And the people they do not seem to be disturbed they do not seem
to know. They and their legislative representatives some, but of course
not all seem unaware of what is happening to the local economy, es-
pecially in our large cities. Take Boston, for example: (a) Property-tax
reliance very high nearly 80 per cent of total municipal requirements in
1943, and rising higher for schools alone; (b) property-tax base inflated
from 4 per cent on up, depending upon sources; (c) property-tax rate very
high many say a capital levy $41 per thousand in 1943 and higher
now; (d) receding population. 15 What does one make of the local economy?
In the midst of all this precarious and fading local economy the Com-
monwealth's aid for schools amounts by most generous computation to
only 9 per cent of the total current cost of education. But the legislature
failed in 1945 to pass a survey bill proposed by the Finance Commission
of the City of Boston (a state agency, sponsoring the survey) which called
for a commission study of state-local fiscal relationships in Massa-
chusetts, with an appropriation of $25,000; and, instead, created a four-
point omnibus study commission with an appropriation of $1,000.
This situation is not held to be typical; but throughout the country
there are many spots state and local which represent much the same
pattern. Somehow, people have not been reached, and many of them find
solace in the untutored unconcern of those in the profession. We have
far to go in the art of developing and motivating realistic public policy
in education. We need to be on the road.
But there are bright spots. Perhaps outstanding are the developments
in California and New York. Somehow in these states there is vigor. Both
of these states materially strengthened their state-aid systems during the
past year. Both have had a succession of researches over a period of
years. New York has been in the vanguard in its application of the
principles of adequacy, equalization, and adaptability the three basi-
cally essential principles governing developments in this area. California's
15 See Report of a Survey of ike Puttie Schools of Boston, Massachusetts, pp. 1087-93.
George D. Strayer, Director. Boston: City of Boston Printing Department, 1944. For
a complete study of educational finance in Boston, see Vol. VIII, prepared by Alfred
D. Simpson.
SIMPSON 123
state aid has long been larger, but not until the present year did it get a
real start with equalization, and this was against tremendous odds. 16
What, then, is the explanation of this recent success in California? The
answer lies primarily in two forces which have much significance for the
future, if states are to rise educationally to possible levels: First, out-
standing and brilliant professional leadership, largely local, within the
state; and, second, the fact that the current state studies referred to em-
braced the participatory process the broadened base in the develop-
ment of public policy. These states represent and are examples of state
vigor; refusal to be by-passed. Theirs is the only way in the long run to
prevent by-passing.
All evidence at hand indicates, however, that to provide the approxi-
mately five to six billions of dollars which various groups have estimated
to be needed to finance education properly, local and state sources of
revenue, combined, will be insufficient. The great problem is to harmonize
the various sources of school funds at all levels through the medium of
good interlevel relationships and good education general government
relationships so that too much of the good things in our traditional
structure may not be lost, so that the dangerous lag may be overcome,
and so that real educational need may be met.
It being clearly predicated that American education must turn to the
economic resources of the whole nation, and also that the entire nation
(since we are one people) must look to its total educational foundations,
it will be well at this point to re-examine the problem of financing educa-
tion at the federal level.
External Conditions Which Impact on Education
at the Federal Level
Of primary importance among (he conditions which impinge upon educa-
tion at the federal level is the trend, accekrated by the depression and briefly
interrupted by the war, toward raising the age level of the employment of
youth. The proportion of young people gainfully employed has been de-
clining since 1910, and each year there are 600,000 more youth entering
the labor market than the number of openings due to deaths and retire-
16 See The Administration, Organization, and Financial Support of the Public School
System, State of California (printed) and "The Financial Support of Education in Cali-
fornia" (mimeographed). Sacramento: State Reconstruction and Re-employment
CJommission, Alexander R. Heron, Director, 1&45. Dr. George D. Strayer was the
Commission's Special Consultant for the complete project, reported in the first refer-
ence, while the latter was a study of state aid, with special reference to equalization,
made by Alfred D. Simpson, also Special Consultant, and Hubert C. Armstrong, Col-
laborator.
124 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
ments. 17 The growth of the secondary school f TOIH 15 per cent of the
youth of high-school age in 1910 to 51 per cent in. 1930 and to 73 per cent
in 1940 is based on the bedrock reality that youth have, except in recent
war times, been forced out of the employment game. 18 The American
Youth Commission estimated, as of 1935, tlafc no less than 3,000,000
youth between the ages of 16 and 24 were botho~ut of school and without
any employment whatever. 19 The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938,
setting as it does a minimum work age of sixteen In nonagricultural inter-
state employment points up this trend toward tie extension of the non-
working life of young people. 20 The Federal Government has, therefore,
an obligation to assist in making available to the youth, so deterred, edu-
cational facilities and economic benefits to inspire their continued de-
velopment until the time when the economic system is ready to accept
them as full-fledged employables.
Another area of concern for education is the ni^unbers within the popula-
tion who are being demobilized from the armed services, industrially dis-
placed, or otherwise occupationdlly upset, and, wio ore knocking at the door
of education for one or another type of instructional service. The number who
would seek further educational training, if available at public expense,
has been estimated at 1,627,000. 21 In addition, the same source estimates
that the number of civilian personnel needing further training is 1,187,-
000, for an average training period of about seven months. It is further
anticipated that after the war we will have thirty-two to forty million
whose vocational experience will be in manijfactuTing and mechanical
industries, which amounts to three to five times the prewar proportion.
An external force acting on education and its expenditures will be the
growth of the national debt, due both to increased governmental activity gen-
erally and especially to the huge war expenditures* The Treasury Depart-
17 Schools and Manpower, p. 277. Twenty-second Yearbook of the American Asso-
ciation of School Administrators. Washington: American Association of School Ad-
ministrators of the National Education Association, 1944:.
* 8 Computed from Statistical Summary of Education, IStfjffi, Vol. II, Chap. II, p.
9, Table 9. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944,
19 Howard M. Bell, Youth Tell Their Story, p. 106. "Washington: American Council
on Education, 1938.
80 See J. Laurence Phalan, "The Impact of the Federal IFair Labor Standards Act of
1938 and Allied Labor Legislation upon the Employments and Education "of Youth,"
for an extended consideration of the problems and issues arising out of certain labor
impacts. Bound manuscript, Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Edu-
cation, 1944.
11 Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America. Research Bulletin of the Na-
tional Education Association, Vol. XXII, No. 2. Washington: Research Division of
the National Education Association,
SIMPSON 125
meat reports that the total (federal-state-local) per capita debt in the
United States has risen from $131 in 1930 to $1,456 in 1944. 22 There will
be the usual urge to retrenchment, curtailing of government services,
and a reduction of tax rates.
The mil-recognised phenomenon of population mobility aho conditions
our approach to educational responsibilities at the federal level. The farm
and rural areas provide the steady excess of population to enable the
cities to maintain themselves. In every census since 1850 more than 20
per cent of the persons born in the United States resided at the time of
the census in states other than those in which they were born. From 1920
to 1930, 60 per cent of the net farm-to-city migration, or 3,437,000, came
from the southeastern and southwestern regions. The economic signifi-
cance of this migration from farm to city has been shown by an estimation
that th.e cost of rearing children, who will later migrate, until they are
fifteen years old, amounts approximately to an annual contribution of
$14,000,000,000 by the farming communities to the cities. 23
Closely allied with population mobility is the age distribution of the popu-
lation. It Is a well-known fact that our population is growing older. As
pointed out by T. L. Norton, drawing upon studies of the National Re-
sources Committee and the Social Security Board, the increase in per-
sons over 65 years of age may be from the 7,500,000 in 1935 to as much as
22,00,OOQ in 1980. 24 This represents a rise in the proportion of the total
population from 6 per cent in 1935 to an estimated 15 per cent in 1980.
With a, rise in the educational level and a tendency to earlier retirements
or lay-offs, it is clear that increasing proportions of the population must be
dependent oa others or on the government for support. There have been
various estimates of the governmental costs of old-age benefits and to
these must be added other social welfare costs. 25 These essential services
by an enlightened people may be characterized simply as growing un-
compromisingly. They have a decided meaning for education, especially
in financing it. They mean that unless the tax burden is increased some
28 Eeport for 1944, United States Treasury, p. 627, Table 23. Washington; Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1945.
25 0. E. Baker, "Rural and Urban Distribution of the Population in the United
States/* Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CLXXX-
VIII (November, 1936), 272.
24 1. L, Norton, PiMic Education and Economic Trends, pp. 37-38. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1939.
As long ago as 1938 the Social Security Board estimated the 1980 annual cost of
benefit payments under the contributory old-age-benefits system to be as high as five
and one-talf billion dollars, or about as much as the highest estimates of postwar an-
nual education costs.
126 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
other governmental service will suffer. This, coupled with the growth of
governmental services in general, will have serious impact on the com-
petition for public funds, in which competition education is of necessity
a participant.
Still another factor for education to respond to is the war-heightened aware-
ness of } and resulting urge to eliminate, illiteracy and curable physical de-
fects and weaknesses. As of August 1, 1944, 4,217,000 men had been re-
jected for the armed services. Of this number, 250,000 were illiterate with
no other defects, while 681,000 were rejected for illiteracy but had other
defects which would have disqualified them in addition to illiteracy. 26
The concentration of wealth of our modern industrial society has a strong
bearing on the problem of financing education, particularly at the federal
level This concentration of wealth has been shown by Norton and All-
tucker in their study of Wealth, Children, and Education?** wherein they
developed a composite index of economic ability based on the yield of a
modern tax system, three selected taxes, and ten weighted economic
items. According to this measure the three states of New York, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania have 27 per cent of the economic resources of
the country, at the same time possessing but 19 per cent of the educa-
tional load, while the South Atlantic states of Delaware, Florida, Georgia,
Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia
have 8 per cent of the economic resources and 13 per cent of the educa-
tional load. The range of individual states is even greater. In terms of
income per child of school age the range is from $1,838 hi Mississippi to
$8,300 in California. The national average is $4,769. Thus, California is
4,5 times as able to support schools as Mississippi, according to this
measure. Fifteen states had an income of more than $5,000 per school-
age child in 1943, while eight had less than one-half that amount. 28
Arid finally we have the problem of the maintenance of a high-level national
income. Many economists, and the majority of political leaders, though
with fluctuating beat, are agreed that the maintenance of this high-level
income is not only possible but necessary. Looking into the postwar
years, no one can be very sure about the national income, except that
there will be one, and that it will always be a truly climactic external
condition of education. As we may say of the "belongingship" of the
26 Committee on Education and Labor, "Wartime Health and Education." Hear-
ings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Education and Labor, U.S. Senate,
78th Congress, second session, p. 2034.
27 John K. Norton and Margaret Alltucker, Wealth, Children, and Education, p. 45,
Table 13. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1938.
28 Education: Why the Federal Government Must Help. Washington: Research Divi-
sion of the National Education Association, March, 1945.
SIMPSON 127
schools to the people, so with the national income: "We hope it will deal
well with the education of children, youth, and adults; but deal it will.' J
And, furthermore, the maintenance of a high-level economy and national
income will demand certain contributions. Not only will the training and
retraining of workers be involved as an essential part of the task but a
raising of the economic literacy in general is necessary if we are to achieve
this goal.
General Status of Support and Xeed
Since 1933 the funds for education at the federal level have been in
general increasing. Table I gives the amount of federal funds for educa-
TABLE I. FEDERAL FUNDS FOR EDUCATION, 1933-1942*
(In thousands of dollars)
Year
Regular
Appropriation
Emergency
Funds
1933-34
$16,942
$ 24 711
1934-35
28 140
41*009
1935-36
27,285
266*' 641**
1936-37
38 913
287 726***
1937-38
52 122
168 683
1938-39
53 588
121 592
1939-40
55 117
98 454
1940-41
55,363
168 321
1941-42
55 711
230 689
* Source: "Federal Funds for Education," U.S. Office of Education, Leaflets No.
30, 45, 54, 61, 70, Circular No. 162. Does not include appropriations for Office of
Indian Affairs, Schools of District of Columbia, West Point, Annapolis, Marine
Schools, and Funds from the use of oil and timber lands, part of which may be used
for education.
** Includes allotments for NIRA and ERA for 1935, and WPA cumulative
through June, 1936.
*** Includes PWA allotments from beginning of program through June, 1937.
tion for the years 1933 to 1942. These amounts are separated as to the
type of appropriation. Column 1 indicates the regular fund totals, and
column 2 the emergency appropriations. It is clearly evident from this
table that the Federal Government has been increasing its support,
though chiefly on an emergency basis, but that the approach has been one
of a series of temporary measures resulting in a short-term program of
great instability.
Reference has already been made to the American Council on Educa-
tion study, published in 1944, by Norton and Lawler, on public school
expenditures as of the year 1939-40, Current expenditures per classroom
for the country as a whole were found to range from ten classroom units
at less than $100, to 790 units at $6,000 to $6,099. The median unit was
found to be at the $1,600 to $1,699 level. Nine million children were in
128
FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
classrooms below this level, while 4,800,000 were in classrooms spending
below $900 per unit. 29 The median level of support by states ranged from
a low of $400-8499 in Mississippi to a high of $3,500-83,599 in Cali-
fornia, and $4,100-54,199 in New York. Thus, the highest state-median
level of support per classroom unit is more than ten times that of the
median of the lowest state. All but one of the states with the lowest ex-
penditures are in the South. These nine lowest states have a median class-
room expenditure below $1,000. This extreme range in the financial sup-
port of schools represents a denial of our ideal of equality of educational
opportunity. To bring the level of support among the poorer states up to
the national level would have required $315,832,100 in 1940. 30
TABLE II. CURRENT EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATION IN THE
UNITED STATES IN 1940 AND ESTIMATED JUSTIFIABLE MIN-
IMUM ANNUAL EXPENDITURES IN THE POSTWAR PERIOD
(Millions of dollars, 1940 purchasing power)*
Expenditures
1940
Postwar
Period
Preschool, elementary and high school . .
Junior college
82,158
26
$3,900
400
College, university, and professional
schools
460
1,000
Adult education
57
300
Student aid
66
300
Public library . .
50
200
Total
$2,817
$6,100
* National Resources Planning Board, National Resource* Development Report
for 194S, p. 73, Table 1.
The cost of providing education in terms of expanding programs and
groups to be served indicates a sharp increase in the financial support
necessary to carry on the proposed program. The National Education
Association, in its study of postwar education, has estimated that the
annual current expenditure of the "goal" program would be $4,592,-
000,000. 31 The National Resources Planning Board has estimated that
adequate education for the postwar period will cost approximately
$6,100,000,000 in terms of 1940 purchasing power. Table II shows the
1940 current expenditures together with the Board's postwar "justifiable
minimum' 7 annual expenses.
The Board has also estimated the annual capital outlay for the post-
** J. K. Norton and E. S. Lawler, An Inventory of Piiblic School Expenditures in the
United States, pp. 7, 8. Washington: American Council on Education, 1944.
* fl /&w*.,p. 122.
n Proposals for Public Education in Postwar AmericcL, op. eft., p. 68,
SIMPSON
129
war period to range from $775,000,000 on a twenty-year program basis to
$2,300,000,000 on a five-year program basis. This compares with the 1940
outlay of $382,000,000. 32 Thus we see that either from the viewpoint of
equalizing the level of the present program or from that of the postwar
educational need the situation demands large increases in the annual
amounts devoted to educational services.
Problems That Result from the Status Demands
The immediate problem that confronts us in either equalization en-
deavor or the process of broadening and enriching the educational pro-
gram and the extension of the group to be served is that of securing ade-
quate funds for this purpose. The period of the depression has in it a clear
example of the need to seek support beyond the local and state level.
TABLE III. GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES IN MILLIONS
OF DOLLARS, 1928-1942
Year
Federal
State
Local
Total
Educational
Expenditures
1928 ....
$ 2 894
$1 774
$6 409
$11 077
*0 *MQ
1930
3 237
2 170
6*630
12 073
24fifi
1932
4,712
2 257
6*448
13 417
21RT
1934
6,784
2*044
5 621
14 449
1 068
1936
8,547
2,433
6*038
17*018
1 711
1938
6 977
3 391
5 223
15 601
212513
1940
8 824
3 612
5*628
18 064
2 344
1942
33,980
3 644
5 213
42 837
2 322
Sources: National Industrial Conference Board, "Economic J?ecordl," March, 1943, and "Cos* of
Government in the United States, 1935-87." For last column, the U.S. Office of Education, various issues
of Biennial Survey of Education.
The rise of the general fiscal ability at the federal level and the relative
decrease of that at the local level, as measured by general governmental
expenditure, is shown in Table III. Here it can be seen that governmen-
tal expenditures on the federal level have increased from $2,894,000,000
in 1928 to $8,824,000,000 in 1940, the last of the prewaryears. During the
same period the total local expenditures have dropped from $6,409,-
000,000 to $5,628,000,000.
Table IV gives the percentage change, in terms of the base year 1928,
of expenditures at each governmental level. In 1940 the Federal Govern-
ment was spending 205 per cent more than in 1928, the state 103 per cent
more, while the local level had decreased expenditures by 12 per cent.
Educational expenditures were continuously below the 1928 level from
1932 to 1938, but were restored to the level of the base year by 1940.
I6id,TableII,p.74,
130
FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
Another approach to the same situation is shown in Table V which
contrasts the relative change in importance of the federal, state, and local
units in terms of the total expenditures of all units for the years 1928-42.
Again the picture is that of the rising importance of the Federal Govern-
ment to a position of predominance in the expenditure field. In 1928
the Federal Government spent 26 per cent of the total, while in 1940 it
TABLE IV. PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN GOVERNMENTAL EXPENDITURES,
1928 TO 1942, EVEN YEARS
Year
Federal
State
Local
State and
Local
Total
Education
1928
o
o
0.0
0.0
0.0
1930
12
22
3 4
6.2
8.6
5 3
1932 . .
63
27
0,6
5.1
21.2
- 7 8
1934
135
15
-12.3
- 7.4
21.4
-16.0
1936 . .
195
39
- 5 8
- 2.3
53.5
-27
1938
141
91
-18.5
4.1
40.9
- 4 7
1940
205
103
-12 2
11 6
63
4
1942.
1 074
105
-18.7
6.9
287.0
- 8
Source: Computations from Table in.
TABLE V. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL-STATE-FEDERAL
EXPENDITURES 1928 TO 1942, EVEN YEARS
Year
Federal
State
Local
Total
Percentage
Education is
of State
and Local
1928
26
16
58
100
28 4
1930
27
18
54
100
28
1932
35
17
48
100
24 8
19M
47
14
39
100
25 6
1936
50
14
35
100
20 1
1938
45
22
33
100
25 9
1940
47
19
31
100
25 3
1942
79
9
12
100
26 3
Source: Computations from Table iv.
spent 47 per cent. The local level spent 58 per cent of the total in 1928
and only 31 per cent in 1940.
The situation is well summed up by the National Resources Planning
Board in its report for 1943 when it states:
During the years immediately following the war it does not appear probable
that the total revenue available for education from state and local sources com-
bined can be greatly increased, although many states can and should increase the
school revenue of their state govermnents and decrease the school revenue of the
local governments in order to reduce the heavy tax burden now resting on prop-
erty and the local government. It also appears improbable that any great in-
SIMPSON 131
crease will occur in nongovernmental funds for education. It is, therefore, evident
that most of the increase in expenditures for education in the postwar period must
be financed almost if not entirely by federal funds. 33
There is, then, a dear picture of unmet educational need. The problem
of satisfying this need forces us to the federal level for support. Our solu-
tion to the problem lies in meeting the issues which must be resolved.
When we have found the means of harmonizing these, and, of course,
other on-coming differences, we shall be able to see our program of educa-
tion for America broadened in scope, enriched in substance, facilitated
by harmonious organization patterns, and attained by realistic method.
Thus, our level of life as a nation will be raised significantly, both eco-
nomically and spiritually.
Issues That Arise in the Support of Education
at the Federal Level
The first issue that confronts us is that of control. Will federal aid re-
sult in a national education system? Does this mean increased rigidity,
leveling conformity to national standards, and the loss of the distinctly
traditional and established pattern of a group of state school systems?
The arguments for and against centralization have been many. Most peo-
ple, including the public school personnel, have favored decentralized
control. Most frequently, however, the discussion has been in terms of
the best of decentralization versus the worst aspects of centralization.
National committees have differed in their approach to the problem. The
report of the National Advisory Committee of 1931 stated:
Any federal financial support for education in the states shall be given only for
education in general and not for special phases of education This general
policy should apply to all financial aid given to the states. The distribution of
lands or moneys in aid of education is a long-established policy of the National
Government. The change of policy which appeared soon after the middle of the
last century, when federal grants were first made for specific phases of education,
has not been altogether fortunate in its political, social, and financial conse-
quences, regardless of the immediate educational gains in rapid stimulation,
quick spread, and high standardization of the special activities favored by federal
action. 34
This report represented the extreme noncontrol point of view, stating
in another section concerning the auditing of federal funds:
** National Resources Planning Board, National Resources Development Report^
S t p. 73. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.
s * Federal Relations to Education, Part I, pp. 83-84. Report of the National Ad-
visory Committee on Education. Washington: National Advisory Committee on Edu-
cation (744 Jackson Place), 1931.
132 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
Restrict the audits of the federal government to those made by the Treasury
Department, merely to determine whether or not the moneys granted have been
spent for the general or special educational purposes as defined in the several
federal acts of appropriation without making audit an indirect method for con-
trolling or determining educational standards or processes. 35
The committee appointed by President Roosevelt, known as the Ad-
visory CoTn.Tnitt.ee on Education, issued a report in 1938 calling for federal
aid. They took the position that:
Federal grants for special educational purposes may properly be used to bring
about attention to educational matters of special national concern and thus to
improve the educational programs conducted under state and local auspices, but
such grants should be considered with very great care to see that improvement
does in fact result. 36
They further state :
The organization of education within the states must be given consideration
in determining whether to grant all education aid in a single fund The Com-
mittee is thus forced to conclude that a realistic and comprehensive study of edu-
cational needs can only result in the recommendation of several different federal
aid funds, continuing the present practice in that respect. 57
Or again:
The Committee is of the opinion that the distribution of the federal funds
within a state is not a matter that should be left entirely to state officials in view
of the source of the funds, and the purposes for which the grants are recom-
mended The Committee therefore recommends that the proposed grants be
conditioned upon the designation by each state of its department of education,
or a board of education controlling that department, to represent the State in the
determination of the distribution of the federal grants within the states, through
plans jointly agreed upon by the state education authority and the United States
Office of Education. 38
In line with the recommendations of the proposals of President Roose-
velt's Committee the report on federal, state, and local governmental
fiscal relationships by a Treasury Department Committee states:
The control features of an aid program can be a very salutory influence and
ought to receive more rather than less emphasis in the future. In addition to the
traditional control devices such as auditing and inspection and approval of
, p. 38.
** Advisory Committee on Education, Report of the Committee, p. 42. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1938.
SIMPSON 133
state plans educational aids should give attention to internal equalization, re-
districting, and division of funds between whites and Negroes. 39
Or again:
For seventeen states and the District of Columbia average expenditure per
pupil in average daily attendance (1935-36) was $20 for Negroes, and 150 for
whites Their continued existence raises serious questions as to the effective-
ness of federal financial aid alone in equalizing educational opportunity. Latitude
for federal-state consultation and advice on this subject should be provided. 40
The report contends further:
Much weight needs to be given to the view held by many people that education
is a part of their way of life and that national participation means regimentation
and the loss of important minority rights and interests. Concessions can and
should be made to this feeling, but considering also the overwhelming national
interests in the maintenance of minimum standards of educational opportunity
the concessions should not extend to a veto of federal aid with equalisation fea-
tures. Nor should it block a control program necessary to secure the federal ob-
jectives. 41
In general the application of administrative controls leaves plenty of room for
improvement, but the trend has been toward more effective control and there can
be no doubt that the aids have exerted a salutary effect on the quality of state and
local administration (oddly enough the history of conditional grants in Canada
indicates little effective Dominion control, and the trend has been generally in
the direction of less effectiveness}. 42
And the Committee concludes finally:
Whether we like it or not the trend toward centralization is likely to go on irre-
sistibly. The great fiscal resources of the federal government with its large taxing
and monetary powers, its superior strategic position in managing the economic
system as a whole, the growing urge for minimnm. standards, and "the interest in
uniformity with developing interdependence all point toward centralization. The
problem is to seek a balance, some independent resources for the smaller units of
government, and a genuine interest in the vigor of local government. 43
The issue of control is brought into clear focus and perspective by two
bills concerning federal aid presented to the Seventy-ninth Congress. The
two bills merit examination as to their implications. The Thomas-Hill
Bill (S-181) to be cited as the "Educational Finance Act of 1945," is es-
sentially a noncontrol bill. It calls for the distribution of $300,000,000, of
19 Federal, State, and Local Government Fiscal Relations. Committee on Intergovern-
mental Fiscal Relations, U.S. Treasury Department. 78th Congress, 1st session,, Sen-
ate Document No. 69, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943.
/&&., p. 31. **Tbid.,p. 168.
* Ibid., p. 32. Ibid., p. 180.
134 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
which $200,000,000 is to be apportioned for payment of salaries of public
school teachers, and $100,000,000 for "more nearly equalizing public
elementary- and secondary-school opportunities among and within
states." The formula for distribution is given in the bill, the $200,000,000
to be distributed in terms of average daily attendance figures, and the
$100,000,000 according to an index of financial need determined objec-
tively in terms of total estimated income payments of each state. The
bill states: "No department, agency, officer, or employee of the United
States shall exercise any direction, supervision, or control over, or pre-
scribe any requirements with respect to, any school, or any state educa-
tional institution or agency with respect to which any funds have been
or may be made available " The only aspects of control concern
the stipulations that the funds are for public schools, and that minority
races shall have an equitable apportionment of the funds. In general, then,
the picture here is one of minimum control.
The Mead-Aiken BUI (S-717), also to be cited as the "Educational
Finance Act of 1945," is sponsored by the American Federation of La-
bor 44 and presents a new approach to the question of federal aid. The bill
sets up a National Board of Apportionment composed of five representa-
tive citizens to be appointed by the President, the members to hold five-
year terms of office, and the United States Commissioner of Education to
serve as secretary to the Board. The method of distribution of funds is
not given in the bill but is left to be developed by the National Board:
"It shall be the duty of the National Board to formulate policies for the
allocation of funds among the states .... and to review the operation
of the program." (This is true, however, only of the $300,000,000 part of
the fund intended to raise substandard educational conditions.) The most
novel, and at the same time the most controversial, feature of the bill is
the stipulation that no state may receive the funds provided by this bill
without distributing them with no discrimination to all public and pri-
vate nonprofit-making schools, and that, furthermore, where a state is
prohibited by law or constitution from doing this, the National Board
shall set up a trusteeship for the distribution to the nonpublic schools
within such state.
While the full implication of this bill for the American public school
system has yet to be realized, it is clear that it proposes controls differing
not only in degree but also in kind from previous approaches. The bill
would not attempt "to bring a state in line" by control, but would
44 According to a letter to the writer from Joseph P. McMurray, Economic Consult-
ant to the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, July 30, 1945, Mr. Mathew
Woll, Vice-President of the A.F.L. and officers of the A.F.T. testified before the Com-
mittee that S-717 was sponsored by the A.F.L.
SIMPSON 135
actually circumvent the state in most cases, for forty states have either
constitutional provisions or laws forbidding the use of public funds for
nonpublic schools. 45 Thus the states would be placed in the position of
being forced, if they accepted federal aid for public schools, to allow
funds to be distributed to nonpublic schools over which the state itself
actually exercises but the barest minimum of control. The issues involved
in this bill clearly bear upon the relations of church and state, the by-
passing of the state educational system through direct federal aid to local
school support, and the future of the American public school system.
This issue of control still seems to be a major obstacle to the successful
participation by the Federal Government in education and to the
establishment of good federal-state relations. Moreover, these bills have
been sponsored largely by organized groups. As Moehlman points out,
"The public agencies that should be most interested in this program, the
several state educational authorities and the state legislatures, are not
represented at all In fact the majority report of the Senate Com-
mittee on Education and Labor in the Seventy-eighth Congress stated,
'No state has come before us affirming its inability to deal with the
educational program.' " 46 He proposes that the Council of Chief State
School Officers be made the official agency for maintaining federal-state
relationships and providing for rational, well-balanced appropriations as
well as for their intelligent administration.
It seems fairly certain that not in recent times have the issues over
control, which are so surely embedded in the problem of federal-state-
local fiscal relations in education, been so clearly focused as they have
been by the two federal-aid bills of this year. Both bills say "no control,"
but, while this is more nearly true of the Thomas-Hill Bill, the Mead-
Aiken Bill is a long way from the elimination of the control issue. Cer-
tainly, if there is no control in the latter, it is because the issue is side-
stepped by the device of taking the problem at issue in the support of
nonpublic schools out of the realm of federal-state-local relations. But
even with this done, we are left with the provision to determine much of
the precise amount of federal aid through the sure-control technique of
discretionary action by a federal board. All in all, however, the presenta-
tion of the Mead-Aiken Bill seems to be a hopeful sign, if for no other
reason than that it will help us as a people to come to grips with the
issues.
F. N. Pitt, federal Aid for Catholic Schools," Cathotic Bduca&mal Review* XL
(February, 1945), 65-S2.
"A. B. Moehlman, "Pattern of Federal Aid," Nation's Schools, XXXV (May,
1945), 19.
136 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
Questions To Be Answered in Resolving Issues
In all probability, before we deal adequately with the question at
issue, we shall have to ask ourselves more serious questions than we have
yet fairly met:
1. Are we one nation, or forty-eight, so far as the education of our children,
youth, and adults is concerned? Do we need and want to be a nation undi-
vided educationally?
2. Can we safely proceed longer along the lines of national action on education
by the method of legislation through the indirect medium of finance, or should
we frankly face the issue of giving to the Congress of the people the properly
restricted right to legislate directly on general educational policies?
3. Do we need to settle through direct national legislation the question of policy
with respect to the relationship procedure in education, as between the na-
tional government and the states?
4. Can we find a formula for settling the problem of religious education and pro-
vision for it in such a way as to eliminate the trend toward disunity in educa-
tional policy and achieve a unified public policy in education?
5. Can we not achieve at the national level a more effective organizational struc-
ture for education; and will such achievement not help us to achieve an answer
to the previous questions?
There are, of course, many other questions of which the discussion and
broad public consideration seem to be necessary before we can resolve
the issues which are current and destined to remain with us until re-
solved. These, however, are vital ones. They require the attention of
the philosopher as well as the scientist. The answer lies with the people;
hence it would be well if administration brought them into real participa-
tion in this greatest of all processes, the development of public policy.
Another issue involved in the problem of the use of federal government funds
for education is thai of the role of the national government in our economy,
involving, as it does, such questions as the wise general governmental
expenditure level, debt growth and service, the increase in the demand for
social services) and many other questions, depending on one's basis of
classification oH of which depend for their answers upon our whole philoso-
phy toward government, as well as upon facts.
During and since the depression there has been emerging a new con-
cept of the role of the government in the area of economic activity. When
under the older theories of economics we were unable to explain ade-
quately or to find remedies for the financial collapse of 1929 there began
to be a searching of theories which would better explain the instability of
the economic system, with its periodic slumps and its chronic unemploy-
ment this latter even in times of prosperity. While there is still not
agreement as to the emergent theory, there is increasing understanding
SIMPSON 137
of the role and function of government spending, debt, and taxation in
providing a high level of economic activity and national income. Fiscal
policy has advanced from its position of a more or less negative check and
control of certain activities regarded as undesirable, and from the theory
that taxes are "unproductive" expenditures representing an unfortunate
waste, to the revolutionary function of insuring the full employment of
the factors of production. With this change in concept has come the
development of a distinction between public financing and private
financing, particularly in relation to debt. The National Resources
Farming Board has this to say about the public debt:
The public debt is something very different from the private debt of an indi-
vidual. An individual will always improve his asset position if he is able to pay
off part of his debt. But a nation may make itself poor by reducing public debt.
This is because such reduction tends to cause deflation, depression, and unem-
ployment. It is a good thing to retire a part of the public debt if you want to
check an excessive boom. It would be ruinous to retire the public debt in a post-
war period when unemployment was spreading. A public debt internally held
has none of the characteristics of the private debt of an individual. A public debt
is an instrument of public policy. It is a means to control the magnitude of the
national income and in conjunction with the tax structure to affect income dis-
tribution. 47
This same planning board presents a clear statement concerning the
question of whether or not we can afford all the increase in govern-
mental expenses seemingly demanded by our increased sensitivity to
social needs.
There is not there cannot be any financing problem which is not manage-
able under a full employment income. From a 125 billion income we can raise large
tax revenues large enough to service any level of debt likely to be reached and
to cover all other governmental outlays-7-and still retain for private expenditures
far more than we had left in former years under a 70 billion income with lower
taxes. Taxes are merely one way of paying for social services and public improve-
ment projects which we need Stated broadly we should keep in mind that
balanced against the taxes required to cover interest charges are the interest re-
ceipts of institutions and individuals who own the bonds. Thus the fact is that
our public debt, owned as it is mainly by institutions performing useful and nec-
essary service, is no such burden on the community as is commonly supposed.
The tax funds collected to meet interest charges are not lost. They are paid right
back again, largely to institutions that benefit the community as a whole. At the
worst the taxes are collected from one group of citizens and paid out to another
group the bond holders.* 8
47 National Resources Planning Board, After the Far, FuK Employment, p. &.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1943,
p. 6-8.
138 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
It remains to be seen whether this newer philosophy of public spending
and debt expansion, or the older traditional one of close budget-balancing
and keeping all governmental expenditures down, will emerge as our
public policy in the immediate future. As this is written, it may be
suggested that the trend toward large governmental expenditures for
needed social services, including education, will continue and that more
and more people are being made conscious that a huge debt can be
serviced with a high-level income and progressive taxation; and that,
further, the forces involved in our economic life will tend irresistibly to
continue the expanded role of government, and education, in our time.
Pertinent Speculations on the Outlook
How often those of us who deal with problems in the social sciences,
with problems of public policy in education, have to recognize that, re-
gardless of -our particular branch, ours is not an exact science. The
answer to our problems, after all, lies mostly in what people say the
answer is. We hope, to be sure, for more and more factual enlightenment
and skill, and for better and better reasoning; but our greatest strength
lies in the broad participatory process, in broadening the base, as it were,
in lay as well as professional participation in the development of public
policy in education. This is the greatest administrative challenge of the
future.
We, here, make no pretense of knowing the right answers to the
problems of federal-state fiscal relations, though we venture some sug-
gestions toward the answers. It seems that in looking at external condi-
tions, as has been done in a previous section of this chapter, enough of
sample fact has been reviewed to make it clear that just more of the old
way and emphasis in financing education cannot suffice. The path,
however, will have to be left to reasoned or to unreasoned action.
Administrators may well be at the work of broad field study and of
stimulating broad lay and professional participation in order that action
may have more of reason and less of unreason.
Two years ago the writer developed upon request of the National
Council of Education fourteen propositions for financing education
during wartime and, at the same time, a more extended treatment of the
problem as a paper for the annual meeting of the American Association
of School Administrators. 49 There it was made clear that, in the author's
49 Alfred D. Simpson, "A Financial Program for Education during Wartime." Pre-
pared for the National Council of Education of the National Education Association.
Washington: National Education Association, 1943; and "Educational Finance in
Wartime: The View on the Higher Level," Official Report of the Convention Never
Held, American Association of School Administrators, 1943. Washington: American
Association of School Administrators of the National Education Association, 1943.
SIMPSON 139
view, the problems of war and peace have continuity, are coexistent, and
that the problems of education and its support "can no more be neatly
divided between those of peace and war than can the totality of the
problems of America herself." The author still holds his views, in
general, as expressed in the references given,
In the long run it is futile to expect to solve the problem of the support of
American education apart from its basic determinants. Financial support is al-
ways to be considered a facilitating agency. Beyond immediate, even if tentative,
financing America should at once set in motion the processes which will result in
the definition of policy with respect to the following basic determinants of na-
tional financing: (a) The national purposes to be served by education in the life-
stream of the Nation, (6) the national responsibility to be declared for achieving
these purposes, and (c) the determination and establishment, nationally, of the
structural counterparts of purpose and responsibility.
This is the gist of the matter. It means that of course we are one
nation, and that we must be undivided. And this in turn means that we
require a national system of education that is, if we really believe that
education is basic to the life of the nation, and makes it, in reality. What
do we propose? To have a nation, but with the education of our citizens
left to the caprice of separate geographic segments? Can we completely
cleave the education of our citizens into states without cleaving the
nation except as the urge of wartime drives people together?
What we need to do is to be about national purposing as to the role of
education in the life-stream of the nation. See that everyone has an
equitable chance at education regardless of the factor of state of resi-
dence, economic circumstance, or racial status. This means personnel,
and it means plant and equipment. It means scope and substance of
educational program. And it means finance. Let there be a national
foundation program of education; let it be not low, but defensible. All
this can be done within reason, and still leave room for adaptation and
for variation at the upper reaches. It is not uniformity that is sought, but
equity and adequacy. There is still room for both liberty and equality.
Furthermore, there is going to be equality of educational opportunity in
this nation. Without it we do not come to youth with clean hands; nor do
we practice democracy. If states will lag, the nation won't.
There is unquestionably a growing and considerable, perhaps even a
majority, recognition of the need of much greater national participation
in the financing of education. But there is much less feeling for a national
educational policy beyond or basic to finance. Tinder our constitution,
with education left to the states, we are very limited as to national action
on educational policy. Our chief method is by indirection and through the
medium of proffered financial aid. We can adopt financial-aid programs,
140 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
and we can, if we choose, attach financial conditions to the receipt of the
aid by the states or local units. The history of federal aid is that we very
often do just this. To be sure, we do not need to do so, and many would
say "no" to proposals for attaching conditions. At any rate the legal
situation confronting the problem of national financing has two signifi-
cant angles.
There is the question of whether or not a policy of exclusive financial
grants, devoid of real attachment to the fundamental educational pur-
poses to be served, is wise public policy. There is grave concern over thus
separating the educational program from its financing, over the wisdom
of thus producing a dichotomy between fundamental policy and its
funding. Attention needs to be called to the fact that to do so is to
separate finance from educational policy. A case may well be made that
to refrain from the gross separation and to combine reasonably the basic
educational policy with its financing is better in the long run for educa-
tion, as well as for the national good.
Then there is the question of whether or not it is wise for us to continue
in this situation wherein Congress can legislate national policy only in-
directly and only through the backdoor of financial aid, the same to be
effective or not, depending upon state action in acceptance or rejection.
As a matter of fact, almost never do the states refuse to accept the aid
and whatever conditions are imposed. It might even be argued that this
system is somewhat responsible for the development into well-nigh
habit of the discretionary administrative type of central control ac-
companied or not, as the case may be, by the stipulation that state plans
must be submitted which are to be approved by the central authority.
But there is a deeper issue still which is involved. Does not this system
of restricting legislation to conditional aid (which may be taken or not by
the state, depending upon whether they like the conditions) make the
basic educational policy secondary to finance, when in truth it ought to
be primary? Finance, it should be remembered, is only means; it is a
facilitating agent. Would it not be preferable to open the way for direct,
rather than secondary, action on educational policy in those areas where-
in the substance of the policy is vital to the national good and, therefore,
of primary national concern? Thus it seems that the control problem
would be more safely and responsibly dealt with at the national level*
This by no means limits national aid to that which is accompanied by
control attachments, but it makes possible responsible policy, at the
national level on the basis of what is considered good policy rather than
whether or not a state chooses to accept aid. The real question begged is
whether national action on education should not be on the main educa-
tional issues, with financing attached, rather than in the reverse order.
SIMPSON 141
These problems raise in due course the question of constitutionality.
There is at least a serious question, as we enter the phase of national
financing of education on any broad scale, as to whether we shall not be
wise to grant limited legislative powers to Congress in this functional
field. There has been very little thinking, study, and discussion on this
question since the early days, but such application seems bound to come.
It seems unquestionably to be a most important future question.
One of the most serious of our educational problems, quite generally
admitted by all, is the improvement of federal-state relations in educa-
tion. There is no question about the importance of state functioning in
education, any more than there is about local. There is, however, a real
question about interlevel relationships in all matters wherein any higher
level has a part to play which is the concern of a lower level. 50 Quite
possibly, in view of our experiences of the past fifteen years, one of the
strong arguments for constitutional revision with respect to education
lies in our ability through it to determine and safeguard proper federal-
state relationship channels in any matter of national activity in education
which affects the states or their subdivisions.
In considering this problem we should remind ourselves of the condi-
tion we would be in with respect to state-local relations if states were
restricted to financial-aid conditions as the sole means of making state
policy effective in local units. As time goes on, and the cumulative ex-
perience points up the vital importance of federal-state relations, it seems
at least worth our close consideration to explore the possibilities of na-
tional legislative determination of method and procedure in this area. It
is well established that school districts, including towns and cities, are
state agencies of local jurisdiction in education. Yet along with "agency"
these districts are by no means denied broad spheres amounting to
"principalship." Similar application to the federal-state situation would,
it is true, involve a fundamental departure from the stcdm quo, but it is
not unlikely that some such thoroughly fundamental steps will have to be
taken in the future as we move into new conditions and face more square-
ly the need of united national action in education.
These considerations are but some of those which are basic to effective-
ly designed federal policy. They may seem far removed from problems of
financing education. Yet such is not the case. Finance is a broad, not a
narrow, area of educational concern. Problems of educational finance are
too often considered in their narrow gauge, when in reality they require
w "Federal-State-Local Relations," Paths to Better Schools, pp. 182-207, Twenty-
third Yearbook of the American Association of School Administrators. Washington:
American Association of School Administrators of the National Education Associa-
tion, 1945.
142 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
the comprehensive view. They overlap with every problem area. It is just
the failure to recognize their breadth that tempts too many actions on
financial policies as "ends" instead of "means."
We are in the very midst of the period of important national policy
development in the financing of education. Of this there can be little
question. The danger is that we shall adopt financial policies only, with-
out sufficient regard for their meanings, underlying problems, and inter-
relations. One or another, or some combination, of the aid bills now before
Congress may, or may not, be passed. Certainly the aid is needed. In
amount it is only the first rays of that which will be forthcoming from the
national government in future years.
The Thomas-Hill Bill is innocuous so far as the fundamental issues of
future national policy in education are concerned. It is almost entirely a
status quo measure. The negative control clause against a state's distri-
bution of any of the aid to nonpublic schools is rather widely opposed. It
would be well within the present status of governmental structure in
education to eliminate this restriction, since educationally the state is
principal. This bill is deserving of support, though its sledding seems
destined to be tough. Its chief merit lies in its start, inadequate though it
be, at national equalization. Probably its real weakness lies in its limited
fiscal extent and in its failure to recognize that the best way to help
states improve salary status on the national front, as in states, lies also
in the equalization approach.
The Mead-Aiken Bill is more clearly controversial because it really
ventures into provisions beyond the status quo and into those which
involve serious issues. It raises important problems of structure and of
administrative relationships. It provides for questionable central agency
discretion in the determination of aid. It raises pointedly the whole
question of aid to nonpublic schools by providing for it, even by going so
far as to circumvent established state policy in this area. In reality the
measure gets into a very basic problem of federal-state relations, and
solves it altogether too quickly, it would seem, by by-passing the state
without facing head-on the issues of national versus state responsibility.
Here in one bill we find issues of federal policy in education heightened as
never before. It is broadly illustrative of the very need which we have
been indicating, that is, of making a more fundamental examination into
the role of education in the life-stream of the nation.
We may be thankful for the Mead-Aiken Bill because of its clarifica-
tion of issues. This bill should prove a landmark of influence upon studies
of federal educational policy. The embedded issues are so important,
however, for the future of public education that before any bills resolving
SIMPSON 143
them are passed they ought to have the benefit of extended and organized
study and deliberation.
Probably the greatest and certainly the most controversial of the
issues involved in the Mead-Aiken Bill is the one bearing directly, but
also with ramifications, on the question of public aid to nonpublic schools.
The search for a formula with which to deal with this question on a high
plane of public policy has thus far been virtually fruitless. We either have
to stay by the general status quo policy or we have to find a new policy.
We are obviously not ready now. Even those who are swayed by the
greatest possible earnestness, broadmindedness, and good will are not
ready.
We shall be ready only when we find a solution that satisfies one
criterion. That criterion is the all-important one of what is best for the
future of the unique institution of public education in America. An
America without a great public school system cannot be our America.
The function and vigor of public education must have a guaranty
quite possibly at the national level. This is equally important for those of
all creeds. This is the great criterion that must always be satisfied in our
future search for national educational policy and its financial counter-
part.
Extended Educational Opportunity for Older Youth and Adults
The American people have long been committed to the view that since
education and self-government are inextricably linked, opportunities for
elementary and secondary education eleven or twelve years of school-
ing should be made available to all the youth of the nation. Although
that goal has never been reached, nevertheless, since the acceptance of
the principle of free education, rapid progress has been made in the
direction of its attainment.
More recently, however, changes wrought by recent social, econom-
ic, and political factors have been emphasizing the need for opportunity
for universal education beyond the high school for both social and
vocational purposes. 51 Increased training necessary to do the world's
work is simply a part of our culture and unless our cultural level keeps
pace with the strides in material development, the continuing progress
for which we aspire cannot be realized. Conditions growing out of the war
compel us to a realization of the extension of educational opportunity on
the secondary level; and the problems that arise from our continuing
progress in industrial development will be solved very much in pro-
51 Educational Policies Commission, Education for AU American Youth, chap. v.
Washington: Educational Policies Commission of the American Association of School
Administrators and the National Educational Association, 1944.
144 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
portion to our willingness to organize our educational institutions and
extend their programs to include education geared to the interests, needs,
and abilities not only of adolescents but also of older youth and adults.
The institution that can most easily be developed to provide these
necessary educational facilities is the public junior college, or its equiva-
lent by another name. Situated in the center of Community activities, it
can serve in the most natural setting for the continuous learning demand-
ed by our increasingly complex society. In addition to its two-year under-
graduate programs, it can offer an adult program which will challenge
the curiosity and cultivate the interests of those possessing more ad-
vanced training in a special field; it can provide for specialized training
for those who are seeking the development of special skills; and it can
broaden the horizons of those whose previous schooling and experience
lacks perspective.
In recent years the junior college has made such rapid strides in this
older-youth and adult area that for the academic year, 1943-44, almost
65 per cent of the junior-college enrolment consisted of adults. 52 Signifi-
cant in this respect, and perhaps indicative of the future trend in the
extension of secondary education, is the composition of the enrolment in
one California junior college. Here it was reported that over 5,300
different people were enrolled in adult classes, which is more than one-
third of the town's estimated adult population. 63
Although the junior college has shown a phenomenal growth in recent
years, 54 if the educational needs of all the people in the postwar era are
going to be met, continued rapid growth and development must take
place, especially in those states where the junior college's adequate de-
velopment is overdue. Indications are that most educational leaders are
awake to the junior college's possibilities. The National Resources
Planning Board has recommended a six-fold increase in junior-college
facilities immediately following the war, and bills are now before the
legislatures In several states authorizing establishment or expansion of
and increased support for junior colleges within their borders. 56
W. C. Eelk, "The Community College," Adult Education Journal, IV (January,
1945), 13-17.
w W. M. Pugh, "One-Third of Modesto's Adults Go to College," Junior College
Journal, XIV (January, 1944), 197-99.
84 At the time of World War I there were only about one hundred small junior
ooEeges, their total enrolment being less than five thousand students. During World
War II the number of junior colleges was over six hundred, their enrolment in excess
of three hundred thousand.
* W. C. EeBs, "Junior College Legislation Proposed in 1945," Junior CoUege Jour-
nal, XV (March, 1946), 314r-17.
SIMPSON 145
Problem of Support. The need for an institution similar in purpose and
design to the junior college is well established. Whether this need can be
met by an adequate finance program, without a complete reorganization
of the public support of education, is questionable. Due to great con-
centrations in economic ability, 56 some states can support- a system of
junior colleges accessible to all the people in the state. In fact, there are
instances where the local unit alone is able to support adequately a
junior college, but for every one of these there are hundreds of other
local units which are unable to maintain, even with present state help,
a defensible minimum foundation program comprising the traditional
twelve-grade organization only.
These great inequalities of wealth make the problem of financing the
public junior college, in many areas, one that will not admit of easy
solution. This fact is emphasized in a cogent study reported by Stillwellj
in which he attempts to ascertain the ability of the southern states to
support state-wide systems of junior colleges. 67 Assuming an annual cost
of $150 per student to be a conservative estimate 58 as to the amount of
money needed to educate one full-time junior-college student, Stillwell
then calculated the total amount of money each southern state would
need if it should attempt to educate its high-school graduates who would
likely attend junior colleges. His estimates were based upon the expecta-
tion of one-sixth of the high-school enrolment being graduated, and one-
half of these graduates going on to attend the junior colleges. As a
further basis for his .computations, he calculated the amount of money
each state should be expected to raise if it should appropriate as much
per student in junior colleges as it would have revenue available for
education per child in its public schools, when it makes average effort as
compared with all other states. On this basis, it was found that at peak
load within the next ten to twenty years, the state in the Southern
Association 59 would have a combined total of 249,000 junior-college
students, and would need 804 junior colleges of average size (300 stu-
dents). On a minimum basis of $150 per student annually, these colleges
* "Education: Why the Federal Government Must Help." Washington 6: Re-
search Division of the National Education Association, March, 1945.
H. W. Stillwell, "The Public Junior College in the South, 1 ' Jumor College Journal
X (September, 1939), 21-24.
w In a recent study on junior college costs, Henry G. Badger, ILS. Office of Edu-
cation statistician reports (Jwwjr Co&ege Journal, October, 1944) an average public
junior college cost per student for 1937-^38 to be $175. This figure, incidentally, is only
68 per cent of the $257 cost reported for a public senior college.
B Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
146 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
would cost the states $37,350,000, and the states would have available
from their own resources as calculated on their ability with average
effort to support their public schools, only $5,929,210, or only a little
more than one-sixth of the needed amount.
The obvious conclusion to be drawn from this study, and from other
evidence, is that the future of adequate post-secondary education de-
pends upon the evolvement of a new finance structure in which the
federal government must play an increasingly important role. Not only
is this especially true for the states comprised within the Southern
Association, but many other states as well have an insufficient fiscal
capacity 60 to extend post-secondary offerings to meet even the minimum
demands for such training.
Issues. Two issues of paramount importance involved in the prospec-
tive expansion of the post-secondary unit 61 deal with the following
questions:
1, Should publicly controlled junior colleges be supported entirely from public
funds with no charge to students as in public high schools today? If not,
what proportion of the cost should be met by the student?
2. What type of junior college should be fosteredas indicated by the auspices of
control and direction? Specifically, should the policy be one of establishing
junior colleges that are units in local systems, reorganized as necessary, or
state junior colleges set up to serve regions or areas within the commonwealth?
Tuitim Free. Since the junior college is coining to be recognized, along
with its occupational preparation function, as the period of completion of
a general education, and as a medium for adult education, there are
many who argue that its offerings should be tuition free, as is the
practice in such public junior-college states as California, Arizona,
Kansas, and Mississippi. 62 Others feel that since many of the terminal
courses are designed to serve occupational-training purposes the student
should, therefore, pay a part of the cost of such education. In response to
a questionnaire to a miscellaneous group of educators and laymen, Eells
found the greatest support for free tuition coming from labor-union
w J. K, Norton and E. S. Lawler, "An Inventory of Public School Expenditures in
the United States," pp. 190-97. Washington: American Council on Education, 1944
(mimeographed).
w Most of these units are designated by the name "junior college"; however, in
some states the name differs, even though the type of education offered may be at
the junior-college level.
W. C. Eells, Why Junior College Terminal Education? p. 52. Washington: Ameri-
can Association of Colleges, 1941.
SIMPSON 147
leaders and editors of educational periodicals; greatest opposition from
private junior-college presidents and presidents of private colleges and
universities. 63
Due to many factors, such as the public importance of education at the
post-secondary and adult levels, the far-reaching effect on the democ-
ratization of publicly supported education, and the demands of such a
society as ours for the elimination of individual economic barriers to
education, it seems a foregone conclusion that tuition charges will be
eliminated. 64 It seems clear that the scope of free public education will be
extended quite universally through the fourteenth year and into adult
life. In addition, a highly desirable, and in a sense necessary, social policy
would involve the granting of a substantial public subsidy for work
scholarships (similar in nature and scope to the former Student Work
Program of the National Youth Administration), to give assistance to
students coming from the lower economic brackets.
Control. There is much controversy at the present time as to the
desirable junior-college policy with regard to control. Shall the junior
college be of local nature as is the case in California and Kansas; or,
shall it be conceived as a state unit, set up to serve areas or regions, as
exemplified in the states of Georgia and Utah, and as proposed in the
Regents 7 Plan for the state of New York? Involved in this question of
administrative jurisdiction is also the problem of local, state, and federal
support, and the method by which junior college costs may be appor-
tioned among these three sources in the interest of equalization of
facilities. State practices in this regard show wide variance.
In some states, such as Nebraska and Kansas, no state funds may be
appropriated to the junior colleges, while in Utah and Georgia, they are
supported wholly by the state with no assistance from the local unit. In
other states, such as California and Washington, junior-college education
is supported through local taxation with substantial state aid, Such
states as these, whose policy involves support from local-state sources,
have shown greatest growth and development in the junior-college area.
Another concomitant issue which evolves with this question over
control is that of internal organization (shall the junior college be a two-
or a four-year institution). State control implies a separate two-year
institution, while local control either indicates or facilitates a four-year
type of organization. Much attention has been given in the literature to
"Ibid., pp. 82-84.
** See Leonard V. Koos, "How To Democratize the Junior College Level/' School
Review, LII (May, 1944), 271-84.
148 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
the possible resolution of this issue, 65 but as matters stand, it is still
far from being settled. 66
Problems and Policies. These conflicting theories and practices are
natural in the light of the newness of the movement and the many per-
plexing problems to be confronted. We do not know just how the pro-
gram, the structural and control organization, and the financing of this
oncoming extension of educational opportunity will or should take shape.
It is apparent that the answers are not clear even in states that have gone
far either in planning these programs or in putting them into effect. The
need of much research is apparent. Just now there is no more fertile field
for research in educational policy areas than in this one. Two funda-
mental problem areas require thorough examination before we can move
forward in this field with anything but the greatest reliance on trial and
error:
1, Are the values which have in the past been held to reside in local autonomy
still important enough to make it essential to find a regional, or district, struc-
ture below the state level for extended educational programs for older youth
and adults? If so, what shall this be?
2. Is the general pattern of state aid which has been developed through research
sufficiently good to warrant its application to the treatment of aid in the ex-
tended educational area? If so, what are the unit measures and what are the
unit-cost levels of a satisfactory foundation program of state and federal aid
in this extended educational area?
FINANCING SCHOOL PERSONNEL
The Status of the Financing of School Personnel
The adequacy or excellence of any educational program depends to a
very large extent on the personnel conducting that program. The popular
conception of education, as Mark Hopkins and a student seated on
opposite ends of a log, demonstrates the general realization of the
importance of the role of personnel. The number and quality of teachers,
administrators, and others engaged in the instruction of children and
youth, and the degree to which these persons are suited to their tasks,
both in preparation and in personal adjustment, are matters of funda-
mental importance. It can be accepted without further discussion that
personnel is a primary concern of educational finance. The task here is to
examine the adequacy with which finance is meeting the personnel re-
quirements for education.
* T. H. Wilson, "The Four-Year Junior College." Unpublished Doctoral Disserta-
tion, Harvard University, 1935.
M Leonard V. Koos, "Opinions of Administrators on Organizing the Junior College/ 1
School Review, LII {April, 1944), 215-27.
SIMPSON
149
Almost one million persons are engaged in public school instruction, as
shown in Table VI. This table, prepared by the Research Division of the
National Education Association, reports the salary levels for an estimat-
ed 900,000 persons engaged primarily in the teaching-learning process in
public schools in the United States. The estimated average salary, exclud-
ing superintendents, reported by the Research Division from the data of
Table VI is $1,550. Not only does this average salary seem distressingly
inadequate to make possible a professional standard of living, but it
represents a decrease in the "real wage" measured in terms of the
purchasing power of the dollar from the 1938 level. In that year, the
average salary of public-school teachers, principals, and supervisors was
$1,374, which represented a purchasing power of $1,363. 67 In 1943, while
TABLE VI. DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS, SU-
PERVISORS, PRINCIPALS, AND SUPERINTENDENTS ACCORD-
ING TO ANNUAL SALARY IN 1942-43*
Annual Salary
Estimated Num-
ber Receiving
Salary
Per Cent
$5 000 and over
3 500
4
4,000-4,999
12.000
1 3
3,000-3,999
57,000
6.3
2 000-2,999
147 000
16 3
1,000-1,999
405,000
45.1
Below 1 000
275,000
30.6
Total
900 000
100
* Teachers' Salaries and the Public Welfare, p. 114. Research Bulletin of the
National Education Association. Vol. XXI, No. 4. Washington: Research Division
of the National Education Association, 1943.
the average salary not of teachers alone but including supervisors and
principals had risen to $1,550, the purchasing power of that salary
decreased to $1,259.
It may be argued that teaching is a "white-collar" occupation, and
that types of occupations thus classified always suffer in times of eco-
nomic upward trends. However, there is some evidence that, as a group,
teachers have benefited from salary increases even less than have most
"white-collar" groups. The United States Department of Labor, review-
ing the situation in a recent bulletin 68 finds that, while retail-trade em-
87 Teacher^ Salaries and the Public Welfare, p. 1 14. Eesearch Bulletin of the Nation-
al Education Association, Vol. XXI, No. 4. The purchasing power is computed by di-
viding the average salary by the eost-of-Iiving index for cities furnished by the U.S.
Department of Labor, which uses the 1935-39 period as 100.
M Trend of Earnings among WMa-Cdlar Workers Serving the War. U.S. Department
of Labor Bulletin No. 783. Reprinted from Montidy Labor Review.
150 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
ployees received wage increases of 25 per cent as compared with prewar
levels, and white-collar workers in general received increases of 15 per
cent or more, the average salary of school teachers was only 8 to 10 per
cent higher. Thus, it can be said that the average salary levels for teach-
ers are very, very low; and, although salary levels have risen in recent
years, the rise has not been commensurate with increases in cost of living
and does not compare favorably with increases in other occupations.
And, above all, let us not fail to observe this fact from the preceding
table: In 1943, even during the high wages of wartime, less than 1 per
cent of those going into public education as a career could look forward
to receiving a salary, should they perchance reach the highest ad-
ministrative posts, which crossed the $5,000 line.
External Conditions Bearing upon Salaries
Conditions outside the schools themselves, those which are beyond
and external to the structural confines of school systems, have a bearing
upon the salary problem both in its practical everyday aspects, and in
more fundamental considerations. To ignore these external conditions in
the study of the salary problem is to ignore the very factors that in the
long run condition salary policy. A list of these external conditions, with-
out elaboration, includes at least the following:
1. Fluctuations in the cost of living. The continually changing economic cycle
has a direct impact on school-salary policy.
2. The general trend toward equal pay for men and women. In its broader as-
pects, this might be thought of as personnel policies in government, business,
and industry. Both private and governmental enterprises are beginning to
come to grips with this problem, as the status of women in the United States
advances. The trend is definitely toward paying men -and women equally for
equivalent services, often with some provision for family-load adjustment.
This trend is definitely affecting personnel policies in education.
3. The shifting of the tax base, 69 and, with it, the diminishing role of the local
government as a tax unit. Real estate, once America's principal tax base, is
unable to be the main support of governmental functions. This means, also,
that revenue is tending to flow, in increasing proportions, to the state and fed-
eral governments. Thus education, while operating locally, is faced with the
impact of state and federal support upon personnel policy.
4. The growth of the lay concept of, and demands upon, education. The war is no
small factor in this. Europe and Asia must have their education redeveloped
and redirected. At home, millions of returning servicemen need the services
and guidance of education.
5. Population movements and composition. These are especially to be noted in
the concentration or the spreading of population in metropolitan areas. The
* Teadwrs* Salaries and the Public Welfare, op. ctt., Table 7, p. 118.
SIMPSON
151
wartime movements of population have had a 'decided effect upon personnel
policy in all its aspects.
6. Technological and social advances in society. Education must use and prepare
youth for increasingly complex and amazing devices such as radar and tele-
vision. The impact of these and other advances upon the personnel problem,
greatly weighted by war, is still in its early stages.
Trends in Salary Scheduling. The majority of school districts in the
United States have definite schedules regulating the salaries of their
employees. The National Education Association reports that about two-
thirds of the cities and towns with a population of 2,500 or more have
salary schedules. 70 As might be expected, most large cities have schedules
(97.5 per cent of cities over 100,000 and 90.5 per cent of cities 30,000 to
TABLE VII. NUMBER OF CITIES AND TOWNS REPORTING VARIOUS
TYPE SCHEDULES, 1940-41 AND 1944-45
TYPE OP SCSBDUIJJ
1940-41
1944-45
Number
Per Cent
Number
Per Cent
Position type
402
501
412
30.6
38.1
31.3
287
425
541
22.9
33.9
43.2
Position-preparation type ....
Preparation type
Total
1,315
100.0
1,253
100.0
* Table derived from two Research Bulletins of the National Education Association: Solaris of
City School Employees, 1940-41, VoL XIX, No. 2, Table 22, p, 92; and Salaries of Ciiy School Em-
ployees, 1944-45, VoL XXIII, No. 1, Table 19, p. 22. Both report data for cities and towns with popula-
tion 2,500 or more by the 1940 census, but the number of replies differs.
100,000), while the proportion decreases in smaller communities. Fifty-
four per cent of the school systems in towns of 2,500 to 5,000 population,
for example, do not have schedules.
In general, salary schedules for teachers may be said to fall into one of
two types: the "positional" type, and the "preparational" type. The rela-
tive frequency of these types, as of the years 1940-41 and 1911 15, is
shown in Table VII. From these data it is clear that the trend is away
from position-type schedules. This trend is strongest in the case of the
cities of 100,000 or more population, as shown by detailed data, not re-
ported in Table VII but presented in the same source. In this group,
33.3 per cent had preparational schedules in 1940-41 while 57.7 per cent
reported preparational schedules in 1944-45.
79 Salaries of C% Schools EmjAoyees, 1&44-4&. Research Bulletin of the National
Education Association, VoL XXIII, No. 1. Washington: Besearch Division of the Na-
tional Education Association, 1945. Table 18, p. 22, reports the situation for 1,879
school systems located in cities and towns of 2,500 or more population.
152 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
Minimum Salary Laws. So far, attempts to improve the financing of
higher salary levels, other than in purely local situations, fall into three
general categories : federal aid, state aid, and state minimum salary laws.
Federal and state aid, important to school salary policy, are treated
elsewhere in this chapter. The situation concerning minimum-salary
legislation has significance for school-salary policy. State minimum-
salary laws are designed to raise the lower level of school salaries on a
state-wide basis, while leaving maximum salaries to the discretion and
ability of the individual communities within the state. At present,
twenty-six states have minimum-salary legislation. 71 Twenty of these
states had minimum-salary legislation prior to 1937, four adopted such
legislation between 1937 and 1940, and two, Maine and Utah, have
enacted minimum-salary legislation since 1940. In addition, of course,
there have been many recent upward changes in the levels. Minimum-
salary legislation, by and large, is of one of two kinds: The minimum
salary may be fixed by statute (as in Massachusetts, for example), or the
power to regulate minimum salaries may be delegated to the state board
of education, as is the case in Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, North
Carolina, Tennessee, and Washington. Fifteen of the twenty-six states
"classify salaries according to preparation, and of that number nine
recognize experience through guaranteed increments, thus setting
minimum salaries for teachers with different amounts of preparation and
experience." 72 SLx states fix the minimum salary at $1,200 or more, while
twenty fix the minimum salary below $1,200. The median minimum
salary established is $876.
Problem Areas in the Financing of School Personnel
The present status of school-salary scheduling, as briefly summarized
in the proceeding section, indicates that many problems of financing
educational personnel have not been solved. Education, like the society
it serves, is constantly in a state of flux; both its internal and its external
conditions change. Trends, while indicating solution of certain problems,
or at least a repeated preference for one of several alternatives, lead to a
new set of conditions and thus in turn to a different set of problems. Any
discussion of status, then, leads inevitably to unsolved problems. Some of
the more important problems confronting the financing of school
personnel follow.
Mimmum-Salan/ Standards f&r Teachers, 1944. Report of the Committee
on Tenure and Academic Freedom, National Education Association, November,
1944. Washington: National Education Association, 1944.
n ttnd., p. 11.
SIMPSON 153
The Stimulation of Professional Growth. The preparation-type salary
schedule, increasingly used, seeks to encourage the teacher to continue
his professional growth. The exact nature of professional growth, and the
method of measuring such growth in units which can be recognized in a
salary schedule, are still matters that are not entirely clear. It is fairly
clear that merit ratings are passing out as measures of professional
growth for salary purposes. The whole problem of salary in terms of
individual merit needs much further study; but there is not much hope
for it on the basis of present practice and conditions. Further considera-
tion concerning the factors which can be used to measure professional
growth is necessary. Through what stipulations can salary money be
applied better than at present to raise the level of professional qualifica-
tions and keep growth coining? How are salary and professional growth
related? In what respects are they unrelated?
The Attracting of Desirabk Personnel into the Teaching Profession.
Salary is not, of course, the only factor which attracts young men and
women to the teaching profession. Many other considerations enter into
the choice. Yet salary definitely is one factor, and, as such, its effect on
the recruitment of desirable personnel should be a matter of concern. To
what extent does change in personnel quality lag behind salary? To what
extent do other conditions affecting personnel neutralize salary changes?
The Ratio of Minimum and Maximum Salary Levels. There is no one
definitive ratio of minimum to maximum salary. Certainly minimum-
salary levels ought to be high enough to attract desirable personnel. At
the same time, however, the salary schedule should exert some holding
power through the granting of increases in salary. The span between
minimum and maximum, then, needs careful consideration and may vary
locally, as personnel policies do.
Adjusting Salaries to Changes in Cost of Living. The story of the de-
pression "cuts" and recent war-boom '^bonuses" is well known. Such
salary changes, often on a percentage or flat-rate basis, represent crude
attempts to adjust school salaries to external conditions of education,
such as declining revenue and changes in the level of the cost of living.
Most communities have found it necessary to make salary adjustments
to compensate, partially at least, for the recent rise in the cost of living.
The National Education Association reports 73 that, of 1 ? 253 communities
of 2,500 and over in population, 67 per cent have granted "wartime salary
adjustments/ 7 and 27 per cent have revised their salary schedules,
generally upward.
This aspect of school salary policy, perhaps more than any other, has
w Salaries of City-School Employees, 1944-45, op. cit.> Table 20, p. 22.
154 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
been influenced by and tied to practices in municipal government.
"Bonuses 11 liave often been granted on a city-wide basis, including
school employees, thus leaving the school officials little leeway in devel-
oping their own policies. Usually, these adjustments take the form of a
flat-rate increase or a percentage increase, such percentage computed on
the employee's basic wage. Public Administration Service of Chicago, in
making a municipal-wage study for the city of Hartford, Connecticut,
reported that, of a selected group of fifteen cities, twelve had adjusted
pay rates to meet increases in cost of living and three had not. 74 Seven
of the twelve adjustments were in the form of flat-rate increases, three
were increases in percentage of employee's salary, one was an upward
revision of the basic wage scale, while one city adjusted its salaries
annually according to the cost of living index of the U.S. Department of
Labor.
Relative Pay Levek for Men and Women, and Recognition of Depend-
ency. Men have been, and still are, receiving higher salaries in education
than women. T& Whether or not this is as it should be is a matter that is
still vigorously discussed. Proponents of equal pay for equal work assert
that justice demands equal pay when the quality and quantity of the
work is the same. Those favoring higher salaries for men cite the law of
supply and demand, and argue that, to retain men's services in educa-
tion, their salaries should be higher.
The question of family-load adjustment is directly related to, although
not identical with, the question of equal pay for men and women. By and
large, men have a larger dependency load than women, although women
teachers are not without responsibilities of this nature. A recent study
based on 800 teachers in New York State, reports the following average
dependency loads for teachers: married men, 2.4; single men, 0.4;
married women, 0.9; single women, O.6. 76 Family responsibilities may be
recognized in a salary schedule, usually in one of two ways. The less
precise way is to provide higher salary levels for married men teachers
than for all other teachers, on the theory that married men, as a group,
have greater family loads. The other way consists of paying differentials,
74 Memorandum from Public Administration Service to the Director of Finance
and Budget of Hartford, dated December 21, 1944, p. viii.
a Progress and Problems in Equal Pay for EquaL Work. Report of the Committee on
Equal Opportunity of the National Education Association, June, 1939. Washington:
National Education Association, 1939.
M Theresa P. Pyle, The Teacher's Dependency Load, Table IV, p. 22. New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939.
SIMPSON 155
over and above the salary schedule, on the basis of recognized family
loads wife, husband, children, and the like. These differentials may
apply to men and women alike, or they may be granted only to men.
These questions equal pay for men and women and family-load
adjustments are not easily resolved and cut rather deeply into educa-
tional personnel policy. They call for much research application. Cer-
tainly no thinking educator wants to decrease the proportion of men
teachers, but would prefer quite the reverse. Men, or women, with
family responsibilities represent the normal and desirable situation.
Perhaps at no place do "external conditions" bear more closely than here
upon educational policy. In effect, they seem to lead to the fundamental
principle of equal pay for men and women and to the necessity of de-
veloping effective devices for family-load differentials.
Cost Analyses of Salary Policy. It is well known that salaries consume a
major share of the school budget. Burke reports 77 that in 1930 salaries
and wages required 64.4 per cent of the total public school expenditures
in the United States, including the construction of buildings and interest
and fixed charges. Since the salary dollar looms large in the total ex-
penditures, it might be expected that considerable attention ought to be
devoted to analyzing the effectiveness of its expenditure. It might be
expected, also, that much would be done in the way of forecasting costs
of salary policies. Once adopted, a salary schedule commits a city to a
definite rate of expenditure. Prudent planning would indicate that
salary-cost estimates under a particular annual salary schedule should be
projected five or ten years into the future. Too little is done, however,
either in analyzing the effectiveness of salary expenditures or in projec-
ting salary costs.
Understanding, on the Part of the Public, of the Problem Areas in School
Salaries. The need for the understanding on the part of the layman of the
problems involved is not confined to school salaries, nor even to school
finance. Public participation makes for more effective development of
public policy, as few in America will deny; but too few administrators
apply themselves to attaining skill in the process. Yet the layman has
more opportunity to see some of our problems in the area of salaries than,
let us say, in curriculum methods. Then, too, personnel policies in
education are being continually influenced by personnel policies in
government and business areas, familiar to the layman. Hence, education
will do well to include the thinking, study, and experience of the public as
school salary policy develops.
77 Arvid J, Burke, Defensible Spending for PvMic Schools, Table 8, p. 43. New York :
Columbia University Press, 1943.
156 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
The Major Problem-Cores in the Salary Field
From the preceding discussion, two major problem-cores may be seen
to confront American education in the field of school salary policy:
1. Financing the personnel adequately to staff the schools for a modern educa-
tional program.
2. How the moneys allocated to financing the personnel shall be expended.
Though stated separately, these problem-cores are by no means
mutually exclusive. The methods, or criteria, governing any expenditure
are affected by the amount available in relation to the total need. Even
so, it would be well to think of our problems as clustered in two major
groups; the one involving adequacy of salary levels in general, the other
involving alternative choices in methods of expenditure.
The importance of adequately financing the personnel hardly needs
emphasis. Modern education no simple, cut-and-dried process re-
quires professional competence of the highest order.
The development of a true, continuous-program system is a long, slow process.
Philosophies, curriculums, methods of teaching, administration must be slowly
reorganized The modern school makes every effort to discover the real,
often deeply hidden, cause of failure, to adjust the pupil sympathetically, so that
he is able to profit from the learning experiences provided and which are well ad-
justed to his level and maturity Directional progress goals replace arbitrary
grade standards. Remedial work is prominent. Under ideal conditions, failure
could theoretically be eliminated. 78
Such a program calls for highly skilled, carefully chosen personnel. It
cannot, just in the nature of things, be conducted by persons whose
average annual salary is $1,550, which Table VII indicates to be the
average of instructional and supervisory salaries in 1942-43. Further-
more, the need for adequate financing involves all school personnel, not
just those located in highly favored urban areas. The issue is not resolved
by citing the fact that a teacher in Hartford, Connecticut, for example,
may receive an annual salaiy of $4,000, provided certain experience and
preparatkmal requirements have been met. Table VII shows that three-
fourths of the teachers in the United States, about 675,000 persons,
received less than $2,000 in 1942-43. If education is to advance, if its
personnel and thus its program are to be increasingly good and de-
sirable, then the general level of finance must be raised. There is no
alternative.
Whether the financing of the personnel is adequate or inadequate,
i* William H. Burton, The Guidance of Learning Activities, pp. 451-52. New York:
D. Appleton-Century Co.,
SIMPSON 157
however, the methods governing the expenditure of these moneys require
consideration. Commonly accepted purposes govern salary schedules;
securing more able and better-prepared persons, attracting more men
into the profession, relieving teachers of hardship due to marked changes
in the cost of living, and the like. Certainly a salary schedule can be de-
signed so as either to encourage or ignore professional preparation, re-
gardless of the salary levels* True, the encouragement is more effective,
given adequate financing as contrasted with parsimony. Yet, the problem
of stimulating professional growth through salaries is in the cluster-core
that comprises the issue of method. If the financing of the personnel were
at a high level, equal pay would be possible while at the same time meet-
ing salaries which attract men into other professions. Where the financ-
ing of personnel is not adequate, however, it may be necessary to recog-
nize the greater dependency load carried by men. Forward-looking
policy, while using family-load adjustments expediently, can anticipate
the day when levels will be adequate and the inherent justice of equal
pay for equal work can be recognized.
The Outlook for the Solution of the Problems and
the Resolution of the Issues
The answer to some of the problems as previously stated are fairly
well indicated by present practices and trends. In other cases, the best
future course is not so clear. The preparation-type salary schedule, for
example, gives promise of steadily raising the level of professional
preparation of school personnel. But it is not clear just in what manner,
or to what extent, salary policies affect the recruitment of school person-
nel. Many administrators are convinced that equal pay for men and
women is fair and in keeping with good business practice, yet confess
reluctance to institute equal pay in their own systems, arguing that it
conflicts with "the law of supply and demand." It should be noted in
passing that equal pay for different educational levels is no longer a
moot issue; teaching on the elementary level is commonly recognized as
just as valuable, and requiring just as much in the way of professional
competence, as does teaching on the secondary level.
It seems safe to sa/ that the preparation-type schedule is steadily
replacing the position-type and will continue to do so. But this does not
mean that everything is known about stimulating professional growth by
means of the salary schedule. Not only are there various salary devices
for stimulating such growth, but there is also the larger question of just
what is meant by professional growth. Then there remains also the ques-
tion of minimum- and maadmum-salary levels. It is rather generally
accepted that a system of regular increments is desirable, and that such
158 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
increments should be fairly automatic. Certainly the practice of award-
ing increments on the basis of merit-ratings is not common and is de-
clining. Rather, units of professional preparation are coming to be ac-
cepted as the most nearly objective and thus the most fair means of
gauging merit. But any increment system must operate within limits,
within minimum and maximum levels. In the past there have been at-
tempts to fix the optimum ratio between minimum and maximum
salaries. One such attempt fixed the ratio at three to one. 79 Observation
of current practice reveals considerable variation in this ratio, depend-
ing on the community's fiscal ability and long-range personnel goal. In
some places it may be wiser to attract top-flight young teachers and not
try to hold them many years, a situation which would call for relatively
high minimum salaries, but at the same time a small number of incre-
ments. Other places, with a larger operating budget, can establish maxi-
mum salaries attainable only after considerable service, in which case the
ratio of maximum to minimum would be considerably larger than in the
first instance.
Another problem in financing the personnel for which an effective
answer seems indicated is that of adjusting salaries to changes in cost of
living. As has been previously noted, the most common form of such
adjustment in the past fifteen years has been a lopping off or an adding on
of a stipulated sum, either on a flat-rate basis or a percentage of the em-
ployee's salary. A few places, such as St. Paul, Minnesota; San Diego,
Inglewood, and Santa Monica, California; Fordson and Grosse Point,
Michigan; Brookline, Massachusetts; and Barrington, Rhode Island,
have adopted more refined methods, which use a basic salary schedule
with a cost-of-living differential. The differential changes as the cost of
living, measured by the index of the U.S. Department of Labor,
changes. 80 There still remains unanswered the question of how most
accurately to measure living costs of teachers as a group. However, the
practice of relating a cost-of-living differential to some effective measure
of living costs holds considerable promise as an instrument of school-
salary policy.
Most of the problems in financing the personnel cluster about the
adequacy of school support. Until this issue has been met and resolved,
the problems will remain, unsolved or partially unsolved. And this issue
7 * Arthur B. MoehJman, Public School Finance, p. 151. New York: Kand-MeNally
& Co., 1927.
* For a more refined treatment, see Ralph C. McLeary, "Barrington Cost-of-Liv-
ing Salaries AdjustaenV American School Board Journal, CVII (November, 1943),
26-28; (December, 1943}, 21-23.
SIMPSON 159
will be resolved only when the public those supporting education
become convinced of the need of greater investment in the education of
their children and youth. To some extent the vicious circle is present,
since one of the most effective ways to win public support is by doing a
first-class job, which, in turn, depends on more adequate financing. But
this is not to say that the situation is without hope. More attention to
the public's concept of education, and more consideration of the building
up of that concept so that educator and layman see eye to eye, will prove
effective.
What seems to be the outlook as to adequacy and salary-schedule
method?
Adequacy. If ever adequacy in personnel financing were to be reached,
it would seem that the past few years would have been the time. Yet the
farthest we have gone is to some slight advance over the admittedly
inadequate levels reported hi Table VII. The conclusions seem to be few
and simple. In the first place, as just pointed oui, the public concept of
personnel and salary needs in school systems is low and must be raised. The
most effective way to meet this situation is to bring laymen increasingly
into the study of schools and school systems. Lay participation in the
development of salary policy leads to heightened realization of the
strategic importance of the school systems* personnel. In the second place,
it is simply impossible to finance the requirements of adequacy in school
salaries within the present dependency on local tax support. The failures to
develop extensive state-aid systems and to utilize federal aid are un-
questionably responsible for inadequate salaries and for the tremendous
range in salaries throughout the country. Of course, economically favored
local units here and there can rise to reasonable salaries within a heavy
reliance on the local economy. This but blinds the eyes of people and
leads them to the common error of appraising a whole region's progress
in terms of a few sectional bright spots. The outlook for adequacy, with
salaries correlating so highly with total school costs, lies beyond question in
the development of increased state and federal aid. If you do not believe this,
cast your eye over such states as New York and California. 81
Salary-Schedule Method. The characterizing technique of scheduling in
recent times is represented by the preparation-type of basic schedule. This has
become the method of the single-salary principle* It has been of great
value in raising elementary salaries and equalizing them with high-school
81 See Alfred D. SSmpson and Hubert C. Armstrong, 'The Financial Support of
Education in California." Sacramento, California: State Reconstruction and Re-em-
ployment Commission, 1945 (mimeographed); and "What Education Our Money
Buys." Albany, New York: State Educational Conference Board, 1943.
160 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION
salaries. It has also been a practical way by which school systems could
use new salary money to purchase better professional preparation, and
thus use it to produce better schools. In reality, however, it has been a
technique adapted to a period of recognized inadequate salary levels and
teacher preparation. It has been a practical technique of upgrading. At
its best it can hardly be thought of as a satisfactory solution to the
problem of personnel classification in a situation wherein an adequate
preservice preparation level has been reached.
The preparation-type of personnel classification has great virtue and
has served us well in the developing years of a developing profession. It
is still good. There is need, however, for study and experimentation with
other forms of classification at the basic-schedule level. Is the type of classifi-
cation used at the college and university level preferable? What can we
learn from the developments in the field of personnel classification in
other areas of public administration? What public reaction is there to a
classified teaching service, and what may we expect as reclassification
develops? What classification is of most worth, assuming reasonably
adequate levels? School systems which have gone farthest on the road to
adequate levels are the places which most need to consider this problem.
Research Problems in Financing School Personnel
There are a host of research problems begging for attack in the salary
field. Many of these have been referred to in preceding sections. In the
main, they relate to such questions as the following: The type of person-
nel needed; what constitutes personnel growth; the relation of salaries to
recruitment, growth, and morale; the nature and significance of salary
adequacy; teacher-load and conditions of work; the implications of an
extended policy participation by teachers for load adjustment and
salary cost; central government aid in relation to salary adequacy;
questions of salary law and its refinements; the relation of basic salaries
to differentials; the future development of cost-of-living indexes for the
teacher group; personnel classification for all service groups; the family-
load, or dependency, differential; the applicability of the single-salary
principle to nonteaching posts and to extended higher education; and the
like.
We have, as it were, reached a certain plateau in personnel and salary
research. While, to be sure, there is still great lag in practice behind our
conceptual design, probably in no field do we need new design, de-
pendent as it is on careful and expensive research, more than we do in
area.
CHAPTER VII
PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING FOR SCHOOLS
CHAELES BURSCH
Chief, Division of Schoolhouse Planning
State Department of Education
Sacramento, California
THE SCHOOL-PLANT LAG
There is considerable evidence that the gap between what is known to
be desirable and necessary and what is actually provided is wider in the
field of school-plant provisions than in most other major aspects of
educational services. The preparation of this chapter is an attempt to
consider the steps necessary to narrow that gap.
It may be of value to state briefly some of the reasons for the existence
of the excessive gap in this area of educational planning.
1. School buildings traditionally have belonged to the communities
where they are located, while school fl.rJmmistrat.nrR and teachers have
been brought in and sent out at frequent intervals, thus making it
difficult, if not impossible, to have their ideas and needs incorporated in
school plants. The good school employee has been the one who un-
complainingly finds a way to get along with the facilities provided.
2. The long life and heavy construction of school buildings, especially
those designed partially as monuments, contribute to the gap. Such
buildings make modernization and retooling for a changing educational
program difficult, expensive, and often well-nigh impossible unless they
were especially engineered for flexibility.
3. The domination of school planning and construction by small
school-board building committees and often by a single board member
almost inevitably leads to the provision of good structures but poor
implements of a modern educational program. Any narrowly-based
domination of school-plant planning and construction, whether it be by
school superintendent, business manager, architect, or contractor, fails
to take into account the complexity of today's school plant and its
implementing relationship to the educational process.
4. The application to local situations of school-building standards that
have been developed around past or, at best, current educational prac-
161
162 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
tice tends to make some buildings somewhat obsolete the day they are
occupied. An alternative is to design facilities to stimulate and accelerate
sound educational trends.
5. The presence on the staff of influential school business officials and
maintenance superintendents whose primary objective is to reduce
expenditures for school facilities tends to detract from the importance of
the school plant as an educational instrument. Likewise, the failure to
provide competent staff with responsibility in the area of schoolhousing
will result in neglect and deterioration of the plant. Fortunately, recent
strides in the professionalization of school busness officials are minimizing
this problem.
6. Many institutions which train school administrators and teachers
have given but scant attention to preparing their students for responsi-
bilities in planning, maintaining, and using the school plant. As a mini-
mum, trainees should be made aware of the potential educational contri-
butions of the school plant, available resources in planning school
buildings, and procedures in using these resources effectively; and they
should be practiced in the skills of manipulating properly the Important
devices found in school buildings, such as lighting, heating and ventilat-
ing controls, and the adjustment of seating equipment.
7. The general failure of curriculum makers and revisers to follow
through with the school-plant implications of the proposals makes an
almost inevitable lag between their proposals and the adoption of them in
practice. Unadjusted school plants may make the proposals difficult if
not impossible to adopt.
8. The lack of appreciation on the part of school officials of the key
importance of the architect in planning school buildings often results in
the selection of less competent and less specialized architects than are
available. This practice accounts for many nonfunctional school buildings.
9. Because of inappropriate and archaic school-districting and financ-
ing laws, some school districts are unable to finance a desirable type of
school plant. In other situations there exists the belief that spending less
for the school plant makes it possible to spend more on the staff. This
belief appears to be based upon the theory that having poor facilities
with a good teacher is better than providing good facilities with a less
able teacher, or on the assumption that both good facilities and good
teachers cannot be provided. It has been interesting to note that good
teachers in situations having poor facilities are inclined to leave as soon
as possible* It has also been revealing to note that good teachers have
preferred spacious, well-lighted, inexpensive, emergency-type rooms to
the more expensive but less suitable rooms in traditional permanent
buildings. Also to be considered are the school districts which have ade-
BURSCH 163
quate financial ability to construct appropriate facilities but are unable
to secure the necessary popular support for needed funds because of
inept public relations, poor presentation of facts, or other reasons.
10. The presence of noneducational federal agencies in the field of
school-building finance and construction has tended to improve the
construction standards for schools, but has, through national application
of some rules and regulations, retarded functional planning, especially in
cities and states somewhat advanced in that respect.
11. Competent educational consultants on over-all school-plant
planning are not available in sufficient number to give desired assistance
to local school-district officials. The planning of major school plants oc-
curs in most school districts infrequently. The presence in the situation,
on an advisory basis, of someone familiar with the planning of school
buildings is essential if functional adequacy is to be secured. State de-
partments of education and schools of education in universities are
logical sources for such personnel.
12. Presence on school boards of individuals who are not willing to
regard policy-making alone as their part in school administration, and
who feel that school-plant planning is the one major area in which they
can participate directly, sometimes constitutes a barrier to vital partici-
pation in functional planning of school buildings by the superintendent
and his staff. Such direct board-member participation tends to stress the
architectural and construction elements in a building as opposed to their
potential educational services.
CONSIDERATIONS BASIC TO SOUND PLANT EXPANSION
When a superintendent asks his governing board for authority to pro-
ceed with a plant-expansion program, the board will want to know what
makes additional housing necessary before granting the request. It will
also want to know how much and what types are needed, where the
plant should be located, how much it may cost, how the money is to be
secured, and what staff adjustments or additions will be required to
facilitate the program. The board will also request information on what
occupancy of the proposed new facilities may do to the budget for school
operation. That, however, is outside the scope of this discussion.
The School Survey
The school survey is the common method of supplying answers to
most of these basic questions. Whether the survey should be made by out-
side experts or by the local administrative staff is often open to debate. If
the local staff is inadequate, or if the board, either with or without the
concurrence of the superintendent, believes a check-up from the outside
164 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
is desirable, the answer is to bring in a competent school-survey staff to
do the job. In most situations, assuming the presence of well-trained
administrators and educational research workers, the formal survey
should not be necessary. The regular administrative staff will have avail-
able in well-organized form the data necessary to answer the questions
raised, However, the school district would secure an extra measure of
protection if it had the local interpretation of data and plant recom-
mendations reviewed by a competent educational plant consultant.
School-building surveys often propose curriculum changes, changes
in instructional procedures, school-grade groupings, school-district
boundary changes, and major redistricting of the area. When such
proposals come from outside the district, timed to precede a building
program, a great deal of confusion results just when unified purpose and
action are essential if the new school plant is to facilitate an approved
educational program. This is not intended as an argument against com-
plete surveys, but rather to urge the necessity of completing district
changes and substantial changes in educational organization and instruc-
tion procedures before entering seriously upon the planning of new
buildings. In most instances where pressures for new schoolhousing are
felt and financing has been arranged, the planning and construction will
proceed whether or not policy decisions have been reached on proposed
educational reorganization. When this is permitted, it probably reflects a
belief on the part of the board and the superintendent that the school
plant does not have much influence on the administration of an educa-
tional program that a good teacher can conduct a good program in al-
most any type and arrangement of shelter. If that is true, there is no
justification for the point of view presented in this chapter.
The collection, organization, and interpretation of data in a school
survey should result in the framework for a long-term plan for the school
plant and a plan for financing the capital outlays involved. In broad
outlines, it should answer the questions of "what," "where/' and
"when," The "what" states the total current plant needs and estimates
additional needs for a given period of years. The "where" should be
sufficiently specific to permit the purchase of new sites and the enlarge-
ment, when needed, of existing school sites well in advance of construc-
tion. The "when" permits the programming of school construction in a
sequence that meets school needs in priority order and permits adoption
of an extended financing program for capital outlays. A master plan for
each campus now occupied is of vital assistance in the preparation of a
long-term plan of plant development for a school district. The campus
plan should show present buildings, other fixtures, and all play areas,
and ahould indicate at least one scheme for the future development of the
BURSCH 165
campus to its optimum capacity. Plans for future development should
show locations for additional buildings and services needed to round out
and enrich the educational program, as well as the need for additional
classrooms and play areas. The preparation of a master-plan sketch
pertaining to a parcel of ground proposed for a new school site is an
ideal way to determine its inadequacy or to help answer the question of
how much area is needed.
Staffing for the Provision of Educational Plants
A good beginning point for providing appropriate school facilities is to
set up an adequate local staff with responsibilities for school-plant
planning and use. Such a staff, however well-selected and organized,
cannot overcome limitations imposed by inadequate financing or by a
mediocre or incompetent school architect. Conversely, adequate financ-
ing and a competent specialized architect will not produce as good a
school plant without appropriate staff assistance as when such assistance
is available throughout the planning process.
The magnitude and complexity of the local school-plant problem and
also the quality and completeness of architectural sen-ice available
should be prime determinants. A long list of variations in local situa-
tions could be presented here, but it will serve better to give attention to
the desirable tasks of this type of staff as the basis for determining its
composition and organization.
Such a staff, under the immediate control of the superintendent,
should:
1. Be the clearinghouse for all contacts between the school district and its
architect and all other planning and engineering consultants.
2. Be responsible for the preparation of a complete and comprehensive statement
of educational need in the area of school plant. This statement would conform
to board policy and incorporate in organized form the contributions of super-
visors, teachers, and custodians.
3. Assemble, for the purposes of stimulation, guidance and comparison, appropri-
ate standards and illustrations of school buildings, furniture, and equipment
and make these available to the general staff. A school-plant workshop or lab-
oratory is fully justified.
4. Hold conferences with members of the teaching staff and provide drafting
service to enable teachers to reduce their recommendations to specific
proposals that can be understood by the board, the superintendent, and the
architect. Permanent-type committees of teachers are more effective than
hastily called conferences when plans are under production in the architect's
office.
5. Together with the architect, prepare and keep up to date a complete control
budget for each construction project undertaken. Such a budget should
166 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
include actual or estimated costs of such items as appear in the following list
prepared by Don L. Essex. **
Cost Estimates 1
Item
L General construction $
2. Heating and ventilating
3. Plumbing
4. Electric
5. Sewage system, if by separate contract
6. Other contracts (a)
(b)
7. Subtotal (building only) $..
8. Architect's and engineer's commissions . . .
9. Clerk of the works (salary)
10. Legal services
11. General administration and incidental costs
12. Insurance during construction
13. Site; purchase price
14. Site: development, including roads and walks .
15. Furniture and equipment
16. Grand total (estimated project cost) . . . .
7, Interest during construction $~
Complete project budgeting is not only necessary to determine the actual
cost of the school plant but provides at least a chance that practically all
available capital outlay funds will not, as is often done, be used for construc-
tion alone,
6. Be informed on the best current practices and trends in school lighting, sani-
tation, heating, ventilation, acoustics, audio-visual aids, intercommunica-
tion devices, and other general school-plant services.
7. Supervise the initial occupancy of a new building and give assistance where
needed to insure proper use of facilities provided.
8. Supervise maintenance and repair operations.
Operational Procedures of School-Plant Staff
The nature of the tasks to be performed indicates the necessity of
heading up the school-plant staff with an educator rather than a business
manager or an architect, unless, of course, the business manager or
* Don L. Essex, "The Architect's Preliminary Studies," American School Board
Journal, GX (March, 1945), 31-32.
BURSCH 167
architect is also an educator. In small districts the superintendent fre-
quently adds these tasks to his other duties. This practice is not good for
the building program or for the smooth operation of other school
services. Even in small districts a reassignment of duties to free someone,
at least on a part-time basis, to give guidance to plant planning is
essential. The superintendent is most often the one best qualified.
Even in relatively small projects a designer or draftsman should be
available to assist staff and committee members in presenting their
recommendation in definite form understandable to the architect. In
some cases he would be loaned from the architect's office. In large
districts full-time employment is justified at least during the period
when preliminary plans were being prepared.
The school-plant staff under discussion here does not contemplate the
inclusion of architectural service for the development of plans and
specifications for school buildings. It contemplates rather an organized
approach to the task of securing the maximum potential contributions of
all available resources to the functional planning of school buildings and
of organizing these contributions for use by the architect. It contem-
plates also the continued availability to the architect of a well-
informed and responsible representative of the school district to assist in
the interpretation of school needs in relation to an organized building
plan. Whatever personnel, in addition to a director and draftsman, are
needed to accomplish these purposes should be provided.
It is inevitable and proper that the school-plant staff should spend
much time with building principals in the preparation of a statement of
educational need. That being the case, the principal for a proposed new
school should be selected prior to the time the intensive and detailed
planning of the building is undertaken. This need is most noticeable
when a major building program includes the housing of a revised or
expanded school grade-grouping organization; for example, the intro-
duction of junior high schools, junior college, neighborhood primary
schools, or nursery schools.
The objective of the school administrator in constituting a school-
plant staff may well be to create the opportunity and establish the
procedures most likely to secure from every school employee, from
specialized technicians, and from other persons and sources the best they
have to offer on plant planning; and to have incorporated in the plans
and specifications the meritorious offerings that caa be financed.
Flexibility in Construction
The need is now well recognised for school buildings to be amenable
to inexpensive alterations as a means of keeping them adjusted to the
168 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
changing scope and procedures of education. Recognized also, in areas
where school enrolments are not stabilized, is the need during planning to
anticipate building additions from time to time. These needs should give
a high priority to flexibility as a basic consideration in planning school
buildings. Some of the items that must be considered, if flexibility is to
be achieved, are:
1. Ample area for school sites.
2. Location of building on site where the building can be expanded.
3. Continuous fenestration rather than architectural groupings of windows.
4. A structural design which requires few load-bearing cross walls.
5. Oversized boiler-room, and radiators placed at short intervals; or individual
room heaters.
6. Lighter types of construction than concrete and masonry.
7. Single-loaded corridor, single-story type of plan.
Desirable flexibility in school construction usually is not as easily
achieved in large cities as in small cities and rural areas. In new sub-
divisions, however, and in situations where new primary neighborhood
schools are to be provided, large cities will have an opportunity to achieve
some flexibility.
FINANCING CAPITAL OUTI^AYS
Planning for financing capital outlays gives rise to much contro-
versial discussion. Are the funds to be provided by the sale of bonds, by
accumulated reserves, or by substantially increased tax levies for short
periods of time? Should local funds be supplemented by tapping the
much broader tax bases of state and federal governments?
Theoretical considerations show but slight differences in merit be-
tween bond financing and accumulated reserves. Attitudes of electors,
however, may make a controlling difference in a given community. When
bonding is adopted as the method of financing, there is strong temptation
both to let plant needs accumulate and to construct beyond current
needs so as to widen the time-span between bond-election campaigns.
Such a procedure gives the financing plan a priority over pupils' needs
for facilities and also introduces the danger of overbuilding. Under the
aecumulated-reserves plan, facilities may be provided more nearly when
needed but they might be constructed in units so small that costs are
higjher. Because of maximum tax rates and other legal restrictions, some
districts are denied the use of the accumulated-reserves method. The
potential evils of either method would be mitigated with state and federal
equalization funds.
The gross and indefensible inequalities found in plant provisions
among school districts and the stress and strain accompanying major
bond campaigns will continue as long as plant financing is considered
BURSCH 169
exclusively the responsibility of local districts. Many states have ac-
cepted responsibility for sharing with local districts the current costs of
education. Only when a similar responsibility for capital-outlay costs is
recognized, is there any hope of equalizing educational opportunity in so
far as plant provisions are concerned.
The current war period with its ready money, high federal taxes, and
sharp building restrictions has seen a substantial growth of ac-
cumulated reserves for needed construction. Very low interest rates on
school bonds and a less critical attitude on the part of the public in
financial matters have resulted in many bond issues being authorized to
finance needed construction at an uncertain future date. These current
practices emphasize the desirability of raising needed capital outlay funds
when it is most readily possible and by the method most acceptable to
the voters, rather than with consideration exclusively for the most con-
struction for the building dollar. Equal and properly enriched educational
opportunities can be provided for all children only on a basis of providing
plant facilities when and where they are needed.
EDUCATIONAL SPECIFICATIONS FOE A SCHOOL PLANT
A sound basis for a good working relationship among school-district
officials, the architect, and all specialized consultants during a building
program is a comprehensive written statement of the educational re-
quirements for the new school plant or additions to the existing plant.
The preparation of such a statement is a difficult and time-consuming
task. Its completeness and validity, however, serves as one important
measure of how well the superintendent of schools is discharging his
responsibility in providing appropriate housing for the educational pro-
gram in his district. A one-man document may be complete, but, gen-
erally speaking, its validity depends upon an intelligent use of staff and
consultant contributions.
A brief definite statement of the educational philosophy under which
the school system operates will serve a good purpose throughout the
planning process. The same is true for instructional procedures and
teacher-pupil relationships. Such statements to be effective need to go
further than merejabels, such as conventional, progressive, or middle of
the road.
The total number of children to be served on the campus will need to
be grouped as to age, grade, and sex, the average and maximum class
size being indicated. The operating time schedule for the school should be
given. Each kind of service which cannot be performed in a regular type
classroom must be described and the number of student stations and
special facilities required for such service must be noted.
170 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
Desirable groupings and interrelationships of rooms and services
in the interests of convenience and good school operation should be
indicated. The acquisition of adequate space for teaching, including
storage of wraps, supplies, and equipment, is the best reason that can be
given for undertaking a school-building program. This can be assured
only when the architect knows the specific type of furniture, equip-
ment, and wall boards that will be used in the room, as well as the num-
ber of students. He must also know in detail the instructional materials
used and to some extent how they are to be used and stored. He must
know what interest and group-work centers are needed over and above
seating, aisle, and storage areas. If extra floor space is desirable to permit
regrouping within the room from time to time, this fact should be stated.
After each instructional space has been planned carefully and the
units grouped for good operation, there are a number of general con-
siderations of real importance that should be covered in the educational
specifications. The normal movements of students about the campus
during the school day to meet scheduled requirements result in certain
points of crowding and congestion. A clear statement of this problem
permits the architect to plan for good student-traffic circulation in the
new plant. Areas in the building and on the playgrounds most in need of
easy supervision should be identified so the plan may be arranged ac-
cordingly. Rooms and corridors needing noise control should be specified
in order that appropriate acoustical treatment may be planned. Places
where audio-visual equipment is to be used in the building need to be
known by the architect so that essential services and space conditioning
may be provided.
The requirements for lighting deserve careful consideration in any
statement of need. If maximum use is to be made of daylight, the
orientation and shading of main classroom windows should be deter-
mined. In any event, light reflection factors of interior finishes should be
specified. The artificial light source incandescent or flourescent should
be determined, as well as the desired foot-candle levels and ratios of
brightness to be maintained.
While the general provisions for heating and ventilation may best be
left to the architect and his technical advisors, the educational state-
ment should call attention to the rooms where special solutions are re-
quired; for example, the need of primary rooms for a floor warm enough
to be used as instructional space even in cold weather. The maintenance
experience of staff and custodian should be called upon to designate
areas and services in need of special attention by the architect.
A carefully drawn set of educational specifications not only makes
possible a building that will facilitate the educational process but also
BURSCH 171
makes an important contribution in school district-architect relationship
throughout the planning period.
A statement by the school staff regarding sanitary facilities should
result in improvement of the toilet and drinking fountain facilities tra-
ditionally provided. For example, the location of ample handwashing
facilities in reasonable proximity to a cafeteria should permit school
practices which comply with the instructions for handwashing before
a meal. Similarly, foot or automatic flush valves for toilets and wash
basins in schools would bring them more in conformity to what is
found in hospitals and modernized offices and in line with precautionary
measures taught in the schools against the spreading of germs through
using manually operated faucets and valves,
CO-OPERATION WITH THE ARCHITECT'S OFFICE
Another critical area of the superintendent's responsibility in a build-
ing program is the establishment of a good procedure for continuous and
authoritative exchange of information and decisions between the school
officials and the architect. No matter how complete a set of educational
specifications is prepared, adjustments are necessary throughout the
planning process. Furthermore, there is the obvious necessity for fre-
quent interpretation to the architect by an educator of the significance
and application in the building of the educational specifications. If these
adjustments and interpretations are not available to the architect at the
proper time during the process of his work, delays in construction and
friction with the architect are inevitable.
Another important protection to the district may be realized by hav-
ing specialized consultants available to the architect when needed. For
example, an architect frequently considers his office competent in the
field of illumination and acoustical treatment, while the school district
may desire to check the architect's recommendations with an outstand-
ing expert in those matters. In one situation the school board left to its
architect the matter of securing acoustical engineering advice on plans
being prepared for an auditorium. The architect failed to secure the
acoustical engineer's services until after the plans were completed, re-
sulting in the necessity of abandoning the entire set of plans and devel-
oping new ones for an auditorium of the shape recommended by the
acoustical adviser.
The time may come when architectural firms, specializing in school
business, will have a staff so complete that the need for calling in special-
ists will disappear. Because many firms are not now so completely staffed,
supplemental technical advisers are warranted* This problem should be
faced frankly when the agreement between the school district and the
architect is drawn.
!72 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
Of assistance in the smooth working relationship between the school
district and the architect is a somewhat detailed description of what con-
stitutes a complete set of preliminary plans. Common practice followed
by architectural offices is to secure written approval of preliminary
plans from the school board before they proceed with the expensive
phase of preparing detailed plans and specifications. Should the architect
secure this preliminary approval on an incomplete set of plans, the
school district often is placed on the defensive in securing important
planning adjustments during the preparation of final drawings. An^ at-
tempt should be made to have the school district's desires in all possible
matters pertinent to the educational adequacy of the building incorporat-
ed in the preliminary plans and specifications. Furthermore, when a
district has at hand a complete set of preliminary drawings it is then in a
position to use available school-planning consultants more intelligently.
The following list of items to be included in preliminary plans has
proved helpful in the relationship of school architects to a state planning
division. It should be equally helpful to school districts in situations
where no state approval of school plans is required.
1. Plot plan (to scale)
a) Size and shape of entire site with over-all dimensions
b) Point of compass and data on prevailing and storm winds where significant
c) Topographical conditions (engineer's survey is required except on level
site)
d) Location of proposed building on site, its future additions, and existing
structures
e) Student-traffic connection between all buildings
/) Service roads and parking areas
g) Buildings on adjacent properties within forty feet of property lines (indi-
cate only)
h) Existing growth (trees) and natural barriers (rocks, cliffs, streams, etc.)
i) Adjacent streets, highways, sidewalks, railroads, etc. (Designate major
highways, county roads, or residential streets.)
2. Floor plans (to scale, not less than -rV in. to 1 ft.)
a) Location, sizes, and purposes of all rooms
b) Ixxsation of all doors, windows, etc.
c) Location of plumbing fixtures, chalk boards, bulletin boards, built-in
equipment, and casework
d) General method of heating, ventilating, and lighting
e) Over-all dimensions
/) Possible future additions to the building
g) Tentative furniture and equipment layouts, including student stations
3. Elevations (same scale as plans, of at least two sides)
a) Finished floor and ceiling levels
6) Finished outside grades
BURSCH 173
c) Windows, doors, steps, areas, retaining walls, etc.
d) Materials, especially as related to acoustics and maintenance
4. Sections (same scale, to explain condition not made clear in other drawings)
5. Miscellaneous
a) Dates of drawings and revisions
6) For auditorium-assembly units seating over 200, evidence that acoustical
adequacy has been considered in relation to shape and form of unit
In its relationship to the architect, a school district should provide an
additional major protection by requiring that working drawings for a
school project shall not be undertaken by the architect until he has the
written authorization from the district.
BUILDING AXD CONSTRUCTION
If the plans and specifications for a school building have been co-
operatively, completely, and competently prepared, the process of
advertising for bids, awarding contracts, and proceeding with the con-
struction is one requiring a minimum of attention or interference on the
part of school officials. The one notable exception would be if a number of
alternates appear in the plans and specifications. Too often the adjust-
ment of bids to available funds by means of hastily prepared alternates
nullifies much of the careful work of the staff in its educational planning,
A safe procedure to follow is to process proposed changes to an adopted
plan through the same channels and in the same manner as the original
plans were developed. One of the frequent and serious errors in adjusting
plans to meet available funds is to reduce the area in each classroom. The
possible adverse effect of such procedure on the educational program is
obvious. It is better to do with one or two fewer classrooms than will be
needed for a year or two than to endure cramped quarters in all rooms for
perhaps a half century.
Incredible as it seems, there are numerous instances in which the
actual construction is found to differ substantially from the approved
plans and specifications. Sometimes these differences are traceable to an
on-the-project verbal agreement between a representative of the school
district and the contractor. Protection to the district requires that
deviations from the plans be made only on the basis of formal action of
the board and the recommendation by the architect. It is the primary
concern of the school district's inspector of the work to see that the plans
and specifications are followed, not to attempt to improve upon them.
The superintendent of schools or individual board members should have
no power to authorize the builder to deviate from the approved plans
and specifications.
174 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE HOUSING
OCCUPYING AND USING THE BUILDING
A modern school building is complex and has in it unfamiliar equip-
ment and mechanical devices. To secure the maximum value from the
building, custodian, teachers, and pupils should be instructed in its use
and care when it is first occupied.
The school administration and maintenance staff and the architect
may well co-operate in giving such instruction. Heating and electrical
equipment, window and window-shade adjustment, floor and wall care,
and cleaning procedure are some of the items concerning which the
architect may be of assistance. The administration should explain the
educational thinking back of the building spaces and the provisions that
differ from those traditionally found. Where multi-use rooms are pro-
vided, their special use and storage problems deserve explanation.
A similar process of education in the use of a modern plant should be
given to new staff members and to transfers from traditional buildings.
PROGRAM or ACTION
Thus far in the chapter certain criticisms have been made and implied
regarding past and current administrative practices in connection with
school-plant planning, construction, and financing, and regarding the
facilities resulting from these practices. A program of action designed to
diminish or eliminate the currently observed weaknesses would involve:
1. Development of appropriate courses in universities and colleges to
fit educational trainees for responsibilities relating to the planning and
use of the school plant.
2. Provision for continuous educational staff participation in studying
the significance of the school plant and equipment in the educational
program and in attempting to improve their functional relationship.
3. Provision of a sub-committee of each committee working on cur-
riculum construction or revision whose responsibility would be to
determine the plant implications of curriculum proposals.
4. Redirection of emphasis from economical maintenance and opera-
tion of buildings to maximum implementation of educational services,
and from minimizing plant depreciation to combating educational
obsolescence of buildings.
5. Support of equalization of capital-outlay financing by means of
state and federal funds, but retaining local control.
6. Provision for an adequate school-plant consultation staff in all
state departments of education and in the United States Office of
Education.
BURSCH 175
7. Improvement in the method of selecting architects and special
engineers for school buildings and of using their services during the
planning period.
8. Improvement and expansion of training programs for custodians
and all other school-building operation and maintenance personnel.
9. Revision of policies and procedures of selection, purchase, and
distribution of furniture, equipment, and instructional supplies, giving
greater emphasis to educational implementation.
10. Development of effective liaison with the designers and manu-
facturers of school furniture and equipment in the hope that educational
and hygienic requirements may dictate what is produced, rather than
reliance on manufacturers to decide what is to be made available for
school purchase.
CONCLUSION
In no other area of responsibility does the school administrator have a
greater opportunity to influence the growth and development of a
forward-looking program of education than in the planning for school-
plant facilities. Improvement in the fulfilment of that responsibility is
more promising in the realm of staff organization and duty assignment,
and in planning procedures and controls, than in an attempt by the
school administrator to aspire to competence in each of the many and
highly technical phases of schoolhouse planning and construction.
CHAPTER VIII
THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION
OF SCHOOL PERSONNEL
ALONZO G. GBACE
Commissioner of Education
State Department of Education
Hartford, Connecticut
Rules and regulations governing the licensing of teachers, adminis-
trators, and other school personnel represent minimum requirements for
admission to the profession. Ultimately, it is probable that admission
will be on a basis similar to that presently prevailing in the legal and
medical professions.
Xo matter how rigid or how loose the certification rules and regula-
tions of a state may be, the initial responsibility for the professional
preparation of school personnel is vested in the training institution. If
there are incompetent individuals in the professional staff of the educa-
tional system, it is because certain institutions accepted them for training
and subsequently sponsored them for admission to the profession. The
training institution has many responsibilities in relation to the profes-
sional personnel of the schools, among which the following may be
mentioned: (1) initial selection of trainees, (2) continued guidance and
follow-up, (3) adequate professional preparation, (4) effective specializa-
tion, (5) personality development, (6) scholarship, (7) final recommenda-
tion of the candidate. It is the purpose of this chapter to indicate the
importance of these particular functions.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Initial Selection. The first step in admission to the teaching profession
is the selection of competent candidates by the training institution. It is
exceedingly doubtful that the training institution can select wisely in all
cases from the high-school graduating classes or, in the case of pros-
pective administrators, from those who already have had experience in
the classroom. In some cases the Freshman hi college will have made up
his mind to eater the profession and, in many cases, this decision even-
tually proves wise. It is probable that the training institution may im-
prove the opportunity for effective selection by requiring the candidate
176
GRACE 177
to demonstrate his aptitude for professional service in education during
his first two years in the training institution. In the case of the school
administrator, we shall most likely come to an internship in administra-
tion.
Continued Guidance and Follow-up. There must be wise counseling on
the part of those who guide the destiny of the prospective teacher.
Whatever goes on in the teacher-training classroom should be based on
sound theory and should be an example of what we expect the prospective
educator to do in his assignment. There must be close relationship be-
tween the instructor and the individual student and every effort should
be made to discover the strengths and weaknesses of the individual in
order to capitalize on the strengths and to eliminate the weaknesses. Re-
sults of experience in the adequate guidance of students in training will
have a strong bearing on selective procedures as well as on the adaptation
of instruction to individual needs. Guidance throughout the training
course is a most important phase of professional training and the insti-
tution should provide a follow-up service for its graduates during the
first two or three years of employment.
Adequate Professional Preparation. Some hold the opinion that since
Aristotle and Plato had no professional education courses no method-
ology, courses in administration, or internship educational personnel of
the present age need no such program. Some validity might be attached to
such views if all who sought admission to the profession were Platos
or Aristotles. It has become increasingly evident that there must be
adequate preparation for admission to employment in the schools if
those in teaching, administrative, or supervising positions are to be re-
garded as belonging to a profession.
Each state department of education should review its rules and regu-
lations governing certification and eliminate any specific course require-
ment which might hold the university or college training institution to an
unwarranted pattern. However, in the professional preparation of an
educator, the following areas should be mastered by the individual:
1. A thorough knowledge of human behavior and child development.
2. The ability to regard method as a means to an end. Too many acquire tech-
nique with little knowledge of the individual to whom the technique is to be
applied. Educators must learn that no one technique is sufficient, that in
teaching reading, for example, one method may apply to one individual or
several individuals, and other methods may apply better in other cases.
3. A thorough understanding of and sympathy for democracy and the ways of
democratic living.
4. Understanding the value of opportunities to learn, or to administer, or to
teach by doing.
178 THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF SCHOOL PERSONNEL
5. A thorough knowledge of the administration, organization, and purpose of
the American school system.
6* The ability always to keep the objectives of education in the foreground.
Techniques and methods should not be permitted to interfere with the
attainment of the objectives.
7. The ability to evaluate and appraise the results of instruction.
8. Understanding and skill in relationships with others.
9. Ability to organize material for instruction.
Other areas might be mentioned. These represent the fundamentals.
Effective Specialization. The question frequently arises concerning the
extent of the specialization required in a particular field. While there
should be mastery of the subject matter of a selected area, it has become
increasingly evident that success in the educational profession may be
impaired as a result of too narrow specialization. A broad cultural back-
ground or liberal education should be the foundation upon which special-
ization rests. The effective administrator must be an educated man. It is
expected that all educational personnel will become masters of English;
therefore, no individual should be accepted as a candidate for the ad-
ministrative course or be admitted to the teaching profession who is not
able to read, write, and speak English correctly and effectively.
Personality Factors. Personality is difficult to define. It certainly has
nothing to do with the race, religion, political affiliation, or the financial
status of the individual. Candidates for educational positions should not
be admitted on the basis of these or other irrelevant factors. So far as the
teaching profession is concerned, personality should include the following
traits:
1. Ability to organize thinking logically and to present facts in an interesting,
convincing, and dispassionate manner. This means the ability to think ra-
tionally.
2. Ability to read, write, and speak English fluently.
3. Disposition, to acquire the dress that fits the personality rather than to fol-
low the fashion at the moment.
4. Willingness to withhold tactless, embarrassing, injurious, or sarcastic com-
ments about others. Ability to suppress cynical remarks about personalities
or events.
5. Emotional stability and regard for the laws of physical and mental health.
6. Ability to be a good listener, one with patient, tolerant consideration of the
views and problems of others.
7* Recognition of the attainments of others,
8. The habit of doing one's work thorougjhly, neatly, and accurately, whatever
the assignment.
9, Ability to co-operate and work with others.
10. Possession of such qualities as unassuming reliance, esthetic appreciation,
creativeness, self-direction.
GRACE 179
Scholarship. An element which is needed for success in the educational
profession is scholarship. This need not mean the meticulous production
of a book or monograph. It need not mean the search for the unknown. It
is reflected somewhat in the following characteristics:
1. Ability to organize thinking logically. To express one's self by the precise
choice of words. To avoid vulgarisms and the use of unusual or inappropriate
vocabulary.
2. Ability to impart knowledge simply and to continue the process of self-edu-
cation, which should be a major objective of all education.
3. Thoroughness, neatness, and accuracy in the art of teaching or in adminis-
tration and supervision.
4. Presentation of concepts on the basis of facts and not on the basis of emotion-
alism.
5. The capacity to humanize knowledge and to maintain standards compatible
with student potentialities.
6. Mastery of essential knowledge.
7. Ability to evaluate techniques of acquiring and testing knowledge.
8. Intellectual integrity.
SOME REASONS FOR FAILURE IK THE ADMINISTRATIVE FIELD
One of the major weaknesses in the training of school administrators
has been the failure to follow up the product of the institution and to
ascertain from time to time the areas in which the graduate has shown
strength, or, in case of weakness, to assist the individual to overcome the
particular difficulty he has encountered. A board of education frequently
may be charged with responsibility for the failure of the individual,
whereas, in many instances other factors are indicated as the cause of
dissatisfaction. From observation, the following appear to represent
some major causes for lack of success in the administrative field.
1. Failure to keep the policy-determimng board informed. One fundamental
responsibility of the executive is to keep the policy-determining body in-
formed at all times on all matters within the jurisdiction of such a board.
2. Lack of a sense of timing. Some administrators do not seem to possess the
faculty of 'taking the proper action at the right time, There is a sense of
timing in administration. This means the capacity to sense the need for cou-
rageous action at the right time and in the rigjit cause.
3. Inability to make decisions. No policy-determining board should tolerate
indecision. It is better to make a decision and be wrong than to fail to make a
decision and thus to keep the board dangling in mid-air, unable to establish
a policy or to take action.
4. Inability to keep pace with social change. This implies that educational lead-
ership should emanate from the administrator's office and that he must be
an educator as well as a business agent of the school system. Frequently
school systems lag because of unenlightened leadership at the top or because
180 THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF SCHOOL PERSONNEL
of a feeling that any movement away from the traditionalism of the past
might be misinterpreted in the community. A step at a time is better than
no forward step at all. Awareness of the needs of society must be ever present.
o. Dealing with part of a board. There is nothing that contributes more cer-
tainly to administrative failure than sharing confidences about policy with
individual members of a board. Educational business should be equally
available to all members of a poHcy^etermining board.
6. Unwillingness or inability to democratize procedures. Delegation of authority
and responsibilities must be accompanied by a willingness to permit the
individual to exercise the authority delegated to him. Occasionally there is a
fear that the sharing of planning will lead to difficulties on the staff. A school
system must be organized to make full use of its available talent.
7. Revolution versus growth. Occasionally an administrator will come into a
community without taking the time to become acquainted with community
tradition, organization, institutions, ideals, or composition. A complete
revolution of educational philosophy, procedure, and method takes place.
The inevitable result is difficulty in the community and, in many cases, a
search for a new administrator. An administrator must be certain that the
people are aware of the condition of affairs before a plan of operation is de-
veloped. Evolution is always better than revolution, and will result in sound-
er progress.
8. Critical judgment about a predecessor. One of the weaknesses in adminis-
tration is the tendency, as shown by an occasional individual, to criticize
the predecessor who may have been discharged or eliminated for one reason
or another. One of the first lessons that an administrator should learn is that
whatever has preceded in the past may make good history for the record,
but that making this record a subject of common discussion is neither ethical
nor in the interests of the educational system.
9. Inability to present a point of view clearly and forcefully. Every school
administrator in his training course should be taught how to organize
material logically, to present it effectively, and to defend a point of view.
The capacity to write and to speak with good effect is important. The school
superintendent should have a course in public speaking during his training
period.
10, Fear of citizen organizations. Citizens should be brought into partnership
in the planning of the community program. Administrators sometimes fear
the influence of citizen groups, and in occasional instances the thought seems
to prevail that the less people know about the school system the more effec-
tively it can be operated. The board of education itself should encourage an
advisory organization of citizens. The schools belong to the people, not to the
representatives who constitute the board of education or to the administrator
who is the employed executive of the board. One of the most effective means
of securing progress in educational systems is the use of citizen organizations
in the development of a suitable adult-education program.
1 1 . Inability to be a good listener. Another type of administrator is the one who
GRACE 181
never listens or permits the other person to do any talking. More has been
learned by being a good listener than by being ever willing to express an
opinion on practically anything. The capacity to listen intelligently and
sympathetically is something that should be acquired in the training course.
12. Failure to develop a program. Operating a school system is something more
than buying nails for shingling the roof and wax for the gymnasium floor.
School administration involves leadership. It requires the capacity to pre-
sent a program for the consideration of the board and the interpretation of
that program in terms that can be understood by every citizen in the com-
munity.
Perhaps others will add to this list. Certainly these are not generali-
zations that apply universally. They do, however, represent some of the
major areas which apparently are not discussed or considered in courses
in school administration. Some may come under the general category of
human relations, others may be variously classified. The point is, institu-
tions engaged in the training of administrators should deal realistically
with problems such as these.
SOME RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE TKAINING OF
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS
Any analysis of the courses in education, particularly in the field of
administration and supervision, indicates a tremendous overlapping in
subject matter and content and the failure to distinguish between the
various levels and types of administration. Too much attention is paid to
individual course requirements and too little to the personal equipment,
the scholarship, and the personal fitness of the individual for an adminis-
trative position. The following recommendations are submitted merely
as a basis for discussion of desirable changes in training procedures.
1. Each institution should carefully survey the course content required for the
training of school administrators to discover the gaps, the duplication, and the
irrelevant material.
2. An internship of not less than one year should be developed either on a
scholarship basis or in co-operation with the educational system of the state
in order that young talent may obtain experience in the administrative field.
3. Greater utilization of the resources of a university should be made. For ex-
ample, few schools of education use the department of architecture or engi-
neering in the development of courses having to do with the engineering prob-
lems of school systems. There is a limited use of schools of public affairs and
citizenship by departments of education and yet the school superintendent
should be well informed about state and local government. Equally valuable
is the training that is made available to potential city managers and directors
in municipal government.
182 THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF SCHOOL PERSONNEL
4, Certification rules in the several states should be redirected in the sense that
specific course requirements should be eliminated from the certification rules
and regulations. If the state is not able or willing to adopt an examination
procedure on a merit-system basis for the development of an eligible list of
school superintendents, then the certification procedure should be liberalized
and the general requirement hereinbefore indicated should prevail.
INDEX
Administration: centralization of control
in, 17-19; co-operative procedures in,
14-15; delegation of authority and re-
sponsibility in, 10-11; democracy in,
5-6, 58-85; leadership in, 3-4; new
emphases in, 2-6; principles of, 10-17;
in relation to community planning,
88-112; in relation to curriculum pro-
cedures, 20-24, 40-41; in relation to
in-service education, 41-48; in relation
to policy-determining functions, 15-
16; in relation to pupil services, 48-52;
in relation to school personnel, 58-85;
reorientation of, 1-6; as social states-
manship, 2-3; teacher participation in,
21, 58-82; various conceptions of, 1-6
Advisory Committee on Education, re-
port of, 132-33
American Council on Education, 34
Architect, services of, in school plant con-
struction, 171-73
Arthurdale (West Virginia) program of
school and community co-operation, 89
Authority: delegation of y in democratic
administration, 10; as substitute for
leadership and responsibility, 18-19
Balanced program of living for boys and
girls, as the responsibility of adminis-
tration, 31-32
Bond financing of school plant, 168-69
Capital outlay financing, 114, 168
Centralization of administrative con-
trols, 17-19
Certification of school personnel, 176,
182
Characteristics of democratic behavior,
54
Citizen organizations, use of, in planning
community program, 89-93, 180
Citizenship, practice in, through extra-
class activities, 48
Collective bargaining: nature of basic
agreement in, 70-77; procedures in,
78-79; recognizing the principle of,
67-69; selecting agent for, 69
Commission on Teacher Education, 341
Committee representation of school per-
sonnel in democratic administration,
64-67
Community affairs, organizing for co-
ordination of, 1 12
Community councils, examples of, 99-
102
Community participation in state pro-
gram of educational planning in New
York, 106-7
Community resources, as related to in-
structional program, 40
Community-school programs, examples
of, 89-93
Community services for youth: co-
ordination of, 97-98; co-operation of
state and federal agencies in, 103-4;
interpretation of programs and policies
for, 104r-7; organization of, 96-97;
school administrators' responsibility
for, 88-^96, 110-12; standards of evalu-
ation of, 108; system of referrals for,
98-102; teacher participation in, 109-
10
Community survey, as means of de-
veloping program of services for youth,
93-96
Consultation staff for school plant con-
struction, local provision for, 165-67;
state provision for, 174
Co-operative procedures in adminis-
tration, 14r-15, 22-27, 3^40, 43
Co-ordinating community services for
youth, 96-98, 110-12
Core courses in relation to guidance pro-
gram, 34-35
Curriculum: adaptation of, to meet indi-
vidual needs, 32-38; administrative
policies relating to, 20-41; co-opera-
tive procedures in development of,
22-27; improvement of, through in-
service education, 42; organizing
school personnel for improvement of,
64r-67; as related to extra-class activi-
ties, 48-49; as related to guidance pro-
gram, 50-51; as related to pupil serv-
ices, 27-30; responsibility for develop-
ment of, 47; use of community re-
sources in improvement of, 40
Custodian of school building, training
program for, 175
Democracy in administration, 5-6, 58^-85
Denver (Colorado) curriculum planning
procedures, 27, 29, 42
Dependency load of teachers, 154
183
184
INDEX
Educational finance: external conditions
related to, 116, 123-27; inequalities
in, 118-21; nature of, 116-18; prin-
ciples of, 13, 117-18
Educational Finance Act of 1945: as
proposed in Mead-Aiken Bill, 134r-35;
as proposed in Thomas-Hill Bill, 133-
34
Educational planning: as a function of
state department of education, 9-10;
as a phase of administration, 4-5
Educational Policies Commission, school
program for rural community proposed
Educational policy as related to adminis-
tration, 15-16
Educational program, unitary concep-
tion of, 27-30
Educational specifications for school
plant, 169-71
Elective system as means of curriculum
adjustment, 34
Employee organizations, purposes and
procedures of, 58-82
Estill County (Kentucky) Planning
Council, 101-2
Exceptional children, special classes for,
51-52
Expansion of school plant, considera-
tions relating to, 163-68
Expenditures for education, as com-
pared with total expenditures of feder-
al, state, and local governments, 129-
30
Extension of educational services for
older youth and adults, 115, 143-48
Extra-class activities, as means of cur-
riculum adjustment, 34, 48-49
Federal aid for education: amount of,
127; external factors related to, 123-
27; issues pertaining to, 136-37; pro-
posals for, 133-35
Federal control of education: as exempli-
fied in Mead-Aiken and Thomas-Hill
Bills* 133-35; as related to financial
support, 131-36
Federal-state-local fiscal relations in edu-
cation, 114^15, 118-43
Financing education for older youth and
adults, 115, 143-48; issues related to,
JL^xu ~to
Financing educational personnel, 115,
148-60; external conditions related to,
150-52; present status of, 148-50; re-
search problems in, 160
Flexibility in school-building construc-
tion, 61, 167-68
Functional planning of school buildings,
163, 169-71, 174
Glencoe (Illinois) plan for developing
balanced program of living for stu-
dents, 31-32
Governmental units, integration of, 16-
17
Guidance as an integral part of instruc-
tional program, 50-52
Health, co-ordination of school and com-
munity services in, 88-102
Improving methods of work of school em-
ployees, 58-63
Individual differences, administering
educational program to provide for,
32-38
Individual school as unit for administer-
ing educational program, 27-31
In-service education program: co-opera-
tive planning of, 43; in relation to
regular school program, 46-47; re-
sponsibility of administration for, 41-
48; variety of activities in, 43-46
Internship for school administrators, 177,
181
Issues relating to federal aid for educa-
tion, 136-37
Junior college: availability of, for ex-
tended educational services, 144; con-
trol of, 147; financial support of,
145-47; free tuition in, 146-47;
growth of, 144
Leadership in administration, 3-4; as
function of state department of educa-
tion, 8; as related to curriculum de-
velopment, 22
Timing experiences of pupils, improve-
ment of, 42
Learning the procedures of a democratic
society, 54-57
Local initiative in educational adminis-
tration, 17-19
Mead-Aiken Bill for federal aid, 134-35,
142-43
Merrill (Wisconsin) plan of student par-
ticipation in community meetings, 37
Methods of work of school personnel,
motivating improvement in, 60
Montgomery County (Maryland) pro-
jects in teacher-pupil planning, 39
INDEX
185
Morale of school staff, improvement of.
79-82
National Advisory Committee on Edu-
cation, report of, 131-32
National Association of Secondary
School Principals, plan of school and
community co-operation suggested
by, 89
National Education Association esti-
mate of postwar expenditures for
education, 128
National Resources Planning Board,
estimate of postwar expenditures for
education, 128-29
New emphases in school administra-
tion, 2-6
New Trier Township High School: cur-
riculum adjustment plan at, 35-36;
student organizations in, 24
New York program of community par-
ticipation in educational planning,
106-7
Organisation of school personnel for
improvement of status and services,
58-82
Parents' participation in curriculum
planning, 24-27
Participation in administrative proc-
esses as basis of improvement of
school personnel, 58-82
Personal development of staff member,
fostered by administration, 46
Personnel administration: for building
and maintaining morale, 79-82; for
improvement of curriculum, 64-67;
for improvement in methods of work,
58-63; for improvement of relations
among members of staff, 67-79
Personnel organizations, purposes and
procedures of, 58-82
Planning pupil experiences of educational
value, 31-32, 42
Policy determining functions in relation
to administration, 15-16
Position-type salary schedule, 151
Preliminary plans for school building, 172
Preparation-type salary schedule, 151
Principles of democratic administration,
82-84
Principles of educational finance, 13,
117-18
Principles of state school administration,
10-17
Pupa development, evaluation of, 49-50
Pupil participation in administration, 24
Pupil self-direction, responsibility for
encouragement of, 39-40
Pupil services: as adapted to pupil needs,
51-52; administration of, 48-52; in
relation to the curriculum, 27-30
Purposes of education in a democracy,
53-54
Recommendations regarding training of
school administrators, 181-82
Recreation, co-ordination of school and
community services in, 88-102
Relating pupil needs and interests to so-
cial problems, 32-38
Relations of school employees to adminis-
trative staff, 67-79
Research: in financing educational per-
sonnel, 160; as function .of state de-
partment of education, 9-10
Reserve funds, use of, in capital-outlay
financing, 168
Salary schedules: construction of, 159-
60; problems pertaining to, 153-60;
trends in, 151-52; types of , 153, 159-60
Santa Barbara County (California): pro-
gram for improvement of pupil learn-
ing experiences, 42; survey of com-
munity resources in, 95
School administrators: adequate training
for, 177-78; initial selection of, by
training institutions, 176-^77; intern-
ship for, 177, 181; personality traits of,
178; reasons for failures among, 179-
81; recommendations regarding train-
ing of, 181-82
School-board committees, influence of,
on school-plant construction, 161
School-building cost estimates, 166
School-building standards, application
of, to local situations, 161-62
School-building survey, 163-65
School districts, inadequacy of, in school
plant construction, 162-63
School plant: architectural services for,
171-73; considerations underlying ex-
pansion of, 163-68; educational speci-
fications for, 169-71; financing con-
struction of, 168; preparation for
occupancy of, 174; program of action
in relation to, 174r-75; reasons for lag
in desirable provisions for, 161-63
School records and reports, use of: in
co-ordination of community services
for youth, 98-102; in guidance pro-
cedures, 34
186
INDEX
School services and community needs,
86-88
Single-salary schedule, 151, 159-60
Social problems as related to pupil needs
and interests, 32-38
Specifications for school plant construc-
tion, 169-71
State control of educational administra-
tion, 17-19
State department of education: advisory
commission for, 23; authority of, in
different states, 7; centralization of
authority in, 17-19; leadership func-
tion of, 8; purpose of, 7-10; relation of,
to local school districts, 11-12; re-
search and planning services of, 8-9;
supervisory functions of, 9
State support of education: need and
outlook for, 121-23; strengthening of,
in California and New York, 122-23;
variability in, 121
Supervision, as function of state depart-
ment of education, 9
System of referrals, co-ordination of com-
munity services for youth as facilitated
by, 98-102
Teacher participation: in administra-
tion, 21, 58-85; in community plan-
ning, 22-27
Teacher-pupil planning, 38-40
Teacher-training institutions, responsi-
bility of, for professional preparation
of school personnel, 176-79
Teachers' salaries: adequacy of, 159; ad-
justments in, for cost of living, 153;
differentials in, 154-55; national aver-
age of, 149; schedules for, 151-52
Tennessee Valley Authority, educational
programs in area of, 89, 106
Thomas-Hill Bill for federal aid, 133-34,
142
Training of school administrators, 176-
82; effects of narrow specialization in,
178; need for, in relation to planning
and use of school plant, 162
Tuition in junior colleges, 146-47
Tuskegee Institute teacher-education
program, 44
U.S. Office of Education, 5
Use of school plant, training personnel
for, 174
War Production Training Program,
school participation in, 86-87
Welfare, co-ordination of school and
community services in, 88-102
Wisconsin Co-operative Educational
Planning Program, 29-30
Work experience as phase of educational
program, 38
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
OF
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE
STUDY OF EDUCATION
(As adopted May, 1944, and amended June, 1945)
ARTICLE I
NAME
The name of this corporation shall be "The National Society for the Study
of Education," an Illinois corporation not for profit.
ARTICLE II
PURPOSES
Its purposes are to carry on the investigation of educational problems, to
publish the results of same, and to promote their discussion.
The corporation also has such powers as are now, or may hereafter be, granted
by the General Not For Profit Corporation Act of the State of Illinois.
AETICLE HE
OFFICES
The corporation shall have and continuously maintain in this state a regis-
tered office and a registered agent whose office is identical with such registered
office, and may have other offices within or without the State of Illinois as the
Board of Directors may from time to time determine.
AETICLE IV
Section 1. Classes. There shall be two classes of members active and honor-
ary. The qualifications and rights of the members of such classes shall be as
follows:
(a) Any person who is desirous of promoting the purposes of this corporation
is eligible to active membership and shall become such on payment of dues as
prescribed.
(b) Active members shall be entitled to vote, to participate in discussion and,
subject to the conditions set forth in Article V, to hold office.
(c) Honorary members shall be entitled to all the privileges of active mem-
bers, with the exception of voting and holding office, and shall be exempt from the
li CONSTITUTION
payment of dues. A person may be elected to honorary membership by vote of
the active members of the corporation on nomination by the Board of Directors.
(d) Any active member of the Society may, at any time after reaching the
age of sixty, become a life member on payment of the aggregate amount of the
regular annual dues for the period of life expectancy, as determined by standard
actuarial tables, such membership to entitle the member to receive all yearbooks
and to enjoy all other privileges of active membership in the Society for the
lifetime of the member.
Section 2. Termination, of Membership.
(a) The Board of Directors by affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members
of the board may suspend or etpel a member for cause after appropriate hearing.
(&) Termination of membership for nonpayment of dues shall become effec-
tive as provided in Article XIV.
Section 3. Reinstatement. The Board of Directors may by the affirmative vote
of two-thirds of the members of the Board reinstate a former member whose
membership was previously terminated for cause other than nonpayment of dues.
Section 4. Transfer of Membership, Membership in this corporation is not
transferable or assignable.
ARTICLE V
BOAED OF DIBECTOES
Section 1. General Powers. The business and affairs of the corporation shall
be managed by its Board of Directors. It shall appoint the Chairman and Vice-
Chairman of the Board of Directors, the Secretary-Treasurer, and Members of
the Council. It may appoint a member to fill any vacancy on the Board until
such vacancy shall have been filled by election as provided in Section 3 of
this Article*
Section 2. Number, Tenure, and Qwlifaations. The Board of Directors shall
consist of seven members, namely, six to be elected by the members of the cor-
poration, and the Secretary-Treasurer to be the seventh member. Only active
members who have contributed to the Yearbooks shall be eligible for election to
serve as directors. No member who has been elected for two full terms as direc-
tor in immediate succession shall be elected a director for a term next succeeding.
This provision shall not apply to the Secretary-Treasurer who is appointed by
the Board of Directors. Each director shall hold office for the term for which he
is elected or appointed and until his successor shall have been selected and
qualified. Directors need not be residents of Illinois.
Section 3. Election.
(a) The directors named in the Articles of Incorporation shall hold office
until their successors shall have been duly selected and shall have qualified.
Thereafter, two directors shall be elected annually to serve three years, be-
ginning March first after their election. If, at the time of any annual election,
a vacancy exists in the Board of Directors, a director shall be elected at such
election to fill such vacancy.
(6) Elections of directors shall be held by ballots sent by United States mail
as follows: A nominating ballot together with a list of members eligible to be
CONSTITUTION iii
directors shall be mailed by the Secretary-Treasurer to all active members of
the corporation in October. Erom such list, the active members shall nominate
on such ballot one eligible member for each of the two regular terms and for
any vacancy to be filled and return such ballots to the office of the Secretary-
Treasurer within twenty-one days after said date of mailing by the Secretary-
Treasurer, The Secretary-Treasurer shall prepare an election ballot and place
thereon in alphabetical order the names of persons equal to three times the
number of offices to be filled, these persons to be those who received the highest
number of votes on the nominating ballot, provided, however, that not more than
one person connected with a given institution or agency shall be named on such
final ballot, the person so named to be the one receiving the highest vote on the
nominating ballot. Such election ballot shall be mailed by the Secretary-Treasurer
to all active members in November next succeeding. The active members shall
vote thereon for one member for each such office. Election ballots must be in the
office of the Secretary-Treasurer within twenty-one days after said date of
mailing by the Secretary-Treasurer. The ballots shall be counted by the Secre-
tary-Treasurer, or by an election committee, if any, appointed 'by the board.
The two members receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected
for the regular term and the member or members receiving the next highest num-
ber of votes shall be declared elected for any vacancy or vacancies to be filled.
Section 4. Regular Meetings, A regular annual meeting of the Board of Direc-
tors shall be held, without other notice than this by-law, at the same place and
as nearly as possible on the same date as the annual meeting of the corporation.
The Board of Directors may provide the time and place, either within or with-
out the State of Illinois, for the holding of additional regular meetings of the
board.
Section 5. Special Meetings. Special meetings of the Board of Directors may
be called by or at the request of the Chairman or a majority of the directors.
Such special meetings shall be held at the office of the corporation unless a
majority of the directors agree upon a different place for such meetings.
Section 6. Notice. Notice of any special meeting of the Board of Directors
shall be given at least fifteen days previously thereto by written notice delivered
personally or mailed to each director at his business address, or by telegram. If
mailed, such notice shall be deemed to be delivered when deposited in the
United States mail in a sealed envelope so addressed, with postage thereon pre-
paid. If notice be given by telegram, such notice shall be deemed to be de-
livered when the telegram is delivered to the telegraph company. Any director
may waive notice of any meeting. The attendance of a director at any meeting
shall constitute a waiver of notice of such meeting, except where a director at-
tends a meeting for the express purpose of objecting to the transaction of any
business because the meeting is not lawfully called or convened. Neither the
business to be transacted at, nor the purpose of, any regular or special meeting
of the board need be specified in the notice or waiver of notice of such meeting.
Section 7. Quorum. A majority of the Board of Directors shall constitute a
quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting of the board, provided,
that if less than a majority of the directors are present at said meeting, a majority
Iv CONSTITUTION
of the directors present may adjourn the meeting from time to time without
further notice.
Section 8. Manner of Acting. The act of the majority of the directors present
at a meeting at which a quorum is present shall be the act of the Board of
Directors, except where otherwise provided by law or by these by-laws.
AETICLE VI
THE COUNCIL
Section 1. Appointment. The Council shall consist of the Board of Directors,
the Chairmen of the corporation's Yearbook and Research Committees, and
such other active members of the corporation as the Board of Directors may
appoint.
Section 2. Duties. The duties of the Council shall be to further the objects
of the corporation by assisting the Board of Directors in planning and carrying
forward the educational undertakings of the corporation.
ABTICLE VII
OFFECEBS
Section 1. Officers. The officers of the corporation shall be a Chairman of the
Board of Directors, a Vice-Chairman of the Board of Directors, and a Secretary-
Treasurer. The Board of Directors, by resolution, may create additional offices.
Any two or more offices may be held by the same person, except the offices of
Chairman and Secretary-Treasurer.
Section 2. Election and Term of Office. The officers of the corporation shall be
elected annually by the Board of Directors at the annual regular meeting of the
Board of Directors, provided, however, that the Secretary-Treasurer may be
elected for a term longer than one year. If the election of officers shall not be
held at such meeting, such election shall be held as soon thereafter as con-
veniently may be. Vacancies may be filled or new offices created and filled at
any meeting of the Board of Directors. Each officer shall hold office until his
successor shall have been duly elected and shall have qualified or until his death
or until he shall resign or shall have been removed in the manner hereinafter
provided.
Section 3. Removal. Any officer or agent elected or appointed by the Board
of Directors may be removed by the Board of Directors whenever in its judg-
ment the best interests of the corporation would be served thereby, but such
removal shall be without prejudice to the contract rights, if any, of the person
so removed.
Section 4. Chairman of Board of Directors. The Chairman of the Board of
Directors shall be the principal officer of the corporation. He shall preside at
all meetings of the members and of the Board of Directors, shall perform all
duties incident to the office of Chairman of the Board of Directors and such
other duties as may be prescribed by the Board of Directors from time to time.
Section 5. Vice^havrman of the Board of Directors. In the absence of the
CONSTITUTION v
Chairman of the Board of Directors or in the event of his inability or refusal to
act, the Vice-Chairman of the Board of Directors shall perform the duties of the
Chairman of the Board of Directors, and when so acting, shall have all the powers
of and be subject to all the restrictions upon the Chairman of the Board of
Directors. Any Vice-Chairman of the Board of Directors shall perform such
other duties as from time to time may be assigned to hi by the Board of
Directors.
Section 6. Secretary-Treasurer. The Secretary-Treasurer shall be the managing
executive officer of the corporation. He shall: (a) keep the minutes of the
meetings of the members and of the Board of Directors in one or more books
provided for that purpose; (6) see that all notices are duly given in accordance
with the provisions of these by-laws or as required by law; (c) be custodian of
the corporate records and of the seal of the corporation and see that the seal
of the corporation is affixed to all documents, the execution of which on behalf
of the corporation under its seal is duly authorized in accordance with the
provisions of these by-laws; (d) keep a register of the postoffice address of each
member as furnished to the secretary-treasurer by such member; (e) in general
perform all duties incident to the office of secretary and such other duties as
from time to time may be assigned to him by the Chairman of the Board of
Directors or by the Board of Directors. He shall also: (1) have charge and
custody of and be responsible for all funds and securities of the corporation;
receive and give receipts for moneys due and payable to the corporation from
any source whatsoever, and deposit all such moneys in the name of the cor-
poration in such banks, trust companies or other depositaries as shall be selected
in accordance with the provisions of Article XI of these by-laws; (2) in general
perform all the duties incident to the office of Treasurer and such other duties
as from time to time may be assigned to him by the Chairman of the Board of
Directors or by the Board of Directors. The secretary-treasurer shall give a bond
for the faithful discharge of his duties in such sum and with such surety or
sureties as the Board of Directors shall determine, said bond to be placed in the
^custody of the Chairman of the Board of Directors.
ARTICLE VIII
COMMITTEES
The Board of Directors, by appropriate resolution duly passed, may create
and appoint such committees for such purposes and periods of time as it may
deem advisable.
ABTICLE IX
PUBLICATIONS
Section 1. The corporation shall publish The Yearbook of the National Society
for &w Study of Education^ such supplements thereto, and such other materials
as the Board of Directors may provide for.
Section 2. Names of Members. The names of the active and honorary members
shall be printed in the Yearbook.
vi CONSTITUTION
ARTICLE X
ANNUAL MEETINGS
The corporation shall hold its annual meetings at the time and place of the
Annual Meeting of the American Association of School Administrators of the
National Education Association. Other meetings may be held when authorized
by the corporation or by the Board of Directors.
ARTICLE XI
CONTRACTS, CHECKS, DEPOSITS, AND GIFTS
Section 1. Contracts. The Board of Directors may authorize any officer or
officers, agent or agents of the corporation, in addition to the officers so authorized
by these by-laws to enter into any contract or execute and deliver any instru-
ment in the name of and on behalf of the corporation and such authority may be
general or confined to specific instances.
Section 2. Checks, drafts, etc. All checks, drafts, or other orders for the pay-
ment of money, notes, or other evidences of indebtedness issued in the name of
the corporation, shall be signed by such officer or officers, agent or agents of the
corporation and in such manner as shall from time to time be determined by
resolution of the Board of Directors. In the absence of such determination by
the Board of Directors, such instruments shall be signed by the Secretary-
Treasurer.
Section 3. Deposits. All funds of the corporation shall be deposited from time
to time to the credit of the corporation in such banks, trust companies, or other
depositaries as the Board of Directors may select.
Section 4. Gifts. The Board of Directors may accept on behalf of the cor-
poration any contribution, gift, bequest, or device for the general purposes or
for any special purpose of the corporation.
ARTICLE X.TT
BOOKS AND RECORDS
The corporation shall keep correct and complete books and records of account
and shall also keep minutes of the proceedings of its members, Board of Directors,
and committees having any of the authority of the Board of Directors, and shall
keep at the registered or principal office a record giving the names and addresses
of the members entitled to vote. All books and records of the corporation may
be Inspected by any member or his agent or attorney for any proper purpose at
any reasonable time.
ARTICLE XIII
FISCAL TEAR
The fiscal year of the corporation shall begin on the first day of July in each
year and end on the last day of June of the following year.
ARTICLE XIV
DUES
Section 1. Annual Dues. The dues for active members shall be $2.50 for each
calendar year.
CONSTITUTION vii
Section 2. Election Fee. An election fee of $1,00 shall be paid in advance by
each applicant for active membership.
Section 3. Payment of Dues. Dues for each calendar year shall be payable in
advance on or before the first day of January of that year. Notice of dues for
the ensuing year shall be mailed to members at the time set for mailing the
primary ballots.
Section 4. Default and Termination of Membership. Annual membership shall
terminate automatically for those members whose dues remain unpaid after the
first day of January of each year. Members so in default will be reinstated on
payment of the annual dues plus a reinstatement fee of fifty cents.
ARTICLE XV
SEAL
The Board of Directors shall provide a corporate seal which shall be in the
form of a circle and shall have inscribed thereon the name of the corporation and
the words "Corporate Seal, Illinois."
ARTICLE XVI
WAIVER OF NOTICE
Whenever any notice whatever is required to be given under the provisions of
the General Not For Profit Corporation Act of Illinois or under the provisions
of the Articles of Incorporation or the by-laws of the corporation, a waiver
thereof in writing signed by the person or persons entitled to such notice, whether
before or after the time stated therein, shall be deemed equivalent to the giving
of such notice.
ARTICLE XVH
AME3SDMENTS
Section L Amendments by Directors. The constitution and by-laws may be
altered or amended at any meeting of the Board of Directors duly called and
held, provided that an affirmative vote of at least five directors shall be required
for such action.
Section 2. Amendments ty Members. By petition of twenty-five or more active
members duly filed with the Secretary-Treasurer, a proposal to amend the con-
stitution and by-laws shall be submitted to all active members by United
States mail together with ballots on which the members shall vote for or against
the proposal. Such ballots shall be returned by United States mail to the office
of the Secretary-Treasurer within twenty-one days after date of mailing of the
proposal and ballots by the Secretary-Treasurer. The Secretary-Treasurer or a
committee appointed by the Board of Directors for that purpose shall count the
ballots and advise the members of the result. A vote in favor of such proposal
by two-thirds of the members voting thereon shall be required for adoption of
such amendment.
SYNOPSIS OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF
DIRECTORS OF THE SOCIETY DURING 1945
I. MEETING OF FEBBUABT 24 AT CHICAGO
The Board of Directors met at the Shoreland Hotel, the following members
being present: Brownell (Chairman), Charters, Horn, and Henry (Secretary).
1. The Secretary reported that the annual election of 1944 resulted in the re-
election of Messrs. Brownell and Charters, each for a second term beginning
March 1, 1945.
2. Mr. Horn was elected Chairman of the Board for the ensuing year. Mr.
Henry was re-elected Secretary-Treasurer for a term of three years.
3. The Board approved a proposal for transferring the agency for the sale
of yearbooks to the University of Chicago Press, arrangements having been made
at the University for removal to the Press of the publications office of the Depart-
ment of Education, through which the yearbooks have been distributed since
1943.
4. Mr. Brownell reported that satisfactory progress was being made on the
yearbook, The Measurement of Understanding, and that most of the manuscripts
would be availab e for examination by the committee at the meeting to be held
in April.
5. The Secretary presented the report of the committee on educational ad-
ministration. The Board approved the request of Chairman Grace that Mr.
Stoddard be appointed a member of this committee.
6. Mr. Horn explained the projected plan of the National Council for the
Social Studies and the National Council of Geography Teachers for the publica-
tion of a yearbook on geography. The Board requested Mr. Horn to confer with
the chairman of the joint committee appointed by these organizations with the
view of detennining whether or not it would be desirable for the Society to co-
operate with that committee in the preparation of the proposed yearbook.
7. The Secretary was instructed to request Professor William S. Gray to
prepare an outline of a possible yearbook on reading in accordance with the
tentative proposal he presented for consideration at the last Board meeting.
8. Mr. Charters was requested to conduct inquiries concerning the possible
need for a yearbook dealing with the problem of juvenile delinquency.
H. MEETING OF JUNE 10 AT CHICAGO
The Board of Directors met at the Shoreland Hotel, the following members
being present: Brownell, Charters, Ereeman, Horn (Chairman), and Henry
(Secretary).
1. After reviewing a statement of the present status of the securities and
savings accounts of the Society, the Board instructed the Secretary to reduce
the savings deposits, which amounted to approximately $4,800, to a maximum of
is
x PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
$ 2,500, the sums withdrawn from the cash reserves in savings banks to be in-
vested in appropriate securities,
2. The Board adopted an amendment to the Constitution and By-Laws to
provide an additional class of membership in the Society to be designated life
membership. [The text of this amendment appears in paragraph (d) under
Section 1, Article IV, of the Constitution and By-Laws as printed in this year-
book.]
3. The Board adopted an amendment to the Constitution and By-Laws in
furtherance of the established policy of the Society in maintaining an appropriate
representation on the Board of Directors of the various institutions and agencies
with which members of the Society are identified. [The text of this amendment
appears as the final clause of the third sentence of paragraph (b) of Section 3,
Article V, of the Constitution and By-Laws as printed in this yearbook.]
4. The Secretary reported the proceedings of the meeting of the committee
on educational administration, held in Albany on June 1. The Board approved
recommendations of the committee relative to certain modifications of the earlier
outline of the yearbook.
5. The Board reviewed the proposal for a yearbook on early childhood educa-
tion submitted by Mr. N. S. Light, Director of the Bureau of Supervision,
State Department of Education, Hartford, Connecticut. The Secretary was in-
structed to summarize the suggestions offered by the Board for modification
of the outline and to request Mr. Light to confer with Mr. Stoddard and Miss
Goodykoontz relative to the final revision of the outline and the selection of
members of the committee for the preparation of the yearbook.
6. Mr. Horn reported the status of his negotiations with representatives of the
National Council for the Social Studies and the National Council of Geography
Teachers regarding their plans for a yearbook on geography. The Secretary was
instructed to prepare a statement relative to the financial requirements of this
project for consideration at the next meeting of the Board.
7. The Board considered the plan suggested by Professor Gray for a year-
book on reading and requested that the proposal be revised for reconsideration
at the next meeting,
8. Mr. Freeman reported on his conference with Dr. Eurich relative to a sug-
gested yearbook dealing with the college curriculum. The Board requested Mr.
Freeman to continue his inquiries regarding a yearbook in this area and to
report at a later meeting.
9. Mr, Charters presented a written report of the results of his exploration
of the problem of juvenile delinquency, including comments of a number of per-
sons who responded to his inquiry. The Board requested Mr. Charters to con-
tinue this inquiry and to seek advice relative to appropriate selections of per-
sonnel for the yearbook committee.
III. MEETING OF OCTOBEB 21 AT CHICAGO
The Board of Directors met at the Shoreland Hotel, the following members
being present: Brownell, Freeman, Horn (Chairman), Melby, and Henry (Secre-
tary).
PROCEEDINGS OP THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS XL
1. The Secretary reported that the membership of the Society had increased
to 1583 during the present year, the number enrolled for the year 1944 being
1355.
2. Mr. Charters being absent on account of illness, the report of his inquiry
concerning the problem of juvenile delinquency was presented by one of his
associates. The selection of members of the committee for this yearbook was
deferred to a later date.
3. In view of transportation difficulties, the Board decided that it would not
be advisable to plan for meetings for discussion of the yearbooks in connection
with the Regional Conferences of the American Association of School Administra-
tors.
4. Mr. Horn reported that further conferences would be required before
suitable arrangements might be made for co-operation with the geography com-
mittee of the National Council for the Social Studies and the National Council
of Geography Teachers.
5. The Board approved Mr. light's recommendations of members of the
committee on early childhood education and appropriated SI ,000 for expenses
of the committee.
6. Mr. Brownell presented the proposal of Professor Victor Noll for a year-
book on science. This proposal was approved and an appropriation made for
expenses of the committee. Professor Noll was appointed chairman of the com-
mittee.
7. The Secretary presented a communication from Professor Edgar Dale to the
effect that it would not be possible for him to serve as chairman of a committee
for the preparation of a yearbook dealing with the use of concrete materials in
classroom instruction. Mr. Brownell and the Secretary were requested to confer
with Professor Stephen M. Corey regarding a yearbook in this field.
8. Mr. Horn was appointed as representative of the Board in further negotia-
tions with Professor Gray regarding the proposed yearbook on reading.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE SOCIETY
19441945
Receipts and Disbursements
Receipts:
Membership dues S 4,513.21
Fees for quotations 3 . 00
Sales of yearbooks 10,068.67
Payments on principal of notes 2,877.01
Interest on notes 312.71
Interest and dividends on securities 279 . 26
Interest on savings accounts 106.46
Miscellaneous , 38.55
Total receipts 18,198.87
Disbursements:
Yearbooks:
Manufacturing and distributing S 7,635.78
Reprinting 2,632.34
Preparation 1,816.85
Meetings 1,047.75
Secretary's office:
Editorial, secretarial, and clerical services 3,081.50
Supplies 274.90
Telephone and telegraph 60.32
Auditing 200.00
Miscellaneous 287.85
Purchase of securities 3,000.00
Total disbursements $20,037.29
Excess of disbursements over receipts - $1,838.42
Cash in banks at beginning of year 5; 619. 38
Cash in banks at end of year $3,780.96
xiii
xiv TREASURER'S REPORT
STATEMENT OF CASH, SECURITIES, AND
NOTES RECEIVABLE
As of June 30, 1945
Cash:
University National Bank, Chicago, Illinois, Checking account $ 1,280.96
Danvers Savings Bank, Danvers, Massachusetts, Savings ac-
count 1,500.00
Salem Five Cents Savings Bank, Salem, Massachusetts, Savings
account 1,000.00
S 3,780.96
Securities:
Bonds:
Cost
$1,000 Pennsylvania R.R. Co. General Mortgage, 4f% due
6/1/65 $ 960.00
200 Canada Atlantic Ry. Co. Cons. 1st Mortgage, 4% due
1/1/55 937.98
200 Canada Atlantic Ry. Co, Cons. 1st Mortgage, 4% due
1/1/55 928.26
$8,200 U.S. of America Savings Bonds, Series "G," 2J%, due
12 years from issue date 8,200.00
$1,000 dated 9/1/43
SI, 500 dated 2/1/44
$2,700 dated 5/1/44
$2,000 dated 2/1/45
$1,000 dated 4/1/45
Stock:
25 Shares First National Bank of Boston, Capital stock . . 1 ,031 . 25
Total securities $12,057.49
Notes receivable, Public School Publishing Company:
4% Secured note dated 1/2/43 due on or before 1/2/49 . . . $ 5 , 367 . 00
4% Unsecured note dated 1/2/43, due on or before 1/2/49 . . 1,242.24
Total notes receivable $6,609.24
Total assets $32,447.69
NELSON B. HENRY, Treasurer
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR
THE STUDY OF EDUCATION
(This list includes all persons enrolled December 31, 1945, whether for
1945 or 1946. Asterisk indicates Life Members of the Society.)
HONOEARY MEMBERS
Dewey, Emeritus Professor John, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Holmes, Manfred J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, III.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Abelson, Dr. Harold H., College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.
Abernethy, Professor Ethel M., Queens College, Charlotte, N.C.
Abernethy, Dr. R. R., Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Upper Darby, Pa.
Abraham, H. G., Superintendent of Schools, Woodstock, 111.
Acuff, Davis H., Superintendent of Schools, Troy, Mo.
Adams, H. W., Superintendent of Schools, Eureka, Calif,
Adams, Ruby M., Director, Elementary Education, Cumberland, Md.
Addicott, Dr. Irwin 0., Asst. Supt,, Fresno City Schools, Fresno, Calif.
Adell, James C., Chief, Bureau of Educ. Research, Cleveland, Ohio
Aiken, E. S., Supervisor, Rapides Parish Schools, Alexandria, La.
Albright, Frank S., Asst. Principal, Froebel School, Gary, Ind.
Alexis, Brother, S.C., Dean, St. Joseph's House of Studies, Metuchen, N.J.
Allen, Clara B., 145 East Maple Avenue, Ottumwa, Iowa
Allen, D. W., Director of Education, Ohio State Reformatory, Mansfield, Ohio
Allen, Edward E., Supervising Principal of Schools, Akron, N. Y.
Allen, Ross L., Professor of Health Educ,, State Teachers College, Cortland, N.Y.
Allman, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, Muncie, Ind,
Amberson, Professor Jean D., Home Economics Bldg., State College, Pa.
Ambrose, Professor Luther M., Box 514, College Station, Berea, Ky.
Ambruster, John R., Principal, The Greendale School, Greendale, Wis.
Anderson, Esther L., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Cheyenne, Wyo.
Anderson, G. Lester, Director, University High School, Minneapolis, Minn.
Anderson, Harold Albert, Dept. of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.
Anderson, Harry D., Supt., Ottawa Township High School, Ottawa, HI.
Anderson, Howard R., School of Education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Anderson, J. L., Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, Mich,
Anderson, John E., Dir., Inst. of Child Welfare, Univ. of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn,
Anderson, Marion, Ginn and Company, Boston, Mass.
Andrews, Annie, Supervisor, Amite County Elem. Schools, Liberty, Miss.
Andrus, Ruth, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y.
Angell, John H., 5555 Woodlawn Ave., Cidcago, HI.
Anketell, Richard N., Superintendent of Schools, North Adams, Mass.
Antell, Henry, 120 Kenilworth PL, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Archer, C. P., Lt. Col., AUS, 1381 N. Qeveland Ave., St. Paul, Minn.
Armstrong, Sara M., State Normal School, Framingham Center, Mass.
Arrants, John H., Superintendent of City Schools, Bristol, Tenn.
Arsenian, Professor Seth, Springfield College, Springfield, Mass.
Artley, A. Sterl, Stephens College, Columbia, Mo.
Asgis, Dr. Alfred J., 7 East Forty-second St., New York, N.Y,
Ashbaugh, Dr. Ernest J., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
Atkinson, William N., Dean, Jackson Junior College, Jackson, Mich.
Avery 3 George T., Marvin Avenue, Los Altos, Calif.
Ayer, Jean, 8 Scholes Lane, Essex, Conn.
xv
xvi MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Babcock, E. H., Superintendent of Public Schools, Grand Haven, Mich.
Babeock, George T., 182 Second Street, San Francisco, Calif.
Backus, Joyce, Librarian, State College, San Jose, Calif.
Baer, Dr. Joseph A., State Department of Education, Hartford, Conn.
Bagley, Professor William C., 525 West 120th St., New York, N. Y.
Bailey, Dwight L., Western Illinois Teachers College, Macomb, 111.
Bailey, Francis L., President, State Teachers College, Gorham, Me.
Bailey, Thomas D., Supervisor of Schools, Tampa, Fla.
Baker, Edith M., Acting Librarian, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
Baker, Harold V., Principal, Daniel Webster School, New Rochelle, N.Y.
Baker, Dr. Harry J., Director, Psychological Clinic, Detroit, Mich.
Baker, Lt. Col. Harry Leigh, 1901 B St., Lincoln, Neb.
Baker, Ira Young, Supervising Principal, Manchester, Pa.
Baker, M. P., Superintendent of Schools, Corpus Christi, Tex.
Baldwin, Professor Robert D., West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.
Ball, George, Principal, Chatham Junior High School, Savannah, Ga.
Balyeat, Professor F. A., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Bamberger, Professor Florence E., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
Barber, Fred H., Box 247, Emory, Va.
Bardy, Joseph, Bellerich Apartments, Philadelphia, Pa.
Bare, J. M., 2009 Bennett Ave., Chattanooga, Term.
Barrett, Rt. Rev. Msgr. John I. Deceased,
Barrie, Margaret J., Principal, Lincoln School, Hawthorne, N.J.
Barth, Rev. Pius J., St. Peter's Church, 816 S. Clark St., Chicago, 111.
Barthold, Harold J., Supervising Principal, Bethlehem, Pa.
Bartlett, Roland 0., Principal, Westmount Senior High School, Westmount, Que.
Bash, Abraham, 162 East Fifty-second St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Batchelder, Mildred L., American Library Association, Chicago, HI.
Bateman, Dr. E. Allen, Supt. of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah
Baugher, Dr. Jacob L, Dept. of Educ., Manchester College, North Manchester, Ind.
Beall, Dr. Ross H,, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Okla.
Bear, Professor Robert M., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H.
Beardsley, Florence E., State Department of Education, Salem, Ore.
Bechtel, Blair B,, Moorestown High School, Moorestown, N.J.
Beck, Professor Hubert Park, 523 West 121st St., New York, N.Y.
Bedell, Professor Ralph C., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Beechel, Professor Edith E., University Elementary School, Athens, Ohio
Behrens, Minnie, Sam Houston State Teachers College, Huntsville, Tex.
Bell, Dorothy M., President, Bradford Junior College, Bradford, Mass.
Bell, Dr. Millard D,, Superintendent of Schools, Wilmette, HL
Bell, R. W., Principal, Jenkintown High School, Jenkintown, Pa.
Bemer, C. W., Superintendent of Schools, Muskegon, Mich.
Bender, John F., School of Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Banner, Thomas E., College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, HI.
Benson, J. R., 6131 Magnolia Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Benz, HL E., College of Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
Berg, Locksley D., Principal, Monroe School, Minneapolis, Minn.
Berg, Selmer H., Superintendent of Schools, Kockford, HI.
Bergan, EL W., Superintendent of Schools, Browning, Mont.
Bergesen, B. E., Jr., Educational Test Bureau, Philadelphia, Pa.
Bergman, Frank V., Superintendent of Schools, Manhattan, TTa.n
Bergquist, E. B., Superintendent of Schools, Rapid City, S. D.
Berkson, I. B., 39 Claremont Ave., New York, N. Y.
Berman, Dr. Samuel, Principal, FitzSimons Junior High School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Berry, Professor Charles S., School of Educ., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio.
Best, Howard R., Supervising Principal, Cranford, N.Y.
Betts, Emmett A., Dir., Reading Clinic, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa.
Beumer, Edward H., 6462 Devonshire St., St. Louis, Mo.
Bickel, Dr. L. G., Dean, Concordia Teachers College, Seward, Neb.
Bigelow, Karl W.,American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.
Billett, Professor Roy 0., Boston University, Boston, Mass.
Billig, Dr. Florence Grace, College of Educ., Wayne University, Detroit, Mich.
Binnie, Clara G., 9 Tennis Crescent, Toronto, Ont.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xvii
Bishop, Frank E., Superintendent of Schools, Corona, CaHf .
Bishop, S. D., Principal, Community High School, West Chicago, 111.
Bixler, H. H., Dir., Research and Guidance, Bd of Educ., Atlanta, Ga.
Bixler, Professor Lorin, Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio
Black, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, Mattoon, HI.
Black, Dr. Leo P., Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Neb.
Blackburn, J. Albert, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.
Blackwell, G. L., Superintendent of Schools, St. Joseph, Mo.
Blair, Professor Glenn M., College of Educ., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
Blodgett, Darrell R., Superintendent of Schools, Jacksonville, HI.
Blommers, Paul, 12 Woolf Court, Iowa City, Iowa
Bloomingdale, Lewis M., Jr., Elm Ridge Farm, Scarsdale, N.Y.
Boardman, Professor Charles W., College of Educ., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Min TV
Boehm, Charles H., County Superintendent, Doylestown, Pa.
Boehme, W. F., Superintendent, Wayne Schools, Cable, Ohio
Boggan, T. K., Superintendent, Carthage Consolidated Schools, Carthage, Miss.
Boland, Professor Michael P., St. Joseph's College, Philadelphia, Pa.
Bole, Lyman, W., Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Vt.
Bole, Rita L., Principal, State Normal School, Lyndon Center, Vt.
Bolton, Professor Frederick E., University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Bond, G. W., Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La.
Bond, J. C., Dean, Teachers College, Kansas City, Mo.
Book, Clare B., Principal, Senior High School, New Castle, Pa.
Booker, Ivan A., Research Division, N.E.A., Washington, D.C.
Bookwalter, Professor Karl W., Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.
Booth, John M., Superintednent of Schools, Kellogg, Idaho
Boraas, Julius, St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn,
Boros, Arnold L., 396 East 170th St., New York, N.Y.
Bosshart, John H., Commissioner of Education, Trenton, N.J.
Bossing, Professor Nelson L., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Mian.
Boston, W. T., Superintendent, Dorchester County Schools, Cambridge, Md.
Boswell, Sidney, Principal, Glynn Academy, Brunswick, Ga.
Bourgeois, William L., Superintendent of Schools, Jewett City, Conn.
Bowen, H. S., 106J N. Monroe Ave., Columbus, Ohio
Bowman, Clyde A., Dir., Dept. of Industrial Arts, Stout lust., Menomonie, Wis.
Bowyer, Veraon, Board of Education, 228 N. LaSaUe St., Chicago, 111.
Boyce, Arthur Clifton, American Mission, Teheran, Iran
Boyd, Fred, Spear Lake School, Marked Tree, Ark.
Boyne, Edwin M., Superintendent of Schools, Mason, Mich.
Bracken, John L., 7500 Maryland Ave., Clayton, Mo.
Brandon, Helen D., 348 Mentor Ave., Painesville, Ohio
Brammell, Roy, Dean, School of Educ., Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn.
Branigan, John, Superintendent of Schools, Redlands, Calif.
Branom, Frederick K, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, HI.
Branom, Dr. Wayne T., Supervising Principal, Hillside, NX
Brantley, G. D., Principal, Summer High School, St. Louis, Mo.
Brechbill, Professor Henry, University of Maryland, College Park, Md.
Breed, Professor Frederick S., Dune Acres, Chesterton, Ind.
Bresnehen, Dr. Ella L., Dir., Dept. Ed. Investigation and Meas., Boston, Mass.
Brewer, Karl M., Superintendent of Schools, DuBois, Pa.
Brickman, Benjamin, Dept. of Education, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Bridgett, Alice E., Colony Street School, Wallingford, Conn.
Bright, 0. T., Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Lake Bluff, DL
Brin, Joseph G., Bfoston University, Boston, Mass.
Brinkley, Sterling G., Emory University, Emory University, Ga.
Brinkman, Rev. Gervase J., O.F.M., St. Joseph College, Westmont, HI.
Brish, William M. t Prince George's County Schools, Upper Marlboro, Md.
Brislawn, Maurice J., Principal, Kessler Blvd. School, lingview, Wash-
Bristol, L. M., University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla,
Bristow, William H., Bureau of Ref ., Research, and Statistics, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Britton, Edward C., 10015 Eighty-seventh Ave., Edmonton, Alta.
Broening, Angela M., 2 Millbrook Road, Baltimore, Md.
xviii MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Bronfenbrenner, Lt. Urie, Borden General Hospital, Chickasha, Okla,
Bronson, Moses L., 870 Seventh Ave., New York, N.Y.
Brooks, Charles D., Vice-Principal, Stanton High School, Jacksonville, Fla.
Brooks, Professor Mary B., Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga.
Brougher, John F,, 5804 Eleventh St., N., Arlington, Va. *
Brown, Professor Clara M., University Farm, Univ. of Minn., St. Paul, Minn.
Brown, Dorph, Dean, Herzl Junior College, Chicago, 111.
Brown, Edward W., Headmaster, Calvert School, Baltimore, Md.
Brown, Francis W., Superintendent, Ottawa Hills Schools, Toledo, Ohio
Brown, George Earl, Superintendent of Schools, Ocean City, N.J.
Brown, Harold N., School of Education, University of Nevada^ Reno, Nev.
Brown, Harold S.. President, Chas. E. Merrill Co., Inc., New York, N.Y.
Brown, Hugh S., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn,.
Brown, Joseph C., Superintendent of Schools, Pelham, N.Y.
Brown, Josephine H., State Teachers College, Bowie, Md.
Brown, Marjorie Bowling, Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles, Calif.
Brown, Nina H., Simpson College, Indianola, Iowa
Brown, Ralph Adams, Cornish Flat, N.H.
Brown, Raymond N., Superintendent of Schools, Meriden, Conn.
Brown, Stella E., State Teachers College, Towson, Md.
Brownell, Professor S. M., Grad, School, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
Brownell, Professor W. A., Duke University, Durham, N.C.
Browning, Roy W., Professor of Education, Ottawa University, Ottawa, Kan.
Bruce, Homer A., State Teachers College, Buffalo, N.Y.
Bruce, M.E., Superintendent of Schools, East St. Louis, Dl.
*Bruck, John P., 218 Potters Corners Road, Buffalo, N.Y.
Bnieckner, Prof. Leo J,, Col. of Educ., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Brumbaugh, A, J., American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.
Brunner, Howard B., Supervising Principal of Schools, Scotch Plains, N.J.
Bryan, Joseph G., Director of Secondary Education, Kansas City, Mo.
Bryant, Alice G., River Road, Hampton, Va.
Bryant, Ira B., Principal, Booker T. Washington High School, Houston, Tex.
Buchanan, James H., Superintendent of Schools, Boulder, Colo.
Buchanan, William D., Gundlach School, St. Louis, Mo,
Buckingham, Dr. B. R., Ginn and Company, Boston, Mass.
Buckingham, Guy E., Chm., Div. of Educ., Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa.
Buckner, W. N., Phelps Vocational High School, Washington, D. C.
Bullock, W. J,, Superintendent of Schools, Kannapolis, N.C.
Burch, Irving B., II, 2802| Dowling St., Houston, Tex.
Burk, Cassie, State Teachers College, Fredonia, N.Y.
Burke, Arvid J., New York State Teachers Assn., Albany, N.Y.
Burkhardt. Allen P., Superintendent of Schools, Norfolk, Neb.
Burnett, C. E., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Corpus Christi, Tex*
Buraham, Archer L., Neb. State Teachers Assn,, Lincoln, Neb.
Burns, Robert L., Principal, Qiffside Park High School, Cliffside Park, N.J.
Euros, Francis C., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, White Plains, N.Y.
Burt, C. Vinton, Superintendent of Schoojs, River Forest, 111.
Bush, Jarvis EL, Eton Publishing Corp., New York, N.Y.
Bush, Maybelle G., State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis.
Bush, Robert N., Dir., Appointment Service, Stanford University, Calif.
Bushnell, Almon W., Superintendent of Schools, Meredith, N.H.
Buswell, Professor G. T., Dept. of Educ., University of Chicago, Chicago, Dl.
Butterweck, Joseph S., Professor of Education, Temple Univ., Philadelphia, Pa.
Butterworth, Professor Julian E., Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Butz, Franklin J., Superintendent of Schools, Waynesboro, Pa,
Byerly, Carl L., Principal, Wydown School, Clayton, Mo.
Caleia, Lillian Acton, State Teachers College, Newark ,N.J.
Calden, Mary Frances, Principal, Bannigan and Taylor Schools, New Bedford, Mass.
Cameron, Walter C,, Principal, Lincoln Junior High School, Framingham, Mass.
Camp, Dr. H. L., 44 N- Tenth St., Indiana, Pa.
Campos, Maria dos Reis, University of the Federal District, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Carleton, Linus J. r Superintendent of Schools, Helena, Mont.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xix
Carlson, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Ramsay, Mich.
Carpenter, W. W., 304 Jesse Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Carroll, Mrs. James J., 119 Grand St., Jersey City, N.J.
Carroll, Professor Paul, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga.
Carruth, Professor J. E., South Georgia Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga.
Carter, Gordon L., County Superintendent of Schools, BelHngham, Wash.
Carter, Professor W. R., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Cassel, Lloyd S., Superintendent of Schools, Freehold, N.J.
Cassell, George F., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, 111.
Cassidy, Dr. Rosalind, Mills College, Oakland, Calif.
Caswell, Hollis L., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Caton, Anne J., Principal, Hale School, Everett, Mass.
Cavan, Professor Jordan, Rockford College, Rockford, HI.
Chadderdon, Professor Hester, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa
Chadwick, Raymond D., Dean, Duluth Junior College, Duluth, Minn.
Chambers, Maj. M. M., American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.
Chambers, W. Max, Superintendent of Schools, Okmulgee, Okla.
Champlin, Professor Carroll D., Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa.
Chandler, Professor H. E., 2245 Rhode Island St., Lawrence, Kan.
Chandler, Turner C., 8717 Harper Ave., Chicago, 111.
Chapelle, Ernest H., Superintendent of Schools, Ypsilanti, Mich.
*Charters, Professor W. W., Stephens College, Columbia, Mo.
Chase, Lawrence S., County Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N.J,
Chase, Professor W. Linwood, Boston University, Boston, Mass.
Chaucey, Professor Marlin R. T Okla. Agri. and Mech. College, Stillwater, Okla.
Chidester, Albert J., Head, Education Department, Berea College, Berea, Ky.
Chisholm, Professor Leslie L,, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Choate, Ernest A., Principal, Fitler School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Christensen, Dr. Arnold M., State Teachers College, Moorhead, Minn.
Christensen, W. W., Superintendent of Schools, Idaho Falls, Idaho
Christenson, Christine A., County Superintendent of Schools, Marinette, Wis.
Christman, Paul S., Supv. Principal, Schuylkill Haven School Dist., Schuylkill, Pa.
Church, Harold H., Superintendent of Schools, Elkhart, Ind. .
Clark, Eugene A., President, Miner Teachers College, Washington, D.C.
Clark, M, R., Superintendent of Schools, Sac City, Iowa
Clarke, Katherine, 6623 Kingsbury St., St. Louis, Mo.
Clement, William Woodward, Principal, East High School, Kansas City, Mo.
Clones, Paul, Submaster, Harvard School, Charlestown, Mass.
Clugston, Dean Herbert A., State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn.
Coats, Capt. Alva J., P.O. Box 144, Mesilla Park, N.M.
Cobb, B. B., 410 East Weatherford, Fort Worth, Tex.
Cobb, T. H., Superintendent of Schools, Urbana, El.
Cochran, Professor T. E., Centre College, Danville, Ky.
Cochran, Warren B., 112 Schennerhorn St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Cochrane, Roy, Vallejp Unified School System, Vallejo, Calif.
Coetzee, Dr. J. Christian, 20 Reitz St., Potchefstroom, South Africa
Coffey, Witford L., Route 2, Lake City, Mich.
Cohen, Saris, 35 Hampton Place, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Cohler, Milton J., Principal, Cleveland School, Chicago, HI.
Cole, C. E., Dist. Supt., Muhlenberg Township Public Schools, Berks County,Pa.
Cole, Professor Mary I., Western Kentucy Teachers College, Bowling Green, Ky.
Coleman, Floyd Basil Thomas, Board of Education, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Coleman, Mary Elizabeth, Dept. of Educ.. Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Conaway, Freda Y., West Liberty State College, West Idberty, W. Va,
Connor, Dr. Miles W., President, Coppin Teachers College, Baltimore, Md.
Connor, William L., Superintendent of Schools, Allentown, Pa.
Cook, Walter W., College of Edue., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Coon, Beulah L, U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.
Coon, W. Edwin, Principal, East Higjb School, Erie, Pa.
Cooper, Louis, Arkansas State Teachers College, Conway, Ark.
Cooper, Dr. Shirley, Stone Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Copeland, S. D., County Superintendent of Schools, Augusta, Ga.
Corbally, Professor John R, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
xx MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Corey, Professor Stephen M., Dept. of Educ., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, HI.
Cornehlsen, John H., Jr., Lt. Comdr., USNR, 116 Moncure Drive, Alexandria, Va.
Cornette, Professor James P., Western Ky. State Teachers CoL, Bowling Green, Ky.
Cotter, Rev. John P., Headmaster, St. John's Prep. School, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Coultrap, H. M., Geneva, HI.
Courter, Claude V., Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Courtis, Professor S. A., 9110 D wight Ave., Detroit, Mich.
Cox, Floyd B., Superintendent, Monongalia County Schls., Morgantown, W.Va.
Coxe, Dr. W. W., State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.
Crackel, Verne E., Superintendent of Schools, Crete, 111.
Cragin, S. Albert, 156 South Main St., Reading, Mass.
Crago, Professor Alfred, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.
Craig, Professor G. S., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Crawford, Professor C. C., Univ. of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif .
Crawford, J. R., School of Education, University of Maine, Orono, Me.
Crawford, Dean Robert T., Glenville State Teachers College, Glenville, W.Va.
Creswell, Horace Staley, Principal, Junior High School, Stephenville, Tex.
Crofoot, Bess L., Elementary School Supervisor, Warren, Mich.
Cronbach, Lee J., School of Education, State College of Wash., Pullman, Wash.
Cross, A. C., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
Cross, C. Willard, Superintendent of Schools, Faribault, Minn.
Cross, Charles H., Dir., Univ. Training School, Univ. of Ark., Fayetteville, Ark.
Crull, Howard D., Superintendent of Schools, Port Huron, Mich.
Crunden, Marjorie Morse, 22 St. Luke's Place, Montclair, N.J.
Cunliffe, Professor R. B., Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J.
Cunningham, Rev. Msgr. Daniel, Superintendent of Catholic Schools, Chicago, HI.
Cunningham, J., Librarian, Cossitt Library, Memphis, Term.
Currey, Bertha E., State Teachers College, Jersey City, N J.
Curry, Lawrence H., Superintendent, District 37, Clover, S.C.
Curtis, Professor Dwight K., Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa
Cusack, Alice M., Board of Education, Kansas City, Mo.
Cutright, Prudence, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.
Cylkowski, Angela M., District Superintendent, Chicago, HI.
Daly, Margaret M., 4053 West Eighth St., Cincinnati, Ohio
Daly, Robert J., Senior High School, Watertown, N.Y.
Darley, John O., Lt. (j.g.), Bureau of Medicine andSurgery, Navy Dept., Wash. D.C.
Datig, Rev. Edward John, 5735 University Ave., Chicago, HI.
Davis, Courtland V., 1003 Madison Ave., Plainfield, N.J.
Davis, Professor Helen C., Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo.
Davis, Lawrence C., Penn College, Oskaloosa, Iowa
Davis, Nina Preot, Louise S. McGehee School, New Orleans, La.
Davis, Sheldon E., President, State Normal College, Dillon, Mont.
Davis, Warren C., Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, N.Y.
Dawaid, V. F., Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wis.
Dawe, Professor Helen C., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Dawson, Professor Mildred A., 3 Knox St., Dansville, N.Y.
Deans, Edwina, Teachers College, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dearborn, Professor Walter F., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
DeBernardis, Amo, Supv., Audio-Visual Educ., Portland Public Schls., Portland, Ore.
DeBoer, John J., 211 West Sixty-eighth St., Chicago, HI.
Decker, Fred J., 106 Salisbury Road, Elsmere, N.Y.
Deer, Professor George H., University of Louisiana, Baton Rouge, La.
DeKoch, Henry C., 216 East Ninth St., Cincinnati, Ohio
DeLappe, E. Maxine, Dir. of Guid., Stanislaus County Schls., Modesto, Calif .
DeLay, Glenn A., 410 Harrison St., Topeka, Kan.
Del Manaso, M. C., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
DeMoraavfile, Aaron F., Superintendent of Schools, Johnston, R.I.
Deneeke, Marie G., Wilson Teachers College, Washington, D.C.
DengLer, C. F,, High School, Dover, NJ.
Dent, Ellsworth C., Society for Visual Education, Inc., Chicago, HI.
*DeVoss, James C., Dean, San Jose State College, San Jose, Calif.
Dexter, William A., Superintendent of Schools, Easthampton, Mass.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxi
Dey, Ramond H., Superintendent, Carbondale High School, Carbondale, HL
DeYoung, Chris A., Dean, Tllirtoia State Normal University, Normal, 111.
Dickison, Mary Ellen, 847 South Grand Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
Dickson, Bryan, Superintendent of Schools, San Angelo, Tex.
Diederich, Rev. A. F., 10 South Park St., Madison, Wis.
Diefendorf, Dr. J. W., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N.M.
Dimmett, W. S., Superintendent of Schools, Forest Park, El,
Dixon, Fred B., Superintendent of Schools, Bast Lansing, Mich.
Dodd, M. R., Asst. Supt. Kanawha County Schools, Charleston, W.Va.
Doll, Edgar A., Training School, Vineland, N. J.
Donn, Leo A., Standard Evening High School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Dormer, Arvin N., Dir., School of Educ., Univ. of Houston, Houston, Tex.
Donohue, Professor Francis J., University of Detroit, Detroit, Mich.
Donohue, John J., 2219 Lyon Avenue, Bronx, New York, N.Y.
Dotson, John A., Dir., Curriculum and Research, Public Schools, Louisville, Ky.
Douglass, H. R., Dir., Col. of Educ., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
Dow, H. E., Superintendent of Schools, Humeston, Iowa
Downs, Dr. Martha, 120 Baker Ave., Wharton, NJ.
Doyle, Florence A., District Superintendent, Philadelphia, Pa.
Drake, Professor William E., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Dransfield, J. Edgar, 1340 Sussex Road, West Englewood, NJ.
Draper, Professor Edgar M., University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Duce, Rev. Hugh M., S.J., Regional Director of Education, San Jose, Calif.
Duell, Henry W., 4247 Alden Drive, Minneapolis, Minn.
Dunigan, Rev. David R., S.J., Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Mass.
Dunkle, John L., Principal, State Teachers College, Frostburg, Md.
Durrell, Professor Donald D., Boston University, Boston, Mass.
Dyde, Dean W. F., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
Dynes, Dr. John J., Western State College of Colorado, Gunnison, Colo.
Dysart, Professor Bonnie K, Texas Technological College, Lubbock, Tex.
Dyson, Dean Luther H., Southeastern Louisiana College, Hammond, La.
Eastburn, L. A., Phoenix Union High School, Phoenix, Aria.
Eckert, Ruth E., Col. of Educ., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Eckles, H. R., Principal, Robert E, Lee School, Richmond, Va.
Eddy, Theo V., Superintendent of Schools, St. Clair, Mich.
Edgar, J. W., Superintendent of Schools, Orange, Tex.
Edmonson, Dean J. B., School of Educ., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich,
Edwards, Arthur U., Eastern HI. State Teachers College, Charleston, Dl.
Edwards, Dr. H. E., Emanuel Missionary College, Berrien Springs, Mich.
Ehrenfeld, A., 50 West Ninety-sixth St., New York, N.Y.
Eifler, Carl, Principal, Benj. Bosse High School, Evansville, Ind.
Einolf, W. L., Eisenlohr Annex, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Elder, Professor Ruth E., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Ellenoff, Louis, 17 West 182nd St., Bronx, New York, N.Y.
EUingson, Mark, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, N.Y.
Ellis, C. C., President Emeritus. Juniata College, Huntingdon, Pa.
Ellis, Fred E., American Field Service, APO 465, Postmaster, New York, N.Y.
Ellis, Stanley B., Superintendent, Elementary Schools, Sunnyvale, Calif .
Emerson, Myrtle, State Teachers College, Horence, Ala.
Endres, Mary P., McHenry County Schools, Woodstock, Dl.
EngeL Anna M., 45 Tennyson Ave., Highland Park, Mich.
Engelhardt, N. L.. Associate Superintendent of Schools, New York, N.Y.
England, Byron, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, El Paso, Tex.
Engelhart, George D. Superintendent of Schools, Leadwood, Mo.
English. Ethel T., P,O. Box 32, Roxbury Station, Boston, Mass.
Tgngliah, Professor H. B., CoL of Educ., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
English, Mildred, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga.
Epstein, Bertram, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.
Erickson, Arthur E., Superintendent of Schools, Ironwood, Mich.
Erwin, Clyde A., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N.C.
Eskridge, Dr. T. J., Jr., Shorter College, Rome, Ga.
Eurieh, Alvin C., Vice President, Stanford University, Calif.
xxii MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Evans, Evan E. f Superintendent of Schools, Winfield, Kan.
Evenden, Professor JE. S,, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York, N.Y.
Everts, Ora Lee, State Teachers College, Glassboro, N. J.
Ewing, P. L., Superintendent of Schools, Alton, HI.
Eyman, Dean R. L., School of Educ., State College for Women, Tallahassee, Fla.
Fairchild, W. W., Superintendent of Schools, Rutland, Vt.
Falk, Philip H., Superintendent of Schools, Madison, Wis.
Fast, L. W., Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Ferriss, Professor Emery N., State Col. of Agri., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y.
Fessenden, Hart, The Fessenden School, West Newton, Mass.
Fielstra, Clarence, Dir. of Curriculum, County Schools, San Diego, Calif.
Finch, Professor F. H., University of Illinois, Urbana, HI.
FinoUey, Warren G., State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.
Fink, Ollie E., Exec. Secy., Friends of the Land, Columbus, Ohio
Fink, R. M., University, Miss.
Fink, Stuart D., Northern 111. State Teachers College, DeKalb, 111.
Finkel, Morris C., 257A Brooklyn Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Firmer, F. F., Superintendent of Schools, Sheboygan Falls, Wis.
Fisher, Charles A., 7350 North Twenty-first St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Fisher, Mildred L, Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Ala.
Fitzgerald, James A., School of Education, Fordham University, New York, N.Y.
Fitzgerald, Professor N. E., Col. of Agri., Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.
Fitzpatrick, Julia M. 47 Tower Street, Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Flanagan, John C., Col., 3242 Gunston Road, AlexanoMa, Va.
Flanders, J. K., Director of Training, Oswego, N.Y.
Fleming, C. L, 6605 Neosho St., St. Louis, Mo.
Fleming, Dr. Charlotte M., Univ. of London Inst. of Educ., London, England
Flesher, Professor William E.. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Flinner, Ira A., Lake Placid Club, New York, N.Y.
Flint, Lois H., American University, Washington, D.C.
Flores, Zella K., Elementary Supv., Public Schools, Lewistown, Mont.
Flynn, Very Rev. Vincent J., Pres., College of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minn.
Foran, Professor Thomas G., Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C.
Force, Thelma, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111.
Ford, Willard S., Superintendent of Schools, Glendale, Calif.
Fordyce, W. G,, Principal, Euclid Central School, Euclid, Ohio
Forney, E. B., Ginn and Company, St. Paul, Minn.
Forrester, Gertrude, 71 Overpeck Ave., Ridgefield Park, N. J.
Foster, Professor I. Owen, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.
Fowler, Dr, Wade C., Superintendent of Schools, Wichita, Kan.
Fowlkes, Professor John Guy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Franzen, Professor Carl G. F., Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.
Fraser, Dean Mowat G.> Winthrop College, Rock HiU, S.C.
Freeman, Dean Frank N., School of Educ., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif.
Freeman, Professor Frank S., Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Freeman, H. S., Superintendent of Schools, Mobridge, S.D.
French, Harold P., District Superintendent. LoudonvUle, N.Y.
French, Professor Will, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Fretz, Floyd C. r Superintendent of Schools, Bradford, Pa.
Friswold, Ingolf O., Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.
Frizzell, Bonner, Superintendent of Public Schools, Palestine, Tex.
Frojen, Boletha, 111 North Calhoun St., Tallahassee, Fla.
Frost, Professor Norman, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Terni.
Frutchey, Fred P., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Fuleomer, Edwin S., Head, Dept. of English, State Teachers Col., Montclair, N.J.
Fullmer, Rev, David C., Asst. Supt. of Catholic Schools, Chicago, 111.
Fuqua, Blanche, Director of Instruction, Terre Haute, Lid.
Futrall, Alma, Department of Education, Lee County, Marianna, Ark.
Gabbard, Hazel F., U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C,
Gabel, Dr. O. J., State Teachers College, DeKalb, HI.
Gaffney, M. P., Supt., New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Bl.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxiii
Gage, Catharine, J. Deceased.
Gainsburg, Joseph C., 919 Park Place, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Gaither, F. F., Dir., Teacher Educ., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Galloway, Henry E., Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls, N.Y.
Gambrill, Professor Bessie Lee, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
Garcia, Hector G., George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.
Gardiner, Ana L., 18 East Caramillo St., Colorado Springs, Colo.
Garfield, Dr. Sol L., 5433 East View Park, Chicago, HI.
Garinger, Dr. Elmer H., Principal, Central High School, Charlotte, N.C.
Garlin, Professor R. E., Texas Technological College, Lubbock, Tex
Garrett, Professor Homer L., Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La.
Gearon, James T., Vocational Educ. Div., U.S. Office of Educ., Washington, D.C,
Geiger, Albert J., Principal, High School, St. Petersburg, Fla.
Geiger, C. H., Dean, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Gentry, Dean Charles Burt, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn.
Gentry, George H., Supt. of Schools and Dean, Junior College, Temple, Tex.
Gerber, Ross L., Sugarcreek, Ohio
Gerberich, Dr. J. R., Dir., Bur. of Educ. Research, Univ. of Conn., Storrs, Conn.
Gerry, Henry L., Teachers College of the City of Boston, Boston, Mass.
Getsinger, J. W., P.O. Box 442, La Jolla, Calif.
Geyer, Denton L., Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, HI.
Gibson, Joseph E., State Department of Education, Baton Rouge, La.
Gilbert, Lee R., Principal, Euclid Central School, Euclid, Ohio
Gilbert, Luther C., Dept. of Educ., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.
Gilland, Edwin C., Superintendent of Schools, Red Bank, N.J.
GiJland, Thomas M, Dir. of Training, State Teachers College, California, Pa.
Gillett, Arthur D., Superintendent of Schools, Eveleth, Minn.
Gilmore, John V., Director, Y.M.C.A. School, Boston, Mass.
Gilson, Harry V., State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Me.
Gilson, William George, 1705 North Lotus Ave., Chicago, HL
Glad, Amos W., Superintendent of Schools, Pratt, Kan.
Glasgow, George W., Principal, Woodrow Wilson High School, Youngstown, Ohio
Glassbrook, Tulie Hartung, 338 Tennyson Road, Hayward, Calif.
Goins, J. L,, Superintendent of Schools, Cheyenne, Wyo.
Goldhammer, Keith, Superintendent of Schools, Gaston, Ore.
Good, Professor Carter V., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Goodenough, Professor Florence L., Inst. of Child Welfare, Univ. of Minn., Minne-
apolis, Minn.
Goodier, Floyd T., Illinois State Normal University, Normal, HI.
Goodwill, Glen T., Superintendent of Schools, Monterey, Calif.
Goodykoontz, Bess, U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.
Gore, Dean George W., Jr., Agricultural and Industrial College, Nashville, Tenn.
Gore, W. R., Superintendent, Huerfano County High Schooljl^alsenburg, Colo.
Gorman, Burton W., Principal, Senior High School, Connersville, Ind.
Gould, Arthur L., Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass.
Gould, George, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Goulding, R, L., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee, Fla.
Grady, Rev. Joseph E., St. Bernard's Seminary, Rochester, N,Y.
Graham, Hugh, John Carroll University, Cleveland Heigjhts, Cleveland, Ohio
Gralapp, Arnold L., Superintendent of Schools, Klamath Falls, Ore.
Graves, Professor E. Boyd Mary Washington College, Frederieksburg, Va,
"Gray, Professor William S., University of Chicago, Chicago, HL
Greby, Harry F. Deceased.
Green, Professor G. Leland, Berry College, Mount Berry, Ga.
Gregg, Russell T., Dept. of Educ., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Greene, Dr. Charles K, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo.
Greene, Harry A., Extension Division- State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Greenwell, Sister Berenice, Nazareth College, Louisville, Ky.
Gregory, Sister M., Dean, Mt. Angel Normal School, Mt. Angel, Ore.
Grieder, Professor Calvin, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
xxiv MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Grier, B. M., Superintendent of Schools, Athens, Ga.
Griffin, Lee EL, Ginn and Company, Chicago, HI.
Griffin, Margaret, University School, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.
*Griffin, Margery M., 5557 Pershing Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Griffith, Professor Coleman R., University of Illinois, Urbana, HI.
Griggs, O. C., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Okla.
Grizzard, Mabel Youree, Principal, Marvin Elementary School, Waxahachie, Tex.
Grizzell, Professor E. D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
*Gross, Alfred W., State Teachers CoUege, Duluth, Minn.
Grover, Elbridge C., Superintendent of Schools, Reading, Mass.
Gruen, Rev. Ferdinand, St. Joseph's College, Westmont, HI.
Gruenberg, Benjamin C., 418 Central Park, West, New York, N.Y.
Guanella, Frances J., 52 Livingston St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Gunn, Dr. Henry M., Superintendent of Schools, Eugene, Ore.
Gurley, James G., Superintendent of Schools, Dundee, HI.
Gussner, William S., Superintendent of Schools, Jamestown, N.D.
Gwynn, Professor J. Minor, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.
Haas, Rev. Joseph, St. Mary's Rectory, Lakota, N.D.
Haebich, I. E., Superintendent, Riverside-Brookfield High School, Riverside, El.
Hagen, H, H., District Superintendent, Board of Education, Chicago, 111.
Haggerty, Helen, Test and Research Division, Navy Department, Washington, D.C.
Haggerty, William J., State Teachers CoUege, New Paltz, N.Y.
Hahn, Albert R. r 317 East Seventh-fourth St., New York, N.Y.
Haines, Andrew S., Principal, Olney High School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Haisley, Otto W., Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Halberg, Professor Anna D., Wilson Teachers CoEege, Washington, D.C.
Halkyard, Marcita, Elementary Supervisor, Joliet, El.
Hall, James A., 1934 South Josephine St., Denver, Colo.
Hall, John W., University of Nevada, Reno, Nev.
Hall, Professor William F., Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa.
Hal) man, E. B., Superintendent of Schools, Spartanburg, S.C.
Hamilton, Homer H., Washington High School, Dallas, Tex.
Hamilton, Professor Otto T., Extension Div., Indiana Univ., Oaklandon, Ind.
*Hamilton, W. J., Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park, HI.
Hamley, Professor H. R., University of London, London, England
Hanna, Lavone A., Long Beach Public Schools, Long Beach, Calif.
Hansen, Lt. Col. Carl W., Russell, Minn.
Hansen, Einar A,, College of Educ., Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
Hansen, Herbert C., 1045 North Lockwood Ave., Chicago, HI.
Hanson. E. H., Superintendent of Schools, Rock Island, la.
Harap, Professor Henry, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.
Harbo, L. S., Superintendent of Schools, Red Wing, Minn.
Hare, H* Frank, Principal, Liberty High School, Bethlehem, Pa.
Hamey, Julia d> 302 Pavonia Ave., Jersey City, N. J.
Haroey, Rev, Paul J., S. J., University of San Francisco, San Francisco, Calif.
Hamey, Thomas E,, Superintendent of Schools, Dunkirk, N,Y.
Harrington, Dr. F. B., Nebraska State Normal College, Chadron, Neb.
Harris, Dale B., Lost, of Child Welfare, Univ. of Minn,, Minneapolis, Minn.
Harris, Professor Raymond P., Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich.
Harris, Professor Theodore L, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Harrison, Mary R., Head, Dept. of Educ., Park CoUege, ParkviUe, Mo.
Harry, Professor David P., Jr., Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
Hartman, A. L., Principal, Edgemont and Watchund Schools, Upper Montclair, N.J.
Haskew, Professor Laurence D., Emory University, Emory University, Ga.
Hass, Ik. C. Glen, Chief, Training and Assignments Branch, School Div., Hdqts.,
NMh Service Command, Fort Douglas, Utah
Hauser, Dr. L. J,, Superintendent of Schools, Riverside, HI.
Havighurst, Professor Robert J., University of Chicago, Chicago, EL
Hawk, R. A., Superintendent of Schools, Grinnell, Iowa
Hawkes, F. P,, Superintendent of Schools, West Springfield, Mass.
Hawkins, Earle T Supervisor of High Schools, Baltimore, Md.
Hawkins, George L, Principal, Buder-Kennard Schools, St. Louis, Mo.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
XXV
Hawley, Ray C., Superintendent of Schools, Marseilles, HI.
Haycock, Robert L., Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D.C.
Hayes, Professor M. C., Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb, 111.
Hazen, Oliver M., Superintendent, District No. 403, Renton, Wash.
Hecht, Dr. Irvin Sulo, 593 Crown Street, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Heckert, J. W., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
Hedge, John W., Superintendent of Schools, Bethlehem, Pa.
Hedrick, E. H., Superintendent of City Schools, Medford, Ore.
Heffernan, Helen, State Department of Education, Sacramento, Calif.
Heise, Bryan, Director of Extension Service, Charleston, HI.
"Helms, W. T., Superintendent of Schools, Richmond, Calif.
Henderson, Prank A., Superintendent of Schools, Santa Ana, Calif.
*Henry, Professor Nelson B., Dept. of Educ., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Henry, Dr. T. S., Western Michigan College, Kalamazoo, Mich.
Henry, William E., President, State Teachers College, Bowie, Md.
Herlinger, H. V., Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Lebanon, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Herr, Ross^ Principal, Trumbull School, Chicago, fil.
Herr, William A., Principal, H. F. Grebey Memorial Jr. High School, Hazelton, Pa.
Herrick, John H., Dir., Bur. of School Research, Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Herriott, M. E., Principal, Central Junior High School, Los Angeles, Calif.
Hertzberg, Oscar E., State Teachers College, Buffalo, N.Y.
Hertzler, Dr. Silas, Goshen College, Goshen, Ind.
Hess, Walter, 15 Old Chester Road, Bethesda, Md.
Hewson, John C., 9633 106th St., Edmonton, Alta.
Hibbs, H. Gregg, Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Bridgeton, N.J.
Hiekey, Philip J., Superintendent of Instruction, Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo.
Hickman, Clara, Principal, Rose Lees Hardy School, Washington, D.C.
Hickok, Jessie L., Elementary Supervisor, Alliance, Ohio
Hickox, Edward J., 500 Alden St., Springfield, Mass.
Hicks, Samuel, Superintendent of Schools, Pearl River, N.Y.
Higgins, Dr. Frank J., 1976 Morris Ave., New York, N.Y.
HiUbrand, E. K., Municipal University of Wichita, Wichita, Elan.
Hilliard, George H., Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich.
Hinkle, Thomas L., Superintendent of Schools, Hazelton, Pa.
Hissong, Dean Clyde, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
Hix, R. M., Superintendent of Schools, Hearne, Tex.
Hockett, John A., School of Educ,, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.
Hodgkins, George W., 1821 Kalorama Road, Washington, D.C.
Hoech, Arthur A., Supt., Ritenour Consolidated School Dist., Overland, Mo,
Hoekje, John C., Registrar, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo,Mich.
Hoffman, Charles L., Principal, East High. School, Waterloo, Iowa
Hoffman, Florence D., Asst. Principal, Public School 242, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Hofstetter, George, 821 South Fifth St., West, Missoula, Mont.
Hogan, Frances M., 1016 Wood St., Houston, Tex.
Hogan, Sister Mary Muriel, Ottumwa Heights College, Ottumwa, Iowa
Holberg, Dorothy E., 206 East Roosevelt Blvd., Philadelphia, Pa.
Holden, E. B., Superintendent of Schools, St. Joseph, Mich.
Hollingsworth, Henry T., Superintendent of Schools, Bloomfield, N.J.
Holloway, D. H., Principal, Westport High School, Kansas City, Mo.
Holloway, H. V., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del.
Holmes, Jay William, 1415 Lexington Ave., Dayton, Ohio
Holmstrom, Signe, General College, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Holstein, Louise V., 7130 South Union Ave., Chicago, HI.
Holt, E. E., Superintendent of Schools, Marion, Ohio
Holt, Marx, Principal, Fiske School, Chicago, pi.
Hood, E. A., Principal, Mason School, St. Louis, Mo.
Hook, T. E., Superintendent of Schools, Troy, Ohio
Hopkins, Professor L. Thomas, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York, N.Y.
Hoppes, William C., Northern Mich. College of Education, Marquette, Mich.
Horn, Professor Ernest, School of Educ., State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Horton, Lena Mary, Dir. of Research, Silver Burdett Co., New York, N.Y.
Horwich, Dr. Frances R., Div. of Teacher Training, Univ. of N.C., Chapel Hill, N.C.
Hosier, Dr. Fred, Superintendent of Schools, Allentown, Pa.
xxvi MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Hostetter, Marie M., University of Illinois Library School, Urbana, HI.
Hotz, H. G., University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.
Hougham, Sarah, Librarian, State Teachers College, Moorhead, Minn.
House, Ralph W., State Teachers College, Boone, N.C.
Houx, Kate, Curriculum Asst., Los Angeles County Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.
Howard, J. E., Principal, DeMun Elementary School, Clavton, Mo.
HoweU, Dr. Margaret Rustin, 815 The Alameda, Berkeley, Calif.
Hoyman, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Indianola, Iowa
Hubbard, L. H., President, Texas State CoUege for Women, Denton, Tex.
Hudelson, Dean Earl, College of Educ., West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, W.Va.
Huff, Z. T., Dean, Howard Payne College, Brown wood, Tex.
Hufford, G. N., Superintendent of Schools, Joliet, 111.
Hughes, James Monroe, Dean, School of Educ., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, 111.
Hughes, R. 0., Asst. Dir., Curriculum Study and Research, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Hughson, Arthur, 1412 Caton Ave,, Brooklyn, N.Y,
Hummel, Edward J., Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Beverly Hills, Calif,
Humphreys, Pauline A., Central Missouri State Teachers College, Warrensburg, Mo.
Hunnicutt, C. W., School of Educ., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.
Hunt, Harry A., Superintendent of Schools, Portsmouth, Va.
Huntington", Albert H., Principal, Beaumont High School, St. Louis, Mo.
Hunton, E. L., Principal, B. It. Bruce School, Washington, D.C.
Hupp, Dean James L., West Virginia Wesleyan College, Buckhannon, W.Va.
Hurd, A. W., Dir. Educ. Research Service, Medical Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.
Hutson, Professor P. W., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Hyde, Eva Louise, Principal, Collegio Bennett, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Hydle, Professor Lars L., Ball State Teachers CoUege, Muncie, Ind.
Hyman, Joseph S., Gompers Vocational High School, Bronx, New York, N.Y.
Irving, J. Lee, Bluefield State CoUege, Bluefield, W.Va.
Irwin, Manley E., Supervising Director of Instruction, Detroit, Mich.
Isanogle, A. M., 10 Ridge Road, Westminster, Md.
Isle, Walter W., President, Eastern Washington CoUege of Educ., Cheney, Wash.
Ivy, H. M., Superintendent of Schools, Meridian, Miss.
Jackson, Woodrow W., Wauzeka, Wis.
Jacobs, John E., 603 Tennessee St., Lawrence, Kan.
Jacobs, Professor Ralph L., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Jacobson, Paul B., Superintendent of Schools, Davenport, Iowa
James, Professor Preston E., 220 Standish Drive, Syracuse, N.Y.
Jammer, George F., Superintendent of Schools, Lockport, N.Y.
Jansen, William, Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N.Y,
Jeffers, Fred A., Superintendent of Schools, Painsdale, Mich.
Jeffords, H. Morton, Superintendent of Schools, Fairfield, Conn.
Jeidy, Pauline, Director, Elementary Education, Ventura, Calif.
Jelinek, Frances, Pres., Milwaukee Teachers' Association, Milwaukee, Wis.
Jemisoa, Margaret, Librarian, Emory University, Emory University, Ga.
Jensen, C. N. 2601 South Seventeenth St., East, Salt Lake City, Utah
Jensen, Frank A., Supt., LaSalle-Peru High School and Junior CoUege, LaSalle, 111.
Jensen, Lt. Louis B., U.S. Navy Pre-Flight School, Chapel Hill, N.C.
Jenson, Howard A., Superintendent of Schools, Litchfield, Minn.
Jenson, T. J., Superintendent of Schools, Fond du Lac, Wis.
Jessen, Carl A., U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.
JeweU, Dean J. R., School of Educ., UmV. of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.
Johns, W. A., Dir., Personnel and Pub. ReL, Westminster Col., New Wilmington, Pa,
Johnson, A. W., Principal, Junior High School, Minot, N.D.
Johnson, Astrid, 1017 East Thirty-second St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Johnson, B. Tifl.ma.r, Stephens College, Columbia, Mo.
Johnson, Charles Frank, Principal, Garfield School, Sand Springs, Okla.
Johnson, Professor George C., Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kan.
Johnson, Laurence C., Principal, Central School, Orchard Park, N.Y.
Johnson, Loaa W., Co-ordinator of Sec. Educ., Butte County Schools, OroviUe, Calif .
Johnson, Palmer 0,, College of Educ., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Johnson, Robert M., Chicago Latin School, Chicago, HI.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxvii
Johnson, Stella M., Principal, Park Manor School, Chicago, HI.
Johnston, Professor Edgar G., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Johnston, Ruth V., Counselor, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Jonas, Professor Richard O., University of Houston, Houston, Tex.
Jones, Professor Arthur J., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Jones, George Ellis, 73 Harwood St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Jones, Harold E., Dir., Inst. of Child Welfare, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif.
Jones, Dr. Howard B., Superintendent of Schools, New Canaan, Conn.
Jones, Professor Lloyd M., Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa.
Jones, Mary Alice, Vice-Principal, Metropolitan High School, Los Angeles, Calif.
Jones, Professor Vernon, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
Joyce, Charles W., 223 Deerfield Drive, Rochester, N.Y.
Justman, Joseph, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.
Kadesch, J. Stevens, Superintendent of Schools, Medford, Mass.
Kaemmerlen, John T., Superintendent of Schools, Hudson, N.Y.
Kallen, H. M., 66 West Twelfth St., New York, N.Y.
Kameny, Samuel Stanley, 8512 Sixty-fifth Drive, Forest Hills, New York, N.Y.
Kanter, Marion R., R. W. Emerson School, Roxbury, Mass.
Kardatzke, Carl, Anderson College, Anderson, Ind.
Kauth, William M., Dir. of Mathematics, Dearborn Public Schools, Dearborn, Mich.
Kawin, Ethel, 1725 East Fifty-third St., Chicago, HI.
Kayfetz, Dr. Isidore, Principal, Public School 1, Queens, Long Island City, N.Y,
Keator, Alfred Decker, Pennsylvania State Library, Harrisburg, Pa.
Keefauver, L. C., Superintendent of Schools, Gettysburg, Pa.
Keene, J. Hershey, 1910 Seneca Road, Wilmington, Del
Keener, E. E., 250 Forest Ave., Oak Park, 111.
Kefauver, Grayson N. Deceased.
Keislar, Evan R., Nassau Club, Princeton, NJ.
Keller, Anna P., District Superintendent, Chicago, DL
Keller, Franklin J., Prin., Metropolitan Voc. High School, New York, N.Y.
Kellogg, E. G., Superintendent of Public Schools, ClintonviHe, Wis.
Kelly, Gilbert W., 623 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, HI.
Kenneally, Professor Finbar, San Luis Rey Seminary, San Luis Rey, Calif.
Kennedy, Rev. Mark, President, Siena College, Loudonville, N.Y.
Kerr, A. G., Superintendent, Columbia City High School, Columbia City, Ind.
Kerr, Everett F., Superintendent of Schools, Homewood, BL
Kerr, W. H., Claremont Colleges, Claremont, Calif.
Kerstetter, Newton, Supervisor, Special Education, County Schools, Danville, Pa.
Kibbe, Delia E., Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis.
Kiely, Margaret, Dean, Queens College, New York, N.Y.
*Kilpatriek Prof. Emeritus Win. H., Teachers Col, Columbia Univ., New York, N.Y.
King, Lloyd W., American Textbook Publisher's Inst., New York, N.Y.
Kirk, H. H., Superintendent of Schools, Fargo, N.D.
Kirkland, Professor J. Bryant, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.
Kirkland, Mineola, 1106 B St., N.E., Washington, B.C.
Knapp, M. L., Superintendent of Schools, Michigan City, Ind.
Knight, Professor F. B., Purdue University. Lafayette, Ind.
Knoblauch, Professor A. L., University of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn.
Knoelk, William C., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis.
Knower, Professor Franklin H., State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Knowlton, P. A., Editor, Macmillan Ctompany, New York, N.Y.
Knox, J. H., Superintendent of Schools, Salisbury, N.C.
Knox, Professor William F., Cen. Missouri State Teacherg College, Warrensburg, Mo.
Knudsen, Charles W,, George Peal>ody ^College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.
Koch, H. C., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich,
Koeh, Dr. Helen L,, 1374 East Fifty-seventh St., Chicago, HI.
Koch. Raymond H.. Superintendent of Schools, Hershey, Pa,
Kohl, Rev. Walter J., 321 Lake Ave M Rochester, N.Y.
Kohs, Dr. Samuel C., 25 Taylor St., San Fraiicifico, Calif.
Koosj Professor Leonard V., University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.
Kopel, David, 4844J Drexel Blvd., Chicago, HI.
Koppenhaver, J. H., Dir. of Personnel, Heaston College, Heaston, Kan.
xxviii MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Korb, O. J., Superintendent of Schools, East Cleveland, Ohio
Koratheuer, G. A., Bethlehem Lutheran School, Chicago, HI.
Kottnauer, Annette, Principal, Vieau School, Milwaukee, Wis.
Krane, Daniel G., Principal, Public School 194, Manhattan, N.Y.
Krantz, L. L., Superintendent of Schools, Mound, Minn.
Kretzmann, Professor P. E., Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.
Krishnayya, Stephen G., Insp. of European Schools, Bombay Presidency, Poona,
India
Kropf, Glenn S., Principal, Riley High School, South Bend, Ind.
Krug, Professor Edward, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Kruse, Dr. Samuel Andrew, State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo.
Kuefler, Bernard C., Superintendent of Schools, Forest Lake, Minn.
Kuehner, Dr. Kenneth G., Coker College, Hartsville, S.C,
Kurzius, Edward, Board of Education, New York, N.Y.
Kyle, C. J. M., Div. Superintendent of Schools, Stuart, Va.
Kyte, Professor George C., University of California, Berkeley, Calif.
Lackey, Professor Guy A., Oklahoma A. & M., College, Still water, Okla.
Lafferty, H. M., Lt. Comdr., USNR, Bur. Naval Personnel, Washington, D.C.
Laidlaw, John, Laidlaw Bros., Chicago, HI.
Lamb, Professor Georges, C.S.V-, Ecple Normale St. Viateur, Rigaud, Que.
Lamkin, Uel W., Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo.
Lane, John J., Principal, Coolidge Junior High School, Natick, Mass.
Lang, Andrew J., Superintendent of Schools, Huron, S.D.
Lang, Charles E., District Superintendent of Elem. Schools, Chicago, HI.
Lange, Paul W., Supervisor of High Schools, Gary, Ind.
Lange, Paulus, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa
Lanier, Raphael O'Hara, Bureau of Services, U.N.R.R.A., Washington, D.C.
Lantz, Professor Robert E., Willamette University, Salem, Ore.
Lantz, W. W., Superintendent Allegheny County Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Lanz, Anna D., Principal, Washington School, Chicago, HI.
Lapham, P. C., Superintendent of Schools, Charles City, Iowa
Larsen, Professor Arthur Hoff, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111.
Larson, Irene M., Principal, Elementary School, Rockford, HI.
Larson, J. A., Principal, Senior High School, Little Rock, Ark.
Lauderbach, J. Calvin, District Superintendent, Chula Vista, Calif.
Laughlin, Butler, Principal, Harper High School, Chicago, HI.
Lauing, Walter, 128 Eleventh Ave., Melrose Park, HI.
Laurier, Rev. Blaise V., C.S.V., 1145 rue St. Viateur, Ouest Outremont, Que.
Lauwerys, Joseph Albert, Inst. of Education, Univ. of London, London, England
Law, Dr. Reuben D., Brigham Young University, Proyo, Utah
Lawing, J. Leslie, Principal, Benton School, Kansas City, Mo.
Lawler, Marcella R., Department of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash.
Lawrence, Clayton G., Dean, Normal Department, Marion College, Marion, Ind.
Layton, (X M., Superintendent of Schools, Wooster, Ohio
Layton, Dr, Warren K, Dir., Guid. and Placement, Bd. of Educ., Detroit, Mich.
Lazar, Dr. May, Research Assistant, Board of Education, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Leahy, Professor Dorothy M., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee, Fla.
Leal, Dr. Mary A. r Colchester, Conn.
Learner, Emery W., State Teachers College, LaCrosse, Wis.
Leavell, Professor Ullin W., George Peabody Col. for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.
Lee, Professor John J., Wayne University, Detroit, Mich.
Leese, Professor Joseph, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala.
Lefever, D. W., University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif.
Lehman, Harvey C., Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
Leinweber, W. J., Superintendent of Schools, Mooseheart, HI.
Leister, Leroy L., Superintendent of Schools, Waterford, Conn.
Lemmer, John A., Superintendent of Schools, Eacanaba, Mich.
Lenaghajij CLetus A., Connecticut School for Boya, Meriden, Conn.
Leo, Brother J., St. Mary's CoUege, Terrace Heights, Winona, Minn.
Leonard, Professor George F., Butler University, Indianapolis, Ind.
Leopold, Brother, St. Joseph's University, New Brunswick, Canada
Lessenberry, Professor D. D., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa,
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxix
Levinson, Samuel D., Haaren High School, New York, N.Y.
Levy, Carrie B., Dir. of Special Classes, Board of Education, Milwaukee, Wis.
Lichtenberger, J. F., Principal, Seward School, Minneapolis, Minn.
Lidberg, Henry, 22 Gardner Road, Brookline, Mass.
Liggins, J., Librarian, Teachers' College, University Grounds, Sydney, Australia
Ligon, Professor M. E., 658 South Lime St., Lexington, Ky.
Lincoln, Professor Edward A., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Lindberg, C. F., Head, Dept. of Education, Valparaiso Univ., Valparaiso, Ind.
Lindsay, Dr. J. Armour, Box 325, Mount Berry, Ga.
Lino, Frank D., Principal, Volta School, Chicago, HI.
Little, Evelyn Steel, Mills College, Mills College, Calif.
Livengood, W. W., American Book Company, New York, N.Y.
Livingood, Professor F. G., Washington College, Chestertown, Md.
Lockwood, C. M., Superintendent of Schools, Lancaster, S.C.
Lockwood, Margaret M., Principal, Horace Mann School, Washington, D.C.
Loew, C. C., Superintendent of Schools, Lawrenceville, HI.
Lowenstein, Fannie H., Southern Junior High School, Louisville, Ky.
Logan, Jack M., Superintendent of Schools, Waterloo, Iowa
Logan, S. R., Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka, 111.
Loggins, W. F., Superintendent of Schools, Greenville, S.C.
Logsdon, Comdr. James Desmond, USNR, 6140 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111.
Logue, Sarah M., 16 Common St., Gharlestown, Mass.
Long, Isabelle, 1433 Main St., Dubuque, Iowa
Longfellow, J. T. r Superintendent of Schools, Oregon City, Ore.
Longstreet, R. J., Daytona Beach Public Schools, Daytona Beach, Fla.
Loomis, Arthur K., Dir., School of Educ., Univ. of Denver, Denver, Colo.
Loomis, Harold V., Superintendent of Schools, Ossining, N.Y.
Loop, Dr. Alfred B., 818 East North St., Bellingham, Wash,
Lorge, Dr. Irving, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Lowe, Wayne L., Supervising Principal, Rye High School, Rye, N.Y.
Lowry, Charles D., 628 Foster Street, Evanston, HI.
Luborsky, Lester B., Duke University, Durham, N.C.
Lucas, Joiin J., 300 East 159th St., New York, N.Y.
Lucey, Stuart C., 5101 Thirty-ninth Ave., Long Island City, N.Y.
Luckey, Dr. Bertha M., Psychologist, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio
Ludington, John R., State College of Agriculture and Engineering, Raleigh, N.C.
Luke, Brother, Dir., Institut Pedagogique St. Georges, Laval-Rapids, Que.
Lusk, Mrs. Georgia L., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N.M.
Luther, E. W.,Superintendent of Schools, Plymouth, Wis.
Lynch, Mary Elizabeth, 23 Winborough St., Mattapan, Mass.
Lyon, Gilbert R., Superintendent of Schools, Norwich, N.Y.
Lyons. John H., Enfield High School, Thompsonville, Conn.
MacDonald, Nellie V., 534 Pahnerston Blvd., Toronto, Qnt.
MacFee, Mrs. Winifred C., Educ. Serv. Library, Western Mich. Col., Kalamazoo,
Mich.
MacKay, James L., 573 South Clay Ave., Kirkwood, Mp.
Mackenzie, Gordon N., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Mackintosh, Helen K, Senior Spec., Elem. Educ., Office of Educ., Washington, D.C.
MacLatehy, Josephine H., Bur. of Educ. Research, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio
MacLean, Malcolm S., School of Education, Univ. of Calif., Los Angeles, Calif.
Maddox, Clifford R., 15816 Marshfield Ave., Harvey, HI.
Magill, Professor Walter H., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Manoney, Professor John J,, Boston University, Boston, Mask-.
Maier, John V., Principal, Wilson Junior High School, Mtmcie, Ind.
Mailly, Edward Leslie, Cornelia F. Bradford School, Jersey City, N. J.
Maliory, Berniee, XJJ3L Office of Education, Washington, D.C.
Malo. Professor Albert H., DePaul University, Chicago,IIL
Malone, Mrs. T.inT*m S., Admin. Prin., Stevens School, Washington, D.C.
Manahan, Professor Ethel H., Box 2275, University Station, Enid, Ofcla.
Manicoff, Rose, 368, Seventy-eighth St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Manry, James C., Fonnan Christian College, Lahore, India
Manske, Armin A., 1037 Main St., Stevens Point, Wis,
XXX
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Mantell, Herman P., Haaren High School, New York, N.Y.
ManueL Herschel T., Univeraity of Texas, Austin, Tex.
Markowitz, Martha B., Principal, Bolton School, Cleveland, Ohio
Marks, Sallie B., 3133 Connecticut Ave., Washington, D.U
Marshall, Helen, University of Utah, Salt Lake (Sty, Utah
Marshall, Professor Herbert E., Cent. Mich. College of Educ., Mount Pleasant, Mich,
Marshall, Thomas 0., The American University, Washington, B.C.
Martin, Rev. John H., S.J., Fordham University, New York, N.Y.
Mary Adelbert, Sister, S.N.D., Diocesan Supv. of Schools, Toledo, Ohio
Mary Bartholomew, Sister, St. Clare College, MHwaukee, Wis.
Mary Benedetta, Mother, Principal, Villa Cabnm School for Girls, Burbank, Calif
Mary Cephas, Sister, O.S.F., Dean, Marian College, Indianapolis, Ind.
Mary Coralita, Sister, O.P., St. Mary of the Springs, Columbus, Ohio
Mary David, Sister, St. Mary's College, Holy Cross, Ind.
Mary Dorothy, Sister, O.P., Barry College, Miami, Fla.
Mary Florita, Sister, Nazareth Normal School, Rochester, N.Y.
Mary Gertrude Ann, Sister, O.S.F., Briar Cliff College, Sioux City, Iowa
Mary Inez, Mother, Holy Family College, Manitowoc, Wis.
Mary Irenaeus Dougherty, Sister, Mount Mercy College, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Mary Josephine, Sister, Rosary College, River Forrest, 111. m
Mary Justmia, Sister, Notre Dame Convent, Milwaukee, Wis.
Mary Irmina, Sister, Villa Madonna College, Covington, Ky.
Mary Maurilia, Sister, Principal, MaryclnT High School, Spokane, Wash.
Mary Michael, Sister, Immaculate Heart College, Los Angeles, Calif.
Mary Mildred, Mother, Provincial's Residence, Pendleton, Ore.
Mary Rose, Sister, St. Rose Convent, LaCrosse, Wis.
Mary of St. Michael, Sister, College of the Holy Names, Oakland, Calif.
Mary Teresa Francis McDade, Sister, Clarke College, Dubuque, Iowa
Mary Urban, Sister, Mount Cannel, Dubuque, Iowa
Mary Vera, Sister, Marian College, Fond du Lac, Wis.
Masson, J. S., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Lorain, Ohio
Masters, Harry V. T President, Albright College, Reading, Pa.
Mathews, Professor C. O., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio
Mathiasen, Professor O. F., Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio
Maucker, J William, School of Educ., Univ. of Montana, Missoula, Mont.
Maurer, Professor Katharine M., College of Agriculture, Lincoln, Neb.
Maxfield, Professor Francis M., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Mayman, J. E., Supervisor of Guidance, 985 Park PI,, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Maynard, Professor M. M., Monmouth College, Monmouth, BL
Maynard, Proctor W M 820 Fulton St., S.E., Minneapolis, Minn.
Mays, Professor Arthur B., University of Illinois^ Urbana,HL
McAdam. J. E., Dir. of Accred. of Private Sec. Schls., Univ. of Mo., Columbia, Mo.
McBroom, Professor Maude, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
McC&Hister,J. M,, 8100 So. Blackstone Ave., Chicago, HI.
MeC3eery, W. B., Principal, Community High School, Crystal Lake, El.
Mcdintock, James A., Brothers College, Madison, N.Y.
McCluer, V. C., Superintendent of Schools, 200 Church St., Ferguson, Mo.
McQtxsky, Howard Yale, School of Education, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich.
McCombs, N. D., Superintendent of Schools, Des Moines, Iowa
MeConnell, Ralph Caskey, Texas Avenue School, Atlantic City, NJ.
McConnell, T, R., Dean, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
McConnick, G. A., Superintendent of Schools, Beaver, Pa.
McConnick, Rev. Leo J., Supt., Bureau of Catholic Educ., Baltimore, Md.
McCuen, Theron L., Dist. Supt., Kern County Union H.S. Dist., Bakersfield, Calif.
McDaniel, Dr, H. B, r State Dept. of Education, Sacramento, Calif.
McDermott, Dr. John C. 7 St. John's University, Brooklyn, N.Y.
McDonald, L. R,, Principal, Woodruff High School, Peoria, HI.
McDonald, Mrs. V. R., 1757 Galloway Ave,, Memphis, Tenn.
McElroy, Dr. Howard C., Principal, McKeesport High School, McKeesport, Pa.
McEuen, Fred L., 3959 Chapman PI., Riverside, Calif.
McEwen, Noble R., Dept. of Education, Salein College, Winston-Salem, N,C.
McGee, Mary I., Woodstock College, Landour, Mussoorie, U.P., India
McGinnis, Charles A., Principal, ffigh School, Pimfciac, BL
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxxi
McGlotHin, Mary E., Stockton High School, Stockton, Calif.
McHale, Dr. Kathryn, Director., Am. Assoc. of Univ. Women, Washington, D.C.
Mclntosh, Dean D. C., Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.
Mclsaac, Professor John S., Geneva College, Beaver Falls, Pa.
McKee, Professor Paul, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo.
McKee, W. J., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.
McKinney, James, American School, Drexel Ave. and Fifty-eighth St., Chicago, HI.
McLaughlin, Dr. Katherine L., University of California, tos Angeles, Calif.
McLaughlin, William J., Prin,, D. A. Harmon Junior High School, Hazelton, Pa.
McLean, William, Prin., Mt, Hebron Junior High School, Upper Montclair, N.J.
McMahon, Dr. Clara P., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
McMahon, Stephen E., Little Flower Rectory, 8026 So. Wood St., Chicago, HI.
McNeal, Professor Wylle B., University Farm, University of Minn., St. Paul, Minn,
McNellis, Esther L., 177 Harvard St., Dorchester Center, Mass.
McQueeny, Mother Mary, San Francisco College for Women, Lone Mountain, San
Francisco, Calif.
Mead, Arthur R., College of Educ., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.
Mearig, J. F., Principal, East High School, Akron, Ohio
Mease, Clyde D., Superintendent of Schools, Traer, Iowa
Melby, Dean Ernest 0., School of Educ., New York University, New York, N.Y.
Melville, S. Donald, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa.
Mensenkamp, L. E., Principal, Freeport High School, Freeport, El.
Mentink, H. G., Dir. of Teacher Educ., Central College, Pella, Iowa
Merrell, Martha B., Librarian, Racine Public Library, Racine, Wis.
Merrill, A. W., Acting Superintendent of Schools, Dubuque, Iowa
Merriman, Pearl, State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash.
Merry, Leona, Hamilton School, Schnectady, N.Y.
Merry, Mrs. Frieda Kiefer, Morris Harvey College, Charleston, W.Va.
Messenger, Carl, 2025 Eightieth St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Metter, Harry L., Eastern HI. State Teachers College, Charleston, HI.
Meyers, C. E., Department of Psychology, Univ. of Denver, Denver, Colo.
Meyerson, Lee, 1364 Monterey St., Richmond, Calif.
Michael, William Burton, 388 So. Oak Ave., Pasadena, Calif.
Michie, James K., Superintendent of Schools, Coleraine, Minn.
Middleton, Mrs. Anne, 650 Waring Ave., Bronx, New York, N.Y.
Miles, Dudley H., 299 Riverside Dr., New York, N.Y.
Millard, C. V., Dir., Div. of Educ., Mich. State College, East Lansing, Mich.
MiUer, Charles H., Librarian, Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa.
Miller, Professor Charles S., Allegheny College, Meadvjlle, Pa.
Miller, Fred L., Elem. School Supv., Dept. of Education, Topeka, Kan..
Miller, George J., State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.
Miller, John L., Superintendent of Schools, Great Neck, N.Y.
Miller, Lawrence William, University of Denver, Denver, Colo.
Miller, P. H., Superintendent of Schools, Piano, HI.
Miller, Paul A., Superintendent of Schools, Minot, N.D.
Miller, W. S., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Miller, Wade E., Superintendent of Schools, Middletown, Ohio
Miller, William P., Principal, Senior High School, Ogden, Utah
Milligan, Professor John P., State Teachers College, Newark, N.J.
Mills, Professor Henry C., University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.
Mills, William W., State Training School, Red Wing, Minn.
Minogue, Mildred M., Principal, Rogers Elementary School, Chicago, HI.
Misner, Paul J., Superintendent of Schools, Glencoe, BL
Mitchell, Professor B. F., Louisiana State University, Baton Bouge, La.
Mitchell, Charles A., Superintendent of Schools, Easthampton, Mass.
Mitchell, Claude, Superintendent of Schools, West Newton, Pa.
Mitchell, Eva C., Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va.
Moehlman, Professor A. B., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mien.
Moffitt, J. C., Superintendent of Schools, Provo, Utah
Moll, Rev. Boniface E., St Benedict's College, Atchison, Kan.
Monahan, Catherine E., Supervisor, Elementary Schools, Providence, K.I.
*Monroe, Professor Walter S., University of Illinois, Urbana, IE.
Montgomery, T. T., President, Southeastern State College, Durant, Okla.
xxxii MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Montgomery, William F., Supv. Prin., Warwick Consolidated School, Pottstown, Pa.
Moody, George F., Training School, Salem, Mass.
Moon, F. D., Principal, Douglass High School, Oklahoma City, Okla.
Moore, Clyde B., Stone Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Moore, Professor Eoline Wallace, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, Ala.
Moore, J. P., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Fort Worth, Tex.
Moore, John W., Superintendent of Schools, Winston-Salem, N.C.
Moran, H. A., Principal, Main School, Mishawaka, Ind.
Morgan, Barton, Dir., Teacher Education, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa
Morgan, Lewis V., County Superintendent of Schools, Wheaton, ILL.
Morris, Professor J. V. L., Northwestern State Teachers College, Alva, Okla.
Morrison, Fanny, 169 Mt. Vernon St., Dover, N.H.
Morrison, Howard D., Supervising Principal, Trenton, N.J.
Morrison, J. Cayce, State Education Department, Albany, N.Y,
Morrow, Professor Paul R., University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.
Morstrom, Mrs. Maurice G., 6940 Cregier Ave., Chicago, 111.
Mort, Professor Paul, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Morton, Professor R. L., Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
Moseley, C. C., Superintendent of Schools, Anniston, Ala.
Mounce, James R., Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Iowa
Muldoon, Hugh C., Dean, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne Univ., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Munro, C. Donald, Vice-principal, Queen Alexandra School, Peterborough, Ont.
Munro, Paul M., Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ga.
Munzenmayer, Professor L. H., Kent State University, Kent, Ohio
Murphy, Edna L, Supervisor, Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Minn.
Murphy, Forrest W., Superintendent of Schools, Greenville, Miss.
Murphy, John A., Public School 53, 360 East 168th St., New York, N.Y.
Murphy, Mary E., Dir., Elizabeth McCormick Mem. Fund, Chicago, HI.
Myers, Anna G., 217 Library Building, Kansas City, Mo.
Nagle, J. Stewart, 213 St. Peter St., Schuvlkill Haven, Pa.
Narber, Professor Helen, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.
Nash, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, West AlKs, Wis.
Nassau, Dorothy P., Librarian, Pedagogical Library, Philadelphia, Pa.
Neal, Elma A., Dir., Elementary Education, Public Schools, San Antonio, Tex.
Neale, Gladys E., Macmillan Company of Canada, Toronto, Can.
Neighbours, Owen J., Superintendent of Schools, Wabash, Ind.
Nelson, Mrs. Grace F., Elementary School Supervisor, Hazlehurst, Miss.
Nelson, Capt. John D., MAC, Dresser, Wis.
Nelson, J. J., Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa
Nelson, Milton G., Dean, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N.Y.
Nelson, N. P., Dir., Div. of Sec. Educ., State Teachers College, Oshkosh, Wis.
Nemzek, Dr. Claude L., Dir., Education Dept., Univ. of Detroit, Detroit, Mich.
Neuner, Dr. Elsie Flint, Department of Education, New Rochelle, N.Y.
Newman, Herbert M., Education Department, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Nichols, Augusta M., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Manchester, N.H.
Nichols, B. R., Superintendent of Schools, Bristow, Okla.
Nichols, C. A., Dir., School of Educ., Southern Methodist Univ., Dallas, Tex.
Nickel!, Yernon L., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, HI.
Nietz, Professor John A., School of Educ., Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Nifenecker, Eugene A., 800 Riverside Drive, New York, N.Y.
Nikoloff, Rev. Nicholas, Prin., Metropolitan Bible Institute, North Bergen, N.J.
Noble, William T., 65 Kingsdale Aye., Willowdale, Ont., Can.
Noll, Victor, Div. of Education, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich.
Noprada, Monico A., 1759 West Madison St., Chicago, HI.
Norem, Grant M., State Teachers College, Minot, N.D.
Norris, F. H., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Richmond, Va.
Norris, Dr. K. E., Principal, Sir George Williams College, Montreal, Que.
Norris, Paul B., Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa
North, Ward T., Superintendent of Schools, Corydon, Iowa
Norton, Professor John K, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Noteboom. Professor Charlotte M., University of South Dakota, Vennillion, S.D,
Notz, Hulda M., Box 852, R.F.D. 1, Homestead, Pa,
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxxiii
Novotny, Marcella, Queens Vocational High School, Long Island City, N.Y.
Nugent, Dr. James A., 2 Harrison Ave., Jersey City, NJ,
Nurnberger, T. S., Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mich.
Nutter, Hazen E., Florida Curriculum Laboratory, Univ. of Fla., Gainesville, Fla.
Oberholtzer, E. E., Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Tex.
O'Brien, George M., Superintendent of Schools, Two Rivers, Wis.
O'Brien, Marguerite, Northern Illinois State Teachers College, DeKalb, HI.
Odell, C. W., Bur. of Educ. Research,JJniversity of Illinois, Urbana, HI.
O'Donnell, W. F., President, Eastern Ky. State Teachers College, Richmond, Kr.
Ogle, Rachel, Franklin College, Franklin, Ind.
O'Hearn, Mary, Roger Wolcott District School, Dorchester, Mass.
Ojemann, R. H., Child Welfare Research Station, Iowa City, Iowa
O'Keefe, Timothy, College of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minn.
Olander, Professor Herbert T., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Olivares, Professor Enrique C. y Lomas de Chapuitepec, Mexico, D.F.. Mex.
Olmstead, Edwin W., 4508 St. Clair Ave., North Hollywood, Calif.
Olsen, Edward G., State Department of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash.
Olson, Irene Marion, 1319 Penn Ave., North, Minneapolis, Minn.
Olson, Justus E., Assoc. Minister, First Methodist Church, Milwaukee, Wis.
Olson, Professor Willard C., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
O'Neil, Joseph A. F., Mary E. Curley School, Jamaica Plain, Mass.
O'Neill, Sister M. Berenice, Fontbonne College, St. Louis, Mo.
Oppenheimer, Professor J. J., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.
Opstad, Iver A., 121 North Johnson St., Iowa City, Iowa
Orr, J. Clyde, Superintendent of Schools, Bessemer, Ala.
Orr, Louise, 925 Crockett St., ArnariHo, Tex.
Osborn, Professor John K, Central State Teachers College, Mount Pleasant, Mich.
Osburn, Professor W. J., University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Otto, Professor Henry J., University of Texas, Austin, Tex.
Outcelt, Kenneth L., County Superintendent, Balsam Lake, Wis.
Overn, Professor A. V., School of Education, State College, Pa.
Overstreet, G. T., Principal, Burnett High School, Terrell, Tex.
Owen, Helen Mildred, F. A. Owen Publishing Co., Dansville, N.Y.
Owen, Mary E., F. A. Owen Publishing Co., Dansville, N.Y.
Owens, Professor Henry Grady, Furman University, Greenville, S.C.
Owens, Dr. M. R., State Department of Education, Little Rock, Ark.
Paine, Dr. H. W., Teachers College, Univ. of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Painter, Fred B., Superintendent of Schools, Goversville, N.Y.
Palmer, Grace, Librarian, State Teachers College, Springfield, Mo.
Pando, Rev. Jose C., C.M., St. John's University, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Pannell, H. Clifton, Superintendent of City Schools, Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Park, Charles B,, Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Pleasant, Mich.
Park, Dr. M. G., New York State Teachers College, Cortland, N.Y.
Parker, Clyde, Superintendent of Schools, Moline, til.
Parker, Jessie M., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa
Partch, C. E., Dean, School of Educ., Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J,
Pate, Lawrence T., James Whitcomb Riley High School, South Bend, Ind.
Patrick, Mary L., 6142 Runbark Ave., Chicago, HI.
Patt, Hermann G., Supervising Principal, Granville, Mass.
Pattee, Howard H., Dir. of Admissions, Pomona College, Qaremont, Calif.
Patten, Ruth H., Gen. Supv., Richmond Public Schools, Richmond, Calif.
Patterson, Dr. Herbert, Oklahoma AgrL and Meek College, Stillwater, Okla.
Paulson, Alice T., Principal, Senior High School, Blue Earth, Minn.
Pauly, Dr. Frank R., Dir. of Research, Board of Education, Tulsa, Okla.
Payne, W. K, Dean, Georgia State College, Industrial College, Ga.
Payne, Walter L,, Lyons Township Junior College, LaGrange, HI.
Peacock, Clayton W., Superintendent of Schools, LaFayette, Ga.
Peebles, Clarence M., 79 North Cowley Road, Riverside, HI.
Peel, Professor J. C., Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Fla.
Peak, W. E., Dean, Col of Educ., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Petrce, Lottie Mildred, Femim Junior CoEege, Ferrum, Va.
xxxiv MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Pemberton, Lee R., Superintendent of Schools, Blue Earth, Minn.
Penfold, Arthur, 332 Beard Ave., Buffalo, N.Y.
Pennington, Ha Lee, 1018 West Fourteenth St., Sulphur, Okla.
Perry, Professor Winona M., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Peters, Charles C., Dir. of Educ. Research, State College, Pa.
Petersen, Anna J., 10 Suydam St., New Brunswick, N.J.
Petersen, Mrs. Edith Barney, Principal, Keewaydin School, Minneapolis, Minn.
Petersen, Robert G., Superintendent of Schools, Stoughton, Wis.
Peterson, Arthur E., Superintendent of Schools, Sandy, Utah
Peterson, Professor Elmer T,, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Peterson, Wiley K, Superintendent of Schools, Maricopa, Calif.
Phillips, Dr. A. J., Michigan Education Association, Lansing, Mich.
Phillips, Professor Claude Anderson, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Phillips, Ned, Superintendent of Schools, Naches, Wash.
Pierce, Arthur E., Superintendent of Schools, Wellesley, Mass.
Pigott, Lee D., Principal, Senior High School, Decatur, Dl.
Pilkington, H. Gordon, State Teachers College, Danbury, Conn.
Pitt, Rev. F. N., Superintendent of Catholic Schools, Louisville, Ky.
Pittinger, Dean B. F., School of Educ., University of Texas, Austin, Tex.
Pollard, Luther J. T Head, Dept. of Educ., Plymouth Teachers Col., Plymouth, N.H.
Poole, Lynn D., Dept. of Education, Walters Art Galley, Baltimore, Md.
Porter, M. D., Superintendent of Schools, Holbrook, Ariz.
Porter, R. H. T Dir. of Publications, The Steck Co., Austin, Tex.
Potter, Floyd A. r County Superintendent of Schools, Mays Landing, N.J.
Potter, Mrs. Robert K., San Luis School, Inc., Colorado Springs, Colo.
Potthoff, Professor Edward F., University of Illinois, Urbana, Dl.
Power, Thomas F., Superintendent of Schools, Worcester, Mass.
Powers, F. R., Supt., Amherst Exempted Village Schools, Amherst, Ohio
Powers, Dr. Nellie E., 398 Marlborough St., Boston, Mass.
Powers, Professor S. Ralph, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York, N.Y.
Powers, Sue M., Superintendent of Schools, Memphis, Tenn.
Price, Helen, Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Ind.
Price, J. St. Clair, Dean, Col. of Liberal Arts, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C.
Pringle, James Nelson, Commissioner of Education, Concord, N.H.
Proctor, Professor A. M., Duke University, Durham, N,C.
Prutzman, Stuart E., County Superintendent of Schools, Mauch Chunk, Pa.
Pugsley, Professor C. A., State Teachers College, Buffalo, N.Y.
Purdy, Ralph D., Superintendent of Schools, Conneaut, Ohio
Pylvainen, Ingrid, Supervisor of Elementary Education, Crystal Falls, Mich.
Race, Stuart, Supervising Principal of Schools, Newton, N J.
Radvanvi, Dr. Laszlo, National University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mex.
Ragan, Professor William B., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Ralston, Alene, 709 Church Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
Ramharter, Mrs. Hazel K,, Co-ordinator of Secondary Education, Eau Claire, Wis.
Ranta, George R., 319 West Virginia St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Raankba, Paul T n Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich.
Rasche, William F., Dir., Milwaukee Vocational School, Milwaukee, Wis.
Raths, Professor Louis E., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Raymond, Professor Ruth, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Reavis, Professor W. C., University of Chicago, Chicago, UL
Rebok, D. E., Pres., Seventh-day Adventist Theological Sem., Washington, D.C.
Reed, Mary D., Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Ind.
Reeder, R. R., Superintendent of Schools, Litchfield, Minn.
Reeves, J. A., Superintendent of Schools, Everett, Wash.
Regan, Eleanor, President, Barat College of the Sacred Heart, Lake Forest, HI.
Regier, Dr. A. J., Bethel College, Newton, Kan.
ReBley, Albert G., Principal, Memorial Junior High School, Framingham, Mass.
Reinhardt, Emma, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Dl.
Reiter, M. R,, Superintendent of Schools, Morrisville, Pa,
Reitze, Dr. Arnold W., 3 Lienau Place, Jersey City, N.J.
Remmers, Professor Herman, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
Remy, B. D., 123 Hopkins Place* Longmeadow, Mass.
Reynolds, E- J., Superintendent of Schools, Moberly, Mo.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
XXXV
Reynolds, Fordyce T., Superintendent of Schools, Gardner, Mass.
Reynolds, James W-, Atlanta Area Teacher Educ. Service, Emory Univ., Ga.
Rhodes, L. H., Superintendent of Schools, Tucumeari, N.M.
Rice, John D., Superintendent of Schools, Kearney, Neb.
Rice, Dr. Ralph Samuel, Supv. Principal, Ross Twp. Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Richey, Herman G., School of Edue., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, HI.
Richman, J. Maurice, 1001 East Ninth St., Brooklyn. N.Y.
Riggs, Ora M., 445 FuUerton Parkway, Chicago, 111.
Riley, T. M., Principal, Louis Pasteur Junior High School, Los Angeles, Calif.
Risk, Professor Thomas M., University of South Dakota, Vermillion, S.D.
Risley, James H., Superintendent of School Dist. No. 1, Pueblo, Colo.
Ritow, Herman L., Principal, Boone Elementary School, Chicago, 111.
Ritter, Professor Elmer L., Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa
Robbins, Edward T., Superintendent of Schools, Taylor, Tex.
Roberts, Agnes C., 1002 Glenwood Ave., Kansas City, Mo.
Roberts, Edward D., 3533 Burch Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio
Roberts, Morris F., Principal, Community High School, Wheaton, HI.
Robertson, Walter J., Superintendent of City Schools, Las Vegas, N.M.
Robinson, Clifford E., Albany High School, Albany, Ore.
Robinson, Louis C., County Superintendent of Schools, Chestertown, Md.
Robinson, Mardele, Director of Guidance, South Pasadena, Calif.
Robinson, R. F., Principal, Washington High School, East Chicago, Ind.
Robinson, Ross N., Superintendent of Schools, Kingsport, Tenn.
Robinson, Thomas L., Alcorn A. and M. College, Alcorn, Miss.
Robinson, William McK., Western State Teachers College, Kakmazoo, Mich.
Robison, Alice E., 18302 Roselawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
Roeber, Edward C., Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kan.
Roeder, Dr. Jesse N., Superintendent of Schools, Palmerton, Pa.
Rogers, Donald W., Master, Loomis School, Windsor, Conn.
Rogers, Dean Emeritus Lester B., University of So. Calif., Los Angeles, Calif.
Rogers, V. M., Superintendent of Schools, Battle Creek, Mich.
Rogers, Mother V., Dean, Ducjaesne College, Omaha, Neb.
Rohrbach, Q. A. W., President, State Teachers College, Kutztown, Pa.
Rooney, Rev. Edward B., S.J., Jesuit Educational Association, New York, N.Y.
Rose Marie, Sister, Prin., St. Joseph's High School, West New York, N. J.
Rosenstengel, Professor William E., Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N,C.
Ross, Professor C. C., College of Educ., Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
Ross, Cannon, Superintendent of Schools, Lansdowne, Pa.
Ross, Dr. Cecil L., University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla.
Ross, Lazarus D., Prin., Wm. J. Saynor Junior High School, Brooklyn, N.Y,
Roverud, Ella M., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, St. Paul, Minn.
Rowe, Ruth, Asst. Dir. of Educ., Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo.
Rowland, Sydney V., Superintendent of Schools, Wayne, Pa.
Rucker, Thomas J., Principal, Emerson School, St. Louis, Mo.
Rudisill, Mabel, Western Kentucky State Teachers College, Bowling Green, Ky.
Rufi, Professor John, School of Educ., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Rugg, Professor Earle U., Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo.
Ruggles, Allen M., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Rumpel, Harry E., Superintendent of Schools, Richfield, Minn.
Rush, Mrs. Rose Gordon, 1617 Belle Ave., Lakewood, Ohio
Russell, Professor David H., University of California, Berkeley, Calif.
Russell, Earle S., Superintendent of Schools, Windsor, Conn,
Russell, Dr. F. O., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.
Russell, J. L., Regional Director, Div. of Gen. Extension, Rome, Ga.
Russell, Professor John Dale, University of Chicago, Chicago, Bl.
Rutter, Henry B., 123 So. Bryant Ave., BeBevue, Pa.
Ryan, Very Rev. Msgr. Carl J. f Supt. of Parochial Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Ryan, W. Carson, Head, Dept. of Educ., tJoiv. of North Carolina, Chapel HOI, N.C.
Ryans, Lieut. David G., USNR, Cooperative Test Service, New York, N.Y.
Sailer, T. H. P., 219 Walnut St., Eageiwood, N J.
Salisbury, Rachel, Dir., Educ. Dept,, Milton College, Milton, Wis.
Salser, Alden, Prin., Horace Mann Intermediate School, Wichita, Kan.
Sampson, Mabel M,, 260 Fifth Street, Independence, Ore.
xxxvi MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Samuelson, Agnes, National Educ. Assn., 1201 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
Sand, Harold J., 5720 Dupont Ave., So., Minneapolis, Minn.
Sanders, Mattie, Campbellsville College, Campbellsville, Ky.
Sanderson, Jesse 0., Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N.C.
Sands, Elizabeth, Asst. Superintendent of City Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.
Sangree, Professor John B., Dept. of Science, State Teachers CoL, Glassboro, N.J.
Saunders, Joseph H., 5906 Huntington Ave., Newport News, Va.
Saunders, Paul A., 231 Albion St., Wakefield, Mass.
Saunders, Raymond J., 320i Greenwood Ave., Jenkintown, Pa.
Sauvain, Professor Walter H., Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pa.
Savery, Rosalie, Supervisor, Rural Elementary Schools, Tupelo, Miss.
Savoy, A. Kiger, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D.C.
Saylor, Charles F., Superintendent of Schools, Shippensburgj Pa.
Saylor, Lt. Comdr. Galen, USNR, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Scarborough, Homer C., Superintendent of Schools, Great Bend, Kan.
Scarf, Professor Robert C., Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind.
Scates, Professor Douglas E., Duke University, Durham, N.C.
Schmidt, Rev. Austin G., S.J., Loyola University, Chicago, HI.
Schmidt, Dr. Bernardine G,, Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Ind.
Schmidt, Landolf George H., Headmaster, Central School, Mulwala, New South
Wales, Australia
Schmieding, Alfred, Concordia Teachers College, River Forest, HI.
Schmitt, Irvin H., 4808 South Thirtieth St., Fairlington, Arlington, Va.
Schnell, Mrs. Dorothy M., 339 Puente Drive, Hope Ranch Park, Santa Barbara,
Calif.
Schoolcraft, Dr. Arthur A., West Virginia Wesleyan College, Buckhannon, W.Va.
Schrammel, Dr. H. E., Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kan.
Schreiber, Herman, 80 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Schultz, Frank G., Dean of General Science, State College, Brookings, S.D.
Schultz, Frederick, Public School 19, 97 West Delavan Ave., Buffalo, N.Y.
Schutte, Professor T. H., State Teachers College, Silver City, N.M.
Schwiering, 0. C., Dean, College of Educ., Univ. of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.
Scorer, Sadie Mae, Box 404, Homestead, Pa.
Scott, James Armstrong, Director of Elementary Education, St. Louis, Mo.
Scott, Mildred C., Dir. T Division of Elementary Education, Parma, Cleveland, Ohio
Scott, Walter E., Superintendent of Schools, Fairbury, Neb.
Scott, Walter W., Superintendent, Walton Twp. Unit School, Olivet, Mich.
Seamens, Ray E., County Vocational Supervisor, Greensburg, Pa.
Sears, Professor J. B., Stanford University, Calif.
Seegers, Dean J. C., Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa.
Selby, June, Supervisor, Board of Education, Watertown, N.Y.
Selke, Professor Erich, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, N.D.
Selkowe, Mrs. Gertrude, 4810 Beverley Road, Brooklyn, N.Y.
Sells, John A., Principal, Brighton School, Seattle, Wash.
Senour, Alfred C., 4133 Ivy St., East Chicago, Ind.
Setzepfandt, A. O. H., Principal, Henry Barnard School, Tulsa, Okla.
Sewell, Nelson B., Principal, Sahnas Union High School, Salinas, Calif .
Sexson, John A., Superintendent of Schools, Pasadena, Calif.
Sexton, Wray E. T 23 Hoffman St., Maplewood, NJ.
Seyfert, Warren C., Director, Laboratory Schools, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Shack, Jacob H., Principal, Public School 130, Manhattan, New York, N.Y.
Shales, J. M., Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind.
Shangle, C. Paine, Superintendent, District No. 501, Bellingham, Wash.
Shankland, Sherwood D., 1201 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
Sharlip, Lou N., Principal, William S. Stokley, Philadelphia, Pa.
Shattuck, George E., Principal, Norwich Free Academy, Norwich, Conn.
Shaw, Roger M., 197 W. Loraine St., Oberlin, Ohio
Shea, James T., Director of Research, Board of Education, San Antonio, Tex.
Shelton, Nollie W., Superintendent of Schools, Swan Quarter, N.C.
Sheperd, Lou A., Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa
Sherer, Lorraine, Dir., Elem, Educ., Los Angeles County Schools, Los Angeles, CaHf,
Sheridan, Professor Harold J., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio
Shimmick, Lillian, Superintendent of County Schools, Oberlin, Kan.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxxvii
Shine, Joseph B., 9238 South Bishop St., Chicago, HI.
Shotwell, Fred C., 1 School Plaza, Franklin, N J.
ShotweU, Harry W., 40 Seventy-fourth St., North Bergen, NJ.
Shove, Helen B., 3116 Clinton Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
Shreve, Professor Francis, Fairmont State College, Fairmont, W.Va.
Shrode, Carl, Principal, Central High School, Evansville, Ind.
Shryock, Clara M., Asst. Supt., Cambria County Public Schools, Wilmore, Pa.
Shuck, Albert C., County Superintendent of Schools, Salem, NJ.
Sias, Professor A. B., Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
Sickles, F. J., Superintendent of Schools, New Brunswick, NJ.
Siebrecht, Elmer B., Dean, Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minn.
Sieving, Eldor C., St. Paul's Lutheran School, Fort Wayne, Ind.
Siewers, Grace L., Librarian, Salem College, Winston-Salem, N.C.
Simley, Irvin T., Superintendent of Schools, South St. Paul, Minn.
Simmons, Dr. I. F., County Board of Education, Birmingham, Ala.
Simon, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, Geneva, Neb.
Simpson, Professor Benjamin R., Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
Sims, Professor Verner M., University of Alabama, University, Ala.
Singleton, Gordon G., President, Mary Hardin-Baylor College, Belton, Tex.
Sininger, Harlan, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, N.M.
Skinner, Elate E., Ginn and Company, Chicago, DL
Skogsberg, Alfred, Principal, Bloomfield Junior High School, Bloomfield, N.J.
Slade, William, Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Shaker Heights, Ohio
Sletten, Professor R. Signe, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.
Sloan, Professor Paul W., State Teachers College, Buffalo, N.Y.
Smith, A. Edson, Principal, Robinson Twp. High School, Robinson, DL
Smith, C. A., 7220 Lindell Ave., St. Louis, Mo,
Smith, C. Arthur M., Attendance Officer, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.
Smith, Professor Dora V., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Smith, Ethel L., Dir., Elementary Education, Trenton, NJ.
Smith, Dean H. L., School of Educ., Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.
Smith, Professor Harry P., Teachers College, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.
Smith, Professor Henry P., School of Educ., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.
Smith, J. W., Principal, East High School, Youngstown, Ohio
Smith, Mrs. Josephine C., 1948 Second St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
*Smith, Dr. Lewis Wilbur, 98 Alamo Ave., Berkeley, Calif.
Smith, Dr. Mark A,, Superintendent of Schools, Macon, Ga.
Smith, Dr. Raymond A., Dir., School of Educ., Texas Christian Univ., Fort Worth,
Tex.
Smith, Russell W., Principal, Campbell School, East Moline, HI.
Smith, Dr. Stephen E., East Texas Baptist College, Marshall, Tex.
Smith, Vernon G., Superintendent of Schools, Scarsdale, N.Y.
Smither, Ethel L., 2906 Floyd Ave., Richmond, Va.
Snarr, 0. W., President, State Teachers College, Moorhead, Minn.
Snyder, Philip F., Northeast High School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Snyder, Walter E., Curriculum Dir., Salem Public Schools, Salem, Ore.
Soderstrom, LaVern W., Superintendent of Schools, Lindsborg, Kan.
Sorensen, R. R., Superintendent of Schools, Tracy, Minn.
Southall, Dr. Maycie, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.
Southerlin, W. B., Superintendent of Schools, Winnsboro, S.C.
Sparling, Edward J., President, Roosevelt College, Chicago, HI.
Spaulding, Col. Francis T., 3417 Martha Custis Drive, Alexandria, Va,
Spaulding, William E., Editor-in-chief, Houghton Mifflfn Co., Boston, Mass.
Spence, Ralph B., State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.
" icer, E. M., Director, Laboratory Schools, State Teachers CoL, Moorhead, Minn.
T, Professor Peter L., 535 West Tenth St., Oaremont, Calif.
^ :r, W. L., Dir., Secondary Educ., State Dept. of Educ., Montgomery, Ala.
Spitzer, Herbert, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa,
Sprague, Harry A., President, State Teachers College, Upper Montclair, NJ.
Springer, Florence E., Counselor, Gity Schools, Alhambra, Calif.
Springman, John H., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Mich.
Spry. Edward W., Superintendent of Schools, LeRoy, N.Y.
Stack, Katherine L, 4733 Cedar Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.
xxxviii MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
StalHngs, Tharon Eugene, Superintendent of Schools, Sikeston, Mo.
Stanton, Edgar, 3302 East Mercer St., Seattle, Wash.
Staples, Leon C., Superintendent of Schools, Stamford, Conn.
Stauffer, George E., 2nd Lt., A.G.D., Fourth Service Command, A.S.F., Regional
Hospital, Fort McCleUan, Ala.
Steel, H. J., State Teachers College, Buffalo, N.Y.
Stegner, Warren E., Superintendent of Schools, Miles City, Mont.
Steiner, M. A., Supervising Principal, Ingram Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Stellhorn, A. C., Secretary of Schools, 3558 S. Jefferson Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Stephens, June E., 1038 East Huron Ave., Ann Arbor, Mich.
Stern, Bessie C., State Department of Education, Baltimore, Md.
Stetson, G. A. r Superintendent of Schools, West Chester, Pa.
Stevens, Mrs. Marion Paine, Hotel Berkeley, New York, N.Y.
Stewart, Professor A. W., 402 S. Willow St., Kent, Ohio
Stewart, Grace E., Bartlett School Cottage, Salina, Kan.
Stewart, Professor Holland M., Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Stickney, G. E., Principal, Lanphier High School, Springfield, 111.
Stock, L. V., Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Biglerville, Pa.
Stoddard, George D., Commissioner of Education, State Educ. Dept., Albany, N.Y.
Stoddard, Professor James Alexander, University of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C.
Stoke, Stuart M., Head, Educ. Dept. Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.
Stolen, Alvin T., Superintendent of Schools, Duluth, Minn.
Stone, Professor William H., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Storey, Dr. Bernice L., Elementary Principal, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Stout, H, G., Chairman, Dept. of Educ., State Teachers College, Kearney, Neb.
Strang, Professor Ruth, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Stratemeyer, Florence, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Stratton, Mason A., Director of Elementary Education, Atlantic City, N.J.
Strayer, Professor George D., Teachers Col., Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
Strayer, Lt. George D., Jr., 2020 West Sixty-second St., Seattle, Wash.
Strickland, Professor Ruth G., School of Educ., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind.
Stroud, Professor J. B., State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Stuart, Alden T., Superintendent of Schools, Perry, N.Y.
Studebaker, J. W., U.S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.
Study, H, P., Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mo.
Sullivan, Edward A., President, State Teachers College, Salem, Mass.
Sullivan, G. C., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise, Idaho
Sullivan, Professor Helen Blair, Boston University, Boston, Mass.
Sutherland, Dr. A. H., 17 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y.
Swanbeck, G. W., Registrar, Augustana College, Rock Island, 111.
Swartz, Dr. David J., 900 Grand Concourse, Bronx, New York, N.Y.
Sweeney, Ellen C., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, New Bedford, Mass.
Swenson, Esther J., Box 187, Morris, 111.
Swertfeger, Professor Floyd F., FarmvOle State Teachers College, Farmville, Va.
Swift, G. C., Superintendent of Schools, Watertown, Conn.
Swihart, O. M., Superintendent of Schools, Richmond, Ind.
SyJla, Ben A., Superintendent of Schools, Chicago Heights, HI.
Taba, Hilda, Amer. Council on Education, 437 W. Fifty-ninth St., New York, N.Y.
Tabaka, Victor P., School of Business Adm., Emory University, Ga.
Tallman, Dr. R. W., 2024 Avalpn Road, Des Moines, Iowa
Tanruther, Professor E. M., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
Tansil, Rebecca, Registrar, State Teachers College, Towson, Md.
Tapper, Inga B., 348 Forest Drive, Cedar Rapids, Iowa
TarbeH, R. W., 5117 West Washington Blvd., Milwaukee, Wis.
Taylor, Dean Earl B. 7 University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.
Taylor, Elizabeth, Assistant Superintendent, Shreveport, La.
Taylor, Harvey L., Superintendent, Mesa Union High School, Mesa, Ariz.
Taylor, William S., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
Teach, Charles E., Superintendent of Schools, San Luis Obispo, Calif,
Templin, Mildred G*, Inst. of Child Welfare, Univ. of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn,
Terry, Professor Paul W., School of Educ., Univ. of Alabama, University, Ala,
Tfcayer, H, C., 2259 Fox Ave., Madison, Wis.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xxxix
Thayer, Professor V. T., Educ. Dir., Ethical Culture School, New York. N.Y
Theisen, W. W., Asst. Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee. Wis
Thies, Lillian C., 2500 North Stowell Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
Thibadeau, Charles R., Superintendent of Schools, Stamford, Conn.
Thomas, John Q., Superintendent of Schools, Flagstaff, Ariz.
Thomas, Professor Lawrence G., Stanford University, Calif.
Thomas, Dr. Maurice J., Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, Minn.
Thomas, Oscar D., 6160 Webster St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Thomas, Mrs. Ruth H., Board of Foreign Missions, 156 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y.
Thompson, Anton, Long Beach Public Schools, Long Beach, Cah'f.
Thompson, Dean Charles H., Col. of Liberal Arts, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C.
Thompson, Clem 0., Dir., Home-Study Dept., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Thompson, G. E., Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles, El.
Thorndike, Maj. Robert L., 900 South Twenty-sixth St., Arlington, Va.
Thorp, Mary T., Henry Barnard Junior High School, Providence, R.I.
Threlkeld, A. L., Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. J.
Thurston, Professor Flora M., Stone Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
Tidwell, Dean R. E., Extension Div., University of Alabama, University Ala.
Tiedeman, Lt. Herman R., USNR, 534 South Lahoma St., Norman, Okfa.
Tillman, Frank P., Superintendent of Schools, Kirkwood, Mo.
Tireman, Dr. L. S., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N.M.
Tongaw, Margaret, 2720 Manhattan Ave., Manhattan Beach, Calif.
Toops, Professor Herbert A., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Townsend, Professor Loran G., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Trabue, M. R., Dean, School of Education, State College, Pa.
Traner, Professor F. W., University of Nevada, Reno, Nev.
Traphagen, Martin H., Prin., Wilson Junior High School, Mount Veroon, N.Y.
Traxler, Dr. Arthur E., Educational Records Bureau, New York, N.Y.
Treadaway, Rev. Thomas J., S.M., Dean-Registrar, St. Mary's Univ., San Antonio,
Tex.
Trent, Dr. W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charlestown, W.Va.
Trescott, B. M., 341 Upland Way, Drexel Hill, Pa.
Triggs, Dean, Superintendent of Schools, Ventura, Calif.
Triggs, Frances O., American Nurses Association, 1790 Broadway, New York, N.Y,
Trout, David M., Dean of Students, Central Mich. College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich.
Trow, William Clark, 1101 Berkshire Road, Ann Arbor, Mich,
Troxel, Professor O. L., Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.
Troyer, Professor Maurice E., School of Educ., Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, N.Y.
Trump, Dr. J. Lloyd, Superintendent, Waukegan Twp. High School, Waukegan, HI.
Turner, Professor Egbert M., College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.
Turney, Professor A. H., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.
Tyler, Professor Ralph W., University of Chicago, Chicago, HL
Tyson, Dr. George R., Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa.
Umstattd, Professor J. G., University of Texas, Austin, Tex.
Unger, John C., State Dir. of Sec. Educ. and Curricula, Boulder, Colo.
Uphill, Jared L. M., District Superintendent of Schools, Batavia, N.Y,
Vakil, K. S., Principal, Teachers College, Kolhapur, India
Van Alstyne, Dr. Dorothy, Duke University, College Station, Durham, N.C.
Van Antwerp, Maude L., Northern Michigan College of Education, Marquette, Mich.
Vander Beke, George E., Dept. of Educ., Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wis.
Vanderlinden, J. S., Superintendent of Schools, Perry, Iowa
Vandervelden, Katherine, 114 Maple Street, New Haven, Conn.
Van de Voort, Professor Alice, University of Delaware, Newark, Del
Van Ness, Carl, D. Appleton-Century Co., New York, N.Y.
Van Ormer, Professor Edward B., Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa.
Van Wagenen, Professor M. J. 7 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Varney, Charles E., Superintendent of Schools, Stoneham, Mass-
Vaughan, John S., President, Northeastern State College, Tahlequah, Okla.
Velte, C. BL f Crete, Neb.
Verseput, Robert F., Dover High School, Dover. N J.
Vetting, Ida F., Principal, Seward School, Seattle, Wash.
3d MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
Viker, J. H., Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls, Minn.
Villaronga, Mariano, Dir. of Gen. Studies, Univ. of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, P.R.
Vincent, Harold S., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Akron, Ohio
Vineyard, Jerry J., Superintendent of Schools, Nevada, Mo.
Viste, Kenneth M. f Superintendent of Schools, Williams Bay, Wis.
Voelker, Paul H., Supervisor of Special Classes, Detroit, Mich.
*Waddell, Professor C. W., 10630 Lindbrook Drive, Los Angeles, Calif.
Waggoner, Dr. Sherman G., Teachers College of Connecticut, New Britain, Conn.
Wahlquist, Dean John T., School of Educ., Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
Wakeman, Seth, Dept. of Education, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
Waldron, Margaret L., Dept. of Education, St. Mary-of-the-Woods, Ind.
Walkenhorst, Slartin F., Principal, Lutheran School, Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Walker, Professor E. T., 1706 South Fifth Ave., Maywood, HI.
Walker, K. P., Superintendent of Schools, Jackson, Miss.
Walker, Knox, Supervisor, Fulton County Schools, Atlanta, Ga.
Walter, Robert B., Chief Deputy Supt,, Los Angeles County, San Gabriel, Calif.
Walz, Louise D., 2628 North Euclid Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Wanamaker, Pearl A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash.
Ward, John H., Principal, Laura E. Titus School, Norfolk, Va.
Ward, W. H., Dir,, Extension Div., Univ. of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C.
Warren, W. Frank, Superintendent of City Schools, Durham, N,C.
Watkin, Earl P., Superintendent of Schools, Hion, N.Y.
Watkins, Professor Ralph K., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Watson, C. Hoyt, President, Seattle Pacific College, Seattle, Wash.
Watson, E. E., Dir. of Training, East Tex. Teachers College, Commerce, Tex.
Watson, N. E., Superintendent of Schools, Northbrook, HI.
Webb, Ella P., Principal, Alexander Wilson School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Weber, Clarence A., Superintendent of Schools, Cicero, HI.
Weglein, David K, 2400 Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md.
Weida, Mrs. Ethelyn Y., Dir. of Guidance, 1200 E. Olive.St., Compton, Calif.
Weir, Donald, Superintendent of Schools, Jefferson, Iowa
Welch, Carolyn M., 1333 Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Welcfo, Earl E., Administrative Editor, Silver Burdett Company, New York, N.Y.
Welch, Eleanor W., Librarian, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, HI.
Welling, Richard, Chairman, Self -Government Committee, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Wellman, Professor Beth, Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, Iowa City, Iowa
Wells, George N., Superintendent of Schools, Bloomington, HI
Wendt, Paul, Dir., Visual Educ. Service, Univ. of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn.
Wentz, Roy, Acting Principal, Springfield High School, Springfield, 111.
Wesley, Charles H. t President, Wilberforce University Wilberforce, Ohio
Wesley, Professor Edgar B., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Wessels, Harry, Nathan Hale Junior High School, New Britain, Conn.
West, Frank L., Commissioner of Educ., L.D.S. Dept. of Educ., Salt Lake City, Utah
West, Professor Guy A., Chico State College, Chico, Calif.
West, Professor Paul V., New York University, New York, N.Y.
West, Eoscoe L., President, State Teachers College, Trenton, N. J.
Westbrook, Dr. C. H., Graduate School of Educ., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
Wexler, S. David, 294 Brooklyn Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Wheat, Professor H. G., West Virginia University, Morgantown, W.Va.
Wheat, Leonard B., 235 South Mell St., Auburn, Ala.
Wheeler, Dr. Arville, Superintendent of Schools, Ashland, Ky.
Whelan, Louise M,, 6 Grand Ave., Hackensack, N.J.
WMpple, Gertrude, 14505 Mettetal Ave., Detroit, Mich.
Whifiler, Professor H. M., Butler University, Indianapolis, Ind.
White, Frank S., Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, W.Va.
White, Warren T., Assistant Superintendent in Charge of High Schools, Dallas, Tex.
Whiting, Dean G. W., Dir. of Teacher Educ., Bluefield State Col., Bluefield, W.Va.
Whitky, Paul N., Principal, Point Grey Junior High School, Vancouver, B.C.
Whitney, Frank P., 2164 Taylor Road, East Cleveland, Ohio
Whitspn, Willie, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo.
Whittier, C. Taylor, Asst. Principal, Horace Mann School, Gary, Ind.
Wiener, Isadore, Universal Dental Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY xli
Wight, Edward A., Newark Public Library, Newark, NJ.
Wilcox, Charles C., 306 East Lovell St., Kalamazoo, Mich.
Wilcox, George M., Dean, Youngstown College, Youngstown, Ohio
Wiles, Dr. Marion E. f Educ. Consultant, School Department, Brockton. Mass,
Wilkerson, H. Clifton, 542 Market St., Platteville, Wis.
Wilkins, Lt. Comdr. Walter, TAD Cen., Camp Elliott, San Diego, Calif.
Willett, G. W., 2022 East Edgewood Aye., Shorewood, Wis.
Williams, Dr. Bryon B., Chas. E. Merrill Company, Columbus, Ohio
Williams, Claude L., Principal, Wentworth School, Chicago, HI.
Williams, E. I. F., Professor of Educ., Heidelberg College, Tiffin, Ohio
Williams, Lewis W., 200 Gregory Hall, Urbana, HI.
Williams, Professor Mary N., State Teachers College, DeKalb, EL
Willing, Professor Matthew H., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Willis, Benjamin C., Superintendent of Washington County Schls., Hagerstown, Md.
Wills, Benjamin G., 1550 Bellamy St., Santa Clara, Calif.
Willson, Gordon L., Superintendent of Schools, Baraboo, Wis.
Wilson, Dr. Clara O., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Wilson, James H., Superintendent of Schools, Rocky Ford, Colo.
Winter, Olice, Principal, Lake View High School, Chicago, 111.
Wisseman, Professor C. L., Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex.
Witherington, Professor H. Carl, Bowling Green State Univ., Bowling Green, Ohio
Witty, Professor Paul A., Northwestern University, Evanston, El.
Woelfel, Norman, 463 King Ave., Columbus, Ohio
Wolfe, W. D., Superintendent of Schools, Atchison, Kan.
Wood, C. B., University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.
Wood, C. R., Dean, State Teachers College, Jacksonville, Ala,
Wood, Professor Ernest R., New York University, New York, N.Y.
Wood, Roi S., Superintendent of Schools, Joplin, Mo.
Wood, Dr. Waldo Emerson, 408 South Jackson St., Frankfort, Ind.
Woods, Dr. Velma E., Manzanar, Calif.
Woodside, J. Barnes, Superintendent of Schools, Willoughby, Ohio
Woody, Professor Clifford, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Woody, Professor Thomas, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Woodyard, Ella, Dir. of Research, Frontier Nursing Service, Wendover, Ky.
Wooton, Professor Flaud C., University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.
Works, George A., 242 Gateway Road, Ridgewood, NJ,
Wright, Anne, Principal, Furness Junior High School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Woolcock, Dr. Cyril Wnu, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Royal Oak, Mich.
Wright, C. O., Exec. Secy., Kansas State Teachers Association, Topeka, Kan.
Wright, Professor F. L., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
Wright, Owen B., Principal, Senior High School, Rock Island, El.
Wrightstone, J. Wayne, Board of Education 110 Livingston St., Brooklyn, N.Y.
Wrinkle, William L., Dir., College High School, Greeley, Colo.
Wynne, John P., Head, Dept. of Educ., State Teachers College, Farmville, Va.
Yauch, Professor Wilbur A., 42 Sunnyside Drive, Athens, Ohio
Yeuell, Gladstone H., University of Alabama, University, Ala.
Ylvisaker, H. L., Principal, Leyden Community High School, Franklin Park, El.
Yoakam, Professor G. A., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Young, Gordie, Asst. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky.
Young, Lloyd P., President, Keene Teachers College, Keene, N.H.
Young, Paul A., 2204 Sherman Ave., Evanston, El.
Young, William E., State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.
Yunghans, Ernest E., Principal, Grace Lutheran School, River Forest, EL
Zahn, D. Willard, 6531 North Park Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
Zeigel, Professor William H., Jr., State Teachers College, Charleston, EL
Zimmerman, Lee F., State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.
Zimmerman, Paul H., North High School, Akron, Ohio
INFORMATION CONCERNING THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR
THE STUDY OF EDUCATION
1. PURPOSE. The purpose of the National Society is to promote the investigation
and discussion of educational questions. To this end it holds an annual meeting and
publishes a series of yearbooks.
2. ELIGIBILITY TO MEMBERSHIP, Any person who is interested in receiving its
- publications may become a member by sending to the Secretary-Treasurer informa-
tion concerning name, title, and address, and a check for $3.50 (see Item 5).
Membership is not transferable; it is limited to individuals, and may not be held
by libraries, schools, or other institutions, either directly or indirectly.
3. PERIOD OF MEMBERSHIP. Applicants for membership may not date their en-
trance back of the current calendar year, and all memberships terminate automatically
on December 31, unless the dues for the ensuing year are paid as indicated in Item 6.
4. DUTIES AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS. Members pay dues of $2.50 annually,
receive a cloth-bound copy of each publication, are entitled to vote, to participate
in discussion, and (under certain conditions) to hold office. The names of members
are printed in the yearbooks.
Persons who are sixty years of age or above may become life members on payment
of fee based on average life-expectancy of their age group. For information, apply to
Secretary-Treasurer.
5. ENTRANCE FEE. New members are required the first year to pay, in addition to
the dues, an entrance fee of one dollar.
6. PAYMENT OF DUES. Statements of dues are rendered in October or November
for the following calendar year. Any member so notified whose dues remain unpaid
on January 1 thereby loses his membership and can be reinstated only by paying a
reinstatement fee of fifty cents, levied to cover the actual clerical cost involved.
School warrants and vouchers from institutions must be accompanied by definite
information concerning the name and address of the person for whom membership
fee is being paid. Statements of dues are rendered on our own form only. The Secre-
tary's office cannot undertake to fill out special invoice forms of any sort or to affix
notary's affidavit to statements or receipts.
Cancelled checks serve as receipts. Members desiring an additional receipt must
enclose a stamped and addressed envelope therefor.
7. DISTRIBUTION OF YEARBOOKS TO MEMBERS. The yearbooks, ready prior to
each February meeting, will be mailed from the office of the distributors, only to mem-
bers whose dues for that year have been paid. Members who desire yearbooks prior
to the current year must purchase them directly from the distributor (see Item 8).
8. COMMERCIAL SALES. The distribution of all yearbooks prior to the current year,
and also of those of the current year not* regularly mailed to members in exchange
for their dues, is in the hands of the distributor, not of the Secretary. For such com-
mercial sales, communicate directly with the University of Chicago Press, Chicago 37,
Illinois, which will gladly send a price list covering all the publications of this Society
and of its predecessor, the National Herbart Society. This list is also printed in the
yearbook.
9. YEARBOOKS. The yearbooks are issued about one month before the February
meeting. They comprise from 600 to 800 pages annually. Unusual effort has been
made to make them, on the one hand, of immediate practical value, and, on the other
hand, representative of sound scholarship and scientific investigation. Many of them
are the fruit of co-operative work by committees of the Society.
10. MEETINGS. The annual meeting, at which the yearbooks are discussed, is held
in February at the same time and place as the meeting of the American Association
of School Administrators.
Applications for membership wfll be handled promptly at any time on receipt of
name and address, together with check for $3.50 (or $3,00 for reinstatement) . Gen-
erally speaking, applications entitle the new members to the yearbook slated for dis-
cussion during the calendar year the application is made, but those received in De-
cember are regarded as pertaining to the next calendar year.
NELSON B. HENRY, Secretary-Treasurer
5835 Kimbark Ave.
Chicago 37, Illinois
xliii
PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL HERBART SOCIETY
(Now the National Society for the Study of Education) POOTPAJD
PK1CB
First Yearbook, 1895 80 .79
First Supplement to First Yearbook 28
Second Supplement to First Yearbook 27
Second Yearbook, 1896 85
Supplement to Second Yearbook 27
Third Yearbo9k, 1897 85
Ethical Principles Underlying Education. John Dewey. Reprinted from Third Yearbook 27
Supplement to Third Yearbook . 27
Fourth Yearbook, 1898 79
Supplement to Fourth Yearboo 28
Fifth Yearbook, 1899 79
Supplement to Fifth Yearbook 54
PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR
THE STUDY OF EDUCATION
POSTPAID
PRIGS
First Yearbook, 1902, Part I Some Principles in the Teaching of History- Lucy M. Salmon $0 .64
First Yearbook, 1902, Part II The Progress of Geography in the Schools, W. M. Davis and H. M.
Wilson 53
Second Yearbook, 1903, Part I The Course of Study in History in the Common School. Isabel
Lawrence, C. A. McMunry, Frank McMurry, E. C. Page, and E. J. Rice 53
Second Yearbook, 1903, Part II The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education. M. J. Holmes,
J. A. Keith, and Levi Seeley 53
Third Yearbook, 1904, Part I The Relation of Theory to Practice in the Education of Teachers.
John Dewey, Sarah C. Brooks, F. M. McMurry, et al. 53
Third Yearbook, 1904, Part II Nature Study. W. S. Jackman 85
Fourth Yearbook, 1905, Part I The Education and Training of Secondary Teachers. E. C. Elliott,
E. G. Dexter, M. J. Holmes, etal 85
Fourth Yearbook, 1905, Part II The Place of Vocational Subjects in the Sigh-School Curriculum.
J. S. Brown, G. B. Morrison, and Ellen Richards 53
Fifth Yearbook, 1906, Part l-^-On the Teaching of English in Elementary and High Schools. G. P.
Brown and Emerson Davis 53
Fifth Yearbook, 1906, Part II The Certification of Teachers. E. P. Cubberley 64
Sixth Yearbook, 1907, Part I Vocational Studies for CoUege Entrance. C. A. Herrick, E. W.
Holmes, T. deLaguna, V. Prettyman, and W. J. S. Bryan 70
Sixth Yearbook, 1907, Part II The Kindergarten and Its Relation to Elementary Education. Ada
Van Stone Harris, E. A. Kirkpatrick, Maria Eraus-Boelte 1 , Patty S. Hill, Harriette M, Mills,
and Nina Vandewalker 70
Seventh Yearbook, 1908, Part I The Relation of Superintendents and Principals to the Training
and Professional Improvement of Their Teachers, Charles D. Lowry . , , 78
Seventh Yearbook, 1908, Part II The Co-ordination of the Kindergarten and the Elementary
School. B. J. Gregory, Jennie B. Merrill, Bertha Payne, and Margaret Giddiaga 78
Eighth Yearbook, 1909, Parts I and II 'Education with Reference to Sex. C. R, Henderson and
Helen C. Putnam. Both parts 1 .60
Ninth Yearbook, 1910, Part I Sealth and Education. T. D. Wood 85
Ninth Yearbook, 1910, Part II The Nurse in Education. T. D. Wood, etal. 78
Tenth Yearbook, 1911, Part I The City School as a Community Center. H. C. Leipziger, Sarah E.
Hyre, R. D. Warden, C. Ward Crampton, E. W. Stitt, E. J. Ward, Mrs. E. C. Grice, and C. A.
Perry 78
Tenth Yearbook, 1911. Part II The Rural School as a Community Center. B. H. Crocheron,
Jessie Field, F. W. Howe, E. C. Bishop, A. B. Graham, O. J. Kern, M. T, Scudder, and B. M.
Davis 79
Eleventh Yearbook, 1912, Part I Industrial Education' Typical Experiments Described and
Interpreted. J. F. Barker, M. Bloomfield, B. W. Johnson, P. Johnson, L. M. Leavitt, G. A,
Mirick, M. W. Murray, C. F. Perry, A. L. Safford, and H. B. Wilson 85
Eleventh Yearbook, 1912, Part II Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools. A. C. Monahan,
R. W. Stimson, D. J. Crosby, W. H. French, H. F. Button. F, R. Crane, W. R. Hart, and
G. F. Warren 85
Twelfth Yearbook, 1913, Part I The Supervision of City Schools. FranHin Bobbitt, J. W. Hall,
and J. D. Wolcott 85
Twelfth Yearbook, 1913, Part II The Supervision of Rural Schools. A. C. Monahan, L. J. Hani-
fan, J. E. Warren, Wallace Lund, U. J. Hoffman. A. a Cook, E. M. Rapp, Jackson Davis,
and J. D. Wolcott - 85
Thirteenth Yearbook, 1914, Part I Some Aspects of Hiffh-School Instruction and Administration.
H. C. Morrison, E. R. BresEch, W. A. Jessup, and L, D. Coffman 85
Thirteenth Yearbook, 1914, Part II Plans for Organizing School Surveys, with a Summary of
Typical School $wneys. Charles H. Judd and Henry L. Smith 79
Fourteenth Yearbook, 1915, Part I M inimtim Essentials in momentary School Subjects Stand-
ard* and Current Practices. H. B. Wilson, H. W. Holmes, F. E. Thompson, R. G-Jones, S. A.
Courtis, W. S. Gray, F. N. Freeman, H. C. Pryor, J. F. Hosic, W. A. Jesaup, and W. C. Bagley 85
Fourteenth Yearbook, 1915, Part II Method* for Measuring Teachers 1 Efficiency. Arthur C.
Boyoe * 79
xlv
xlvi PUBLICATIONS
Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part I Standards and Tests for the Measurement of the Efficiency of
Schools and School Systems. G. D. Strayer, Bird T. Baldwin, B. R. Buckingham, F. W. Ballou,
D. C. Bliss, H. G. CMlds, S. A. Courtis, B. P. Cubberley, C. H. Judd, George Melcher, E. E.
Oberholtzer, J. B. Sears, Daniel Starch, M. R. Trabue, and G. M. Wnipple .............. $0 85
Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part II The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home
Conditions. Charles E. Holley .................................................... 87
Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part III The Junior High School. Aubrey A. Douglass ........... !s5
Sixteenth Yearbook, 1917, Part I Second Report of the Committee on Minimum Essentials in Ele-
mentary School Subjects. W. C. Bagley, W. W. Charters, F. N. Freeman, W. S. Gray, Ernest
Horn, J. H. Hoskinson, W. S. Monroe, C. F. Munson, H. C. Pryor, L. W. Rapeer, G. M. Wil-
son, and H. B. Wilson ............................................................. 1 .00
Sixteenth Yearbook, 1917, Part II The Efficiency of College Students as Conditioned by Age at
Entrance and Size of High School. B. F. Pittenger .................................... 85
Seventeenth Yearbook, 1918, Part I Third Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Edu-
cation. W. C. Bagley, B. B. Bassett, M. E. Branom, Alice Camerer, J. E. Dealey, C. A.
Ellwood, E. B. Greene, A. B, Hart, J. F. Hosic, E. T. Housh, W. H. Mace, L. R. Maraton,
H. C. McKown, H. E. Mitchell, W. C. Reavis, D. Snedden, and H. B. Wilson ............. 85
Seventeenth Yearbook, 1918, Part II The Measurement of Educational Products. E. J. Ash-
baugh, W. A. Averill, L. P. Ayera, F. W. Ballou, Edna Bryner, B. R. Buckingham, S. A.
Courtis, M. E. Haggerty, C. H. Judd, George Melcher, W. S. Monroe, E. A. Nifenecker, and
E. L. Thorndike ......................................................... 1 00
Eighteenth Yearbook, 1919, Part I The Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers.
G. N. Cade, S. S. Colvin, Charles Fordyce, H. H. Foster, T. W. Gosling, W. S. Gray, L. V.
Kooa, A. R. Mead, H. L. Miller, F. C. Whitcomb, and Clifford Woody ................. 1 65
Eighteenth Yearbook, 1919, Part II Fourth Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Educa-
tion. F. C. Ayer, F. N. Freeman, W. S. Gray, Ernest Horn, W. S. Monroe, and C. E. Seashore 1 . 10
Nineteenth Yearbook, 1920, Part I New Materials of Instruction. Prepared by the Society's
Committee on Materials of Instruction ........................ , 1 10
Nineteenth Yearbook, 1920, Part II Classroom Problems in the Education of Gifted Children.
T. S. Henry .............................................. . 1 00
Twentieth Yearbook, 1921, Part I New Materials of Instruction. Second Report by the Society's
Committee .................... . ................... 1 30
Twentieth Yearbook, 1921, Part II Report of the Society's Committee on Silent Reading. M.' A.
Burgess, S. A. Courtis, C. E. Germane, W. S. Gray, H. A. Greene, Regina R. Heller, J. H.
Hoover, J. A. O'Brien, J. L. Packer, Daniel Starch, W. W. Theisen, G. A. Yoakam, and
representatives of other school systems ............................................ 1 10
Twenty-first Yearbook, 1922, Parts I and IIInteUigence Tests and Their Use. Part I The Na-
ture, History, and General Principles of Intelligence Testing. E. L. Thorndike, S. S. Colvin,
Harold Rugg, G. M. Wnipple. Part II The Administrative Use of Intelligence Tests. H. W.
Holmes, W. K. Layton, Helen Davis, Agnes L. Rogers, Rudolf Pintner, M. R. Trabue, W. S.
Miller, Bessie L. Gambrill, and others. The two parts are bound together ................. 1 .60
Twenty-second Yearbook, 1923, Part I English Composition: Its Aims, Methods, and Measure-
ments. Earl Hudelson .............................................................. 1 10
Twenty-second Yearbook, 1923, Part II The Social Studies in the Elementary and Secondary
School. A. S. Barr, J. J. Coss, Henry Harap, R. W. Hatch, H. C. Hill, Ernest Horn, C. H.
Judd, L. C. Marshall, F. M. McMurry, Earle Rugg, H. O. Rugg, Emma Schweppe, Mabel
Snedaker, and C. W. Washburne ................................................... 1 .50
Twenty-third Yearbook, 1924, Part I The Education of Gifted Children. Report of the Society's
Committee. Guy M. Whipple, Chairman ............................................ 1 .75
Twenty-third Yearbook, 1924, Part II Vocational Guidance and Vocational Education for Indus-
tries. A. H. Edgerton and others .................................................... 1 .75
Twenty-fourth Yearbook, 1925, Part IReport of the National Committee on Reading. W. S,
Gray, Chairman, F. W. BaHou, Rose L. Hardy, Ernest Horn, Frances Jenkins* S. A. Leonard,
Eutaline Wilson, and Laura Zirbes .................................................. 1 .50
Twenty-fourth Yearbook, 1925, Part II Adapting the Schools to Individual Differences. Report
of the Society's Committee. Carleton W. Washburne, Chairman ...................... 1 50
Twenty-fifth Yearbook, 1926, Parti The Present Status of Safety Education. Report of the
Society's Committee. Guy M. Whipple, Chairman .................................... 1.75
Twenty-fifth Yearbook, 1926, Part II Extra-curricular Activities. Report of the Society's
Committee. Leonard V. Koos, Chairman ........................................... 1.50
- Yearbook, 1927, Part I Curriculum-making: Past and Present. Report of the
Society's Committee. Harold O. Rugg, Chairman ...................................... 1 .75
Tw*afcy-xth Yearbook, 1927, Part II The Foundation* of Curriculum-making. Prepared by
individual members of the Society s Committee. Harold O. Rugg, Chairman 1 50
Twenty-seventh Yearbook, 1928, Part I Nature and Nurture; Their Influence upon IntelU-
oence. Prepared by the Society's Committee. Lewis M. Terman, Chairman ............... . 1 75
Twenty-seventh Yearbook, 1928, Part II Nature and Nurture: Their Influence upon Achieve-
ment. Prepared by the Society's Committee. Lewis M. Tennan, Chairman ................ 1 .75
Twenty-eighth Yearbook, 1929, Parts I and II Preschool and Parental Education. Part I
Organization and Development. Part II Research and Method. Prepared by the Society's
Committee. Lois H. Meek, Chairman. Bound in one volume. Cloth ............ 5 00
Paper .................................. , ....................... " 325
Twenty-ninth Yearbook, 1930, Parts I and 11 Report of the Society's Committee on Arithmetic.
Part ISome Aspects of Modern Thought on Arithmetic. Part II Research in Arithmetic.
Prepared by the Society's Committee. F. B. Knight, Chairman. Bound in one volume. Cloth 5.00
Paper . ...... . ...... ... ................. 3 05
Thirtieth Yearbook, 1931, Part I The Status of 'Rural Education /First Report of the Society's
Committee on Rural Education. Orville G. Brim, Chairman. Cloth .............. 2 50
Paper ... ..... ...... ................................ i 75
Thirtieth Yearbook, 1931, Part II The Textbook in American Education. Reportof the Society's
Committee on the Textbook. J. B. Edmonson, Chairman. Cloth ........................ 2.50
'
Thirty-first Yearbook, JL932, Part i-^-A Program for Teaching 'Science
Committee on the Teaching of Science. S. Ralph Powers, Chairma
Powers, Chairman. Cloth . . , ............. 2 . 50
1.75
PUBLICATIONS xlvii
Thirty-first Yearbook, 1932, Part II Changes and Experiments in Liberal-Arts Education.
Prepared by Kathryn McHale, with numerous collaborators. Cloth $2 .50
Paper 1 75
Thirty-second Yearbook, 1933 Tfce Teaching of Geography. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee on the Teaching of Geography. A. E. Parkins, Chairman, Cloth 450
Paper 3 ."QQ
Thirty-third Yearbook, 1934, Part I The Planning and Construction of School Buildings. Pre-
pared by the Society's Committee on School Buildings. N. L. Engelhardt, Chairman. Cloth 2 50
Paper 1 .75
Thirty-third Yearbook, 1934, Part II The Activity Movement. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee on the Activity Movement. Lois Coffey Mossman, Chairman, doth 2 50
Paper 1 .75
Thirty-fourth Yearbook, 1935 Educational Diagnosis. Prepared by the Society's Committee on
Educational Diagnosis. L. J. Brueckner, Chairman. Cloth 4 .25
Paper 3.00
Thirty-fifth Yearbook, 1936, Part I The Grouping of Pupils. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee. W. W, Coxe, Chairman. Cloth 2 .50
Paper 1 .75
Thirty-fifth Yearbook, 1936, Part II Music Education. Prepared by the Society's Committee.
W. L. Uhl, Chairman. Cloth 2 .50
Paper 1 75
Thirty-sixth Yearbook, 1937, Part I The Teaching of Reading. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee. W. S. Gray, Chairman. Cloth 2.50
Thirty-sixth "Yearbook, " 1937," Part II Internationai 'Undemanding ' through the 'Public-School
Curriculum. Prepared by the Society's Committee. I. L. Kandel, Chairman. Cloth 2 . 50
Paper 1 .75
Thirty-seventh Yearbook, 1938, Part I Guidance in Educational Institutions. Prepared by the
Society's Committee. G. N. Kefauver, Chairman. Cloth 2 .50
Paper 1 .75
Thirty-seventh Yearbook, 1938, Part II The Scientific Movement in Education. Prepared by the
Society's Committee. F. N. Freeman, Chairman. Cloth 4.00
Paper 3.00
Thirty-eighth Yearbook, 1939, Part I Child Development and the Curriculum. Prepared by the
Society's Committee. Carleton Washburne, Chairman. Cloth 3 .25
Paper ' 2.50
Thirty-eighth Yearbook, 1939, Part II General Education in the American College. Prepared by
the Society's Committee. Alvin Eurich, Chairman. Cloth 2.75
Paper 2,00
Thirty-ninth Yearbook, 1940, Part I Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture. Comparative and
Critical Exposition. Prepared by the Society's Committee. G. D. Stoddard, Chairman, doth 3 . 00
Paper 2.25
Thirty-ninth Yearbook, 1940, Part II Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture. Original Studies
and Experiments. Prepared by the Society's Committee. G. D. Stoddard, Chairman. Cloth 3.00
Paper 2.25
Fortieth Yearbook, 1941 Art in American Life and Education. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee. Thomas Munro, Chairman. Cloth 4 .00
Paper * 3.00
Forty-first Yearbook, 1942, Part I Philosophies of Education. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee. John S. Brubacher, Chairman. Cloth 3 .00
Paper 2.25
Forty-first Yearbook, 1942, Part II The Psychology of Learning. Prepared by the Society's
Committee. T. R. McConnell, Chairman. Cloth 3 . 25
Paper 2.50
Forty-second Yearbook, 1943, Part I Vocational Education. Prepared by the Society's Com-
mittee. F. J. Keller, Chairman. Cloth 3.25
Paper 2.50
Forty-second Yearbook, 1943. Part II The Library in General Education. Prepared by the
Society's Committee. L, R. Wilson, Chairman, doth 3.00
Paper. - ... 2.25
Forty-third Yearbook, 1944, Part I Adolescence. Prepared by the Society's Committee. Harold
E Jones, Chairman, doth 3 .00
Paper 2.25
Forty-third Yearbook, 1944, Part II Teaching Language in the Elementary School. Prepared by
the Society's Committee. M. R, Trabue, Chairman, doth . 2.75
Paper 2 -00
rty-fourth Yearbook, 1945, Part I- American Education in the Postwar Period: Curriculum Re-
construction. Prepared by the Society's Committee. Ralph W. Tyler, Chairman, doth 3 . 00
'
^g^n^atim^Pre^&rfd by' the Sodety'sl&inmittee. Bess"G<iodykoont*, OmnmiL doth, . 3 .00
Forty^fifth "Yearbook," "1946," Part 'i~The ' Measurement 'of 'Un&rstandinffl 'Preparodl "by the "
Society's Committee. William A. BrowneJl, Chairman, doth 3 ,00
Forty-fifth "Yearbook,* i946," P^il-^Changing Conceptions in 'Educational Administratwn. Pre-
pared by the Society's Committee. Alonzo G. Grace, Chairman, doth. 2 ,50
Paper l - 75
Distributed by
THE UNIVERSiry OF CHICAGO PRl^S, CHICAGO 37, ILLINOIS
1946
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