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NATURAL 
HISTORY 


ie JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


INDEX FOR VOLUME XIX 


Published from October to May, by 
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 
NEW YORK CITY 


I919 


An illustrated magazine devoted to the advancement of Natural His- 
tory, the recording of scientific research, exploration, and discovery, 
and the development of museum exhibition and museum influence in 
education. Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including 
the scientific staff, explorers, and members of the American Museum 


NATURAL HISTORY IS SENT 
TO ALL CLASSES OF MUSEUM 
MEMBERS AS ONE OF THE 
PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX 


JANUARY 
TUL GPLGTAS TRET SELL eS Pes, Se Ss cy Cn EIU Sen CRE SGU ces tne en JOHN BURROUGHS 
MNSGOOTEMMUDRE GE TEC UaUIE SLING <0 %0. fe .Uer sss mich ctclevs . cus/e ors alelt wis eats © = HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 
PaCS UE ET CER ENAYA CL OTN UT les col ally) <-) sow dc raw, «0.8 s cneher eats, « cssele Slevciaie clei 50.8 ROBERT E. PEARY 
DEES Escrrat aE EESTI Cet Ss circle at sae ns Gie,0) ene esanetove SME tm Soe Wielsuelle, Bie, aie se CARL E, AKELEY 
Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt..................000202 eee DAvID STARR JORDAN 
Rocnevelt wthemuanon Abundant Wife. oo... ce ce ee ee ess Hanae GIFFORD PINCHOT 
A Series of Photographs Suggestive of the Varied Achievements and Interests of Theodore Roose- 
velt—Explorer, Faunal Naturalist, Soldier, Statesman, Writer, and Friend of Man......... 
Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End?........................ EDWIN GRANT CONKLIN 
‘Wald iute Conservation along the Gulf Coast......5.........-2 cece eee T. GILBERT PEARSON 
DINRREIOURTONTCHE UV ater) GITGS, Of LiOUISIAN A ocr< <cve ee os vice cies ewe oe ese ole ALFRED M. BAILEY 

Series of Duotone Reproductions Showing the Protected Bird Life of 

[77S TL PUTED, CORNERS aie ao eneie com, cee °p OIE one CnC Toke one a nn er ALFRED M. BAILEY 
SHonmeueatsim the White. North’: Al Reviews... .6. e126 006- scene ee es HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN 
MEP PEGCMNERUALIOMBITIONNG WW; ODIs iac sinc haarottisc oe sels eos sre + cicis s mye sovie ee eres GEORGE D. PRATT 
PRIMES NRE SMTIERT IG MEST AIT «0c 1c, aie leis elles eta vole a cated nese wo) (S 0. [o's ae Te eiis) salle lees a 6! oe eligve JAMES H. Cook 
Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of Measurements................. ROBERT H. LOWIE 
POM CACO NCU Als 5 are <a ein as aan rede ee ciel ole clicleicuecs ieee sce one wines ines CLARK WISSLER 
Deiiyetborroy Naturalist.-: A\ ReVIGW sie... ee csc ee tals oes ete ese es G. CLYDE FISHER 
Review of Captain Dugmore’s “Adventures in Beaver Stream Camp’’.........+ JOHN T. NICHOLS 
Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools...................+-.-. FRANCES E. Moscorip 
ee eas aU me fa A oe MME ME omer ents co aie vToei ar se boiiclic’ Sizes! of 2 ova" oleelensbistel ace eis e e's ole 

FEBRUARY 
EMeerE eT MmUTTN EITC CLI aer eae Pe erase (oe enle..o) Slane, exe La Sane re er el ays andes aveva al ashes (avaietel sl Seine wre eos N. C. NELSON 
Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient Chiriquians............. GEORGE GRANT MACCURDY 
Pei: (COCR MGT Fe eS Sais WEIS Sc ate Oo roe RENEE ee een nee eee eer JAMES G. NEEDHAM 
pee wMetinds and Knowled ze Of SCIENCE. 25. oo. os ce cas cele ce ene ee we WINTERTON C. CURTIS 
The Hoactzin—Only Survivor of an Ancient Order of Four-footed Birds. ..EKDWARD M. BRIGHAM 
Notes bye aeOollector inethe Oolor ado ROCKICS sic 5 ce) oe cee oe Fcc sie eee cis ote ne A. E. BUTLER 
Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean in 1918..................--22-+eef A. W. GREELY 
PRU EMRCH TSMC eet Velenrie Er CL). 42, sie cio © eccieueic «16 sieeve lee) seis cvereue ales fe ein. v Sievers ROLLO H. BECK 
Some Vanishing Scenic Features of the Southeastern United States......... ROLAND M. HARPER 
PP MECRIIGTLH ZA UIOMM ree fic cic isiels clei nic. 2 ac-yece aisle ott ataveps ei sn ers) ress Victor E. SHELFORD 
Whol: ity GGUS GRGIN RGRSAG6 ge 868 ap 6 Oa Git amare Om opin onan” oo cloRidiricia ec F. A. G. PAPE 
Ths WE OO: Ting NiGle nO ula 6 ee lolnoe Code ae co Moma ed ood Ube neo oO ommo on E. W. GUDGER 
Mieehentkineron a Museum Collection’: .)- - 221. 06+ 0c- «ew eis niacin om) ole oe che F. A. Lucas 
RST ea I te eis ey oie suellaaevencisratel ste: Sintec le beste eveatare ane Opera aueve’ Sus, Senay e eee 

MARCH 

SCL LATNINCIINSG) OF POMS \0 5 2 ciaie cis) eos cis © eg severe abe eo seile) ou) sche oles oe aie es S. A. MITCHELL 
Pera MLO TC OLOU Aree cicue < sels «voile cS .0 x, 5 opie Gi oberatels coe aris ere) HowarpD RUSSELL BUTLER 
iuereplanvelnite ot iNorthwest Greenland. 2... 65. sce ce ee ee ee ee ee ee W. ELMER EKBLAW 
GRRE Tet SOCIO UV Crees) =.) cea ice cee ienc chee oor eins > oe tarsni one) ey ave! ol afeliei ole favre tohjetayenvaue G. T. W. PATRICK 
PENimeee ITCH OCU Vices, <7=.0 ORE = we we eos 0s FS eos hele suelencione Slecsue we HERBERT J. SPINDEN 
ere IN EM TIMMNESCUTECLITI Awe Pe cs) cto = Se eco r=) ones SiS)a Ss are ole latesle 8 rere oe) os) wages Sj oleae TOWNSEND WHELEN 
tiar Saini? LSTRING Cie ta SS Ge SEIS Nee oan ne ae seer ola ae en ee ©. JuDSON HERRICK 
BC PECIONSOPerMelISh NAtUEALISES, 2... ccc eve eee ee cine nw ce sees T. D. A. COOKERELL 
Nelson’s “Wild Animals of North America’: A Review...................+ JOEL ASAPH ALLEN 
RUMMeNONaUeMOLONts2) Al REVIEW. 23 cee eee scl cic co ls scope ele we eels s BARRINGTON MOORE 
Midd. Win 2 Denisa IDVOl es bedeead aScarcot Garth oe 5 eS rion. Dic teenebEe nD orc MARY GREIG 
Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the American Museum for 1918............ FRANK E. Lutz 
A New Director for the British Museum..... Te Buch Ca OE OE RCE DIE Re OE IEee Pare koi cicada eng era eos 
Ge Clinilicme Thc. Foe odebeeeheeutco dab ace coo as nc Olo oidd SiG oc rmIicton reas R. D. O. JOHNSON 
Saas a a a eres Fe Tera GL NOReNGNS cherie oncvSoe livers te Lore. « ebohs¥feriehe uenetohey aretssetenets 

APRIL— May 
Mowmmeauererortusheries: im ‘the Northwest. . .).5 0 2. eis ce ce we ces wets oe ee eee HuGnH M. SMITH 
PePrRMSTUPINIG TPM eee eee eo Pey te che as ars cis) sosvavs ls .ce (al Wieob\ = Moyele euevs oe, 0 2 eee DAVID STARR JORDAN 
PWR O GME ING SSANCLUATICS.. <.ccs co 0c cere eels So eo he ce ee Se Resins need JOHN M. CLARKE 
Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation................--++2«+e-+-++--+--+..-ALFRED M. BAILEY 
La aide VT, & San elo Ged bee An bls SB thc, Shee ee ene cnn Gieic DEE ea Iennemnc Scr OI ROorrEbaO rcrmirncrc 
Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to Natural History.......-....-....--5250008 JOHN S. PATTON 
SN LORIOUR OLMATGNCH sIFOu ENLOn sci sass fic le mie Fees oe cet eieeere mice LUDLOW GRISCOM 
Menkervine Onr Natural mesources, of Supar. 20. ew cw tcc eae ne E. F. PHILLIPS 
npn ror tie Enman WACES «ccs sc no occ we pyr wines aie Qe nic atelee WILLIAM K. GREGORY 
MaTPMEEPICEATHO VV ITIDN ALD IINPOY-HNGs 620 sc ces ws es eases sie ce ela cle cies alae Enos A. MILus 
PRESS OCR TTT STE Wan COL AUBIN =o oie oe: s-0, 9s wie e, wis ele ecsels vole oles « wiels sie ieie HERBERT P. WHITLOCK 
Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science and Education........... CHARLES F. HERM 
Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture.............. S. BRECK PARKMAN TROWBRIDGE 
SUC MEPIETERERTTEREE Leta Sis ie Sia Tew ee ie one ron crete lous, boys er ard. 'aucy iow or st aeytas Imre ydewefarsi ne ees CHARLES R. KNIGHT 
Zoological Statuary at the National Oapital...........-..--- 222+ es ee eee nss R. W. SHUFELDT 
Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming...................+5-- FRANK COLLINS BAKER 
Saad Gh ine nis ae Ge 1 he gee mee OE gs Odin ae ania Ai o Genome cobb om Gm Omricus 
PERGRLEeLLOMM FOIE UnTOUPHSs cae sett oe win cies wee elo sciele sole © ale ajo see saree lelniaieieim esis) viele 3.018 «1s 
Reply to Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew. ...... 0. sss eeccec terres e eee e ere c ects eens 
ts he gin 8 GES CaconGedeit tc Oe IGG ID > RIOR CIGD bg OnoiC CHRO Carr cho aontiog rar incomes Cac ne irnCT es 

DECEMBER 
A Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Conference. ..............5- DOUGLAS W. JOHNSON 
ue OH tres Of Ort FeiCO. soc dxels cee ce eee vee ee ve sec cen vost eleltaisic A. K. LOBECK 
“Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children”................-.+++--- HERMANN HAGEDORN 
Sculptures of the Late Theodore Roosevelt............0e cee s ccs we crea FRANK OWEN PAYNE 
SOMME Cie EEG ES ISOM. 1's ices sc cre slew as ks ole ewes ena cwaes ....0, GORDON HEWITT 
BOUIGU POL sesMbaMST ANG ELIN VOLK: oe cc os ce os cieiesd mo ols 20s sf 0 eels we ersl eis aum THOMAS BARBOUR 
UG ELONOCADIGMEOHILIOM EOL NG@LULSLIAE.s 6. © cere sce sve are wie tee sine is 6 eee G, CLYDE FISHER 
SELLE ULHEY Cl Site UNARMED ete ees eluic cle wus cas cwivividlvpiciersie mes cle cee tee nae elt T. D. A. COCKERELL 
Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction..... Be A ee ener. so or ois SR 
Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees...........------.eseee eee: HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 
Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia.......-...-. 502s 00s see serene L. OC. READ 
ier OL ATs: A ae OCihin asewist siccis sans Pn ep en ei aie tonnes ee GEORGE LANGFORD 
CLBaLaie a, NATIONGI ATES a0 > alandiawists © c cine sie olers 5 aro ereicce is lain: Pk vote De HERBERT J. SPINDEN 


iii 


73 
104 
113 
115 
117 


131 
141 
152 
155 
163 
170 
182 
183 
193 
205 
211 
216 
222 


227 


245 
264 
273 
292 
301 
309 
322 
325 
331 
334 
337 
341 
347 
349 
351 


367 
370 
373 
383 
397 
405 
All 
416 
421 
427 
437 
441 


cs 
oi 
eo 


471 
479 


ke 
OOM 
Sea) 


AH toe 
io os eee od 


Org org or on O11 


Series of Photographs from the First Exhibition of American Textiles, Costumes, and 


MechaniCal® SETOCCSSCS cere oe ere eee aie ee eee acl enol = eee co oc tee od lene atom 631 

“Old Tramp” among, the Plorida Keys-.--.-... 32-272 - - sein cine sr CHARLES T. SIMPSON 657 
Tatad Animals and Plants aa ee AE BOS oO ee ea rien c.f a Ne WILLARD G. VAN NAME 665 
isi Malinda UC ee @ Shee ante Sepe mde odes Hoo eos ocr Koocknoome somite GEORGE F. ARPS 671 
The ‘Intelligence of Negro Recruits. ...-.--- +--+ +++ eee eee eee eee eee eee eee M. R. TRABUE 680 
SURE ah pl ewe, Gah ENS Sie we Doar cme GonuUecoeboncnotobss uot ec Louis R. SULLIVAN 687 
Nomad Awana nde ClisalieAtLOD oe ee ee ee ee es ne es ees HERBERT LANG 697 
(CORPS RGD) Ie Bit a ee eto HOt Hes Moe ao oens fons Se araacm@encimcenc WILLIAM J. LAVARRE 715 
Birdy anda, WilderMmess: - 22s) done ciclo cs eee meee ie nine iene = mathainibiess orci ete, ene oe eR LAN BROOK Swix 
The New York State Wild Life Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt............ CHARLES C. ADAMS 726 
Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum..................-.-.+.-..-.....-JOHN T. NICHOLS 730 
Scientific Zodlogical Publications Of the; American. MnSeUllw. o-). sie 4 tee FRANK E. Lutz 731 
A Region too Alkaline NOLO Scag Kaan eens Sac Oboe aancoUOne nom ooc atau E. W. NELSON 734 
United States Biolopicall SurvGya Ol cosas pers se telat ae ata eae a a radia) aed eteta sole als (oo > etatetal ee 735 
Tatest Conservation News trom) the, Pacific Coast. s.:..0 52. s.cs bee Sone we es oe eee 736 
Wiliamebrewster> In Memoriamece a-tociicke sie oe oie ciel > oo iets cl tel caca eyes FRANK M. CHAPMAN 738 
Hanest. COnSeELyatiOnein eNews WOEK. SbabC ce rere yao ete oie pena fal tence oeelahisnetis/fon ave feyep stented 739 
AGReis eta hie, dade ere ago Poke Onno Useoc ComoUote Coe Gee CODES Ooms Sc D. MATTHEW 741 
RG EOS oe ee Pa a ee epee here, was or She tach Sead oha aye pete Sef oe ERD ane Pema aera os errant 745 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Adirondacks, New York State Forest Preserves in Knot, eggs of, 74; on nest, 74; with chick, 75 

the, 84-103 Lewis and Clark, memorial bronze, 404 
African monkey groups, 222—26 Liguus fasciatus, shells of, 664 
Alabama, scenes, 192, 200-201 Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, 614—20 
Altar of Liberty, New York, 154 Louisiana, birds, 44—56, 57—72 
American Museum public lecture hall, 505 Map, Adirondack forest preserves, 87; distribu- 


American textiles, costumes, and mechanical proc- 
esses, 631-54 

Animal painting and sculpture, 460—69 

Aquiculture, studies in, 478—88 

Arctic scenes, 77—83 

Army intelligence tests, 671-78 

Assyrian sculpture, examples of, 448—58 

Baker, city of, 250-51; United States Naval Ob- 
servatory station at, 263 

Bees, 416—20 

Belgium, Her Majesty, Queen of, 746 

Bird Photographs of unusual distinction, 583—97 


Birds, Gulf Coast, 40-43; of Louisiana, 44-72; 
knot, 74-75; four-footed hoactzin, 162—68; 
of the Gaspé sanctuaries, 374-81: stormy 
petrels. 340; whale, 360; on the Hawaiian 
reservation, 382-95; pelicans, 734 

Bison, American, 333, 552-65 

Bonaventure cliffs, 372 

Bourlon Wood, 725 

British Guiana, scenes in, 714—22 

Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta, 554-55 


Burroughs, John, scenes about home, 570—82 

Camouflage for ships, 359 

Catskills, New York State Preserve in, 84-103 

Chiriquian pottery, 144-50 

Cinemaphotographs, of chick embryo, 443—45; 
hydroid, 447 

College of Fisheries, 
368-69 

Colorado Rockies, flora of, 170—81 

Cré-Magnon frieze of six horses, 
of Celtic horse, 450 

Desert life group in Brooklyn Museum, 123 

Diagrams, of intellectual tests of Negro recruits, 
680-84; Pygmy stature, 688; Pygmy distri- 
bution, 690: stature of man, 695 

Drawing and notes by Alexander Wilson, 366 

Eclipse, total solar, of 1918, 244-71 

Elk horns of Lewis and Clark Expedition, 408 

Elm tree, Honor Grove, 747 

Fisher, G. Clyde, addressing school children, 505 

Florida Everg! ades, 194, 196 

Food exhibit for family of five, 336—39 

Food values, diagrams of, 338—39 

Forest, European devastated, 98 

Forest fire sentinel, 334 

Forest preserves of New York, 84-103 

Frog, Nicaragua, 346 

Gaspé bird sanctuaries, views of, 374-81 

Georgia, scenes, 195, 197—99, 203 

Grand Cafion, model in American Museum, 498—99 

Greenland, plant life of Northwest, 272-91 

Groups in American Museum, African monkey, 
222-26; blue shark, 353; timber wolves, 237 

Gulf coast, birds of, 40-43 

Hawaiian reservation, views of, 382—95 

Hoactzin, 162-68 

Honor Grove, map of, 747 

Human culture, diagrams. 134—35. 138—39 

Human head, evolution of, 422—25 

Aya boulengeri, 346; haunt of, 346 

Indian peace medal, 113 

Indians, Poh-we-ka of the Tewa, 357 

Klamath Lake Reservation, 734 


of 


University of Washington, 


450: painting 


iv 


tion of Pygmy and short races of man, 690; 
Gaspé bird sanctuaries, 373; path of total 
eclipse of sun, 1918, 248-49; physiographic 
diagram of the western theater of the World 
War, 518; Porto Rico, 528; ‘Save the Red- 
woods,” 604; distribution of the Pygmy and 
short races of man, 690; Honor Grove, 747 

Marine camouflage, 359 

Mastodon jawbones, 407 


Medal presented to H. R. H. Prince of Wales, 748 

Microphotograph of a hydroid, 447 

Monkeys, chain myth, 216-17, 220; Museum 
groups of, 222-26 


Museo Nacional de Chile, Santiago, 121 

Mustangs of the Plains, 106—7 

Nature's mobilization, 206-8; diagram showing 
succession of five species, 209 

Nicaragua, frog, 346; scene, 346 

Notre Dame, portals of, opp. p. 367 

Panama, scenes, 308-321 

Peking, armistice scenes, 229-32 

Peru, scenes, 185—89 

Plant life of Northwest Greenland, 27 

Porto Rico. scenes in, 522—39 

Portraits, Boulenger, G. A., 566; Brewster. Wil- 
liam, 738; Camp, Charles L., 354; Ekblaw, 
W. Elmer, 273; Garman, Samuel, 730; Her- 
mann, Adam, 741; Lucas, Frederic A., 130; 
Nelson, Edward W., 330; Poh-we-ka, 357; 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 4, 26, sons of, 31; 
Yerkes, R. M., 670 

Pottery, Chiriquian, 144—50 

Puget Sound Biological Station, 500 

Pygmy, jaws, 694; group in American Museum, 
696; photographs of, 698—713; skulls, 686 

Redwoods of California, 598-613, 737; map, 604 

Roosevelt, Quentin, 31; grave of, 32 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 4—34; sons of, 31: sculptures 
of the late, 510, 543-51; Wild Life Forest 
Experiment Station, 727, 729; memorial 
flag, 744 

Sailing crafts, 213-14 

Seasonal faunal and floral rotation 
206-9 

Selborne, England, 569 

Sequoias, 598-613, 737 

Shark, blue, 353 

Skulls of Negroid Pygmies, 686 

Snail shells, 664 

Snow crystals, 436—40 

Southeastern United States scenic features, 192— 
203 

Sun, total eclipse of, 244-71 

Textile Exhibition, 631—54 

Trees, at timber-line, 426-35; Sequoias, 
737 

University of Washington, 368—69, 500 


2-91 


in Illinois, 


598-613, 


Wasp, African, 343—44 

Wild Life Forest Experiment Station at Syracuse, 
727, 729 

Wilson, Alexander, 396; notes and drawings by, 
366 


Wolves, timber, habitat group, 237 
World War. famous strategie positions, 517—21 
Zoélogical Sculpture, 448-77 


INDEX OF VOLUME XIX 


Names of contributors are set in small capitals 


Académie des Sciences, 233 
Accessions 
Anthropology, 235 
Astronomy, 351 
Library, 239, 358 
Ornithology, 753 
Paleontology, 495 
ApAMS, CHARLES C., The New York State Wild 
Life Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, 726—29 
Adams, Edward D., 113, 261, 264, 351 
Adventures in Beaver Stream Camp, 115 
Ailuropus melanoleucus, 753 
AKELEY, CARL E., Theodore Roosevelt and Africa, 
12-14 
Akeley, Carl E., 120, 228, 466, 756 
Albert, S. A.S., Prince of Monaco, 233 
ALLEN, JOEL ASAPH, Nelson’s Wid Animals of 
North America, review, 330-33 
Allen, J. A., 348, 502 
Allen, James Lane, 396—403, 494 
American Anthropological Society, 120 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, seventy-first meeting of, 117, 756 
American Association of Museums, annual meet- 
ing, 504 
American Camp Directors’ Association, 501 
American Forestry Association, 235 
American Geographical Society, 227, 511, 513 ~ 
American Indian Poetry, 301-7 
American Journal of Science, 502 
American Medical Association, 751 
American Ornithologists’ Union, 228, 754 
American Scenic and Historic Preservation So- 
ciety, 236 
American Society of Mammalogists, 502 
Andrews, Roy C., 229, 355, 360 
An “Old Tramp” among the Florida Keys, 657—64 
Antelope, Mongolian, 355 
Anthony, H. E., 733 
Anticlines in the Big Horn Basin, 125 
Archzxology and ethnology, bureau of, 
752 
Arges marmoratus, 349 
Arizona, University of, 500 
Army Intelligence Tests, The, 671-79 
aa eronce F., The Army Intelligence Tests, 
71-7 
Art, Creating a National, 622-30; Dawn of, 621 
Art Motives in Snow Crystals, 436—40 
Atkinson, George F., 233 
Audubon Societies, National Association of, 122 
Auk, great, 753 


in Mexico, 


BAILEY, ALFRED M., Notes on Our Hawaiian Res- 
ervation, 382—95; Observations on the Water 
Birds of Louisiana, 44—56 

BAKER, FRANK COLLINS, Studies in Aquiculture 
or Fresh-water Farming, 478-88 

Baker, George F., 239 

Banks, Nathan, 342 

BARBOUR, THOMAS, Boulenger, 
Work, 566—67 

Barnes, Wm., 342 

BECK, ee H., Recollections of Travel in Peru, 


the Man and His 


183-91 
Beebe, C. William, 163, 352, 355, 755 
Bees, 416-20 


Belgium, royal family of, visited Museu 

Bequaert, J., 342 

Beutenmiiller, William, 341 

Big Horn Basin, Wyoming, 125 

Billy the Boy Naturalist, 115 

Biological Surveys of States, 735-36 

Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction, 583-— 
97; Sanctuaries, The New Gaspé, 372-81; 

_ _ Protection, 123 

Birds, and a Wilderness, 723-25; collection from 
northwestern Peru, 753; hoactzin, 162-69; 
of the Hawaiian Reservation, 382-95; of 
Louisiana, 44-56; Royal Society for the Pro- 
tection of, 228; whale, 359 

Bison, The Coming Back of the, 552-65 

Blaschke, Frederick, 697 

Block, Otto, 360 

Boas, Franz, 733 

Boerker, R. H. D., 334 

Boulenger, the Man and His Work, 566-67 


Boyle, Howarth, 10 

Brewster, William, 356: In Memoriam, 738—39 

BRIDGMAN, HERBERT L., Four Years in the White 
North, review, 73-83 

Bridgman, Herbert L., 228 

BRIGHAM, EpwarpD M., The Hoactzin—Only Sur- 
vivor of an Ancient Order of Four-footed 
Birds, 162—69 

British Columbia, 614-20 

British Guiana, 714—22 

British Museum, A New Director for the, 347—48 

Britton, N. L., 352, 502 

Brooklyn Museum, Desert Life Group in the, 122 

BrRooKs, ALLAN, Birds and a Wilderness, 723-25 

Brown, Barnum, 733 

Brussels, Museum of Natural History of, 117 

Bureau of the Associated Mountaineering Clubs, 
501 

BURROUGHS, JOHN, 
Letter from, 491 

Burroughs, John, 227; Fie'd and Study, review, 
571-82; series of bird photographs in honor 
of, 583-97, 755 

BUTLER, ALBERT E., Notes by a Collector in the 
Colorado Rockies, 170-81 

Butler, Albert E., 237 

BUTLER, HowarpD RUSSELL, 
Corona, 264-71 

Butler, Howard Russell, 262, 351 


Theodore Roosevelt, 4-7; A 


Painting the Solar 


Caldwell, Harry R., 355 

Camp, Charles L., 354, 731 

Campbell, W. W., 751 

Carnegie Institution, marine research of the, 356; 
of Washington, 497 

CHAPMAN, FRANK M., 
Memoriam, 738—39 

Chapman, Frank Mi 9) EES 53.08 

Cherrie, George K., 9, 221, _360, 756 

Chicago, botanical garden, 54 

Children’s Museum of Boston: 754 

China Monuments Society, 228; 
rh B55 

Chinese encyclopedia, a, 355 

Chiriquians, Nature Reflected in the Art of the 
Ancient, 141—51 

Chlorophora tinctoria, 238 

Christman, Erwin S., 731 

Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Sci- 
ence and Education, 441—47 

CLARKE, JOHN M., The New Gaspé Bird Sanctu- 
aries, 372-81 

Clarkin, Franklin, 495 

Classical Association (England) The, 494 

COCKERELL, T. D. A., Recollections of English 


William Brewster: In 


academic work 


Naturalists, 325-29; The Love of Nature, 
570—82 
Cockerell, T. D. A., 342 


Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory, 496 


Coleman, Laurence V., 756 
College of Fisheries in the Northwest, New, 367— 
69 


Colorado Rockies, Notes by a Collector in, 170-81 

Coming Back of the Bison, The, 552—65 

CONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT, Has Progressive Evolu- 
tion Come to an End? 35-39 

Conserving Our Natural Resources of Sugar, 416— 
9 


Cook, JAMES H., 
110 

Creating a National Art, 622-30 

CURTIS, WINTERTON C., The Method and Knowl- 
edge of Science, 155-61 


Wild Horses of the Plains, 104— 


Dawn of Art, The, 621 

Dean, Bashford, 353 

De Booy, Theodore, 233 

Destruction of Yellowstone Park Elk, 743 
Dixon, H. H., 238 

Dollo, Louis, 755 

Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, 115 

Dunbar, U. S. J., 235 

Dwight, Jonathan, 346 


Egret destruction, 122 
EKBLAW, W. ELMER, The Plant Life of North- 
west Greenland, 272—91 


I INDEX OF 


El Dorado, A Real, 714-22 

Elephants, destruction of, in South Africa, 749 

Elk, Destruction of, Yellowstone Park, 743 

Elliot Medal, 753 

English Naturalists, Recollections of, 325-29 

Entomological Society of America, 125 

Entomology, Bureau of, at Washington, 352 

Evolution of the Human Face, The, 421—25 

Expeditions, Abyssinia, 752; Africa, 752; British 
Imperial Antarctic, 752; Rasmussen's Second 
Thule, 496; Second Asiatic, 229 


Far Away and Long Ago, 500 

Farrand, Livingston, 352 

Felt, HE. P., 342 

Fertility of devastated territory 

Field and Study, 571 

FIsHER, G. CLYDE, The Honorable Position of 
Naturalist, 568—69 

Fisher, G. Clyde, 227, 504 

Fisheries, New College of, 367-69; United States 
Bureau of, 753 

Fisheries of the North Sea, The, 496 

Fishes, Color patterns of, 497; The Senses of, 
322-24 

Fish, Salmon, 370; Climbing, 349-51 

Fishskins, tanning and preparation of, 753 

Five Land Features of Porto Rico: A Story of 
Cause and Effect, 522—40 

Flexner, Simon, 121 

Florida, descriptive works on the flora of, 238; 
snails, 657-64 

Florida Keys, An “Old Tramp” among the, 657— 
64 

Food for a Family of Five, 336—39 

Forest Conservation in New York State, 84-103; 
739—40 

Four Years in the White North, review, 73-83 

Fowler, A., 750 

Fox, William Henry, 750 

Fresh-water farming, 478—88 

Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, 331 

Fustic wood, 238 


in France, 124 


Garman, Samuel, of the Agassiz Museum, 730 

Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Con- 
ference, A, 511-521 

Geography, importance of teaching, 233 

Glacier, Llewellyn, 614—20 

Gleason, Henry Allan, 352 

Goddard, Pliny E., 120, 756 

Granger, Walter, 733, 756 

Graves, Henry S., 119 

GREELY, A. W., Russian Explorations of the Si- 
berian Ocean in 1918, 182 

Greenland, Plant Life of Northwest, 272—91 

GREGORY, WILLIAM K., The Evolution of the Hu- 
man Face, 421—25 

Gregory, William K., 348, 731, 755 

GREIG, MARY, Food for a Family of Five, 336—39 

GRISCOM, LuDLOW, War Impressions of French 
Bird Life, 411-15 

Group, blue shark, 353 

Guatemala, reconstruction of, 238 

GUDGER, E. W., The Myth of the Monkey Chain, 
216-21 

Gudger, E. W., 125, 239 


HAGEDORN, HERMANN, Theodore Roosevelt's Let- 
ters to His Children, 541—42 

Hale, George Ellery, 749 

Handbook of Travel, 236 

Harmer, Sidney Frederick, 347 

HARPER, ROLAND M., Some Vanishing Scenic 
Features of the Southeastern United States, 
192-204 

Harper, R. M., 236 

Harriman, William Averell, 239 

Has Frogressiye Evolution Come to an End? 35— 


Hawkins, Eugene D., 501 

Heligoland, 749 

Heller, Edmund, 752 

HERM, CHARLES F., Cinema-microscopy an Essen- 
tial to Modern Science and Education, 441— 
47 

Hermann, Adam, 741—42 

HEERBIOK, C. JuDSON, The Senses of Fishes, 322— 
4 


Hewitt, C. Gorpon, The Coming Back of the 
Bison, 552-65 
Hewitt, C. Gordon, 228 


VOLUME XIX 


Hildburgh, W. L., 239 

Hoactzin—Only Survivor of an Ancient Order of 
Four-footed Birds, The, 162—69 

Honorable Position of Naturalist, The, 568-69 

Hornaday, W. T., 228, 553 

Howard, L. O., 352 

Hrdlitka, Ale¥, 119 

Hubbs, Carl L., 345 

Human Culture, 13i1—40 

Hutchinson, Horace F., 239 

Hygiene, public, 751 

Hyla boulengeri, 346 

Hypelate trifoliata, 662 


Illinois, museum of the University of, 352 

Indians, Chiriquians, 141-51; Misskito, 
Sumu, 120 

Indian, costume of chief, 235; Peace Medal, 113— 
14; poetry, American, 301—7 

“Tnquiry,’’ American organization known as the, 
227 

Intelligence of Negro Recruits, The, 680—85 

International, Bird Protection, 123; hydrographic 
and fishery investigation, 753; Research 
Council, 750, 751 

International Journal 
The, 120 

Island Animals and Plants, 665—69 


120; 


of American Linguistics, 


Jacobi, Abraham, 745 

Jardin des Plantes, a new, 352 

Jefferson, Thomas, 405—410 

JOHNSON, DouGcuAs W., A Geographer at the 
Front and at the Peace Conference, 511—21 

JOHNSON, R. D. O., The Climbing Fish, 349-51 

Jonas, Coloman, 237 

JORDAN, DAviIp STARR, Personal Glimpses of 
Theodore Roosevelt, 15--16; The Red Salmon, 
370-71 

Juilliard, Augustus D., 493 


Keen, W. W., 495 

Kelly, Richard B., 239 

Kentucky Warbler, The, 396 

Klamath Lake Reservation, 734 

KNIGHT, CHARLES R., Wild Life in Art, 460—69 
Knight, Charles R., 755 

Kouznetsov, A. K., 495 

Kroeber, A. L., 133 


Lafayette National Park, Mount Desert Island, 
Maine, 121 

Lambe, Lawrence M., 351 

LANG, HERBERT, Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization, 
696-713 

LANGFORD, GEORGE, The Dawn of Art, 621 

Lankester, Sir E. Ray, 750 

LAVARRE, WILLIAM J., A Real El Dorado, 714— 
22 

LeConte Memorial Lectures, 500 

Lectures at the American Museum, 504 

Leng, Chas. W., 341 

Letter from John Burroughs, A, 491 

Lewis and Clark, Expedition, 113; 
morial to, 754 

Liguus, 657-64 

Lincoln Highway, Delaware, 502 

Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, 614-20 

Lopeck, A. K., Five Land Features of Porto Rico: 
A Story of Cause and Effect, 522—40 

Lobeck, A. K., 357 

Longley, William H., 497 

Louvain, library of the University of, 493 

Lowie, RoperT H., Primitive Ideas on Numbers 

and Systems of Measurements, 110—12 

Lucas, F. A., The Remaking of a Museum Collec- 
tion, 222—26 

Lueas, F. A., 360, 504, 679 

Lumber, method of drying, 124 

Lutz, FRANK E., Scientific Zodlogical Publications 
of the American Museum, 340-46; 731-33 

Lutz, Frank E., 125 


MacCallum, G. A., 341; W. G., 341 

MacCurpy, GEORGE GRANT. Nature Reflected in 
the Art of the Ancient Chiriquians, 141—51 

MacMillan, Donald B., 73 

MecDunnough, J., 342 

MelIlhenny, E. A., 45—46 

Mahogany, monographs on, 238 

Malheur Lake Reservation, 734 

Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 496 


bronze me- 


INDEX OF VOLUME XIX wr 


MarTrHew, W. D., Honor to Adam Hermann, 


741-42 

Matthew, W. D., 491, 503, 732, 733 

Medal, University of Paris World War, 747 
Megnalonyx jeffersonii, 406 

Mell, C. D., 238 

Members, 125, 239, 361, 506, 756 

Mendenhall, C. E., 749 

Metchnikoff, Elie, 779 

Method and the Knowledge of Science, The, 155— 


61 

Metropolitan Museum of Art, exhibition of plant 
forms in design, 503 

Mexican government bureau of archeology and 
ethnology, 752 

Michigan, public parks, 236 

Miller, Gerrit S., 754 

Miller, Leo E., 9, 221 

MILLs, ENOS a The Wars of the Wind at Tim- 
ber-line, 426-35 

Miner, Roy W., 504 

Mineral Deposits of South America, The, 753 

Minerals, International Control of, 750 

Mintorn,. Hy, O47 

MITCHELL, S. A., The Total Solar Eclipse of 1918, 
244-63 

Mitchell, S. A., 264 

Mogridge, Mrs. E. S., 347 

Molina, Enrique, 503 

Mona Island Declared a Forest Reserve, 743 

Monograph of the Pheasants, 755 

“Monographs on Experimental Biology,’ 495 

Montana, University of, 500 

MooRE, BARRINGTON, Our National Forests, re- 
view, 334-35 

Moore, Barrington, 239 

Moore, Clarence B., 120 

Morgan, Lewis Henry, 120 

Mosorre, FRANCES E., Sight Conservation Classes 
in New York Schools, 116 

Murals in hall of the Age of Man, 755 

Murphy, Robert Cushman, 122, 359, 340, 345 

Murrill, William Alphonso, 115 

Museo Nacional de Chile, 121 

Museum Collection, The Remaking of a, 2 

Mutchler, Andrew J., 341 

Myth of the Monkey Chain, The, 216—21 


22-26 


Academy of Sciences, 118, 750, 751; 
Councils, Federation of, 118; Parks Associa- 
tion, 497; Research Council, 352 

NATURAL HISTORY, a bi-monthly, 745 

Natural History of Selborne, 566, 569 

Nature, fiftieth anniversary, 747 

Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient Chi- 
riquians, 141—51 

Nature, The Love of, 570-82 

Nature’s Mobilization, 205-10 

NEEDHAM, JAMES G., Peace Conditions, 

Negro, progress in education of, 751 

NELSON, N. C., Human Culture, 131—40 

NELSON, E. W., Region too Alkaline for Crops, 
734-35 

New Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries, The, 372-81 

New York, Academy of Sciences, 511; Aquarium, 
352; Botanical Garden, 356; Forest Con- 
servation in, 84—103; ‘Schools, Sight Con- 
servation Classes in, 116; State College of 
Forestry, 501; State Wild Life Memorial to 
Theodore Roosevelt, 726-29; Zoological Park, 
228 

Nichols, Hobart, 237 

NICHOLS, J. T., Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz 
Museum, 730 

Nichols, J. T., 345 

Noble, G. K., 239, 345 

Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization, 


National, 


152-54 


696-713 


Notes, 117-25, 227-39, 351-61, 493-506, 745— 
758 

Notes by a Collector in the. Colorado Rockies, 
170-81 


Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation, 382—95 

Oberlin College, 752 

Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana, 
44—56 

Observatory. Leander MeCormick. 264; 
States Naval, 264; Yerkes, 271 

Okapi, 754 

Olsen, Chris. E., 341 

Opisthocomus hoazin, 163 


United 


OsBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, Sequoia—the Auld 
Lang Syne of Trees, 598-613; Theodore 
Roosevelt, Naturalist, 8-10 

Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 119, 348, 351, 352, 502, 
504) Wale foo, vol, Too, Tb6 

Osborn, Mrs. Henry Fairfield, 358 

Osler, Sir William, 745 

Ottawa Naturalist, 361 

Our Centrifugal Society, 292-300 

Our National Forests, review, 334—35 

Oxystyla, 657, 660— 61 

Pacific Coast, Latest Conservation News from, 
736—37 

Painting the Solar Corona, 264—71 

Palos Forest Preserve, 754 

Panama, Unknown, 308-21 

Panda, giant, 753 

PAPE, F. A. G., Yachting in the Seven Seas, 211— 
15 


Paris, University of, 747 

PATRICK, G. T. W., Our Centrifugal Society, 
300 

PATTON, JOHN S., Thomas Jefferson’s Contribu- 
tions to Natural History, 404—10 

Patton, John S., 494 

PAYNE, FRANK OWEN, Sculptures of 
Theodore Roosevelt, 543-51 

Peace Conditions, 152—54 

Pearson, Sir Arthur, 233 

PEARSON, TT. GILBERT, Wild Life Conservation 
along the Gulf Coast, 40—43 

PEARY, ROBERT E., Roosevelt—The Friend of 
Man, 11 

Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt, 

Peru, Recollections of Travel in, 183—91 

Peters, W. B., 237 

Pheasant Farms in China, 354 

Puiuuips, E. F., Conserving Our Natural Re- 
sources of Sugar, 416-20 

Pickering, Edward Charles, 236 

PINCHOT, GIFFORD, Roosevelt, the Man of Abun- 
dant Life, 17-18 

Plant Life of Northwest Greenland, The, 272—91 

Plant Materials of Decorative Gardening, 503 

Plautus impennis, 753 

Porto Rico, Five Land Features of: 
Cause and Effect, 522—40 

Potocki, Count, game preserve, 749 

Potter, Frederick, 239 

PRATT, GEORGE D., Forest Conservation in New 
York, 84—103 

Primates, hall of, in American Museum, 235 

Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of 
Measurement, 110-12 

Prion, 359 

Pygmy Races of Man, The, 686—95 

Pygmies of Central Africa, 697-713 


292— 


the Late 


15-16 


A Story of 


Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Sciences, 750 
Quest of the Ancestry of Man, 489-90 


Rafinesque, C. S., 749 

Rasmussen's Second Thule Expedition, 496 

READ, L. C., Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, 
British Columbia, with Field Notes, 614—20 

Recollections of English Naturalists, 325-29 

Recollections of Travel in Peru, 183-91 

Red Cross societies, league of, 745, 746 


Region too Alkaline for Crops, 734—35 

Reply to Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew, 
491-93 

Ridgway, Robert, 228 


Ridsdale, Percival S., 235 
Rockefeller hee ety 745, 746 
Roosevelt, Kermit, 9 


Roosevelt, Memorial Bird Fountain, 496; Memo- 
rial Day at American Museum, 756; Memo- 
rial Exposition at Columbia University, 352; 
Permanent National Committee, 234; —The 


Friend of Man, 11; The Man of Abundant 
Life, 17-18; Theodore, 4—7, 352; Theodore, 
and Africa, 12-14; National Park, 118; 
Sculptures of the Late Theodore, 543-51; 
Theodore, “Letters to His Children,” 541—42; 
Theodore, Naturalist, 8-10; Neandross’ bust 
of, 756; New York State Wild Life Memorial 
to Theodore, 726-29; Tree planted by John 
Burroughs, 756 

Russian Explorations of the 
1918, 182 


Siberian Ocean in 


IV INDEX OF VOLUME XIX 


St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Blinded Soldiers, 233 

Sakurai, Joji, 228 

Salmon, The Red, 370-71 

Sanford, L. C., 753 

Sargeant, Anna, 235 

Sartiaux, Félix, 358 

Schmidt, Karl P., 239 

Science, the Method and Knowledge of, 155-61 

Scientific American Monthly, 747 

Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the 
Is'ands, 754 

Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the American 
Museum, 340-6; 731-33 

Sculpture, Zodlogical, 448-77 

Sea lion and the fishing industry, 124 

Seals on Pribilof Islands, 124 

Selborne, England, 568 

Selous, Captain F. C., 494; 752 

Senses of Fishes, The, 322—24 

Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees, 598-613 

Seton, Ernest Thompson, 331 

Shark, blue, 353 

SHELFORD. VICTOR E., 
205-10 

Sherwood, George H., 504 

SHUFELDT, R. W., Zodlogical Statuary at the Na- 
tional Capital, 470—77 

Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools, 
116 - 

Signposts indicating watering places in deserts, 
752 

Srvrpson, CHARLES T., An “Old Tramp” among 
the Florida Keys, 657—64 

Sleeper, Governor, of Michigan, 236 

Small, John Kunkel, 199, 238 

SmMitrH, HucH M., New College of Fisheries in 
the Northwest, 367—69 

Smithsonian Institution, 495 

Snow crystals, 436—40 

Solar Corona, Painting the, 264-71 

Solar Eclipse of 1918, 244-63 

Some Vanishing Scenic Features 
eastern United States, 192—204 

Spalding, Volney M., 233 

Spier, Leslie, 133 

SPINDEN, HERBERT J., American Indian Poetry, 
301-7; Creating a National Art, 622-30; 
Series of Photographs from the First Exhibi- 
tion of American Textiles, Costumes, and 
Mechanical Processes. 631—54 

Spinden, Herbert J., 120, 504 

Sternberg, C. H., 351 

Stoll, Frederick H., 235 

Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming, 
478-88 

Sturtevant, A. H., 342 

SuLLIvan, Louris R., The Pygmy Races of Man, 
686-95 

Sun. total eclipse of, 496 

Swietenia mahagoni, 238; macrophylla, 238 


Virgin 


Nature’s Mobilization, 


of the South- 


Telescope, the second largest in the world, 122 _. 
Textile Exhibition at the American Museum, 631— 
54 


Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, re- 
view, 541-42 

Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to Natural His- 
tory, 404-10 

Tokyo, Institute of Physical and Chemical Re- 
search in, 228 

Torre, Carlos de la, 733 

TRABUE, M. R., The Intelligence of Negro Re- 
eruits, 680-85 

Trees, artistic roadside planting of, 356; Con- 
servation of, 736; in “Honor Grove” of 
Central Park, 746; Sequoia, 598-613 

Tropical Research Station in British Guiana, 352 

TROWBRIDGE, S. BRECK PARKMAN, Zodlogical 

Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, 448— 

59 

Trustees, meetings, 228, 239 


United States Forest Service, 753 

Unknown Panama, 308-21 

VAN NAME, WILLARD G., Island 
Plants, 665-69 

Victoria Naturalist, 124 

Virginia deer, 754 


Animals and 


Walcott, Charles D., 749 

War, ‘death rate in, 751 

War Impressions of French Bird Life, 411-15 

Ward, Herbert, 752 

Warren Mastodon, 496 

Wars of the Wind at Timber-line, The, 426—35 

Whale, model of killer. 360 

Whaling industry on Long Island, relies of, 591 

Wheeler, W. M., 352 

WHELEN. TOWNSEND, Unknown Panama, 308-21 

White, Gilbert, 568 

WHITLOCK. HERBERT P., 
Crystals, 436—40 

Wild Animals of North America, review, 330—33 

Wild Horses of the Plains, 104-114 

Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast, 
40-43 

Wild Life in Art, 460—69 

Williston, Samuel Wendell, 755 

Wilson, Alexander, 396—403 

Wilson, President, 118, 227 

Winter Botany, 503 

WISSLER, CLARK, An Indian Peace Medal, 113-14 

Wissler, Clark, 120, 750 

Wolves, timber. 237 

Woodcraft League of America, 501 


Art Motives in Snow 


Yachting in the Seven Seas, 211-15 
Yellowstone Park, Elk, 743; museum, 752 
Yueca House National Monument, 749 


Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, 
448-59; Statuary at the National Capital, 
470-77 

Zoological Society of London, 125 


NATURAL 
HIS TORY 


Pe wOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, 

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- 

Mem OF PUBLIC EMUCATION 
THROUGH THE MUSEUM 


JANUARY, 1919 


VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 1 


NATURAL HISTORY 


VoLtuME XIX CONTENTS FOR JANUARY NUMBER 1 


Frontispiece, Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), at his home at 


Oyster. Bay. sc). ) cs «hve elenepeiere eet cate sence iene ee ett eee 4 

Copyrighted photogr aph by Underwood and Underwood 

Micodore Roosevelt. -..cu.api sine o cero see Se eee JOHN BuRROUGHS 5 
A memorial and an appreciation 

iMheodore Roosevelt. Naburalist Sec. . 4 er ose one Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN 9 
His affiliation with the American Museum of Natural History 

Rooseyelt—_Lhe Hiriend ote Manw. 29.0 2-72 ce eee ee Rospert KE. PEARY 11 

RooseveltiandsA tricasan coc. oc 2 ix cele eee eres oe CarRL EK. AKELEY 12 
Reminiscences of big game hunting with Roosevelt 

Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt........... DAVID STARR JORDAN 15 

Roosevelt, the Man of Abundant Life................. GIFFORD PINCHOT 17 


A Series of Photographs Suggestive of the Varied Achievements and Inter- 
ests of Theodore Roosevelt — Explorer, Faunal Naturalist, Soldier, 
Statesman, Writer, and eiiriendtot Mant 20 (45.2 2cen se ao eee i 


Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End?..... Epwin Grant ConKLIN 35 


The future may hold no race of super-men, but it is likely to present a super-state and a 
super-civilization 


Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast....... T. Gi“BERT PEARSON 41 
The progress of bird protection among the southern states through the work of the National 
Association of Audubon Societies, federal and state government action, and the interest of 
individuals 


Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana.........2 ALFRED M. BAILEY 45 


With illustrations of terns, pelicans, skimmers, herons, ducks, and geese, from photographs by 
A. M. Bailey and others 


Series of Duotone Reproductions Showing the Protected 
Bird Life of Our Louisiana Coast...............ALFRED M. BAILEY 57 


“Four Years in the White North,’ A Review...... HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN 73 
With illustrations from the book reviewed 


Forest Conservationsim New oe) oko ses) oe eee eee GEORGE D. Pratr 85 
The state owns and protects about half of its vital forest land, maintaining a thoroughly 
organized forest service 
Illustrated with photographs of scenes in the Adirondacks 

Wild-Poorses-of theablaing*: oases erin s eee JAMES H. Cook 104 
Tales of the mustangs by a famous Indian scout 
Photographs of a descendant of the mustangs by Harold J. Cook 


Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of 


Measurementzercrisc ok Onc alee Bee ee ee ato Rospert H. Lowie 110 
An Indian: Peace“Medal tantra ee eee CLARK WISSLER 113 


A relic of the Lewis and Clark Expedition dug up in Idaho 
With a photograph of the medal 


Billy the Boy Naturalist --Aghevieweror ese ern G. CLYDE FisHER 115 


The true story of a naturalist’s boyhood in Virginia 
Review of Captain Dugmore’s “Adventures in Beaver 


stream. Camp’ 2. 2 ioe... 3) ee ee JoHN T. Nicnous 115 
Sight Conservation Classes in New York Schools..... Frances E. Moscrie 116 
INOteS 2. Sivek. Ss Sicha oie cee ee Oe ee een SiG 


MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON, Editor 


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4 
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Courtesy of Underwood and Underwooc 


HIS FORCE SEEMED TO INCARNATE THE SOUL OF AMERICA 


The energy and latent action, the rational thought, the controlled will, the moral force—that 
was Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919 ) 


He denied himself all things that weaken. He gave his life to work and to whatever circumstances 
brought in the way of private and public duty and private and public fellowship. ‘‘Work, duty, and 
fellowship’’—he preached them and lived them with the zeal a prophet, and they pretty much make 
the message he leaves us: ‘‘work” and “duty,’”’ the basis of moral force in man or nation, the iron 
qualities on which the United States were founded; ‘fellowship,’ a key to an understanding our 
neighbor and a melting pot for class differences. He believed in the ‘‘joy”’ of life also, but not merely 
the old primeval heritage, and never pleasure sought as such, but. instead, that achievement which comes 
as a by-product of work faithfully done, lack of self-seeking, trust in the good in one’s fellow men, and 
knowl of nature 


4 


7 
i 


NATURAL 


VOLUME XIX 


JANUARY, 1919 


s 
4 


HISTORY 


NUMBER 1 


Theodore Roosevelt’ 


HIS AMERICANISM REACHED IN TO THE MARROW OF HIS BONES 


By JOHN 


EVER before in my life has it 
been so hard for me to accept 
the death of any man as it has 

been for me to accept the death of 
Theodore Roosevelt. I think I must 
have unconsciously felt that his power 
to live was unconquerable. Such un- 
bounded energy and vitality impressed 
one like the perennial forces of nature. 
I cannot associate the thought of death 
with him. He always seemed to have 
an unlimited reserve of health and 
power. Apparently he cared no more 
for the bullet which that would-be 
assassin shot into his breast a few years 
ago than for a fleabite. 

From his ranch days in Montana to 
the past year or two I saw and was 
with him many times in many places. 
In the Yellowstone Park in the spring 
of 1903, in his retreat in the woods of 
Virginia during the last term of his 
presidency, at Oyster Bay at various 
times, in Washington at the White 
House, and at my place on the Hudson, 
I have felt the arousing and stimu- 
lating impact of his wonderful per- 
sonality. When he came into the room 
it was as if a strong wind had blown 
the door open. You felt his radiant 
energy before he got halfway up the 
stairs. 

When we went birding together it 
was ostensibly as teacher and pupil, but 
it often turned out that the teacher got 
as many lessons as he gave. 


'This article, in part, was read before the 


BURROUGHS 


Early in May, during the last term 
of his presidency, he asked me to go 
with him to his retreat in the woods of 
Virginia, called “Pine Knot,” and help 
him name his birds. Together we iden- 
tified more than seventy-five species of 
birds and wild fowl. He knew them all 
but two, and I knew them all but two. 
He taught me Bewick’s wren and one 
of the rarer warblers, and I taught him 
the swamp sparrow and the pine war- 
bler. A few days before he had seen 
Lincoln’s sparrow in an old weedy field. 
On Sunday after church, he took me 
there and we loitered around for an 
hour, but the sparrow did not appear. 
Had he found this bird again, he would 
have been one ahead of me. The one 
subject I do know, and ought to know, 
is the birds. It has been one of the 
main studies of a long life. He knew 
the subject as well as I did, while he 
knew with the same thoroughness 
scores of other subjects of which I am 
entirely ignorant. 

He was a naturalist on the broadest 
grounds, uniting much technical know]l- 
edge with knowledge of the daily lives 
and habits of all forms of wild life. 
He probably knew tenfold more natural 
history than all the presidents who 
had preceded him, and, I think one 
is safe in saying, more human history 
also. 

In the Yellowstone Park when I was 
with him, he carried no gun, but one 


Roosevelt Memorial Meeting at the Century Club, New 


York City, February 9, by Major George Haven Putnam 


» 


6 NATURAL 


day as we were riding along, he saw a 
live mouse on the ground beside the 
road. He instantly jumped out of the 
sleigh and caught the mouse in his 
hands; and that afternoon he skinned 
it and prepared it in the approved taxi- 
dermist’s way, and sent it to the United 
States National Museum in Washing- 
ton. It proved to be a species new to 
the Park. 

In looking over the many letters I 
have had from him, first and last, I find 
that the greater number of them are 
taken up with the discussion of natural 
history problems, such as Darwin’s the- 
ory of natural selection, “sports,” pro- 
tective coloration. He would not allow 
himself, nor would he permit others to 
dogmatize about nature. He knew how 
infinitely various are her moods and 
ways, and not infrequently did he take 
me to task for being too sweeping in 
my statements. 

When, in the early part of the last 
decade, while he was President, there 
was a serious outbreak of nature-faking 
in books and in various weekly and 
monthly periodicals, Roosevelt joined 
me and others in a crusade against the 
fakers and wielded the “big stick” with 
deadly effect. He detected a sham natu- 
ralist as quickly as he did a trading 
politician. 

Roosevelt was much amused by the 
change that had come over the spirit of 
that terrible beast, the grizzly bear in 
Yellowstone Park. In a letter to me he 
comments as follows: 


WHITE House, WASHINGTON 


A t 12, 1904 
DEAR Oom JOHN, Sone ie 


I think that nothing is more amusing and 
interesting than the development of the 
changes made in wild beast character by the 
wholly unprecedented course of things in 
the Yellowstone Park. I have just had a let- 
ter from Buffalo Jones, describing his ex- 
periences in trying to get tin cans off the 
feet of the bears in the Yellowstone Park. 
There are lots of tin cans in the garbage 
heaps which the bears muss over, and it has 
now become fairly common for a bear to 


HISTORY 


get his paw so caught in a tin can that he 
cannot get it off and of course great pain 
and injury follow. Buffalo Jones was sent 
with another scout to capture, tie up and 
cure these bears. He roped two and got the 
can off of one, but the other tore himself 
loose, can and all, and escaped... . 

Think of the grizzly bear of the early 
Rocky Mountain hunters and explorers, and 
then think of the fact that part of the recog- 
nized duties of the scouts in the Yellowstone 
Park at this moment is to catch this same 
grizzly bear and remove tin cans from the 
bear’s paws in the bear’s interest! 

The grounds of the White House are lovely 
now, and the most decorative birds in them 
are some red-headed woodpeckers. 

Give my regards to Mrs. Burroughs. How 
I wish I could see you at Slabsides! But of 
course this summer there is no chance of 
that. 

Always yours, 


[Signed | THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 


Roosevelt was a many-sided man and 
every side was like an electric battery. 
Such versatility, such vitality, such 
thoroughness, such copiousness, have 
rarely been united in one man. He was 
not only a full man, he was also a ready 
man and an exact man. He could 
bring all his vast resources of power 
and knowledge to bear upon a given 
subject instantly. 

Courageous, confident, self-assertive, 
he was yet singularly tender and sym- 
pathetic. He was an autocratic demo- 
erat. “Hail fellow well met” with 
teamsters, mechanics, and cowboys, he 
could meet kings and emperors on their 
own ground. A lover of big-game hunt- 
ing, he was a naturalist before he was 
a sportsman. 

His Americanism reached in to the 
marrow of his bones. I could never get 
him interested in that other great Amer- 
ican,—one more strictly of the people 
than he was—Walt Whitman. Whit- 
man’s democracy was too rank and un- 
relieved to attract him. The Roose- 
veltian strenuousness and austerity and 
high social ideals stood in the way. 


THEODORE ROOSEVELT 


Roosevelt combined and harmonized 
opposite qualities. Never have I known 
such good-fellowship joined to such 
austerity, such moral courage to such 
physical courage, such prodigious pow- 
ers of memory united with such pow- 
ers of original thought. He could 
face a charging lion, or a grizzly bear, 
as coolly as he could an angry poli- 
tician. 

There was always something immi- 
nent about him, like an avalanche that 
the sound of your voice might loosen. 
The word demanded by the occasion 
was instantly on his lips, whether it 
were to give pleasure or pain. In his 
presence one felt that the day of judg- 
ment might come at any moment. No 
easy tolerance with him, but you could 
always count on the just word, the 
square deal, and tolerance of your opin- 
ion if it were well founded. 

The charge that he was an impulsive 
man has no foundation; it was a wrong 
interpretation of his power of quick de- 
cision. His singleness of purpose and 
the vitality and alertness of each of his 


~ 


enabled him to decide 
where others hesitate and 
stumble. The emphasis and the sharp- 
ness of his yea and nay, were those of 
a man who always knew his own mind 
and knew it instantly. What seemed 
rashness in him was only the action of 
a mind of extraordinary quickness and 
precision. His uncompromising charac- 
ter made him many enemies, but with- 
out it he would not have been the 
Roosevelt who stamped himself so 
deeply upon the hearts and the history 
of his countrymen. 

When I think of his death amid these 
great days when such tremendous world 
events are fast becoming history, and 
recall what a part he could have played 
in them, and would gladly have played, 
had his health permitted, I realize with 
new poignancy what a loss the world 
has suffered in his passing! A pall 
seems to settle upon the very sky. The 
world is bleaker and colder for his ab- 
sence from it. We shall not look upon 
his like again. 

Farewell! great Soul, farewell! 


many sides 


quickly 


The warm human fellowship about the camp fire, where our thoughts turned to great adventures, 


and our tongues uttered intimate words of home and friends and the great adventure which is life 


Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons 


Roosevelt in South America on the expedition which explored and mapped the ‘River 
of Doubt,’’ now the Rio Téodoro.—Roosevelt’s books covering his explorations and his observa- 
tions on animal life were written in the field, which in large measure accounts for their ac- 


curacy and vividness. (He is here shown protected from fever-carrying insects by gloves and 
a mosquito net helmet) 


— aaa 
Courtesy of C harles Scribner's Sons 
The canoes of Roosevelt and Colonel Rondon on the “River of Doubt” at the junction of 
a large tributary, the Bandeira 


~ 


Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist 


PERSONAL AFFILIATION WITH THE AMERICAN MUSEUM—SERIOUS 
AND SINCERE PURPOSE AS EXPLORER AND NATURALIST 


By HENRY 


OOSEVELT spent the first years 
of his hfe and the last years 
as a naturalist, and it chanced 

that he was in close touch with the 
American Museum at both ends of his 
wonderful career. In the range of his 
hfe as a naturalist, as an observer, 
traveler, explorer, writer, and last but 
not least, a biological philosopher, as in 
the range of his work over the vast 
fields of history, of government, and of 
international relations, his service was 
stupendous; and now that we are able 
to look at his hfe as a whole, we realize 
that he was not one man, but many 
great men, many personalities, com- 
bined and harmonized into one,—all 
impelled by indomitable will and de- 
termination, all inspired by idealism, 
all warmed and humanized by the most 
loving and sympathetic temperament. 
This manifold ability and multiple 
nature came out in the course of his 
plans for a great expedition to South 
America, projected in the spring of 
1915 and executed between October, 
1915, and June, 1914. He had selected 
an unknown and particularly dangerous 
region, where the native tribes had 
never been thoroughly subdued by the 
Brazilian Government. He marked out 
this region as his first choice for a 
South American expedition, but I sent 
word to him through Dr. Frank M. 
Chapman, who was representing us in 
these plans, that I would never consent 
to his going to this particular region 
under the American Museum flag; that 
I would not even assume part of the re- 
sponsibility for what might happen in 
ease he did not return alive. With a 
smile he sent back a characteristic 
word: “I have already lived and en- 


FATREIELD OSBORN 


joyed as much of life as any nine other 
men I know; I have had my full share, 
and if it is necessary for me to leave my 
remains in South America, I am quite 
ready to do so.” Although more pru- 
dent plans prevailed, and we finally 
determined upon a route which resulted 
in the discovery of the Rio Roosevelt, 
yet the exposure, the excessively moist 
chmate, and the dearth of food, cloth- 
ing, and supplies, very nearly cost 
Theodore Roosevelt his life. 

It was Roosevelt’s warm sentiment 
for his native city and the survival of 
the memories of his boyhood education 
as an ornithologist, so delightfully de- 
scribed by himself in the pages of the 
JOURNAL,! which brought him back into 
relation with the American Museum, 
after he had, by means of his two years 
in Africa, completed his magnificent 
service to our National Museum at 
Washington immediately on leaving the 
presidency. 

_In planning the South American 
journey, as in planning that to Africa, 
he prepared with the utmost intelli- 
gence and thoroughness for what he 
knew would be a hazardous trip, even 
after all precautions had been taken. 
With the trained assistance of his son 
Kermit Roosevelt, with the South 
American experience and stalwart cour- 
age of Mr. George K. Cherrie, and with 
the devoted and most intelligent com- 
panionship of Colonel Candido Mariano 
da Silva Rondon and Mr. Leo E. 
Miller, this expedition developed into 
the most important that has ever gone 
from North into South America. Asa 
result of this expedition through Para- 


1 “My Life as a Naturalist,” AMERICAN MUSEUM 


JOURNAL, May, 19158. 


10 NATURAL FAVSLORY 


guay and the wilderness of Brazil, more 
than 450 mammal and 1375 bird speci- 
mens were added to the American Mu- 
seum’s collections, in addition to the 
geographic results which aroused such a 
chorus of discussion and diversity of 
opinion. Roosevelt was so impressed 
with the importance of continuing this 
exploration, that on his return he per- 
sonally contributed $2000 from his lt- 
erary earnings, to send his companion 
naturalists back to the field. The Mu- 
seum accordingly sent Messrs. Leo E. 
Miller and Howarth Boyle to Colombia 
and Bolivia, and Mr. Cherrie to the 
marshes of Paraguay, to continue the 
work of the first Roosevelt Expedition. 

An American statesman, who should 
have known better, has recently charac- 
terized Roosevelt as “one who knew a 
little about more things than anyone 
else in this country.” This gives an 
entirely false impression of Roosevelt’s 
mind. His mind was quite of a con- 
trary order; for what Roosevelt did 
know, he knew thoroughly; he went 
to the very bottom of things, 1f possible ; 
and no one was more conscientious or 
modest than he where his knowledge 
was limited or merely that of the intel- 
ligent layman. His thorough research 
in preparing for the African and South 
American expeditions was not that of 
the amateur or of the sportsman, but 
of the trained naturalist who desires to 
learn as much as possible from previous 
students and explorers. During his 
preparation for the African expedition, 
I sent him from the rich stores of the 
American Museum and Osborn libraries 
all the books relating to the mammal 
life of Africa. These books went in in- 
stallments, five or six a week; as each 
installment was returned, another lot 
was sent. Thus in the course of a few 
weeks he had read all that had been 
written about the great mammals of 


Africa from Sclater to Selous. He 
knew not only the genera and species, 
but the localities where particular spe- 
cies and subspecies were to be found. 
I remember at a conference with Afri- 
can great game hunters at Oyster Bay, 
where were assembled at luncheon all 
the Americans that he could muster 
who had actually explored in Africa, a 
question arose regarding the locality of 
a particular subspecies, Grévy’s zebra 
(Equus grevyi foai). Roosevelt went 
to the map, pointed out directly the 
particular and only spot where this sub- 
species could be found, and said that he 
did not think the expedition could pos- 
sibly get down in that direction. This 
was but one instance among hundreds 
not only of his marvelous memory but 
also of his thoroughness of prepara- 
tion. 

We shall have a memorial of Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, the Naturalist, in the 
American Museum of Natural History. 
He honored the institution by his pres- 
ence ; he loved it and gave his inspiring 
touch to many branches of its activity 
during the closing years of his life. In 
the intervals of politics, of pressing 
duties of every kind, he would repair 
here for keen and concentrated discus- 
sions on animal coloration, or geo- 
eraphic distribution, or the history of 
human races, or the evolution of some 
group of animals, or, perchance, the 
furtherance of some expedition. What 
the Roosevelt memorial shall be it is 
premature to say, except that it will 
certainly be a memorial to the beautiful 
and courageous aspect of his manifold 
character and life as a naturalist. This 
memorial will be such as to remind the 
boys and girls of all future generations 
of Americans of the spirit of love, of 
zeal, and of intelligence with which 
they should approach nature in any of 
its wonderful aspects. 


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Roosevelt — The Friend of Man 


By ROBERT 


Rear Admiral, United States Navy, 


Ee Pane 


tetired; President, Aérial League of America; 


Chairman, National Aérial Coast Patrol Commission 


SORROWING nation pays meet 

tribute to the passing of the 

greatest American of his time— 
Theodore Roosevelt. 

The one outstanding feature of the 
complex character of Roosevelt, the 
man of many parts, was his friendship 
for man in the abstract—and when this 
friendship took concrete form for the 
individual, it became, for its recipient, 
a tower of strength as fortifying and as 
impregnable as Gibraltar. 

The friendship of Theodore Roose- 
velt was indeed a most precious posses- 
sion. Whenever and wherever extended, 
it had the effect of a superlative super- 
incentive to greater deeds—a step by 
step advancement, onward and upward, 
never permitting a retrogression. 

I make the following statement with- 
out fear of successful contradiction, 
that no other single personality in this 
great world of ours today has gathered 
from such a multitude, from all quar- 
ters, kinds, and conditions of life, the 
utmost in spontaneous affection that 
has been accorded him during his years 
of contact with a world’s people. 

Thousands upon thousands, in all 
parts of the world, became his friend 
through the magnetic personality of his 
written words, which have reached to 
the uttermost extremes of enlightened 
civilization all over the globe. 

Inestimable tribute should be paid to 
Colonel Roosevelt’s memory for the ad- 
vice and support, given when President 
of the United States, to the Peary Arc- 


tic Club Expedition to the North Polar 
Regions which resulted in reaching the 
Pole April 6, 1909. 

In 1912, at the annual dinner of the 
Explorers’ Club, I ventured the proph- 
ecy that in a few years the polar regions 
would be reconnoitered and explored 
through the air. That prophecy is 
about to be consummated. 

The great war has forced the devel- 
opment of the science of aéronautics 
and aircraft to that point where no por- 
tion of the globe exists today that can- 
not be visited and explored by either 
plane or dirigible. It is indeed a fit- 
ting tribute to Colonel Roosevelt’s ear- 
nest support of aéronautics, at all times, 
that the Bartlett Arctic Expedition, 
promulgated and organized through the 
efforts of the Aéro Club of America, 
should be known as “The Roosevelt 
Memorial Expedition.” 

Colonel Roosevelt was a veteran sup- 
In 1897, when 
he was Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 
he used his influence to secure the nec- 


porter of aéronautics. 


essary appropriation needed by Profes- 
sor Langley to continue his plans for 
aviation. Colonel 
responsible for giving the United States 
Army an aéroplane before any other 
In 1907 he approved 
the ordering of a biplane and a diri- 


Roosevelt was also 


nation had one. 


gible. 

Scientific results of inestimable value 
to the United States and to the whole 
world are directly traceable to Roose- 
velt’s friendship for man. 

11 


Theodore Roosevelt and Africa 


THE MAN WHO FELT THE ATTRACTION OF LIFE IN THE SILENT PLACES 
AND THE WIDE WASTE SPACES OF THE EARTH 


By CARL E. AKELEY 


ROM field naturalists who knew 

Roosevelt he always received 

profound and unstinted admira- 
tion; they knew that his greatest pleas- 
ure lay in seeing and learning; that he 
found infinite joy in studying wild ani- 
mal life in its native haunts; that he 
had the observing eye and keen mind of 
the ideal naturalist. 

His expedition to Africa had been 
definitely planned in his mind several 
years before it actually came about. I 
had returned from an expedition to 
Africa late in 1907, and recall the em- 
phasis of his words at the White House 
one day as he said to me, “When I am 
through with this job, I am going to 
Africa.” 

I met him in Africa in 1912 on the 
Uasin Gishu Plateau. It was morning 
and our American Museum Expedition 
was marching toward the N’Zoia River, 
when one of the boys called my atten- 
tion to a safari two miles or so to the 
south. With the thought that it might 
possibly be the Roosevelt Expedition, I 
sent a runner to make inquiry, while 
we proceeded to the banks of the river 
and made camp. The runner soon re- 
turned, stating that he had met a run- 
ner halfway, that it was the Roosevelt 
party, and that they were going into 
camp on the edge of the marsh not far 
from where we had seen them. 

When our camp was made, we started 
out on our horses in the direction of the 
marsh, but when about halfway met the 
Colonel with Kermit, and two others of 
his party. We all returned to our camp 
and a good part of the afternoon was 
spent making arrangements for an ele- 
phant hunt for the next day. 

Within an hour or two after leaving 
12 


camp in the morning, we picked up the 
trail of a small herd of elephants, and 
as they were easily tracked through the 
grass, we moved very rapidly. At about 
eleven o’clock, while we were following 
the trail quite casually, someone in ad- 
vance heard a sound which resulted in 
our coming to a standstill. We made a 
short detour to the left; and a few min- 
utes later were looking at a small band 
of cows and calves enjoying their mid- 
day siesta under a clump of bush. We 
advanced under cover of a large ant hill 
to within about fifty yards, from which 
point we looked them over carefully 
and decided which were valuable for 
our scientific purpose. 

I indicated the particular cow that I 
wanted the Colonel to shoot for the 
American Museum group. Of course 
at this distance from the elephants we 
could speak only in lowest whispers and 
every move was guarded. I waited for 
the Colonel to take a shot, expecting 
him to do this from behind the ant hill 
where we were afforded a splendid pro- 
tection against a charge, but he started 
forward toward the elephants and I, 
with Kermit, was obliged to follow 
closely. My impulse was to tell him 
that I wanted him to shoot the cow 
and not “take her alive!” He continued 
to go steadily forward, however, intend- 
ing to get so close that there could be 
no doubt of the effectiveness of his 
shot ; but the elephants suddenly began 
moving in our direction, at which he 
promptly fired. This did not stop their 
advance, but rather accelerated it in- 
stead, so that quick action was neces- 
sary. -When we got through we had 
four dead elephants. 

All of the party, except the Colonel 


THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND AFRICA 13 


and myself, returned to camp to send 
out tools, equipment, and men, prepara- 
tory to taking care of the great skins 
and skeletons of the four elephants. He 
and I sat down under a tree with our 
luncheon, and for two or three hours 
we conversed of intimate things. For 
a number of months the Colonel had 
seen no one from home except the mem- 
bers of his own party. We were fresh 
from the United States and there was 
much to talk of. He spoke much of his 
family, of Mrs. Roosevelt, and his sons 
and daughters. It was then that I 
learned to love Roosevelt. 

It is not an easy thing to give expres- 
sion to the thoughts that come to my 
mind of this man who has so recently 
passed beyond our range of vision. 
What I feel most is that whereas Roose- 
velt is gone, his influence seems greater 


than ever. Many of us will feel, with 
respect to the things that Roosevelt 
wanted us to do and which we never 
seemed to have time to do, that now 
we have time for nothing else. 

As to Africa, perhaps no man in 
modern times has gotten so much out of 
the “Dark Continent” as did Roosevelt. 
In the “Foreword” of his African Game 
Trails he describes Africa in two pages 
with a vividness others have failed to 
give in volumes. And no single sen- 
tence of it consists of word and phrase 
merely: every bit of it stands for the 
man’s own personal experience and his 
own intense thinking and feeling. I 
wish that the African hall of the Amer- 
ican Museum might be done asa me- 
morial to Theodore Roosevelt. I would 
have this Foreword on a bronze tablet 
at the entrance : 


Africa1—In the Words of Roosevelt 


“T speak of Africa and golden 
joys”; the joy of wandering through 
lonely lands; the joy of hunting the 
mighty and terrible lords of the wil- 
derness, the cunning, the wary, and 
the grim. 

In these greatest of the world’s 
great hunting-grounds there are 
mountain peaks whose snows are 
dazzling under the equatorial sun; 
swamps where the slime oozes and 
bubbles and festers in the steaming 
heat; lakes like seas; skies that burn 
above deserts where the iron desola- 
tion is shrouded from view by the 
wavering mockery of the mirage ; vast 
grassy plains where palms and thorn- 
trees fringe the dwindling streams; 
mighty rivers rushing out of the 
heart of the continent through the 
sadness of endless marshes; forests of 
gorgeous beauty, where death broods 
in the dark and silent depths. 

There are regions as healthful as 
the northland, and other regions, ra- 
diant with bright-hued flowers, birds 
and butterflies, odorous with sweet 
and heavy scents, but treacherous in 
their beauty, and sinister to human 


hfe. On the land and in the water 
there are dread brutes that feed on 
the flesh of man; and among the 
lower things that crawl, and fly, and 
sting, and bite, he finds swarming 
foes far more evil and deadly than 
any beast or reptile; foes that lall 
his crops and his cattle, foes before 
which he himself perishes in his hun- 
dreds of thousands. 

The dark-skinned races that live 
in the land vary widely. Some are 
warlike, cattle-owning nomads; some 
till the soil and live in thatched huts 
shaped like beehives; some are fisher- 
folk; some are ape-like naked sav- 
ages, who dwell in the woods and 
prey on creatures not much wilder 
or lower than themselves. 

The land teems with beasts of the 
chase, infinite in number and incred- 
ible in variety. It holds the fiercest 
beasts of ravin, and the fleetest and 
most timid of those beings that live 
in undying fear of talon and fang. 
It holds the largest and the smallest 
of hoofed animals. It holds the 
mightiest creatures that tread the 
earth or swim in its rivers; it also 


1 Quoted from the Foreword of African Game Trails, through the courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons. 


14 


NATURAL, HISTORY 


holds distant kinsfolk of these same 
creatures, no bigger than wood- 
chucks, which dwell in crannies of 
the rocks, and in the tree tops. There 
are antelope smaller than hares, and 
antelope larger than oxen. There 
are creatures which are the embodi- 
ments of grace; and others whose 
huge ungainliness is like that of a 
shape in a nightmare. The plains 
are alive with droves of strange and 
beautiful animals whose like is not 
known elsewhere; and with others 
even stranger that show both in form 
and temper something of the fantas- 
tic and the grotesque. It is a never- 
ending pleasure to gaze at the great 
herds of buck as they move to and 
fro in their myriads; as they stand 
for their noontide rest in the quiver- 
ing heat haze; as the long files come 
down to drink at the watering- 
places; as they feed and fight and 
rest and make love. 

The hunter who wanders through 
these lands sees sights which ever 
afterward remain fixed in his mind. 
He sees the monstrous river-horse 


snorting and plunging beside the 
boat ; the giraffe looking over the tree 
tops at the nearing horseman; the 
ostrich fleeing at a speed that none 


may rival; the snarling leopard and 
coiled python, with their lethal 
beauty; the zebras, barking in the 
moonlight, as the laden caravan 
passes on its night march through a 
thirsty land. In after years there 
shall come to him memories of the 
lion’s charge; of the gray bulk of the 
elephant, close at hand in the sombre 
woodland; of the buffalo, his sullen 
eyes lowering from under his helmet 
of horn; of the rhinoceros, truculent 
and stupid, standing in the bright 
sunlight on the empty plain. 

These things can be told. But 
there are no words that can tell the 
hidden spirit of the wilderness, that 
can reveal its mystery, its melan- 
choly, and its charm. ‘There is de- 
light in the hardy life of the open, 
in long rides rifle in hand, in the 
thrill of the fight with dangerous 
game. Apart from this, yet mingled 
with it, is the strong attraction of 
the silent places, of the large tropic 
moons, and the splendor of the new 
stars; where the wanderer sees the 
awful glory of sunrise and sunset in 
the wide waste spaces of the earth, 
unworn of man, and changed only 
by the slow change of the ages 
through time everlasting. 


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Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt 


By DAVID 


OOSEVELT entered Harvard 
College in 1876 at the age of 
eighteen, hoping to become a 

naturalist, having already made a con- 
siderable collection of birds, besides 
many observations as to their habits. 
His eyesight being defective, however, 
and not connecting well with magnify- 
ing glasses, his early ambition was dis- 
couraged by his teachers to whom the 
chief range of study lay within the field 
of the microscope. They overlooked the 
fact that besides primordial slime and 
determinant chromosomes, there were 
also in the world grizzly bears, tigers, 
elephants and trout, as well as song 
birds and rattlesnakes,—all of which 
yield profound interest and are alike 
worthy of study. 

So, being discouraged as to work 
along his chosen line, and in his love of 
outdoor science, the young naturalist 
turned to political philosophy, his sec- 
ondary interests lying in history and 
politics. He then closed up his private 
cabinet, giving his stuffed bird skins 
(through Professor Baird of the Smith- 
sonian) tome. These I transferred to 
the University of Indiana where they 
are now in a befitting glass case in 
Owen Hall, each skin nicely prepared 
and correctly labeled in the crude 
boyish handwriting which the distin- 
guished collector never outgrew. 

Long after all this, I once took occa- 
sion to remind Mr. Roosevelt that “they 
spoiled a good naturalist” in making 
him a statesman. But the naturalist was 
never submerged in the exigencies of 
statesmanship. During an automobile 
drive in 1912 across the Santa Clara Val- 
ley, Roosevelt displayed a keen interest 
in the sparrows and warblers of the 
thickets along the road. These he could 
call by their first names and mostly by 
their second. Once in the Yosemite with 
John Muir, henotedelements in bird and 
squirrel life which had escaped even his 
keen-eyed and sympathetic companion. 


STARR JORDAN 


In our exploration of Hawaii in 1901, 
my colleague, Dr. Barton W. Ever- 
mann, and I came across a very beauti- 
ful fish, the Kalikali, golden yellow 
with broad crossbands of deep crimson. 
This then bore the name of Serranus 
brighamt given it by its discoverer, 
Alvin Seale. But the species was no 
Serranus; and it was moreover plainly 
the type of anew genus. This we called 
Rooseveltia, 1 honor of “Theodore 
Roosevelt, Naturalist” and in recogni- 
tion of his services in the promotion of 
zoological research. With this compli- 
ment he was “delighted.” “Who would 
not be?” he said. 

In the various natural history ex- 
plorations undertaken by me—and by 
others during his administration as 
President of the United States—we 
could always count on intelligent and 
effective sympathy. In so far as scien- 
tific appointments rested with him he 
gave them careful and conscientious 
consideration. Indeed, during his ad- 
ministration, governmental science 
reached its high-water mark. In 1905 
I was preparing for an exploration of 
the deep seas around Japan by means 
of the Fish Commission steamer “Al]- 
batross.” While I was talking this mat- 
ter over with Roosevelt he said, pound- 
ing the table with his fist: “It was to 
help along things like this, Dr. Jordan, 
that I took this job!” 

The story of Roosevelt’s relation to 
Tutuila in Samoa has never been told, 
and though scientific only in part, it 
may be related here.! 

The three islands of Samoa were held 
for a period of years under the joint 
protectorate of Great Britain, Germany, 
and the United States. The general 
result was unsatisfactory, a condition 
due mainly to the petty intrigues of 
German agents. In Stevenson’s words, 
“There was a fresh conspiracy every 
day,” and a good account of this situa- 


1 This incident is republished by courtesy of The New Republic—THE EDITOR. 


153 


16 NATURAL HISTORY 


tion was given by “R. L. 8.” in A Foot- 
note to History. 

England at last exchanged her rights 
here for certain advantages elsewhere, 
and the islands themselves were di- 
vided, Upolu, the center of population, 
and Savaii, the largest of the group, 
going to Germany, while Tutuila, with 
its magnificent harbor at Pago Pago, 
and little Manua went to the United 
States. The native Tutuilans took the 
matter seriously and were much pleased 
with the new arrangement. The two 
chieftains, Mauga and Paa Vei, then 
caused to be drawn up an elaborate 
document formally deeding the sover- 
eignty of their island to the United 
States. Now, in the etiquette of the 
South Seas, to receive a present without 
acknowledgment is a flagrant insult, 
but the people saw the United States 
occupy the island and erect docks, 
storehouses, and residences without a 
word of thanks. 

When I went to Samoa in 1902, I 
found the inhabitants of Tutuila much 
worked up over the matter. Tuamanua, 
chief of the tiny outlying island, was in 
a state which, on a larger scale, would 
be called rebellion. I went before the 
little congress at Pago Pago and ex- 
plained to the people that the United 
States did not wish to take away any 
of their rights. It had paid the owners 
for the land occupied as well as for all 
service required. It had, moreover, 
through the governor, Captain (later 
Rear Admiral) Uriel Sebree, taken 
great pains to safeguard the interests 
of the people in their relations to trad- 
ers in copra, the dried meat of the 
cocoanut which is the principal export 
of that region. I also called attention 
to the fact that in the interest of the 
people the President had sent Professor 
Vernon Kellogg (of Stanford Univer- 
sity) and me to study the fisheries of 
the islands to find out all the kinds and 
what they were good for. I had myself 
furnished them with a series of paint- 
ings of poisonous fishes, some species 


having in their tissues a_ substance 
analogous to strychnine, which would 
produce the dangerous and often fatal 
disease known as ciguatera. In addi- 
tion, Professor Kellogg had rendered a 
material service in teaching them how 
to get rid of the mosquito and thus to 
abate their two most dreaded scourges, 
“dengue” and “elephantiasis,” both dis- 
eases being produced by minute animal 
organisms carried from person to per- 
son by the mosquito. 

I also called to their minds the sad 
fact that just about the time their deed 
of gift was received at Washington, the 
President of the United States had 
been assassinated by an insane ruffian. 
It was probable that in the confusion 
which followed, the document had been 
misplaced and the incoming President, 
always thoughtful about such matters, 
had possibly never seen it. I would 
bring the affair to his attention, sure 
that he would make a courteous re- 
sponse. This kept the people quiet for 
the time, and expectant as to the fu- 
ture. 

I then sent a statement of facts to the 
President, and soon after left the is- 
land; but I read in the press in the fall 
of 1902 that President Roosevelt had 
sent a gold watch each to Mauga and 
Paa Vei, also a flag to the little native 
police corps or Fitafitas, and that in 
Pago Pago they had had a “red-letter 
day of rejoicing.” 

On returning to Washington I found 
that the deed of gift had been filed un- 
der the head of “Docks,” Pago Pago, 
from the official point of view, being 
merely the water front of a naval sta- 
tion. Fear of precedent had prevented 
acknowledgment. 

McKinley's advisers emphasized this 
point but Roosevelt characteristically 
did not care a straw for precedent. He 
did what a natural man should do. /Ze 
made it right with the people. He said 
afterward to me in regard to it, “It 
always pays for a nation to be a gentle- 
man.” 


Roosevelt, the Man of Abundant Life ' 


By 


E who loved Roosevelt have 

not lost him. The quali- 

ties we treasured in hin, 
his loyalty, his genial kindness, his 
unwearied thoughtfulness for others, 
the generosity which made him prefer 
his friends in honor to himself, his 
tenderness with children, his quick de- 
light in living, and the firm soundness 
of his life’s foundations, are potent 
with us yet. The broad human sym- 
pathy which bound to him the millions 
who never saw his face, his clean cour- 
age and self-forgetful devotion to his 
country, the tremendous sanity of his 
grasp on the problems of the nation 
and the world, and the superb simpli- 
city and directness of his life and 
thought still live as the inspiration and 
the basis for the new and better world 
which is to come. 

The people loved Roosevelt because 
he was like them. In him the common 
qualities were lifted to a higher tension 
and a greater power, but they were still 
the same. What he did plain men un- 
derstood and would have liked to do. 
The people loved him because his 
thoughts, though loftier, were yet 
within their reach, and his motives 
were always clear in their sight. They 
knew his purposes were always right. 
To millions he was the image of their 
better selves. 


1 Address at Roosevelt Memorial Meeting, 
Sunday, February 9. 


Metropolitan 


le ORD: SEN CLE. OT 


Roosevelt was the greatest preacher 
of righteousness in modern times. 
Deeply religious beneath the surface, 
he made right living seem the natural 
thing, and there was no man beyond 
the reach of his preaching and example. 
In the sight of all men, he lived the 
things he taught, and millions followed 
him because he was the clear exemplar 
of his teaching. 

Unless we may except his Conserva- 
tion Policies? Roosevelt’s greatest serv- 
ice during his presidency was the in- 
spiration he gave young men. ‘T'o them 
he was the leader in all they hoped to 
be and do for the common good. The 
generation which was entering man- 
hood while he was President will carry 
with it to the grave the impress of his 
leadership and personality. 

To the boys of America he was all 
they hoped to be—a hunter, a rider, a 
sportsman, eager for the tang of dan- 
ger, keen and confident, and utterly 
unafraid. There was no part of his 
example but was good for boys to fol- 
low. Roosevelt, half boy till his life’s 
end, yet the manliest of men, of a fine- 
ness his best friends best understood, 
was their ideal, and will not cease to 
be because he has passed on. 

To him the unforgivable sin, and 
there was but one, was betrayal of the 
interests of his country. The man who 


Opera House, Philadelphia, afternoon of 


*The name of Gifford Pinchot is closely connected with the work in conservation accomplished by 
Roosevelt, who states the high value he placed on Mr. Pinchot’s services in the chapter on ‘The 
Natural Resources of the Nation” in his Autobiography (p. 429): 

“Gifford Pinchot is the man to whom the nation owes most for what has been accomplished as 
regards the preservation of the natural resources of our country. He led, and indeed, during its most 
vital period embodied, the fight for the preservation through use of our forests. He played one of the 
leading parts in the effort to maké the national Government the chief instrument in developing the 
irrigation of the arid West. .. .” 

The story of the forestry work of the Roosevelt administration is one of great historical interest. It 
includes the training of foresters at a newly opened forest school at Yale, the development of our present 
Forest Service with trained foresters in control of the public lands, the great increase by Executive 
Order of the area of the national forests, and their opening to settlers under regulation, the calling of 
the first meeting of governors in this country (May, 1908), and the appointment of a National Con- 
servation Commission with the purpose of making an inventory of all the resources of the nation. 
Gifford Pinchot was chairman of this commission. All of this work from 1901 to 1909 formed the basis 
of the country’s present practical enlightenment on conservation—THer EDITOR. 


ig 


18 NATURAL HISTORY 


sinned that sin he neither forgave nor 
forgot. For opposition to himself he 
cared but little; enemies he had in 
plenty, but they cast no shadow on his 
soul. He was a gallant and a cheerful 
fighter, willing, as he often said, to be 
beaten for any cause that was worth 
fighting for, and whether in defeat or 
victory, never unbalanced and never 
dismayed. 


Roosevelt lived intensely in his fam- . 


ily life. The doer of great things him- 
self, and the occasion of great accom- 
plishment in others, what he did was 
not done alone. It is but right that 
we should recognize the part played 
by the strong and gentle, wise and lov- 
ing woman, whose hand was so rarely 
seen yet still more rarely absent in all 
that was best in her great husband's 
finest living and most memorable 
achievements. 

The greatest of executives, he trans- 
formed the machinery of government 
with the flame of his own spirit. He 
was his own hardest taskmaster, and 
always unwilling to ask of his men the 
thing he was not ready to do himself. 
He was our leader because he was the 
better man. He worked more hours, 
at higher speed, with wider vision. He 
trusted us, and gave each man his head. 
Always eager to recognize good work 


and give due credit for it, always ready 


with an excuse for the man who hon- 
estly tried and failed, he had nothing 
but scorn and contempt for the man 
who never tried at all. 

Filled with the joy and the spice of 
living, afraid neither of life nor of 
death, thankful for sunshine or rain, 
never sorry for himself, never asking 
odds of any man or any situation, he 
used the powers he had as only his great 
soul could use them—powers seldom 
if ever before assembled in one indi- 
vidual, but nearly all of them dupli- 
cated, one here, one there, within the 
knowledge of us all. It was the use 
his soul made of his body and his mind 
that was the essence of his greatness. 


The greatest of his victories was his 
last, his victory over the indifference of 
a people long misled. He was the first 
to see the need for it. To gain it he 
seemed to throw away his future. In 
the event he won results and earned a 
name which will live while the knowl- 
edge of America’s part in the Great 
War still endures. 

He was the leader of the people be- 
cause his courage and. his soundness 
made him so. More than any man of 
his time, he was loved by those who 
ought to love him, and hated by those 
who ought to hate him. His ideals, his 
purposes, his points of view, his hos- 
tilities, and his enthusiasms were such 
as every man could entertain and un- 
derstand. It was only in. the applica- 
tion of them that he rose to heights 
bevond the reach of all the rest of us. 

What explains his power? Life is 
the answer. Life at its warmest and 
fullest and -freest, at its utmost in 
vigor, at its sanest in purpose and re- 
straint, at its cleanest and clearest,— 
life tremendous in volume, unbounded 
in scope, yet controlled and guided with 
a disciplined power which made him, 
as few men have ever been, the captain 
of his soul. Alert, glad, without mean- 
ness and without fear, free from ar- 
rogance and affectation, with few hesi- 
tations and few regrets, slow to prom- 
ise but ardent to perform, delighting in 
difficulties, welcoming danger, sensi- 
tive to the touch of every phase of 
human existence, yet dominated by 
standards more severely set for himself 
than for any others, sustained by a 
breadth of knowledge and of sympathy 
and by an endurance, both physical 
and mental, which belonged to him 
alone, Roosevelt lived with a com- 
pleteness that lesser men can never 
know. 

In Roosevelt above all the men of his 
time, the promise of the Master was 
fulfilled—“T came that ye might have 
life, and that ye might have it more 
abundantly.” 


is x & aA 


Photograph by Kermit Roosevelt 


Roosevelt and Carl BE, Akeley elephant hunting on the Uasin Gishu Plateau, 


British East Africa 

it fell from Roosevelt's shot, is one in the group now in 
Roosevelt, while on his African Expedition, 
United States National Museum and the 


The elephant shown here, lying where 
, Museum’s elephant studio. 


preparation in the Americar 
in the 


hunted and shot elephants for permanent exhibition 


University of California 


ana Ss, 


(x3 


SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS 
SUGGESTIVE OF 
IED ACHIEVEMENTS AND INTERESTS OF 
THEODORE ROOSEVELT 
LORER, NATURALIST, SOLDIER. STATESMAN, 


THE VAR 


EXP 
WRITER. AND FRIEND OF MAN 


ed ei A, we! 


Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood 
ROOSEVELT AND YOSEMITE 


The man who had a broad vision of things spiritual.—In an address on nations and _ their future (‘Biological 
Analogies,’ delivered at Oxford University, 1910), he points out that there are many ominous signs to warn the nations 
that their growth approaches the fate of the law of death of nations. He makes clear that the all-important factor 
is national character, that there promises a great future for the civilizations which have expanded in the course of their 
development, but that if it does not come, we must at least all carry forward the torch which men mighty of heart have 
handed on from civilization to civilization throughout recorded time 


20 


Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood 


ON A HUNTING TRIP IN COLORADO, 1905 


“Tt is an incalculable added pleasure to anyone’s sense of happiness if he or she grows to know, even slightly or 
imperfectly, how to read and enjoy the wonder-book of nature. All hunters should be nature-lovers. It is to be hoped 
that . .. from now on the hunter will stand foremost in working for the preservation and perpetuation of the wild 
life, whether big or little.’—From Pastimes of an American Hunter. 


The invitation to get out into the western country on hunting trips for a few weeks each year came to Roosevelt 
neither from the delights of natural history and sportsmanship alone, nor alone from interest in conservation problems; 
he especially gloried in remembering the heroic part played by the pioneers, and by the nation in handling early problems 
of statehood: 

nh In all the history of mankind there is nothing that quite parallels the way in which our people have filled a 


vacant continent with self-governing commonwealths, knit into one nation. . . . It is a record of men who greatly dared 
and greatly did; a record of endless feats of arms, of victory after victory and ceaseless strife waged against wild man 
and wild nature. ... The old iron days have gone. ... Let us see to it that, while we take advantage of every gentler 


We need the positive virtues of resolu- 


and more humanizing tendency of the age, we yet preserve the iron quality. 
always be done, and 


tion, of courage, of indomitable will, of power to do without shrinking the rough work that must 
to persevere. . . .’—From address at the Quarter-Centennial Celebration of Statehood in Colorado 


2] 


With John Burroughs in Yellowstone Park, 1903.—They are on their way to the big geyser 
region, Roosevelt, in accordance with his habit from a boy on such occasions, sitting with the driver 
of the sleigh. Roosevelt was especially interested in the big game and would go entirely alone on 
long twenty-mile tramps for the pleasure of creeping up unawares on a band of elk or mountain sheep 
and eating his luncheon while he studied them. Burroughs says, in telling their experiences and 
laughter when racing on skis down some of the hills: ‘‘The spirit of the boy was in the air about the 
Cafion of the Yellowstone, and the biggest boy of us all was President Roosevelt.’’ It was on this trip 
that Mr. Burroughs first came to know of Roosevelt’s great natural history knowledge and of his 
trained powers of observation: 

‘Born observers are about as rare as born poets. Plenty of men can see straight and report 
straight what they see; but the men who see what others miss, who see quickly and surely, who have 
the detective eye, like Sherlock Holmes, who ‘get the drop,’ so to speak, on every object, who see 
minutely and who see whole, are rare indeed. President Rooseve’t comes as near fulfilling this 
ideal as any man I have known.’’—From Camping and TVramping with Roosevelt, by John Burroughs 


Portraits of two bird lovers in the Yellowstone. 


He lived thus in the wilderness, he followed the 
elk and the antelope, he listened to bird songs as though there were nothing else in the world. But 
he emerged after a few days into a world of people, polities, and speeches again, and waged anew 
and strenuously the fight for a high type of national service 


99 


Courtesy of Brown Bros 
Roosevelt with a group of East Side children.—-Roosevelt believed in the doctrine of will for a 
I 


man, and he had a conscience, and he helped New York grow a legislative conscience, beginning 
even before the day when he knew Jacob Riis and How the Other Half Lives. The following is one 
of the truest things Mr. Riis says of him in Rooseveit, the Citizen: ‘“‘The fact is he is a perfectly 
logical product of a certain course of conduct deliberately entered upon and faithfully adhered to 
all through life, as all of us are who have any character worth mentioning.”’” New York’s East Side 
gave genuine reverence to this character of Roosevelt which fearlessly righted wrongs in tenements 
and playgrounds, in liquor and police laws. He believed in the good in his fellow men, and his trust 
was never more fully justified than in his work on New York’s East Side 


¢ RB ] 
An inspiration back of Pear vor} It is ea to det o1 
courage and hardihood no man n America Was more ‘ é 
great explorer. Also with his love of wander ne | ience 
standing in positions of great personal responsibilit none ! 
loneliness and responsibility of the life of the explorer He r rt he explore nd the die 
as to these qualities in his Introduction to Peary’s Nea sf P 


fp OS ae 


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3 
e 
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Lae: 


Courtesy of Brown Bros. 


BESIDE * GRIZZLY GIANT,” ONE OF THE SEQUOIAS HE PROTECTED 


Theodore Roosevelt in California at the time of his administration (at the 1 ft stands Governor Pardee, at 
the right in order, John Muir r. Butler, of Columbia; Secretary Loeb; and EI ident Wheeler, of Berkeley) .— 
We can realize the delight that it was for John Muir to show his beloved Yosemite and Sequoi inons and forests to 
a man of Roosevelt's appreciation and power of observation. Th y spent three days at this time tramping and 
eamping together, sleeping in the open, between trunks of giant Sequoias—as Roosevelt said later “in a great 
solemn cathedral, far vaster and more beautiful than any built by the hand of man.” 

Roosevelt's initial work in conservation of natural resource ,, especially of forests, will go down in history as 
the greatest constructive legislation ever established by an executive in the United States. 

On the sixteenth of January, 1919, ten days after the death of Theodore Roosevelt, a Dill designating the 
California giant redwood district as “Roosevelt National Park,’ passed the Senate of the United States unani- 
mously. He said, in 1903, the Sequoias should be pre ed because they are “‘the only things of their kind in 
the world,” ‘“‘monuments of themselves’—they now stand majestic monuments for him 


24 


NAPE nc path? i 


WENA s.. 


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SARA 


Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood 


AT WASHINGTON IN 1905 
‘I do solemnly swear that 1 will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best 


of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. And thus I swear.” 
When Roosevelt became President in 1901 he was the youngest man who had ever taken the oath His inter 
est in natural history immediately recalled the administration of Thomas Jefferson; but he so far outstripped his pre 
decessor that his seven and one half years in Washington marked a golden age for zoology, for exploration, and con 


servation, a time when scientific expeditions and publications were instigated and encouraged, and naturalists and 
explorers from all over the world were welcome guests at the White Houss 


As to statesmanship, a man of great constructive imagination was at the helm He studied the problems of the 
nation and the psychology of men. He made himself accessible to every man from every section of the country He 
learned their points of view, their interests. He worked with an insatiable desire to understand the thought and feel 
ing of all ranks. Then, like the great synthetic scientist, the true leader, he marshalled all his data before him, formu 
lated conclusions, and led the people where it was best for the good of the counts ind themselves that they should go 


3ut the greatest thing that Roosevelt did as President was to bring back to the mind of each man in the country a 


realization that the government is in truth “for the people, of the people, and by the people” 


> - 
s 


Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood 


ROOSEVELT, THE THINKER AND WRITER.—HE PREACHES READABLENESS 
IN SCIENTIFIC WRITINGS 


Theodore Roosevelt wrote plain prose, bu first characteristic 
= riting. cle ness Ther cs ] er yth obscure about the 
rot ny m¢ t t was in his own mind about what he thought. And the 
t re leas jun out t Seti t of his 
cite our actio Whether te of t comm 
- 1 tin it ( I 
i iS P es 
in the gr tints of the ge ] no 
Otherwise no profit will come of the for writings are useless unless they are 
read nd they « not’ be 1 re idable.”’ From this as a theme he eulogizes “‘the 


l or scientific writer, and drives away the buga- 
the technical writer often stigmatizes the ‘‘read- 
reat scientists have wr n interestingly, and these few have usually felt 
sooner or later t time will come when the mighty sweep oti modern 
by scientific men with the gift of expression, at the service of 

Indeed, I believe that re ady science has owed more than 


a Itivatec 
t suspects to the unconscious of some of its representatives [for instance, in regard 
to evolutio1 where their had 1] a ripple, Darwin and Huxley suc- 
in € ) ] ug! f age ... 1 believe that the chief 
I tion « 1 simp one that what Darwin and Huxl wrote was 
ntorestiionte 


Photographs by Herbert K. Job 


SIMPLE DELIGHTS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE FIELD 


encounter each other face to face in a Louisiana 
napped the photograph 
lt created the Louisiana 


In the picture above—Roosevelt and a young heron , 
Bird Preserve. Mr. Herbert K. Job also was a member of the party and s 

At the request of the National Association of Audubon Societies Roosevelt 
Bird Preserves by Executive Order in 1904 and 1905 It was in 1915 that he made this tour of the 
islands with Mr. Job Between March 14, 1903, and March 4, 1909, of his administration, he estab 
lished by Executive Order fifty-one National Bird Reservations, 
ritories from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Alaska 

The photograph belou One does not need to be 
the beaches of our Gulf Coast where great sea turtles | 
eggs under the sand 


distributed in seventeen states and ter 


a bo In vears to enjo 1 tour of discovery over 


uve roamed wher! i! vas still and deposited their 


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Courtesy of Underuood and Underwood 
QUENTIN ROOSEVELT SLEEPS ON FRENCH SOIL 


Quentin Roosevelt was shot down while fighting at odds with enemy aéroplanes over the German 
lines in the Chateau-Thierry region. He was buried with military honors by German airmen near 
the spot where his machine fell. Much was expected of him, but he gave more. His sacrifice is to 
America as a symbol of the soul of democracy, of the country’s young manhood offered to the cause 
of liberty. 

Quentin visited France in 1909. A letter written to an old teacher at that time shows his 
boyish interest in flying (he was eleven years old): ‘‘We were at Rheims and saw all the aéroplanes 
flying, and saw Curtiss who won the Gordon Bennett cup for swiftest flight. You don’t know how 
pretty it was to see all the aéroplanes sailing at a time. At one time there were four aéroplanes in the 
air. It was the prettiest thing I ever saw. The best one was a monoplane called the ‘Antoinette,’ 
which looks like a great big bird in the air. It does not wiggle at all, and goes very fast. It is 
awfully pretty turning.’ And at the close of the letter, “Tell S that I am sending him a model 
of an aeroplane that winds up with a rubber band. They work quite well. I haye one which ean fly 
a hundred yards, and goes higher than my head.” 

When he was in training at Mineola, he often chose the air above his home at Sagamore Hill 
to practice his most startling maneuvers, his father never being sure until afterward that the army 
plane which had so thrilled them was Quentin’s. 

When the news of the boy’s probable death came from France, Roosevelt, who had been sorrowing 
that he could not personally be on the western battlefront, dauntlessly gave answer: “Quentin’s mother 
and I are very glad that he got to the Front and had a chance to render some service to his country, 
and to show the stuff there was in him before his fate befell him” 


99 
C3 pes 


THE HOME AT OYSTER BAY AND AEROPLANES WHICH DROPPED 
WREATHS OF MOURNING 


ts is told, and we realize that his spoken and written words | 
his vivid experience as boy ix Thos o know the 
S aut ° 1: “I would order them [young meI to wor 
young man that he wealth owes t ‘ S 1 t he 
ans owes his to his State . . . I would preach the 0 ol ) d to the 
wealth the doctrine of unremunera work.” 

“Of course hat we have a right to expect of rik ( S s n ¢ 
a good American mar N nces are strong wont ( es 
good deal of a boy. He a coward or a g, S or g 
work hard and play har ust be clean-minded and clean-lived, and able to hoid his 0 
all circumstances and 

“In life as in a tt t fo 
shirk, but hit the line 

In such plainly t é m<é 
generations of Americans. 

Among all his messages perl g ( é sent 
which civilization is having to s gy st que 
Strenuous Life 

‘In speaking to d di s most Ame 
the American chara: doct g tr 
strenuous life, the 1 ind st s ( ( 
which comes... to fror g ) s! Dy 0 t 
and who out of these I S 
with the nation g 
great part in the wor! ¢ 
selves is we shall meet them well or i The t tiet tur ooms befor s 
the fate nations. . .. If we shrink from th: i ntest here men must win a 
of their at the risk of all they hold dear, then the boldez i stronger peoples 
by, and for themselves the domination of the or Let Ss shrink iron 
moral or within or without the natio1 rs led ‘ : ertain that the strife is 
for it is igh hard and dangerous ends ine irae — ‘ ¢; vin t roa 


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Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End? 


LIMITS OF PHYSICAL AND INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION OF MAN—THE 
FUTURE MAY HOLD NO RACE OF SUPER-MEN, BUT IT 
IS LIKELY. TO PRESENT A SUPER-STATE 
AND A SUPER-CIVILIZATION 


By EDWIN 


GR Ad. CORTE LEN 


Professor of Biology, Princeton University 


HE term “evolution” is used in 
several senses. When considered 
in its larger aspects, as for ex- 

ample with respect to the increasing 
complexity of organization in the suc- 
cession of life forms upon the earth, we 
are dealing with what may be called 
progressive organization or organic 
progress. When considered from the 
standpoint of increasing diversification, 
as shown in the appearance of varieties 
and species which are no more complex 
in organization than the forms from 
which they sprung and which may be 
even less complex, we have a type of 
evolution which is not progressive and 
which may be called speciation or di- 
versification. A third aspect of evolu- 
tion is that which deals with increasing 
adaptation to conditions of life and 
which may be called progressive adap- 
tation; this may or may not be asso- 
ciated with progressive organization or 
with speciation. 

Organization, of whatever kind, 
means differentiation and integration, 
specialization and codperation, diversity 
and harmony. Progressive evolution 
invariably and inevitably means in- 
creasing differentiation and integration. 
In the long history of life upon the 
earth, organisms have varied in every 
possible way, they may be said to have 
made millions and millions of experi- 
ments in finding the path of progressive 
evolution, and in every instance this 
path has been in the direction of 
greater specialization and codperation. 

Millions of years ago unicellular 
organisms reached the utmost limits of 
the differentiations which were possible 
within a single cell. Thereafter a new 


path had to be found if further ad- 
vance in organization was to occur. 
This new path was found in the direc- 
tion of multicellularity. Multicellular 
forms did not arise by the coming to- 
gether of separate cells, as is sometimes 
assumed, but rather by the failure of 
cells to divide completely; when the 
original cell divided, the products no 
longer moved apart as separate and 
complete individuals but remained at- 
tached to one another, and instead of 
restoring all missing parts as each cell 
did when it became a separate and com- 
plete individual, the initial differences 
between cell products were preserved 
and increased at successive divisions. In 
this way entire cells became new units 
of differentiation and at the same time 
all the cells remained bound together 
into a unit of a higher order. 

A wholly similar process of differen- 
tiation by cell formation takes place 
in the development of the egg; if cell 
formation is stopped in this case, differ- 
entiations never go beyond a stage 
comparable with those of the unicel- 
lular organism, and if the different 
cells fail to stick together they generally 
lose many of their differentiations and 
revert to the simpler organization of 
the egg. Whenever a complex protozoan 
divides, it goes back in organization to 
a more primitive condition, and after 
division it starts to differentiate over 
again; and so successive generations of 
protozoans make little or no advance in 
organization. But when the cells of a 
multicellular animal or plant divide 
they do not go back to the stage of 
differentiation of the egg but preserve 
the differentiations which they have al- 


- 


» 
oe 


36 NATURAL HISTORY 


ready attained and continue to augment 
them during the process of develop- 
ment. In multicellular organisms this 
increasing differentiation of the cells is 
made possible by the close union and 
interdependence of the cells, whereas 
in the unicellular forms the very inde- 
pendence of the cells prevents increas- 
ing differentiation. 

In a manner wholly similar to the 
case of the one-celled forms multicel- 
lular organisms reach a stage of differ- 
entiation beyond which they cannot go 
within the limits of a single body. 
The very nature of differentiation signi- 
fies hmitations in certain directions in 
order to secure further development in 
other directions. If a creature have 
wings it cannot also have hands (ex- 
cept in the case of the angels) ; if it 
have limbs for running it cannot also 
have limbs for swimming; if it have 
enormous strength it cannot also have 
great delicacy of movement. Thus 
while certain animals are differentiated 
in one direction and others in another, 
no one animal can be differentiated in 
all directions. In man differentiation 
has gone farthest in the structures and 
functions of the brain. In many other 
respects man is relatively undifferen- 
tiated; his hmbs, hands and feet, his 
teeth and alimentary tract are far less 
highly differentiated than are these 
organs in many other animals, but his 
brain is much more highly differenti- 
ated. This very fact of a highly spe- 
cialized nervous system and a general- 
ized condition of many other organs 
has led to the wonderful intellectual 
and social evolution of man and has 
made possible not only the rational con- 
trol of his own evolution but also the 
control of his environment. 


Path of Social Evolution 


Just as the multicellular condition 
permits a higher degree of organization 
than is possible in the unicellular, so 
the union of multicellular organisms 
into a unit of a higher order opens up 


a new path of evolution and progress. 
But here also, as in the former instance, 
the principles of progressive evolution 
are increasing differentiation and inte- 
gration. In this way biological colonies 
or societies are formed, and in various 
animal societies one can trace the stages 
of social evolution from a condition in 
which all the individuals are much 
alike and the bond of union between 
them is a very loose one, to such soci- 
eties as those of ants, bees, and termites 
in which the differentiations and inte- 
erations of individuals have gone much 
further even than in human society. 
We do not know whether progressive 
evolution of such animal societies has 
already reached its limits in colonies of 
ants and termites, but we do know that 
further evolution, if it occurs, must 
involve a still greater degree of differ- 
entiation and integration of individuals 
or of colonies. 


Path of Intellectual Evolution 


Meanwhile man has entered upon a 
new path of evolution, namely, the in- 
tellectual and ethical, and just as there 
was a great forward movement when 
the path of multicellularity was taken, 
and again when social organizations 
took the place of solitary individuals, 
so human advances in the path of in- 
telligence and morality are perhaps the 
most significant in the whole range of 
organic evolution. Here, as in the cases 
of physical and social evolution, the 
factors or elements out of which the 
new organization is builded are present 
in the lowest and simplest forms of life, 
but it is only by the progressive differ- 
entiation and integration of these fac- 
tors that progress is achieved. 

The elements out of which the psychie 
faculties of man have been developed 
are present in all organisms, even in 
germ cells, in the form of sensitivity, 
tropisms, reflexes, organic memory, and 
a few other factors; in more complex 
animals these take the form of special 
senses, instincts, emotions and as- 


HAS PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION COME TO AN END? 37 


sociative memory; and in the highest 
animals, and especially in man, they 
blossom forth as intelligence, reason, 
will, and consciousness. All stages of 
this development may be seen in various 
animals below man and also in the de- 
velopment of the human personality 
from the germ cells. 

No one knows whether human beings 
have already reached the limits of de- 
velopment of their intellectual, rational, 
and volitional powers. It is customary 
to assume that there is no limit to the 
possibilities of development in this di- 
rection, and certainly in the knowledge 
of and control over natural phenomena 
the most striking progress is now being 
made, chiefly, however, by codéperative 
effort. But this is not the question in- 
volved when we ask whether man has 
already reached the highest possible de- 
velopment of his intellectual and ra- 
tional powers. There is good evidence 
that no recent human beings have sur- 
passed in such powers many men of the 
ancient Greek race or many other indi- 
viduals who have appeared in the past. 
Perhaps the intellectual evolution of 
man has already reached its climax in 
these greatest personages of history, so 
that even in the distant future there 
may never appear greater geniuses than 
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, than 
Shakespeare, Newton and Darwin. 


Path of Rational Codperation 


Finally, a new path of evolution has 
been found by man in rational codpera- 
tion, that is in the further development 
of human society on a basis of intelli- 
gence rather than of instinct. Certainly 
in this direction the limits of human 
evolution have not been reached; in- 
deed, it may be said that the rational 
evolution of society has barely begun. 
It is a notable fact that the social evolu- 
tion of man is going forward at a very 
much more rapid rate than his physical 
or intellectual evolution. 

In bodily structure and in intel- 
lectual capacity man has changed but 


little since the beginnings of recorded 
history, but in social organization the 
most enormous advances have been 
made, and changes are still going on at 
a rate which is amazing if not alarm- 
ing. The chief causes for this differ- 
ence in the rate of physical and social 
evolution are to be found in the fact 
that individual experiences are more 
quickly and permanently impressed 


upon the intellect than upon the body or 


the instincts, and especially in the fact 
that through intelligent society past ex- 
periences are transmitted to future gen- 
erations, each generation, as it were, 
standing upon the shoulders of the 
preceding one, whereas the physical 
man begins his development anew in 
each generation from the germ cells, 
and if he inherits any bodily features 
due to the experiences of his ancestors, 
a thing which seems most doubtful, 
they are very few and rare. 


Progress Has Ceased in Many Lines 


There is no probability that future 
evolution will develop more complex 
animal or plant cells than those which 
now exist or have existed in the past ;4 
there is little likelihood that more com- 
plex multicellular forms than those 
which have lived or are now living will 
ever be evolved, for apparently the 
limits of complexity within a single cell 
or body have already been reached. 
Doubtless," both cells and bodies will 
continue to undergo changes which on 
the whole will lead to better adaptations 
to existing conditions, but such changes 
probably will be relatively slight as 
compared with the great evolutionary 

1 Among animals no new phyla have appeared 
since the vertebrates in the Silurian, or perhaps 
even earlier; no new classes since the mammals in 
the Triassic and the birds in the Jurassic. In the 
evolution of animals only about fourteen times in 
the whole history of life have new phyletic paths 
been found and several of these were blind alleys 
which led nowhere. The climax of the progressive 
evolution of fishes was probably reached in the 
Devonian, of amphibians in the Permian, of rep- 
tiles in the Mesozoic. In all these classes the for- 
mation of new species has been going on more or 
less continuously, but progressive evolution in the 


sense of increasing complexity of organization has 
reached or passed its climax. 


38 NATURAL HISTORY 


advances of the past ; protozoa will still 
remain protozoa and man will still be 
man. 

There is no evidence and little proba- 
bility that a higher animal than man 
will ever appear on this planet. To a 
larger extent than in the case of any 
other creature man controls his destiny, 
and even if the human race should be- 
come extinct, from what other existing 
group of organisms is it conceivable 
that a higher type could arise? ‘There 
are other animals which in certain re- 
spects are more highly developed physi- 
cally, there are social insects which in 
some regards are more highly developed 
socially, but no other animal approaches 
man in intellect and probably none will 
ever surpass him in the combination of 
physical, intellectual, and social ca- 
pacity. 

Furthermore, there is no present 
reason for supposing that in the future 
man will be more highly organized 
physically or will be endowed with 
greater intellectual capacity than have 
been many individual men of the past 
or present, though in both body and 
mind he will probably become better 
adjusted to conditions of life. It is 
conceivable that further evolution of 
the brain of man may occur, just as it is 
possible to conceive of a further evolu- 
tion of the neck of the giraffe or of the 
trunk of the elephant, but there is a 
limit to increasing specialization beyond 
which it is not practicable to go. It is 
doubtful whether the brain of man 
could undergo much further differentia- 
tion without introducing disharmonies 
within the organism or with the en- 
vironment, and the facts that since the 
beginnings of human records there does 
not appear to have been any appre- 
ciable growth of the brain in size or 
complexity, and that since the ancient 
Greeks there has been no appreciable 
increase in the intellectual capacity of 
man, plainly indicate that the possible 
limits of evolution in this direction 
have been reached. The most that can 


be hoped for by the scientist is that the 
standards of races as a whole may more 
nearly approach the best individual 
standards which now exist, and under a 
wise system of eugenics and education 
this improvement can be effected. 


Paths of Future Progress 


On the other hand, there is good eyi- 
dence that in social organization and in 
cooperative efforts the limits of human 
evolution have not been reached. The 
future may produce no super-men but 
it is hkely to produce a super-state and 
a super-civilization. 

Progressive evolution, then, has pro- 
ceeded along several lines and not along 
a single one; it may be represented, not 
by a ladder, but by a branching tree in 
which growth has ceased in certain 
branches but is still going on in others. 
In man there have been three main 
lines or branches of evolution,—physi- 
eal, intellectual, and social,—but in 
all lines progress has meant increas- 
ing differentiation and integration. 
Furthermore, the directing and regu- 
lating principles may be the same in all 
of these lines; it may be, for example, 
the survival of the fittest, but there are 
many kinds of fitness. Physically, the 
fittest is the most viable ; intellectually, 
it is the most rational; socially, it is 
the most ethical. These three lines are 
not necessarily antagonistic, as Huxley 
supposed, but all three may and do 
cooperate in such a way that each 
strengthens the other. Least of all is 
there any justification for the views of 
Bernhardi and other biological mili- 
tarists that the most powerful, com- 
bative, and dominating are the fittest 
socially. Darwin himself long ago pro- 
tested against this mistaken conception 
of natural selection and showed that in 
social evolution the most ethical is the 
most fit. 

But while these different lines of 
evolution are not necessarily antago- 
nistic, it is important to remember that 
all life processes, including evolution, 


HAS PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION COME TO AN END? 39 


are balanced as it were between con- 
tending forces. Life itself as well as 
evolution, is a continual adjustment of 
internal conditions to external condi- 
tions, a balance between constructive 
and destructive processes, a combina- 
tion of differentiation and integration, 
of variation and inheritance, of the 
needs of the individual and of those of 
the species. And in addition to these 
conflicting relations we find in man the 
opposition of instinct and intelligence, 
of emotion and reason, of selfishness 
and altruism, of individual freedom 
and social codperation. 

The past evolution of man has oc- 
eurred almost entirely without con- 
scious human guidance; but with the 
appearance of intellect and the capacity 
of profiting by experience, a new and 
great opportunity and responsibility 
have been given man of directing 
rationally and ethically his own evo- 
lution. More than anything else, that 
which distinguishes human society from 
that of other animals is just this ability 
to control instincts and emotions by 
intelligence and reason. Those who 
maintain that racial, national, and 
class antagonisms are inevitable because 
they are instinctive, and that wars can 
never cease because man is a fighting 
animal, really deny that mankind can 
ever learn by experience; they look 
backward to the instinctive origins and 
not forward to the rational organiza- 
tion of society. We shall never cease 
to have instincts, but unless these are 
balanced and controlled by reason, 
human society will revert to the level 
of the pack, or herd, or hive. The 
foundations of human society are laid 
in gregarious instincts, but upon these 
foundations human intelligence has 
erected that enormous structure which 
we call civilization. 

Can there be any doubt that, if the 
evolution of human society continues 
in the future, it will bring into one 
organization larger and ever larger 
numbers of men until perhaps it may 


finally include the whole human species, 
and that it will at the same time lead 
to greater specialization and more inti- 
mate codperation of all its members? 
As the union of many cells into one 
body, the union of many persons into 
one colony, the union of many colonies 
into one nation have marked great ad- 
vances in evolution, so, let us hope, the 
union of many nations into one league 
may mark the next great step in human 
progress. 

Finally, with the development of in- 
telligence and of rational society we 
reach in human evolution the highest 
stage of organization which has ever 
been attained and, so far as we can now 
see, the highest attainable, for we have 
here not merely the differentiations of 
the human bodyand the countless differ- 
entiations of human society but much 
more we have the control over environ- 
ment and the forces of nature which 
makes man the most powerful and 
speedy of all living things whether on 
land, in water, or in the air; which 
gives him a keenness and range of sen- 
sation that are unparalleled elsewhere, 
and which practically extends his nerve 
connections to all parts of the earth. 
Man has indeed by means of intelli- 
gence added to his own personal powers 
the powers of nature. His evolution is 
no longer limited to his body but takes 
in the whole of his environment. 

This new path of progressive evolu- 
tion is in all respects the most im- 
portant which has ever yet been dis- 
covered by organisms. The course of 
from smaller and 
simpler units to larger and more com- 
plex ones until now, by means of 
rational codperation, we have govern- 
mental units which include as much as 
one fourth of the entire human species, 
we are on the eve of bringing together 
into some form of league or federation 
all the nations of the world, and we are 
in process of annexing to our own per- 
sonal powers the illimitable forces of 
the universe. 


progress has led 


‘ ¢ 


Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey 
THEIR INTERESTS ARE SAFEGUARDED BY UNCLE SAM 
Now and then a ery is heard that birds are injurious to man’s interests and should be killed. For ex- 
ample, this last summer great pressure was brought to bear on the United States Food Administration to 
destroy all the pelicans in the Gulf Coast region, especially those on the coasts of Florida and Texas, 
because of the claim that they “existed by millions’ and were daily eating ‘hundreds of thousands of dol- 
lars’ worth of food fish.’ The Food Administration asked the writer to investigate this. With the kind co- 
operation of State Fish Commissioner Woods, of Texas, Conservation Commissioner Alexander, of Louisi- 
ana, and Shellfish Commissioner Williams, of Florida, I was able to cruise the coasts of these states and 
visit all the breeding colonies of pelicans. We counted and estimated their numbers, and gathered quan- 
tities of the food which the adult and young alike disgorged in the writer’s presence. At the conclusion of 
the investigation it was found that only about 65,000 adult pelicans were inhabiting the Gulf Coast of the 
United States in the summer of 1918, and that more than 95 per cent of their food during the month of 
June consisted of menhaden—fish never used for human consumption 


40) 


Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey 


Brown pelican flying above its home colony on the United States Bird Reservation locally known 


as ‘“Mud Lumps,” 


at the mouth of the Mississippi River 


Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast 


FLORIDA, ALABAMA, MISSISSIPPI, LOUISIANA, AND TEXAS IN BIRD 


PROTECTION, THE FIRST WITH 
SHAME, LOUISIANA A NATIONAL 


By T. 


GILBERT 


MISSISSIPPI A NATIONAL 
PRIDE 


PEARSON 


Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Socicties 


O area of like extent in the 
United States is so memorable 

from the standpoint of wild 

life conservation as that region which 
we may designate as the Gulf Coast. 
Beginning with the mouth of the 


Rio Grande, this area sweeps north- 
ward, eastward, and then southward 
for fourteen hundred miles until we 


reach the far-famed bird islands of 
the Dry Tortugas off the south end of 
Florida. This region, with its shallow 
seas, islands, sand beaches,and extensive 
marshes, has for ages been the abode of 
innumerable water birds that have long 
attracted the avarice of mankind. 
Thirty years ago, when bird killing 
for the feather trade was at its height, 
one could have found a dozen vessels 
at once cruising the Florida coast in 
quest of the vast assemblages of gulls, 
terns, egrets, and shore birds which at 
that time inhabited the 
lands and coral reefs. Similar killing 


mangrove is- 


went on elsewhere along the Gulf Coast 
at that The egging 
also flourished in those and even later 
days. 

In 1904, Mr. Frank M. Miller, of 
New Orleans, reported that five thou- 
sand eggs had just been broken on one 


time. business 


of the Louisiana islands inhabited by 
in order that all the eggs 
gathered the next 
fresh ones. 


sea birds, 
morning might be 
For years cargoes of eggs 
taken in this manner were supplied to 
New Orleans. He 
stated further that at least fifty thou- 
that taken and 
manufacture of glue. 

from the 
to Texas, 
there extend vast salt marshes varying 


the markets. of 


Oo were 


sand eggs year 
used in the 

Along the Louisiana coast 
westward 


Mississippi River 


in width from five to thirty miles. 
This extensive domain, which the land 


has as yet. only partly reclaimed from 
the sea, is the winter home of myriads 
this recion 


41 


of ducks and geese. To 


42 NATURAL HISTORY 


were attracted thousands of hunters, 
who, until recent years, shot unre- 
stricted the wild fowl that gathered 
here in winter to feed and rest. The 
markets of the Louisiana cities were 
open to the sale of the bodies of these 
birds, and enormous numbers were 
shipped to northern markets. 

The first serious attempts to protect 
the wild life of the Gulf Coast were 
made by the National Association of 
Audubon Societies. As far back as 
1902 these societies were conducting 
campaigns of education and seeking 
to arouse among the people of that 
region an interest in conserving their 
wild bird hfe. These efforts have 
continued through the years, hut have 
produced little effect in much of the 
territory, and pronounced hostility has 
been encountered in many regions. 
Thus on July 14, 1905, Guy Bradley, 
the Association’s warden near Cape 
Sable, Florida, was shot by plume 
hunters and the birds in the colony 
he guarded were destroyed. Later, up 
in Charlotte Harbor, Florida, on No- 
vember 30, 1908, Columbus G. Mce- 
Leod, another Audubon warden, was 
killed and the boat in which his body 
fell was sunk with sandbags. 

The Association has worked system- 
atically for the establishment of state 
game warden systems in the various 
states bordering on the Gulf, but with 
only moderate success. In 1913 the 
legislature of Florida finally enacted 
a law providing for a state game war- 
den and deputies. Two years later the 
law was repealed. Florida stands today 
as the Rip Van Winkle state in the 
matter of wild hfe conservation. The 
state’s efforts to protect its wild life 
have been practically nil. 

To the westward hes Alabama with 
a short coastline, and inhabited by 
comparatively few shore birds. The 
subject of bird and game _ protection 
was taken up by the Honorable John 
H. Wallace, in February, 1907, and 
since that date this active officer has 


done much to conserve the bird life for 
his state. 

Passing on to Mississippi, we find 
the only state in the Union, aside from 
Florida, that makes no declared effort 
through state officers to enforce its 
laws for the protection of wild life. 
Two years ago the legislature passed 
a bill to establish a game commission, 
but the courts declared it unconstitu- 
tional, and Mississippi hunters kept 
merrily on as heretofore, killing very 
much when and where they pleased. 

In regard to Louisiana the story is 
a long one, if one should undertake to 
tell it all. Mr. Frank Miller, backed 
by the National Association of Audu- 
bon Societies, secured the establish- 
ment of a number of Federal bird 
reservations off the coast, and in July, 
1908, induced the legislature to create 
a “Board of Commissioners for the 
Protection of Birds, Game and Fish.” 
He was appointed chairman of the 
board, and undertook the great work 
of conserving the wild life of his state. 
In due time his political life came to 
an end. Under the leadership of the 
present game commissioner, the Hon- 
orable L. M. Alexander, Louisiana has 
made notable strides in the protection 
of its wild life, and considering the 
conditions which he found when en- 
tering office, about six years ago, no 
state in the Union can equal his record. 

During the winter Louisiana con- 
tains more wild waterfowl than any 
other two states in the Union, and 
here also there are surely as many gun- 
ners to the square foot as can be found 
anywhere on this continent. Yet Mr. 
Alexander has secured the enactment of 
reasonable and necessary conservation 
laws and he enforces them with a tact 
and wisdom that are most stimulating. 

Aside from the Government bird res- 
ervations, the Audubon Societies’ is- 
lands, and the work of the Louisiana 
Game Commission, mention should be 
made of the three large tracts of marsh- 
land set aside as bird refuges. One of 


WILD LIFE CONSERVATION 


these, Marsh Island, 77,000 acres in 
extent, was purchased by Mrs. Russell 
Sage, and set aside as a bird sanctuary. 
This was in 1912. Two years later the 
Rockefeller Foundation purchased a 
tract of 86,000 acres a few miles to the 
west of it, 
sanctuary 


and declared it to be a bird 
for all time. Mr. Edward 
A. Mellhenny, who was responsible for 
both of these purchases, together with 
Charles Willis Ward, bought and set 
aside another reservation of 57,000 
acres of marshland. These three tracts, 
earefully guarded at all times, consti- 
tute the most important refuges for 
wild life in the southern states. 

Thus time a 
slaughter pen for wild life second only 


Louisiana, at one 
to the state of Florida, is today occupy- 
ing an enviable position among the 
states that are intelligently conserving 
their wild life. 

There remains but one state along 
the Gulf Coast to mention, that is 
Texas. From the standpoint of the 
sea-bird life, which consists of gulls, 
terns, herons, and pelicans, this region 
is today not an important one, for the 
bird life that was once abundant has 
been reduced to extremely small pro- 


T ALONG THE GULF COAST 43 
portions, and the state has done little 
to stay the hand of the gunners. 

Few birds along the Gulf Coast are 
now killed for the feather trade, with 
the exception of the egrets. Thanks to 
the wardens of the Audubon Societies 
and the Louisiana conservation guards, 
egoing as a business is a thing of the 
past, and as we have already seen, the 
killing of ducks in their winter haven, 
Louisiana, is now carefully regulated. 

It was shown that one more silly 
prejudice against our wild life was 
without foundation when, this summer, 
the food of the brown pelican Was Inves- 
tigated at the request of the United 
States Food Administration (for de- 
tails see page 40). As I sailed along 
parts of the Gulf Coast where twenty 
years found by 
tens of thousands and saw how scarce, 
in many regions, they are today, I was 
impressed anew with the possibility of 


ago water birds 


were 


destruction which man may work with 
the helpless wild life of a country, and 
[ felt again how tremendously impor- 
tant it is that the present generation 
should do all within its power to save 
the remnant of the wild life along our 
beautiful southern coast. 


Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, secretary of the 


practical investigation of the food of the brown pelican 


details regarding the rec 


results of the investigation by Mr. 


National 


ent demand of fishermen for the 


Pe arson, see pag 


‘fred M. Bailey 


Societies, 


Photograph by 
dubon 
rapl page 


extermination of the brown peli 


making a 
61) 


ans,and the 


Association of Au 


with photog For 


compart 


10 


2m *| 


Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey 


The Cabot terns (Sterna ice s acuflavida) are smaller than the royal terns, more slender and 
graceful, and of ef a disposition with one another. They are beautiful birds with silver- 
pearl wings, eyes of piercing blackness, crests of jet, and dark bills tipped with yellow—truly little 
“doves” of the sea. 

These terns have been especially persecuted in the past by the feather hunters and had become almost 
extinct when Louisiana, in conjunction with the Federal Government, the National Association of Audu- 
bon Societies, and various private individuals interested in bird protection, undertook to conserve the 
state’s bird life on an exten scale. Bird refuges have now been established throughout Louisiana and 
on the outlying islands, and a state board of comm oners! has been inaugurated to promote the protec- 
tion of wild life. During the winter Louisiana is a,haven for more water birds than any other two 
states of the Union, and in recent years she has occupied the enviable position of being one of the most 
con ntious protectors of her feathered guests 


1 See note at bottom of following page. 


44 


Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana’ 


By ALFRED 


Oar 57.6 lel by Oh’ 


Of the Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans 


OUISIANA is so situated geo- 
graphically and has conditions 
so favorable for bird life that 

she stands foremost among the bird 
states of the Union. The great hordes 
of wild fowl from the frozen North, 
using the Mississippi Valley as a migra- 
tion route, find a place of refuge and a 
source of food supply that have no 
equal in any other state, and each 
spring when these winter guests again 
return to their nesting grounds at the 
North, veritable “snow fields” of white- 
winged terns and other beautiful sea 


1 Tilustrations from a series of remarkable bird photographs by E. 


and Alfred M. Bailey. 


Note.—This state board is at present under the leadership of Mr. M. L. 
Public sentiment has a great deal to do with enforcing laws, and 


work. Game laws are not sufficient. 


birds arrive from farther south to take 
their places as her summer residents. 

In years gone by, this state was the 
slaughter ground of the plume and 
wing hunters, but today Louisiana has 
under her protection more than three 
hundred thousand acres of land and 
salt marsh given over entirely as places 
of refuge for wild life. Wardens patrol 
these areas continually, so that the 
large numbers of waterfowl shall be un- 
molested. 

Among early attempts at conserva- 


~ 


tion in Louisiana was that of Mr. E. A. 


A. Mellhenny, Stanley C. Arthur, 


Alexander, and is doing a good 
eS S 


the State Department of Conservation and the Louisiana State Museum have been conducting an edu- 
cational campaign by means of motion pictures and exhibits of wild life showing economic and esthetic 
values. In a state so cut up with waterways and impassable swamps, it would be very difficult to pro- 
tect all places desired without this aid from the people as a whole. To carry on the work the department 
has eighteen patrol boats and a force of more than one hundred men. The men chosen for the work are 
those who chance to have their homes in the area to be protected. They are therefore familiar with the 
conditions of the region and are able to be on hand at all times. 


45 


46 NATURAL HISTORY 


Mellhenny, the well-known sportsman 
and conservationist, When he started his 
famous Avery Island heronry. This 
wonderful bird paradise is on a little 
pond of scarcely two acres, which was 
made by damming a small creek. Nest- 
ing places were provided by planting 
serub willow and buttonbush. In the 
swamps near by, Mr. McIlhenny cap- 
tured eight snowy herons, or egrets, a 
species which was at that time nearly 


extinct in this state because of the 
ravages of the plume hunters. During 


the summer and fall months he kept 
these egrets in captivity along the edge 
of his little pond. He visited them daily 
and they soon grew tame. When the 
other birds started their return south 
Mr. MclIlhenny gave his pets their lib- 
erty. They stayed around the pond for 
several days and then joined the others 
on their southern journey. In the 
spring, however, five birds returned and 
two pairs built their nests in the scrubby 
trees and reared their young in safety. 
That fall eleven of them migrated to 
their southern home; nine returned in 
the spring, and several young were 
raised. 

To increase the number of egrets Mr. 
Mcllhenny resorted to many experi- 
ments. As the little blue herons lay 
egos similar to those of the egrets and 
as their young are also white, he trans- 
ferred egrets’ eggs to the herons’ nests. 
When the egrets missed their eggs, they 
again laid, so that two broods were ob- 
tained in place of one. 

From that time on these snowy 
herons increased rapidly. Other species 
joined them until today the little pond 
has a wealth of bird life that can be 
equaled by few other places of similar 
size. 

I had heard of this little haven for 
birds many times and expected to find 
a wild, inaccessible swamp, but con- 
trary to my expectations, I found the 
heronry snuggling at the foot of the 
rolling hills of Avery, a most unnatural 
place for birds,—for there is a factory 


within one hundred yards, with busy 
factory folk hurrying to and fro, and a 
railroad runs along the edge of the 
pond, the birds nesting within thirty 
feet of it. Indeed, the birds do not 
even rise as the trains go by. And 
these are the same birds that go out 
daily to feed in the swamps and there 
will not allow man to approach closer 
than several hundred yards. Such is 
the response of birds to protection ! 

On the great wild fowl refuges of 
Louisiana a development of natural 
colonies is going on under the protec- 
tion afforded. These areas are care- 
fully guarded and thousands of black 
mallards and other summer birds breed 
here each year. The last stand of the 
roseate spoonbill in Louisiana is in the 
western part of the state at Cameron 
Parish, truly a wonderful sight in June 
when we visited it—and yet pitiful. 
We traveled along the Intercoastal 
Canal to Black Bayou, a weird, beauti- 
ful stream with its gnarled, moss-hung 
eypresses, and paddled down the little 
side stream in pirogues. We counted 
287 spoonbills clustered in the tops of 
the cypress trees, their pink colors 
showing against the green with all the 
freshness of peach blossoms in spring- 
time. These few birds are all that are 
left of the large colonies which once 
gave color to the southern swamps. 

The year 1917 was very dry, and 
the spoonbills did not nest along the 
bayou, but they were building during 
our visit, and it is reported they had a 
very successful season. Their warden 
was formerly a market shooter and alli- 
gator hunter—yet he efficiently pro- 
tected the birds, and although he could 
neither read nor write, he could obey 
orders. One day some men came down 
from a town near by to “shoot out” the 
birds as they had been accustomed to 
do. As they were approaching, the 
warden paddled up in his pirogue, 
shoved his gun in the ribs of the near- 
est man, and then asked their business. 
They “allowed” they were going to kill 


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oY} PUL PsTJJOW A[SNOLIVA OAV SS50 OYT, “SuUYRQNOUL suAN} 9yV) SJUZInd YO puv ‘puLs d9Inq 9 UO 10 YId MOT]RYS vu ye ‘Ajuo 33 \ t 

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SNYSL TWAOY GNV LOSVO S3HL AO DNNOA ANMOG SHL 


fiapog W Pally fiq YddDLLO0Y I 


Photograph by Stanley C. Arthur 

The skimmer (Rynehops nigra) is perhaps the most interesting species breeding on the shell 
keys of Louisiana. Great bands of these solemnly dressed birds stalk gravely along the shell and 
then rise and wing away with a peculiar erratic flight, swinging here and there, and calling out 
monotonously. They are very conspicuous against the ground and show up plainly on the nest, but 
sometimes in flight the whole flock will disappear from view, for their wings are margined with 
white and may blend with the colors of the sky 


? 
Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey 
The young skimmer when crouching in the sands looks not unlike a young tern. It has the upper 
and lower mandibles of about the same length (compare with adult skimmer above). These birds nest 
in large colonies on all the “outside’’ islands of the Gulf Coast, choosing the exposed beaches as the 
proper place to deposit their three or four protectively mottled eggs in a mere scoop in the sand 


48 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA 49 


a few birds, but Buck thought other- 
wise and proceeded to read the law to 
them. He said that he had been com- 
missioned to ‘“run-hell-out-of” anyone 
coming in there, and he was going to 
do it. Under the circumstances, the 
men decided to leave the birds unmo- 
lested. 

In the last few years I have observed 
a great increase in numbers of the 
wild fowl which swarm along the Gulf 
Coast, and all the men living in that 
region say the same. In fact, the geese 
and ducks were in such hordes in 1917 
that they inflicted serious loss on the 
rice farms of Cameron Parish. The 
ground was white with thousands 
of snow geese, and clouds of ducks 
poured into the fields. It is a sight 
that makes a bird lover happy—even 
though the rice farmer does not ap- 
preciate the beauty of it. The great 
“pastures” of the gulf, wide-stretching 
prairies, are the feeding grounds of a 
multitude of blue geese, Canadas, and 
white-fronted geese. I witnessed a 
flight of blue geese that I shall never 
forget—and yet the old-timers of 
Louisiana say there are relatively only 
a few of the blue geese left today. 

I rode on horseback late one after- 
noon to some fresh-water ponds near 
one of the Cheniers (an oak-grown 
ridge), and awaited the coming of the 
birds to their evening resting place. 
Before my arrival, one flock of geese 
had already settled, and I could hear 
their calls a long time before the birds 
came into view. When within one hun- 
dred yards of this great decoy flock, I 
dismounted and crawled along the edge 
of the little pool where I could watch 
them. Their white heads loomed up 
conspicuously against the dark back- 
ground, the sprinkling of snow geese 
marking the size of the flock, so that 
I could tell how far it extended, even 
where I could no longer see the darker 
birds. They “talked” continually, and 
moved about from one grassplot to 
another. 


Soon from afar I heard the echoing 
call of another flock of blue geese, a 
call from apparently all directions, 
clear and resonant, carrying far across 
the waste lands. In the gray distance, 
vague, wavy forms appeared, great V- 
shaped masses, wedging their way surely 
and confidently with little V’s trail- 
ing from the ends of the first great 
band, and weaving shadowy, intricate 
lines across the dim lit sky. 

The answering calls of the birds on 
the ground made a perfect bedlam, as 
flock after flock of calling birds circled 
out of the sky and joined the resting 
throng. There seemed to be from a 
dozen to fifteen flocks in a company, 
and as one company settled with mili- 
tary precision, another company would 
swirl in out of the grayness, while still 
another great horde could be heard off 
in the distance. I watched this con- 
tinual arrival of geese for more than an 
hour, until it grew too dark to see, and 
then I still lingered for the sheer joy of 
hearing all those wild voices. 

In the morning I saw the birds as 
they were leaving for the day, and 
again they seemed to fly in great com- 
panies, their long V-shaped flocks trail- 
ing across the sky as far as the eye 
could see, 

These great flocks of blue geese as- 
semble each winter on the _ wide- 
stretching prairies and the burned salt 
marshes along the Gulf Coast to feed 
on the tender shoots of the new grass. 
There are always a few white-headed 
patriarchs in the vast band which stand 
sentinel-like, and watch for possible 
disturbers. When alarmed the geese 
rise up in a cloud, like so many gigan- 
tic mosquitoes, and circle off a few 
hundred yards. 

They feed during the day and at 
night prefer to rest in the numerous 
lagoons that dot the marshland. Each 
day great hordes arise from the feeding 
grounds, circle around, and then head 
for the shell banks to “gravel.” ‘Hell 
Hole” is their favorite resort, and this 


“ 


CRS ake SAIS xh, 
Photograph by E. A. MeIlhenny 
The blue geese (Chen caerulescens) are conspicuous among the waterfowl for their pure white 
heads. These geese breed in the Hudson Bay country and migrate to the southern United States 
during the winter months. Great flocks assemble each year along the Gulf Coast to feed on the ten- 
der shoots of the new grass and to “‘gravel’’ on the shell banks. The mouth of the Mississippi and 
the region around South West Pass of Vermilion Bay are the greatest blue goose sections of Louisiana 


ane 
Photograph by BE. A. McIlhenny 
Occasionally the stock raisers of the western part of Louisiana complain that the geese injure 
their pasture lands, for these birds settle down in great flocks to guzzle in the mud, digging thou- 
sands of small lagoons across the fields. They are great “‘talkers’? when flying in bands or when 
collected together at night, but a few white-headed patriarchs always stand as sentinels to give an 
alarm at the approach of any intruder. The blue geese associate freely with ducks and other species 
of geese (especially the snow geese), from which they .differ little in habits 
D0 


Photographs by Alfred M. Bailey 


MISSISSIPPI ‘‘MUD LUMPS” AND THEIR SUMMER RESIDENTS 


Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) nest on the different islands along the Louisiana Gulf 
Coast, and the largest colony in the country is found on the “Mud Lumps” of the Mississippi Delta. 
Through the faint blue haze of the gulf one sees what appears to be wooded hills with an outspread 
city at their foot. On nearer approach this resolves itself into a fifteen-foot mound of mud and a row 
of pelicans. The soft mud underneath the tenacious river bottom of the Mississippi Delta forces up 
bumps in the latter and then bursts through as a mud ‘“‘voleano,”’ forming small mud islands. The 
“dumps” most thickly inhabited by pelicans are found off the mouth of Pass 4 Outre, where at least 
50,000 birds come each year to raise their young. The outermost islands are occupied first; then, as 
larger numbers of birds arrive, the islands toward the shore are gradually filled up, until finally all 
the islands are covered with families of awkward parents and downy white youngsters. Three chalk- 
white eggs are laid in a rather neatly made grass nest, although on some of the mud lumps which are 
devoid of vegetation the nests are merely a pile of sticks clumsily thrown together. The pelican nests 
are at times subject to raids by raccoons; in one instance nearly one thousand nests on Grand Cochere 
Island were destroyed by these animals in six weeks 


. 


ee 
Photograph by E. A. MecIlhenny 


YOUNG ANHINGAS, OR “SNAKE BIRDS,” AT HOME 


The anhingas (Anhinga anhinga) hide their nests in secluded spots directly over the water, 
frequently selecting the cypresses which abound in the swamps and ponds of Louisiana. The adult 
birds are wonderful divers and swimmers and when frightened tumble precipitously into the water. 
In fishing, the anhingas do not drop on to their prey, as do the gulls, for instance, but pursue their 
victim under the water as it tries to hasten out of harm’s way. They swim under water for long 
distances with only the head and lithe neck above the surface, looking not unlike some strange water 
serpent—in fact, they are commonly known as ‘“‘snake birds.” 

The young are covered for the first few weeks with a buff-colored down. They have the 
peculiar habit (as can be seen in the photograph) of drawing themselves up from the nest by placing 
their bills over a convenient branch or the edge of the nest. If the young are approached, they 
merely cling tenaciously to the nest, and when thrown into the water are quite helpless. 

For the most part anhingas eat small fish, but they will take any of the small creatures of the 
ponds, even young alligators and small terrapins. The adults feed the young by regurgitation 


The roseate spoonbills 
and bayous near the Gulf 


considerable size, and lay 


(Ajaia ajaja) 


nest 


Coast. The birds 


their three or 


four 


among the 
dwell near 

eg 
h t 


the old birds pass through their spring molt, after whic 


carmine and white, in marked contrast 


The beautiful little snowy egrets 


throughout the G 


trade until now the species 


ulf region, 


but they have 


1s on the verge 


I 


are 
Tale 
ot ¢ 


Photo rraph by EB. A. 


dense moss-hung ecypresses by 


together on flat nests built wit 


gs about the first of June. Previous 


hey are arrayed in a plumage < 
with the dark green of the cypress 


Photograph by E. A 


tta candidissima cand issima ) were one 
n before the hunters of “aigrettes’’ for the 
xtinction. The snowy egrets start ting late 

es and ponds Mr. MelIther 


building their nests in remote marshes or on the margins of 


‘Avery Heronry” with eight of these egrets on 


have become much attached 


its protection 


to their nestiz 


g plac 


a little y 


e, andr 


nd 


irtificially prepared for them 


rn to the heronr vear after F 


Mellhenny 
the lagoons 
h sticks of 
to nesting, 


of beautiful 


Melthe nny 
e common 

millinery 
in March 
iny started 
The birds 


ir to enjoy 


Photograph by E.-A. Mclthe nny 


The Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis) is the most common wader in the South. 
This long-necked and long-legged bird, with its beautiful colors—and its harsh squawks—nests in 
various heronries throughout the state and on many of the mangrove islands bordering the gulf. 
Being very pugnacious, it is almost a pest in some of the heronries, for it tends to drive out the more 


gentle snowy egret 


used to be their great slaughter ground, 
from which fact it derived its name; 
for the old-timers would say, “If you 
want to give the geese hell, go to the 
gravel hole!” Now the birds may 
gravel in safety. For “Hell Hole” is 
included among the protected areas. 

But if the geese are numerous, there 
is no word to describe the numbers of 
ducks that these 
sanctuaries. Yet even with such num- 
bers during migration, spread them 
over the country, as at other times of 
the year, and we have only too few. 

Off the Louisiana coast are the fa- 
mous breeding islands of the birds. A 
few years ago the boatmen plundered 
the colonies as they pleased, taking the 
egos and killing the beautiful terns for 
their wings. 
scarce as to be almost extinct in this 
region, but now the birds are swarming 
once again on these shell keys, the 
thousands of flashing wings lending 
their beauty and breaking the monotony 
of the wide stretches of salt marsh and 
shimmering gulf. 

54 


sometimes crowd 


Some species became so 


It would be hard to estimate the 
number of breeding birds on the islands 
for their habits are so varied. Close in 
among the salt grasses are the fork- 
tailed Forster’s terns. These active lit- 
tle fellows build their nests on the dead 
grass piled high by the tide; and the 
black-headed laughing gulls and least 
terns find comradeship with them. Too 
numerous to count are the Cabot, royal, 
and Caspian terns nesting on the outer 
shell keys. 

The Cabot tern is my favorite, for he 
is more fearless, more unconcerned, and 
seems to take better care of his young- 
sters than the cther species. When we 
approached the Cabots, they stretched 
their necks to full length, with crest 
erect, and protested at the tops of their 
voices. If we came too near, they rose 
and drifted gracefully away, and then 
circled in from behind and fluttered 
down to protect their babies from the 
hot sun. One tern I watched did her 
best to coax her little one over the rim 
of the beach toward the water’s edge. 
She would go ahead a few steps, teasing 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA 55 


and scolding, and then go back again 
as though out of patience with the way- 
ward offspring. 

Terns are ideal birds to study and 
photograph from a blind. They sail 
back to their eggs within a few feet of 
the photographer almost before he has 


had time to conceal himself. At first 


The adults of the little blue herons (Florida 


and easily mistaken for the 
adult and 


see page 67). The herons are 


and most inaccessible places. The species is still 


they are very suspicious and stand at 
“attention,” their 
caution and devote themselves to their 


but they soon lose 


domest ic duties. 


Skimmers, too, nest on these islands 


by the thousands. These grotesque birds 


] 


] 
KeEVS, 


stalk solemnly along the shell 
flocks of them 


black CC lors oleaming 


whole together, their 


in striking con- 


trast with the sea and the sky, and their 


white underparts blending harmoni- 


coerulea) are dark blue, 
young of the snowy egrets. All stages of plumage are found 
young, the birds of mixed colors being 


timorous and secl 


ously with the light shell of the ground, 
so that their elongated form and bill 
seem all the more out of proportion. 
The their 
from their habit of skimming the water 
for food. 


be seen 


skimmers recelve name 


Whole strings of them may 
their lower 


They 


darting along, 


mandibles cleaving the surface. 


Mellhenny 


young are white 


Photograph by BE. A 
but their 


between the 
known loc ally as crazy | erons or ; calico birds : 
IS1Vé é nd their rookeries ire wavs l wildest 


abundant in different parts of Louisiana 


are particularly and | 


believe they are more or less nocturnal 


active at dusk 


for | have seen them about at all hours 
of the night. 
fellows 


their 


The voune are fuzzy little 
and have a habit of “taking to 


heels” lmme diate] the VY see anyone, but 


1 ] 
thev crouch down when cornered and 
depend upon their oTa\ coloration to 
protect them. They can mal little 
rit ) the Q: nd in no time by using 


} 


56 NATURAL HISTORY 


their feet and breast, and when so 
crouching they will allow one even to 
step on them. 

Then there are the clumsy-looking 
pelicans which have so aroused the 
wrath of the fishermen recently along 
the Gulf Coast. The largest colony of 
brown pelicans in the country is at the 
mouth of the Mississippi River on the 
United States Bird Reservation locally 
called “Mud Lumps.” These lumps 
themselves are of geologic interest be- 
cause of their peculiar formation, 
being squeezed up from under the river 
bottom by pressure beneath. Here fifty 
thousand pelicans nest with their thou- 
sands of downy young and make the 
“lumps” one of the most interesting 
places in the world. 

The young when first hatched re- 
semble little black India-rubber balls, 
and are extremely sensitive to the sun 
and therefore constantly sheltered by 
their parents. In a few days the white 
down appears and the rookery is then 
white as a cotton field. As soon as the 
youngsters are able to paddle about, 
they keep their parents busy fishing in 
order to satisfy their enormous appe- 
tites. Then there is a continuous ar- 
rival of old birds from afar; a long 
string of birds flying with methodically 
timed strokes,—a few strong beats and 
then a coast, each bird following the 
wing strokes of the leader and all scal- 
ing so close to the water that it seems 
they must strike the surface at every 
beat. And what excitement there is 
among the young when the old birds ar- 
rive! The white fellows follow after 
with anxious begging cries; the parent 
bird opens wide her bill and disgorges 
the fish, while the youngster antici- 
pates its arrival by thrusting his head 
down the old bird’s throat. It is amus- 
ing to see a heavy young one, weighing 
more than the adult, feeding this way, 
and the more they receive the more they 
beg. They flop their wobbly wings and 
jerk their heads back and forth, blink- 
ing their eyes, and staggering about. 


They often receive so many fish that 
the tail of the last remains in sight, and 
when an extra large fish is taken, its 
course can be followed down the skinny 
neck. Often they become so gorged 
that they sprawl over on their breasts, 
or flop over on their backs with feet 
extended in the air. At first when I 
walked around the rookery, I thought 
these stuffed fellows were dying, but 
when they were straightened out, they 
immediately disgorged and _ started 
paddling away. Those birds large 
enough to travel take to the water im- 
mediately on the approach of danger, 
and they gather in large flocks as they 
drift idly on the quiet water and wait 
until their rookery is undisturbed again. 

Besides the birds which make up the 
vast colonies, there are many other in- 
teresting species nesting in this state. 
The ibis, the awkward wood stork, and 
the beautiful roseate spoonbill are 
found in different parts. The anhingas 
choose the cypress, hiding their nests 
among the dense curtains of moss, and 
darting away at the first approach of 
danger. What wonderful divers they 
are, and how interesting their young! 
(See page 52.) 

Louisiana is not a state of greatly 
diversified scenery, but she offers a 
beautiful contrast when compared with 
other states of the Union. The placid 
lagoons are bordered with huge ey- 
presses and wide-stretching live oaks, 
all clothed with a drapery of Spanish 
moss. ‘The swamps are often a jungle 
of tropical luxuriance, impassable be- 
cause of the clinging vines. The low- 
lands have their fascination with their 
beaches and wind-blown trees, their 
wave-beaten palmettos, and inviting 
waters. 

As a natural bird paradise, the state 
of Louisiana is admirably adapted to 
become a haven of refuge, which will 
be able gradually to send its feathered 
folk throughout the country to gladden 
the hearts of the thousands who wander 
out of doors. 


A SERIES OF DUOTONE REPRODUCTIONS SHOWING 
THE PROTECTED BIRD LIFE OF OUR 
LOUISIANA COAST 


BY ALFRED M. BAILEY 


Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey 
GRACEFUL FOLLOWERS OF BOATS AT SEA 


The laughing gulls (Larus atricilia) fish far out at sea, where their cries may be heard early and late as they follow 
the boats for the trails of refuse. The prolonged call of the flock is the most peculiar of gull cries and not 
unlike harsh, derisive laughter. Fast fliers, light of wing, and keen of vision, they sail with mar- 
velously controlled movements in graceful, clear-cut figures which make them a delight 
to the eye. They circle the boat round. and round, without apparent wing 
movement; they suddenly stop in their flight to hover above the sur- 
face or to dive downward upon some scrap which they 
snatch as they sail past 


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74 


“Four Years in the White North”’—A ewew 


By HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN* 


ETERMINATION of the scien- 
tific value of the work of the 
Crocker Land Expedition is for 

the future, but the Pour Years in the 
White North? of its leader, Mr. Donald 
B. MacMillan, may be appraised at 
once as a human document, one of the 
most instructive and entertaining con- 


tributions to the literature of the 
North. It should not, however, be in- 


ferred that Mr. MacMillan evades or 
avoids the scientific inquest, which must 
later be held by specialists and experts 
on his work. On the contrary, he dis- 
tinctly invites it by a detailed, itemized 
list of the expedition’s records and 
achievements in which more than a 
score of distinct and comparatively in- 
dependent pieces of work are set forth 
as if to aid in distributing the credit in 
a final and authoritative valuation of 
the whole. It may fairly be doubted 
whether any expedition which ever 
sought and wrought in the Arctic zone 
was more persistently dogged by ill luck 
than that whose adventures of chance 
or mischance are recounted in Mac- 
Millan’s four years’ absence; a term 
it may be well worth while to remark, 
never exceeded by any expedition in the 
eastern Arctic and equaled only by 
Admiral Peary’s in 1898~1902, during 
which he accomplished his great jour- 
ney around the northern end of Green- 
land and definitely eliminated that 
route to the North Pole from the pos- 
sibilities. 

Born in refraction and imagination, 
shadowed and delayed by George 


1 Four Years in the White North, by Donald B. 
MacMillan. Harper & Brothers, New York, 1918. 


Borup’s tragic and untimely death, al- 
most wrecked the second night out of 
port, navigation entrusted to a hesitant 
and inexperienced master, a company 
which made up in enthusiasm what. it 
lacked in training, its principal ob- 
jective upon which rested name and 
existence, the very reason for its being, 
dissolved like the baseless fabric of a 
dream, with no sight or news of relief 
ships the first summer and none the 
second, incompetence of men and _per- 
versity of nature both conspiring to pre- 
vent the ships from breaking through 
the pack and reaching destination and 
effecting a rescue, the party gradually 
dwindling one by one, each taking 
chances and making the best of his way 
homeward, a disclosure of what must 
have been the low ebb of spirits and 
mental vitality, until at Christmas, 
1916, only two of the original party re- 
mained: all these incidents, and others 
like them which are obvious, and still 
others which must inevitably have ex- 
isted, demonstrate a condition of things 
which, protracted through four long 
years, must have meant a strain on 
nerves, temper, and mental and physi- 
cal force which only the best equipped 
and most wisely conserved could with- 
stand. That MacMiilan endured the 
test and begged to be allowed to stay 
another year when Captain Robert A. 
3artlett and the “Neptune” finally ar- 
rived at Etah and insisted that he 
return, shows that he is of the stuff 
of which explorers are made. 

It is not perhaps worth while to at- 
tempt to re-state the narrative and ex- 
periences of the expedition. That has 


* Mr. Bridgman is secretary of the Peary Arctic Club, president of the department of geography of 
the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, vice-president of the American Scenic and Historie Preser- 
vation Society, and a member of the board of regents of the University of the State of New York. He 
was delegate of the United States, of the National Geographic Society, Peary Arctic Club, and New York 
Explorers’ Club to the International Congress for Study of Polar Regions which met at Brussels in 1906, 
and United States delegate to the International Polar Commission which met at Brussels in 1908 and at 


Rome in 1913. 


He is actively engaged as manager and editor of the Brooklyn Standard Union, and in 
} £ a 


his interests as a journalist is chairman of the Publishers’ Association of New York City 


The eggs of the knot (Tringa canutus) are very rare in collections. for this sandpiper has not 


often been found by explorers because it makes its home well back in the hills of Greenland. 


was the first to describe the egg of this species. 


Greely 


The eggs of all wild fowl which nest along the shore 


are a regular source of food supply to the Eskimos and are preserved for winter use by freezing 


already been done by Mr. MacMillan in 
magazine and other articles, although 
the Four Years does sensible and valu- 
able service in bringing the whole story 
together from beginning to end. Here 
anyone by a httle study can determine 
exactly the order, personnel, and time 
of the several field parties, and just 
where any member was and what he 
was doing on a certain date. It is no 
depreciation, either, of the work to say 
that the manner rather than the matter 
of the story will most surely arrest and 
hold the attention of the readers, a 
style and quality absolutely unique 


A certain 
sort of optimism, not to say exuberance, 
soon impresses itself on the conscious- 
ness of the reader and, as he goes on, 
he is inclined to wonder whether Mac- 
Millan may be, not the original Mark 
Tapley, in which case he would be 
rather venerable, but his intensified 
and more highly developed reincarna- 
tion. 

When Land “busted,” to 
quote the street’s expressive irreverent 
word, MacMillan took the whole expe- 
rience philosophically. When he had 
retraced his steps to Peary’s Cape 


among books of its class. 


Crocker 


The knot on its nest.—In summer the feathers of the back are black, margined with reddish 


yellow. 


The rump is white, tinged with red, and the lower parts are deep bay. 


This coloration 


renders the sandpiper difficult to discern when on the nest 


74 


“FOUR 


Thomas Hubbard outlook, and 
what Peary had seen two years before, 


saw 


he sturdily confirmed Peary’s opinion 
and declared that, except for his expe- 
rience and physical and ocular demon- 
stration, he shou!d 
that 
years later, he was at 


say unhesitatingly 
land. When, two 
King Christian 
Island after an arduous and obstinate 


he saw distant 


march, and was obliged to turn back 
with his reconnaissance incompleted be- 


YHARS IN THE 


WHITE NORTH” 


~2 
t 


pathy with the natives, his faithful 
comrades and helpers, MacMillan is 
unique and remarkable. A consider- 
able understanding of the language and 
a comprehension of customs and of that 
indefinable something, racial spirit, of 
the Eskimo, seem to have brought about 
a condition of confidence and codpera- 
tion, which until Peary’s time was ut- 
terly unknown, and which in MacMil- 


lan’s case Was doubtless the consequence 


Once a familiar visitor to our Atlantic coast, 


fowl and is now relatively 


countries from Iceland to Siberia and wintering on 
the English netted and fattened these birds for the table, 


culinary uses are still to be found 


and his 
food nearly “all out,” he accepted the 
inevitable with the same good temper 
and quenchless optimism. 

Apart from the narrative and its 
running accounts of the expedition, 
two chords dominate Four 
give it a distinctive place among all 
books of its class. To these might be 
added a third, that of literary style, 
although it so fuses and intermingles 


cause his dogs were “all in” 


Years and 


itself with the more prominent and 
essential that its 
less readily recognized and appreciated. 


features 


First, in his understanding and sym- 


the knot has gone the w ay of 


rare. It is a species of ver 


presen e is . 


many edible water 


wide distribution, breeding in the Arctic 


all the continents of the world In olden days 


and several early writings on their care and 


and fruitage of his years of association 
with that great leader. 

MacMillan applied and enlarged the 
Peary method and the principles of his 


master, and demonstrated again that 


the support and loyalty of the Eskimos 


are indispensable to any explorer work- 


Arctic 


however. 


ing in the eastern hemisphere. 


Mae Millan, 


the cood 


have 


seems To 


cained eraces of the whole 
tribe. old and voung, women and chil- 
hunters 


field 


testimonial to 


dren. as well as of the men, the 
and the sledge drivers of his 
parties. It is no slight 


his poise and control that he Was able 


76 NATURAL HISTORY 


to hold them all loyal and attached 
throughout the expedition’s long stay in 
the Arctic. Into all the Eskimos’ do- 
mestic, even love affairs, the current of 
daily life and gossip, MacMillan en- 
tered with lively sympathy and keen 
appreciation. This is reflected on al- 
most every page of his book and ex- 
pressed in numberless instances of ser- 
vice and hospitality. 

The other characteristic of Four 
Years rests in the fact that no lover of 
the tropics and their languor and lux- 
ury ever lost himself in “wonder, ad- 
miration and praise” more genuinely 
and unreservedly than MacMillan loses 
himself in his affection for and loyalty 
to the Arctic, its phenomena and en- 
vironment. Torngak, the demon, had 
no terror for him. While of course it 
is admitted that there have been times 
and places more agreeable than the 
weather side of a pressure ridge in the 
blinding snow at 40° below, or on a 
toboggan in darkness rushing down a 
glacier to whatever may be at the bot- 
tom, or plunging along the ice foot on 
a ledge from which. the dogs are occa- 
sionally pulled up to the trail again by 
main strength, or snowbound in an 
igloo, oil gone and food almost ex- 
hausted, nevertheless, all these are for- 
gotten when summer and the million 
birds come, the waters are unloosed, the 
picturesque falls flow again, and the 
poppies carpet the scanty fields with 
their “cloths of gold.” The transposi- 
tion is complete and Mr. MacMillan 
has succeeded in transferring its spell 
to the pages of his book. 

Less severe and nervous in style than 
Peary, less stately and scientific than 
Scott, less verbose and subjective, for- 
tunately, than Nansen, MacMillan 
writes with a freedom, almost abandon, 
of appreciation, which strikes a dis- 
tinctly new note in the annals of the 
Arctic and which will carry his Four 
Years to many readers for its own in- 
trinsic charm and sympathetic expo- 
sition. 


Two omissions, one more, the other 
less, important, may be noted. That 
no map should have been provided for 
a work which is so much almost all 
outdoors is inexplicable, possibly in- 
excusable. This is the more remarkable, 
as maps on which all the geographical 
outlines and the track charts have been 
located are readily available, and it 
would seem that the first duty of the 
publishers should have been to supply 
an edition which would contain a sim- 
ple outline map by which the different 
parties and their relations to one an- 
other might be followed and under- 
stood. The caricature of a map used, 
which is notable mainly for misspelled 
names, in no degree answers the pur- 
pose and is not worthy author or pub- 
hisher. 

MacMillan wisely ignored the Cook 
controversy, or what the malicious and 
misguided tried to make a controversy, 
of ten years ago; but his faithful and 
loyal E-took-a-shoo remembers it all, 
identified the landmarks, the courses, 
distances, and locations. If MacMillan 
had chosen to have the testimony of an 
eyewitness, he could have given the fin- 
ishing and conclusive blows to a foul 
thing, which, however, is rapidly re- 
ceding from deserved contempt into 
merited oblivion. Sometime, possibly 
in the interest of the truth and for the 
help of future historians, MacMillan 
may give to the world from E-took-a- 
shoo’s lips the true and literal story of 
that extraordinary episode. 

The seven appendixes to Four Years 
are all valuable and contain much sup- 
plemental and collateral information by 
the other members of the expedition. 
Ekblaw’s nearly one hundred pages give 
the tale of his great traverse of Grant 
and Ellesmere lands in 1915, with 
other sledge excursions, and a study of 
the vegetation about Borup Lodge, the 
headquarters, while MacMillan contrib- 
utes a detailed memorandum of the 
thirty-five species of Arctic birds with 
which he made personal acquaintance. 


SUMMERTIME 


When the long summer day begins and the sun comes up from the south, the sea ice 
breaks and the snows melt. Then on all sides can be heard the sound of running water and 
the call of the birds. The hills burst into blossom, the Eskimo tril ither together for a 
great hunt and holiday, and Nannook, the polar bear, goes fishing for 


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Copyright 

“Four Years in the White North” 

Apparently Nannook visited Borup Lodge expressly to be photographed, and very 
accommodatingly climbed a berg near by for his pose. Cold and ice and freezing salt 
water have no terrors for the ‘‘King of the North,’ but dogs and Winchesters are easily 
his masters. It is no great sport hunting the polar bear, but he supplies good meat for 
winter days and warm fur for winter trousers. Peary introduced the wearing of furs as 


does the Eskimo in place of woolen clothes, and this innovation has been a life-saver for 


polar explorers 


Copyright, 1918, Harper & Brothers, 
“Tour Years inthe White North” 
Traveling on the ice foot, the great natural highway of the North.—This pathway, 
lying between high and low tide, is formed by the continual accretion of ice left by each 
receding tide. This fringe extends along the shore line, even where the sea cliffs are 
vertical, and after the sea ice breaks up it forms the only smooth, although at times pre- 
carious, thoroughfare for the Arctic traveler and his dog sledge 


R9 


of 


Copyright, 1918, Harper d& Brothers, 

“Four Years in the White North” 
The ring of rocks which held down Greely’s tent in “Starvation Camp” on Cape 
Sabine, where the surviving seven of his party of twenty-five were finally rescued by 
Greely had established on Lady Franklin Bay 
one of the international circumpolar scientific stations planned by the 


Schley as they were at the verge of death. 


United States Gov- 


ernment. MacMillan, working from Cape Sabine, explored considerable stretches of 


hitherto unvisited shore line and interior on the large islands off the Greenland coast 


Copyright, 1918, Harper & Brothers, 
Four Years inthe White North 


Peary’s old hut at Cape Sabine, built during the ut successful North Pole Expedition 


1900-1902, just across Smith Sound from Etah, where Peary and, later, MacMillan 
wintered. From Etah Peary sledged to Cape Sabine and established headquarters from 
which he could move north in the spring to Fort Conger, Greely’s old headquarters, and 
then on to the polar ice This is the so-called “American Route’ by which attempts to 
reach the Pole have been made 


IN THE NEW YORK STATE FOREST PRESERVE 


The New York State Forest Preserve in the Adirondacks and the Catskills is a glorious garden of 
nearly 2,000,000 acres in which every resident of New York State is part owner. The state 
seeks to conserve this great area of field and forest, mountain, lake, and stream to 
safeguard New York’s water supply, present and future, as a permanent protec- 
tion to the sources of the state’s greatest rivers. While doing this it leaves 
the entire tract open to the people for sport, recreation, study, or camp 
life—a playground for 10,000,000 people, and room for them all! 
The state asks only their appreciation of what conservation of 
the forests means, and that it can be done only through 
the codperation of all the people. It has taken na 
ture many lifetimes to grow the forests and set 
the watercourses, and only the same slow 
process can restore them if they 


are destroyed 


S4 


Forest Conservation in New York 


THE FOREST PRESERVE IS OWNED COLLECTIVELY BY ALL THE 
PEOPLE OF THE STATE 


By GH OR GE DP; 'Pok A TT 


New York State Conservation Commissioner 


EW York State’s Forest Pre- 

serve was created in 1885.1! 

Since that date the state-owned 

land in the Adirondack and Catskill 
mountains has been increased, until the 
preserve now includes a total of 1,838,- 
322 acres, an area greater than the 
small states of Rhode Island and Dela- 
ware combined. Its administration is 
in the hands of the Conservation Com- 
mission—a big task when we consider 
that the state-owned land is bounded 
by more than 9000 miles of property 
lines. It involves many intricate ques- 
tions of litigation, sociology, recrea- 
tion, fire protection, and reforestation. 
Much of the land comprising the 
Forest Preserve unfortunately consists of 
comparatively small parcels, intermixed 
with privately owned land; in fact only 
about 50 per cent of the vital forest 
land is owned by the state and the re- 
maining 50 per cent is subject to the 
most uncontrolled exploitation. In 
order to consolidate the state hold- 
ings, the voters of New York State, in 
1916, approved by a large majority a 
bond issue of $7,500,000 for the pur- 
chase by the state of lands in the 
Adirondack and Catskill regions to be 
added te that already owned by the 
1As long ago as 1822, De Witt Clinton, then 
governor of New York, told the legislature that 
“Our forests are falling rapidly before the prog- 
ress of settlement, and a scarcity of wood for fuel, 
ship and house building, and other useful pur- 
poses, is already felt in the increasing prices for 
that indispensable article. No system for planta- 
tion for the production of trees, and no system of 
economy for their preservation, has been adopted, 
and probably none will be until severe privations 
are experienced.’’ We have no record that any 
definite action followed this good advice, doubtless 
because the severe privations foreseen by De Witt 
Clinton were slow in arriving. It was not until 


1885 that his wise suggestions regarding forest 
conservation began to be followed. 


state, and, according to the state con- 
stitution, “to be forever kept as wild 
forest lands.” 2 

One of the greatest problems, there- 
fore, now before the New York Con- 
servation Commission is the wisest and 
most effective expenditure of the money 
authorized by this bond issue for addi- 
tions to the Forest Preserve. Lands 
must be purchased for the state which 
will be most useful for Forest Preserve 
purposes and which will round out the 
state’s holdings in its mountainous and 
natural forest regions. 

The problem is not so simple a one 
of buying and selling as might at first 


°The value of the Forest Preserve as a safe- 
guard for New York's present and future water 
supply, and as a protection to the sources of New 
York's greatest rivers, is practically self-evident. 
But there are further economic advantages of 
great forested areas which are not generally appre- 
ciated. They are not only conservers of water 
supply, but they are actual regulators of climate 
and inducers of rain. Regions of extensive tree 
growth are cooler in summer and warmer in win- 
ter, with smaller sudden fluctuations in tempera: 
ture, than barren sections of similar location. 
Moisture-laden winds from the ocean or from 
large inland bodies of water sweep onward over 
the land until they strike the cooler currents of 
wooded areas. This moisture is then precipitated 
as rain, which falls over wide areas of forest and 
farm land. In this respect New York is most 
fortunately situated, drawing rain from both the 
Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. 

In conserving the rain that has fallen, the for- 
ests render a still further service. The ground 
under the trees is covered with the accumulated 
débris of years or even of centuries. This is the 
duff, the carpet of the forest floor. It serves two 
purposes, namely, preventing rapid evaporation of 
ground water when dry winds sweep over the 
land, and acting as a sponge to hold the rainfall 
and control the run-off. In the arid regions of the 
west the rain runs down the creek beds like water 
from a shingled roof, and soon after the rain has 
ceased the ground is as dry as before. The for- 
ests thus equalize the flow of the streams and 
regulate the power they generate for industrial 
purposes, by reducing floods in the spring or after 
heavy rains, and providing a steadier flow in the 
summer. The deep snow of winter melts more 
slowly under the trees, and the run-off is more 
gradual. 


85 


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( 


be imagined. In 
the preservation of 
stream flow, the 
forests upon the 
steep mountain- 
sides are of first 
importance. If 
these slopes have 
denuded by 
the ax, and after- 
ward, perhaps, also 
swept by fire, ero- 
sion from rainfal| 
will carry away 
the soil, and it 
will be forever 1m- 
possible to renew 
a forest 
The Commission 
must accordingly 
determine the sec- 


been 


or wth. 


tions that are of 
this character, 
upon which no 


further lumbering 
of any sort should 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the one great prob- 
lem of completing 
the state’s Forest 
Preserve before it 
is forever too late. 

Protection of 
the forests from 


fires, which, in a 
large number of 
cases, start im 


the “slash” left by 
lumbermen on pri- 
vately owned land, 
is one of the most 
important tasks 
of the Conserva- 
tion Commission. 
The detailed care 
of the forests 1s in 
the hands of the 


forest rangers, 
numbering = sixty- 
five. They report 


to the five district 
rangers, who in 
turn are in imme- 


be done. and diate touch with 
which should be the main office in 
immediately pur- j Albany. In addi- 
chased by the ; = — Se Dies we tionthere are fifty- 
Bude. ; ; Lae MG ate i two nse chee 
Sections of ; on duty during the 
other lower lands dry season. 
not subject to ero- In the fighting 
sion may have of forest fires, New 
some of the tim- York has many 
ber removed with- advantages over 


out detriment to 
the forest cover. 
Where this can be 
allowed, the land 
can be acquired ! DV 


the state at a far A “corduroy” 

lower sum than for hauling logs from the 
: of the high slopes have 

the thickly tim- 

bered mountain never be renewed on them 

slopes. These are 


but two of the considerations that we 
must have in mind in purchasing addi- 
tional state land. 
others, but they 


There are 
are all 


many 
corollaries of 


road built by a lumber company 
Many 


mountain slopes. 
been denuded by the ax 
and eroded by rainfall so that forest growth can 


the other 
because of 


some of 
states, 
the mountainous 
nature of the 
country which per- 
mits the mainte- 
nance of mountain 
observation sta- 
tions for the 
quick detection of 
conflagrations. In New York there 
fifty-two such mountain sta- 
tions, all of which are connected by 
telephone with the nearest ranger. On 


are Now 


Semi-permanent mps ire we or a ¢ tat r more people take int e of 


the State Forest Preserve to enjoy the pha of outdoor e the like best The wood " 


and hearty answer for ever ppe 1 offer tinted hospit ty for sport 

of life in the open The upper picture oO one of the most poy = ang . tent ‘ AaSRed 
floor of wood. set i1 i dense growt of cor 

open cabin of logs wit mple fireplace o g 


me 


New York State nursery at Salamanca, one of six nurseries owned by the state, where approxi- 
mately 10,000,000 seedling trees are propagated annually to replant denuded areas. Slat screens pro- 
tect the tender young trees from direct sun in summer, and are removed in early fall to harden 
the growth for winter. After permanent snow comes, a single layer of burlap protects the young 
trees from the danger of alternate freezing and thawing 


Ten-year-old transplanted trees in state plantation near Ray Brook.—With young trees from the 


state nurseries about 4000 acres are planted each year by the state, and as many more by private en- 
terprise. The trees are planted close together to encourage “natural pruning’’ through lack of direct 
sunlight on the side branches, thus stimulating the formation of long straight saw logs free from knots 


90 


EXAMPLE OF REFORESTATION BY PRIVATE ENTERPRISE 


Twenty-eight years ago this land (near Chestertown), denuded 
planted with white pine which today is very valuable and const 


attains its maximum commercial value in about fifty years 


92 NAT UEAL HISTORY 


Branch of young white pine, dying from white 
pine blister rust, a parasitic fungus which came 
from the forest nurseries of Germany in 1909, 
and has wrought great damage ever since. The 
whole tree is doomed 


many of the mountains wooden towers 
first hft the ob- 
servers above near obstructions, bui 
during the last two or three years most 
of these have been replaced with steel 
towers of permanent construction. The 
steel towers have a room at the top 
about seven feet square, with glass win- 
The windows protect the ob- 
server from the sweep of the wind and 
make possible his presence on the tower 
every day and all day long, throughout 
the critical periods. In these steel tow- 
ers telephones are installed in the 
rooms at the top. Cabins for the resi- 
dence of the observers are provided near 
the towers. 

In working out the system, we have 
kept in mind the fact that eternal 
vigilance and quick action, with co- 
ordination of all fire-fighting forces, is 
the key to the safety of our forests. 
While we have been particularly fortu- 


were at erected to 


dows. 


nate in the last few years in weather 
conditions, we have, nevertheless, had 
numerous outbreaks of fire, and have 
been able to prove that they can be 
promptly detected and the fire-fighting 
forces quickly put into action. 

As a further step toward more com- 
plete efficiency, the Conservation Com- 
mission has recently prepared, after 
careful examination of all of the forest 
land by the ranger force, a fire map 
upon which is indicated the character 
of every acre of land in the forest sec- 
tions—egreen timber, land lumbered for 
soft wood, or for both hard and soft 
wood, with the year when lumbered, 
burned-over land, barren land, or agri- 
cultural land. The map also indicates 
roads passable for automobiles, or for 
wagons only, and also foot trails. Upon 


The yellow spring spores of the white pine 
blister rust are ready to start on the wind to 
their next nursery on the under side of currant 
and gooseberry leaves, where they will develop 
until they again go forth on the wind to continue 
their infection of the pines. Drastic measures 
are being taken to save the pines. Fortunately 
the State Conservation Commission can accom- 
plish what would be impossible for private en- 
terprise 


On guard over part of the state’s great forest preserve which stretches out far and wide beneath 
Black 
alert men trained to distinguish the almost 


him.—This Conservation fire observer on 


wisps of smoke floating over the tree tops—a momentous 


promptly often allows it to get beyond control, 


miles for nothing 


it is also indicated every telephone line 

and even the telephone instruments. 
Camps are shown, with the number of 
men available at each, as well as points 
where supplies and tools are located. 
In brief, the fire 
“war map,” 


map is a veritable 


and serves as a basis for 
discussions at meetings of the rangers, 
private landowners, and officers of the 
Commission, where all concerned be- 
come familiar with the fire problems 
of the forest districts before the fires 
have developed. ‘This system of anal- 
ysis and preparedness is the system 
that is followed in every well-organized 
city fire department, and it is the sys- 
tem that we believe 
forests are to be protected in the most 
critical times. 

Three years ago the district rangers 


necessary if our 


were equipped with Ford automobiles 
for getting easily about their territory 
and for taking men quickly to fires. 
Last year we added trailers loaded with 
camp outfits and tools, so that no time 
need be lost in getting these necessary 


Mountain is one of the keen-sighted, cool-headed, 
imperceptible difference between wisps of cloud and 


distinction, as failure to report a fire 


and a mistake sends men and equipment many long 


articles to the nearest points on a high- 
Way. 

[ have referred to the denudation which 
follows unrestricted 


from lumbering 


and forest fires. In the Forest Preserve 


alone we have today approximately 
land 


replanted with forest 


125.000 


acres of such denuded 


which must be 
trees if a suitable forest growth is to be 
brought back upon it. Besides this there 
are vast stretches of privately owned 
land in the same condition and demand- 
ing the same sort of treatment, if we 
are to pass on to our descendants the 
ourselves found 


this 


forest resources that we 


when we first came into region. 


] . 
also 21 


There are 


at quantities of idle, 
non-agricultural land scattered through- 


out the state that should be brought un- 


der forest growth by reforestation. 


It may be surprising to many to 


learn that of the entire extent of the 


Empire state approximately 35 per 
srowth 


One of the 


cent is suitable for forest 


but not for agriculture. 


great problems of the Conservation 


94 NATURAL HISTORY 


Fire observation tower on Black Mountain.— 
Mountain climbing is becoming a favorite sport 


in America. More than 50,000 persons climbed 
peaks in the Adirondacks last summer for the 
view to be obtained from the top 


Commission is to bring about the plant- 
ing of forests not only upon the state’s 
own denuded land, and upon privately 
owned denuded land in the forest re- 
gions, but also upon the hundreds of 
thousands of acres of idle land in agri- 
cultural parts of the state that are fit 
for nothing but to grow trees. A great 
beginning has been made in this work 
by the establishment of six state nur- 
series which produce each year approxi- 
mately 10,000,000 young trees. This 
is only a beginning, however, and tre- 
mendous strides must yet be taken be- 
fore we can feel that we have even 
begun to approach our goal. 

How important this matter of refor- 
estation may become is better under- 


stood when we consider that in the war- 
ring countries of Hurope whole forests 
have been cut down to supply timber 
for the uses of war, and that virtually 
all of these forests had been artificially 
created by planting. Without these for- 
ests the armies of Europe would have 
been in desperate plight indeed. If this 
is true in. war, how much more true is 
it in peace, which has so many and 
varied uses for adequate supplies of 
timber and wood. 

Still another forest conservation 
problem of tremendous urgency is now 
before the Commission. There has been 
an invasion from Germany in the guise 
of the white pine blister rust. This is 
a fungus disease which attacks white 
pine trees and accomplishes their com- 
plete destruction. It was imported 
from some of the forest nurseries of 
Germany and has already gained a 
most alarming foothold in many of 
the eastern states and even in some 
of those in the Middle West. It 
is found everywhere throughout New 
England to an extent that threatens the 
absolute extermination of white pine 
trees in those states. Already it has 
spread across the border into New 
York and our utmost efforts must be 
put forth if it is to be checked. 

This parasitic fungus has a life his- 
tory described by the expression “alter- 
nating generations.” The spores are 
ripe in May and June and are carried 
by the wind from the pine trees to the 
leaves of currant and gooseberry bushes, 
where they undergo a change and are 
again carried by the wind either to 
other currant or gooseberry bushes or 
back to the white pine. The method of 
eradication is accordingly to destroy all 
currant and gooseberry bushes in the 
immediate neighborhood of infected 
areas, as well as to destroy the infected 
trees themselves. The cure must be 
rigorously applied. It will cost a large 
amount of money and must be carried 
out with the utmost degree of thor- 
oughness—otherwise within a compara- 


io 2) 


Where man has made both science and nature helpless.—A hillside first denuded by wasteful 
ago. Rain completed the ruin 


lumbering and then swept by fire in the slash. This was ten years 
by washing away he unprotected soil, leaving only bare rocks. The place must now be forever 


t 
barren, but could have been saved by modern forestry and fire protection 


Seconds count in reaching a forest firs Three years ago light speed te er oO or 
the district rangers to replace their horses in patrolling t di 1 ( ng to emerg 
calls Trailers are attached, carr additional men and equity l e distr ngers 

as five 


who keep in touch with the main office in Albany and direct the detail and routine 


fire observers 


forest rangers and fifty-two special f 


96 NATURAL HISTORY 


Be 5 “ick 


The New York Conservation Commission’s new 
steel fire observation tower on Mount Adams, re- 
placing an o'd wooden structure. The construction 
is strong but open, offering little resistance to 
the wind and quickly shedding the snow. There 
is a room on top about seven feet square with 
glass windows to keep out rain and wind, which 
is very high at this altitude, and a telephone for 
prompt reporting of fires. The observer has a 
comfortable cabin close by, but during the danger 
season he spends all the daylight hours in the 


tower room 


tively short time we shall have no white 
pine forests in the state of New York. 

The Conservation Commission’s cam- 
paign against the blister rust, and 
against carelessness with fire in the 
woods, has been greatly aided by a sys- 
tem of educational work with the pub- 
lic, by means of posters of various sorts 
and lectures illustrated with lantern 
slides and motion pictures. 

Finally, one of the greatest benefits 
of forest conservation in New York 
State and one of the chief interests of 
the Conservation Commission is the 
value of the forests for recreation and 
for wsthetic purposes. It must not be 
forgotten that the Forest Preserve is 
owned collectively by approximately 
10,000,000 people, and that increasing 
thousands of them are actually making 
annual use of it for vacation purposes. 
The sportsman seeks the forests for the 
fish and game which alone can be 
found there. But the people who travel 
to the mountains today for purposes 
other than fishing and hunting far ex- 
ceed in number those who rank as 
sportsmen. It is estimated that fully 
50,000 persons climbed the mountains 
in the Adirondacks last summer, for 
the views to be obtained from the tops. 
More than 1300 climbed one mountain 
alone, and that not one of the most 
popular ones. Tramping, camping, and 
canoeing are becoming increasingly 
favorite forms of recreation, and are 
annually bringing to the woods more 
and more vacationists. Many of these 
people who come to enjoy the Forest 
Preserve find their shelter in hotels and 
boarding houses outside its limits. For 
others the Conservation Commission 
has formulated the most liberal plan 
possible under the constitution of the 
state of New York for the erection of 
tents and lean-tos for temporary occu- 
pancy on state land. It is upon the con- 
tinued interest and codperation of this 
large body of vacationists and the pub- 
lic generally, that the success of New 
York's broad forest policy depends. 


A STREAM THAT COMES FROM FOREST-COVERED HILLS 


Such cou 
Thirty-five per cent 


can make it profitable for 


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Wild Horses of the Plains 


By JA MLS Eee OOK 


INTRODUCTORY NoTE.—Mr. James H. Cook was famous in his youth as an Indian scout and is now 
recording some of his early experiences on the frontier, of which this article is an excerpt. The Ameri- 
can Museum and in fact American science are indebted to him and to his son Harold for the discovery 
of the Agate Spring Quarry, near the Cook Ranch, on the Niobrara River of western Nebraska, which 
has proved to be the most wonderful deposit of fossil mammals in the world, with the single exception 


of the Rancho-la-Brea. 
February number of the JOURNAL (1918). 


The following pen picture of the mustangs is the most perfect I have seen. 
these animals were derived from their barb and from their much more remote Arab ancestors. 
Mr. Cook has secured a very typical example for the American Museum's 


mustang is now very rare. 
collection of horses. —HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 


O far as we have any knowledge, no 
evidence has as yet been obtained 
which would prove that horses were 

living on the North American continent at 
the time of its discovery by Europeans. 
That vast numbers of horses, however, in 
several stages of evolutionary development, 
existed here for millions of years prior to 
that discovery is proved by abundant evi- 
dence. 

We may well ask in what manner the 
countless numbers of horses which once 
roamed our great plains could have been ex- 
terminated. Their passing is as mysterious 
as the sudden disappearance of the millions 
of “passenger pigeons,’ which inhabited 
some of our eastern states up to within the 
last half century and are now considered 
extinct. 

Recently, while on a visit to the Grand 
Cafion, I met an old resident who told me 
that during the last few years he had seen 
several small flocks of passenger pigeons in 
the timber of the mesa lands along the Colo- 
rado River. He said he had seen and killed 
many “back East” when he was a boy, and 
that he knew well the difference between the 
“banded tailed” or “wood pigeon” of the 
West, and the passenger pigeon. 

Each year as time goes on we obtain new 
evidence relative to the days of the “long 
ago.” Possibly we may find, a little later 
on, some evidence showing that scattered 
herds of horses were still in existence upon 
this continent at the time of its discovery. 
Only two years ago (1916) the fossil re- 
mains of a horse which connects the pre- 
historic horse with the horse of today, were 
discovered in the state of Nebraska. 

Our greatest scholars have thought that 


At Agate Spring Quarry were found the Moropus skeletons described in the 


The superb qualities of 
The real 


the true mustangs of the Plains originated 
from the stock of “Moorish barb” horses 
which Cortez and other Spanish explorers 
brought to Mexico in the sixteenth century. 
During the numerous exploring expeditions 
of the early Spaniards, one of which ex- 
tended as far north as the region now occu- 
pied by Kansas and Nebraska, no doubt 
some of the horses used by the explorers es- 
caped from time to time. Stampedes might 
be caused by storms, or at sight of the herds 
of bison likely to come thundering by. Prob- 
ably at times, tired, thirsty horses strayed 
away from their owners and became lost in 
their efforts to find water or grass. In this 
way horses doubtless were scattered over the 
Plains between three and four hundred years 
ago—and they multiplied. 

At the time of which I write, 1870 to 
1880, there were thousands of these inbred 
beautiful little horses living on the ranges 
of the West, in the vast country that les 
between the valley of the Mississippi River 
and the Rocky Mountain region. They were 
true mustangs, named by the inhabitants of 
Mexico. Their average weight, was about 
eight hundred pounds, I think. The colors 
that predominated among them were cream, 
buckskin, or mouse-color. A few black 
stripes about the legs above the knees, or 
hocks, and a black stripe along the middle of 
the back, extending from the mane to the 
tail, were common markings. The stallions, 
although they usually had rather heavy 
manes, did not have a shaggy appearance. 
They were clean-limbed and their hoofs were 
black and perfect, as a rule. Never having 
known the taste of grain, and deriving their 
food entirely from the native grasses and 
forage plants, they certainly were hardy. 


10f Agate. Nebraska 


104 


WILD HORSES OF THE PLAINS 


They could stand more hard riding with no 
other food than that which they could “rus- 
tle’ when turned loose, than any breed of 
horses with which I have ever had experi- 
ence, either on the Plains or in the moun- 
tains. As blacksmiths or “hoofshapers” 
never had tinkered with their feet or forced 
them to wear iron shoes, their hoofs were 
strong and would stand wear over the 
roughest kind of mountain trails. 

I have seen many bands of mustangs on 
the Plains as far north as the head of the 
Loup River, Nebraska. North of that point 
i have never seen any, neither have I heard 
from any of the old white trappers or the 
Indians, who lived in that country, that they 
ever saw any. When the wagon roads were 
made across the Plains to California, and to 
the various army posts that were established 
in the West, horses and mules escaped from 
the wagon trains occasionally and joined the 
bands of mustangs. Strange as it may 
seem, the well-broken, gentle horses and 
mules which joined the bands of mustangs 
and lived with them for a few months or 
years, became, if such a thing could be, 
more wild and watchful than the mustangs. 
I am quite sure that a few old, long-headed 
army mules I have noted ranging with bands 
of mustangs were about the most wisely wild 
creatures it has ever been my good fortune 
to see. Back in Missouri, or some other 
state, or under the gentle care of some ex- 
pert government “mule skinner,” they had 
acquired a knowledge of men and their ways. 
Their extremely delicate sense of smell en- 
abled them to scent a man at long range, 
especially one who carried about with him 
a large halo from an old pipe or “chawing 
plug.” 

After one of these mules had lived in the 
open with the mustangs for a few months, 
the slightest scent of a man at any minute, 
night or day, would cause it to snort in such 
a wildly terrifying manner that the entire 
band of mustangs would stampede, running 
perhaps forty miles at topmost speed, before 
they could get control enough of their cour- 
age to look back to see what had caused the 
excitement. J have observed that both mus- 
tangs and range horses have a keen sense of 
smell and are able to scent the trail made 
by horses with which they have been asso- 
ciated, following it rapidly, over ground 
where a man could see no sign that horses 
had passed. 

One thing for which the mustangs had to 


105 


be on the lookout at all times was the big 
wolf, or “lobo.” This cowardly pest was 
ever hungry for a taste of horse flesh. Ani- 
mals weakened or crippled from any cause, 
or very young colts, were easy prey if the 
wolf could but sneak up and cut their ham 
strings with his sharp teeth before the de- 
fenders in the band saw him. For the 
strong, active mare or stallion a wolf might 
show some respect: a thoroughly enraged 
horse, fighting with its teeth, striking light- 
ning-like blows with its forefeet, and play- 
ing a “double tattoo” with its heels, is no 
plaything for even a pack of wolves to 
tackle. 

Stallions and mares which escaped from 
emigrant and freighting wagon trains on their 
way across the Plains, and intermingled with 
the mustangs, caused the heretofore pure- 
bred mustangs to become gradually more and 
more scarce. By 1880 almost all had dis- 
appeared from the Plains; and the few mus- 
tangs remaining today are to be found only 
among the herds of Indian ponies on some 
reservation where the breeding-up process to 
get larger horses with which to haul freight 
or till the soil, has not been rigidly enforced. 
Now and then a pony having the conforma- 
tion, coloring, and marking of the mustang 
may yet be obtained from the older Indians, 
who have long known the good qualities of 
the mustangs. In a few places so-called 
“wild horses” may be found, but they are 
not the original breed of mustangs. They 
are bands of range-bred horses gone wild or 
spoiled, usually by someone’s bad manage- 
ment—or luck—when trying to corral them. 
A sudden scare at the entrance to the corral 
will make horses turn and try to run back 
on to the range. Should they succeed in one 
attempt, they will be hard to corral after- 
ward, and if they break back from the cor- 
ral two or three times, they become a pretty 
badly spoiled lot of horses—but must not be 
confused with mustangs. 

In the early seventies, while I was working 
with wild Spanish cattle down in the south- 
western part of Texas, getting my early edu- 
cation as a cowboy, I had my first opportu- 
nity to learn something regarding mustangs. 
There were many living on the compara- 
tively small prairies scattered about in the 
brush country of that region, and a number 
of men were making a business of catching 
bands of mustangs to sell in the states to the 
east and north. 

The method employed in the capture was 


A DESCENDANT OF THE MUSTANG, AGATE, NEBRASKA 


In former years great herds of beautiful wild mustangs roamed the Western Plains of the United 
States. They were small, averaging about eight hundred pounds in weight, but clean-limbed and very 
hardy. Cream, buckskin, or mouse colors prevailed, with a few black stripes about the legs above the 
knees and a similar stripe along the middle of the back from mane to tail. By the year 1880 almost all 
had disappeared from the Plains, and only an occasional descendant may now be found among the herds 
of Indian ponies 


106 


WILD HORSES OF THE PLAINS 107 


as follows: In some thicket a little back 
from the edge of a prairie large circular 
corrals were built, high and strong, of heavy 
posts set in the ground and bound together 
with green rawhide thongs. The entrance 
led into a chute or passageway, wide at the 
outer end and narrowing toward the inner 
end, where not more three 
abreast could pass through. 


than horses 
This type of 
entrance prevented the horses from escaping 
in a rush for the gateway when they found 
before the heavy bar 
poles could be put up and securely lashed. 
From the outside of the entrance to the 
corral on either side were built wings ex- 
tending in the shape of a large V. 
short distance out from the 
wings, which often extended a quarter of a 


themselves trapped, 


For a 
corral these 


mile or more, were made very strong, and so 
high that a horse could not jump over. Then 
wings and entrance were concealed by green 
brush. 

When the corral and its wings were in 
readiness, a lot of riders, quite widely sepa- 


rated and moving in a half circle, rode out 
of the timber and chaparral on the side of 
the prairie where the wild horses ranged, and 
the horses, of course, fled before them. The 
ends of the half circle then 
made straight for the ends of the wings of 
the corral, while the rest of the riders kept 


riders at the 


the mustangs running toward the corral and 
prevented any from turning back. The rid- 
ers drew nearer and nearer together as they 
approached the corral. As soon as the mus- 
tangs were well within the wings, their pur- 
suers closed in on them, yelling, and firing 


their pistols, whereupon the leaders among 
little 
opening in the green thicket through which 


they might escape, 


the mustangs, on the lookout for any 
rushed through the nar- 
row opening at the inner end of the chute, 
only to find themselves hopelessly trapped. 
The fright of these horses can be imagined. 
frantically around and around 


They rush 


the corral. Sometimes they all make for one 
side of the corral, piling up to such an ex- 


tent that those farthest back when the rush 


This shows well the shoulder stripe which characterizes the 
quotation from a letter from Mr. Harold J. 
History is indebted for the illustrations. 


“I have not been able to find anywhere photographs of the real 


. next best thing I could think of. I 
recently bought from the Indians, 


caught 
and took some 


days, but it has snowed, rained, and blown wildcats. 


stripes. 
the type. 


I tried to get a view showing these. In 


Cook, son of 


size, build, 
He has very little if any of the hot blood of the 


full-blooded mustang The following 


the author, will explain that it is to him NATURAL 


‘old time mustang,’ so I have done 


a descendant of some of these old horses that we 


snap shots of him. I have tried to get these for ten 


The pony has the characteristic back and sho ilder 
and make-up he conforms quite well with 


white man’s horses in his veins” 


108 


started, can climb up over those trampled 
down in front. When a hundred or more 
are knocked down and piled up close to the 
corral fence, some escape by jumping from 
the pile of struggling horses over the top of 
the corral. By this method of capture many 
hundreds of horses are maimed and many 
killed. 

When the horses are securely corralled, the 
riders generally go to camp and let the 
terror-stricken animals settle down for a 
few hours. Then they return to the corral 
and the real scare for the horses takes place, 
for the terrible looking creatures who have 
driven them into that awful pen now climb 
down from the top of the circle of posts into 
the corral with them. As the mustangs are 
somewhat exhausted by their previous at- 
tempts to escape, they soon become a pant- 
ing, foaming, almost breathless mass of 
horses. Sometimes the old stallions show 
fight, in which case they are promptly shot. 
Lassos are then brought into play. The 
horses are lassoed by the feet, thrown down, 
and either strong rawhide hobbles or clogs 
are placed on their front legs. 

Hobbles for horses are in common use at 
this date in many parts of the West, but I 
never have heard of clogs for horses being 
used in any part of the West other than the 
brush country of southwestern Texas. These 
clogs are made by taking strong, forked 
sticks about an inch and a half or two 
inches in diameter and about two feet in 
length, and lashing them with rawhide 
thongs on to the front leg of a horse. With 
these the animal can make little headway 
when he tries to run. Like a hobbled horse 
he soon becomes very tired of trying to go 
at speed. 

When all the horses which are neither 
killed nor injured have been hobbled or 
clogged, they are usually left in the corral 
until they are pretty hungry and thirsty. 
Then the bar poles are taken down and the 
horses allowed to work their way out of the 
corral through the narrow chute and into 
the wings. These wings usually take in 
some little water hole, or the bend of a 
creek, where the horses can drink. Riders 
frighten them back if they try to work be- 
vond the mouth of the wings of the corral 
for the first day or two. Gradually they are 
allowed to work their way out on to the 
prairie to graze during the daytime. At 
night they are driven back into the corral. 
After a few days of this treatment, the hob- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


bles and clogs are removed from those horses 
which are most subdued. At the end of a 
few weeks the entire herd is freed from hob- 
bles and clogs, having become accustomed to 
control by riders to the extent of being 
driven in any direction desired. 

IT never took any part in “mustang hunts” 
of this type, but I have watched the per- 
formance a few times. It was certainly a 
pretty cruel business. During the days when 
IT hunted big game in Colorado and Wyo- 
ming Territory, a hunting partner of mine, 
best known as Wild Horse Charlie, was, I 
think, the first man to make a business of 
catching mustangs on a larger scale, on the 
open plains. He called his method “walking 
them down.” In the spring of 1876 he cap- 
tured several bands of mustangs on the 
plains of eastern Colorado, driving them into 
Nebraska and Iowa, where they were sold as 
saddle or driving ponies. In his method he 
took three or four good riders and made a 
camp on the range of the mustangs, at a 
time when advantage could be taken of 
moonlight for the work. From some good 
observation point, a rider would then locate 
a band of horses with his field glasses, by 
moonlight. Bright and early in the morning 
the work of capturing the horses would be- 
gin. Mustangs have a habit of settling on 
a range. When possible, they confine their 
feeding and their flights from danger to cer- 
tain boundary lines. This fact is well 
known to plainsmen. 

Upon discovering a band of mustangs, a 
rider approaches them from a direction op- 
posite to that in which he desires the horses 
to run. As the mustangs have wonderful 
sight and are always on the lookout for 
danger, they take to their heels as soon as 
the rider comes into view. This rider does 
not race after them, but follows fast enough 
to keep them in sight. The other riders, sta- 
tioned at as good observation points as pos- 
sible, note the direction in which the mus- 
tangs start to circle, in order that each rider 
in turn may be relieved every few hours dur- 
ing the long chase. At the end of a few 
hours, the first man to start after the horses 
is relieved by another rider. He can then go 
to camp, change his tired saddle horse for a 
fresh one, and get a little rest. This relay 
system, continued night and day, never al- 
lowing the mustangs to stop for either food 
or drink, will, at the end of a few days, 
exhaust them so that the riders can approach 
and begin to control the turning of the mus- 


WILD HORSES OF THE PLAINS 


tangs in any direction desired. Naturally 
the riders keep them as close to their camp 
as possible. 

The mustangs cover many miles of ground 
during the first two or three days of the 
chase—a distance of one hundred miles for 
each twenty-four hours is not an exaggerated 
estimate. On about the seventh or eighth 
day of the chase, or sooner on some occa- 
sions, the aged or weaker mustangs, com- 
pletely exhausted, play out and stop, or some 
of the aged stallions turn on their pursuers 
for a fight. Such stallions are shot by the 
riders, and the exhausted animals lassoed, 
hobbled, or “sidelined.” Sidelining means 
tving together the front and hind foot on 
one side of an animal with a pair of hobbles 
to prevent it from traveling at speed. At 
the end of the tenth day after the chase 
begins the wild horses are under such control 
that they can be driven to some strong cat- 
tle corral in the country. 

A third method of capture is by “creas- 
ing.” This is used to capture individual 
mustangs considered especially valuable be- 
cause of their beauty, color, conformative 
marking, or because they show unusual speed. 
This method has been more talked about 
than successfully carried out. 

To crease a horse, a person must first get 
within close shooting distance of this most 
animated target. He must then place a rifle 
bullet in the top of its neck, grazing the 
cords of the neck just enough to stun the 
animal and knock it down so that it can be 
tied down before recovering from the shock. 
Not only must one be a mighty good shot, 
but extremely lucky, to make a success of this 
method; it is very easy either to break the 
neck of the animal, simply give it a bad 
scare and a slight wound, or score a clean 
miss. 

I tried it once but I never attempted to 
crease a second mustang. While engaged in 
the work of gathering wild cattle down in 
Frio County, Texas, I caught sight, on nu- 
merous occasions, of a small band of mus- 
tangs led by one of the handsomest stallions 
I have ever seen. He was cream-colored, 
with white mane and tail. His mane was 
parted and hung equally heavy on both sides 
of his neck. He had a black stripe down 
the middle of his back, and also one around 
his legs. I discovered that this band of 
horses was in the habit of drinking from a 
little pool so located in a washout of an old 
ereek bed that it could be approached from 


109 


only one side, three sides of the washout 
having high, perpendicular banks. These 
creek banks leading to the water hole made 
wings that were probably about one hundred 
and fifty feet long. I conceived the idea 
that if I could hide in the vicinity of this 
watering place until all the horses, coming 
to drink, should be in the narrow runway 
leading to the water, I could dash up to the 
mouth of the runway and, as the horses 
rushed past me in making their escape, I 
could crease the desired stallion with my six- 
shooter. At that time I considered myself 
hard to beat, either mounted or on foot, in 
the use of the six-shooter. 

After weeks of waiting, an opportunity to 
try out my scheme at last arrived. While 
out hunting for some saddle horses which 
had strayed from our camp, I saw this band 
trailing toward the water hole. Keeping out 
of their sight, I beat them to the place. I 
concealed myself and my horse in a dense 
chaparral thicket about one hundred yards 
from the mouth of the runway through 
which the horses would go to get a drink. 
The horses must have felt that there was no 
danger, for they rushed in a bunch down the 
runway and into the water, where they made 
such a noise splashing and pawing about 
that they did not hear me approach. They 
certainly got up some action in getting past 
me when I rode into the runway. As the 
stallion came rushing madly by, passing 
within ten feet of me, I made an attempt to 
crease him. The result was that I broke his 
neck, At first I thought I had been sue- 
cessful, but when I saw what I had done, I 
could have cried. Perhaps I did, for I cer- 
tainly felt very sorry to have taken the life 
of that beautiful creature. I realized then 
that, had I thought to use my lasso instead 
of my six-shooter, he either would have es- 
caped or been mine. Seldom would one find 
a band of mustangs in such a natural trap 
with an opportunity to use either lasso or 
pistol at such short range. I never made 
another attempt to crease a mustang. 

Some writers have told us of certain tribes 
of Mexican Indians who were possessed of 
such speed that, starting out on foot, they 
could run down and capture the mustang. I 
have been told about both white men and 
Indians who, on foot, had run down, killing 
or capturing, many wild animals, including 
antelope, deer, and mustangs. I have never 
seen a performance of this kind. I can un- 
derstand how a man trained to the work ofe 


110 NATURAL 
trailing or tracking game could follow an 
animal for an indefinite length of time, pro- 
vided the course followed by the animal led 
over such ground as to make tracking pos- 
sible. Unless a man did depend largely 
upon his tracking qualifications, he would 
have to lope along at a lively clip for the 
first forty-eight hours of his chase after a 
mustang, or lose sight of his game, if the 
mustang acted in the manner of those pur- 
sued by horsemen. 

Doubtless, away back in a time when the 
wild life of our country knew nothing of 
pursuit by men on horseback, mustangs may 
have felt safe when out of range of arrows 
shot from bows, even when the archer was 


in full view. All wild life seemed to know, 


INE SINOM SDE 


or felt it knew, that there was a distance at 
which it could feel safe, even from its most 
feared enemy—man. If instinct did protect 
the wild life at one time, I think it hardly 
can be depended upon in these days, at least 
without being very much readjusted. Air 
craft and automobiles are now aiding the 
mighty Nimrods in ridding the world of its 
wild waterfowl and the last of its fleet- 
footed, pronghorn antelope. Such things as 
pump guns and rapid-fire, high-power rifles 
proved too slow. 

To me there is a certain grace and beauty 
about wild creatures that is lost as soon as 
they become domesticated. They certainly 
lose their alertness, and my respect and ad- 
miration decline in corresponding ratio. 


Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems 
of Measurement 


By 


T IS sometimes rashly asserted that primi- 
tive tribes are incapable of conceiving 
numbers greater than three or five. Even 

if such peoples exist—and this seems highly 
problematical—the lack of terms for any 
but the lowest numbers would not prove 
their inability to develop adequate arith- 
metical notions. This is, indeed, exactly 
what has taken place among many of our 
North American Indians, whose conceptions 
and vocabulary of numbers have been mate- 
rially enlarged through contact with modern 
civilization. Under the old conditions of life 
there simply was no need for such concep- 
tions and accordingly they had not sprung 
into existence. 

Nevertheless, there are probably few, if 
any, stocks of humanity that are not able to 
count up to twenty. The reason is obvious: 
man has twenty fingers and toes. It is in- 
teresting and almost startling to find how 
many of the numeral systems on record have 
a digital basis,—quinary, decimal, or vigesi- 
mal. Thus, Mr. Waldemar Jochelson, of 
American Museum Jesup Expedition fame, 
has analyzed the terms of the Yukaghir of 
northern Siberia. One really means “one 
finger”; five is derived from the stem for 


ROB ek tt bh Oow iE 


“wrist” or “hand”; ten signifies at bottom 
“the fingers all together.” One hundred for- 
merly marked the limits of Yukaghir numer- 
ation and was expressed by doubling the 
word for “ten.” 

The Kai, a Papuan tribe occupying the 
mountainous and wooded hinterland of 
Finschhafen, New Guinea, regularly use 
their fingers in counting; they begin with 
the little finger of the left hand and after 
finishing both hands proceed to the feet, be- 
ginning with the big toe in each case. This 
practice is strikingly illustrated in their 
yocabulary. Seven is “two on the other 
hand”; eleven “one on the foot”; sixteen 
“one on the other foot.” When introduced 
to the white man’s week the Kai logically 
enough allotted to each finger a day, and he 
will say, “I shall be back on the thumb,” 
when he wishes to indicate that he will re- 
turn on Friday. 

Remarkably similar is the method pursued 
by the Tamanac of the Orinoco River. Five 
means “the whole hand,” six is “one of the 
other hand,” eleven “one to the foot,” sixteen 
“one to the other foot.” That the same type 
of numeral system should be found in Si- 
beria, in New Guinea, and in South America 


IDEAS ON NUMBERS AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 111 


is assuredly a noteworthy phenomenon. We 
may recognize here some evidence for the 
lately challenged doctrine of the psychic 
unity of mankind, for in this case at least 
the theory of borrowing seems excluded. 

Very different from these primitive grop- 
ings is the highly developed numerical sys- 
tem of the Maya Indians of Yucatan, which 
enabled them to designate numbers trans- 
cending a million. In fact, two systems were 
in vogue among them—the one peculiar to 
the inscriptions on stone monuments, the 
other distinctive of the fiber-paper books 
(codices). Confining our attention to the 
latter, we find a method of numeration by 
position, in which “the numerical value of 
the symbols depended solely on position, 
just as in our own decimal system, in which 
the value of a figure depends on its distance 
from the decimal point.”1 Instead of pro- 
ceeding from right to left, however, in the 
expression of numbers, the Maya started 
from the bottom and worked their way up- 
ward to the higher positions; and, what is 
more significant than this purely external 
arrangement, the basis of the system was 
not decimal but essentially vigesimal. Per- 
haps the most astonishing feature of the 
scheme is the development of a zero symbol, 
for as Tylor? puts it: “This invention of 
a sign for nothing was practically one of the 
greatest moves ever made in science.” The 
zero was unknown to the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, and European civilization learned 
its use from Hindu culture through the in- 
termediation of the Arabs. 

To express 20 the Maya did in principle 
what we do to write 10; that is, they wrote 


_the zero symbol in the first position and the ° 


1 symbol in the second. The numbers from 
1 to 19 were all put into the first position 
and expressed by a combination of dots and 
bars. One dot represented 1, two dots 2, 
one bar stood for. 5, one bar and four dots 
for 9, three bars and four dots for 19. The 
only inconsistency in the system occurs in 
the third position, which instead of repre- 
senting the value of 400, that is, 20 by 20, 
only stands for 360,—undoubtedly because 
of the number of days in a year since the 
system had a purely calendric use. Other- 
wise, however, the vigesimal basis is pre- 


1 Morley, S. G., Smithsonian Institution, Bureau 
of American Ethnology, Bulletin 57, p. 129. 

“Tylor, E. B., Anthropology, D. Appleton & Co., 
1904, p. 315 


served. A unit in the fourth position equals 
20x360=7200; and the fifth position repre- 
sents 7200x20=144,000. This method of 
numeration must always rank as a capital 
achievement of the human intellect. 
Primitive ideas on numbers are by no 
means wholly of a rational cast, however. 
Precisely as 13 is considered an unlucky 
number with us, so among most of the ruder 
cultures numbers are invested with alto- 
gether peculiar characters and potencies. 
In aboriginal’ North America four generally 
plays an exceptional part as a mystic or 
sacred number. Some tribes have conceived 
the idea that everything in the universe must 
be arranged in quartets. Thus, in a cere- 
monial procession there will be four halting 
places; at each stop the chanters will sing 
four songs; and in folk tales the heroic ex- 
ploit is accomplished at the fourth attempt 
after three trials have miscarried. In other 
regions the mystic number may be five as 
among the Paviotso of Nevada, or nine as 
in parts of Siberia, or ten as among the 
Pythagorean philosophers of ancient Greece. 
Sometimes different peoples entertain the 
most contradictory notions as to the same 
number. Thus, while seven is highly re- 
vered in parts of Asia, the Kikuyu of Brit- 
ish East Africa consider it the most unlucky 
of numbers when their shamans forecast the 
future by pouring out counters from a gourd 
container after the manner of a dice game. 
Let us turn from primitive notions of 
numbers to their practical application. 
ages are indeed superb observers and are 
able to record their impressions in graphie 
fashion, but they rarely require precision of 
statement. Primitive man is incomparably 
better acquainted with the fauna and flora 
of his habitat than is the average college 
student with his own environment, but the 
data he has accumulated are raw material 


Sav- 


for science rather than science itself. His 
standards of measurement accordingly can- 
not be expected to attain a higher plane than 
those current, say, among the illiterate peas- 
antry of Europe. 

A concrete illustration will make the mat- 
The Baganda of East Africa, 
whose intricate political organization and 
suggest an 


ter clearer: 
well-developed trade relations 
unusual degree of intellectual sophistica- 
tion, measured building poles by the “foot”: 
one foot was placed immediately before the 


112 


other along a felled tree and the length de- 
termined by counting. But there was ap- 
parently no attempt either to standardize 
the foot or to bring other modes of lnear 
measurement into any consonance with the 
foot. 


arms formed the standard, in measuring 


On some occasions the outstretched 


fences and roads the cubit was used, while 
the span from the tip of the thumb to the 
top of the second finger served to determine 
minor What 
measure applies in 


distances. holds for linear 


equal degree to dry 
measure. Salt was tied up in small packets 
approximating a tablespoonful; in larger 
quantities it was sold by the basket hold- 
ing about ten pounds. Sweet potatoes, how- 
ever, were bundled up into thirty-pound lots, 
tied 


Beer was measured by the 


firewood was into bundles of about 
forty pounds. 
gourd or for brewing purposes by the tub, — 
a vessel six feet long by two feet six inches 
wide and eighteen inches deep. 

Judged by the Baganda standards, the 
measurements of at least the greater num- 
ber of American tribes are on a lower plane, 
although it is inconceivable that the masons 
and artisans of Yucatan or Peru were with- 
out adequate means of determining lengths. 
Oddly enough the foot, which plays so im- 
portant a role in the Old World, was ap- 
parently never used among the North Ameri- 
can Indians. It also seems strange that 
there is no evidence for the use of scales 
and weights nor of liquid or dry measure. 
The kind of linear standards employed may 
be illustrated by the case of the Pima of 
Arizona. Here a yardlike measure is em- 
ployed, that is, the distance from the center 


NATURAL HISTORY 


of the breast to the finger tips. After the 
coming of the Caucasian a definite series of 
Ten 
of these “sticks” were made equivalent to 
“cut” of calico, equaling one load of 
wheat, or about 150 pounds and ten cuts or 


values was established on this basis. 
one 


loads were reckoned equal in value with one 
horse. Land is measured by steps of about 
five feet, while long distances are estimated 
in terms of a day’s journey. 

To turn to still another region of the 
globe. In the Banks Islands, Melanesia, the 
fathom is the favorite unit and appears 
prominently in the measurement of money, 
a measuring rod serving as an auxiliary 
device. In monetary transactions two pegs 
are stuck into the ground a fathom apart, 
and strings of shell money are looped round 
them until the specified number of fathoms 
told off. Another 


represented by the distance from one shoul- 


has been standard is 
der to the tips of the extended fingers of 
the other hand; more rarely the Banks Is- 
landers employ the distance from the elbow 
to the finger tips of the same hand. A short 
measure is based on the length from the 
wrist to the finger tips. 

The study of primitive methods of meas- 
urements has been much neglected and it is 
thus impossible to make a broad compara- 
tive statement. 
ever, that anthropologists are becoming in- 


There are indications, how- 


terested in ascertaining details about the 
conerete knowledge possessed by the peoples 
they visit, and in this connection measure- 
ments will inevitably be investigated and 
will assuredly prove a fascinating chapter 
in some future history of science. 


An Indian Peace Medal’ 


With quotations from the ov ginal diaries of the Lewis and Clark 
Brpedition, 1804-1806 


by CLARK WSs LER 


SILVER peace medal of the Jefferson form coat, hat and feather. To the second 
medallion type, found in an India chiefs we gave a medal representing some 
crave on the banks of the Clearwater domestic animals and a loom for weaving; 

River, Idaho, recalls one ot the most inte1 to the third chiefs, medals with the impres- 
esting events in the exploration of this con sion of a farmer sowing grain.” 

tinent—the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Peace medals for promoting friendly rela 
The medal was discovered in 1899 by Mr. tions with the Indians were manufactured 
Lester S. Handsaker, an engineer engaged n America as early as the year 1757 by a 


on the construction of the Northern Paeifi 
Railroad. Inasmuch as the railroad follows 
almost the exact route of these ear ly explo 
ers, and the records show that they distrib 
uted many such medals among the Indian 
tribes that they encountered, it seems un- 
mistakable that the one thus brought to light 
was carried on that famous expedition. 
When Lewis and Clark made their mem- 
orable journey from the mouth of the Mis 
souri to where the Columbia empties its wa 
ters into the Pacific Ocean, no more virgin 


country than that traversed could be imag 


ined. Indians and wild animals were the 
sole occupants of the great territory after 
ward known as the Louisiana Purchase, but 
which, at the time the undertaking was con 
ceived, was still the property of France. At 
the suggestion of Jefferson, Congress, in 
January, 1803, made an appropriation of 
$2500 to defray the expenses of an expedi 
tion, to be under the leadership of Captain 
Meriwether Lewis and his friend Captain 
William Clark, for the purpose of explor 
ing the Missouri and Columbia rivers and 
their principal branches. With this small 
sum were purchased mathematical instru 
ments, arms, camp equipage, medicines, pro 
visions, and presents for Indians. The last 
item ineluded articles of clothing, beads, 
paints, flags, knives, tomahawks, and medals. 

An account of a council meeting with the 
chiefs at Fort Mandan, on the Missouri 
River six or eight miles below the mouth of 
the Knife River, where the expedition passed 
the winter of 1804—05, states: “We proceeded 
to distribute presents with great ceremony. 
One chief of each town was acknowledged 
by a gift of a flag, a medal with the likeness 
of the President of the United States, a uni 


1This medal was presented to the American Museum of Natural History in 1901 by Mr. Edward D 
Adams, of New York City. 


114 


Philadelphia association composed chiefly of 
members of the Society of Friends. One of 
the first issued had on the obverse the raised 
head of King George II and on the reverse 
the sun, an Indian sitting at a camp fire, 
and a white man offering him a pipe of 
peace. After the Revolution such medals 
always bore the head of the President in 
office at the time of its manufacture. One 
struck in 1792, bearing the profile of George 
Washington, was presented to Red Jacket, 
Chief of the Iroquois and last of the Sen- 
ecas, who never afterward was known to be 
without it. 

The Jefferson medal, which differed in de- 
sign from that issued by Washington, was 
made of bronze in three sizes. The smallest 
was also struck in silver and was furnished 
with a stem and ring for suspension. All 
sizes bore the same design: on the obverse 
a medallion bust, with the legend, “Thomas 
Jefferson, President of the U. S., A.D. 1801,” 
and on the reverse clasped hands, pipe and 
battle ax crossed, and the legend, “Peace and 
Friendship.” It was a silver medal of this 
type which was found by Mr. Handsaker in 
the Indian grave beside the Clearwater River 
in Idaho; it now forms a part of the collec- 
tions of the American Museum of Natural 
History as a gift from Mr. Edward D. 
Adams of New York City. When discovered 
it was wrapped in many thicknesses of buf- 
falo hide. 

Both Captain Lewis and Captain Clark 
kept full diaries of the events of each day 
while on the expedition. These original 
diaries have been published precisely as writ- 
ten with the quaint spelling and capitaliza- 
tion used by these explorers.1 On consulting 
them we find that in September, 1805, on 
their way to the Pacific, they met with Nez 
Percé Indians on the Clearwater near the 
spot where the medal was found. We cannot, 
of course, be sure that the medal in the Mu- 
seum was given out here, but we do see by 
these diaries that the explorers gave out 
medals. 

Under date of September 21, 1805, Clark 
wrote: 

“.. passed down the river 2 miles on a steep 


hill side at 11 oClock P.M. arrived at a 
camp of 5 squars a boy & 2 children those 


1 Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Ex- 
pedition, 1804-1806, Vol. 3, pp. 81, 85 (New York, 
1905). — 


NATURAL HISTORY 


people were glad to see us & gave us dried 
sammon one had formerly been taken by 
the Minitarries of the north & seen white 
men, our guide called the chief who was fish- 
ing on the other side of the river, whome I 
found a cherfull man of about 65. I gave 
him a Medal.” 


Again on September 28, 1805, the diary 


states that another medal was given out. 

Upon the return journey on May 10, 1806, 
Captain Lewis made the following entry in 
his diary. After having stated that he met 
near the Clearwater some of the Nez Percé 
Indians who received them so kindly and 
treated them with such hospitality Lewis re- 
cords the event in his diary as the most 
happy so far experienced. He says: 


“, . This is a much greater act of hospital- 
ity than we have witnessed from any nation 
or tribe since we have passed the Rocky 
mountains. in short be it spoken to their 
immortal honor it is the only act which de- 
serves the appellation of hospitallity which 
we have witnessed in this quarter. we in- 
formed these people that we were hungry 
and fatiegued at this moment, that when we 
had eaten and refreshed ourselves we would 
inform them who we were, from whence we 
had come and the objects of our resurches. 
a principal Cheif by name Ho-hast-ill-pilp 
arrived with a party of fifty men mounted 
on eligant horses. he had come on a visit to 
us from his village which is situated about 
six miles distant near the river. we invited 
this man into our circle and smoked with 
him, his retinue continued on horseback at a 
little distance. after we had eaten a few 
roots we spoke to them as we had promised, 
and gave Tinnachemootoolt and Hohastillpilp 
each a medal; the former one of the small 
size with the likeness of Mr. Jefferson and 
the latter one of the sewing [sowing] medals 
struck in the presidency of Washington. we 
explained to them the desighn and the im- 
portance of medals in the estimation of the 
whites as well as the red men who had been 


Me 


taught their value.” 2 


It is interesting to note in this last entry 
the specific mention of a Jefferson medal as 
having been presented to one of these chiefs. 
As this region has always been the home of 
the Nez Percé, it is a fair assumption that 
the medal found was from the grave of one 
of this tribe. It is of course even possible 
that it was the grave of this particular indi- 
vidual, though we must not forget that many 
similar medals were distributed, as the pre- 
ceding extracts from the diaries suggest. 


2 Original Journals, Vol. 5, pp. 15-16. 


“Billy the Boy Naturalist” 


N attractive little volume with a title 
that will appeal to children has just 
appeared from the pen of Dr. Wil- 

liam A. Murrill, assistant director of the 
New York Botanical Garden. When one 
delves into it, he finds that it is autobio- 
graphical, that Billy is Dr. Murrill himself 
when a boy, that it is “the true story of a 
naturalist’s boyhood.” But the story is not 
told in the usual biographical way,—instead 
the book consists of many short stories of 
bovhood experiences, arranged in four chron- 
ological groups, or chapters, as the author 
calls them. For the most part, the stories 
are unrelated to one another, that is, each 
one is complete in itself, being simply a rec- 
ord of an incident that had permanently im- 
pressed itself upon a normal boy’s memory. 
To write these down and put them together 
in book form was a happy idea. It is so 
pleasing that one cannot help wondering why 
some one has not thought of doing this kind 
of thing before. 

To think of an eminent botanist, a leading 
authority on fungi, turning aside to write 
this volume, reminds one of Charles Lutwidge 
Dodgson (“Lewis Carroll”), author of works 


on higher mathematics, when he wrote 


Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, or of 
Robert W. Wood, professor of physics in 
Johns Hopkins University and author of 
works on optics, when he produced How to 
Tell the Birds from the Flowers. But the 
work under consideration differs from the 
above juvenile books in that it is really 
true. 

Grown-ups, who were born and reared in 
the country, will read it because it will recall, 
as pleasant memories, identical or similar 
experiences which probably have not been 
thought of for years, such as “spelling bees” 
and playing prisoner’s base at school, and 
“husking-bees” and sorghum-molasses mak- 
ing at home. Young people will enjoy these 
and the other incidents, such as catching a 
fish with a pin hook, exploits with a home- 
made bow and arrow, collecting butterflies, 
fighting fire on the mountain, and catching 
young rabbits at wheat-cutting time when 
they ran out as the field of standing grain 
got smaller and smaller. 

These stories will make capital supple- 
mentary reading for use in the elementary 
grades in the public schools and also for use 
in the home. They combine good human na- 
ture with good natural history.—G. C. F. 


?Murrill, William Alphonso, Billy the Boy Naturalist, the true story of a naturalist’s boyhood in 


Virginia just after the Civil War. Pp. i—xii, 1—252. 


graphs. Published by W. 


“ Adventures in Beaver Stream Camp’ 


APTAIN DUGMORE is well known 

as nature writer, photographer of 

African big game, and, more re- 
cently, for his services in the British Army. 
He has chosen the present tale, primarily one 
for boys, as a vehicle to present information 
about the Newfoundland caribou; and 
among a number of full-page illustrations 
are four of his photographs of these animals 
from life. 

The narrative relates the experiences of 
two boys, castaways on the wild coast of 
Newfoundland, with only the simplest tools 
and, to begin with, a rudimentary knowl- 
edge of wooderaft. It tells how, when the 
necessity arises, they succeed in spending the 
winter in comparative comfort and safety, 
depending entirely on their own resources, 


1 Adventures in Beaver Stream Camp; Lost in the Northern Wilds,” by 


more. Doubleday, Page & Co., 1918. 


Forty-three half-tone illustrations from photo- 


A. Murrill, Bronxwood Park, New York City, 1918. 


teal! 


and with the caribou forming their principal 
meat supply. The story is full of whole- 
some adventure. 

Civilized man, separated fortuitously from 
his environment, has often been known to 
perish from pure abstract mental helpless- 
ness, and a story of this nature has real 
educational value. 

Stefansson tells us how, by following the 
customs of the natives, he has been able to 
live in comfort in the Arctie under condi- 
tions where polar expeditions have perished. 
There is sound philosophy in the traditional 
reply of the Indian, when asked if he were 
lost: “Indian right here. Tepee lost’; or, in 
the closing words of Captain Dugmore’s 
story: “‘You see, Mother,’ Charlie added, 
‘we were not lost, only mislaid.’”—J. T. N. 


Captain A. Radclyffe Dug- 


115 


Sight Conservation Classes in New 


York Schools 


By DRANG ES Ee Mos CR LP. 


Inspector of Classes for the Blind 


HE Board of Education of New York 

City is conducting classes for partly 

sighted pupils, known as “sight con- 
servation” classes. This work was inaugu- 
rated in the winter of 1917 and has grown 
until the classes at present number nineteen 
in three of the boroughs of Greater New 
York. various 
elementary schools with registers ranging 
The class- 


The centers are located in 


from ten to eighteen pupils each. 
rooms are selected with a view to even dis- 
tribution and proper diffusion of light. 
Provision for ample blackboard space is 
made on account of the nature of the in- 
struction given to the partly sighted pupils. 
To avoid undue fatigue and to facilitate the 
handling of large books, maps, and other 
objects, the desks and seats are placed on 
movable bases, and large tables and chairs 
are provided for the use of the pupils. The 
teachers assigned to these classes are those 
who have had experience in the regular 
grades and whose temperaments and special 
aptitudes are such as to enable them to de- 
velop handicapped children. 

The need for sight conservation classes 
sprang from observation of pupils with some 
sight in the classes for the blind, who re- 
belled against finger reading and persistently 
used their impaired vision to read the em- 
bossed print, and from the existence of 
numbers of children in regular grades who 
were unable, because of short-sightedness 
and other eye defects, to keep up with their 
classes. Our classes are operated much the 
same way as are the classes for myopes in 
London, which have been conducted for a 
number of years. 

The purpose of these classes is twofold, 
the hygienic care of the child and his edu- 
cational development. A clinic under the 
supervision of the Board of Health, author- 
ized by the Board of Education, is conducted 
for the refraction and treatment of the eyes 
of the pupils and candidates of the special 


116 


classes, and for the control of abnormal 
physical conditions arising from eye trouble 
or its cause. 

The character of the instruction given to 
these pupils does not impose eyestrain, Their 
oral lessons are received in the regular 
grades with the normally sighted children, 
and such of the written work as is feasible 
is done in the regular grades. Most of the 
written work is done in large type in the 


special classroom, and for short periods of 


time. The blackboards are utilized for this 
purpose. Masses of figures are not given 


either for reading or writing. The reading 
lessons are conducted by special teachers 
by means of charts and clear type readers. 
The notes in the various subjects are pre- 
pared by the special teacher in print or 
script more than double the size of the 
ordinary print of textbooks. Manual work 
involving little or no use of the eyes, such 
as knitting, chair caning, basketry, cook- 
ing, and the larger forms of carpentry, is 
given to pupils of sight conservation classes. 
Typewriting by the touch system is also 
taught. 

The sight conservation classes are making 
possible lives of usefulness and enjoyment 
for those who, handicapped by poor sight, 
are unable to receive their education in the 
regular way. The classes are also placing 
emphasis upon the improvement of general 
educational methods and the necessity of 
properly lighted schoolrooms. The special 
attention given to the care of the eyes, and 
to the development of thought, initiative, 
and pleasing personality, will fit the pupils 
of these special classes for responsible posi- 
tions in insurance, social 
service, and various lines of farming. Oc- 
cupations like these present no risk to eye- 
sight. The in work of this 
nature is more than justified in the say- 
ing to the state on its work in connection 
with its care of dependents. 


salesmanship, 


investment 


Notes 


ATTENTION is called to the change in title 
of this magazine from AMERICAN MUSEUM 
JOURNAL to the old, honorable, and historical 
name NatrurAL History. <A change has 
been contemplated for two years or more, 
partly to avoid confusion with other publi- 
cations known as “Museum Journals” and 
partly because the magazine for these years 
has not restricted itself to a consideration 
of the American Museum’s work and inter- 
ests. As expressed many times by the Edi- 
tor in letters to contributors, the magazine 
would like to feel that it stands as a me- 
dium of expression between authoritative 
science in America and the people, a place 
for publication of readable articles on the 
results of the scientific research and thought 
of the nation for people who are not techni- 
cally trained. These people have neither 
time nor desire to pore over technical, un- 
readable articles, but nevertheless are intel- 
ligently, practically, and often profoundly 
interested. NATURAL History would like to 
stand for the highest type of authoritative 
natural history, expressed by the investi- 
gators themselves, by explorers, by the accu- 
rate observers in laboratory or field. In 
addition it desires to interpret the technical 
publications of our scientific thinkers, if not 
by popular articles by the same authors, then 
through reviews by other well-known scien- 
tific thinkers, these ‘‘reviews” being, as sug- 
gested, readable discussions of the given 
subject apropos of the technical work. It 
would also of course report phases of the 
educational work being accomplished by the 
scientific departments of the United States 
Government and by the various scientific 
institutions of the country, especially those 
of the museum type. 

There has been so much shallow, inaccu- 
rate, “popular” science, nature study, and 
natural history, written by persons untrained 
in science and with distorted imaginations, 
that a prejudice still remains in the minds 
of some scientists against putting their ob- 
servations and conclusions, when of 
great value for the layman, into readable 
form. But the time of such suspicion and 
condemnation against the mere form of ex- 
pression of an idea is well-nigh past, and the 
greatest scientific men of the country are 
daily proving their willingness and desire to 


even 


write in a way to be understood not only by 
the trained, technical man, but also by the 
man with no knowledge of the shorthand of 
the scientific vocabulary. 

We need especially to have a knowledge of 
nature and science today. The day of neces- 
sity has come for conservation of the world’s 
natural resources and preservation of ani- 
mals fast becoming extinct; there is seen 
approaching the time of conscious control of 
evolution; and just ordinary culture de- 
mands in the present decade knowledge of 
science in addition to what it has always 
demanded in literature, music, and art. And 
reasons do not take account of the 
added joy in life that comes from a knowl- 
edge of nature. We people of today need to 
know the book of the earth, to study it as a 
Bible, feeling the divinity in it. NATURAL 
History hopes to meet this need in part. 


these 


WE welcome the good news that the Royal 
of Natural History in Brussels 
escaped unscathed the ravages of the Ger- 
There has been sent to Nature an 


Museum 


mans. 
extract from a letter recently written by 
Louis Dollo, professor of paleontology in 
the University and Conservateur of the Royal 
Museum, reporting “that everything is well 
here, that our Museum is intact, that abso- 
lutely nothing is lost, and that we are safe!” 


THE seventy-first meeting of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science 
was held at Baltimore in December. Of the 
four hundred or more addresses, many were 
concerned with problems connected with the 
war, but the program as a whole showed a 
quick adaptation to the broader problems of 
reconstruction now confronting the country. 
That the experiences of the last two years 
have left a marked effect on American sci- 
entists was particularly brought out in the 
paper by Dr. George E. Hale on “The Na- 
tional Research Council,” in which he dis- 
cussed the past results and the future pos- 
of the Council as 


sibilities a permanent 


body. 


FoLLowING the inauguration of national 
scientific organizations such as our National 
Research Council, there has been under way 
the organization of an international body 


117 


118 NATURAL 
for 
Representatives of the scientific academies 
of the Allied Countries and the United States 
held a meeting last October in London. A 
Committee of Inquiry was appointed which 
met later in Paris and constituted itself as 
a temporary International Research Council 
with the object of becoming a Federation of 
National Councils. 


the promotion of scientific research. 


A permanent executive 
is to 
There are great 
possibilities for international cooperation in 


committee of five was named which 


have its seat in London. 


scientific research, the internationalization of 
great laboratories, the exchange of publi- 
cations, 


and the preparation of bibliog- 


raphies. Above all, the manifest spirit of 
cooperation will certainly prove a stimulus to 


scientific workers. 


SCIENTISTS have recently called attention 
to the need of replacing German in certain 
classes of scientific literature with English. 
The prevalence of German as a scientific 
medium is exemplified by the fact that of the 
286 journals listed in the International Cat- 
alogue of Scientific Literature under gen- 
eral biology, 169 are in German and only 49 
in English. There has been a similar Ger- 
man conquest in the case of the yearly re- 
views and great compendiums of scientific 
advance. It is suggested that the collection 
publication of scientific information 
might well fall among the activities of the 
National Academy of Sciences which has re- 
cently been requested by President Wilson in 
an Executive Order to take over and per- 
petuate the work of the National Research 
Council in the stimulation and formulation 
of “comprehensive projects of research,” in 


and 


the promotion of codperation, and in the 
gathering and collating of “scientific and 
technical information at home and abroad, 
in cooperation with government and other 
agencies,” and the rendering of “such in- 
formation available to duly accredited per- 


; 


sons.’ 


A FITTING memorial to the memory of 
Theodore Roosevelt is the greatest of our 
national parks which is now being estab- 
lished in the Sierra Nevada as an extension 
of the old Sequoia Park. Along its eastern 
boundary runs the main ridge of the Sierra, 
crested at the south by Mount Whitney, the 
highest peak in the United States. Three 
rivers rise among the mountains of the new 


HISTORY 


park, the IKaweah, the Kern, and King’s. It 
is said that Tehipite Valley, through which 
flows the middle fork of King’s, excels Yosem- 
ite Caion in grandeur. The former Sequoia 
Park with its giant Sequoias, the “big trees” 
of California, is drained by the Kaweah 
River. The Roosevelt National Park is to be 
preserved for the true lover of the out-of- 
doors who may still lose himself on the long 
trails and snowy peaks in this heart of the 
American wilderness. 


DurRING the war and the excessive demand 
for coal, attention has been turned toward 
the Arctic, especially to the island of Spitz- 
bergen where effort alone is required to 
create one of the chief coal-producing  re- 
gions of the world. It is said that in 1918 
the shipment to Scandinavian ports reached 
100,000 tons. It has been known for some 
time that vast quantities (estimated as at 
least 4,000,000,000 tons) of good steam-coal 
are present in this Arctic land and a cargo 
was shipped to Europe as early as 1899. In 
later years American, British, and Swedish 
companies have mined more or less unsys- 
tematically and in 1912 it is said that one 
company alone shipped out about 40,000 tons. 
Tron ore in unknown quantity, as well as 
other mineral products, is also present, but 
exploitation is hampered, especially by the 
lack of definite political control in the island. 


PRESIDENT WILSON, while on his visit to 
Europe, has been signally honored by the 


_learned societies and universities of the Old 


World. The University of Paris took this 
occasion to confer their doctorate, honoris 
causa, before a distinguished gathering in 
the Sorbonne. In acknowledging the honor 
conferred upon him the President delivered 
a brief address contrasting especially the 
two systems of culture between which the 
war has been waged. “I agree,” he said, “with 
the intimation which has been conveyed to- 
day, that the terrible war through which we 
have just passed has not been only a war 
between nations, but that it has been also 
a war between systems of culture; the one 
system the aggressive system, using science 
without conscience, stripping learning of its 
moral restraints, and using every faculty 
of the human mind to do wrong to the whole 
the other system reminiscent of the 
high traditions of men, reminiscent of all 
those struggles, some of them obscure, but 


race; 


NOTES 


others clearly revealed to the historian, of 
men of indomitable spirit everywhere strug- 
gling toward the right, and seeking, above 
all things else, to be free... .” 

The ancient universities of Italy also hon- 
ored him on his brief trip to Rome and he 
was elected a member of the Accademia dei 
Lincei, the oldest existing scientific society 
in the world. The universities of Bologna, 
Rome, Padua, and Florence all sent deputa- 
tions to bear their greetings and confer va- 
rious degrees. In England the President 
was unable to stop at Oxford or Cambridge, 
but he had opportunity to meet many of the 
leading representatives of art, literature, 
and science at the state banquet tendered 
him at Buckingham Palace. 


THE construction of a connecting path- 
way across Central Park between the Metro- 
politan Museum of Art and the American 
Museum of Natural History, proposed by 
Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, gives oc- 
casion to Mr. Lewis Mumford, in the Scien- 
tific Monthly, to discuss recent tendencies in 
these two museums. They have changed 
from mausoleums of ancient art and animal 
remains to educational institutions which 
respectively illustrate to their visitors the 
past history of man’s handicraft and display 
the facts of natural science in such a way 
that the student will be instructed by their 
order and surroundings. The arts have 
grown up in response to natural social de- 
mands, therefore, artistic productions, to be 
rightly understood, must be taken, so far as 
possible, in their natural context and not 
viewed as unrelated fetishes for some man- 
ner of beauty worship. 

The Metropolitan Museum, notably in the 
Swiss, the Georgian, and the Queen Anne 
rooms, is giving expression to this organic 
view of art with scenes that impress by their 
unity rather than confuse by their diver- 
sity and multiplicity. Similarly, the Natu- 
ral History Museum is taking advantage of 
the artist’s vision in the reconstruction of 
primitive life, in the arrangement of animal 
habitat groups, and in the general organi- 
zation of its collections so as to tell a con- 
nected story of the natural history of the 
earth and its inhabitants. The landscape 
artist and the animal sculptor have been 
called upon to assist in laying out this pano- 
rama. The two museums are accordingly 
becoming complementary in their methods, 


i) 


the one borrowing from natural science an 
organic and social conception of art, while 
the other is recognizing the aid which the 
fine arts can lend to the study of nature and 
man. 


AmonG foreign honors’ bestowed 
Americans during 1918 may be noted the 
election of Colonel Henry 8. Graves, of the 
United States Forest Service, to the Royal 
Scottish Arboricultural Society of Kdin- 
burgh, and the promotion of Dr. Alexis 
Carrel, of the Rockefeller Institute, to the 
rank of Commander of the Legion of 
Honor. Dr. Simon Flexner also received the 
title of Officer of the Legion of Honor and 
was elected a corresponding member of the 
Société des Hopitaux. 


upon 


Dr. ALES HrpuitKa, curator of the Di- 
vision of Physical Anthropology at the 
United States National Museum, was _ re- 
cently elected an honorary fellow of the 
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great 
Britain and Ireland. 


Unper the heading “Notes from a Trav- 
eler in the Tropics,’ Major Frank M. Chap- 
man writes in Bird Lore of casual observa- 
tions on bird life along the route of his 
journey to South America for the Red Cross. 
The fall and winter 
pitious for finding birds in our 


seasons are not pro- 
southern 
states or in Cuba, as the southern migrants 
have disappeared and the winter residents 
have not yet arrived from the north, but on 
the Isle of Pines, off the coast of Cuba, 
Major Chapman was entertained by many 
feathered hosts, including the Anis, a com- 
mon species of Cuba, whose whining whistle 
is one of the very few really unpleasant bird 
notes. Dr. Chapman sailed from Havana to 
Colon to visit the Panama Red Cross and the 
extremely active Canal Zone Chapter. In 
passing the Gatun Lake he noted that the 
dead trees, killed by flooding this great area, 
were disappearing and that this partly arti- 
ficial body of water gives promise of becom- 
ing one of the most beautiful lakes of the 
tropics. Its charms are as yet undiscovered 
by the birds 
cormorants, 


except for a few brown peli- 
and ducks—but its for- 
ested shores and rocky islands are certain 
to afford a future home for the tropical 


cans, 


migrants. 


120 


THE Aeronautical Society of America, at 
its meeting January 9, elected Mr. Carl E. 
Akeley, of the American Museum, to life 
membership in recognition of his important 
invention of a camera especially designed for 
use in aeroplane work. 


WE quote the following from E1 Palacio, 
the journal of the Museum of New Mexico: 
“Indian Commissioner Sells is giving em- 
phatic praise to the part taken by the In- 
Out of 33,000 eligibles for 
military duty, more than 6500 served under 
the flag in the Army, 1000 were in the Navy, 
and 500 were regularly engaged in other war 
work. More than 6000 of the enlistments 
were voluntary. Indians bought Liberty 
Bonds until now an equivalent of a $50 bond 
is held for every man, woman, and child of 
the Race.” 


dians in the war. 


AT THE annual meeting of the American 
Anthropological Association, held in Decem- 
ber in Baltimore, Dr. Clark Wissler was 
elected president of the Association and Dr. 
Pliny E. Goddard was reélected editor. A 
plan for a future permanent research body in 
connection with the National Research Coun- 
cil was considered and referred to Professors 
Franz Boas, Alfred M. Tozzer, and Dr. Ales 
Hrdlitka for definite formulation. 


Dr. H. J. SPINDEN, of the anthropology 
department of the American Museum, has 
just returned from an archeological and 
ethnological expedition to Central America 
and Colombia, where he acquired extensive 
collections of textiles, pottery, mesh bags, 
and other articles of aboriginal handicraft. 
In eastern Nicaragua he studied the social 
organization, arts, and ceremonies of the 
Sumu and Misskito Indians. He found these 
Indians still wearing the style of sleeveless 
cotton jacket, with designs of interwoven 
egrets’ down, that Columbus deseribed in the 
account of his fourth voyage. Archeologi- 
cal explorations were conducted in Honduras 
and Nicaragua. In the latter country he 
discovered heavily forested regions virtually 
devoid of population, although the archeo- 
logical remains indicated that they were 
once inhabited by a relatively highly civi- 
lized people. Apparently more savage tribes 
have come in recent times from South Amer- 
ica and forced out the indigenous popula- 


tion. In the republic of Colombia Dr. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Spinden examined the public and private 
artifacts, including 
golden vases and figurines from the Cauca 
River Valley which are the most beautiful of 
their kind to be found in the New World. 


collections of native 


A BRONZE tablet, commemorating the one 
hundredth anniversary of the birth of Lewis 
Henry Morgan, is now on exhibition in Memo- 
Lewis 
Henry Morgan was in many ways the “father 
of American anthropology.” After publishing 
the League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee or 
Iroquois, he became aware of the similarity 


rial Hall of the American Museum. 


between the Iroquois system of reckoning 
relationship and that found among the 
Ojibway. As a result of this comparison he 
made an extensive study embodied in Sys- 
tems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the 
Human Race, which is the pioneer work on 
primitive social organization. The general 
ornamentation of the tablet is representative 
of Indian wampum belts, one of which is a 
record of the famous Iroquois League. Mor- 
gan was adopted by the Seneca Tribe of the 
Troquois in 1842, The commemorative tab- 
let is to be sent to Wells College in Aurora, 
New York, Morgan’s birthplace. 


THE inauguration of The International 
Journal of American Linguistics under the 
editorship of Professor Franz Boas, of 
Columbia University, and Dr. Pliny E. God- 
dard, of the American Museum, with the ¢o- 
operation of Professor Uhlenbeck, of Leiden, 
and Dr. W. Thalbitzer, of Copenhagen, fills 
a previously unoccupied tield in anthropol- 
ogy. Two numbers of the new journal have 
already appeared, the first containing a gen- 
eral introduction by Professor Boas in 
which he sets forth the most pressing needs 
and problems of American linguistics. 


Mr. CLARENCE B. Moore has added an- 
other monograph! to his many publications 
on American archeology, giving the results 
of recent explorations in Florida and Ala- 
bama. The aborigines of this region origi- 
nally practised the custom of “killing” or 
breaking a hole into the pottery which they 
buried with their dead m-<order that its soul 
might accompany its previous owner. So 
expensive a custom, however, was later re- 


1The Northwestern Florida Ooast Revisited 
(Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, 2d Series, Vol. XVI, part 4, 1918). 


NOTES 


fined into the use of cheap pottery manufac- 
tured especially for funeral purposes, with a 
hole already made in the bottom or even 


with genuine ornamental openwork. Inas- 


much as the Indians of this neighborhood 
made their deposits of earthenware to the 
east of their burial mounds, Mr. Moore and 
his party were able to obtain large amounts 
of material, local searchers having contented 
themselves usually with digging a hole in the 
center of the mound. 


THE Museo Nacional de Chile occupies a 
beautiful and spacious building constructed 
for the International Exposition in 1875, in 
the Jardin des Plantes or Quinta Normal, of 
the old Spanish city of Santiago. This city, 
with a population of 400,000, is one of the 
beautiful of the world, and 
being the capital of Chile, is also the center 


most besides 
of that country’s culture and learning. In 
the Museum the departments of archeology, 
geology, botany, and zoology are represented 
by extensive native and exotic collections; 
and for printing the scientific contributions 
to Chilian natural history the Museum pub- 
lishes a Boletin del Museo Nacional de Chile 


and a series of Anales. The institution had 


121 


its inception in the work of the French natu- 
ralist, Claude Gay (author of the Historia 
fisica y politica de Chile, 24 volumes, Paris, 
1843-51), who visited the country (1828-42) 
to study the natural history. 
prominent place in Chile’s educational and 


It now fills a 
scientific progress. Dr. Eduardo Moore has 
been the director since 1910. 


SECRETARY LANE, of the Department of 
the Interior, has announced the renaming of 
the national Mount Desert 
Island, Maine, as Lafayette National Park. 
This 


Sieur de 


monument on 


formerly known as the 


National 


reservation, 
Monts Monument, has 


been singled out to commemorate our an- 


cient alliance with France. It was discov- 


ered and named by Champlain in 1604. 
FLEXNER, the renowned 
pathologist and director of the laboratories 
of the Rockefeller Medical 
Research, was elected president of the Amer- 
Advancement of 
Science, at their recent meeting in Balti- 


Dr. SIMON 
Institute for 


ican Association for the 


more. Dr. Flexner has been serving during 


the war as a Lieutenant Colonel in the 


Medical Corps. 


The Museo Nacional de Chile, in the old Spanish city of Santiago. 


Courtesy of the Bulletin of the 
Pan-American Union 


It carries on important work 


in exploration and research and codperates with the schools by means of exhibits and lectures 


NatuRAL History owes an apology to its 
readers that the index for 1918 is included 
with the January instead of the December 
number and that there has been delay in the 
issuance of these two numbers. Fortunately 
the February number is in press as the Jan- 
Attention is called to 
what will prove the unusual interest of the 


uary number appears. 


March number, including articles descriptive 
of the total eclipse of the sun in June, 1918, 
by Professor S. A. Mitchell, director of the 
Leander McCormick Observatory of the Uni- 
versity of Virginia, painting the solar 
corona, by the artist, Howard Russell But- 
ler, with reproductions in color, the wild 
flowers of Greenland, by W. Elmer Ekblaw, 
of the 


University 


Crocker Land Expedition and the 
of Illimois, and the unknown 
jungle of Panama, by Lieutenant Colonel 


Whelen, of the United States Army. 


CANADA is to be congratulated on possess- 
the 
world, recently installed in the Dominion 


ing the second largest telescope in 


Astrophysical Observatory near Victoria, 
Dr. J. S. Plaskett, diree- 


tor of the observatory, narrates the history 


British Columbia. 


of the construction of this gigantic seventy- 
the Journal of the 
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. The 
glass disk, cast and annealed by the St. 
Gobain Glass Co., Charleroi, Belgium, nar- 


two inch reflector in 


rowly escaped a possible tragic ending, being 
shipped from Antwerp but one week before 
The cast 
was 734% inches in diameter and 13 inches 


war was declared, in July, 1914. 


thick, with a central hole about 6 inches in 
diameter. The rough mass weighed about 
5000 pounds, but when finished it was re- 
duced to 4340 pounds. The great and diffi- 
cult task of giving the final polish to the 
mirror required nearly two years, but the 
result is a credit to Brashear Co., of Pitts- 
burgh, in whose hands the work was, as the 
maximum deviation of the curve of the glass 
from theoretical perfection is but one eighth 
of a wave-length. The mounting of the 
telescope was constructed by the Warner and 
Swasey Company, of Cleveland. No diffi- 
culty was experienced in setting up the parts 
and the instrument was in use a week after 
the delivery of the mirror to Victoria. 


THE National Association of Audubon 
Societies has issued a call to the nature lov- 
ers of America to erect a Roosevelt Memorial 
Their 


Fountain. announcement is in the 


NATURAL 


ATSTORY 


form of an appreciation of Roosevelt, bear- 
ing on the cover the legend: “He taught and 
practiced clean, straight sportsmanship, with 
a power that has caused thousands of men 
afield to walk in straighter paths.” 


THE work of the wardens engaged by the 
National Association of Audubon Societies 
to guard the Federal Bird Reservations, the 
egret and the breeding islands 
along the Atlantic Coast, has been affected 
in no way by the war. 


colonies, 


These wardens re- 
port that the egrets have fared better than 
the sea birds, which have had but an average 
year, many natural accidents destroying the 
eges by thousands. 


A NEW and crafty method of egret destrue- 
tion has been reported. The hunter erects a 
canvas screen near the egret rookery. He 
then flashes a strong light into the rookery, 
which startles and bewilders the birds. As 
the stream of light is changed from the 
rookery to the white screen the victims fol- 
low and dash to their destruction against 
the canvas. It is said that this trick was 
suggested by the accidental killing of some 
birds in a similar way on the Florida coast, 
when a steamer’s searchlight was turned al- 
ternately on an egret rookery and on the 
white canvas of a passing sailboat. 


THE Brooklyn Museum has recently con- 
structed and opened to exhibition a Desert 
Life Group which is one of the largest 
habitat exhibits ever conceived. It repre- 
sents what might be termed the “optimum 
life conditions of the North American Des- 
ert” as seen in spring in southwestern United 
States or northern Mexico. The dominant 
plants are, of course, giant cacti, around 
which are grouped models of the various 
smaller species of cactus and other desert 
plants collected near Tueson, Arizona. The 
animal representatives of the desert fauna 
were taken by Mr. Robert Cushman Murphy 
on a hunting trip to northern Lower Cali- 
fornia. Five specimens of pronghorn ante- 
lope are prominent in the right half of the 
group. The antelope might at one time have 
been taken in Arizona, but the species is now 
so far extinct that it can be found only in out 
of the way and inaccessible haunts. To the 
artists and modelers of the group there were 
presented unusual problems, particularly in 
the reproduction of the cacti, and the results 
are a brilliant tribute to their craftsmanship. 


= Fon 


Courtesy of the Brook n Museum Quarterly 
The wilderness and the dr ind shall be glad; and the desert shall rejoice, and blossom like a 
rose Isaiah xXxxVv 1) Two views of the forty-foot wide Desert Life Group (left half of the group, 
tbove, and the right half, below) recently installed in the Brooklyn Museum Like the Arizona Bird 
Habitat Group in the American Museum, only on a larger scale, it reveals the desert in the full flower 
of springtime The upper photograph shows some of the cacti of the group, the giant saguaro, the 
smaller bushlike chova it the left), the bisnaga or barrel cactus (beneath the saguaro), and the low 
prickly pear (left foreground) The lower photograph shows the five specimens of pronghorn antelope 
group, the sole representatives of a distinctly North American family of ungulates, and recognized 
leeter of foot than any other American mammal 


AT THIS time when public attention is of bird protection. Dr. Joseph Grinnell, of 
turned toward the solution of international the University of California, has recently de 
problems by agreement between nations we voted an article in the Scientific Monthly to 
can well look at the international bearings this question, pointing out the necessity for 


125 


124 


some joint. action to protect the migratory 
birds. Our American golden plover breeds 
in northern Canada and summers as far 
south as Argentina, passing through about 
seven political jurisdictions. The common 
swallow of England migrates to South 
Africa, and the knot is a visitor on all the 
seven seas. A single country, however good 
its intentions, can do little to protect such 
travelers; it may only spare the birds for 
the guns of its less conscientious neighbors. 
A beginning was made in the direction of 
international protection by the treaty be- 
tween the United States and Canada with 
reference to insectivorous and game birds. 
It is hoped that the countries which have 
shown the most consideration for the birds 
may bring a moral influence to bear in ex- 
tending an appreciation of the value and 
necessity of conserving the world’s wild life. 


THE Victoria Naturalist reports that 
1,500,000 penguins are annually killed for 
the sake of their oil, but that in spite of this 
enormous slaughter the penguin colonies 
have not decreased. A representative of the 
Australian Ornithologists’ Union has been 
delegated to investigate the traffic at once; 
it seems scarcely believable that the pen- 
guins can escape extinction under such 
treatment. 


A METHOD of drying lumber, reported to 
the Quarterly Journal of Forestry (Lon- 
don) would seem to be the direct an- 
tithesis of our familiar “kiln-drying” by hot 
air. The temperature of the drying shed is 
reduced by means of a refrigerating appara- 
tus in one end of the shed to such an extent 
that the moisture of the air is condensed as 
hoarfrost and the air kept continually dry. 
In this way all moisture given off by the 
lumber is immediately disposed of and the 
lumber dries without the danger of the 
cracking and checking which accompanies 
hot-air drying. 


THE more than ordinary fertility of 
ground which has been plowed and harrowed 
by shell fire has suggested the possibility of 
using explosives in the operation of tree 
planting, especially where large areas must 
be covered quickly as in the rehabilitation of 
the devastated sectors of France. In a re- 
port of experiments to the Académie des 
Sciences, M. André Piédallu recommends 
this method for the reason that it loosens up 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the soil to great depths, supplies nitrates, 
saves labor, and is much more rapid than 
digging the holes for the trees. 


A COMMISSION appointed by the Biological 
Board of Canada has submitted a report on 
the relation of the sea lion to the fishing in- 
dustry. At the instigation of the fishermen 
a bounty of $2 a head had been placed on 
these animals on the ground that they were 
inimical to the salmon fisheries. It was not 
entirely ascertained by the commission just 
what constitutes the main food of the sea 
lion, but it was satisfactorily shown that 
the destructiveness was too slight to war- 
rant a general slaughter. The sea lion may 
be legitimately exploited, as is its cousin 
the fur seal, for guano, and for leather 
and oil by taking the young only, and its 
protection may therefore be urged for com- 
mercial reasons. Quite sufficient protection 
can be given to the fishermen’s nets by 
frightening away these very timid animals. 


THE number of fur seals on the Pribilof 
Islands, according to a census for 1918, 
is 496,600. The pups born for the sea- 
son and the breeding cows each numbered 
145,005. These figures are exclusive of the 
33,881 seals taken during the calendar 
year, 7000 on St. George Island and 26,881 
on St. Paul Island. The catch did not reach 
the total of 35,000 skins authorized by the 
Government, but a few seals were lkely 
to be killed from time to time during the 
remainder of the year as a source of meat 
supply for the natives. In addition, 386 
fur seals were speared from canoes by 
the Indians on the coast of Washington, as 
reported by the superintendent and phy- 
sician of the United States Indian Service 
at Neah Bay. The Canadian and Japanese 
governments each are entitled to 15 per 
cent of the year’s take of skins, in com- 
pliance with the terms of the North Pacifie 
Sealing Convention of July 7, 1911, the 
market value of this amount being credited 
to the respective governments to offset cer- 
tain advance payments made to them by the 
United States. Work on the new by-prod- 
ucts plant for St. Paul Island, designed 
for the manufacture of oil and fertilizer 
from seal carcasses, was pushed rapidly in 
order that the carcasses of seals killed on 
the island in 1918 might be utilized in the 
preliminary operations. 


NOTES 


“ANTICLINES in the Southern Part of the 
Big Horn Basin, Wyoming,” is the subject 
of a report dealing with the oil fields of 
Wyoming, lately issued as Bulletin 656 of 
the United States Geological Survey. Anti- 
clines, those folds of the earth’s crust which 
cause the strata to dip in opposite directions, 
lie in a broad belt around the border of the 
Big Horn Basin and are almost certain indi- 
cations of the presence of oil. According to 
the authors of the report, those anticlines 
lying nearest the central trough of the basin 
offer the greatest prospect for successful 
drilling, while those separated from the cen- 
tral trough by other anticlines show scarcely 
a trace of oil. Oil was discovered in the 
basin as early as 1888, but no great attempt 
was made to produce it until 1906, and it 
was not until 1914 that the largest wells were 
opened. Since that time, however, the out- 
put has increased from 3,560,375 to 6,234,- 
137 barrels, obtained largely from the Grass 
Creek, Elk Basin, Greybull, and Torchlight 
fields. As nine anticlines adjacent to the 
central trough remain untested, other pro- 
ductive oil fields may yet be discovered. 


VoLtuME VI of Fossil Vertebrates in The 
American Museum of Natural History has 
just appeared from the department of verte- 
brate paleontology of this institution. It 


SINCE the last issue of the JOURNAL the 
following persons have been elected members 
of the American Museum: 


Life Members, Messrs. SipNEy A. KirxK- 
MAN, R, E. SEAMANS, and PAUL WATKINS. 


Sustaining Members, Mrs. JAMES MCLEAN 
and Mr. A. MCEWEN. 


Annual Members, MESDAMES MAUuRICE W. 
KOZMINSKI, CHARLES J. LIEBMANN, ANNIE 
TRUMBULL SLOSSON, HARRIET WEIL, MISSES 
KATHARINE N. RHOADES, DororTHeA B. 
SMITH, HENRIETTE STRAUSS, MARION WIL- 
KINSON, MAJor GARRARD COMLY, THE REV. 
Dr. ArtHUR H. JupGr, Doctors ABRAHAM 
HEYMAN, PuHitip Horowirz, Leo KESSEL, 
JOKICHI TAKAMINE, MESSRS. WILLIAM Ep- 
WIN ALLAUN, D. Ettis HamBurcer, A. C. 
JENKINS, Henry W. KENNEDY, JOHN E. 
LEIKAUF, WILLIAM MENKE, HENRY MIELKE, 
LAURENT OPPENHEIM, F. A. PARK, WALTER 
PFORZHEIMER, LIVINGSTON RUTHERFORD, and 
HENRY STEMME. 


Associate Members, MESDAMES EVERARD 


125 


includes contributions 168-192, which ap- 
peared during the years 1915-17 inciusive, 
from the studies of Messrs. Osborn, Mat- 
thew, Brown, Granger, Gregory, Mook, An- 
thony, Watson, and von Huene. These 
articles are collected from the Museum Bul- 
letin volumes of the corresponding years. 
The edition is limited to sixty and is dis- 
tributed to the principal research centers in 
this country and abroad. 

Dr. E. W. GupGeEr, of the State Normal 
College at Greensboro, North Carolina, spent 
several months in 1918 at the American 
Museum working on the bibliography of 
fishes, which is in preparation by the depart- 
ment of ichthyology. Methods of fishing 
practiced in the South Seas, including the 
use of vegetable poisons and other primitive 
devices, were among the points of chief in- 
terest in his research. 

Dr. WILLIAM K. GREGORY, associate in 
paleontology in the American Museum, was 
recently elected a corresponding member of 
the Zodlogical Society of London. 


Av the meeting of the Entomological So- 


‘ciety of America held in Baltimore in De- 


cember Dr. Frank E. Lutz, associate curator 
of invertebrate zodlogy in the American 
Museum, was elected a member of the execu- 
tive committee. 


APPLETON, HUMPHREY BIrRGE, MISSES ELEA- 
NOR J. CHADEAYNE, HELEN A. ILER, THE 
Rev. GeorGE A. THAYER, Doctors Max C. 
BREUER, ROBERT H. ELLIS, CURTISS GINN, 
GEORGE M. Horton, J. C. OLIVER, JOHN F. 
STEPHAN, Messrs. CHAS. E. ADAMS, JOSEPH 
A. ARCHBALD, CHARLES K. ARTER, LELAND 
G. BANNING, FRANK W. CoMMOoNS, EDWARD 
COOKINGHAM, WILLIAM G. CrocKER, HARRY 
TREVOR DRAKE, W. M. Duncan, J. McF. 
Eaton, Louis McLANE FISHER, WILLIAM 
HUNTINGTON FoBEes, Epwarp I. GARRETT, 
Louis W. Hitt, Evan HOo.wister, Jr., H. E. 
HouMeEs, CHARLES R. Huntbey, RicHarp N. 
JACKSON, JOHN G. JENNINGS, CLARENCE H. 
JOHNSTON, WILLIAM B. KIRKHAM, Huco A. 
KOEHLER, F. W. LEADBETTER, A. L. LOWRIE, 
JAMES R. MacCoui, ELBERT B. MANN, Don- 
ALD McBripE, AMos B. McNairy, CHARLES 
NaGeEL, O. E. OverBECK, EpwaArp 8. PaGE, 
Wo. P. PAuMER, H. E. PARTRIDGE, CHARLES 
L. SOMMERS, FRANKLIN D, L. STOWE, CARLE- 
TON B. Swirt, and MASTER BENJAMIN PAt- 
TERSON BOLE, JR. 


The American Museum of Natural History 
Its Work, Membership, and Publications 


The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incorporated in 
1869 for the purpose of establishing a Museum and Library of Natural History ; 
of encouraging and developing the study of Natural Science; of advancing the 
general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular 
instruction. 

The Museum building is erected and largely maintained by New York City, 
funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of sec- 
tions from time to time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation is made 
for heating, lighting, the repair of the building and its general care and super- 
vision. 

The Museum is open free to the public every day in the year; on week days 
from 9 A.M. to 5 p.M., on Sundays from 1 to 5 P.M. 

The Museum not only maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history, 
including the famous habitat groups, designed especially to interest and instruct 
the public, but also its library of 70,000 volumes on natural history, ethnology 
and travel is used by the public as a reference library. 

The educational work of the Museum is carried on also by numerous lectures 
to children, special series of lectures to the blind, provided for by the Thorne 
Memorial Fund, and the issue to public schools of collections and lantern slides 
illustrating various branches of nature study. ‘There are in addition special series 
of evening lectures for Members in the fall and spring of each year, and on Satur- 
day mornings lectures for the children of Members. Among those who have 
appeared in these lecture courses are Admiral Peary, Dean Worcester, Sir John 
Murray, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Roosevelt. 
The following are the statistics for the year 1918: 


Adtemdance 1n Hxhibition Ballover i. 2 «0.2 5 See eee te 
Ajtendance at Ihectumes= 6 9 Vo 2h Mo We eee 64,036 
Hantern Slides Sent outtor Use msSchoolss. 2) 2 eee) 12.200 
School Children Reached by Nature Study Collections . . . 817,610 


Membership 


For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research, 
publication, and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endow- 
ment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions 
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership 
Fund is of particular importance from the fact that it may be devoted to such 
purposes as the Trustees may deem most important, including the publication of 
Narurat Hisrory. There are now more than four thousand Members of the 
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is 
doing a useful service to science and to education, the Trustees invite you to lend 
your support by becoming a Member. 


NATURAL 
HISTORY 


THEVOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, 

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- 

Men b- OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
THROUGH THE MUSEUM 


aii (ie 


Aly ut i 
ay 


FEBRUARY, 1919 


VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 2 


NATURAL HISTORY 


VoLUME XIX CONTENTS FOR FEBRUARY NUMBER 2 


Frontispiece, -Porturart, of Wr; Frederic Aucustus Mucas.. 1. cen ee 130 
Director of the American Museum of Natural History 
Eumaaine Oulitmmeeyayse ace ah, otha ones So seabeh Doukes ance eR eae cho eiere N.C. NELSoN 131 


A culture center as the point of a pyramid from which we may look down upon a historical 
succession of cultura! stages and look out upon an identical geographical distribution, the 
most primitive in time corresponding with the most remote in space 
Diagrams by the Author illustrating the ‘‘age and area” hypothesis 


Nature Reflected in the Art of the Ancient 


LG) gio] UNI Wat sos Bere dene cae AURAE ue cca etcans 4 GEORGE GRANT MacCurpy 141 


The art of the New Stone age reflects almost exclusively man’s zodlogical environment, as 
illustrated by pottery from Panama 


Reaces Comeingvonsans ite seas ee eek eee eee JAMES G. NEEDHAM -152 
The Method and Knowledge of Science........... WINTERTON C. Curtis 155 


In which the Author contends that human progress has not come by the method of intuition, 
but by the accumulation of facts and their interpretation by the common sense of science 


The Hoactzin—Only Survivor of an Ancient Order of 


Hour tooted  Birdstve5.cest st eres aes Epwarp M. BrigHaM 163 
Discovery of the quadrupedal character of the young and observations on their habits and 
Satter oie from C. William Beebe’s Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana 

Notes by a Collector in the Colorado Rockies..............4 A. EK. Butter 170 
Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean in 1918.......4 \. W. GREELY 182 
Recollections of. WravellimPertiya. 25.2 ct. 2 ces tere on: ,0LL0° H. Back 183 


With illustrations of Colorado scenery and flora, by the Author 


Some Vanishing Scenic Features of the Southeastern 
Wanted Statesew eS <.5 koje a ana mara eke nce see X0LAND M. HARPER 193 


Destruction in the Southeast. from economic causes, is already well under way, so that it is 
time to take action in these states for the preservation of the flora for scientific study and of 
the scenic features for their natural beauty 
s “Jy. . + oe = Ql ~ ~ © =< 
Nature:s Mobulizattonte. 4. octet rete nee eee Victor HK. SHELFORD 205 


Millions in food and money may often be saved by accurate knowledge of the time and condi- 
tions under which various insect pests appear and develop in field and orchard 


Yachiinevin: the-Seven: SCasac 2.125 wes sea velel ante keene ake FA. G: Pare in 


Strange sailing craft, faster than any modern racing yachts, invented in days when speed 
meant opportunity for plunder and piracy 
With illustrations from original drawings by the Author, of Malay, Arab, and other racers 


ihe Myth of the Monkey. Chaim: 2.5.23. ia sere HK. W. GupGER 216 


he Remaking ofa Museum Collection= 32 >. s-en cree = F. A. Lucas 222 


Additions and reorganizations in the American Museum’s hall of Primates 
With photographs of some of the Museum’s Primate groups 


IN GGG Dare ree ce ae He Ue li a wes, kgs RR RL a Or, Sean aor are See 


oo 
oo 
2 


Mary CYNTHIA DICKERSON, Editor 


Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, 
New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. 

Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. 
and Central Park West, New York City. 

NaturAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges 
of membership. 

Entered as second-class matter February 23, 1917, at the Post Office at New York, New 
York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. 

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of 
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


MEMBERSHIP 


For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and 
exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural 
History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- 
erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who 
are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes 
of membership are: 


eee hs |. lw ek SS eee. ~. $50,000 
mpeami@rnounder . . . . . « . « . « 25,000 
memeetiane benefactor . . . . .:. . *. ~«. 10,000 
eS a 6 06) 
RS EO OR 500 
8 a rr 100 
Sustaining Member. . . . . . . annually 25 
manGeieMmember., “. . . . . .* . annually 10 
Associate Member (nonresident) . . . annually 3 


Full information regarding membership may be obtained from 
the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. 


NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


Naturat History, recording popularly the latest activities in 
natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October 
to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History. 
The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. NAtTuRAL History 
is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of member- 
ship. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the 
Museum. 


POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 


A large number of popular publications on natural history, based 
on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the 
form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of 
these publications will be found in the Appendix to Narurat H1s- 
tory. Price lists and full information may be obtained by address- 
ing the Librarian of the Museum. 


SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 


The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of 
Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- 
able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- 
cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological 
Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the 
inside back cover of Naturat History. Price lists and complete 
data may be obtained from the Librarian. 


Photograph by Champlain Studios 


FREDERIC AUGUSTUS LUCAS 


Director of the American Museum of Natural History 


ofore coming to the American Museum as director, in 1911, Dr. Lucas had many years of museum service as cure 

tor-in-chief of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and as curator of the Division of Compar tive 

natomy of the United States National Museum. He has given his labors not alone to the technical branches of zodlogy, 
but he h also furthered by his writings and his museum policies the broader fields of popular scientific education 


ee “The Remaking a Museum Collection,’ page 


NATURAL 


VOLUME XIX 


FEBRUARY, 1919 


HISTORY 


NUMBER 2 


Human Culture 


ITS PROBABLE PLACE OF ORIGIN ON THE EARTH AND ITS MODE OF 
DISTRIBUTION 


The time is ripe for organized interpretative work in world archwology, and such interpretation 


is of interest and importance, not only to students of anthropology, but also 


to the students of everything else that is human 


By 


. 


i eS 82 


NELSON 


With illustrations from original diagrams by the Author 


HE origin of human culture is a 

question which has challenged 

the thought and imagination of 
man since long before the days of writ- 
ing. Nearly every people, whether of 
high or low attainments, possess myths 
and legends to account for the principal 
inventions and technical processes of 
which they make use. Prehistoric man 
evidently recognized that such ordinary 
things as hammerstones and houses and 
domestic hearth-fires had not always 
been ; that, in short, somebody invented 
them or brought them from else- 
where, and the person who accom- 
plished such a feat for the general en- 
hancement of human life was usually 
immortalized as a culture-hero. Our 
best known and classic example is 
doubtless the Greek story of Prome- 
theus, who, with the aid of Minerva, 
the goddess of wisdom, went up to 
heaven to light his torch at the chariot 
of the sun and thus brought down fire 
as a gift to man. The implication is 
that Prometheus literally stole the 
sacred flame and for this crime he was 
duly punished. But the gods had been 
outwitted ; and though they raged, they 
were doomed, for with the help of fire, 
man proceeded to make himself master 
of the earth. 


To the iconoclastic scientist of the 
last few decades such explanations have 
too often been only mere nonsense. We 
are still trying to explain the many 
gifts which our rude predecessors have 
left us to enjoy; and our explanations, 
partial and imperfect as yet, are at 
best written in terse technical language 
which only the specialist is supposed 


to understand. But some day when 
the matter-of-fact investigator has 


finished the skeletal structure of his 
thought on the subject of human cul- 
ture a gifted imagination will arise to 
clothe it and make it live. Of such 
poetic nature is undoubtedly much of 
the lore, like the Prometheus story, 
which has come down to us from the 
ancient East. Originally based at least 
in part on sound observation, it was 
adapted so that all who saw and heard 
might understand, each according to 
his capacity. We of the West with our 
cut-and-dried views on every subject 
have all too commonly insisted on 
literal interpretation where only sug- 
gestion to encourage original thought 
was intended. 

And what now of our modern expla- 
nation of human culture? We of the 
present generation think that we have 
done much in building the aéroplane : 

131 


: 


but in the process which we call cul- 
ture history, the making of a simple 
pointed stick for digging edible roots 
out of the ground, was hardly less im- 
portant. If now we should attempt to 
name all the discoveries and inventions 
which he between these two extremes we 
should be astonished at how much was 
really accomplished before our own day. 

We need not, however, go to such 
lengths here but we may properly ask 
when and where the more important 
inventions were made. When did man 
actually first make use of fire? Where 
were our numerous domesticated plants 
and animals first brought under con- 
trol? What people made the first loom, 
the first potter’s wheel, the first flint 
knife? The answer to these and sim- 
ilar questions is not yet recorded in 
books, nor is it handed down in reliable 
form as oral tradition. The material 
for the answer is scattered all over the 
world, even in places where we should 
not have expected men to congregate. 
For the most part the data lie buried 
in ruins located on the desert and on 
the plain as well as in the forest and 
among mountain fastnesses; they oc- 
cur in mounds and in cemeteries, in 
caves and in rock-shelters and even in 
peat bogs and the muddy depths of lake 
bottoms. The fact of these occurrences 
of the record of early human life and 
activity has become known largely 
through accident and it is only of late 
that we have begun honestly to admit 
their significance and to go deliberately 
in search of them. 

Where this search will ultimately 
lead we do not precisely know. But 
with respect to the time and place of 
origin of many of the fundamental ele- 
ments which go to make up what we 
term human culture a definite opinion 
is slowly gaining ground. Briefly 
stated this opinion is, first, that the 
most widely distributed inventions like 
fire-making and flint-chipping are the 
oldest ; and, second, that because these 
inventions are so nearly identical in 


NATURAL HISTORY 


widely separated parts of the world, 
they had probably a common center of 
origin. This center of origin is not yet 
definitely located but we know at any 
rate that it lies much nearer the cen- 
ter of the earth’s land formation than 
it does to any one of the various con- 
tinental extremities. In other words, 
it lies nearer to the meeting place of 
Europe, Asia, and Africa (a great tra- 
ditional center of origin, it is well to 
recall) than it does to the Cape of 
Good Hope, or to the far away island 
of Tasmania, or to the still more dis- 
tant Cape Horn. 

The whole question is one of pro- 
found interest and importance, not only 
to students of anthropology, but also to 
the students of everything else that is 
human. The subject is here approached 
from the point of view of several years’ 
archeological work done under the aus- 
pices of the American Museum in the 
Pueblo region of the Southwest. Cer- 
tain conclusions developed from this 
investigation are of such a nature that 
they seem to throw light not only on the 
archeological problem presented by the 
whole American continent but on the 
problem presented by the entire world. 


Discovery in the American Southwest 
of the Apparent Law of Distri- 
bution of Human Cultures 


In 1912 the writer began archzologi- 
cal investigation in a hitherto unex- 
plored section of the Pueblo area known 
as the Galisteo basin, directly south of 
and adjacent to the city of Santa Fé, 
New Mexico. The region, which was 
abandoned by native settlers finally 
toward the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, comprises about twelve hundred 
square miles and contains upward of 
one hundred ruins, about sixty of which 
are small, even insignificant, while the 
remaining forty attain, some of them, 
the size of respectable towns. After 
having spent a whole season sampling 
seven of the larger settlements, it be- 
came apparent that in addition to being 


HUMAN CULTURE 


the repositories of important materials 
for Museum exhibition purposes, the set- 
tlements, as a group, presented a very 
definite chronological problem. 

The ruins themselves showed some 
evidence of difference in age, and the 
broken pottery which lay strewn over 
their surfaces was particularly eloquent, 
there being a variety of styles, some of 
which were obviously not contemporary. 
In certain of the most recently vacated 
settlements one such style was soon 
eliminated as of early historic date, 
being always found in association with 
bones of the horse and other domestic 
animals of European origin. At the 
end of the second field season in 1914, 
through the discovery of occasional 
superposed ruins and also through find- 
ing a stratified refuse heap of consid- 
erable height, the time order of all the 
more distinctively local pottery styles— 
five or six in all—was determined, and 
it became possible at once to indicate 
with certainty the relative ages of the 
different ruins. 

This principle of ceramic stratifica- 
tion seemed capable of extension to the 
remainder of the Pueblo area and, after 
the contemplated excavations were fin- 
ished in the Galisteo region, the better 
part of two field seasons was devoted 
specifically to that type of work. De- 
cisive results were not immediately 
forthcoming, partly because refuse 
heaps turned out to be absent in some 
localities; but with the assistance of 
Professor Kroeber and Mr. Spier, also 
of the American Museum staff, other 
methods of determining the time se- 
quence of pottery styles were worked 
out, and at the present moment the 
general chronologic order of the most 
important prehistoric centers of Pueblo 
settlement is tolerably clear. 

In connection with this stratigraphic 
work the writer had occasion, in 1917, 
to travel from Santa Fé for about 350 
miles southeastwardly to the town of 
Pecos in Texas with a view to learning 
how far the Pueblo culture had for- 


133 


merly extended in that direction. A 
variety of observations was made; but 
we are here concerned with one only 
and one which was not at first recog- 
nized as of any special importance. 

Santa Fé is situated on the extreme 
edge of the present Pueblo habitat and 
so, In wandering about the outskirts, 
one finds fragments of pottery repre- 
senting all the six successive styles or 
types characteristic of the various ruins 
of the vicinity, including the modern 
style (No. 6, Figure on page 134) 
which came into general vogue about 
1680. This modern ware ceases, 
roughly speaking, about twenty miles 
south of the city. About twenty or 
twenty-five miles farther on, beyond 
the southern limits of the Galisteo 
basin, the next preceding style (No. 5, 
in vogue between 1540 and 1680) dis- 
appears. Fifty miles farther out the 
next preceding style (No. 4) drops off. 
Eighty miles onward the next preceding 
style (No. 3) runs out, and somewhat 
more than one hundred miles beyond 
that, pottery and other indications of 
former Pueblo life cease altogether. 
Such archeological evidence as remains 
beyond this limit is clearly assignable 
to nomadic peoples. 

The type of pottery found in the outer 
Pueblo zone is not, as might have been 
expected, comparable with style No. 2 
of the central area near Santa Fe, but 
is in part a mixture of the styles num- 
bered 1 and 2. And, what is most in- 
teresting, there are associated with this 
pottery and certain other distinct 
Pueblo features several nomadic traits 
such as small temporary dwellings, mor- 
tars for grinding foodstuffs in place of 
the genuine metate, and so on. In other 
words, this zone clearly marks an ancient 
transition belt connecting the hunting 
tribes and the agricultural tribes. 

At first this zonal arrangement 
caused little wonder. It was regarded 
simply as the accidental result of suc- 
cessive advances into the Pueblo terri- 
tory on the part of the nomadic tribes 


154 


(Apache and Comanche) localized on 
the southeastern border—an invasion 
which was brought to a standstill close 
to Santa Fé in modern times. A some- 
what similar dropping off of the va- 
rious stratigraphically determined ce- 
ramic levels was recognized as taking 
place also in a northwesterly direction, 
the outer border being located on the 
shores of the Great Salt Lake in Utah. 
3ut on this line, too, there had 
steady encroachment of nomadic tribes 
such as the Ute and Navaho. 
Gradually, however, it was 


been 


recog- 


bana “NOMADIC CULTURE ree 


- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


nized that a very similar cultural ladder 
could be descended in a southwesterly 
direction where several tribes still live 
a hybrid Pueblo-Nomad kind of life. 
On the northeast, no very marked zon- 
ing has taken place because here a high 
mountain range has served to ward off 
invasion and the Pueblo tribes have 
been left nestling against its near base 
from the earliest times to the present. 
The outstanding facts of this geo- 
eraphical distribution of Pueblo pottery 
may be represented diagrammatically 
as in the Figure below. And if we 


~ 


Diagrammatic presentation of the geographic distribution of six successive styles of Pueblo 


pottery. 


the inner circle are to be found every one of the six styles, 
style except the modern occurs, 
ancient ware is to be found. 


manufacture. In the next circle every 
next to the last zone in which only the most 
illimitable 


The distance from the center to the outer zone represents several hundred miles. 


foreign area into which no Pueblo pottery 


Within 
including the one still in process of 
and so on out to the 

The last zone is the 
has penetrated 


HUMAN CULTURE 


make a sectional representation of the 
same phenomenon, to show the time or- 
der, we obtain a pyramidal structure as 
shown in the Figure below. Obviously 
the vertical and horizontal arrange- 
ments of the pottery series are identi- 
cal. That is, in digging down through 
our refuse heaps in the surviving high 
center of development in order to dis- 
cover the historical sequence of pottery 
styles, we encounter these styles in the 
same order in which they lie zoned out 
geographically. Our diagram of course 
does a certain amount of violence to the 
facts, but of that we may give account 
later. ‘The aim at present is merely to 
clarify the general situation. 

The first conclusion regarding this 
strange parallelism was, as has been 
stated, that it was a mere coincidence, 
an accident due to nomadic invasion. 
But some contemplation has led to the 
conviction that while certain fea- 
tures of the Pueblo phenom- 
enon may be accidental, cer- 
tain other features are 
not so. Thus even if the 
Nomads had re- 
mained quietly on 
the original 
Pueblo border we 
should 


s 


LATE PREH 


No.6 
EARLY HISTORIC 
No.5 


No.4 


EARLY PREHISTORIC 
No. 3 


ov 


region (No. 0), the transitional zone 
(No. 1), and the present high center 
of pure Pueblo development (No. 
6), which in that case might to- 
day have extended over the zones num- 
bered 2 to 5. The relative positions of 
phases 0, 1, and 6 would have remained 
the same in our two diagrams. Briefly, 
wherever we are able to distinguish a 
culture center we are bound to have, 
first, an inner area of pure development, 
second, a surrounding zone more or 
less affected by traits “borrowed” from 
neighboring centers, and third, beyond 
that, the distinctively foreign area 
which may itself break up into any 
number of separate culture centers. 

In dealing with this Pueblo problem 
we might have obtained our key to the 
historic order of the ruins in the Galis- 
teo basin by determining the zonal 
order of pottery distribution instead of 

by searching the refuse heaps for 
the localized culture levels. 
And if there is something 
fixed and necessary about 
this zonal order, then it 
would seem to 
follow that we 
have here a prin- 
ciple of wider ap- 
plication 


ISTORIC 


still have in the 
had the PURE PU EBLO study of 
nomadic No.2 culture 


a ee 
! 
TRANSITION LEVEL l 
' No.} 1 
| | 
1 ' 

ee Pec P A ie eer be ee 

NOMADIC LEVEL 

No.0 


Sectional view (along the A-B line) of the preceding diagram to show the relation between 
the geographic distribution and the historic order of development of the six recognized styles of 
Pueblo pottery. By digging down through the stratified débris levels, within the limits of the 
modern Pueblo habitat, the various successive pottery styles were encountered in the same order 
in which they were found in traveling radially from this place out to the extreme limit of former 
Pueblo influence. Roughly speaking, the older the pottery the deeper it is buried and the farther 
it has spread. This diagram and the preceding illustrate cultural distribution within a single 
limited area; but the order observed appears to hold true in a measure for all culture areas and 
for culture as a whole in its distribution throughout the world. This wider application is illustrated 
by the diagrams on pages 138 and 139 


156 


history. By means of this principle 
we may be able without turning a 
spadeful of earth to throw considerable 
light on a number of historical prob- 
lems, great and small, which have not 
yet been illuminated by the application 
of thorough-going archeological meth- 
ods. Space limitations forbid elabora- 
tion in this place but one or two appli- 
cations may be at least suggestive. 
Application of Apparent Law of Dis- 
tribution to the American Continent 
First, let us shift our point of obser- 


vation from the Southwest to Middle 
America, that is, southern Mexico, Cen- 


tral America, and northern South 
America. Here we find ourselves, as it 


were, on the summit of aboriginal New 
World achievement. From this summit, 
if we look northward over what is to- 
day tolerably well known terrain, we see 
a series of more or less distinctly 
marked culture zones occupying succes- 
sively lower and lower levels; and if we 
then look southward we perceive a 
nearly corresponding series of zones in 
that direction. 

Thus matching the Pueblo culture 
on the north we have the so-called 
Calchaqui culture on the south, in 
northwestern Argentina. On comparing 
these two widely separated centers 
we find not only a general similarity 
in fundamentals but actual identity 
in the case of several specific traits. 
Beyond this zone we observe a transi- 
tion belt inhabited by tribes who have 
adopted the rudiments of agriculture 
but who still retain many features of 
the hunting type of life. This belt in 
the north would include all of the east- 
ern two thirds of the United States. 
Still farther out comes a broad _ belt 
inhabited by non-agricultural tribes, 
that is, nomads who have developed 
a comparatively high type of hunting 
culture and who, whether roaming or 
stationary, are in possession of the 
northwestern United States together 
with most of Canada to the north and 


NATURAL HISTORY 


most of the vast interior portion to the 
south, in particular the Pampean re- 
gions of Argentina. Finally, on the 
extreme margin of the continent, along 
the Arctic shore on the north and in 
Tierra del Fuego on the south, we have 
remnants of two somewhat unevenly 
specialized centers which, however, 
from the pot of view of Middle Amer- 
ica, we may properly group together 
and classify as a low type of hunting 
culture. 

Complete justification of all the pre- 
ceding assertions would require lengthy 
discussion. Still, the only point here 
insisted upon is the general pyramidal 
character of our continental phenome- 
non, and that no one can deny. In the 
former case of the Southwest, we were 
obliged to admit the Pueblo pyramid to 
have been produced perhaps in part by 
the accident of nomadic encroachment. 
In the present case of America as a 
whole, our pyramid is the result of ex- 
actly the opposite tendency: archzo- 
logical investigations clearly show the 
higher continental cultures to have been 
steadily encroaching on the lower. 
Nevertheless, in both cases the pyrami- 
dal condition remains and for that rea- 
son the writer is convinced that it is 
not an accident but is instead an almost 
axiomatic fact. 

In attempting now. to offer an expla- 
nation of the visibly corresponding cul- 
ture zones of North and South Amer- 
ica, we are not required to deny the 
influence either of environment and 
psychic unity on the one hand or of re- 
cent trait transmission by borrowing on 
the other. We may insist, however, 
that none of these explanations is en- 
tirely adequate; and that instead—on 
the basis of analogy with our demon- 
strated Pueblo phenomenon — these 
zones correspond for the much simpler 
reason of being actually surviving parts 
of one and the same culture center 
which formerly extended over all the in- 
tervening area. Each pair of segments 
in turn, beginning with the Eskimo- 


HUMAN CULTURE 


Fuegian, has been separated and the 
connection obscured by the superim- 
posed development of a higher culture. 

The archeological test of this hy- 
pothesis is easily applied. All that is 
necessary is a careful determination of 
the various culture strata to be found 
beneath the topmost layer of our great 
pyramid. If the zonal arrangement 
pointed out for the continent at large 
has any real historical significance, then 
we should find in Middle America a 
corresponding stratigraphic arrange- 
ment. And, already, sufficient has been 
accomplished in this direction to assure 
us that the final result will come out 
virtually as indicated. 

This should mean, briefly, that the 
earliest culture wave to sweep into 
the New World was of the hunting 
type and approximately on a level with 
that of the Fuegian tribes of today. 
In the course of time this culture 
came to characterize the entire con- 
tinent, but was displaced by higher 
developments in the narrow confines 
of Middle America at a compara- 
tively early date, possibly long before 
the original primitive phase had reached 
its present marginal positions in Tierra 
del Fuego and Greenland. On some 
such basis it seems possible also to rec- 
oncile a good deal of conflicting anthro- 
pological opinion regarding early man 
in the New World. For while all agree 
as to the generally primitive character 
of Eskimo-Fuegian culture, some main- 
tain that it is not at all ancient. If 
now we can show this type of culture to 
lie at the bottom of Middle American 
developments we shall probably at the 
same time establish for it a very re- 
spectable geologic antiquity. 


Application to the World as a Whole 


The pyramidal idea, proved for the 
Southwest and indicated as probable 
for the American continent, seems true 
also in a general way for the world at 
large. Unfortunately, the earth’s land 
formations and their climatic provinces 


137 


are not so disposed that we can give 
an adequate demonstration of the geo- 
graphical aspect of culture distribution 
by simply laying down a series of con- 
centric circles. Still, the idea to be 
conveyed may perhaps be made more 
directly intelligible by such procedure, 
even at the risk of doing absolute vio- 
lence to some of the facts we are con- 
sidering. The best that can be done is 
to present a map of the inhabited world 
on a Bering Strait projection and with 
that point as a center describe our cir- 
cles in a partly arbitrary fashion. (See 
illustration, page 138.) 

The zones thus indicated might be 
variously named. Perhaps our ethno- 
logical terminology will serve best and 
we may begin on the extreme border 
and repeat inward toward the Bering 
Strait center, in succession: lower hunt- 
ers, higher hunters, pastoral nomads, 
sedentary agriculturists, and indus- 
trialists. It is not, of course, contended 
that this simple distribution scheme is 
literally true in all of its details, but 
merely that it is more true than false 
or, in other words, that it is fundamen- 
tally true. The most primitive cultures 
do fall within the outer zone, as the 
most complex fall within the inner 
circle, and whether we approach this 
inner circle from Tasmania or South 
Africa or Tierra del Fuego, we do en- 
counter the advanced cultures in ap- 
proximately the order indicated.1 

We have, lastly, to look at this hori- 
zontal phenomenon in its vertical as- 
pect. Each of our most primitive cul- 
tures, surviving here and there on the 
margins of the Old as well as of the 
New World, shows such striking simi- 
larity to one phase or another of the 
ancient Paleolithic culture of western 
Europe that few students have failed to 
note the fact. And the notion of possi- 

1It will perhaps be pointed out that a corre- 
sponding series of zones should be plotted within 
our inner circle of high development, grading down 
in reverse order toward the Arctic Ocean. But the 
circumpolar phenomenon has been left out purposely 
in the present broad treatment, first, for the sake 


of clearness, and second, because it is, after all, a 
feature due largely to environmental conditions. 


An 


nil 


NORTH AMERICA 


Ni 


| 
| 


il 
h 
| 


os 


wl 
“(| 
| 


| 


OUTH AMERICA 


Diagrammatic presentation of the general geographic distribution thro 


monly recognized culture stages at the time of the discovery of America. 
three continental land masses crossed by them is not to be taken literally 


given zones on any one of the 


throughout, nor is even the order of names to be considered hard a1 
Accurately drawn, the zones should not be indicated 


example, the “pastoral zone”’ is all but nonexistent. 


CULTURAL 


Mi 
Hl 


| 


STR\ pm 


AFRICA 


ont 


ughout the world of the com- 
The indicated position of the 


id fast. In South America, for 


by true circles but by something like isothermal lines which would actually eliminate most of North 
America and a good part of northern Asia from the central area as now constituted. The idea to 
be conveyed by the above rigid diagram is simply this, that the world’s most advanced cultures are 
at home within the central area and that, as we travel out from this center toward any one of the 
land mass extremities, we find ourselves descending a cultural pyramid; and, finally, that the 
arly alike the cultures for the distantly separated land masses 
f the native tribes of Tasmania, South Africa, and 
are almost the same; whereas by ccntrast the cul- 


three 
farther out we go the cruder and more ne 
become. In other words, the cultural attainments 0 
Tierra del Fuego, although very far apart in space, 


tures characterizing the central area are highly differentiated. 


ble historic connection thus engendered 
is greatly strengthened by a considera- 
tion of the archeological data for the 
world at large. 

In the case of America, for example, 
we discover at once that the resemblance 
in question was formerly closer than it 
is today. Briefly stated, our Eskimo and 
Fuegian cultures, especially the former, 
show strong Magdalenian! affinities. 
For the continent at large, however, 

1 Various European culture levels of Paleolithic 
time, determined by the character of the stone and 
other implements used by early man, and thought 
to range backward from a few thousand to 400,- 
000 and more years, are in their order counting 
backward from modern and Neolithic as follows: 


Magdalenian, Solutrean, Aurignacian, Mousterian, 
Acheulian, Chellean, Strepyan, ete. 


138 


the Solutrean flint technique is typical 
and has been typical, it seems, through- 
out nearly the whole known history of 
American developments. Only here 
and there, for instance along the Ar- 
gentine coast, on the isle of Cuba, and 
in the Ozark and Mammoth Cave re- 
gions, have we obtained more or less 
distinct traces of chipped stone arti- 
facts which in type and technique re- 
semble the Aurignacian and Mousterian 
products. Whether we shall ever be 
able to isolate definitely something cor- 
responding to the Acheulian and Chel- 
lean phases remains to be seen; but 
when we stop to consider the relatively 
enormous time interval covered by the 


HUMAN CULTURE 


coup-de-poing type! of implement and 
when we bear in mind also its nearly 
complete distribution over the Old 
World, it becomes obviously hazardous 
to exclude its occurrence from the New 
World. 

Most likely we shall some day re- 
verse the balance of American opinion 
against the genuine antiquity of the 
scattered finds already made in the 
drift of the Delaware and Ohio basins. 
But even if this should come to pass, it 
is probable that the various phases of 
Paleolithic culture as we know them at 
their best in western Europe can never 
be brought out into sharp relief in 
America. That is to say, we shall never 
be able to obtain clear and detailed 
stratifications, because the best part of 
the New World was so far away from 
the center of origin that the earliest cul- 
ture waves had spent themselves before 
they arrived here. 

No attempt can here be made to fix 
this center of origin or even to suggest 
that it ever can be identified with any 
particular locality. All that can be 


1 The coup-de-poing type of implement resembles 
a large crudely made spear point and is the oldest 
implement recognized as intentionally made by 
early man. 


PR: 


GEOLOGIC /, 
TIME: ' 


VIMITS EE PANIES => 


STARA 
an ! npU' c= 


139 


stated at present is that seemingly the 
oldest archeological data known have 
hitherto been found within the limits 
of our inner circle, which also marks 
our present center of high development. 
Our oldest cultural remains have thus 
far been found in the vicinity of the 
Mediterranean, but for various reasons, 
theoretic and practical, it seems prob- 
able that still older remains might be 
found farther to the east, roughly speak- 
ing in central or southern Asia. But, 
wherever the first real inventions were 
made, it would be preposterous to sup- 
pose that all other inventions, even the 
most primitive and fundamental, were 
made in that same place. 

Throughout nearly all of culture 
history, conditions were probably much 
as they are today: there were a num- 
ber of culminating centers and the 
dominant one may at times have been 
difficult to recognize; but at any rate 
no particular center retained perma- 
nent sway. As within historic times, 
every particular culture phenomenon 
probably refined itself to the point of 
stagnation and ultimately fell an easy 
prey to any vigorous barbarian group. 
In principle there is no difference be- 


Zo 


: A possible explanation of how the zonal similarities for the separate continents came about is 
illustrated by a sectional view along the generalized A-B diameter of the preceding diagram. The 
view is taken along this A-B diameter but it should actually follow a line running through western 


and southern Europe as well as southern and eastern Asia. 
and is a repetition of the first two illustrations, with simply a change of text. 


The diagram is largely self-explanatory 
The only real modifi- 


cation occurs in the sectional portion where the pyramid has been inverted in order to indicate the 
passage of time while the normally associated groups of inventions and practices traveled from the 
center of origin out toward the margin of the inhabited world. Only the relatively crude cultures 
have arrived on this outer margin, where it is said they are not very ancient; but in the center of 
high development these same crude cultures lie stratigraphically very deep or, in other words, are 
decidedly ancient. For that reason it is assumed as likely that most of the world’s great culture 
stages first arose in the central area and spread from there as successive waves in all directions 


140 


tween the decline of the Pueblo culture 
and the fall of Rome. 

With all these limitations and _ pre- 
cautions in mind we may conclude our 
semi-speculative survey of human cul- 
ture with a diagrammatic presentation 
of what seems to be the essential his- 
toric and geographic factors involved. 
The elements of this diagram have al- 
ready been set forth in connection 
with the Pueblo phenomenon. The 
zonal schematization we may leave un- 
modified, but the sectional presentation, 
reared in the form of a steplike pyra- 
mid, although apparently correct, is 
actually faulty, as was stated. The 
constructional error in question was 
not so obvious, however, in the case 
of the minor Pueblo pyramid as it 
will be in the case of our great world 
pyramid. Briefly stated, the difficulty 
hinges on the fact that no single in- 
vention and much less any whole cul- 
tural complex, wherever it originated, 
could spread all over the inhabited 
world in the twinkling of an eye. If 
we grant, for the sake of argument, that 
density of population and consequent 
specialization along various lines of ac- 
tivity first came to a head somewhere 
near the meeting place of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa, it is obvious that it would 
take a considerable period of time for 
even the most adaptable sort of inven- 
tion to reach, let us say, Tasmania and 
Tierra del Fuego. 

As is plainly evident, very few of the 
advanced ideas concretely realized in 
the central area of high development 
ever reached the outermost zones; and, 
regarding those which did arrive there, 
we are constantly being told that they 
occur only superficially, whereas, in the 
inner area, the corresponding primitive 
forms lie stratigraphically deep. This 
signifies undoubtedly that millenniums 
of time passed while the various succes- 
sive adaptations in culture spread over 
the world. To represent the fact dia- 
grammatically we have simply to break 
the horizontal division lines of our ter- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


raced pyramid in the middle and then 
raise up both of the outer ends. This in 
effect inverts our old pyramid and en- 
ables us at the same time to combine 
the time and space diagrams into one. 
The result is indicated in the Figure on 
page 139. 


This paper is an attempt to present 
the large and complex subject of human 
culture in its simplest possible terms. 
The explanation is not finished. Actual 
inspection of details would immediately 


bring out numerous difficulties and 
weaknesses. It is* nots cot veourse 


argued, for instance, that the surviving 
cultures as we view them today, from 
the central to the extreme zone, will 
give us an exact picture of human cul- 
tural development. All the while since 
differentiation set in, these zones have 
reacted on one another. That is, a few 
traits have flowed perhaps both in and 
out on horizontal lines in addition to the 
many traits which welled up as it were 
from below. But ina general and at the 
same time in the most profound way, 
the outer zone has unquestionably pre- 
served for us the really ancient culture. 

We may properly conclude with some- 
thing in the nature of a prophecy. The 
signs of the times are auspicious. 
Events of the last few years have 
brought it about that men, in planning 
the future, have to think in world terms 
or fail. There is a sense in which the 
same is true also in connection with 
reconstruction of the world’s past. If, 
after a century of exploratory work in 
archeology, we still continue over local 
minutie to the exclusion of everything 
else, we shall ultimately become so bur- 
dened with endlessly duplicated detail 
facts that no man can master them and 
the wasteful procedure will break down 
of its own weight. If, on the other 
hand, we simply dare to see our prob- 
lem whole, then surely many of our 
present minor difficulties will fade 
away of themselves. The time is ripe 
for organized interpretative work. 


Nature Reflected in the Art of the 


Ancient Chiriquians 


By GEORGE 


Given hai CU rh DY 


Assistant Professor of Prehistoric Archeology and Curator of the Anthropological 
Collection, Yale University 


HE age of the cave artist was 
the age preéminent of funda- 
mentals in art. It was then 

that the arts of sculpture in the round 
and in relief, of engraving, and paint- 
ing were born and first flourished. This 
troglodyte art was remarkable for its 
realism, especially throughout its earlier 
phases. It dealt with life forms, for 
the most part those of animals useful 
to man. Its beginnings and its realis- 
tie character were due in a measure at 
least to the necessity of controlling the 
food supply. 

With the final retreat of the conti- 
nental glaciers and the disappearance 
of the reindeer and the mammoth from 
western Europe, cave art suffered an 
eclipse. The Paleolithic period was 
followed by a more practical if less 
artistic age, the Neolithic. While the 
men of the New Stone age contributed 
in their turn to art progress, it was in 
other directions, notably through the 
far-reaching discovery of the ceramic 
art. 

In any discussion therefore of Neo- 
lithie art, ceramic art plays an impor- 
tant role. This is true not only of pre- 
historic Europe but also of prehistoric 
America. Since many of the orna- 
mental designs that have had such a 
vogue in historic time had already 
taken shape before the dawn of history, 
their origin is to be sought for in pre- 
historic records. Since the problem in 
Europe is more complex than that in 
America, I have chosen some prehis- 
toric American examples, which seem 
to illustrate the principles that control 
the origin and evolution of ornament in 
art. These prove that Neolithic art, 
like cave art, reflected almost exclu- 


sively man’s zodlogic environment ; they 
also indicate that man’s attitude toward 
this environment had changed some- 
what, the change being measured by the 
extent to which realism was replaced by 
conventionalism, and the ex-voto by the 
totem. 

During the earlier as well as the 
later Stone age, man must have taken a 
certain delight in the beauty of animal 
forms independent of their real or sup- 
posed influence upon his fortunes; his 
ability to reproduce the chief features 
of the animal forms which interested 
him most no doubt gave him added sat- 
isfaction. 

The examples chosen all come from a 
single restricted culture area, namely 
the province of Chiriqui on the Pacific 
coast of Panama, and have been se- 
lected principally from the unrivaled 
collection of Chiriquian antiquities in 
Peabody Museum of Yale University. 
The specimens belong to the late Stone 
age, or, to be more exact, the transition 
from the Neolithic to the age of metals. 
They are almost wholly from the field 
of ceramic art and date from a time 
when the use of the potter’s wheel was 
still unknown in America. 

The pottery of ancient Chiriqui is 
divisible into a number of rather dis- 
tinct groups depending on the nature 
of the paste and slip, the form and fin- 
ish, the presence or absence of paint, 
and above all the character of the orna- 
ment; whether in the round, in relief, 
incised, or in color; and if in color, the 
method of producing the design. 

An outstanding feature of ancient 
Chiriquian pottery is the association of 
a given animal with a given kind of 
ceramic product. The next and chief 

141 


142 


phenomenon is the proliferation of a 
whole series of decorative motives 
grouped about a single animal form 
and presumably derived from it. If 
this be true, then Chiriqui affords some 
striking proofs of the way ornamental 
designs have arisen and of the prepon- 
derating influence of conventionalism 
in their evolution. 

A knowledge of the folklore of the 
ancient Chiriquians might throw hght 
on why the artist made so much of cer- 
tain animals while ignoring others. 
This choice might well have been influ- 
enced by various considerations such as 
totemism, tradition, comeliness, or even 
the mere coincidence of similarity be- 
tween some artificial product and some 
well-known animal form. 'The favorite 
models were the animals common to the 
region in question, those whose pecu- 
harities of form and of habit were not 
beyond the reach of common knowl- 
edge. While the artist often produced 
figures with mixed attributes, their 
component parts are always referable to 
living local forms rather than to fabu- 
lous creatures. 

The largest group of ware is charac- 
terized by a distinct kind of paste and 
slip, the absence of paint, a remarkable 
purity of form and finish, and orna- 
mentation in the round or in relief. 
The ornamentation dominant is taken 
from the armadillo. <A favorite adap- 
tation is the use of a more or less real- 
istic figure of the armadillo as tripod 
supports; another is the perching of 
the figure on the shoulders of vases. 
More remarkable still is the isolation 
of a single feature or part of the arma- 
dillo and its use as a decorative motive 
independent of and at the same time 
representative of the whole: the eye, 
the foot, the tail, a band of the cara- 
pace. A pleasing pattern for the neck 
of a vase is a series of carapace motives 
or tail motives, in zigzag, with a foot or 
an eye symbol filling each angular 
space. Each carapace band, or each 
tail, as the case may be, is executed 


NARORAL TES LO RN 


skillfully as well as realistically. Only 
when it comes to the arrangement, the 
disposition of the series, is there a de- 
parture from nature. 

In dealing with the armadillo figure 
as a whole the artist allowed himself 
considerable latitude. At times he was 
satisfied with nothing less than a faith- 
ful copy. At other times reduction and 
simplification of parts were carried so 
far as to render identification difficult. 
Again, the artist indulged in the redu- 
plication, exaggeration, elimination, or 
fusion of parts, at all times, however, 
leaving an unmistakable though in- 
definable stamp upon his work, a touch 
that entitled him to rank as a student 
of nature and, by virtue of this, as a 
true artist; for the two go hand in 
hand, are inseparable. 

The reasons why the Chiriquian ar- 
tist gave special prominence to the ar- 
madillo are somewhat obscure, beyond 
its local occurrence, pecuhar habits, 
and its utility as an article of food. Its 
mythological background is trifling in 
comparison with that of some other 
animals; but this could be accounted 
for in part at least by its limited range. 
On the other hand the bird and the 
serpent have a very wide geographic 
distribution; and curiously enough 
these are, above all others, the mytho- 
logical world favorites. It is therefore 
not at all surprising to find the trail of 
the serpent in ancient Chiriquian sym- 
bolism. In fact it is the chief decora- 
tive feature in one small group of ware 
and has left an impress on two other 
eroups. Like the armadillo ware, the 
serpent ware belongs in a class by itself 
beeause of its distinctive (black) paste 
and slip and the fact that the designs 
are incised instead of being in the 
round or in relief. Moreover, the effect 
of the incised pattern is heightened 
through the filling in of the incisions 
with a white substance. 

The favorite theme is a long serpen- 
tine body with a head and protruding 
forked tongue at each end. The whole 


NATURE REFLECTED IN CHIRIQUIAN ART 


forms a balanced and somewhat stylis- 
tic figure, which is repeated on the 
opposite side of the vase. With the 
elimination of the heads, the breaking 
up of the body into geometric patterns, 
and the shifting of the body markings 
from their original position, the sym- 
bolism sometimes reaches a stage of al- 
most complete disguise. As long, how- 
ever, as the artist confined himself to 
the distinctive serpent ware his mean- 
ing is comparatively clear. When, and 
if, he attempted to carry this conven- 
tionalized serpent symbolism over into 
other groups of ware calling for a 
change of medium and technique, and 
where other motives dominated, the 
results became confused with designs 
that started from wholly different orig- 
inals. 

Like the bird and the snake, the fish 
has an all but universal range, but it 
does not seem to have left such an in- 
delible impress on the mind of primi- 
tive man as have the former two. Chi- 
riquian waters abound in fish, which 
must have been one of the chief sources 
of food supply among the ancient in- 
habitants. Nothing could be more nat- 
ural than that the potter should en- 
deavor to reproduce a form of such 
utilitarian as well as artistic adaptabil- 
ity. In fashioning the long tripod sup- 
ports for urn-shaped vases he would 
inadvertently arrive at a form suggest- 
ing the outlines of a fish; the fortuitous 
resemblance could be heightened ad 
libitum by emphasis upon such details 
as the nose, eyes, and fins. In some 
examples the piscatorial attributes are 
suggested by the merest touch, such as 
the slight flattening at the end to indi- 
cate the tail fin or the application of a 
single node on the back to represent 
the dorsal fin. In others the details 
are worked out with such care that one 
is able to identify the exact species. 

Few animals have left a more potent 
symbolic impress upon the culture of 
various peoples of the earth than has 
the alligator or crocodile (Spanish el 


143 


lagarto). The extent of this influence 
is revealed in art. ‘The prototype of 
the Chinese dragon is no doubt the 
alligator, with which the Yangtze 
River teemed in prehistoric time and 
which must have filled with terror the 
heart of the riparian rice-grower of 
that period (as pointed out by Dr. 
Berthold Laufer). It was probably the 
Egyptian crocodile that inspired the 
author of the book of Job to write: 
“Canst thou draw out leviathan with a 
hook?” As was the case in China and 
Egypt, so it was in Chiriqui, where the 
record is none the less complete because 
of its being pictorial instead of written. 

Representations of the alligator not 
only are confined almost wholly to two 
related groups of Chiriquian pottery 
but also are dominant in these groups. 
Since both groups depend on color for 
their ornamentation, the alligator oc- 
curs consistently in painted forms only, 
never as a figure in the round, in relief, 
or incised. 

The larger of the two groups is 
known as alligator ware and is charac- 
terized by a paste of excellent quality, 
a cream-colored slip, and by red and 
black delineating colors, both being of 
an enduring nature. The more realis- 
tic figures of the alligator are in profile 
and decorate the bodies of globular 
vases, one being painted on each side. 
The artist emphasized certain features 
of the animal by preference: jaws of 
exaggerated length and recurved, espe- 
cially the upper one, undue prominence 
of the frontal region, a synclinal sweep 
of the body line, and a scrupulous care 
that the scales and spines be not omit- 
ted. <A favorite method of bringing the 
scales into view was to group them in 
triangular or semicircular fields that 
rose above the dorsal line. Profile fig- 
ures of the alligator are encountered 
ranging all the way from elaborate real- 
istic representations to a simple abbre- 
viated horizontal body curve with a 
single dot in the hollow of the curve 
to indicate the dorsal body markings. 


144 NATURAL HISTORY 


SERPENT WARE 


Representations of the 
serpent on  Chiriquian 
pottery are almost wholly 
confined to one small 
ceramic group, the so- 
called black incised ware. 
On this the serpent mo- 
tive is so all-pervading 
as to justify the name 
serpent ware. The deep 
incisions in this ware 
were made before the 
paste hardened and were 
filled with a white sub- 


——— 
Sees stance that stands out in 


bold contrast with the 
black ground. The geo- 
metric decorations of the 
uppermost vessel here 
shown are a survival of 
the serpent symbol. In 
the second figure the 
body of the serpent with 
head at both ends passes 
around the body of the 
vase three times. 

Opposite sides of the 
third vase are decorated 
with a pattern evidently 
intended to represent a 
similar serpent with head 
and forked tongue at each 
end. The body of the 
serpent is folded on itself 
in such a manner as to 
produce geometric out- 
lines and thoroughly cover 
the field to be decorated. 
The handles of this ves- 
sel, where they merge 
into the lip, are crossed 
by an incised fillet re 
sembling the carapace 
symbol so common in the 
armadillo ware. A break- 
ing up of the elements 
that enter into the real- 
istic representation of 
the serpent is sometimes 
seen, a series of triangles 
being formed by the body 
motive with the mark- 
ings appearing only in 
the enclosed spaces. This 
results not only in econ- 
omy of labor but also in 
more thoroughly cover- 
ing the area to be deco- 
rated; hence convention- 
alism has ever been as 
much the child of econ- 
omy as of ritual 


NATURE REFLECTED IN CHIRIQUIAN ART 145 


ALLIGATOR WARE 


The skill of the ancient 
Chiriquian artist is no 
where better displayed 
than in his treatment of 
the alligator, representa- 
tions of which character 
ize two related ceramic 
groups (the so-called alli- 
gator ware and the poly 
chrome ware) which, un 
like the armadillo ware, 
depend on color for orna- 
mentation. In this pro 
file figure are combined 
the chief features of the 
alligator, including scales 
and spines 


It is by no means cer 
tain that the ancient Chi- 
riquians may not have 
had in mind the crocodile 
rather than the alligator, 
since both are found in 
Chiriquian waters. The 
length of jaw depicted 
at times by the artist 
seems to indicate the 
former instead of the 
shorter muzzled alliga 
tor. The stylistie figure 
here shown has a head at . 
both ends of the body 
Dots representing eyes 
and teeth are _ placed 
where space invites rather 


than where they belong 


What at first glance 
looks like a meaningless 
bundle of waving arms 
portrayed on this vase is 
a conventional treatment 
of the alligator with the 
head turning backward 
The much exaggerated 
jaws extend over the back 
and tail, balanced by a 
long appendage on the 
neck, while the space be 
low is amply filled by a 
relatively small trunk 


tail, and legs 


146 


NATURAL HISTORY 


A favorite rep- 
resentation shows 
the alligator in 
absolute profile. 
Note the open 
mouth with teeth, 
the upturned 
snout, the dorsal 
markings on the 
head and tail, and 
the long crest at- 
tached to the neck 


Vessels of the 
alligator group 
mounted as tri- 
pods are compar- 
atively rare. The 
supports are usu- 
ally short, solid, 
pointed cones 
marked by hori- 
zontal black bands. 
In from 
El Banco the neck 
is quite short and 


the shoulder deco- 
ration consists of 
three panels each 
bearing a_ series 
of scale-group 
symbols. 


The profile view 
of the alligator is 
here reduced to 
its simplest ele- 
ments: the curve 
of the body line 
and a dot in the 
hollow of the 
curve to repre- 
sent the scales on 
the back of the 
animal 


A representa- 
tion of the alliga- 
tor similar to the 
figure at the top 
of the page is 
here shown, the 
body markings be- 
ing represented by 
only one type of 
scale-group mo- 
tive, repeated 
three times on the 
head and five 
times on the tail 


NATURE REFLECTED IN CHIRIQUIAN ART 


Not content with his success in exe- 
cuting the profile view of the alligator, 
the artist also took special pains to pic- 
ture the dorsal aspect of the animal, 
a difficult problem happily solved 
through the aid of conventionalism. 
By means of a series of parallel lines 
the rows of spines on the alligator’s 
back were indicated; while to the lat- 
eral margins of the series were attached 
spines or dotted triangles to represent 
the scales. To these triangles I have 
given the name scale-group motive, 
while the figure as a whole I have called 
the dorsal-view motive. The latter is a 
favorite decoration for arched panels 
on the shoulders of vases. 

The other group of ware in which 
alligator motives prevail is small but of 
special importance. It is known as 
polychrome ware, and is at once rec- 
ognizable through the addition of pur- 
ple as a delineating color, special skill 
in the elaboration of designs, and versa- 
tility in the shaping process. It is in 
this group alone that we find the highly 
ornamental branching scroll pattern 
evolved from the multiple body line of 
the alligator combined with a series of 
alligator profile motives. 

In this rare ceramic group we find a 
painted figure with alligator and hu- 
man attributes combined—alligator 
head on a human body to which are 
attached human arms and legs and an 
alligator tail—a figure which I have 
called the alligator god. The alligator 
god was a particular favorite with the 
Chiriquian metal worker. Over and 
over again we find him among the gold 
figurines. His human feet are usually 
planted on the body of an alligator, to 
each end of which is attached an alli- 
gator head and undifferentiated fore- 
legs: while on his alligator head rests 
a similar double-headed alligator in- 
verted. 

The octopus frequents the waters on 
both sides of the Isthmus. Like the 
alligator it might be expected to cast 
a powerful spell over the mind of primi- 


147 


tive man. The reasons for this would 
be clear enough if one could see it 
through the eyes of the T’ravailleurs de 
la Mer, as Victor Hugo attempted to 
do. The prehistoric as well as the his- 
toric art of the Mediterranean region 
bears abundant evidence of this. Fig- 
ures of the octopus, both realistic and 
conventionalized, occur in the art of 
ancient Greece and elsewhere. Passing 
to the New World, one readily encoun- 
ters two centers of the octopus cult, 
Peru and Chiriqui. 

In Chiriqui we find the association 
of the octopus with a single kind of 
ceramic product, which for the sake of 
convenience we may call octopus ware. 
This ware differs from the alligator 
group and both differ from the arma- 
dillo ware. In point of numbers the 
octopus group ranks next to the arma- 
dillo group. It consists for the most 
part of slender-necked globular vases of 
medium size. The prevailing color of 
the slip is red. On this the designs 
were laid down in wax. The part to be- 
decorated was then treated with a uni- 
form coat of black. Later the vessel 
was passed through a hot bath; this 
melted the wax which carried with it 
portions of the overlying black, leaving 
the desired pattern in the color of the 
ground. The technique and the nature 
of the colors employed are thus wholly 
different from those. in the ceramic 
groups already described. The only 
point in common is that here again the 
prevailing decorative motives center 
about a single: zodmorphiec original— 
tne octopus—and are presumably de- 
rived from it. 

There is something peculiarly fitting 
in the association of the octopus with 
small-necked round-bodied vases that 
depend for their ornamentation upon a 
system of negative painting. By add- 
ing eight appendages the body and 
mouth of the vase at once become the 
body and mouth of an octopus. This 
is equally the case whether the arms 
depend from the neck or rise from the 


148 NATURAL HISTORY 


~ 
a Oe 
Oungaee 


Polychrome ware is remarkable for its rarity as well as for its refinement and beauty of ornamenta- 
tion. It is more closely akin to the alligator ware than to any other, the delineating colors, black and 
red, being the same, while the addition of purple in many cases gives a distinguishing character. The 
elaborate branching scroll decorating this vase is derived from the multiple body curve of the alligator, 
to which seven alligator protile motives are attached (compare with third figure, page 146) 


F sn i 


Uhh 


lis 


nis 


Gine 


The alligator god (at the left).—This extraordinary design on the inside of a cup or chalice of 
polychrome ware represents the human body and extremities surmounted by the alligator’s head with all 
its characteristic traits. The artistic red and purple spines are attached to the crests instead of to the 
head proper. It has been observed that there is great resemblance in this decoration to that of the 
earliest known period of Chinese art 


The parrot god (at the right).—The human body is sometimes combined with avian attributes, as 
seen in this figure cast in gold. Even here alligator symbolism is present in the foot rest, which is 
repeated in inverted position to form the headdress of the god 


NATURE REFLECTED IN CHIRIQUIAN ART 149 


Octopus ware, showing realistic figure of an octopus.—One of the best examples of the association 
of a given animal with a certain ceramic product is exemplified in this so-called octopus ware, which 
like the alligator ware depends on color for its ornamentation. The method of producing the design and 
the nature of the colors used are, however, very different in the two. 


In this example of octopus ware the octopus appendage alone is used. It appears in a curved 
frondlike representation and also in the guise of a short-based triangle with a series of dots representing 
the suckers, these motives alternating in a series below the neck of the vessel 


150 NATURAL HISTORY 


FURTHER 
EXAMPLES OF 
OCTOPUS 
WARE 


Outlined in black on a 
light ground, eight octo- 
pus arms (of the curved 
frond type) depend from 
the neck of this vase, the 
neck and mouth of the 
vase being in the posi- 
tion of body and mouth 


of the octopus. 


Triangular and 
curved frond octopus 
appendages converg- 
ing toward the center 
of a circular panel. 
On the vessel at the 
right there are four 
sets of appendages, 
namely, one descend- 
ing from the neck, 
: E one rising from the 
: Z base, and two con- 
verging toward the 
centers of opposite 
circular panels 


Here the triangular 
and frond type _ (the 
fronds are straightened) 
of octopus appendage al- 
ternate, filling an arched 
panel. The straightened 
fronds bear two rows of 
suckers each 


A pale yellow and 
black vase has a zonal 
decoration. Thetwo broad 
black bands are broken 
up by a _ succession of 
diamond-shaped figures 
each representing an oc- 
topus body. (Compare 
with figure at top of page 
149.) Appendages have 
been eliminated and dots 
indicating the suckers 
have been placed within 
the body areas 


NATURE REFLECTED IN CHIRIQUIAN ART 


vessel's maximum horizontal circum- 
ference. 

Again the globular shape of the body 
makes it possible to describe a circular 
panel on each side. This is sometimes 
filled by a realistic figure of the octo- 
pus. Again in the center of this panel 
a small circle may be traced; and 
toward this make-believe mouth as a 
center, octopus appendages converge 
from the periphery of the panel. Thus 
can a single vase be made to represent 
two complete octopus figures. In some 
examples the reduplication is repeated 
about the neck and bottom of the vase 
respectively, resulting in a quadruple 
representation of the complete octopus 
figure. 

The one outstanding feature of the 
octopus is the set of eight suckered ap- 
pendages; to these the Chiriquian ar- 
tist gave special attention. The more 
realistic appendage representations are 
frondlike and accompanied by a row of 
sucker dots along the convex margin. 
The less realistic appendage motive 
takes the form of a short-based tri- 
angle, with a row of suckers paralleling 
one or both of the long sides. From 
both the frondlike and the triangular 
appendage the suckers are often omit- 
ted, or they may appear by transposi- 
tion on the body of the octopus. 

In addition to the armadillo, ser- 
pent, fish, alligator, and octopus,’ each 
of which is dominant in a distinct ce- 
ramic group, there are several other ani- 


1Mr. B. W. Merwin of the University Museum, 
Philadelphia, has recently called attention to a 
snake (Crotalus durissus) from Chiriqui, the scale 
pattern of which is not unlike some of the designs 
to be found both in the alligator and octopus 
ceramic groups. In other words, with such an 
exuberant proliferation of decorative motives de- 
rived from a single zo6morphic original there is 
ever present the possibility of the overlapping of 
motives that started from wholly different orig- 
inals. For example dots were employed not only 
to represent the scales of the alligator but also 
for the suckers of the octopus; they might also be 
made to stand for spots.on a snake’s back. The 
dotted triangle served as a convenient symbol for 
groups of alligator scales. On the other hand a 
short-based triangle accompanied by dots along 
one or both of its longer sides was without the 


151 


mals which appealed more or less to the 
fancy of the artist. Among these are 
the frog occurring by preference in the 
armadillo group, the monkey, raccoon, 
squirrel, iguana, tapir, deer, peccary, 
crab, owl, parrot, and jaguar. The two 
last named are met with not only in the 
alligator ware especially as whistles 
but also among the metal figurines. 
Both are sometimes combined with 
human attributes to form what I have 
called the jaguar god and the parrot 
god. 

The development of decorative and 
symbolic art is not to be demonstrated 
by means of mathematical formulas; 
that its manifestations are however 
subject to the laws of growth and of 
decay, there can be little doubt. In the 
evolution of ornament in art, the hap- 
hazard plays an insignificant role. The 
reasons for each step may not always 
be obvious, but they exist nevertheless. 
The work of a given artist reflects alike 
his spiritual make-up and his environ- 
ment, cultural as well as natural. The 
marks of kinship running through the 
group of alligator or octopus motives, 
for example, rest on a more solid basis 
than mere fortuitous convergence to- 
ward a common type. . Each artist 
either had in mind the common source 
of inspiration, or else copied from 
someone who was drawing on that orig- 
inal source. The source is always and 
everywhere nature; and that art is best 
which remains true to its source. 
shadow of a doubt derived from the octopus ap- 
pendage. A realistic representation of the body 
pattern of a Chiriquian rattlesnake is satisfactorily 
expressed by means of rhombs, and perhaps even 
by triangles. The confusion arising from possible 
convergences of this kind is, however, reduced to 
a minimum by the fact that the three animals 
in question are each dominant in its own distince- 
tive ceramic group. In the alligator ware, the 
influence of other animal forms is negligible; the 
same is true of the octopus and the serpent wares. 
The probabilities are therefore that a dotted tri- 
angle is not a serpent motive when occurring on 
alligator or octopus ware; neither is it a scale- 
group symbol or appendage-sucker motive if oc- 
curring within the ceramic group known as ser- 
pent ware. This much can be said without deny- 


ing the possibility of the reverse being true in 
exceptional cases. 


Peace Conditions 


Parallelism between the development of the high animal organism and that of the super-nation, 


both in accordance with broad general principles of organization: 


especially mutual dependence and cooperation 


By 


J A-M BSG. 


NEEDHAM 


Professor of Entomology and Limnology, Cornell University 


HACE- KEEPING is not 

much a matter of treaties signed 

at the close of hostilities, as it 
is a state of public mind. “Peace 
terms,” so called, may be named arbi- 
trarily by the authorized representa- 
tives of warring states; but peace con- 
ditions are fixed in the psychic organi- 
zation of our species. The “terms” 
must conform to the conditions; else 
there will be no lasting peace. 

What are the conditions? How shall 
concord and organic health be assured 
in the political organization of the 
world? 

Much light is shed upon the prob- 
lems of organization by the study of 
nature’s supreme model, the body com- 
posed of cells. These are the units of 
a lower order, that correspond to the 
persons composing the body politic. In 
our own bodies they are so highly in- 
tegrated and their operations are so 
unified that we can scarcely think of 
them as distinct parts which have been 
able to get on together by reason of 1m- 
provements in corporate organization. 
Yet our life is at bottom cell life, and 
all our activities of body and mind are 
the result of the codrdinated function- 
ing of the component cells. Moreover, 
these cells begin their existence in com- 
parative independence, and differen- 
tiate, specialize, and merge their in- 
terest and find their several places and 
functions as the body grows. 

The grades of organization among 
cells and the resultant forms of animal 
life are not more diverse than are the 
forms of political organization which 
have accompanied the social efforts of 
mankind; and the parallelism between 
the two is so close and so detailed one 
can scarcely doubt that broad general 


152 


so 


principles of organization are involved. 
With increasing size both have devel- 
oped media of exchange, channels of 
transportation, lines of communication, 
supporting structures, organs of out- 
look and centers of control. Tasks 
have been differentiated and division of 
labor has made each part to bear re- 
sponsibility for the welfare of all. 

Parallelisms have always indicated 
conditions set by nature; conditions to 
which all organisms, whether physical 
or social, must conform in order to 
live. 

In every organization, whatever its 
components, mutual dependence is the 
strong bond of union. This is the 
first condition of peaceful and perma- 
nent association. Unfortunately, it is 
wholly at variance with what have here- 
tofore been national ideals of self-suf- 
ficiency. If each nation had to con- 
tinue to raise, to mine, to manufacture 
all that its own people require for sus- 
tenance, and had to maintain defenses 
adequate to meet all comers, then per- 
manent world peace would be forever 
impossible. 

The road to world peace runs in the 
opposite direction. Let the peoples of 
the earth make common cause of their 
needs of defense, as the parts of the 
body have done; let them remove all 
artificial barriers to the fullest and 
freest use of the world’s diversified pro- 
ducts. Let them organize an agency of 
control to determine local conflicts of 
interest In accordance with the greater 
good: then peace will be possible. 

In union, strength is found. By co- 
operation, the common tasks of life are 
more easily performed. But increase 
in the mass makes for better living only 
as the parts of the mass come to func- 


PEACE CONDITIONS 


tion together harmoniously, and each 
bears its share in meeting the common 
needs. Mutual responsiveness is the 
true measure of organic efficiency. 

Peace is organic health. 

If any organization is to attain to a 
high degree of efficiency its parts must 
be mutually dependent, having need of 
one another; mutually responsive, serv- 
ing one another; and there must be also 
some organ of control, capable of deter- 
mining for the sake of the larger inter- 
ests of the body that local and private 
quarrels shall cease. 

The human race at large is unorgan- 
ized, inchoate. Its elements are com- 
bined in heterogeneous units of varied 
size and composition that are not con- 
sistently either racial or geographic. It 
resembles a slime mold rather than a 
vertebrate, since the mass may be di- 
vided and its parts may be recombined 
arbitrarily. 

And yet, out of the mass there have 
emerged groups highly organized and 
highly efficient. The primal group is 
the family, firmly founded upon the 
one differentiation that Mother Nature 
has imposed upon us—the differentia- 
tion between the sexes. Combinations 
of families into clans and tribes grow 
out of the discovery of the advantages 
of codperation in large tasks. Boun- 
daries are at first determined largely 
by kinship, or by advantages of trade. 
With progress in agriculture and hand- 
icraft further compounding becomes 
possible and nations are organized. 
Always the size of the group is directly 
related to conditions of living: com- 
plexity of organization follows upon 
increase in size. But, large or small, 
every group that has attained to com- 
munal efficiency has followed the lines 
laid down by nature for all the living. 

From the dawn of history even to 
this present hour the most marked 
psychological characteristic of all 
groupings of mankind has been the 
behavior of group-members toward one 
another as contrasted with their atti- 


153 
tude toward outsiders; brotherhood 
within, enmity without. Federation, 


whether of families, tribes, or nations, 
has made for peace and codperation 
inside the group, and for war and con- 
quest outside. The closer the neigh- 
boring groups and the stronger their 
internal organization, the more intense 
has been their strife. 

Every group has exalted its own 
heroes, traditions, folk ways, and looked 
down upon those of other groups as 
inferior. Whoever we were, we were the 
chosen people. Others were benighted 
in proportion as their ways diverged 
from our own. We have thought it our 
mission to extend our own kind of cul- 
ture throughout the earth. This has 
been the spirit of nationalism; and it 
differs not a whit from the spirit of 
warring tribes in savagery. 

Yet every organized group is a 
peace unit, within which comradeship, 
law, and order naturally develop. And 
with the progress of knowledge es- 
pecially in agriculture and the arts, 
groups have grown larger and more in- 
clusive. Living has been made easier. 
Substantial benefits to vast populations 
have come through federation; and 
wars, if more severe, have become less 
frequent. And now that science has 
brought the ends of the earth near to- 
gether by means of rapid travel and 
instant communication, the conditions 
are ripe for a world-wide federation, 
and a new peace pact that shall include 
all mankind. 

Such a pact will succeed if nature’s 
laws are observed in the making and in 
the administering. In my judgment, it 
is of far less importance where national 
boundaries are drawn than how they 
are afterward maintained: it will not be 
a serious matter if “subject peoples” be 
included within those boundaries if 
only these be given freedom, security, 
and responsibility under their own 
government. 

If human society is ever to become 
efficiently organized, it must develop an 


154 


organ of control. Before the Great 
War started we had the beginnings of 
a process of efficient organization of the 
world: we had international postal 
regulations, international copyright, 
and many international organizations, 
mostly without authority although not 
without influence. These had arisen as 
naturally as did the scattered gangha 
of the lower animals, and like the 
ganglia they exercised separate and 
local control. Now that the war is over, 
these need only to be connected more 
intimately by means of a higher control 
center. Let the nations of the world 
make common cause of all their common 
interests. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


The changes necessary are not 
greater than, nor different from, those 
that have taken place in the organi- 
zation of tribes into a nation. The 
larger union that shall include all man- 
kind needs only what the successful 
tribe or the successful nation has had in 
the past—needs only what the success- 
ful animal body has had—an organiza- 
tion of its units for mutual labor and 
mutual benefit. Mutual dependence, 
mutual responsiveness, government for 
the sake of the governed; these are 
the conditions set by nature for the 
making of an effective organic union: 
they are as inescapable as the law of 
gravitation. 


THE ALTAR OF LIBERTY 


Dedicated not to honor, not to vainglory, nor to personal pride; dedicated to the one great thing 


that marks the great man or the great nation, to the ideal of sacrifice. 


The Altar of Liberty in Madi- 


son Square was the great rallying point for New York City’s mammoth celebration at the opening of 


the Fourth Liberty Loan on September 28, 1918. 


Vice President Marshall dedicated the Altar, which 


upon subsequent days was visited and decorated by the representatives of all the Allied Nations, in- 


cluding Ambassador Ishii, of Japan, and Sir Henry Babington Smith, British High Commissioner, 


who brought the message of ‘‘sacrifice”’ 


for a common cause 


The Method and the Knowledge of Science 


KNOWLEDGE GAINED BY THE METHOD OF INTUITION IS UNSATIS- 
FACTORY ; THE METHOD OF SCIENCE IS THE ONLY SOURCE 
OF TRUE KNOWLEDGE IN THE WORLD 


By LN Dh ON Cs CURT Ls 


Professor of Zodlogy, University of Missouri 


Foreworp.— When the scientist discusses the philosophy of science he often makes himself 
ridiculous to the philosopher. Still philosophers as often seem ridiculous to scientists, and 
the danger is not in being laughed at, but in the continual neglect of discussion that takes 
us beyond our immediate fields of thought and investigation. The biological scientist is 
keenly alive to the problems of philosophy, because thought appears to him a product of 
evolution; and because, in his studies in embryology, he has long realized that one of his 
ultimate problems is the relation of mind and matter. Without apologies to the philoso- 
phers, we shall, therefore, set forth a creed to which we believe many biologists subscribe. 
If this meets with criticism in place of agreement, we shall be satisfied; for we desire 
rather discussion than enforcement of particular views. These are problems of human in- 
terest and are in the back of every scientist’s mind whether or not he subscribes to the 
interpretations here presented.—THE AUTHOR. 


The Method of Science 


NY man is a scientist when he 
puts two and two together and 
draws conclusions which are 

justified by the observed facts, for 
science uses only refinements of the 
inductions and deductions practiced in 
everyday life. The method of science 
is what Huxley described as “trained 
and organised common sense.”! The 
man of the street or farm has a deal 
in common with the scientist, although 
the latter may seem to him both fool 
and dreamer. Let us consider this prop- 
osition that the method of science is 
but an extension of the method of 
common sense. 

As there may be some question re- 
garding the meaning of the term, we 
may agree at the outset that a man 
has common sense when he deals ra- 
tionally with the facts of his experi- 
ence. The phrase is sometimes used 
in derision, to contrast the sense of 
the everyday man with that of the 
theorist to the disadvantage of the 
latter. Again, it suggests something 
held in common by a large number 


1 Huxley, Thomas H., “On the Educational 
Value of the Natural History Sciences,’ pp. 38— 
65, Science and Education. 


of persons, or the sense of the common 
people. When analyzed, does the 
phrase not mean, that the man of 
common sense sees the whole situation 
or, as the scientist might put it, con- 
siders all the data and draws his con- 
clusion therefrom? We think a man’s 
judgment sound because he does what 
another would do, if confronted with 
the same situation and possessed of 
hike ability to think straight. The 
theorist fails if he does not consider 
the workaday elements of the case, and 
the practical man if he judges solely 
by rule of thumb without the light of 
theoretical considerations. A man with 
the gift of common sense should know 
enough to consider both sides. Now 
science has gone forward in the past, 
not by any wizardry, but by the appli- 
cation of trained and organized sense 
in the solution of its problems; and 
the methods of thought which advance 
science do not differ in kind from 
those of the most hard-headed man of 
affairs, who creates from insignificant 
beginnings a business of international 
proportions. 

For illustration, the owner of a quarry 
uncovers a layer of rock different in 
appearance from any before offered for 

155 


156 


sale in his locality. Lacking expert 
advice, he begins experiments and ob- 
servations, with a view to determining 
its utility for building purposes. After 
subjecting the stone to different tests, 
he concludes it can be put to certain 
uses. It is good for crushing and 
rough masonry, but not for sills and 
lintels; good for road foundations, but 
not for surfacing; and the like. In 
reaching these conclusions, he first es- 
tablishes certain facts, then compares 
these with facts previously known; 
then classifies the stone as good or 
bad for a given purpose; and finally 
arrives at the proposition that a stone 
of this nature may be put to such and 
such a use. He is now in a position 
to convince would-be purchasers of the 
excellence of his material. Even an 
Indian, selecting the flint for his arrow 
points in the same locality years before, 
might have gone through similar men- 
tal processes. 

If we compare the sense of science 
with the foregoing, the case is as fol- 
lows: A geologist examines the same 
rock layer, because of peculiarities 
which have attracted his attention. He 
first makes a survey of the entire bed, 
collecting the fossils and observing 
structural features, comparing as he 
does so the present bed with others 
he has seen. Ripple marks and mud 
cracks may tell of shallow water, the 
fossils may indicate a marine origin, 
the distorted bedding planes may give 
evidence of lateral pressure. At last, 
he classifies it as belonging in a partic- 
ular horizon and arrives at the propo- 
sition that stone of this nature belongs 
to a certain period of the earth’s his- 
tory. In such a case, the geologist 
believes he has reached conclusions ob- 
vious to others and is ready to take 
his colleagues over the ground, exhibit- 
ing facts and explaining inferences. 

The quarryman goes through similar 
mental processes, did he but know it, 
although he is likely to go astray be- 
cause his knowledge of rocks is after 


NATURAL HISTORY 


all rather limited, and because hope of 
gain is his sole incentive. The only 
advantage the geologist has is his 
broader knowledge and his desire to 
establish the facts rather than to line 
his pocket. The point for us is the 
parallelism between the mental pro- 
cesses of the two men, which are in 
essence the inductive method of science. 
The method of Sherlock Holmes would 
be a case in point, easy enough when 
you see the steps to the conclusions, 
and valid in so far as the original 
facts are unshakable and the inferences 
therefrom logical necessities. Every 
one who reads of Holmes’s exploits sees 
that his mental processes are but an 
extension of everyday observation and 
inference, and so it is with science. 
Indeed, some teachers advise students 
to read classic detective stories, as good 
examples of the process of scientific 
induction. 

The distinctive feature of the scien- 
tific method may be characterized by 
the adjective “common,” if we use the 
word as meaning “shared equally or 
similarly by two or more individuals.” 
For the common sense of science is 
that kind of sense which may be 
“shared” by normal members of the 
human species. It is not the whim 
of one individual, but the opinion held 
by all normal individuals when con- 
fronted by the same or a similar set 
of facts. 

Before developing this, we should 
recognize three possible objections to 
the statement that the conclusions of 
science may be shared by all in com- 
mon. First, the fact that many people 
hold a belief is no evidence of its va- 
lidity. We no longer think what is 
“believed always, everywhere and by 
all” to be necessarily true, as did the 
early Fathers; for “all” may labor 
under similar delusions and hold the 
same unwarranted belief. If common 
belief were scientific evidence, then 
prenatal impression and telegony are 
facts overwhelmingly established in 


THE METHOD AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE 1 


man and the familiar mammals. Sec- 
ond, some one may ask, who are the 
“normal” individuals? To which we 
ean best reply with the old Quaker’s 
remark to his wife, “All folks are queer 
but thee and me, and I sometimes 
think thee’s a little queer.” <A third 
objection must be answered at greater 
length. It may be asked, in view of 
the frequent differences of opinion 
among scientific men, whether any such 
thing as a common interpretation of 
phenomena exists. To which we an- 
swer, there is this common interpreta- 
tion with respect to certain phenomena. 

To illustrate specifically, it is a fa- 
miliar fact that all living bodies are 
composed of units known as cells. The 
exceptions to this cellular organization 
of protoplasm, such as multinucleated 
cells, plasmodia, syncytia, etc., can all 
be brought into alignment with the 
general theory of nuclear and cyto- 
plasmic materials. There was a time 
in the history of biology when nothing 
of the sort was known, and later, a 
time when a hypothesis of the univer- 
sal cellular organization of protoplasm 
was proposed on a basis of limited ob- 
servation. This working hypothesis 
was for a time debatable. But the in- 
creasing number of cases in which cells 
were observed soon led to its accept- 
ance as an established generalization, 
now to be designated as the cell fact, 
since it is hypothetical only when we as- 
sume, as we do in the erection of our 
cell theory, that all living things are 
constructed after this fashion whether 
we have examined them or not. We 
have studied hundreds of thousands of 
living things and found them all com- 
posed of cells, and we assume that we 
shall always find cells as new animals 
and plants are examined. The phrase 
“cell theory” is like the phrase “theory 
of gravitation,” theoretical only when 
we assume it will hold good elsewhere 
or when we push our analysis further 
and theorize about underlying causes. 
No one disputes the existence of cells, 


Or 


nor the assumption that we shall find 
them as long as we use microscopes, 
any more than he disputes the univer- 
sality of gravitation, because of which 
we assume that stones thrown from the 
ground always come down whether in 
California or Japan or on the planet 
Mars. ‘There is then common agree- 
ment regarding the existence of cells 
and the agreement extends to many 
details of their structure and activities, 
as for example that all cells contain 
chromatin or that all cells take in 
oxygen. 

What we mean when we say the 
cell theory meets with common accept- 
ance is that every one who has taken 
the time and pains to examine living 
tissues with the microscope, has ob- 
served the cells; that we ourselves have 
seen them; and that our contempo- 
raries tell us their experience is like 
our own. There is, therefore, among 
the competent, a consensus of opinion 
represented by the cell theory, in other 
words, a “common” sense in which this 
phrase is understood. The only way 
this sense differs from that of persons 
without biological experience is that 
it rests upon wider observation and 
is, therefore, the more reliable. It 
happens that these conclusions regard- 
ing cells may be drawn only by persons 
trained to the use of microscopes; and 
only after special preparation of the 
materials examined, which is an illus- 
tration of what Huxley meant by 
“trained and organised” sense. It is 
not that the observations and conclu- 
sions of science are fundamentally dif- 
ferent from those of everyday life, but 
that they are refinements of these, 
made possible by the training of the 
scientist and the organization of his 
material. There is no necromancy in 
science, for the methods by which sci- 
ence has advanced are the methods 
which normal individuals regularly 
use. Science has often made initial 
strides through the work of investiga- 
tors who perceived the unifying fea- 


158 


tures in large series of phenomena, 
and whose daring hypotheses were like 
the flight of the poetic imagination or 
the vision of some genius of the com- 
mercial world.. But what finally counts 
is the confirmation of each such hy- 
pothesis step by step, until it becomes 
a commonplace, verifiable by anyone 
who reviews the facts at first hand. 

This refinement of the technique is 
the essential difference between the sci- 
entific and the popular method of 
drawing conclusions. In fixing the 
ice cream freezer or the furnace, one 
may be exercising a very common kind 
of sense. But it is a sense which dif- 
fers from that exhibited by the scien- 
tific investigator, only in so far as the 
facts examined by the investigator are 
the more complicated and can be ap- 
proached only after extended prepara- 
tion. The man who builds a concrete 
sidewalk in his yard learns by experi- 
ence and experiment, and by thinking 
things out as he goes. The man in an 
engineering experiment station, who is 
trying to advance our knowledge re- 
garding the chemistry of cement, does 
essentially the same thing. Only he 
begins far ahead of the untrained man 
and, having a broader knowledge, rec- 
ognizes possibilities of error the other 
does not comprehend. 

By these and similar illustrations, 
it is seen that there is nothing unique 
in science or in the methods of science. 
Scientists are not wizards, but men 
who apply to natural phenomena the 
methods of analysis used by logical 
minds in the affairs of daily life. The 
facts of science are shared by all who 
possess the training necessary for their 
apprehension. We _ believe, moreover, 
that any normal person who trains 
himself to examine the facts will sub- 
seribe to our common agreement. If 
there is debatable ground and differ- 
ence of opinion, it is because science 
no sooner gets a fact tolerably well es- 
tablished than it goes after other facts. 
While we agree upon the interpretation 


NATURAL HISTORY 


of certain data, conflicting data may 
be adduced at any time; or we may 
undertake entirely new hnes of in- 
vestigation, which at first yield uncer- 
tain results. Having satisfied ourselves 
as to the general epigenetic course of 
development and having a common 
agreement regarding this, we press on 
to something new, like the problem of 
fertilization or of differentiation. And 
here we are on ground where the facts 
are so poorly established we do not 
find a common sense in which to for- 
mulate a theory. There are divergent 
views in science, only because the es- 
sence of science is progress, and _ be- 
cause we are interested in the things 
to be done rather than in those already 
accomplished. Apparently divergent 
opinion may eventually result in agree- 
ment once the facts are adequately 
known. ” 

The differences between the main 
branches of science further illustrate 
our point. Physico-chemical science 
deals with comparatively simple phe- 
nomena, and has, therefore, reached 
an advanced position. The biological 
sciences, having all of chemistry and 
physics, and in addition the complexi- 
ties of living matter, have developed 
slowly and today present relatively less 
common ground than physical science ; 
while in the social sciences the com- 
plexities are further increased by the 
most unpredictable element of all— 
the intelligence of rational human be- 
ings. Hence there is not much “com- 
mon” sense in sociology and none in 
religion and philosophy. Some, in- 
deed, question whether within these 
fields we can ever reach common agree- 
ment except in their simpler categories 
of fact. We can at least try, and keep 
trying. For of one thing we are sure, 
human progress has not come by intui- 
tion, but by intelligent analysis, which 
is nothing less than saying by the ac- 
cumulation of facts and by their in- 
terpretation in the common sense of 
science. 


THE METHOD AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE 


The Knowledge of Science 


A recurring obstacle to scientific 
progress is the belief, born in a new 
guise with every age, that we can 
know things in some occult fashion 
aside from the evidence of our senses 
and the process of reasoning. Belief 
in this efficacy of divination and kin- 
dred arts appears well rooted at the 
beginning of history, and the success 
of fortune tellers and quack physicians 
and spiritualists attests its survival to 
the present day. Even the educated 
incline toward mysticism and intuition, 
upon slight provocation; while among 
the uneducated the influence of such 
beliefs is a potent factor. As a race, 
we are not yet convinced that we live 
in a universe where things do not hap- 
pen by accident but through adequate 
causation. 

Among our forefathers, these beliefs 
were even more widely held, and one 
of the silent victories of science has 
been the liberation of civilized man 
from superstitions that once held him 
in bondage, restricting alike his spirit- 
ual and material progress. Glimpses 
of the past may be caught in nations 
less advanced than those of western 
Europe. Thus, one cannot read a book 
like Professor Ross’s The Changing 
Chinese. without being convinced that 
the Chinese of today are in the mental 
condition of European man in the 
Middle Ages, with the burdens of 
witcheraft, of sorcery, and of belief in 
ghosts, lying heavy upon them; and 
that just as medieval man emerged 
from this slavery of soul so the Chinese 
will, doubtless, emerge in the future. 
Only their progress seems likely to be 
the more rapid because of contact with 
the western nations. We pride our- 
selves that we have gained so much 
and even boast in the strength of a 
supposedly superior race; and yet our 
civilization is honeycombed with super- 
stitions, which hamper the best of us 
and which are a grievous burden upon 
the less fortunate members of society. 


159 


While the biologist must consider 
these cruder thought-survivals, as they 
affect those he seeks to influence 
through teaching, he needs, on his own 
account, to consider other mental pro- 
cesses, which, despite their refinement, 
are opposed to the advance of science. 
For example it has been often insisted 
by philosophers and others that scien- 
tific knowledge is only secondhand 
knowledge, that there is a method of 
reaching valid conclusions other than 
that of science, that intuitive processes 
yield even more certain truth than do 
the methods of science. The word in- 
tuition has had a variety of meanings, 
but in general is applied to a faculty 
for understanding things quickly with- 
out due process of reasoning,—to a 
kind of royal road toward the solution 
of any problem. Without venturing 


within the mazes of philosophy, we 


may consider the intuitive process as 
it is paraded in everyday life. Here, 
as with the philosophers, intuition is 
regarded as a mysterious short cut by 
which one arrives at conclusions, with- 
out the labor of drawing logical in- 
ferences. 

When we consider the intuitive pro- 
cess, the following propositions are 
evident: Intuitions are effective only 
within the field of complex phenomena ; 
they are most emphasized by persons 
not in the habit of careful analysis: 
they were formerly applied to many 
phenomena since brought within the 
grasp of science. All of which leads 
us to suspect that the matter is reduci- 
ble to the proposition: What is simple 
we reason out; and what is complex 
and, therefore, not susceptible of exact 
analysis, we settle by a mental process 
of the same order as the “hunch” or 
the “lucky guess” of the plain citizen. 
A century ago, even a generation ago, 
an appalling amount of medical diag- 
nosis rested upon an intuitive founda- 
tion. Today, an increasing amount 
rests upon a scientific knowledge of 
organisms and specific substances with- 


160 


in the body. ‘The history of science is 
filled with such examples of the un- 
known and supposedly unknowable of 
one age becoming the known and the 
controlled of the next. This being so, 
is it not a fair presumption that what 
we decide today by intuition may, at a 
later day, be brought within the ken 
of science, and thus the realm of the 
intuitive become a lessening one, its 
name synonymous with the unknown 
or incompletely known, not with the 
unknowable? Is it not that we have 
intuitions regarding what we do not 
as yet understand, and that intuitions 
fade where scientific analysis estab- 
lishes a foothold ? 

A banker does not decide whether a 
company is fairly capitalized, nor does 
he keep his books, by an intuitive pro- 
cess. He does these things by pains- 
taking arithmetic. But he may loan 
money to one man rather than to an- 
other, because of an intuitive feeling 
that the one will meet his obligations 
while the other will not. Intuition, 
which in such an instance is probably 
nothing but “subconscious experience,” 
probably tells the banker that one man 
“couldn't lie if you paid him,” while 
another deliberately misrepresents the 
facts. Without believing that psy- 
chology will shortly relieve bankers and 
administrators of their need for intui- 
tions, we may nevertheless regard such 
cases as susceptible of formulation in 
terms of heredity, environment, and in 
the vasomotor responses which psychol- 
ogists are today postulating for all lars 
however calm to outward appearance. 
Even with our present knowledge, we 
can conceive of the banker’s decision 
resting upon a complex of understand- 
able phenomena of which he is uncon- 
scious at the time. For just as we 
judge distances by imperceptibie or un- 
recognized changes of the eye muscles, 
or hit a billiard ball by motor responses 
of almost unbelievable delicacy, so the 
banker, who gives his answer as soon 
as his customer has finished speaking, 


NATURAL HISTORY 


may have his decision unconsciously in- 
fluenced by the stimuli coming to him 
from the flicker of a muscle, a twisted 
phrase, or a look in the eyes, as well 
as from grosser matters like the man’s 
reputation or the principles of safe 
investment. In a word, I can well con- 
ceive of the analysis of thought pro- 
cesses, as physically expressed, some 
day reaching a point where many things 
now vague and incapable of analysis 
will be reduced to scientific statement 
of fact. It may never be well for a 
banker to put his customer through a 
machine test. A good judge of char- 
acter can perhaps do the work more 
expeditiously, and well enough for 
banking purposes. But in war we are 
coming to select certain mental types 
for certain duties under the advice of 
our psychologists. And I see no rea- 
son why chauffeurs, and engine drivers, 
and even honest men may not be so 
chosen at some time in the future. 
What this means is that mental be- 
havior, once regarded as beyond the 
domain of science, is being shown to 
follow a causal sequence in a few cases. 
But we see no reason why these few 
cases should not be extended to in- 
clude an increasing number of mental 
phenomena; and if this happens we 
can set no limit to the banishment of 
intuition as a source of knowledge re- 
garding human behavior. 

Other examples might be given. An 
investigator does not draw the conclu- 
sions his experiments justify by in- 
tuitive processes, although his specu- 
lation may be of this nature. A teacher 
comes to a mastery of his subject only 
by its methodical organization. But 
in the vague state of our knowledge 
concerning effective methods in educa- 
tion, he may say he has an intuition 
for the presentation which makes a 
lecture acceptable to his students. If 
a man is in the habit of speaking to 
the dogs he passes on the street, even 
calling them from a distance, he is 
sometimes pleased at his success in 


THE METHOD AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE 


manipulating dog psychology. He 
might call it intuition as to how dogs 
will react. But it is possible that the 
man “sizes up” his dog, much as we 
unconsciously measure distances with 
our eye muscles, and tries the stimulus 
likely to work. The dog’s reaction is 
very complicated. It depends upon 
his past experience with strangers, upon 
his training at home, upon his experi- 
ence with this man, upon his heredi- 
tary make-up; and yet it is by no 
means certain there are elements in- 
volved which can never be analyzed by 
science. If a man knew all these facts 
for a particular dog, he might be able 
to predict what response would follow 
a given stimulus. And if the dog could 
be as well informed, he might know 
what to expect from the man. 

The biologist neither affirms nor de- 
nies that such a series of phenomena 
as the dog’s reactions will some day be 
thus analyzed. He does not know. He 
is making some headway in explaining 
animal behavior in these terms, and so 
long as he can make headway, he hesi- 
tates to set limits to his future prog- 
ress. Life is not likely to become stale 
in the near future because all things 
have become predictable in scientific 
terms. We shall continue our inroads 
upon the intuitive process for a long 
time without exhausting the residuum. 
Only, so long as we can see a receding 
vista ahead, it takes boldness to assert 
the existence of a remainder not sus- 
ceptible of scientific treatment. We 
may well question whether intuitions 
are in any sense a method of acquiring 
knowledge, whether they are knowledge 
at all, and whether intuition means 
anything but ignorance of complex 
phenomena, however effectively it 
seems to fulfill its functions in a given 
instance. 

Another weakness of our intuitions 
is their individual bias. They are the 
product of a single mind, not the col- 
lective agreement of individuals who 
have examined the same data. As 


161 


such, they are open to the suspicion 
of being influenced by delusion or prej- 
udice. Moreover, they work differently 
with different persons, exhibit to a 
large degree the personal equation, and 
have all the “ear marks” of processes 
which are not and never can be reliable 
as methods of thought. 

The scientist, therefore, believes the 
method of intuition wholly unsatis- 
factory as a source of knowledge. 
When he says he “knows” a thing he 
means that any normal individual, 
who puts himself under similar condi- 
tions, will receive similar sense im- 
pressions and will draw the same con- 
clusion. The scientist does not claim 
to know everything. He does claim 
that the intuitions of daily life are 
not knowledge, in the scientific sense, 
for they presumably represent either 
the vagaries of the individual mind or 
thought processes too unorganized to 
be used as a basis for knowledge. 

Neither is the “intuitive knowledge” 
of religion or philosophy to be placed 
in the same category with the “com- 
mon” knowledge of science. For this, 
like the intuitions of daily life, rests 
upon no safer foundation than the 
caprice of the individual mind. If a 
field of mental activity does not permit 
a beginning of organization in terms 
of common assent it is not subject 
matter for science, and is, therefore, 
not a matter of which we can have 
knowledge in the scientific sense. The 
scientist protests against dignifying 
individual opinion by the term “knowl- 
edge,” which he reserves for conclu- 
sions resting upon collective judgment. 
It is the contention of science that its 
method of “common” sense is the only 
method which has yielded knowledge 
of permanent value, that the only thing 
we can designate as knowledge is 
reached in this fashion. Other brands 
are the whims of individual minds, 
and can never be substituted for the 
one kind of knowledge which is the 
knowledge of science. 


% 4 5 

a 4 : . , » 1 i. 
VE ff | _» ie | Sie BS 
Courtesy of Paul G. Howes and the New York 


Zoological Society 


FEAR DOES NOT QUICKLY OVERCOME HER BROODING INSTINCT 


Hoactzins look more or less like pheasants. They are very quarrelsome among themselves, however, and 
when pugnacious lose all resemblance to any other living bird. They erect the plumed crest, spread 
wide the flapping wings, and with strange flouncings and contortions, hiss, grunt, and croak in 
a high key. The utterances of an excited colony blend into an indescribable confusion of 
sound, sometimes as doleful as though the birds were mourning for all the extinct of their 
race. That this species has endured so long may be owing, at least in small measure, 
to the strong fetid odor of the adult bird. MHoactzins have feeble wing muscles 
and fly only short distances, across the stream or from point to point along 
its banks. They wander little, therefore, and unlike most birds can 
always be found in the same locality every month of the year 


The Hoactzin—Only Survivor of an Ancient 


Order of Four-footed Birds* 


Discovery of the quadrupedal character of the young, and first-hand observations 
on habits and home of the species 


By EDWARD M:. BRIGHAM 


Curator Public Schools Museum, Battle Creek, Michigan 


N April, 1881, while collecting ver- 

tebrate embryos in the interior of 

the island of Marajo, at the mouth 
of the Amazon, I discovered that the 
young of the Opisthocomus hoazin is 
distinctly quadrupedal.t Toward the 
end of incubation two toes on each 
forefoot (wing) were so completely pro- 
duced that I was confident they would 
be functional in some manner after 
the birds were hatched. A little later 
I saw the birds actually using the toes, 
and using them in a highly significant 
way. 

The adult bird has long been known 
to science. It is known on the lower 
Amazon by its Portuguese name, 
cigana. It has also a long list of local 
names as each tribe of Indians in the 
Amazon Basin has a distinct language. 
The species is generally known as the 
“hoactzin.” It is of such size and 
its habitat is so exposed that it could 
not have escaped the notice of anyone 
traveling far along the Amazon. But 
the remarkable quadrupedal character 
of the young bird had hitherto not been 
observed. The adult hoactzin, in size 
and general appearance, reminds one of 
a pheasant although it bears no near 
relation to that bird. In fact it has no 
near relatives living—it is the sole sur- 
viving species of the order Opisthocomi, 


1 The discovery that the hoactzin is functionally 
quadrupedal during a part of its life, was an- 
nounced by the author of this article, in a paper 
read at a meeting of the Chicago Academy of 
Sciences in 1884. The paper was published in 
full at that time in the Chicago Tribune. (Oct. 18, 
1884.) 


an order of which geologists have found 
fossil representatives. 

The hoactzin may be described briefly 
as pheasant-lke in size and aspect 
(about 21-25 inches from tip to tip), 
with a very dull coloration above of 
varying shades of reddish brown 
streaked with dirty buff — and_ buff 
below. 

The hoactzin is gregarious. Its habi- 
tat on the lower Amazon is limited by 
a single species of plant—Caladium ar- 
borescens, called by the natives aninga. 
This plant is a_ tall amphibious 
aroid, related to the jack-in-the-pulpit 
and the calla. It has large heart-shaped 
leaves, calla-like flowers, and fruit re- 
motely resembling a pineapple. The 
plant often grows to a height of fifteen 
feet, but averages perhaps eight feet 
when fully grown. It forms in dense 
masses on the low, flat, muddy margins 
of the islands and borders of the water 
courses, frequently standing many 
yards out in the muddy shallows. 

Imagine a broad hedge of tall stout- 
stemmed aningas, with a score or more 
of hoactzins scattered over the top, 
seated on the leafstalks and feeding on 
the leaves of the plants, or making their 
way with flounces and hisses from one 
plant to another, and you will have 
something like a picture of this strange 
bird in its lower Amazon habitat. I 
never saw the bird alight on the ground. 
Although the aninga leaf is a frail 
and yielding perch, the hoactzin seems 
to prefer it to any other. The bird 


* With illustrations from Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana, through the courtesy of the Author, 
Mr. C. William Beebe, and of the New York Zodlogeal Society. 


165 


NATURAL 


164 


Courtesy of Paul G. Howes and the New 


Zoological Society 


A typical haunt of the hoactzin, Canje Creek, British 
Guiana.—In this locality the species is now protected 
by the British Government, a special fine of five pounds 


sterling being imposed for killing one of the birds 


builds its nest of twigs and other coarse 
vegetable matter in the aninga tops and 
in overhanging branches of trees 
matted vines. It does not leave the 
water margins. Only on rare occasions, 
as when one is tormented beyond en- 
durance by its fellows, does it venture 
into the forest and then not far 
but that a few flaps of its wings will 
place its feet on the yielding, swinging 
aninga leaf again. There it rests its 


or 


sO 


ADST OR 


breast on the bent leafstem and 
hisses, tottering awkwardly with 
outstretched wings and tail until 
the aninga ceases swinging. The 
habit of steadying itself on its 
perch by squatting on its breast 
has caused a thickening of the 
skin, a piling up of epidermal 
tissue into a hard callosity which 
is so firmly fastened to the bone 
that a strong knife is needed to 
separate it when removing the 
skin. The hoactzin is so accus- 
tomed to squatting on the aninga 
that even when on other perches 
it is rarely seen erect. I have 
never seen it fly farther than 
across a narrow stream, from 
one aninga hedge to another. 
The hoactzin is a very quar- 
relsome bird. When its pug- 
nacity is manifest, its pheasant- 
like appearance vanishes, and it 
then looks like no other bird. It 
erects its sparsely plumed crest 
and awkwardly flaps its wings 
while trying to keep a balance on 
the unsteady perch. It throws 
its neck into contortions as if it 


were really choking, and in a 
ludicrously awkward manner 


menaces its fellow, which is hay- 
ing equal difficulty in retaining 
its perch while retahating from 
the swinging leaf of a neighbor- 
ing aninga. While the birds are 
thus strangely gesticulating, the 
noise of their flapping wings is 
accompanied by hissing, grunt- 
ing, roaring, and_ shrieking. 
There are times of general uprising 
when the mingled utterances of the 
colony make a confusion unearthly and 
indescribable. Sometimes they join in 
most doleful sounds as if suddenly 
moved to mourning for all the extinct 
Opisthocomi. Periods of general and 
extreme demonstration usually 
in the night. 


York 


occur 
Such is the resemblance 
of some of their cries on these ocea- 


a 


sions to some of those of the jaguar, 


EE 


HOACTZIN—ONL 


that upon being awakened by them I 
have reached for my rifle and held it in 
readiness until other and characteristic 
sounds followed which assigned the 
eries to the medley of the hoactzin. 
One day in June, on a later expedi- 
tion, when paddling along the margin 
of the lower Rio Negro, the natives 
pushed our canoe into a strip of mar- 
ginal igapo or flooded forest. The wa- 
ter was well up into the tops of the 
trees. Hard-featured alligators gurgled, 
erunted, and roared as they slunk away 
among the half-submerged tree tops. 


Courtesy of Cd. 


SURVIVOR OF FOUR-FOOTED BIRDS 165 


Huge iguanas, which were basking and 
feeding in unusual numbers on the top- 
most branches at a height of from ten 
to twenty feet above us, started sud- 
denly from their perches and plunged 
headlong through the branches into the 
igapo. 1 never witnessed a more inter- 
esting reptilian scene. Interest in the 
situation was greatly heightened by the 
presence among the topmost branches 
of the flouncing and hissing hoactzins. 
As I was aware of the reptilian sugges- 
tions in the birds’ anatomy the scene 
was to me impressive and significant. I 


William Beebe and the New York Zoological Society 


The aninga (Caladium arborescens), characteristic of the hoactzin’s haunt, is related to the jack- 


in-the-pulpit and the calla. It forms dense hedges 


averaging eight feet in height along the muddy 


banks of streams, often growing many yards out in the shallow water. In a scene like this there might 


be a score or more hoactzins perched in the tops of the aningas or flying awkwardly from one plant 


to another. The curved stem of the large leaf is the favorite perch of the bird, where, however, it 


must squat close to balance itself. The bird's breast 


where it presses against the plant has a hard 


callosity, a thick cushion of epidermal tissue, so firmly grown to the bone that in skinning a dead bird 


a knife is needed to separate the skin from the bone 


at this point 


felt that I was witnessing the nearest 
approach possible in this age of the 
world, to a typical Mesozoic scene. 
While intent upon these incidents, my 
attention was suddenly diverted from 
the upper to the lower branches by a 
plunge different from that of the iguana 
—as if some animal had toppled off the 
lower branches into the water. In the 
near vicinity of the plunge I saw a 
young hoactzin seated on a low branch. 
Then my natives said it was a young 
cigana that had toppled over into the 
water. I told them to shoot the remain- 
ing bird. They shot, but the bird 
plunged and we did not see it again. 
Soon, however, we saw the first bird 
emerge and climb from the water on to 
a dipping branch on the farther side 
of the tree top, and it climbed on to the 
branch on all fours. An Indian shot 
the bird and I preserved its skin. With 
the bird in hand I showed the natives 
the front feet. They expressed aston- 
ishment, and after some reflection an 
old man said, “The young ciganas 
climb out of the water with those feet.” 
Evidently the presence of the toes on 
the fore limbs explained a performance 
with which he was familar although 
the modus had hitherto been a mystery. 
As the anterior lhmbs are function- 
ally scansorial during a considerable 
part of their post-oval growth, we 
should expect them to attain only the 
low degree of volery power which they 
possess. The wings of the adult bird 
are exceedingly feeble.” The sternum is 
without a keel. It does not seem pos- 
sible that the young birds could raise 
themselves from the water in any other 
way than by climbing. If the wings 
had sufficient power it seems certain, 
in view of the fact that the feet are 
webless, that the young bird would use 
its wings to enable it to escape from 
its enemies, rather than to attain safety 
by plunging into the water. 
_ The geographical range of the species 
has been given as the “estuaries of the 
Amazon and mouths of the lower tribu- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


taries of that river and the Orinoco.” 
My observations however show a vastly 
wider range. I shot the hoactzin in 
Peru, 2100 miles up the Amazon, and 
I saw it still farther up the river, prob- 
ably to within 350 miles of the Pacific. 
It certainly has an east and west range 
of more than 2000 miles. Its Amazo- 
nian range appears to be coextensive 
with the flood areas of the great river 
and its tributaries. Although the flood 
season varies greatly between different 
parts of the hoactzin’s Amazonian 
range, I found that throughout the 
length of the vast region in which I 
observed the bird, its breeding period 
was coincident with that of the floods. 
The broods invariably develop through 
the functionally quadrupedal stage be- 
fore the water becomes too low to af- 
ford the young a retreat from danger. 
Hence it is clear that the young birds 
are absolutely dependent upon the wa- 
ter beneath their perches for safety. 
The relatively inflexible conditions of 
reproduction restrict the species to its 
marginal habitat during the flood sea- 
son—its breeding season. The condi- 
tions appear to be even more restrictive 
for, from all my personal observations 
and inquiries, the bird does not leave 
the margin during the time of low wa- 
ter. It may be found along the mar- 
gins of the main river and its tribu- 
taries, along the margins of the innu- 
merable side channels and the confluent 
lagoons, or places where there are la- 
goons in the flood season. I cannot 
find that it has ever been seen away 
from the borders of streams, or some 
opening in the forest which is occupied 
by water during the whole or part of 
the year, and which directly or indi- 
rectly opens to the river. The hoactzins 
are not known to wander. 

The place farthest from the mouth 
of the Amazon in which I found the 
hoactzin was nearly dry. There was 
too little water for the young birds to 
dive in. It was a mucky swale a stone’s 
throw in length and hardly half that in 


Courtesy of OC. William Beebe and the New York Zoological Society 


The hoactzin invariably builds its nest out over the water, either in the aninga tops or in the 


overhanging branches of trees or vines. The breeding season is coincident with the rains and high 
water in the streams. The nest is made of twigs and often rests on the foundation of an older 
nest. It has scarcely any depression and would seem to be a place of uncertain safety for the eggs 


breadth. I saw this place early in the more water until the next flood season, 
season’ of low water. Later the little the next -breeding season of the bird. 
swale may have been quite dry. But There were several nests among the 
the broods of the season had matured branches, always overhanging the swale. 


and there was evidently no need of There were no young or eggs to restrain 


Courtesy of Paul G. Howes and the Ni 


l 


forefoot) shows two toes well deve 
are functional—the bird is dis- 


Before the young hoactzin hatches from the egg, the wing (or 
oped, and within twenty-four hours after the bird is hatched the two toes 
tinctly four-footed and proceeds like a reptile or mammal and unlike any other living bird. The long 
safety of this species in South America is probably largely the result of the young bird's instinct when 
threatened by danger to clamber on all fours to the edge of its flat nest and dive into the water 
below Thus becomes evident the value to the species of the coincidence in the development of the 


rh this four-footed stage and the time of high water in the stream above which the nests 


young throu 


are built 
167 


a 


Courtesy of C. William Beebe and the New York Zoological Society 


THE YOUNG HOACTZIN IS FOUR-FOOTED LIKE A LIZARD 


Studies of a young hoactzin to illustrate its ability to climb by means of feet and neck 
and especially through use of the two toes developed on the wing. After a young 
hoactzin has dropped into the water under its nest and the danger is past, it proves its 
four-footed character by climbing out of the water on some branch, using the two toes of 
the front feet (wings) as vigorously in the performance as it does the four toes of the 
hind feet 


168 


HOACTZIN—ONLY SURVIVOR OF FOUR-FOOTED BIRDS 


the birds, but, although I shot into 
them repeatedly and from all sides, 
they would not leave the marginal vege- 
tation. It seemed evident to me that 
the muddy swale marked the place of 
a former lagoon which was connected 
by an open channel, or igarpe, with the 
river, and that, in the ceaseless and 
rapid shifting of lines of water, land, 
and trees of the Amazon Basin, the la- 
goon had been landlocked and then di- 
minished in area by each succeeding 
flood deposit. The question arose as to 
whether the bird could get away,— 
whether, as the opening in the forest 
closed, the little group of hoactzins 
would not dwindle with it and become 
extinct. 

The Amazon flows near the equator 
and subparallel with it. On account of 
this position the gradational work of the 
river is of a magnitude disproportionate 
even to its relative size. The rains 
follow the sun and according as the sun 
is im either tropic, the northern or 
southern tributaries are swollen and 
their respective flood areas covered. 
The immense volumes of water poured 
into the main stream from one side 
shove the current strongly against the 
opposite bank, and at times even force 
the waters of the sluggish tributaries 
upstream—an estuary action of these 
annual “tides.” During the flood sea- 
son long strips of forest are cut down 
by the force of the current pushed 
against its borders; hundreds of acres 
in a linear body are often cut away by 
the resistless current. At times the 
great stream is so filled with floating 
vegetation resulting from this havoc 
that navigation is impeded and becomes 
dangerous to light craft. Occasionally 
great masses of matted vegetation sup- 
porting erect trees of considerable size 
may be seen. There can be no doubt 
that these floating islands detached 
from the river borders transport hoac- 
tzins from upper to lower positions 
along the river. Such mingling of stock 
might explain the fact that the species 


169 


exhibits little if any variation in its 
vast Amazonian range. The great 
range is doubtless due to the simplicity, 
continuity, and extent of the general 
conditions of the habitat, together with 
the frequent accidental transportation 
of the birds by drifting marginal vege- 
tation from one to another of more or 
less widely separated points, a process 
which must have endured through a 
long period of time. 

Also, a very slow migration upstream 
is not impossible. Doubtless the fluc- 
tuations of the river bring about topo- 
graphic changes destroying the con- 
genial marginal conditions of the es- 
tablished location of a colony. The 
hoactzin rendered homeless by such a 
catastrophe would doubtless clumsily 
flop its way to another favorable place 
on the river margin, and this might, of 
course, be upstream. There is nothing 
to prompt the bird to wander or to in- 
duce regular migrations—its food is 
always ready and the rainy season is its 
breeding season. 

The lowering of the water leaves a 
more or less extensive tract of mud 
outside the marginal vegetation so that 
the water is separated during the dry 
season from the habitat of the hoactzin. 
But I have never seen the adult bird 
reach the ground or approach the wa- 
ter. It is a remarkable fact that such 
a weak-winged, defenseless bird, in such 
an exposed habitat, has escaped extine- 
tion in a region abounding in powerful 
Raptores and other carnivorous ene- 
mies. A means of preservation is sug- 
gested, however, by the marked fetid 
odor of the adult bird. The young are 
protected by immersion, and later, as 
the bird approaches maturity, it ac- 
quires this offensive odor. 

The hoactzin represents one of a 
group of vertebrate types of vast geo- 
logical antiquity which constitute a 
marked characteristic of the fauna of 
South America. <A long isolation of 
the continent has been inferred from 
the persistence of these old types. 


NOTES BY A COLLECTOR IN THE COLORADO 
ROCKIES 


BY ALBERT E. BUTLER 


With a series of illustrations from photographs by the Author 


LONGS PEAK AND THE CONTINENTAL DIVIDE AS SEEN FROM ESTES PARK! 


The Front Range of the Colorado Rockies with its crest of perpetual snow stands as the most eastern outpost of 
the Great Divide. From the point where this picture was taken Longs Peak appears as a rather smoothly rounded 
mountain, but from the top of the Divide it is seen as a great square block of granite. Its crevices are filled with 
snow where the wind has not blown this away, and down its side flows a small glacier, the last remnant of an ice 
sheet which piled the huge moraine in the valley 


* Of the many natural parks of Colorado, Estes Park has been the one most frequented as a resort. The mag- 
nificent canon of the Big Thompson River admits the autoist or tramper entering from the east, but the way to the 
south and west is barred by the precipitous rise of the Great Divide, at this point a veritable wall rather than a range. 
The valley of Grand Lake, whose waters flow into the Colorado River, lies only thirty-five miles westward. 

In 1915 the Longs Peak region, about 229,000 acres including part of Estes Park, was established by the 
Federal Government as the Rocky Mountain National Park and torms, with Mesa Verde Park in the southwestern 
part of the state, one of Colorado’s two large national preserves. It is fairly accessible by a number of railroads, 
but sufficiently remote always to insure its beautiful wildness 


170 


c ic 

SYMMETRY OF THE ISOLATED YELLOW PINE 

Pe t n picturesque of Colorado trees 1s tl Rock Mount Oo Dp Pinus scopu 
orun It < irs O the plains southeast ol Denver up throug the foothills to as g as 9000 feet 
At times it is found in forests but it reaches its greatest ert vt when more or ss isolated. It 1s capa 
ble of mor live! y of form than perhaps any other of the pines ometimes taking on a most grotesque 
uppearance and agal xhibiting a perfect symm + always fitting into the beauty of the landscape, 
AS Le by its frequent use as a subject by pa nter and photog! I Its commercial va is 
reat it prod es more hig ( ilit mber thar 1 other tree in the 8 
171 


} 


A WILD FLOWER OF THE COLORADO ROCKIES 


One of the delights of travel in the Rockies of Colorado is the abundance of wild flowers. 
Sixteen hundred varieties are accredited to the Estes Park region alone. The showy yellow, 
purple, or variegated gaillardia is well known in the florists’ shops of New York and other east- 
ern cities. In season one may gather an armful of it along the Colorado roadway in a yery 
few minutes, and it is a sad fact that this is too often done, for the enthusiasm of the visitor at 
seeing the conservatory door open and the sign of welcome out overcomes his better judgment and 
he picks until there is not a flower left in sight. Much propagand: r the protection of the wild 
flowers, however, is being spread, and it is hoped that no species will be entirely destroyed. 

Some of the most delightful spots in all Colorado for wild flowers are found on the slopes of 
Lookout Mountain immediately back of the town of Golden. It is a commendable tribute to the 
population of this little mountain community that wild flowers are still to be found in abundance 
right at their back door. As Golden is now a gateway to Denver’s wonderful system of mountain 
parks, these wild flowers add much to the charm of the seventy-mile trip that tourists enjoy 


172 


A ROADWAY, AND LODGEPOLE PINES AT HIGH ALTITUDE 


Lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana) is probably the most common and typical tree from 9000 to 10,000 
feet altitude. It forms the most dense forests of the Rocky Mountains, sometimes being almost impassable even 
to the traveler on foot. The beautiful, tall, slender trunks make excellent material for the woodsman’s cabin, 
and in fact this tree was used by the Indians in erecting their tepees. Now it serves for telegraph poles, rail- 
way ties, fence posts—and wherever long straight timber is desirable. 

Mountain roads make the Rockies of Colorado easily accessible for the autoist, even into the very high 
altitudes in some localities; but the traveler who wishes to see and enjoy these great hills will take his pack 
upon his back and brave the lodgepole forest and the rocky cliffs. If he is alert, he will be well repaid for all 
the discomfort he may suffer, for there is no region in all our land so full of interest for the nature lover 


174 


A WELL-FRUITED SPRAY OF THE LODGEPOLE PINE! 


On exhibition in the forestry hall of the American Museum of Natural History 


The lodgepole pine often forms mountain woodlands which seem unending, and the man who has ventured off the 
beaten trail to cross a belt of lodgepole, can testify to the density of its growth 


1 The story of its collecting —The greatest surprise that awaits the collector of tree specimens in the Colorado 
Rockies is the distance one must travel to find them. The wooded hills apparently have no bounds and there are vast 
tracts of dense timber, but a tract miles in extent may afford only one or two species. 

One day in August I made an early start from Estes Park, about 7500 feet elevation. A trail breaks from the 
roadway a short ride beyond the village. It soon leaves behind the scattered western yellow pines, and at about 8000 
feet abruptly enters the dense growth of lodgepole pine. Here the trail becomes steep and rugged, rising 2500 feet in 
about three miles, and wanders back and forth over the rocky wooded slopes, sometimes following for some distance a 
wild. rushing. snow-fed stream. The object of the trip was often interrupted by the sight of a deer or the flushing of 
a grouse, and my attention continually wandered with delight over the unexpected gardens of wild flowers. 

The lodgepole forest which began so abruptly at 8000 feet ended in the same characteristic manner at about 9500 
feet. where the trail breaks into the spruce and fir belt, reaching to timber line which in Colorado is about 11,500 feet. 
Thus far I had seen but the two species of pine, the yellow and the lodgepole Well-fruited specimens of these were 
located but were not collected until we were homeward bound, so as to §s ibject the branches to the least possible 
jolting. The latter part of the climb was made difficult and uncomfortable by a rain cloud which enveloped us so. that 


at times we could see but a few yards ahead. This made it hazardous to wander into the woods far from the beaten, 
crooked path, and although the trail was lined with Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce for some distance, we were un- 
able to discover any well-fruited sprays. A good specimen of the alpine fir was taken, however, and, once out of the 
hicher hills. we were in sunshine again and in no time were back on the picturesque lodgepole trail, where the excep- 


tionally fine branch shown above was collected. 
Entering again the region of the Rocky Mountain yellow pine, we picked up our previousl) located branch and 


hurried on our way in order to pack for shipment the specimens we had collected The process of packing for the 
long trip to New York required care, but as little time was lost as possible in getting the specimens to the village ex- 
press office. I learned with satisfaction a few days later that this package had arrived at the American Museum in 
perfect condition after its 2000 mile journe) The sprays can now be seen on exhibition in the Jesup collection of 


woods of North America.—THE AUTHOR. 


175 


THE MOUNTAIN FOREST !S HOME TO THE PINE SQUIRRELS 


of scales from the 


The pine squirrel abounds in the thick woods as is evidenced by the frequent piles 
ones on which he has fed. Whether his excited chatter is a warning to the other animals 


pine and spruce ¢ 
but it is certain that the col- 


and bird folk that there is an unwelcome visitor in their forest is not clear, 


lector who may be looking for a pine squirrel will have no trouble in locating the object of his search. The 
adily become accustomed to campers as do many other small animals and birds. The 


little fellows do not re 
chipmunk is very friendly after the 
2ocky Mountain jay or “camp robber” 
the camper’s sleep is often disturbed by the howl of a coyote or, if it be in the f 
of a big bull elk, and either will send a chill up the spine of the uninitiated 


176 


first day or so, the pack or trade rat is notoriously familiar, and the 


has a reputation not less unenviable. Larger game is plentiful and 
all of the year, by the whistle 


4 on : ; ‘ : , 
WR em 
a ge ay 
$, ee: eS se 


aS 


f ~ ; \ 
} ~. \ 
THE WARDENS OF THE LOST LAKES 
Eng “Fr ong em 
i ( ‘ I Lo g e ( ( t ikes 
l Aa ) iro uC I n old 
I 4 ] ir y 1 4 ¢ c1a d 
( ( 2 ) ) g ind that 
S g oc o ) g l In 
er l rut 10 oO 4 Ay 
I 1a 1 October 


177 


yesarppeR AWRET TOATA puke } 
a Set SON SUN N 


oy ( 


MOTISA HLIMW SSd018 HOI AHL SHAAQD « INONOL Sa 


| , } ‘ « 0 1p tog 


Th \ ‘ i 
NIVLNNOW A ONVOTOA (Oy iq) 


“ "es 


OdGVYO100 AO 
SNIVLNQNOW SHL 
NI 
SAWIL YSAWWNS 
dO AYO19 AHL 


Isl 


A810} SoULoly To} oyRul pun AO Jud 


step vw odrospur| 


oh “S| 


syirnd snowomnu oat AULLIpP.1o ¢ 
{ I ef 


doXO DU SIRUMUIVUT TRUS TOYO Kurw puv ‘yea opr ao yord oy ‘youyoO yxoor oy} sojid oplurad os Osot ‘amMIOYOS LO[OD UL UOTWRI 
I puy I I f t iL I I l 


I | 


ay} JO sdoy oy} OF S{[TQOOF oY} Wory PUNO; {{WOUIMIOD O1V YOO PI[OS JO sossvul osnI ‘SUIRIUNOT {yoo oy} JO suouURD PUL 


td paInjJXo}-ostvo0d Vv {JOSIVT SL YOOL Oy, ‘oulOD, SRIT OdURA Mt 4soy 


SIl4 yo oun 9} VOOM so 


oy} OF SOALS me ‘aq 


S31ld WOOY SALINVYS JDNH 


Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean 


in 1918° 


By. Az. W.. G REE Ley 


Major General, United States Army, Retired ‘ 


T is a special satisfaction to learn that 

the Great War has not entirely absorbed 

the activities of the world along scien- 
tific and adventurous lines. In recent years 
the hydrographic surveys of the Russian Em- 
pire, largely conducted along lines of opera- 
tions devised by Lieutenant General J. C. 
Schokalsky, of the Russian navy, have been 
extended in their fields and important in 
their results. Summaries of such surveys 


have been correlated and published by 


Schokalsky both in Russian and in Eng- 
lish journals. It is encouraging to learn 
that these surveys have been continued in 
1918. 

It will be remembered that in 1914-15 
Captain Vilkitsky, commanding the ice-break- 


” 


ers “Taimyr” and “Vaigatch,” made the first 
voyage of any kind from Bering Strait west- 
ward to the Atlantic Ocean.1 


veying the coast waters of the Siberian 


Besides sur- 


ocean, he had already added in 19135 two 
new islands to the New Siberian archipelago, 
which discoveries he now supplemented by a 
new island in the Bennett group, discovered 
by De Long in the “Jeannette” expedition, 
1880-81. 

Vilkitsky’s great discovery was the archi- 
pelago of Nicholas II, directly north of Cape 
Chelyuskin. This archipelago extends about 
two hundred miles to the northwest, having 
been explored as far as 82 degrees north 
latitude, and 93 degrees east longitude. In 
of 1914—when he 
sailed from Vladivostok—Vilkitsky endeéay- 


his surveying voyage 
ored to rescue the shipwrecked men of the 
“Karluk,” then in great distress on Wrangell 
Land. 
heavy ice that it could not then be reached. 


The island was so surrounded by 


With him at that time were Lieutenants N. 
Evgenoff and A. Nikolsky, of the Russian 


1See AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XIII, 
pp. 347—49. 


navy, now on duty at the embassy in Wash- 
ington. Later explorations of Nicholas II 
archipelago showed that one island was one 
hundred miles across from east to west, and 
its geological structure indicates clearly that 
it was, in earlier ages, a northerly extension 
of the continent of Asia. 

General Schokalsky reports a renewal of 
the survey work in the Siberian ocean dur- 
ing 1918, and it is understood that expedi- 
tions are now in the field, although it is more 
than possible that recent war operations may 
have interfered with the work. The plans 
for these surveys were drawn by the Hydro- 
graphic Administration, the most active 
members being the Chief of the Administra- 
tion and Hydrographer E. L. Bialckos. The 
western section of the expedition, working 
the White Sea eastward to Cape 
Chelyuskin, remains under command of Cap- 


from 


tain B. A. Vilkitsky. The eastern expedition, 
surveying from Cape Chelyuskin to Bering 
Strait, is commanded by Captain P. A. Novo- 
pashhennij. Sea surveys will be supple- 
mented by shore stations, where tidal, mete- 
orological and other hydrographic observa- 
tions will be made continuously for two or 
more years. The expeditions will be kept in 
connection with each other by radio shore 
stations, of which three have been in opera- 
tion for several years: Jugor-shij, Karskia 
Strait; Cape Mare-sale, Jamal Peninsula; 
and Dickson Inlet. As soon as possible other 
radio stations will be installed in east 
Matochkin Shar, Obdorsk, at the mouths of 
the Enissei and Petchora, Nakhodke, Obi 
Gulf, the mouths of the Lena and Kolima, 
and at other less important points. 

The scientific labors of the expeditions 
will be supplemented by such studies by ex- 
perts as may serve to develop the great 
resources of Siberia from economie and 
commercial standpoints. 


* This summary of exploratory work in the Siberian ocean was received by General Greely in a pri- 


vate letter from Petrograd. 


182 


Recollections of Travel in Peru ' 


by HOt OeHs Bl Ck 


RMED with letters of introduction, I 
started out the morning after my 
arrival in Lima, early in January, 

1913, with the hope of obtaining a govern- 

ment permit to collect a dozen or so of the 

innumerable shags or cormorants that had 
formed one of the sights of the day before 
as we sailed southward along the shores of 

Peru. As the Peruvian government derives 

a yearly revenue of many thousands of dol- 

lars from the sale of guano, the birds are 

carefully protected,—how carefully pro- 
tected I did not learn for more than five 
months, at the end of which time permission 
to collect the birds was finally refused. 

Although I was introduced to the Govern- 

ment Minister by a leading official of the 

Peruvian corporation which had the con- 

cession for gathering the guano, and al- 

though the American Minister to Peru 
added the weight of his office to.my plea, the 
weeks and months of waiting were in vain 
so far as government sanction was con- 
cerned. Between my semiweekly, weekly, 
biweekly, and finally monthly visits to the 
government offices to learn the progress of 
my petition, I spent my efforts collecting 
birds which were not government protected. 

By far the most interesting birds to me 
in and about Lima were the black vultures. 

In California I was accustomed to the wari- 

ness of the turkey vulture, which seldom 

allows approach within shooting distance; 
therefore these tame scavenging birds in 
their relation to the sanitation of the city 
and country afforded constant surprises as 
well as considerable amusement. At one of 
the slaughterhouses of the city the birds 
sat around on the trees, roofs, and fences by 
the dozens, waiting for the killing of an 
animal that the health officer would reject 
as unfit for human food. The diseased car- 
casses would be hauled out into the street 
less than a block from the entrance to the 
yard, and the birds did the rest. One large 
fat hog disappeared completely in two hours, 
while a rather skinny cow lasted over night. 


The tameness of the birds was shown par- 
ticularly along the embankment 
when the half-hourly trains between Lima 
and Callao passed. Of a dozen birds sitting 
on the sloping ground from three to fifteen 
feet below the rails, two thirds perhaps 
would fly off a few yards, but the others 
would remain while the train passed practi- 
cally just above their heads. Out at Chor- 
rillos, where I often collected, the trail I 
followed passed the city dump, and one could 
always see several black vultures walking 


railway 


gingerly about the burning piles of garbage, 
vying with dogs and pigs and sometimes a 
burro or two in picking out bits of food 
from the smoking heaps. 

The country roads about Lima were often 
deep rivers of dust and I soon learned to 
follow the custom of the country in climbing 
up and walking on top of the wide adobe 
walls which are used both as fences and foot- 
paths in many places. I remember what had 
been my amazement late one afternoon of 
my first trip into the outskirts of Lima, 
when, in looking across a small field of 
growing corn, I saw a large dog trotting 
along apparently on the top of one of the 
farthest corn rows. He jogged along un- 
concernedly and it was not until he passed 
beyond the cornfield that I saw he was on 
top of an adobe fence. 

Several times the South 
American condors were seen between Lima 


magnificent 


and Callao, slowly circling high above their 
smaller relatives, the black and turkey vul- 
tures. By the end of February, no action 
having been taken on my permit, I decided 
to go up to Lake Junin for a month. Lake 
Junin is situated nearly thirteen thousand 
feet high and, in addition to being fre- 
quented by many of the high Andean water 
birds, is the home of two or three species 
peculiar to itself. Through the kindness of 
the president of the Cerro de Pasco Railway 
Company we were given the use of his shoot- 
ing lodge close to the railway line a half 
mile from the lake, and this proved to be 


1 Peru, visited by Mr. and Mrs. Beck in the early part of 1913, was the first station on their five- 


year collecting trip to South America for marine birds. 
now deposited in the Brewster-Sanford collections at the American Museum, 


The specimens obtained on this expedition are 
Other accounts of Mr. 


Beck’s experiences are given in the JOURNAL for November, 1917, and for January and February, 1918. 


183 


184 


much more convenient than quarters in the 
village of Junin would have been. The 
cabin was fitted up with all the necessary 
articles for keeping house—with the excep- 
tion of the stove. There had been a stove, 
but some enterprising railway section boss 
had carried it off to warm his tent some- 
where up the line. Mrs. Beck therefore did 
the cooking in the fireplace. In walking 
down to the lake shore during the first week 
of our stay we saw many golden plover on 
the open tundra, getting in shape for the 
long flight to Alaska, where I had met their 
kind the summer before. Three other species 
of North American shore birds were also 
common about the lake, as well as the blue- 
winged teal, one of the North American 
ducks. 

The most striking birds of the district 
were the flamingos. Standing in the door- 
way in the early morning we could see a 
pink line along the edge of the shallow water 
as the birds gathered their morning meal, 
and a little later, when the sun lit up the 
low, rough, snow-capped peaks of the Cordil- 
lera a few miles to the westward, we could 
see the flamingos take wing and fly on to 
some safer resting ground far beyond our 
vision. 

Changes of temperature were very sudden 
about the lake. We might be rowing along, 
coats off in the bright sunshine, when a 
lazy looking cloud would come drifting over 
from the eastward. <A chill wind would rise 
and in a few minutes a snow or hail squall 
would strike us and 
donned in a hurry, to be discarded probably 
a few minutes later when the sun appeared 
again. It is said locally that Lake Junin 
is the home of the largest frogs in the 
world.t I saw but one in the lake and then 
only for a moment as it came up for a 
breath of air and dived on seeing the boat; 
but later, at Cerro de Pasco, we saw a num- 
ber hanging in the market place for sale, 
and I judged a single leg might be ample 
for a meal. 

One Saturday afternoon we flagged the 
freight train and went up to Cerro de Pasco, 


raincoats would be 


1These frogs, Bactrachophrynus microthalmus 
Werner, although larger than our North American 
bullfrogs, are not nearly as large as the giant 
frog Rana goliath Boulenger, of Gabun, Africa. 
Batrachophrynus is related to the West Indian 
“bullfrog”? but because of its aquatic habits has 
developed the general form of aglossal frogs and 
has lost all but the slightest trace of a tongue. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


which lies a few miles beyond the lake. We 
were greatly astonished as well as immedi- 
ately appreciative when we were ushered into 
a steam-heated, electric-lighted room, with 
running hot and cold water and a porcelain 
bathtub. We found later that the railroad 
company maintains this building for its em- 
ployees, and it certainly makes their lot 
much more bearable at that high altitude. 
One of the officials showed us about the im- 
mense smelter, with all its powerful, up-to- 
date American equipment, and, later, we had 
a chance, on the outskirts of the town, to 
watch the native miners bringing out in 
leather sacks on their backs silver ore from 
their small mine, as did their progenitors 
hundreds of years ago. Close by were other 
shafts equipped with modern machinery 
which made the contrasts more emphatic. 
Another remarkable feature of this barren, 
treeless, mountain top more than fourteen 
thousand feet high was the excellence and 
variety of fruits and vegetables for sale in 
the public market, all of them brought up 
from the eastern slopes of the Andes on 
burro and llama back or on the heads of the 
Indians. The oranges were sweeter than any 
we had eaten in Lima, the capital, and the 
variety of vegetables was fully as great. 
We walked out over the hill for a mile or 
so and looked far down a canon to the east- 
ward, through which a winding trail was Visi- 
ble, and we stood aside from the trail while 
a herd of llamas passed loaded with green 
fodder grown in the warmer canons miles 
below us. The next day, after buying some 
bread and vegetables, we returned to our 
work again. When our diet of wild ducks or 
snipe palled on us, our Indian helper would 
go to some Indian village near by and pur- 
chase half a sheep, paying therefor seventy- 
five cents or a dollar, the price depending on 
the size of the animal. We often bought 
eggs also which were very reasonable in 
price. We were especially interested in one 
village boy about ten years old who used to 
come over frequently with his spindle and 
ball of wool which he industriously wound 
while watching us skin birds. He never 
made a sound, and each night when the sun 
went down returned home with a piece of 
bread and jam. 

At the end of a month we packed up our 
birds and, hailing the freight train one after- 
noon, left for lower levels. About ten miles 
above Oroya, our destination for the day, 


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syoor oy} JO YInq ov 


186 


the conductor slowed down the train and I 
jumped off to have my first and only experi- 
ence with the rare spur-winged ducks. These 
birds live in swift, tumbling mountainous 
streams and can proceed upstream, under 
water, at a rate perfectly astounding to one 
unacquainted with them. I managed to se- 
cure a couple of specimens but lost several 
that were swept under the banks or through 
rapids where the eye could not follow them. 
I walked down the canon which became con- 
tinually wider, with small patches of ripen- 
ing barley and of thrifty potato vines along 
both sides of the railroad track. Occasion- 
ally a patch only forty or fifty feet square 
would be seen fenced on all sides by a stone 
wall; one enclosure contained only five rows 
of ten potato plants each or a total of fifty 
plants, and I saw other patches with even 
fewer plants. Rotation of crops was fol- 
lowed evidently by at least some of the 
farmers, and the well-filled heads of barley 
were especially surprising at that high alti- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


tude, more than twelve thousand feet above 
sea level. 

The journey from Oroya to Lima was en- 
joyed even more than we had enjoyed the 
upward trip. Being now accustomed to the 
thin air we were able to get out of the train 
at Ticlio, the highest point, 15,600 feet, and 
stroll about the station during the half-hour 
wait. Here, as at most other stations, a 
crowd of Indians had gathered to see the 
train arrive and depart. It was surprising 
at each station to see the number of the 
poorest natives that evidently had: business 
The 
second-class coaches were always full and, as 
Lima, the first-class became 
crowded also. In dropping down the hun- 
dred miles from Ticlio to sea level more than 
sixty tunnels are gone through and more 
In the same dis- 


at some station farther along the line. 


we neared 


than sixty bridges crossed. 
tance more than a dozen switchbacks are 
used to negotiate the steep canon-sides along 


which the railway runs. When one tires of 


At one of the entrances to the principal market of Lima, Peru, it is often possible to buy freshly 


sliced pineapple from small boys who carry some dozens of slices about on large plates. 


Each piece 


is sprinkled with sugar before being delivered to the purchaser 


At Cerro de Pasco, a few miles beyond Lake Junin, situated nearly 16,000 feet above sea level 
on the barren, treeless mountain tops, we found a wonderful display of fresh fruits and vegetables 
in the market place. All of these are brought up on the backs of burros and llamas and on the 
the natives, from the warm eastern slope of the Andes thousands of feet below. It was 


heads of 
judged a single leg would 


here that we saw giant frogs hanging in the market place, so large that we 
be ample for a meal. We remained a month in the high altitude of the vicinity of Lake Junin and 
studied and collected many species of mountain birds, especially ducks, snipe, plover, and other high 
Andean waterfowl. It was at a somewhat lower altitude, when we were on our way back to Lima, 
that 1 had my first and only experience with the rare spur-winged duck, a bird that can swim up- 
stream in the swift turbulent mountain current at an astounding speed 


heep for a dollar from some 


In the small Andean villages it is often possible to get a whole sheey 
farmer or his wife, who brings it in to town and sits patiently down in a likely spot until a buyer 
appears 

187 


We found burro loads of zreen alfalfa for sale at Salaverry, Peru. Alfalfa is grown ever} where 
up to an altitude of 11,000 or 12,000 feet, above which the traveler has to depend on dried forage 
or mountain pasture, unless, perchance, llama -loads of green fodder have been brought up to the 
higher markets from warmer cafons below, as we found was the case at Cerro de Pasco. Both the 
burros and the alfalfa are Spanish importations into Peru, and are well adapted to the country 


In walking toward the old cathedral from the hotel in Puno one will nearly always find a herd 
of llamas oceupying a station in front of some one of the business houses. This photograph was 
taken in front of the American bakery of Mariano Barrasa. Puno lies on the edge of Lake Titicaca, 
and many water birds, such as mud hens and grebes, are brought to the Puno market by the natives. 


We never tired of strolling about this market place on Sunday mornings when the llamas came in 
loaded with varied produce and the natives haggled and bargained over their small purchases 


RECOLLECTIONS. OF TRAVEL IN PERU 


looking across the cafon and counting the 


number of stone fences between the canon 
top and the roaring torrent in the bottom, 
or trying to count the number of llamas 
elimb 


in a flock as some 


tous trail homeward, he can turn his eyes 


they precipi- 


heavenward and watch the wonderful sail- 
ing of the great American condors as they 


189 


off which are several islands where many sea 
Here I fine lot of 
sea birds other than those government pro- 
tected. 
petrels quite common five miles offshore and 


birds nest. obtained a 


There were three species of small 


one of these species was nesting on one of 


the islands. I was interested to find, in 


collecting several dozen birds near the island, 


On Sunday mornings there is usually a fleet of twenty or more balsas tied up near this wharf at 
sunset 


Early in the afternoon the owners begin io straggle down from the town and by 


if the wind is fair, 


Puno. 
nearly all are gone, either poling along the shallow water or, 
made of dried tules which is hoisted only when the wind is abaft the beam. 
obtain many ducks and other water birds in the clumps of tule at the margin of the lake and display 
picked clean of feathers to the bill and some- 


using the crude sail 
These native hunters 


them in the Sunday market of Puno. The birds are 
times partly cooked; they sell for about five cents gold each 


circle about the cafion. Lower down in the 
foothills green orchards and plantations are 
passed and, as Lima is neared, fields of 
sugar cane and herds of feeding cattle greet 
the eye. 

I was greatly surprised, the day after our 
return, on inquiring at the government offices, 
to find that no action had been taken on my 
application for the collecting permit. So, 
after working a week around Lima, we went 
up the coast some twenty odd miles to Ancon, 


that nearly all were of two species not nest- 


ing there. The nesting birds probably went 


farther out to sea to feed, as they were 


found later two hundred miles from land. 


The commonest bird of the three species was 
Wilson’s 


miles south of Cape Horn, 


hundreds of 


During the Ant- 


petrel, which nests 
arctic winter these birds come north on both 
sides of South America, on the Pacific side 
seemingly seldom above the equator, but on 


the Atlantic they are common visitants to at 


190 


least New England, and occasionally they 
are seen in New York Harbor. 

Ancon was formerly thickly populated 
with Indians, and in the sand hills a mile 
or two back from the present town is a large 
cemetery which has been pretty well rifled 
for treasures it may have contained. We 
happened to discover the spot one hot Sun- 
day afternoon while out for a walk, and our 
recollections of Ancon always bring back the 
memory of dozens of whitening human skulls, 
with a solitary, lonesome-looking Englishman 
ruthlessly knocking a golf ball over the 
sacred ground. 

Our return to Lima was again character- 
ized by a futile attempt to get a decision on 
our modest request, so a schooner was char- 
tered for a month and we went out to sea 
to collect on the ocean. Fifty miles out and 
beyond, we encountered several species of 
ocean birds which usually do not come much 
nearer land except in the nesting season. 
One day I was out in the rewboat some dis- 
tance from the schooner and just in the act 
of picking up a rare bird from the water 
when I was thrown backward by some object 
striking the boat underneath. Looking be- 
hind me, I saw a large shark making a dash 
for the boat. A strong jab with the oar 
disconcerted him a little but he rubbed him- 
self a number of times on the bottom. I 
even and scratched his fin, 
after I had observed that there were several 
These little 
sucker fish hang very tenaciously to their 
host; about the Galapagos Islands in other 
years we had often hauled sharks and turtles 
aboard with 
them. 


reached over 


small remoras bothering him. 


several remoras clinging to 

Near the end of the cruise we anchored 
one night below Pisco Bay some distance 
south of Callao. 


of the quiet bay were forty or more fla- 


Parading along the shore 


mingos in company with a great flock of 
shags, gulls, pelicans, and shore birds of 
Tt was surprising enough to 
see the flamingos in such company, but it 
was more surprising to see four species of 
Alaskan birds back already on June 30 from 
their northern homes. The surf 
birds especially seemed out of place along 
the warm, calm waters of a protected shore. 
T associated them with dashing breakers and 
strong cold winds from the open ocean, for 
such had been their chosen spots when I had 
previously met them. 


several species. 


summer 


NATURAL HISTORY 


After the government powers had had my 
application before them for half a year they 
decided finally that permission could not be 
granted me to collect specimens of their 
guano producers, although all other birds 
As I had, while await- 
ing this unexpected answer, obtained series of 
nearly all the other water birds in the vicin- 
ity, we took steamer for Mollendo, southern 
Peru, and went by rail up to Lake Titicaca 
where several desired species of birds were 
known to live. 


were at my disposal. 


Before beginning our work 
at the lake we spent a couple of days at 
Cuzco, the Inca capital. Our ride up to 
Cuzco from Juliaca, the junction point, hap- 
pened to take place during the festival sea- 
son, and at several of the stations along the 
way groups of Indians were dancing and 
marching about the villages. Oftentimes 
women would be prancing and circling about, 
with heavy children bobbing up and down 
in the shawls swung over their backs. At 
one stop, a few rods from that station, we 
saw a pair of oxen tramping out a stack of 
grain quite in the fashion of a couple or 
more thousand years ago. 

The astounding amount of work that has 
been done to enlarge and protect the culti- 
vable area amazed us continually. One field 
of several acres I remember particularly, 
where the portion of the ground that had 
been made fit for use by the removal of the 
rocks was smaller than that covered with 
immense rock piles. 

One or two of the old cathedrals in Cuzco 
have far finer hand-worked figures, chairs, 
and pews those of the many 
churches we entered in the other countries 
of South America. The beautifully mortised 
stones along some of the streets and the 
immense hand-worked forming the 
walls of the old Inca fort above the town 
are worth traveling many long miles to see. 
Mrs. Beck will always remember Cuzco as 
the place where she obeyed the demand of 
a devout barefooted Indian who sternly re- 


than are 


rocks 


quested her to doff her hat, in the manner of 
all the men on the sidewalk, when the pro- 
cession carrying the Holy Image passed on 
its way to church. The women of that coun- 
try go to church bareheaded or wear only 
mantillas over their heads. 

Lake Titicaca, 12,500 feet above sea level, 
bears on its bosom several steam-driven ves- 
sels as well as the numerous balsas of the 
native Indians. On Saturdays and Sundays 


RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL IN PERU 


there was quite a fleet of the latter craft 
tied up near the steamer which carries pas- 
sengers and supplies to the Bolivian side of 
the lake, and the passing tourists had great 
opportunities to step across the wharf and 
snapshot the unwieldy looking canoes. 
Through the kindness of the Superintendent 
of Railways and Steamers I was furnished 
with a boat from a steamer in port to do 
my collecting, as the balsas were slow going, 
especially against the wind. The native hunt- 
ers in these balsas, however, obtain many 
ducks, mud hens, and grebes by poling 
around the clumps and patches of tule close 
to shore, and we saw many birds of these 
species in the market, picked clean of feath- 
ers clear to the bill, which were being sold 
for about five cents gold each. One day I 
saw more than fifty in a pile ready for Sun- 
day’s market, most of them having been 
partly cooked to keep them from _ spoil- 
ing. 

During our stay at Puno, which lies on 
the edge of Lake Titicaca, the Independence 
Day of Peru was celebrated, and the very 
excellent procession and cleverly arranged 
floats which were a part of the celebration 
would have been a credit to towns many 
times larger than this up-in-the-air commu- 
nity. We were particularly impressed with 
the fortitude of some of the lightly dressed 
children on the floats, as the procession 
halted in the cool evening air at various 
places around the plaza to allow the orators 
time for their declamations. 

We rarely tired of strolling about the busy 
market place on Sunday mornings watching 
the llamas coming in with their varied loads 
of produce, and the haggling and bargaining 
of the poorer natives as they bought a cup- 
ful of grain or beans, it might be, or pos- 
sibly a hat or a pair of sandals from some 
one of the dozens of venders squatted down 


Lot: 


in the open street with wares spread out in 
front of them. 

At the end of a month we had collected the 
desired birds and, having packed them se- 
eurely for shipment to New York, headed 
downward toward Mollendo. The traveling, 
crescent-shaped sand heaps which are on 
both sides of the railway for several miles 
in one desert section of this journey are 
the most likely-to-be-remembered sights to 
the traveler. Dozens of the sand dunes are 
seen, all of them traveling slowly with the 
wind, the particles of sand from the wind- 
ward side blowing up over the pile to be 
buried on the lee side, later to reappear and 
go over the top again. 

The Harvard Observatory, near the fa- 
mous Mt. Misti, with its very hospitable and 
courteous staff of American observers will 
be remembered by all Americans who take 
the pleasant ride out to it from Arequipa. 
Arequipa, at more than 7500 feet elevation, 
is the trading center for a large mountain 
population. One may see herds of llamas, 
laden with dried mutton and other mountain 
products, traveling the same narrow streets 
on which the electric railway runs; and in 
the evening one may visit the ice cream 
parlor, where men are the principal custom- 
ers, and buy the finest pastry to be found in 
all Peru. Leaving Arequipa in the morning, 
we arrived at Mollendo at noon and, after 
dining, were rowed to the steamer anchored 
some distance out from the rocky coast on 
which the town is perched. At dark the 
anchor was weighed and we started south- 
ward to begin our work in Chilean waters. 

The very pleasant reception and kindly 
treatment we received from all the English- 
speaking people, whether Peruvians, English, 
or Americans, with whom we came in contact 
in Peru, will always remain among our most 
vivid recollections of that wonderful country. 


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VWVAEVIV ‘NIVLNNOW LNOXOOT ‘ST1VvV4 YSAIY 3TLLIT 


Some Vanishing Scenic Features of the 
Southeastern United States: 


By BOLAND M HARPER 


Formerly Botanist on the Geological Surveys of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida 


S civilization spreads over the face of 
the earth more and more of na- 
ture’s handiwork is necessarily dis- 

figured or destroyed. The primeval forests 
are cut down to make room for farms and 
settlements, or are used up faster than they 
grow for fuel and building material, or in 
some localities are killed by fire, smoke, or 
smelter fumes. Picturesque rock formations 
are converted into building stone or road 
material, or blasted away in the process of 
mining, and waterfalls and rapids are 
dammed up for power or navigation, or both. 
As progress is the prevailing ideal, the con- 
version of irreplaceable natural resources 
into wealth is almost universally looked upon 
as not only inevitable but highly commend- 
able, especially by those who do not look 
very far ahead. And of course if no trees 
had ever been cut or rivers dammed or mines 
and quarries opened this country would have 
only a sparse population living mostly on 
fish and game, as the aborigines did, and 
much of the scenery that we now admire and 
enjoy would be “wasting its sweetness on 
the desert air.” 

The immediate economic effect of the de- 
structive exploitation of natural scenery is 
usually to increase the wealth of the indi- 
viduals or corporations responsible for it, 
and sometimes to enable persons living in 
the vicinity, or even at a considerable dis- 
tance, to get some necessities and luxuries, 
such as lumber, farm produce, or electricity, 
a little cheaper for a time; but that, to a 
true lover of nature at least, hardly seems 
a sufficient reason for depriving all future 
generations of the opportunity to enjoy or 
study the features in question. Moreover, 
the ultimate effect is merely to allow an in- 
crease of population, for that seems to de- 
pend on economic opportunities as much as 


anything else, and the total population of 
the world or any part thereof tends to keep 
pace with the total wealth. (This prin- 
ciple of limitation of numbers by oppor- 
tunities is still more obvious in the case of 
wild animals and plants.) It is human 
nature to take pride in rapid growth and 
large population figures for one’s own city 
or country, but it has not been proved that 
the inhabitants of congested districts are 
any happier or freer or more efficient than 
those who live farther apart, and at all 
stages of the world’s history there have been 
those who sincerely lamented the passing of 
the good old days, when people were not so 
crowded and there was more opportunity for 
the development of individuality. 
Somewhere between the primitive condi- 
tion of a “howling wilderness” and that of 
areas almost completely occupied by farms or 
buildings, like Towa, the blue-grass region of 
Kentucky, Manhattan Island, Prince Edward 
Island, Flanders, and the lowlands of China 
and Japan, there should be a happy mean, 
with a certain minimum of natural scenery, 
say not less than one per cent of 
county and five per cent of every state, left 
intact for the benefit cf all who may wish 
to enjoy it now or hereafter. 


every 


There is per- 
haps no purer pleasure than that derived 
from the contemplation of nature’s master- 
pieces, and a world in which some of them 
are within easy reach of every one ought to 
be a happier world than one wholly domi- 
nated by commercialistic motives. 

It is said that the appreciation of nature 
is a comparatively modern concept, which 
hardly existed anywhere a century or two 
ago; medieval travelers saw nothing but 
hideousness in alpine scenery, and in prime- 
val forests they were in constant fear of 
wild beasts and unknown perils. But now 


+ All the illustrations are from photographs by the Author, except those of Tallulah Falls and Stone 
Mountain, for which he is indebted to Prof. S. W. McCallie, State Geologist of Georgia. 

In the few months that have elapsed since this article was put in type the termination of the great 
war has altered some of the situations described, but it seemed better to publish it in its present form and 
ask readers to bear this circumstance in mind than to undertake extensive alterations at this time. 
Another recent development worthy of mention is the organization a few months ago at Waycross, 
Georgia, of an “‘Okefinokee Society,’’ whose object is to preserve from destruction the great swamp 


described herein. 


193 


View near the southern end of the Everglades, looking south.—Note the calcareous incrustation 


on the saw-grass stubble. 


when a particularly charming bit of scenery 
that has been enjoyed by thousands and is 
capable of giving pleasure to millions more 
if let alone, is threatened with destruction 
by selfish interests, a vigorous protest is 
often made, and sometimes is effective. And 
although many people even yet seem about 
as indifferent to the beauties of nature as 
animals are, there is reason for believing 
that the number of appreciative ones is in- 
creasing in spite of the vast development of 
industrialism. 

Most New Yorkers probably are familiar 
with the long-continued fight to save Ni- 
agara Falls from spoliation by power syndi- 
cates, and can easily recall how the Pali- 
sades of the Hudson were saved for the 
public about ten years ago, after quarrymen 
had already done considerable damage. In 
the West quite a number of scenic features 
on government land have been set aside in 
recent years as national forests, parks, or 
“monuments,” and the public is being invited 
and even urged to go and enjoy them. In 
California a few years ago there was a pro- 
longed fight—successful in the one case and 
not in the other—to save the groves of Big 
Trees from exploitation by lumbermen and 
the beautiful Hetch-Hetchy Valley from 
being flooded to form a reservoir. 

In the East, where there is hardly any 
more federal government land, beautiful 
tracts have been reserved by the states, like 
the Adirondacks in New York, Mackinae 
Island in Michigan, and Starved Rock in 
Tilinois, or donated to the public by private 


194 


Photographed March 29, 1909 


individuals, as in the case of a part of Mount 
Desert Island, Maine, and Letchworth Park, 
in Livingston and Wyoming Counties, New 
York. And even in such a supposedly mer- 
cenary city as New York about ten per cent 
of the land area, some of it practically vir- 
gin forest, is reserved for park purposes, al- 
though it would be worth at least $100,000,- 
000 now for business or residential purposes, 
and costs a large sum annually for main- 
tenance. 

Among places of scenic or scientific inter- 
est in the northeastern states which have 
been partly destroyed by the march of civi- 
lization are the Hempstead Plains of Long 
Island, some of the beaches of southern 
New Jersey, the Kankakee marshes of In- 
diana, the prairies of Illinois, and the Dalles 
or Dells of the Wisconsin River. The pres- 
ent article deals with a number of such 
places in the southeastern states, equally 
attractive or interesting but not so widely 
known, that are about to meet a similar fate, 
or have already been partly or wholly ruined. 
Some of them have been written about at 
considerable length in publications of wide 
circulation, while others are known chiefly to 
botanists, zodlogists, and persons living in 
the vicinity.1 

Okefinokee Swamp, covering about seven 
hundred square miles in _ southeastern 


1 Descriptions of the Everglades have appeared 
in several encyclopedias, and notices of the Hemp- 
stead Plains, Okefinokee Swamp, and Stone Moun- 
tain, with references to some previous literature 
for each, can be found in the latest edition of the 
New International Encyclopedia (1914-16). 


VANISHING SCENIC FEATURES OF THE SOUTHEAST 195 


Georgia, partly wooded and partly open 
marsh or wet prairie, has been visited more 
by hunters than by sight-seers, but it has 
charms all its own for those who appreciate 
the wilderness. A fanciful account of it, 
based on Indian legends, was published as 
long ago as 1791 by William Bartram, but 
most of the literature relating to it is less 
than ten years old.! 

The first serious disturbance of this prime- 
val solitude had its inception in 1890, when 
a corporation organized for the 
bought the greater part of the swamp from 
the state for 26% cents an acre. A canal 


purpose 


was soon dredged from the eastern margin 
to near the center, for the purpose of float- 
ing out the cypress timber to a sawmill on 
the edge of the swamp. It was planned to 
drain the area later, and convert it into farm 


land, which the promoters imagined would 
’ 5 


‘A good description, with illustrations, pub- 
lished too late to be cited in the encyclopedia arti- 
cle, is that by Francis Harper in the Brooklyn 
Museum Quarterly for April, 1915. 


Virgin forest of slash pine (Pinus Elliottii) with undergrowth of saw 
shrubs, on Bugaboo Island in Okefinokee Swamp. 


be very fertile. But the death of the presi- 
dent of the company in 1895 caused a cessa- 
tion of operations before the swamp forests 
had been greatly disfigured, and the canal 
was put to good use in the next few years by 
hunters and occasional scientific explorers. 
After a dozen years or so had elapsed the 
successors of the original lumber company 
built a railroad from Waycross, the nearest 
northwestern 


city, into the 


swamp, and began taking the timber out 


part of the 
that way. This invasion seems to be still in 
progress, but perhaps it is not yet too late 
to make at least a part of the swamp a for- 
est and game preserve, if sufficient interest 
can be aroused in such a project. 

The Everglades is a vast saw-grass marsh, 
averaging about fifteen feet above sea level, 
and covering about five thousand square 
miles, in the southern part of Florida. It 
contains almost no timber or other useful 
vegetation, except clumps of bushes and 
small trees near its edges, and the saw grass 


which flourishes everywhere is a formidable 


palmetto and other low 


Photographed August 7, 1902 


West side of Paradise Key, or Royal Palm Hammock, showing the royal palms towering above the 


other trees. Photographed March 28, 1909 
obstacle to navigation in the wet season as 
well as to walking in the dry season. Pre- 
vious to 1890 there was no. railroad any- 
where near it, and the area was a terra in- 
cognita to all but the Seminole Indians who 
dwelt on its edges and to a few adventurous 
hunters and explorers who had penetrated 
the marsh for short distances. The exten- 
sion of the Florida East Coast Railway to 
Miami in 1896 (and later to the Keys) made 
the Everglades much more accessible, and 
brought increasing numbers of sportsmen, 
tourists, nature lovers, and speculators; and 
since about 1905 the output of literature 
about it, both scientific and popular, has 
been considerable. 

Even before the railroad came near this 
had been looked upon as a potential farm 
area, on account of its mild climate and sup- 
posedly rich muck soil, and after many pre- 
liminary investigations and discussions, and 
a few heated political campaigns, the state 
began in 1906 the dredging of a series of 
canals to connect Lake Okeechobee, at the 
north end of the ’Glades, with the coast, and 
thus ultimately to drain the marsh. One 
canal from the lake to New River back of 
Fort Lauderdale was cut through a few 
years later, and has been used ever since, 


except in the driest seasons, by launches and 

1 Some of the best popular descriptions of the 
Everglades are in books and magazine articles by 
A. W. Dimock. An eloquent plea for the Seminoles 
has been made by Mrs. Minnie Moore Willson in 
her book about them, published in 1896 and later 
editions. 


196 


other small craft. Considerable work has 
been done on other canals, and the water has 
been lowered a little, enough to allow some 
agricultural developments and real estate 
booms on the northern and eastern edges. 
At the same time a number of lawsuits and 
scandals have resulted from the attempts of 
enterprising speculators to sell land in the 
middle of the Glades (that cannot be drained 
for many years, if at all) at fancy prices to 
gullible persons living hundreds of miles 
away. 


near the center of Okefinokee 


Chase Prairie, 
Swamp, on August 7, 1902 


Muck land is not as inexhaustibly fertile 
as it appears to the uninitiated, however, and 
after the first few years needs to be ferti- 
lized heavily to produce crops; and the pres- 
ent war situation has made the supply of 
some fertilizing materials very uncertain, 
and thus tends to delay the exploitation of 
the Everglades, which would be a large un- 
dertaking at best. To drain this vast marsh 
would not only destroy a scenic feature that 
has no counterpart 


world, but 


anywhere else in the 


would also nearly exterminate 


countless birds and other interesting wild 


creatures, as well as the Seminole Indians, 


a formerly warlike but now very peaceful 
tribe. But the Indians have no status either as 
citizens or wards of the nation, and get no 
more consideration from the average Ever- 
glades promoter than the birds and alliga- 
tors do.! 


Royal Palm Hammock, or Paradise Key, 


written in recent 
about the supposed advantages of draining swamps 


‘So much has been years 
and marshes that some readers may be interested 


in the arguments on the other side of the question 


in the Popular Science Monthly 29:282-283. 
June, 1886; 73:85-91. July, 1908; Science IT. 
23: Oct. 16, 1908; and Literary Digest 
67:890. Dec. 12, 1908 


ably from the fact 


iat hunters sometimes camp in 


‘ypress trees and shrubbery dotting 


the marsh are known locally as 


them 


198 


is a sort of island about half a mile in 
diameter, at the extreme south end of the 
Everglades, in Dade County, Florida. It is 
covered with a dense tropical forest, and is 
one of the few places in the United States 
where the royal palm (Roystonea regia) 
grows wild. There are at least one hundred 
of these graceful palms on the island, and 
the older ones tower above all the other 
vegetation, a picture worth going far to see. 
Several of the other trees, too, are rarely 
found outside of the tropics. 

Until about ten years ago this beautiful 
hammock was inaccessible and almost un- 
known; but when the Florida East Coast 
Railway was extended to the Keys it passed 
within about ten miles of the spot, and set- 
tlers began to push out in that direction. 
As the soil of the island appeared to be 


quite fertile, some greedy vandals had 


NATURAL HISTORY 


thoughts of converting it into truck farms; 
but before such a scheme was made possible 
by the building of a road over the miles of 
jagged limestone and strips of marsh be- 
tween there and the railroad, the Florida 
Federation of Women’s Clubs became inter- 
ested, and in 1915 secured the passage of a 
bill by the legislature placing the tract in 
their care. 

This, however, was perhaps not an un- 
mixed blessing, for the first step in making 
it more accessible was to build an automo- 
bile road right through the hammock, with 
Cape Sable as its contemplated destination. 
Then a custodian was installed and a club- 
house built to accommodate visitors, and the 
traffic has already brought in several weeds 
and of course will bring more and more, to 
say nothing of increasing the forest fire 
hazard. Worse still, it seems to be the in- 


Looking up the gorge of Tallulah River shortly before the dam was built; Tempesta Falls in 
the foreground, Hawthorne’s Pool just above, and the foot of L’Eau d’Or Falls beyond. Photographed 


by A. M. Turner in 1913 


VANISHING SCENIC FEATURES OF THE SOUTHEAST 199 


tention of some of the patronesses to “im- 
prove” the tract by cutting a number of 


trails through the forest and installing 
exotic orchids and other plants that nature 
never intended to grow there, thus further 
altering its natural appearance.! 

Passing now to the subject of river sce- 
nery, it may be observed that on any stream 
the most picturesque places are usually its 
falls and rapids, and it is just these which 
suffer most from the encroachments of civi- 
lization, for every water-power development, 
or dam for slack-water navigation, disfigures 
Some of the 


finest examples of such scenery have escaped 


or obliterates one of them. 


until quite recently, however, either on ac- 
count of the large amount of capital re- 
quired to “develop” them, or their remote- 
ness from cities, or possibly because public 
opinion was too adverse to their deface- 
ment. 

One of the grandest manifestations of un- 
harnessed power in the South was Tallulah 
Falls, on the headwaters of the Savannah 
The 


river there dashed through a narrow rocky 


River in the mountains of Georgia. 


1The most comprehensive description of Royal 
Palm Hammock, and one easily accessible to many 
readers of this JOURNAL, is by Dr. J. K. Small in 
the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, 
for October, 1916. See also AMERICAN MUSEUM 
JOURNAL for February, 1918, p. 132. 


feet 
scending six hundred and sixty feet in three 
The village of Tallulah 
Falls, close by, was a favorite summer resort 


gorge about five hundred deep, de- 


and a half miles. 


for people from the Piedmont region and 
coastal plain, and had hotel accommodations 
for about nine hundred persons. Up to 1911 
the rugged scenery remained virtually as 
about that time the 
temptation to harness the falls proved irre- 


nature made it, but 
sistible, and one of the large hydroelectric 
Local 
nature lovers protested vehemently at the 
time, and sought to prevent the destruction 


power syndicates secured possession. 


by legal means, but the prospect of getting 
cheaper electricity for Atlanta (nearly one 
hundred miles away) seemed to outweigh all 
other considerations. The scenery of course 
has not been totally destroyed, but it is said 
that Tallulah Falls is much less popular as 
a summer resort than it was. 

Squaw Shoals, on the Black Warrior River 
in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, has always 
been comparatively inaccessible and un- 
known, but it was a beautiful place, and 
was of considerable botanical interest as 
being one of the few known localities for 
the rare spider lily, Hymenocallis coronaria 
(which grows only on rocky rapids from 
South Carolina to Alabama, and has already 


been exterminated from some rivers in the 


Dam of the Georgia Railway and Power Company at Tallulah Falls, completed in 1914. 


graphed by S. W. McCallie 


Photo- 


200 


same manner as here), the recently discov- 
ered umbelliferous plant Harperella fluvi- 
atilis, which seems to be confined to Ala- 
bama, and a few other species of more than 
ordinary interest.1 

About six years ago there was begun the 
construction of a sixty-foot dam and _ lock 
at the foot of these shoals, as a part of a 
plan for extending navigable water up 
through the coal fields to Birmingham. The 
accompanying illustrations are from photo- 
graphs taken in the summer of 1915, when 
the construction of the dam was well ad- 
vanced, but the vegetation and scenery above 
it were still intact. The completion of the 
structure was celebrated on May 15, 1915, 
with much rejoicing and speech-making by 
the citizens of Tuscaloosa (who apparently 
have little to gain by it, however), and it is 
not recorded that there was any one present 
to mourn the passing of the natural scenery. 

At about the same time a seventy-foot 
dam for electric power purposes was built 
on the Coosa River between Chilton and 
Coosa counties, Alabama, backing up the 
water to the vicinity of Talladega Springs, 
and submerging several square miles of land, 


1 For an account of the botanical features of this 
place see Torreya, September, 1914. The genus 
Harperella, discovered by the writer in Georgia in 
1902, and now comprising three species, is one of 
the only two or three genera of flowering plants 
discovered in the eastern United States in the last 
three quarters of a century. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


partly forests and partly farms. This place 
had no particular reputation for scenery, 
being several miles from any railroad or 
settlement, but the ponding of the river 
flooded one of the few localities outside of 
the coastal plain for the small palm, Sabal 
glabra, and some splendid collecting ground 
for mussels, and is said to have almost 
ruined Talladega Springs as a resort. 

The same power company that harnessed 
the Coosa River also has had designs on 
Little River Falls, a very picturesque spot 
on Lookout Mountain in Alabama, where 
some extremely interesting plants grow.2 In 
August, 1911, numerous surveyors’ stakes 
were in evidence there, but the contemplated 
destruction apparently has not yet been car- 
ried out. Perhaps it is not too late yet to 
save this place, which would not be worth 
much for power purposes, on account of the 
small size of the stream. 

Mussel (commonly misspelled Muscle) 
Shoals, on the Tennessee River just above 
Florence, Alabama, where the river falls 
eighty-five feet in about fifteen miles, is 
an obstacle to navigation long ago circum- 
vented by a canal, which did little damage 
to the scenery, flora, or fauna. But this 
spot has recently been selected as the site of 
the proposed government nitrate plant, 
which will mean a large water-power deyel- 


2 Its botanical peculiarities have been discussed 
in Torreya 6:114. 1906; 14:154. 1914. 


Lower part of Squaw Shoals, showing lock in process of construction in the foreground and beds 


of spider lilies (Hymenocallis coronaria) in the middle distance. 


Photographed June 4, 1913 


VANISHING SCENIC FEATURES OF THE SOUTHEAST 201 


opment there, to which local “boosters” 
will doubtless point with pride. 

Many other recent water-power enterprises 
in the South could be cited, but it will suf- 
fice to mention only one more, which is a 
little different 


Spring, in Fulton County, Arkansas, about a 


from the rest. Mammoth 
quarter of a mile from the Missouri line, the 
largest spring in that part of the country, 
and perhaps the largest in the world outside 
dammed up at its 


of Florida, was very 


source some years ago to furnish power for 


very interesting and even exciting experi- 
ences there. When explored by the writer in 
March, 1915, it was still in its pristine glory, 
and there was no sign of any contemplated 
disturbance: but a few months later came 
limestone quarry was 


the sad news that a 


about to be opened on the spot. Some pro- 
tests were made, but with little or no effect. 
The destruction is 


probably not complete 


yet, however, and it might still be possible 
to check it in some way.! 


In some respects the most striking’ natural 


A near view of the spider lilies on Squaw Shoals, in water about a foot deep. 


other aquatic plants, the spider lily has a bulb, 


Unlike nearly all 


function of which is doubtless to enable it to sur 


vive desiccation during prolonged periods of low water 


a flour mill, and further encroachments have 


been contemplated which may destroy all 


semblance of its original appearance. 
Lastly may be deseribed two rock forma 
tions. One of the most interesting in 
the South, to a botanist at least, is a group 
of limestone grottoes near the Withlacoochee 
River in the southeastern corner of Citrus 


County, Florida, in latitude 28° 40’. Tt is 


not very conspicuous from a scenic stand 


point, but it is noteworthy as a locality for 


several rare ferns, 


some of which are chiefly 
confined to the tropics, or are not known 
elsewhere north of the Everglades. Since 


1881 this place has been visited by several 


well-known botanists, some of whom had 


feature in all the southeastern states is Stone 
Mountain, in DeKalb County, Georgia, about 
sixteen miles from Atlanta by rail. It is a 


conspicuous landmark for miles around: a 


huge dome of granite rising about seven 
hundred feet above a comparatively level 


about two 


country, and covering square 
miles. The north side is precipitous fo1 


about half its height, and fantastically deco 


stripes made by wate1 


trickling down, while the other 


sides slope 


more gently, and have a sparse growth of 

trees and shrubs un evices and hollows. On 
For a mat 0 ill a ilabl information 

bo l iqu d more or less historic spot, 
1 1 F id al, Sep 1916 


R02 


and around the mountain are quite a number 
of plants not known outside of Middle 
Georgia, including among others the rare 
Georgia oak (Quercus Georgiana). 

Although the sight of Stone Mountain 
must have amazed the earliest settlers, who 
came to that part of the state about 1820, it 
seems to have been unknown to scientists 
until near the middle of the century, when it 
was already quite a resort for sight-seers 
from near by and even had a rude observa- 
tion tower on its summit. It is said that the 
village of Stone Mountain at its base (at 
first called New Gibraltar, doubtless on ac- 
count of the resemblance of the mountain to 
the rock of Gibraltar) had three hundred 
inhabitants and four hotels in 1849. The 
Hon, Amelia M. Murray, an English lady of 
scientific proclivities, visited the mountain 
during a tour of the United States in May, 
1855; but on mentioning it to northern sci- 
entists a few weeks later she found none 
who had heard of it.1 

For many years, particularly since 1882, 
granite has been quarried from the north- 
eastern base of Stone Mountain, out of sight 
of the village and railroad, but so enormous 
is its mass (estimated at about seven and a 
half billion cubic feet above the ground) 
that the stone taken out so far is scarcely 
missed. In 1900 there was little evidence 
that anyone had ever set foot on the moun- 
tain, notwithstanding its reputed ante-bel- 
lum popularity. But since then a boys’ 
preparatory school has been established in 
the village of Stone Mountain, and a trolley 
line and automobile boulevard built out 
from Atlanta; and by 1913 a well-worn 
path from base to summit could be seen 
from a passing train, and two or three per- 
sons had lost their lives by slipping down 
the precipitous north side. 

About three years ago plans were matured 
for disfiguring this massive monolith in a 
manner almost unprecedented, the object of 
which is not wholly mercenary, as in the 
cases previously described, but sentimental. 
Whether the idea originated with the artist 
or with the local Daughters of the Confed- 
eracy is not clear, but at any rate a well- 
known New York sculptor has been commis- 


1 See her very interesting book, Letters from the 
United States, Cuba and Canada (1857), pp. 312-— 
313, 333. At least two botanists, T. C. Porter, of 
Pennsylvania, and H. W. Ravenel, of South Caro- 
lina, had been on Stone Mountain a few years be- 
fore Miss Murray, and made known to science 
some of its peculiar plants. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


sioned to carve on the smooth north face of 
the mountain, with an expenditure of sey- 
eral years’ time and several million dollars, 
some gigantic figures representing scenes in 
the Civil War. Although the Georgians (of 
whom the writer was one during the best 
years of his youth) are to be commended 
for cherishing the memory of the Lost Cause, 
in this case they are taking a very extrava- 
gant way of showing it.? 

As Stone Mountain has stood for countless 
centuries, and will for many more, it does 
not seem particularly appropriate to deface 
it irrevocably with nineteenth century scenes 
from other states, when some future century 
may well bring forth something equally 
worthy of commemoration and more directly 
connected with that locality, and perhaps 
may produce also a native sculptor to do the 
work. There are indeed some prominent 
people in Georgia opposed to the present 
project, but of course they cannot say much 
against it without having their sectional 
patriotism impugned. Outside of Georgia 
there does not seem to be much interest one 
way or the other, but there was a thought- 
ful note of protest in the Nation editorial 
referred to (which appeared first in the 
New York Evening Post of August 4). The 
present war situation bids fair to hinder the 
collection of the funds necessary for carry- 
ing out this bold project, all of which natu- 
rally could not be raised in advance; and 
perhaps the patriotic citizens who have been 
promoting it will find some less expensive 
way of expressing themselves. At the pres- 
ent writing it seems that considerable pre- 
liminary work has been done, but no actual 
carving; so there is still a chance for stay- 
ing the proceedings. It seems a pity that 
the whole mountain has not been made a 
state park, to be protected forever from 
quarrymen, sculptors, and others who may 
seek to exploit it for the sake of wealth or 
notoriety. 

In the foregoing pages the esthetic rea- 
sons for preserving natural scenery have 
been put foremost, but another and still 
higher motive has been touched upon. An 
artificial park or flower garden might be 
just as pleasing to the eye, to most persons 
at least, as any natural landscape; but from 


2For additional details about this project, in 
magazines and weeklies of wide circulation, see 
Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, April, 1917; 
World's Work, Aug., 1917; The Nation, Aug. 9, 
1917; Literary Digest, Aug. 18, 1917. 


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204 


a scientific standpoint there is no comparison 
between them. Any sort of place can be 
beautified to the owner’s (or the public’s) 
. taste by the expenditure of time and money, 
but when natural scenery is destroyed all 
the money in the world cannot restore it. 

Every interference with nature diminishes 
the opportunities for studying the working 
of the laws of nature; and without a know- 
ledge of such laws we do not get as much 
out of life as we should. Although a short- 
sighted utilitarian might claim that many 
natural laws have no possible economic ap- 
plication, no man can say just what the near 
future may bring forth, and it behooves 
those who have the rare gift of making cor- 
rect generalizations from observed facts to 
embrace every possible opportunity to learn 
nature’s ways. The loss of scientific oppor- 
tunity through commercial exploitation is 
perhaps least noticeable in the case of the 
lifeless and motionless rock formations, 
which may be worth less for scientific than 
for scenic purposes. Dams on rivers are 
more to be deplored, for a river is a thing of 
life, so to speak, and a dam not only inter- 
feres with its normal regimen (making sub- 
sequent measurements of little 
value, as has been pointed out in numerous 
government reports on stream gauging), but 
also drowns out the vegetation and fauna 
characteristic of swift water and not found 
in the quieter reaches, and restricts the mi- 
grations of fish.1 

Forests are among the most easily de- 
stroyed of natural features, and their loss is 
most disastrous to science, for many types 
that occupied our most fertile soils have dis- 
appeared entirely, and can never be restored 
exactly by letting the land grow up in trees 
again, or even by re-planting the same spe- 


discharge 


1 For a comprehensive discussion of the influence 
of the new Keokuk dam on the fishes and mussels 
of the Mississippi River see a paper by Dr. R. E. 
Coker in Appendix 8 of the Report of the U. S. 
Fish Commission for 1913. The effect of the same 
dam on scenery and sport is described and illus- 
trated by Orin Crooker in Forest and Stream for 
May, 1915. (The same number contains the first 
instalment of an interesting article on Okefinokee 
Swamp by Will H. Thompson, brother of the late 
Maurice Thompson.) 


NATURAL HISTORY 


cies. Plant sociologists and ecologists could 
learn many valuable principles that are now 
unknown if they could select a number of 
tracts of virgin forest and study them with- 
out interference for several or many years in 
succession, counting and measuring all the 
trees every year or so, and calculating the 
percentage and rate of growth of each spe- 
cies. But any tract selected for such a pur- 
pose, unless preserved from private exploita- 
tion, is likely at any time to be damaged by 
woodeutters in such a way as to spoil the 
experiment. 

Let us hope that in the not distant future 
public sentiment will be sufficiently enlight- 
ened to oppose the common laissez-faire pol- 
icy of allowing a few individuals for their 
temporary advantage to deprive all future 
generations of part of their share of nature’s 
wonders. Fortunately we already have sey- 
eral organizations working toward this end 
in one way or another. The American Scenic 
and Historic Preservation Society, incorpor- 
ated in New York in 1895, was one of the 
pioneers in this movement, and has been in- 
strumental in preserving Letchworth Park 
and the Palisades, as well as many spots of 
historic rather than scientific interest. The 
Wild Flower Preservation Society, organized 
at the New York Botanical Garden in 1902,2 
is interested in particular species of plants 
rather than in vegetation in general, but the 
preservation of the one of course involves the 
other to a considerable extent. "The Ecologi- 
cal Society of America, organized in 1916, 
has still more nearly the right point of view, 
and is now gathering data about places of 
ecological interest in the United States and 
Canada that ought to be preserved for scien- 
tifie study, which data will probably be com- 
piled and published in some form before 
long. The nation-wide conservation move- 
ment of the last ten years, although its 
object is economic rather than scientific, has 
doubtless awakened many persons to the 
realization that our natural resources are 
not an inexhaustible reservoir from which 
everyone who can may help himself without 
limit and without regard for his fellow men. 


2 See this JOURNAL for May, 1917, pp. 350-352. 


Nature’s Mobilization 


By Vv EGLO R Hos BELFORD 


(Department of Zodlogy, University of Illinois) 


ATURE is a remarkable mobilizer. 
Instead of all plants and animals 
reaching the adult stage at the same 

time, their time of maturity is distributed 

throughout the best growing season. Each 
plant matures at a time when it performs its 
duties of feeding the animals which must be 
nourished at just the time they require food. 
It produces seeds, which insure its own exist- 
ence, but immediately afterward it often 
falls into insignificance and thus makes way 
for the plants which are to follow and in 
their turn for a brief period hold the center 
of the stage. The animals also of any area 
appear and disappear, as adults at least, in 

a similar manner. 

To realize what this means one has only 
to imagine all the plants of a given meadow 
blossoming during a few days in midsummer, 
and all the animals (particularly insects and 
reaching the adult stage at the 
Such a state of affairs would 
produce a grand carnage, an indescribable 


spiders ) 
same time. 


destruction of living things, a veritable cos- 
mie chaos. Such few living things as were 
left after the terrific struggle for egg-laying 
places for instance, a few wrecked blossoms 
not used as food for the writhing insect 
hosts or pierced by the innumerable egg- 
laying individuals, these might appear an- 
other year as scattered survivors of the 
battle for existence, to feed the shattered 
wreckage of insect life. 

We all realize that this picture may be 
overdrawn. Another aspect of the matter 
is of far-reaching significance, namely, the 
drain on the soil moisture. The crowding 
of plants alone would cause marked unde- 
sirable effects. Nature ordinarily avoids 
all this confusion—each unit takes its place 
in time, the food-producing unit just in time 
to provide for each great army of insects, 
spiders, birds, or rodents. At the same time 
the precious soil water supply is not over- 
taxed—there is no drastic “coal order.” 

The orderly sequence of nature’s mobiliza- 
tion, the time of flowering of plants, the 
time of nesting of birds, the time at which 
each insect pest begins its depredations have 
long been matters of: curiosity and observa- 
tion. The fact that plants flower, fruits 


ripen, insects appear and disappear in sue- 
cession one after the other throughout a 
growing season, needed no statement even to 
the savage huntsman. The usual succession 
of appearances are general guides to many 
operations of primitive agriculture. 

Seasonal succession has long been scien- 
The 


Swiss botanist, de Candolle, was an early in- 


tifically investigated also. renowned 


vestigator who laid the foundation in 1830 
The 
analysis of the physiological causes of the 


for much that is modern in the work. 


usual seasonal mobilization draws on many 
of the laws of biology merely to formulate 
the outline, or even a portion, of a life his- 
tory, as for instance, the answer to the ques- 
tion why apple worms pupate in the spring 
at a certain time and transform into moths 
which deposit eggs only on apple trees or 
their near relatives. 

It has often been 
“errors” in the 


that the 
mobilization of 


assumed 
seasonal 
plants and animals in undisturbed nature are 
few and unimportant. Under agricultural 
conditions, they are more frequent, and are 
In the 
late winter of 1907 it was very warm in the 
southern part of the wheat belt of the 
United States. 
bug which reproduces at temperatures at or 


accompanied by disastrous results. 


The grain aphis or green- 


near freezing and up to 100° F. (a very 
unusual characteristic for a land animal), 
multiplied without interruption during a 
long period, while the more orthodox lady- 
bugs, aphis lions, and parasitic insects which 
Low 


spring temperatures further retarded the 
development of these latter forms. It was 


feed upon them were unable to do so. 


a mobilization of the green-bugs without a 
mobilization of the enemies to check them. 
When the green-bug enemies arrived with 
the coming of warmer weather, green-bugs 
were so numerous that little impression was 
made toward reducing their numbers, and 
the southwestern wheat crop was ruined. 
There was heavy trading in the Chicago 
board of trade; advance in prices of grain 
echoed over the entire country and perhaps 
the world. What a disaster such an outbreak 
could have brought to the Allied cause, all 
due to a little unusual weather! 


205 


206 


The writer recalls a visit from a member 
of the board of trade who, when crossing the 
plains sixteen years before, had seen myriads 
of grasshoppers, migratory locusts so called, 
which swarmed over fields and railroad 
track. He had these confused with the sey- 
enteen year “locusts” or cicadas and ex- 
pected the condition to be repeated one year 


Two views of the same stream in May and in 
August, showing the extreme conditions which 
have to be met by the plants and animals which 


are its annual residents. The seasonal rotation 
of adult animals corresponds with the climatic 
changes, so that each species normally reaches 
its adult stage during optimum conditions for its 
feeding and propagation. If all the various spe- 
cies of, say, spiders were to appear at the same 
time, great carnage would result with total de- 
struction of spider food 


NATURAL HISTORY 


later with damage to the wheat crop. He 
offered half of his “killing” if a timely pre- 
diction could be made to raise prices after 
he had bought heavily. His chief inquiry 
was, How regular and certain are such ap- 
pearances of pests? He had seen the effects 
of an irregularly large number of individ- 
uals and his question was exactly to the 
point. 

Under what conditions does each species 
mobilize? When and why does time of mo- 
Under 
what conditions does it take place? When is 
it slow and when is it rapid? Millions in 
food and money are often at stake on such 
questions as these, 

The problem of the beginning of activity 
or of development is one that has attracted 
much attention of late on account of the 
importance of ability to predict the time 
when various insect pests will emerge from 
hibernation or will reach a stage of develop- 
ment at which it is necessary to spray trees 
if such treatment is to prove effective. 

In this connection attention has been di- 
rected to the effect of various factors such 
as temperature, moisture, and light, on the 
development of organisms, Temperature has 
for many decades received an undue share 
of attention. A principle stated by de Can- 
dolle emphasizes the fact that there is a 
temperature below which development does 
not take place in plants, and various au- 
thors, including C. Hart Merriam, of Wash- 
ington, have used this fact in mapping life 
zones. This temperature is now called the 
“threshold” of development. De Candolle 
also laid the foundation for the idea of the 
“sum of temperatures” above this minimum, 
necessary for a plant to complete a definite 
process, such as the ripening of seeds. The 
daily mean temperatures above the lowest 
limit of growth, expressed in degrees, are 
added for all the days, giving a large so- 
called total “degree-days” or sum of tem- 
peratures. If the temperature is higher the 
number of days is less, but the total ‘degree- 
days,” according to de Candolle’s theory, is 
the same. 

The life histories of plants are so long 
that the theory could not be experimentally 
verified by botanists. It remained for 
Krogh, the careful Danish animal physiolo- 
gist, to demonstrate the limitations of the 
theory after several other animal experi- 
menters had paved the way but missed the 


bilization vary from the usual time? 


NATURE'S MOBILIZATION 207 


point. He studied the development of sev- 
eral animals including pupe of the common 
meal worm which are commonly raised to 
feed caged canary birds, and he found that 
the “sum of temperatures” law holds for 
only a limited range of temperature.1 Hence 
the law of “sum of temperatures” is only a 
rough guide in dealing with the conditions 
of our latitude, but still a valuable one when 
used with some corrections—which are still 
to be worked out by scientific investigators. 

There are marked variations in rate of 
development brought about by conditions 
other than temperature. The temperature at 
which development begins, as well as the rate 
at which it proceeds, is modified by light, 
moisture, wind movement, and other causes. 
Meal worms will live for a long time in air 
from which all moisture has been removed 
and, at the same time, on food which con- 
tains no moisture, but they lose weight. I 
once knew a school-teacher who felt sorry 
for them for having to live in the ordinary 
air-dry meal in which she had them in the 
schoolroom, so she added a little water and 
killed them all. A moderate amount of 
moisture such as occurs in ordinary indoor 
air and in air-dry grain is just what they 
require for growth. In other words there is 
an optimum moisture.? 

Food is of much importance to all kinds 
of animals. With a minimum quantity of 


1 That is, degrees above the temperature at which 
development does not take place, multiplied by the 
time unit, give a fixed sum only between 64° and 
82° F., while development takes place between 55° 
and 110° F. At temperatures between 55° and 
64° F., development is far too rapid and gives a 
smaller sum, while between 82° and 93° it is too 
slow and gives a larger sum. In the first case the 
sum of temperatures is too small, and in the second 
it is too large. 

The temperatures shown as the ‘‘sum of tempera- 
ture’ limits for a common insect like the meal 
worm, would both be exceeded in an ordinary 
spring day as the temperature falls below 64° and 
rises above 84° F. One or both, the upper and 
lower limits, would be passed in nearly every day 
of the growing season for land plants and animals. 

* This may even be different for different temper- 
atures. Light, like moisture, may have important 
effects on the rate of development, but we know 
still less about it. It is known that absence of light 
is unfavorable to growth of insects which normally 
develop in light. Light is further known to stimu- 
late the growth of some kinds of animals. 

* The larve of the common museum pest (Der- 
mestid®) can not only be maintained at a definite 
weight by insufficient food, but may be reduced 
from half-grown to hatching size several times by 
repeated starving and feeding. This particular 
species is especially flexible, as all lower animals 
usually are to a less degree, and is peculiarly ad- 
justed to its precarious life. Thus it seems that 
variations in food have effects similar to those pro- 
duced by variations in temperature. 


food or with an insufficient variety of foods 
young mammals may be maintained at the 
same weight without growth. White fats 
have been maintained at practically the same 
weight for long periods. They retain their 
power to grow long beyond the age at which 
growth normally ceases (335 days) and for 
periods equal to half the normal life of the 
species, which is a thousand days. In the 
case of dogs such treatment results in dwarf- . 
ing due to the loss of power to grow on the 
part of the skeleton. Disproportionate 
growth occurs in underfed cattle. Similar 
results are to be expected in underfed chil- 
dren. Effects of war starvation on innu- 
merable European children will probably be 
detectable in adults a few years hence, al- 
though careful measurement may be neces- 
sary to establish it. 

One phenomenon which has been noted 
repeatedly in connection with studies of 
nature’s seasonal mobilization, a matter of 
common observation, is the variation in num- 
bers of individuals in different years. The 
length of life of individuals may have a pro- 
nounced effect on the population and succes- 
sion of species on a given area. It has been 
stated that the great number of individuals 
in the plankton of the polar seas in summer 
is due to the longer life of the individual at 
low temperature. Unless the low tempera- 
ture slows the different processes unequally 
this can hardly follow. For example, if a 
female green-bug normally lives a week and 
produces one thousand offspring, and then 
the temperature is lowered so as to prolong 
the life to three weeks, unless the different 
functions were unequally affected by the 
change, there would be at the end of the 
three weeks but a thousand, while at the nor- 
mal rate there would have been a billion 
possible individuals. On the other hand, if 
the rate of reproduction remains the same 
and the length of life of the individual after 
the reproductive period is increased, the re- 
sults of lower temperature would be very 
different. Actual observations along this 
line are few. In the case of the San José 
scale, however, it has long been shown that 
the number of offspring is greatest in the 
individuals breeding in the warmest weather. 

There is, to be sure, much evidence that 
the tendency to pass the winter in a dormant 
condition is not very firmly established in 
some species and that under the stimulation 
of indoor temperatures such animals may be 


205 


induced to reproduce nearly continuously, at 
least for a number of generations. Cessa- 
tion of development or dormancy! in any 
given case is as much attributable to some 
factor falling below the threshold of devel- 
opment as to hereditary tendencies. The en- 
vironment is extremely complex, and the 
number of factors already found which may 


A Chicago vacant lot as it appears in April and in August. 
section of this temporary pond does not ordinarily completely dry up, and, 
therefore, affords a breeding place for the tiger salamander. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


as large as a man’s head, are filled with air 
cells which cause them to float at the surface 
of the water. They are formed in the au- 
tumn but do not germinate until spring after 
they have been frozen. 

The walking-stick drops its eggs from the 
tree trunks on to the ground in the autumn 
but they do not hatch until the following 

May at the earliest, 

- > or they may not hatch 

until one year from 

the following May if 

conditions are unfa- 

The cause 
delays or 


vorable. 
of these 
dormancies are often 
simple. The decay or 
rupture of an outer 
covering most 
monly produces. de- 


com- 


velopment. 

The 
cession of animals is 
well illustrated on a 
Chicago vacant lot. 
The area chosen for 
study 
with water in spring 
and with grass and 
weeds in summer. In 
a small part of it the 
water was permanent 
in all but the driest 
The parts 
which did not dry up 
afforded a place in 
which the larvee of the 
tiger salamander could 
develop to maturity. 
The tiger salamander 
comes out of the soil 


seasonal  sue- 


was covered 


seasons. 


A small 


The seasonal 


succession in animal life is well illustrated in such a spot as this with its 


marked differences in temperature, vegetation, and moisture. For the order 
in which some of the animals appear in this lot see the following chart 


cause cessation of development are numer- 
ous, including temperature, moisture, light, 
oxygen, evaporation, quantity of food, or ab- 
sence of any one of many necessary food 
constituents. 

The reproductive bodies of the large gela- 
tin-secreting bryozoan which grows to be 


1 When all conditions are favorable for develop- 
ment some animals fail to develop. Their life his- 
tories appear to be adjusted to the annual rhythm 
of conditions. The state in which an animal is 
when development does not take place although 
conditions are favorable for it, is called dormancy. 


as soon as the frost is 
gone, sometimes as 
early as the end of 
February or the first of March. The eggs 
are laid in March and early April and the 
adults burrow into the mud by the middle 
of April and are not seen again until the 
frost leaves the ground the following spring. 
The eggs hatch and such larve as find wa- 
ter which is permanent until the end of sum- 
mer probably reach maturity. By that time 
the young are sometimes able to lead a ter- 
restrial life. 
The spring pond cyclops (Cyclops viridis 
americanus) occurs only in ponds or parts 


NATURE’S MOBILIZATION 


Cyclops 


Copepod 


Temporary 
Pond Flat 


Worm 


Young 
Grasshopper 


Succession of five of the species—salamander, cyclops, fairy shrimp, red copepod, and flatworm—in 


a temporary pond on a vacant Chicago lot, from early March to June. 


The length of the animal's body 


(plus the arrow where present) indicates the dates between which adults of the given species may be 


found. 


The appearance of the grasshopper, a dry land form, is synchronous with the pond’s drying up. 


Disorders in mobilization are not so likely to occur under such natural conditions as under the condi- 
tions to be found on agricultural land where great disorders frequently arise, especially among insect 


species which feed on the agricultural crops 


The 
well- 


of ponds which dry up in summer. 
fairy shrimp (2Lubranchipus) is a 
known example of an animal with eggs show- 
ing “dormancy.” The local distribution of 
the fairy shrimp is likely to differ each 
spring. It is modified by the rainfall of the 
preceding seasons. When the rainfall of the 
preceding summer has been great, this and 
some other temporary pond species are found 
only in the smallest and highest (above 
ground water) ponds. Following dry: sea- 
sons they are found in ponds which do not 
usually dry, but which were dry the preced- 
ing summer. Their eggs must be dried and 
frozen before they will hatch. Their distri- 
bution, following the seasons of different 
rainfall, suggests that some definite degree 
of drying must be attained to insure hatch- 
ing, also that the eggs may be blown about 
by the wind. One autumn, about 1900, there 
was early freezing and cold weather followed 
by warm weather of a very springlike char- 
acter in December. It was observed that the 
fairy shrimps hatched during this period of 
warm weather. Cold weather came on soon 


after and most of these that had hatched 
died before depositing eggs, and for several 
years thereafter the species was very scarce 
in the vicinity of Chicago. The fairy 
shrimp is found most commonly in grassy 
ponds, possibly because the forested ponds 
do not dry sufficiently in summer. 

The minute red copepod of spring ponds 
appears to require a less definite amount of 
drying than the fairy shrimp, although it is 
found with it as a rule. It is found also 
where the fairy shrimp does not occur, and 
becomes adult a little later and disappears 
soon afterward. 

The temporary pond planarian, or flat- 
worm (as observed by Prof. C. M. Child’), 
shows very special adjustments to the pecu- 
liar seasonal rhythm of temporary ponds. 
When the animals first appear, soon after the 
ice melts, they are mostly only 2-3 mm. in 
length and commonly light in color. They 
grow rapidly and soon the dorsal surface be- 
comes very deeply pigmented, so that they 
appear almost black. They are very active 

1 Biological Bulletin, Vol. XXV. 


210 


and move more rapidly than most fresh-water 
planarians. During this period they will eat 
meat and will gather in large numbers on 
pieces placed in the water. In about four 
weeks they attain a length of 12-15 mm., 
their movements gradually become slower, 
they cease to take food, become light gray 
in color, and the food-taking organs disap- 
pear. 

Within a few days after these changes 
they begin to divide. As the worms creep 
about, the extreme posterior end adheres to 
the substratum and the rest of the animal 
pulls away and leaves it behind as a small 
fragment which becomes more or less spheri- 
cal and within a few moments is covered 
with a slime which adheres to the underlying 
surface and hardens into a cyst. This pro- 
cess of division is repeated, often several 
times within a few moments, so that as the 
animal moves across a containing vessel it 
may leave behind it a series of such pieces. 
Under natural conditions the encysted pieces 
remain quiescent during the summer and the 


following winter; in early spring they 
emerge from the cysts as minute, very 
active worms which begin to feed. Com- 


plete drying under ordinary outdoor con- 
ditions is fatal to them; they survive among 
the moist vegetation of not-too-dry pond 
bottoms. 

By the time the planarians have disap- 
peared, grasshoppers and spiders have begun 
to appear. At the same time other land ani- 
mals begin to move about the pond margin. 
The tarnished plant-bugs, which emerge from 
hibernation and lay eggs in early April, 
reach the adult stage in June and are to be 
found all summer. Adult sawflies emerge 
from pupe that have passed the winter and 
their larve are on the young grasses in June. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


The buffalo tree hoppers hatch from eggs 
laid in the fall and are found in the adult 
stage throughout the rest of the summer. 
These examples illustrate some of the various 
peculiarities of life histories adjusted to the 
same climatic rhythm. 

The collection and arrangement of the en- 
tire fauna of this Chicago vacant lot showed 
the same thing! as the animals just dis- 
cussed, but proved much less satisfactory 
than was expected, owing to a lack of knowl- 
edge of life histories and an inability to 
identify young stages of insects. Disorders 
in seasonal mobilization on such a vacant 
lot are far fewer than the disorders among 
insects under agricultural conditions where 
nature’s usual sequence of plants is replaced 
by corn or wheat. 

Disorders of mobilization may occur under 
the stimulus of peculiar weather conditions, 
most easily in the closely set fields of agri- 
cultural conditions and results are such as 
we have noted for the “green-bug” in the 
wheat. This is only one type of disorder 
observable in agriculture. Others may re- 
sult from failures to spray at the right time, 
which mean greatly decreased production, 
wormy apples, spotted pears, expensive 
bread, and wormy beans. As yet we know 
so little in this complicated field, that ade- 
quate prediction of insect pests can hardly 
be accomplished. But its importance is 
such that we can well afford to struggle 
through its complications into the light of 
a knowledge which will make reasonably ac- 
curate prediction of the rise of pests far 
surer than now. This means a careful ex- 
perimental study of the conditions of such 
factors as temperature, moisture, and light, 
under which development can begin, and the 
rate at which it can continue. 


+Adult and juvenile spiders are among the best 
animals for such study. In the seasonal order, we 
start with the spring running spiders (Pardosa 
modica) in April, and we end the season with 
striped garden spiders (Argiope trifasciata), which 
appear as adults late in the season only. 

Where our collections proved at all complete it 
was shown that the juvenile individuals follow the 
adults of the early spring species and both precede 
and follow the species which mature late in the 
season. Nearly all species are adjusted to the 
seasonal rhythm of the habitat in which they live. 
Thus Dictyna sublata appears as adult in May and 
June when eggs are laid, and juvenile forms char- 
acterize the late summer and autumn. The striped 
garden spider deposits eggs in October and passes 
the winter in the juvenile form. The large jump- 
ing spider (Phidippus podagrosus) reaches ma- 
turity in July, when eggs are deposited, and young 
occur in both fall and spring. These differences 
usually represent an innate adjustment of the life 


eycle to seasonal rhythm, not readily broken up. 
It is to be expected that Dictyna will deposit eggs 
to better advantage, and that the young hatch bet- 
ter in May than in November, which is the breed- 
ing time of the common funnel-web spider (A gelena 
nevia). It is further to be expected that the 
young stages of some spiders will not go on with 
development until cooled for a considerable period. 
Perhaps one of the most interesting questions con- 
cerning the whole matter of succession of spiders 
is to be found in the fact that all these spider life 
histories involve about the same periods of activity 
and rest. The rest period falls in different stages 
of the life history in different species. (For a 
detailed discussion of this matter, with table show- 
ing seasonal succession of adult spiders, see the 
Author’s paper, ‘‘Physiological Problems in the 
Life-Histories of Animals, with Particular Ref- 
erence to Their Seasonal Appearance,’ in Ameri- 
can Naturalist, Vol. UII, pp. 129 to 154.) 


Yachting in the Seven Seas 


STRANGE SAILING CRAFT, EVOLVED IN DAYS OF PIRACY AND SLAVERY 
FASTER THAN THE SPEEDIEST YACHTS OF OUR MODERN BUILDERS 


By RtevAr 


Gee AS eBay Of. eke! Gai: 


Illustrations from original drawings by the Author 


INCE the dawn of time, man has gazed 
upon the mystic deep from shore and 
hilltop with an unconquerable longing 

to master the vastnesses beyond that elusive 
horizon which forever beckons like a Fata 
Morgana. There is but a single exception to 
this universal marine Wanderlust and that is 
found in some far southern parts where the 
dull-witted aborigines never have gone be- 
yond the occasional construction of boats of 
reeds or bark with which to cross the smaller 
streams. This lack of enterprise might be 
attributed to scarcity of suitable building 
material, the forests of Oceania being pre- 
ponderately of hard woods, were it not for 
the example set by the people of the North. 
The inhabitants of the tropics, on the other 
hand, were the first to overcome the difficul- 
ties of floating on the water, and from this 
to go on to the construction of vessels de- 
signed to ride swiftly over the waves in all 
sorts of weather. The northerners were 
handicapped by their inhospitable coasts and 
rigorous climate, so that all fine lines in boat 
building had to be sacrificed to the un- 
wieldiness and roundness of form which 
make for safety. 

The first purely floating structure, made 
of reeds or hide or similar handy substance, 
determined by the locality in which it oe- 
curred, was generally a one-man affair, pro- 
pelled by paddling with the hands. This 
form of boat is best represented today by 
the Irish coble or the bladder boats of India 
and Mesopotamia, kindred rudimentary con- 
trivances still being used in the enormous 
estuaries of Indian, Burmese, Siamese, and 
Indo-Chinese rivers. Boats of this character 
are made of a piece of soft wood about eight 
feet long, slightly bent upward and _hol- 
lowed out to a certain degree. They serve 
not only to float upon the water, but they 
slide readily and without much effort over the 
flat oozy mud banks where to gain a footing 
would be impossible without sinking to the 
waist or farther. 

Upon reflection it seems quite extraordi- 
nary that it took many generations before 
propulsion by paddle became common. It is 


not meant to convey the notion that odd 
pieces of wood or the like were not used in 
early times for this purpose, but the paddle 
as we know it today, of graceful line and 
light workman-lke build, was slow to come 
into vogue, as was also the discovery that 
more than one would add greatly to the 
speed attainable. The use of a number of 
paddles involved the construction of an elon- 
gated oval boat instead of a round one, and 
this was not really feasible until man had 
learned the use of fire and sharp-edged tools, 
enabling him to fell and hollow out large 
trees. In this art of wood-shaping craft the 
Burmese excel all others. One need only 
coutemplate the keel of one of their enor- 


- mous but graceful boats to learn this fact. 


It requires skill of the very highest sort to 
take a tree trunk, often more than seventy 
feet in length, trim it, and fashion it into a 
thing of beautiful outline, with a proper 
“sheer” to it, the bow and stern rising pro- 
portionately above the “waist,” while the 
center itself is artificially pressed and flat- 
tened out to accommodate the broad-bilge 
frame timbers which go to make the stability 
and carrying capacity of every well-con- 
structed vessel. The full-powered paddle 
capacity at its maximum of course could be 
evolved only in localities where suitable tim- 
ber of great bulk and straight growth could 
be obtained, as on the Pacific slope of North 
America, in some of the larger islands of the 
Pacific, in certain parts of South America, 
and along the larger rivers of Africa. We 
find the oar brought to greatest perfection 
in the northern part of the Old World, in the 
viking ships, the galleys of the Mediterra- 
nean, and the great clumsy craft of the 
Middle Kingdom. 

An immense stride forward in ocean in- 
tercommunication was made when man first 
learned to utilize the wind as a means of pro- 
pulsion. The deterrent factor, it seems, was 
not so much the lack of knowledge of the 
wind’s power—for that must have been uni- 
versally evident at an early date—as of the 
proper means by which to apply and control 
it. <A tricky and vneertain wind volume is 


211 


212 


a bad master even now. <A proper study of 
the wind element has not been completed 
today, when, owing to modern methods of 
propulsion by steam and electricity, wind 
power has been virtually discarded. But man 
still indulges, fortunately, in that most fas- 
cinating of all sports, yachting, which will 
ever hold its own among prime pastimes. It 
is the poetry of motion, calling at the same 
time for endurance, tenacity, and pluck of 
the highest sort. There is hardly an emotion 
in the human breast approaching the thrill 
which the evolutions of a well-found sailing 
eraft can produce in the intrepid soul in 
tune with nature in its restless mood at sea. 

It may be assumed with perfect justifica- 
tion that the tropics furnished the first in- 
stances of the application of sails to ships. 
In the warm latitudes we find almost univer- 
sally a long season of balmy winds, which 
only at rare intervals assume the force of 
gales. It is true that the most violent at- 
mospheric disturbances are within the torrid 
zones, but these occurrences are confined to 
certain seasons of the year, and seafarers 
almost always can guard against them. Jor 
that reason the craft of those latitudes are 
mostly of frail construction and made in 
such fashion that they can be removed read- 
ily from the water, out of harm’s way. It is 
a lamentable fact that speed seems first of 
all to have been sought for felonious pur- 
poses. In war, in piracy, in slavery, speed 
soon became the decisive factor. Whoever 
possessed the speediest vessel for pursuing 
an enemy or eluding superior forces was soon 
recognized as having mastery on the sea. 

As a matter of fact, certain types of sail- 
ing craft used in the Indian Ocean today 
are, under given conditions, faster and more 
easily handled than the speediest yachts 
which our best builders put in the water. 
The smaller type of Arab “dhow,” called 
usually “jahassy,” is remarkable for its speed 
before the wind or with the wind over the 
quarter. This vessel is from thirty-five to 
fifty feet long. It has a very fine entrance, 
without much of a keel, and the stern is 
full and usually square. The jahassy sits 
low in the water, and the single mast, with 
a big rake forward, is stepped well ahead of 
the waistline. The sail is hoisted on an im- 
mensely long yard. The standing part of 
the halyards is taken quite aft, where the 
lower triple block is fastened also to the 
afterthwart. The mast is stayed by two 


NATURAL HISTORY 


shrouds on each side, which can be un- 
hooked when the vessel goes in stays. The 
lateen-shaped sail, if well cut and made, can 
be trimmed up to about five points off the 
wind. In the slavery days, the squadron of 
jahassys which patrolled the East Coast and 
the Gulf had many a tale to tell of their 
speed and agility in escaping from justice. 
Nowadays these vessels follow the useful 
avocation of tenders to the big ocean liners, 
bringing small lots of produce from out of 
the innumerable estuaries and creeks of the 
coast where a steamer cannot well enter. A 
case in point within the knowledge of the 
writer was the pitting of a fine centerboard 
sloop of European build against these native 
racers on the Zanzibar littoral. In hard 
windward work the sloop could leave the 
jahassys out of sight in a couple of hours, 
but as soon as they got a fair slant they 
would beat the sloop hand over hand. 

It seems that the Indo-Arab sea rovers, 
who very early penetrated as far east as the 
Moluccas, left their sailing skill as a legacy 
to the regions they visited, for we find that 
the craft in use there today are built along 
much the same lines as the Arabian ships. 
The prows, or prahus, of the Malays and 
Alfuros are similar in shape to those in the 
western part of the Indian Ocean, with a 
high poop and a low finely modeled bow. 
The construction, however, is not quite as 
solid and staunch as in the latter. <A lot of 
makeshift matting, bamboo, and other con- 
trivances fulfill the local requirements. The 
poop and the stem are often carved and or- 
namented most elaborately, as are also the 
high rudder heads and tiller poles. These 
swift Moluccan sailboats played their most 
prominent réle when big, clumsy, square- 
rigged vessels from Europe traversed these 
waters laden with the riches of the far Hast. 
Old records contain many a thrilling tale of 
these elusive wasps of the sea tackling well- 
armed and well-manned merchantmen and not 
seldom overcoming by sheer numbers all 
resistance to their fierce assault. And this 
peril from sea raiders kept up well into our 
own days in spite of the vigilant naval 
patrol of the nations. 

In the Straits of Malacca and adjacent 
regions the Malays have evolved a racing 
craft which is indeed like unto the wind it- 
self. It is a vessel of very moderate size, 
often not much more than a canoe, but sea- 
worthy withal, and met with on big open 


YACHTING IN THE SEVEN SEAS 213 


“Malay Ra 


Often not larger than a canoe, Malay racers are found on big open stretches in the Straits of 
Malacea and adjacent regions, where on a breezy day they may be seen speeding across the blue waters 
like a flock of white gulls 


Remarkable for its speed before the wind is the “‘jahassy,” a small type of Arab dhow. On ac- 
count of its agility in escaping when pursued, this type of vessel earned an unenviable reputation in 
slavery days. In olden times the large single sail was woven of palm-leaf matting 


214 NATURAL HISTORY 


aa 


\ 


In a latitude where flat calms are suddenly followed by fierce squalls, many sails are a distinct ad- 
vantage, being quickly furled as a storm approaches and soon spread aloft when it is over. The 
“country wallah,” constructed by the natives of Malabar and Coromandel, as well as by the islanders 
of the Maldive and Laccadive groups, appears to be smothered in a cloud of canvas 


Another type of speedy vessel known as the ‘“‘hleh’”’ meets the exigencies of wind and tide to a re- 
markable degree in the Burmese waters of the Mergui Archipelago. The keel is a tree trunk artificially 
widened, and the Chinese form of sail having bamboo slats across at intervals of eighteen inches or so 
is used. The “hleh’’ has two and sometimes three masts, and a cabin is built in the after part 


YACHTING IN THE SEVEN SEAS 


stretches of water. The mast is nearly per- 
pendicular and stepped in about the first 
third of the boat. The tack of the high- 
pointed lateen sail is fastened in the bow, 
and the sheet reaches well aft. When the 
wind is abeam, one of the crew seizes a rope 
pendent from the mast top. Swinging him- 
self outward, he stands on the weather 
gunwale, thus preventing the boat from 
careening too far. On a brisk breezy day it 
is one of the prettiest sights to watch a fleet 
of these Malay racers speed across the blue 
waters like a flock of white gulls. 

Farther up the peninsula, in the Burmese 
waters of the Mergui Archipelago, the lusty 
coast folk have produced another type of 
speedy vessel. Its keel is a tree trunk, 
‘widened out artificially. The Burmese have 
borrowed the Chinese style of sail with bam- 
boo slats across at intervals of eighteen 
inches or so. While this is very convenient 
for reducing sail, it produces too flat a sur- 
face for getting the maximum, of power 
from the wind. These vessels have always 
two and sometimes three masts. The main- 
mast is stepped perpendicularly; the fore- 
mast tends to rake over the bow. When 
there is a third or jigger mast, this conforms 
to the set of the mainmast. Out in the 
open these “hlehs” attain a wonderful degree 
of speed. When going through one of the 
countless channels between the islands and 
estuaries, where the high-growing mangroves 
often intercept the wind, these vessels are 
propelled by means of “sweeps” or long oars, 
the crew standing on the deck to manipulate 
them, somewhat after the manner of Vene- 
tian gondoliers. The “hleh” has a cabin built 
into the afterpart. It resembles the high 
poops we used to see in pictures of galleons 
or similar medizval vessels. 

The natives of lower Malabar and Coro- 
mandel, as well as the islanders of the Mal- 
dive and Laccadive groups, construct a swift 
vessel in imitation of European style with 
more or less graceful models. They have 
also adopted the rig in vogue in northern 
latitudes. At first sight this appears to be a 
dubious advantage, but when investigated it 
seems reasonable enough. For the European 
sail fashion allows of manifold division. 
These boats, which are locally called “coun- 
try wallahs,” are mostly brig-rigged with a 
tower of masts and canvas. One can often 
see sky sails on these diminutive vessels. All 
this canvas looks ridiculous, but it is best 


215 


suited to conditions in those latitudes, where 
there is “either a feast or a famine” with the 
wind. Protracted periods of flat calms when 
there is scarcely a breath are suddenly fol- 
lowed by fierce outbursts of squalls. It can 
readily be seen that in the doldrums the 
enormous spread of canvas is of distinct ne- 
cessity. The “country wallah” appears to be 
smothered in a cloud of it. The lower sails 
may be hanging flat but in the upper air the 
wind current fills the topgallant sails, royals, 
and skysails, and the old hooker sneaks along 
at quite a respectable gait. On the other 
hand, the appearance of the sky invariably 
gives due warning of the coming squall. 
When the “woolpacks,” or heavy hanging 
cloud masses with a dark fringe underneath, 
begin to gather and to rise to the zenith, 
then it is time for all good and well-con- 
ducted “country wallahs” to gather in their 
“linen.” In a jiffy the crew swarm aloft and 
furl the multitude of sails, often no bigger 
than a blanket, and the vessel is ready to 
take the fury of the squall, end on as a rule. 
It does not last long, and when it is over it 
is but a few minutes before all the canvas is 
aloft again. Sometimes one sees a whole fleet 
of these vessels making for a certain point. 
From afar it looks exactly like a squadron 
of ancient war ships or a convoy of “John 
Company’s” famous Indiamen. The disparity 
in size disappears. The illusion is complete. 
The true lover of the sea conjures up vistas 
of doughty deeds of old. Here are “full ten 
sail of the line, and a score frigates” conning 
the offing for Dupleix’s intrepid rovers. The 
mastery of the East is at stake. 

Least of all in size, but not in interest, are 
the quaint boats made of palm-leaf ribs 
sewed together with coir fiber, used by a 
moribund race of people, the Selungs, in the 
archipelagoes bordering the eastern fringe of 
the Bay of Bengal. The Selungs live in these 
boats almost entirely. They subsist chiefly 
on sea food, which is probably the reason 
they are afflicted with leprosy. By means of 
very long bamboo ladders they endeavor to 
procure salangan or edible bird’s-nests from 
the precipitous sides of the immense out- 
crops of granite, which are nearly one thou- 
sand feet high and almost inaccessible. They 
also gather a few mother-of-pearl and green 
snail shells to trade for cloth and other ne- 
cessities. These people are shunned by the 
Burmese and Malays, who look upon them 
with aversion. 


The Myth of the Monkey Chain 


By E. W. GUDGER 


rofessor of Biology, State Normal College, Greensboro, North Carolina 
Prot f Biology, State N 1 College, G boro, North Caro! 


HOSE who were so unfortunate as to 
study geography in the “prehistoric 
days” before Maury and Frye had 
revolutionized the teaching of that sub- 
ject, will recall the wonderful picture and 
the equally wonderful account of how, in 


other side of a river, making me much 
to wonder. They leape where they list, 
winding their tailes about a braunch to 
shake it: and when they will leape further 
than they can at once, they use a pretty de- 
vise, tying themselves by the tailes one of 
another, and by this meanes make as it were 


South 
America, monkeys 


northern 


by intertwining 
tails and _ legs 


made a_ living 
bridge across 


crocodile -infested 
streams.1 This 
story had as its 
author the Jesuit 
priest Padre José 
de Acosta, whose 
book 2 was pub- 
lished in an Eng- 
lish translation at 
London in 1604, 
the original edi- 
tion, in Latin, 
having been is- 
suedat Salamanca 
in 1589. Aecosta’s 
account (page 
S52 Emre laisih 
translation ) reads 
as follows: 
“Going from 
Nombre de Dios 
to Panama, I did 
see in Capira one 
of these monkies 
leape from one 
tree to an other, 
which was on the 


1Such a figure 
forms part of the 
headpiece to South 
America, on page 58 
of Mitchell’s New 
Primary Geography, 
published in Phila- 
delphia in 1878. 

2 Acosta, Joseph, 
Naturall and Morall 
Historie of the East 
and West Indies. 
Translated by E. 
G[rimston ], Lon- 
don, 1604. 


216 


In days not so long gone by our schoolboys were regaled in their South 
American geography lessons by illustrations of a monkey bridge such as is 
shown in this cut which is taken from Holmes’s Fourth Reader (1897). The 
myth of the way monkeys crossed alligator-infested streams started with the 
report of a Spanish explorer in the sixteenth century. Clinging to one an- 
other’s tails so as to form a long chain it was said they would swing pendulum 
fashion until the end “‘athlete’’ could grasp a tree on the other side of the 
stream, after which all the mothers and babies would scamper across on the 
heads and backs of their accommodating relatives. Needless to say, this feat 
presupposes an amount of intelligence in the monkey family that it has never 
been known otherwise to exhibit, while aside from that, it is palpably impossible 
because nowhere in a tropical jungle could space be found in which to swing 
such a long chain as the story requires. The famous naturalist, Humboldt, 
was the first to deny the myth (1814), but it continued to live in schoolbooks 
and in the tales of travelers for many years 


THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN 


a chaine of many: then doe they launch 
themselves forth, and the first, holpen by 
the force of the rest, takes holde where hee 
list, and so hangs to a bough, and so helpes 
all the rest, till they be gotten up.” 


This tale has been handed down from one 
And there is little doubt 
that acarefulsearch through the literature per- 


author to another. 


taining to northern South America, during 
the one hundred and fifty years following 
the publication of Acosta’s book and its vari- 
ous translations into Italian, French, Dutch, 
German, and English, would show many repe- 
titions and variations of the marvelous story. 
Wafer, a 


companion of the 


Lionel 
celebrated naviga- 
Dam- 
that in 
isth- 
and 


tor, Captain 
pier, says! 
crossing the 
mus they saw 
killed a 


monkeys, 


number of 


and con- 


tinues: 


“They are a very 
waggish kind of 
Monkey, and plaid a 
thousand antick 
Tricks as we 
march’d at any time 
through the Woods, 
skipping from Bough 
to Bough, with the 
young ones hanging 
at the old 
3ack, making Faces 
at us: ..i. To pass 
from top to top of 
high whose 
Branches are a little 
too far asunder for 
their Leaping, they 
will sometimes hang down by one anothers 
Tails in a Chain; and swinging in that man- 
ner, the lowermost catches hold of a Bough 
of the other Tree, and draws up the rest of 
them.” 


Neither Acosta nor Wafer gives any figure 


ones 


Antonio de Ulloa, 


m 
lrees, 
of bridging a stream. 


has not seen it, 


to illustrate his account, but this is supplied 
South 


1735, Jorge Juan y 


us by another American 
Ulloa. In Santacilia 


and Antonio de Ulloa were sent out as the 


traveler, 


Spanish members of a joint commission to 
measure an are of the earth’s meridian on 


the plateau of Ecuador. Coming by ship 


from Europe to Porto Bello, they crossed 
over the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific 
side, where they took ship for Guayaquil, 

1Page 108 of A New Voyage and Description 
of the Isthmus of America, London, 1699. 


217 


whence they made their way overland to 


Quito.2 As Ulloa and his companion made 
the trip across the isthmus, they described as 
though they saw that which Acosta thought 
he beheld one hundred and seventy-five years 
before. At any rate Ulloa says: 3 

“The different species of monkeys, skipping 
in troops from tree to tree, hanging from the 
branches and in other places six, eight, or 
more, of them linked together, in order to 
pass a river, and the dams with their young 
on their shoulders, throwing themselves into 
odd postures, making a thousand grimaces, 
will, perhaps, appear fictitious to those who 
have not actually seen it.” 


who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1735, was 
the first explorer to give a picture showing monkeys accomplishing the feat 
He remarks that the tale sounds fictitious to one who 


but whether he himself saw it or not, he does not say 


Ulloa does not explicitly say that he saw 
this “fictitious” sight, but the inference is 


2The two men divided the labor of writing up 
their expedition. The scientific work was de- 
scribed by Jorge Juan y Santacilia and published 
at Madrid in 1748. The historical and narrative 
account of the voyage was written by Antonio de 
Ulloa, although singular to say, the original edi- 
tion as well as the English translation (1760) 
bears the name of both men. Abbreviated some- 
what as to the title, it is as follows: Relacion 
Historica del Viage a la America Meridional 
a por Don Jorge Juan wu Don {ntonio 
de Ulloa Madrid, 1748. This obscure title has 
led to the conclusion that the first author was 
Jorge Juan Ulloa, whereas his name, as I have 
been informed by the Library of Congress, is 
y Santacilia. The book, however, is commonly 
referred to under the heading ‘‘Ulloa, 1748,” he 
being the real author. 


George Juan [y Santacilia] and Antonio de 
Ulloa. A Voyage to South America... to- 
gether with The Natural History. ...2 vols. 


London, 1760; vol. I, p. 109. 


218 


that he did, especially as he gives a picture 
of it. 

After this the marvelous tale seems to 
have gone unchallenged for nearly one hun- 
dred years, or until about 1814, when Hum- 
boldt gave the weight of his great name in 


controversion.1 Speaking of howling mon- 


keys, he writes: 


“Whenever the branches of neighbouring 
trees do not touch each other, the male who 
leads the party, suspends himself by the 
callous and prehensile part of his tail; and, 
letting fall the rest of his body, swings him- 
self till in one of his oscillations he reaches 
the neighboring branch. The whole file per- 
forms the same movements on the same spot. 
It is almost superfluous to add how dubious 
is the assertion of Ulloa, and so many other- 
wise well-informed travellers, according to 
whom, the marimondos [Simia beelzebub], 
the araguatos, and other monkeys with a 
prehensile tail, form a sort of chain, in order 
to reach the opposite side of a river. We 
had opportunities, during five years, of ob- 
serving thousands of these animals; and for 
this very reason we place no confidence in 
statements possibly invented by the Eu- 
ropeans themselves, though repeated by the 
Indians of the Missions, as if they had been 
transmitted to them by their fathers [the 
Fathers?]. Man the most remote from ceivili- 
zation, enjoys the astonishment he excites in 
recounting the marvels of his country. He 
says he has seen what he imagines may have 
been seen by others. Every savage is a 
hunter, and the stories of hunters borrow 
from the imagination in proportion as the 
animals, of which they boast the artifices, 
are endowed with a high degree of intelli- 
gence. Hence arise the fictions of which 
foxes, monkeys, crows, and the condor of the 
Andes, have been the subjects in both hemi- 
spheres.” 


Apparently Humboldt did not know that 
this story originated with Acosta. There is 
doubt also whether Ulloa knew of his rever- 
end predecessor. In any case neither of 
them refers to Padre Acosta. 

The story is found repeated ten years after 
the publication of the Ross translation of 
Humboldt, and strange to say in this partic- 
war account are to be found the details of 
how the chain is made and how it works: 2 


“No less remarkable is their ingenious 
method of crossing torrents and other minor 


1] quote from the Personal Narrative of Travels 
to the Equinoctial Regions of America during the 
years 1799-1804, by Alexander von Humboldt 
and Aimé Bonpland, translated and edited by 
Thomasina Ross, London, 1852. 

2Page 261 of Don Ramon Paez’ Wild Scenes 
in South America; or, Life in the Llanos of 
Venezuela, New York, 1862. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


streams which they often encounter in their 
ceaseless perambulations through the forest. 
As among men, all cannot swim with equal 
facility, so it is also with monkeys; accord- 
ingly the leaders of the troop, generally the 
strongest of the party, climb to the spread- 
ing branches of some tree projecting over 
the stream; one of them then twists his tail 
firmly around a branch, and letting his body 
hang, seizes upon the tail of the nearest 
comrade, who in his turn performs the same 
operation with the next, and so on until a 
sort of chain or living pendulum is formed, 
which in obedience to the laws of equilibrium 
oscillates slowly but constantly from their 
combined efforts to reach the opposite bank. 
This finally achieved, the last monkey se- 
cures himself to the most convenient tree. 
The others of the chain, now disengaged 
from the tree at the opposite side of the 
stream, wade through the water, each helped 
by his neighbor assisted likewise by the cur- 
rent. Some are, however, occasionally 
drowned, the last one in the chain especially, 
which circumstance has probably given rise 
to the popular proverb, el «ultimo moro 
siempre se ahoga—the last monkey is sure 
to be drowned.” 


This account is very circumstantial and if 
one reads Paez’s book and sees how accurate 
in the main are his natural history observa- 
tions, one feels inclined to lend credence. 
Then, too, how natural is the proverb about 
the drowning of the last monkey. At first 
T was inclined to think this a slip, for why 
was not the end of the chain on the other 
side of the river after the crossing as high 
above the water as the originating end? A 
little thought, however, cleared up this point. 
The lowest monkey of the oscillating chain 
would lay hold of the first bush or tree or 
branch with which he would come in contact, 
and would complete the living bridge, but 
would be unable to climb any higher because 
of the great weight of the monkeys pulling 
on him. Hence when the monkey who origi- 
nated the chain let go, he would fall into the 
water. 

This is all very plausible, exceedingly so, 
but as one reads Paez’s fascinating narra- 
tive, it is seen that our author loves to tell a 
good story. Moreover, one finds that he 
quotes Humboldt to demolish any fictions or 
clear up any matters of which he finds him- 
self on the opposite side, thus showing that 
he was well acquainted with Humboldt’s 
writings, but he carefully refrains from 
quoting him on the monkey chain. 

A journey was made over this very region 


THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN 


of northern South America in 1867-681 by 
two travelers, H. M. and P. V. N. Myers. 
They, too, saw hundreds of monkeys swing 
from tree to tree, and refer to “the oft- 
repeated story, familiar to every boy, and 
which often finds credence among so many, 
of monkeys crossing streams on aérial 
bridges constructed from their own bodies,” 
but declare that these bridges exist only in 
fancy: 


“Tn the course of our travels in the trop- 
ics, during which we saw multitudes of these 
creatures, our observations convinced us that 
there was no foundation for the truth of the 
tale of the bridge-building monkeys; and in 
this belief we were, moreover, further con- 
firmed by the statement of natives, who tes- 
tified to their having never witnessed such a 
novel performance.” 


The last account which has come to the 
attention of the writer is found in Holmes’s 
Fourth Reader,2 bearing date of publication 
of 1897, just twenty-one years ago. The 
series of Readers to which this book belongs 
was much in vogue two decades ago. The 
reading lessons, eighty-five in number, are 
made up of extracts from the writings of 
the foremost authors of America and Eu- 
rope. The incident referred to is so very 
detailed and circumstantial that it is quoted 
in extenso: 


A Livine BrinGE 


“T was once sailing down the Amazon, and 
making short trips up the rivers that flow 
into it. One night we had ascended a little 
stream so far that the trees on the banks 
nearly met overhead, and our boat could 
go no farther. It was not prudent to go 
back in the dark. So we anchored in mid- 
stream. 

The air was full of strange sounds, made 
by strange birds and insects, which kept me 
awake until just before dawn, when I fell 
asleep in my chair on deck. 

Suddenly I felt a rough blow on my face, 
and became wide awake. I saw hanging 
from a tree, and swinging away into the 
gloom, something that looked like a huge 
black rope. The end of it had struck me. 
In a moment back it came, swinging this 
time behind the vessel. 

The rope gave forth a chattering noise; 
it was alive. A moment more, and it was 
clear to me that here was a company of 


1The narrative appeared under the title Infe 
and Nature Under the Tropics (New York, 1871). 

2A Fourth Reader, by Prof. George F. Holmes 
(of the University of Virginia) and Prof. Frank 
A. Hall (Head master English High School, Cam- 
bridge, Mass.). New edition, copyrighted 1887, 
dated 1897. 


219 


monkeys trying to cross the stream. The 
sight was so novel, the plan so daring, that 
at once I gave these queer bridge-makers my 
closest attention. 

They were hanging from a tall palm-tree 
that leaned out over the water. Three or 
four of the strongest had grasped the 
branches of this palm with their hands, feet, 
and tails, and were holding on as if the fate 
of the monkey race depended on them. 

Other monkeys had taken hold of these, 
and let themselves hang down as far as they 
could. Then others, and still others, until 
there was a line thirty feet long and three or 
four monkeys deep. The last monkey of all 
did not cling to those above him, but was so 
held by them as to leave his arms and legs 
free. He was the gymnast of the troop, and 
the hero of the present exploit. 

The dangling line hung so near the trunk 
of the palm that the lowest had been able to 
push against it, and thus cause a little mo- 
tion. Successive pushes had set the rope 
swinging toward the opposite side of the 
stream. It was on one of these swings, when 
the end of the rope had reached as far out 
as the middle of the stream, that I was 
struck in the face. 

Little by little the breathing, clinging 
pendulum kept gaining. Pretty soon it 
swung out so far that the leader caught a 
branch of a tree on the opposite bank, when, 
lo! there was a bridge in mid-air! At once 
there rose from all the line a chattering that 
must have been monkey cheers. 

As soon as the leader had made good his 
hold, two or three monkeys ran across to help 
him. This finished the bridge; so, without 
further ado, it was opened to the monkey 
public. 

Then there came out of the palm-tree a 
noisy crowd of all ages. They ran across 
the bridge as best they could, some on all 
fours, some upright, some with young mon- 
keys on their backs, and all waving their 
tails and briskly jabbering, as if they were 
shouting to those ahead, ‘Make haste, or the 
bridge will break!’ 

A very old monkey was the last to go over. 
Perhaps his limbs were stiff. Perhaps he 
could not see very well. It was certain that 
he had lost the fearlessness of his youth, for 
he picked his way along so slowly and ner- 
vously, that I could not help laughing out- 
right. 

Hearing so unusual a noise, the monkeys 
who were clinging to the palm did not wait 
for him, but let go and swung over to the 
other side. The old fellow narrowly escaped 
a ducking. 

Then followed a curious scene. No sooner 
had the bridge cleared the water, than the 
monkeys loosened their grip upon one an- 
other. In less time than it takes to tell the 
story, the bridge dropped to pieces, and— 
what never happens with a common bridge 
—the pieces betook themselves to the tops of 
the trees, and were soon out of hearing in 
the depths of the forest.” 


R20 


To doubting Thomases this is staggering, 
because of the perfection of its detail, in 
which it agrees with Paez. The name signed 
to this short article is that of Charles Fred- 
erick Holder, a naturalist and man of high 
standing!1 I have personally made a care- 
ful search through all the works of Dr. 
Holder, in the hope that the original account 

1Dr. Charles Frederick Holder was the writer 
of many books and a member of many distin- 


guished scientific societies. He died in Pasadena, 
California, on October 11, 1915. 


A possible source of the bridge myth lies in the 
interpretation which a not-over-accurate traveler 
might give to the sight of monkeys swinging in 
troops from the hanging vines so numerous in 


tropicai forests. The above illustration, from 
Henri Mouhot’s Travels in the Central Parts of 
Indo-China (Siam), Cambodia, and Laos (1864), 
purports to be drawn from a sketch by that natu- 
ralist showing the way in which Old World apes 
torment their greatest enemy, the imperturbable 
crocodile, by swinging about his head and tapping 
him now and again—until some one of the frolick- 
ers more foolhardy or less agile than the rest gets 
his paw caught in the trap and vanishes into the 
crocodilian interior. The truth of this report is 
open to doubt, and at any rate the drawing has 
received additions from the artist’s imagination 
inasmuch as Old World apes do not have pre- 
hensile tails 


NATURAL HISTORY 


might be found. The search proved futile, 
but it unexpectedly brought to light a con- 
firmatory account. This latter, with a figure 
accompanying it, bears date of publication 
in New York just twelve years ago.2 

Let us examine Holder’s account more 
closely. First, it was not yet dawn, things 
could not be seen clearly; second, the stream 
was so small that the trees almost met over- 
head; third, the monkeys might easily have 
been hanging to limbs and making swinging 
leaps across the narrow stream; fourth, in 
these tropical countries the vegetation along 
the streams forms such a dense interwoven 
jungle that there is no space on the land- 
ward side for such a chain to swing back 
from the bank to get oscillation enough to 
carry it across the stream; and finally, this 
account attributes more collective intelli- 
gence to monkeys than they have ever been 
known to show.3 


2 Half Hours with Mammals. 
erick Holder. New York, 1907. 


° This is said notwithstanding the fact that S. 
G. Goodrich in his Illustrated Natural History 
of the Animal Kingdom (Vol. I, page 103, New 
York, 1859) says: “This account [of the monkey 
chain] has been doubted by some naturalists, but 
we are told by Mrs. Loudon that a similar feat 
is often performed by these monkeys in the Me- 
nagerie of the Zoological Gardens at London.” If 
this is true, then it is strange that, so far as the 
present writer knows, no published statement of 
such action has come from the eminent men who 
have for so long reported in the Proceedings of 
the Zoological Society of London the happenings 
in its Zodlogical Garden. 

Now Mrs. Loudon before her marriage was Jane 
Webb, and as Jane Webb she was a very prolific 
writer of popular natural history books. The 
British Museum catalogue lists some dozen or 
more of these works, but unfortunately neither 
the library of the American Museum of Natural 
History nor the great New York Public Library 
possesses any of them, so I have not been able to 
run down this statement. However, another quo- 
tation from Goodrich casts discredit on his whole 
account. 

On the same page, he quotes Dampier, the navi- 
gator, in detail as to the formation of the bridge 
on the “Isthmus of America.’”’ Now the standard 
edition of Dampier’s Voyages is that of 1729, the 
sixth I believe, which has recently (1906) been 
published in fine form under the editorship of 
John Masefield. In this copy there is no account 
whatever of the monkey chain or of any activities 
of monkeys in that part dealing with Dampier’s 
crossing of the Isthmus of Panama. Indeed the 
only place where their antics are referred to 
is in Dampier’s ‘‘Second Voyage to Campeachy,” 
and here there is no word of the formation of a 
chain or bridge. 

Now Sabin quotes Stevens that the sixth edition 
(the standard one) of Dampier’s Voyages Around 
the World is a page for page reprint of the earlier 
editions, but to make sure I consulted the 1698 
or ‘3d edition corrected’ and the 1697, the first, 
edition of the Voyages and found the account 
therein of the Second Voyage to Campeachy to 
agree exactly with Masefield’s reprint of the sixth 


Charles Fred- 


THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN 221 


It seems to me that the possible explana- 
tion is to be found in the third point just 
indicated. Individual monkeys certainly 
make use of swinging branches and of great 
palm leaves to enable them to bridge over 
the space from one tree to another. Using 
such a swinging fulerum for a “take-off,” 
they have been known to leap thirty feet, 
alighting of course at a lower level than the 
starting point. A procession of monkeys 
making such leaps from the same point in 
succession, especially if some were females 
carrying young, might look like a “living 
chain.” 

I have had the pleasure of discussing the 
matter with Messrs. Leo E. Miller and 
George K. Cherrie, of the American Museum 
of Natural History, and few men in the 
United States have done more exploring 
work in northern South America. Further- 
more, they are not the ordinary type of tray- 
elers but are collectors with highly trained 
powers of observation. They think that 
there is nothing in the “monkey bridge 
story” but that it has come about in a per- 
fectly natural way through observation of a 
procession of monkeys crossing a ravine or 
stream on a pendent liana. 

Professor W. P. Hay, of Washington, has 
called my attention to an account of Old 
World monkeys: 


“It is amusing, however—for one is inter- 
ested in observing the habits of animals all 
over the world—to see the manner in which 
these creatures [crocodiles] catch the apes, 
which sometimes take a fancy to play with 
them. Close to the bank lies the crocodile, 
his body in the water, and only his capacious 
mouth above the surface, ready to seize any- 
thing that may come within reach. A troop 
of apes catch sight of him, seem to consult 
together, approach little by little, and com- 
mence their frolics, by turns actors and spec- 
tators. One of the most active or most 
impudent jumps from branch to branch, till 
within a respectful distance of the crocodile, 


(Continued from page 220 ) 


edition of 1729. So it seems that Goodrich has 
made Dampier say what he did not say, and if 
Dampier, why not Mrs. Loudon? As a matter of 
fact Goodrich has attributed to Dampier an ac- 
count possibly taken from Wafer, quoted earlier 
in this article. Dampier was a keen and critical 
observer of natural history phenomena and any- 
one who has carefully read his Voyages must con- 
clude that had monkey bridges abounded, as 
Wafer indicates, he would certainly have given us 
a careful description, as was his wont when any- 
thing new or unusual came within his ken. And 
even had he not seen it, he would in all probability 
have made mention of it as seen by others, had 
talk of it been current. 


when, hanging by one paw, and with the 
dexterity peculiar to these animals he ad- 
vances and retires, now giving his enemy a 
blow with his paw, at another time only pre- 
tending to do so. The other apes, enjoying 
the fun, evidently wish to take a part in it; 
but the other branches being too high they 
form a sort of chain by laying hold of each 
other’s paws, and thus swing backwards and 
forwards, while any one of them who comes 
within reach of the crocodile torments him to 
the best of his ability. Sometimes the ter- 
rible jaws suddenly close, but not upon the 
audacious ape, who just escapes; then there 
are eries of exultation from the tormentors, 
who gambol about joyfully. Occasionally, 
however, the claw is entrapped, and the vic- 
tim dragged with the rapidity of lightning 
beneath the water, when the whole troop dis- 
perses, groaning and shrieking. The misad- 
venture does not, however, prevent their 
recommencing the game a few days after- 
wards.” 1 

When opportunity came to compare Pro- 
fessor Hay’s transcript with the original, I 
found that the account originated with an 
explorer and naturalist named Mouhot,? 
who died of swamp fever somewhere in the 
upper part of Indo-China, but whose jour- 
nals, letters, and scientific memoranda were 
used by his brother to build up a book. The 
original picture in this book is of a scene 
at Paknam-Ven, on the Chantaboun River, 
Siam, and bears the legend: “Drawn by M. 
Bocourt from a sketch by M. Mouhot,” so it 
may be considered authentic. 

In his text Mouhot speaks of the apes 
holding on to each other by their paws, but 
nowhere does he speak of them as using their 
tails. The figure, however, does show at 
least three of them using their tails to hold 
on to the swinging “bush-ropes.” This led 
me to think, until the figure was finally run 
down, that it was from some book of travel 
on South America, where the monkeys do 
have prehensile tails. Mouhot, of course, 
knew that while the Old World does have 
long-tailed monkeys, none of them have this 
organ prehensile, so we must conclude that 
his artist “improved” on his original sketch. 

1This account and figure are taken from Siam, 
the Land of the White Elephant, as It Was, and as 
It Is, compiled by George B. Bacon and published 
by Charles Scribner’s Sons (New York, 1873), 
as one of the volumes in Illustrated Library of 


Travel, Exploration, and Adventure, edited by 
Bayard Taylor. 

2 Henri Mouhot was a Frenchman, but the title 
of his book-is Travels in the Central Parts of Indo- 
China (Siam), Cambodia, and Laos, during the 
years 1858, 1859, 1860, and it was published in 
two volumes at London in 1864. Mouhot, who 
lived in England for some years, seems to have 
had encouragement and possibly some backing 
from the Zodlogical and Geographical Societies of 
London in his explorations. 


The Remaking of a Museum Collection 


REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ORDER OF PRIMATES FROM THE 


HUGE 


GORILLA TO THE TINY MARMOSET 


T WAS in 1882, that Mr. Robert Colgate, 

at the suggestion of Professor Henry A. 

Ward, decided to present to the Ameri- 
can Museum, of New York, the most com- 
plete collection of apes and monkeys that 
could be brought together, and as steps were 
promptly taken to put this plan into execu- 
tion, the collection rapidly grew to goodly 
Thirty- 


five years ago, how- 


proportions. 


ever, collecting was 


much more difficult 
and collectors were 
much seareer than 


today, so that after 
a time the supply of 
monkeys that could 
readily be obtained 
exhausted, and 
of the 
became 
slower. 


was 
the 
collection 
and 
Nevertheless, 


growth 


slower 
it was 
an impressive ex- 
hibit, occupying the 
greater part of one 
of the central halls 
of the 
Later, 

lost some of this im- 


Museum. 
however, it 
S : A Colobus or 
pressiveness, as in- 
crease of collections 
in other halls, with- 
out corresponding in- 
crease of the build- 
ing, brought into the 
exhibit a number of 
intruders in the shape of the smaller mam- 
mals, so that the hall of Primates lost some 
of its distinctive appearance; also the ever- 
increasing amount of scientific work by the 
Museum staff led to the abstraction of many 
of the skeletons for study and comparison. 

Quite recently the publication of Ellot’s 
great work, A Review of the Primates, 
caused renewed interest in this particular 
collection, while collections made by various 
Museum expeditions in Africa and South 
America, coupled with improved methods in 
mounting and displaying specimens, made it 


999 


horse-tail 


seen in front of the mother’s shoulder. 
monkeys carry their young in this manner, the 
infant clinging to the parent’s fur of its own 
accord and with its own strength. 
of this same monkey is seen in the illustration 
of the group on the opposite page 


LUCAS 


both possible and desirable to make such im- 
provements as would bring this hall up to 
the high standard set by other exhibits. It 
has been said that some of the greatest re- 
forms have been brought about not by mak- 
ing new laws but by repealing or amending 
old ones; in the Primates’ hall reform has 
largely been brought about not by discard- 


ing the old speci- 
mens but by utiliz- 
ing them to better 


advantage, and while 
there been a 


these 


have 
few discards, 
have been in the way 
of bright cherry ped- 
estals and of shelves, 
so that now the 
visitor is attract- 
ed by the animals 
and not by the sup- 
ports. 

Important  addi- 
tions have been 
made in the way of 
groups, four of which 
have been completed 
material for 
hand; 


while 
others is in 
and Man has been 
represented by fig- 
ures of the black, yel- 
low, and white races. 


with its 
newly, born young whose white head may be 


monkey 


Most 


(See page 235.) 
The skeletons for- 
scattered 
through the 
have been brought together, so that the visi- 
readily compare the 


A side view 


merly 


eases 


tor so minded can 
structural resemblances between himself and 
his more or less distant relatives, or see the 
general characteristics of the various groups 
into which the Order of Primates is divided. 

The object of the exhibit is to give some 
idea of the principal species in the Order and 
their great variety in size and form, which 
ranges from the huge gorilla to the tiny 
marmoset, while the habitat groups show 
characteristic or interesting species in their 
own haunts. 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM’S GROUP OF 
COLOBUS MONKEYS 


These thumbless monkeys (Colobus abyssinicus roose- 
velti) are perhaps the most beautiful of their race, and 
for this they have paid the inevitable penalty of being 
hunted by African natives and by Europeans for the sake of 
their fur. The Abyssinians employ the skins as ornaments 
for their large rawhide shields and have traded at times 
extensively in the pelts. Colobus monkeys dwell in the tallest 
trees among the remote forests of East Africa where they 
find their main sustenance in leaves which they eat in large 
quantities. For digesting this unusual diet they are pro- 
vided with large sacculated stomachs. They are relatively 
slow travelers for arboreal monkeys, even when swinging 
from branch to branch in their forest homes; but they can 
make long flying leaps (thirty feet or more) and the white 
‘“manes” and tails float out on the air as the creatures pro- 
ceed from tree to tree or plunge headlong to the ground. 
When born these monkeys are pure white (see young in 
arms of monkey at the right and front view of same on 
opposite page), but they rapidly take on the black and white 
coloration of the adult. 

In setting up this group at the American Museum, repro- 
ductions were made of leaves and air plants brought from 
their African habitat by the Congo Expedition 


CROWNED 
LEMURS 
FROM 
MADAGASCAR 


Among the 
unique fauna of 
the island of 
Madagascar are 
found the only 
extant species of 
true lemurs. The 
lemurs, which are 
the lowest of the 
ape tribe, resem- 
ble monkeys chiefly 
in their hands 
and feet, having 
an opposing thumb 
like most man-like 
apes. ‘“‘Lemur” is 
Latin for ghost 
and these animals 
were so called be- 
cause of their noc- 
turnal and semi- 
nocturnal habits. 
They sleep during 
the heat of the 
day and come out 
in the evening 
and early morn- 
ing to feed on 
fruits and romp 
in the trees in 
small bands of six 
or — eight. This 
American Mu- 
seum group, of 
which but a cor- 
ner is shown, 
contains two spe- 
cies (Propithecus 
verreauai and P. 
diadema) set in a 
reproduction of 
Madagascar foli- 
age with a _ back- 
ground painted 
from a scene out 
of Milne Edwards’ 


great work on that 


island 


A SPIDER MONKEY FROM MEXICO 


The spider monkeys (Ateles), so called from -their unusually long arms and legs, are a thumbless 
from the New World. They are very timid and rather stupid animals and live on such fruits as are 
in the tropical fore of the two Americas. Their most notable character is the 1 
serves them so remarkably well that the Indians of Brazil claim they catch fish with 
under side of which is smooth-skinned at the tip, is always moving here and there grasping 
objects otherwise out of reach, and is sufficiently strong to suspend the weight of the monkey’ 
number of things a monkey of this type can do at one time is quite astounding. 


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Notes 


THE geographical and historical basis for 
a permanent world peace has been the sub- 
ject of research since the latter part of 1917 
by an American organization known as the 
“Inquiry.” This organization has been un- 
der the direction of Col. E. M. House, and 
has maintained its headquarters at the build- 
ing of the American Geographical Society in 
New York City, receiving cordial cooperation 
from every scientific bureau of the United 
States Government, and being visited in per- 
son by President Wilson and Secretary 
Lansing. Its complete personnel of about 
150 persons, carrying with them all pre- 
pared effects, sailed for France on the 
“George Washington” December 4, 1918. 
The work has been of so confidential a na- 
ture that the story in detail is told for the 
first time in the Geographical Review for 
January, 1919. The Inquiry has, broadly 
speaking, investigated the political and dip- 
lomatic history, the political and economic 
geography, of all the nationalities in any 
way affected by the coming treaty of peace, 
together with the bearings of international 
law upon these questions. This work has 
been accomplished through close cooperation 
of specialists and in consultation with similar 
commissions in Europe and with representa- 
tives of every important nationality of Eu- 
rope and Western Asia. Among the mem- 
bers of the Inquiry are: 
S. E. Mezes, President of the College of 
the City of New York, Director 
Isaiah Bowman, Director of the American 
Geographical Society, Chief Territorial 
Specialist 
Allyn A. Young, Head of the Department 
of Economics at Cornell 
Specialist on Economic Resources 
Charles H. Haskins, Dean of the Graduate 
School! of Harvard University, Specialist 
on Alsace-Lorraine and Belgium 
Clive Day, Head of the Department of 
Economies at Yale University, Special- 
ist on the Balkans 
W. E. Lunt, Professor of History, Haver- 
ford College, Specialist on Northern 
Ttaly 
R. Hl. Lord, Professor of History at Har- 
vard University, Specialist on Russia 
and Poland 


University, 


Charles Seymour, Professor of History at 
Yale University, Specialist on Austria- 
Hungary 

W. L. Westermann, Professor of History 
at the University of Wisconsin, Special- 
ist on Turkey 

G: L. Beer, formerly of Columbia Univer- 
sity, Specialist on Colonial History 

Mark Jefferson, Professor of Geography 
at Michigan State Normal College, 

Cartographer 

Roland B. Dixon, Professor of Anthropol- 

ogy at Harvard University 

Four officers from the Military Intelli- 
gence Division were also attached for special 
study of problems on strategy, economics, 
and ethnography: Major D. W. Johnson, 
Columbia University, Major Lawrence Mar- 
tin, University of Wisconsin, Captain W. C. 
Farabee, The University Museum, Philadel- 
phia, and Captain Stanley IK. Hornbeck, 
University of Wisconsin. 

In connection with the research carried on 
by the Inquiry, the cartographers of the 
American Geographical Society, together 
with a Government staff, began a great map 
making program, showing the distribution 
of peoples and of natural resources, and 
location of strategic points. The Society 
prepared a series of base and block maps 
showing drainage, railways, and relief, of 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. These maps were 
later furnished to each unit of the Students 
Army Training Corps. <A small seale edition 
also has been printed, available for desk use 
by the students in conjunction with the wall 
map in the hands of the instructor. 


JOHN BurrouGuHs visited the American 
Museum on January 24 and was entertained 
by moving pictures in which he had acted 
the leading réle. Mr. Burroughs was pic- 
tured with several of his family, and with 
friends, including Mr. Henry Ford and Mr. 
Thomas A. Edison. The groups had been 
“filmed” in West Park at “Riverby,” “Slab- 
sides,” and “Woodchuck Lodge.” 
tion with this reel, about one hundred col- 
ored slides were also displayed. Among them 
were several of his birthplace in the western 
Catskills, many were from photographs, by 
Dr. G. Clyde Fisher of the American Mu- 


227 


In connee- 


228 NATURAL HISTORY. 


seum, of Mr. Burroughs in his West Park 
home, and a considerable series showed him 
with John Muir in California and with Theo- 
After 


the slides had been shown, the local bird hall 


dore Roosevelt in Yellowstone Park. 


was visited and the white marble bust of 
Burroughs, executed by the late C. 8S. Pietro, 
was viewed. Mr. Burroughs also examined a 
number of exhibits in the Museum, including 
the Florida Group—a group showing Florida 
reptiles and birds set in a reproduction of a 
visited Mr. Carl E. 
Akeley’s studio where African elephants and 


cypress swamp—and 


rhinoceroses were in process of being 


mounted. He manifested especial interest in 
the clay model of an African lion which Mr. 
Akeley is making as a memorial to Roose- 
velt. 
roughs’ friends to welcome him to the Mu- 


It was a great pleasure to Mr. Bur- 


seum and to find him in such vigorous health 
at fourscore years and two. 


THE gold medal of the Royal Society for 
the Protection of Birds (Canada) has been 
awarded to Professor Gordon Hewitt, Do- 
minion entomologist, and to Dr. W. T. Horn- 
aday, director of the New York Zodlogical 
Park, “in recognition of their indefatigable 
securing the treaty between 
Canada and the United States for the pro- 
tection of migratory birds.” 


services in 


Av the annual meeting of the trustees of 
the American Museum on February 3, Mr. 
Herbert L. Bridgman, journalist, explorer, 
and geographer, manager and editor of the 
Brooklyn Standard Union, and secretary of 
the Peary Arctic Club, was elected an Hon- 
orary Fellow of the institution, pursuant to 
a resolution expressing “appreciation of the 
valuable assistance rendered to the Museum 
by Mr. Herbert L. Bridgman through his 
service on its committees on exploration, es- 
pecially in connection with the expeditions of 
Admiral Peary, the 
Expedition, the Congo Expedition and, more 
recently, the Crocker Land Expedition—in 
all of which his wide experience and organiz- 


Stefansson-Anderson 


ing ability have been placed freely at the 
disposal of the 
knowledging his “contribution to the ad- 
vancement of science and education through 


Museum”’—and also ac- 


his editorials and other writings in the pub- 
lic press.” 


AMONG the names of the officers and 
founders of the American Ornithologists’ 


Union is that of Robert Ridgway, one of 
the first vice presidents. Mr. Ridgway lately 
has completed his fiftieth year on the staff 
of the Smithsonian Institution, where he 
occupies the position of curator of birds. 
He is accounted one of the leading syste- 
His inter- 
When 
but fourteen he sent a life-size drawing of 
a pair of purple finches to the Smithsonian 


matic ornithologists of America. 
est in birds began at an early age. 


Professor 
Baird, then secretary of the Institution, a 


Institution and received from 
letter commending his skill in drawing and 
offering him assistance in identifying any 
of his specimens—a service similar to that 
which Audubon had performed for Professor 
3aird twenty-five years previously. Sys- 
tematic ornithology was in its infancy when 
in 1867 Mr. Ridgway was called to Wash- 
ington to assist Professor Baird, and its 
rapid growth may be attributed in large 
measure to his efforts. 


PROFESSOR JOJI SAKURAI, director of the 
Institute of Physical and Chemical Research 
in Tokyo, Japan, has been visiting scientific 
institutions in the United States. The Insti- 
tute was founded in 1917 by private sub- 
scription and government subvention, largely 
as a result of the effect of the great war in 
giving government officials, business men, 
and in fact the whole Japanese nation a new 
interest in science, relative to such daily 
needs as dyestuffs and drugs formerly im- 
In order to supply 
the lack of capable researchers the Institute 
established a number of scholarships open 
to university graduates and tenable for two 
years, and a few of its associate fellows will 
be annually sent to study abroad. At pres- 
ent the Institute’s work is being carried on 
in the buildings of the universities of Tokyo, 
Kyoto, and Sendai, but the projected labora- 
tories will be built in northern Tokyo where 
a site has already been purchased. 


ported from Germany. 


In 1908 foreigners in Peking founded the 
China Monuments Society for securing “com- 
plete suppression of vandalism in China by 
foreigners, or due to foreign influence or 
agencies, and the protection of China’s an- 
tiquities, monuments and all cultural objects, 
for the benefit of mankind. . . . ” Since 
that date the attention of the Chinese govern- 
ment has been called to the matter at one 
time and another and considerable interest 


NOTES 229 


has been manifested in America toward ¢o- 
operation in the work of preservation. Price- 
less objects of art and historic monuments 
are still, however, in need of protection from 
both foreign and domestic vandalism, but, 
owing to the present state of political tur- 
moil throughout China, it is difficult to ob- 
tain any organized effort. 

Mr. Roy C. Andrews, leader of the Ameri- 
Asiatic 
recently with Mr. 
King ways and means of codperation. Mr. 


can Museum’s Second Expedition, 


discussed Kungpah TT. 


King, a member of the Chinese Parliament 


and formerly Minister of the Interior, was 
most active in the establishment of the 
National Museum of Art at Peking, and is 
again taking up the question of protection 
officially in spite of the difficulties in the 
way of effective action. The Peking Museum 
was founded with the wonderful collections 
left in the deserted summer residences of the 
Mukden 


(silver ) 


Manchu emperors at and Jehol. 


Four million dollars were appro- 


priated for purchasing this material from 
the Manchu dynasty and half of this sum 


has already been paid. 


The following photographs depict scenes in Peking on the signing of the armistice 
at the close of active fighting in the World War. 
by Mr. Roy Chapman Andrews, representative of the 


They were taken 


American Museum of Natural History 


Photograph by Roy C. Andrews 


REMOVAL OF THE VON KETTELER MONUMENT IN PEKING 


This memorial arch on Ha-ta-mén Street was erected by the late 
von Ketteler, German Minister to China, was shot by a Chinese 


Emperor over the spot where Baron 
soldier The news of the signing of the 
armistice in the World War was received in Peking on the morning of November 12 During that afternoon 


the government gave permission to have the monument removed, and several hundred foreigners attempted to 


pull the arch down with cables This attempt was unsuccessful but that night the German inscription was 
badly defaced and the pillars were chipped and cracked Later the Chinese government decided to take 
down the arch, as shown in the photograp! 


Central Park, Peking 


and to use the materials in the erection of a “Victory Arch’ in 


a 


GP ea ws 5 


Pcie ~~ 


ee 4 
ae | icine SOA ppg ices oma | 


vai NaH ao Sper MRL) ao st0us 


tr 


Photographs by Roy C. Andrews 


GATEWAY TO THE~PURPLE CITY 


The upper picture shows the massive gateway to the Tung Hua Men courtyard of the Imperial Palace in Peking. 
The two lower pictures are taken within the court and show the lancers, part of the President’s bodyguard, and 
the President's band. The gateway is one of the most impressive of the series of entrances through which one 
must pass in entering the Forbidden City. Its base is red and the roof is tiled with the imperial yellow, as are 
all the imperial dwellings of the city, while before the gate runs a winding canal spanned by beautiful marble 
bridges. The photographs of the lancers and band were taken just after the President, Hsu Shih-Chang, had 
passed through to attend the Allied and Chinese review, held to celebrate the signing of the armistice 


9: 30 


wo Sane, be 


whe ue g t y F i a 


2% pres 


Photographs by Roy (¢ tndrew 


REVIEW OF CHINESE AND ALLIED TROOPS 


of Chir t the Allied Ministers 
court before the o'd Thro: 


The President reviewed a parade of Allied and Chinese 
toom or Hall of Supreme Concord (Tai Ho Tien) This court 


ce of the scene was indescribable; 


troops in the great 
hold 45.000 people I 


is large enough to 
Tai Ho Tien (one 


in the background the 


vellow tiles of the 

of t st perb examples of Chinese architecture) gleamed in the sunlight like molten gold 

and in the court and rrace were thousands of flags and uniforms of every color In the picture at the 

bottom of the page t ‘resident 1s shown reading his address from the terrace of the Throne Room (politically 

and almost geog center of Peking) On the left are the foreign minister on the right, the foreign 
military attachés and G Tuan Chi-jui, ex-Premier, with members of his staff 


J 


Photographs by Roy C. Andrews 
AFTER THE REVIEW 
The upper photograph shows General Tuan Chi-jui, ex-Premier of China, with the Allied military attachés: read- 


ing from left to right are two members of General Tuan Chi-jui’s staff, the Russian and the French attachés, 
General Tuan Chi-jui, the British, the American, and the Japanese attachés. 


General Tuan Chi-jui is one of the most influential generals in China. It was he who dispersed General 
Chang Hsu’s troops in 1917 when the latter attempted to restore the Manchu Emperor. General Tuan Chi-jui 


is a stanch militarist and will oppose any attempt to limit the powers of the military governors who practically 
govern China today. 

In the lower picture Chinese troops, preceded by their colors, are seen leaving the court of the Tung Hua 
Men and about to cross one of the beautiful marble bridges 


999 


204 


NOTES 


TuHeEopoor De Booy, archeologist and ex- 
plorer, died February 19, at his home in 
Yonkers. Mr. De Booy had been in charge of 
the West Indian archeological work of the 
Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foun- 
dation, New York City, since 1911. Last year 
he was in charge of an expedition sent out 
by the University of Pennsylvania Museum, 
which penetrated unknown regions in Vene- 
zuela and Colombia. Few men knew the West 
India Islands and their archeology as Mr. 
De Booy knew them. A skillful and tireless 
worker, with the faculty of making friends 
wherever he went, he proved a most success- 
ful collector. He was the author of several 
papers on the archeology of the West Indian 
Tslands, and a short time before his death 
he brought out, jointly with John T. Faris, 
the book The Virgin Islands, Our New Pos- 
sessions, and the British Islands. 


THe death is announced of two of the 
country’s distinguished botanists, George F. 
Atkinson, professor and head of the botany 
department at Cornell University, and Vol- 
ney M. Spalding, formerly professor of 
botany at the University of Michigan. 


S. A. S. ALBERT, Prince of Monaco, has 
contributed to the Académie des Sciences,! 
of Paris, a paper on the “Route of floating 
mines in the North Atlantic and Arctic 
Oceans during and after the war.” Prince 
Albert has for many years made extensive 
researches into oceanography and mapped 
the course of the Atlantic currents by drop- 
ping objects so constructed that they floated 
just below the surface and escaped action by 
the wind. Mines sown in the North Sea, he 
says, will wander along the northern Eu- 
ropean coasts until they are finally swept 
into the fjords of Norway. Those which 
break loose on the Atlantic coast of Europe, 
however, will fall into the general Atlantic 
eurrents dominated by the Gulf Stream. 
Barring accident on the Canary Islands or 
the Antilles, or protracted circulation in the 
great Atlantic whirl, the Sargasso Sea, 
these mines will travel down the coast of 
Europe and of northern Africa, across the 
ocean to the West Indies and back by way 
of the Gulf Stream current. After their 
return to European waters, the mines will 
either go by the west coast of Ireland to break 


1 Comptes rendus hebdomadaires, Tome 167, No. 
27 (30 Décembre 1918). 


233 


in the Arctic ice or in the Norwegian fjords, 
or return a second time over the previous 
transatlantic circle. Prince Albert caleu- 
lates the average speed as somewhere around 
five miles in twenty-four hours. A complete 
voyage from the vicinity of the Channel and 
return would accordingly require about four 
years. 


“THE time has arrived when there should 
be a great awakening in the teaching of 
geography in America,” writes Professor 
W. W. Atwood, in the Geographical Review 
for January, 1919, “and when teaching must 
go far beyond what most grown people re- 
member as geography.” The importance of 
both physical and economic geography has 
been strongly brought to our attention by the 
war and even to a greater extent by the par- 
celing up of the world, contingent upon the 
signing of peace. Never again will the 
United States stand in isolation, either po- 
litical or commercial, and, as our market is 
to be the world, so we must study the world’s 
geography. 

Geography has never been taught to any 
extent in America beyond the primary 
schools. Even the teachers of geography are 
not trained in any phases of the subject 
beyond the elements, for virtually no courses 
in geography are given in the colleges. All 
the higher institutions of learning should 
open departments of geography as fast as 
adequately trained instructors can be fur- 
nished. There are many students who would 
take up this field of work as a profession 
if America recognized it. Each of the large 
universities in France has a department of 
geography; there is a staff of eight special- 
ists in geography at the University of Paris. 
Great English and German universities also 
are equipped; and similar progress has been 
made in other countries, as Austria, Switzer- 
land, Italy, Denmark, and the Netherlands. 
The time has come when full consideration 
should be given to the relations between 
geography and the expansion of civiliza- 
tions, 


Sir ArTHuR PEARSON, the blind founder 
and of St. Hostel for 
blinded soldiers, London, addressed a large 


director Dunstan’s 
audience of blind and their friends at the 
Sir Ar- 
thur spoke of the marvelous work accom- 
plished at the hostel and of the new depar- 


American Museum on February 5. 


254 

tures inaugurated there. “Victory over 
foo) ” 

blindness,” is St. Dunstan’s motto. The 


hostel impresses upon its new arrivals that 
it is not an institution for the helpless, 
but a school where “normal people who can- 
It is for the blind 
themselves, said Sir Arthur, to disabuse the 


not see” are reéducated. 


public of the belief that blindness is asso- 
ciated with helplessness, and accordingly he 
believes that the coming of the blinded sol- 
diers in the prime of life from stirring scenes 
has veen the blind’s best asset. Play is taken 
very seriously at the hostel and is considered 
of equal importance with work; all forms of 
amusement are encouraged, from boxing to 
checkers. Dancing is popular with the men. 
St. Dunstan’s Dramatic Club has developed 
into a regular London institution. Sir Ar- 
thur considers outdoor athletics as of par- 
ticular importance in giving the blind re- 
As they 
have access to the large lake in Regents 
Park, rowing is one of the favorite sports, 
and expert crews are sent to race on the 
Thames at Putney, while those who have had 
previous experience in boxing take up this 


newed control over their muscles. 


exercise with successful results. Any activity 
which fosters the competitive spirit pro- 
rapid development and 
morale of the men. 


motes raises the 

The average stay at St. Dunstan’s is nine 
months, during which the men must acquire 
an occupation, or relearn an old one. They 
must also learn to read. This last is of the 
utmost importance, for the mere ability to 
read continually widens the blinded person’s 
mental horizon and gives him added confi- 
dence. In learning an occupation, St. Dun- 
stan’s insists that its blind be as capable and 
stand as thorough examinations as more 
fortunate competitors in the same field who 
can see. Among occupations not hitherto 
thought of in connection with the blind, Sir 
Arthur Pearson has introduced massage with 
much success. This is a well-paying profes- 
sion and is readily learned by those of the 
blind who are inclined toward the work. 
Many more trades and professions are suit- 
able for the blind than is generally assumed. 
The government of the United Kingdom now 
appropriates an annual sum of two million 
dollars to be expended in work with the 


blind. 


THE Roosevelt Permanent National Com- 
mittee, appointed for the purpose of choice 


NATURAL HISTORY 


and erection of a national memorial to the 
late Theodore Roosevelt, consists of the 
following persons, representative of indus- 
trial, political, scientific, literary, and social 
life, and including all of Roosevelt’s former 


cabinet members: 


Chairman 
WILLIAM BoycE THOMPSON 


Honorary Chairmen 


W. H. Tarr 


CHARLES E. HuGHES 


Vice Chairmen 


SenaTOR H. C. LODGE 


JOHN MITCHELL 
JOHN T. KING 


SENATOR HIRAM 
JOHNSON 
A. T. Hert 


Treasurer 
ALBERT H. WIGGIN 


Members of Committee 


LYMAN ABBOTT 

CarRL E. AKELEY 

Gov. H. J. ALLEN 
JACOB L. BABLER 
Gov. R. L. BEECKMAN 
C. J. BONAPARTE 
SETH BULLOCK 
JOHN BURROUGHS 
Gov. T. C. CAMPBELL 
RUSSELL COLES 
WILLIS C. Cook 

G. B. CorTELYOU 
WALTER DAMROSCH 
COLEMAN DU PONT 
REP. SIMEON D. FEss 
LYMAN J. GAGE 
JAMES R. GARFIELD 
CARDINAL GIBBONS 
Mrs. Mary A. GIBSON 
Gov. J. P. GoopRIcH 
JOHN C. GREENWAY 
Cot. GEORGE HARVEY 
WILLIAM D. HOWELLS 
Haroup L. [cKes 


Victor H. METCALF 
RosBeErtT R. MoTON 
SENATOR T. H. 
NEWBERRY 
Rep. JOHN I. NOLAN 
JOHN M. PARKER 
ADMIRAL R. E. PEARY 
GEORGE W. PERKINS 
GIFFORD PINCHOT 
SENATOR MILES 
POINDEXTER 
REP. C. F. REAVIS 
Mrs. WHITELAW REID 
H. L. REMMEL 
RAYMOND ROBINS 
Evinu Roor 
JOHN SARGENT 
CHARLES SCRIBNER 
W. W. SEWELL 
LESLIE M. SHAW 
H. F. SINCLAIR 
PuHiLip B. STEWART 
Oscar 8. STRAUS 
PATRICK SULLIVAN 


WILLIAM P. JACKSON J. O. THOMPSON 
SENATOR F. B. KELLOGG Miss H. F. Virtun 
SENATOR W.S. KENYON AUGUSTUS H. VOGEL 


EARLE 8S. KINSLEY 
Irvin R. KirK woop 
SENATOR P. C. KNox 
ALBERT D. LASKER 
WILLIAM LOEB, JR. 
Pres. A. L. LOWELL 
Rep. C. N. McARTHUR 
H. F. McGrecor 

Rev. W. T. MANNING 
THOMAS A. MARLOW 


HENRY C. WALLACE 
REP. WALLACE 
David WARFIELD 
CHARLES B. WARREN 
HENRY J. WHIGHAM 
JAMES WILSON 
GEN. LEONARD Woop 
LUKE E. WRIGHT 
WILLIAM WRIGLEY 
ROBERT J. WYNNE 


NOTES 235 


THAT man should not be omitted in the con- 
sideration of the Primates is the underlying 
motive in the installation in the hall of Pri- 
mates of the American Museum (see page 
222 of this issue of NaTurAL History) of 
models of the Norwegian, Chinese, and Afri- 
can races. While there is some diversity of 
opinion as to whether there is more than one 
species of man, there are undeniable well- 
marked races corresponding to the subspecies 
in zodlogy. Of these the white, yellow, and 
black races shown in the present exhibit are 
the principal types. The figures were made 
by the Washington sculptor, Mr. U.S. J. Dun- 
bar, who has been very successful in repro- 
ducing the races of man; the coloring is the 
work of Mr. Frederick H. Stoll, of the prepa- 
ration department of the American Museum ; 
the garments worn are actual articles of ap- 
parel collected in the field. The white race is 
represented by a Hardanger peasant of Nor- 
way in the costume of a young married 
woman. This type is found in its purest 
form in Seandinavia, where fifty per cent of 
the population are tall, blue-eyed, fair-haired, 
and long-headed. The yellow type, depicted 
by the Cantonese farm laborer, has straight 
black hair, yellowish or copper-brown skin, 
oblique eyes, high cheek bones, and project- 
ing ears. In securing a model for the coloring 
and hair of this figure Mr. Stoll had much 
difficulty in finding a Chinaman with a queue, 
this form of headdress being no longer popu- 
lar with the Chinese. He finally discovered 
an old Chinese chemist who generously served 
as a study for this figure. The farm laborer 
of the exhibit, however, has a skin much 
darker than the Chinaman seen in the streets 
of New York. 

Perhaps the most interesting figure of the 
group is the African, inasmuch as it is an 
actual portrait of Manziga, chief of the 
Azande. The Azande are famous warriors 
of Central Africa, having pushed their way 
by force of arms from the Sudan down into 
the Congo where they are firmly established. 
They are also known as Niam-Niam (meat- 
meat) because of former cannibalistic ten- 
dencies. Now, however, they are an agricul- 
tural people, living chiefly on millet, durra 
grain, manioc, sweet potatoes, and plantain. 
From the grains they also make intoxi cating 
drinks. The women of the tribe are kept vir- 
tually in slavery. The shield carried by Man- 
ziga is covered with rattan fiber and is both 
beautifully designed and carefully made. In 


war this chief often carries five or six spears, 
and when these are exhausted his supply is re- 
plenished with others carried by men running 
behind him. The Azande make also peculiar 
iron throwing knives which have many points 
and act somewhat as a boomerang when 
thrown. The dress worn by this figure is 
made from strips of fig bark beaten with 
hammers, soaked in water until very flexible, 
and then woven into cloth. The designs are 
stamped on with a die—such a die often con- 
sisting of the dried section of some fruit. 


THE complete dress costume of an Indian 
chief, comprising a large feather war bon- 
net, fringed shirt and leggings, with moc- 
casins, pipe bag, and feather-trimmed stand- 
ard, has been presented to the American 
Museum by Mrs. Anna Sargeant of Jersey 
City. 
Chief White-eagle, a Cheyenne Indian of 
mixed blood, who had left a request with 
Mrs. Sargeant that this costume be presented 
to the Museum in case of his death. Chief 
White-eagle passed under the name of Don 
White-eagle. 


The costume was the property of 


Before entering the Army he 
had been for several years connected with 
Barnum and Bailey’s Circus. When America 
entered the war he was moved with intense 
patriotism and offered his services in the 
Liberty Loan Drives, having at one time 
a tipi in front of the New York Publie 
Library where he appeared in the costume 
just presented to the Museum, and addressed 
passers-by on their duty with respect to the 
loan. These appeals were so successful that 
he visited other parts of the country on a 
similar Later, he took part with 
equal success in Red Cross and War Savings 
Stamp campaigns. He entered the United 
States Army in July, 1918, and died in 
France of pneumonia, October 21, 1918, but 
not until after he had received special com- 
mendation by the general of his division for 
bravery of action at the front. 


mission. 


As a small help in the work of reforesting 
France, Mr. Percival S. 
Ridsdale, secretary of the American Forestry 


woodland areas in 


Association and editor of American Forestry, 
country carried 
with him a large number of Douglas fir 
seeds—“a small package with a big value,” 
cabling after his arrival that the French 
government accepted the offer of aid ten- 
dered by the Association. 


in visiting that recently, 


236 NATURAL 

WE NOTE with satisfaction the great step 
forward taken by Governor Sleeper of Mich- 
igan, in urging the foundation of a system 
of connected public parks through the state. 
In Indian days the northern part of Michi- 
gan was closely covered with the heavy co- 
niferous forest which extended across the 
Lake Region as far as Minnesota, and the 
southern section by the edge of the hard- 
wood growth of the Ohio River Valley. 
Even today a large part of the state is 
wooded with a rich and varied forest, repre- 
senting about a hundred native species. See- 
tors of woodland along many of the quiet 
streams and hidden lakes are ideal locations 
for forest parks. Heretofore, Michigan has 
given no attention to this form of conserva- 
tion, so that her fields and woodlands have 
been rapidly restricted by private ownership. 
Governor Sleeper’s project’ will involve not 
only the setting aside of ground, but also 
extensive work in forest preservation and re- 
forestation. 


IN connection with the discussion of scenic 
conservation by Dr. R. M. Harper in this 
number, we note the progress made in the 
state of New York as reported by the Ameri- 
can Scenic and Historic Preservation So- 
ciety. Since 1849 New York has bought, at 
one time and another, about thirty-five pub- 
lic parks and monuments. These are for the 
most part historical sites, associated with 
events and persons of importance in Amer- 
ican history. Twenty-two of these monu- 
ments have been purchased since 1900. 
Among them is Stark’s Knob near Schuyler- 
ville where, during the Revolution, Captain 
Stark built a redoubt to oppose General Bur- 
goyne at the Battle of Saratoga. Temple 
Hill Monument at New Windsor was pre- 
sented to the state in 1917. It is on the 
site of the famous “Temple of Virtue” 
erected in 1783 in honor of the anniversary 
of the French Alhance. Here Washington 
publicly spurned the suggestion that he be- 
come king of the Thirteen Colonies. New 
Windsor is also interesting to us today as 
the former site of a large military canton- 
ment—the last of the Revolutionary War. 


A Handbook of Travel has been prepared 
by members of the Harvard Travellers Club, 
under the editorship of Mr. Glover M. Allen, 
secretary of the Boston Society of Natural 
History. The first part of the book con- 
tains practical suggestions on methods of 


HISTORY 


travel in various climates, of observations 
on camp cooking, firearms, equipment, and 
of notes on different beasts of burden from 
Eskimo dogs to camels. Each heading is 
contributed by an expert in the given field; 
for instance, the late Orie Bates, famous 
archeologist and explorer of the Near East, 
tells how to ride and how not to ride a 
dromedary; and Langdon Warner, director 
of the proposed American School of Arche- 
ology in Peking, describes the food and dis- 
position of a two-humped camel, and of its 
Mongol owner. A very fascinating chapter 
on “Hunting Dangerous Game” is contributed 


by Dr. William Lord Smith. Dr. Smith’s 
danger order is “elephant, tiger, lion, 
leopard, grizzly bear, rhinoceros, buffalo, 


gaur, banteng, other bear.” Not the least 
valuable sections of the handbook are nine 
chapters, for the most part by members of 
the Harvard Faculty, on hygiene, astronom- 
ical observations, route surveying, photog- 
raphy, geology, meteorology, natural his- 
tory collecting, anthropology, and “Notes 
on Traverse Surveys in Tropical South 
America.” The expert here describes for 
the nonexpert the kinds of observations that 
may be made by the latter and gives direc- 
tions how to take and record the facts. 
The chapter on “Hygiene, Medicine, and 
Surgery” is particularly complete, embody- 
ing not only a treatment of ordinary hygiene 
but also the diagnosis of common diseases, 
diseases peculiar to the Arctic and the 
tropics, surgical practice, and medical 
methods and equipment. In discussing geol- 
ogy and geography Professor William M. 
Davis gives considerable advice as to how 
to record interesting and valuable facts, 
writing on the assumption that “the traveller 
proposes eventually to publish an article 
or a book concerning his travels.” 


EDWARD CHARLES PICKERING, Paine pro- 
fessor of practical astronomy and director 
of the observatory at Harvard, died on the 
third of February at the age of seventy- 
three. Before his selection by President 
Eliot for the Harvard Observatory, Profes- 
sor Pickering was instructor in mathematics 
and subsequently professor of physics in the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology where 
he inaugurated the first physical laboratory 
in the United States for purposes of instruc- 
tion. 

At the Harvard Observatory Professor 


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238 NATURAL 


Pickering was noted for his pioneer work in 
the field of astrophysics (the “new astron- 
photographie 
technique were made during the early years 


omy”). Great advances in 
of his incumbeney and he quickly appro- 
priated photographic methods for his as- 
tronomical studies, founding the great Har- 
vard photographic library. He also devised 
new methods of measuring the brilliancy of 
and of 
Professor Pickering was especially known 


stars classifying stellar spectra. 
for the great personal interest and assis- 
tance he was so anxious to extend to any as- 
tronomical enterprise, and in the Harvard 
Observatory many of our contemporary as- 
tronomers received the inspiration for their 
scientific labors. 


Two small monographs! on mahogany lst 
the various species of woods that are com- 
mercially sold as mahogany and even at- 
tempt to redefine the name so as to include 
many other red timbers. True “mahogany” 
is the wood of two closely related species 
(Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. and S. macro- 
phylla King) the distribution of which is 
limited to tropical America. Mr. Mell, au- 
thor of the American volume, gives a list 
of sixty-one other “mahoganies” from all 
parts of the world, and Professor Dixon, 
author of the British book, describes the 
microscopical character of forty-five species 
with 138 reproductions of microphotographs. 
Mahogany was the chief wood used in Eng- 
land and Spain for shipbuilding during the 
eighteenth century, but with the gradual 
diminution of accessible supplies and the in- 
troduction of substitutes it has gradually 
disappeared from the trade except for use 
in the framework of small sailing vessels 
and the outer planking of yachts. The great 
mahogany-framed ships have been sold for 
enormous sums to be cut up for the manu- 
facture of furniture. Today mahogany is 
a very high-priced lumber employed almost 
exclusively in joinery and cabinetmaking. 
Mr. Mell gives the selling price of the best 
grades in New York in 1917 as from $175 
to $200 a thousand board feet. 


Fustic wood (Chlorophora tinctoria), the 
wood with which our khaki and olive drab 
uniforms are dyed, has experienced a period 

1H. H. Dixon, Scientific Proceedings of the 
Royal Dublin Society, vol. xv., p. 431, and C. D. 


Mell, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 
474, February, 1917. 


HISTORY 


of intensive cutting during the last four 
years. It is said that fustic has been bring- 
ing $45 and $50 a ton in New York, whereas 
it formerly ranged from $20 to $25 a ton. 
The wood is imported as logs from Mexico, 
Central and South America, and the West 
Indies, and after grinding, is used in the 
form of a water infusion for producing 
various shades of yellow, brown, olive, and 
green, for use particularly upon silks and 
woolens. It can also be compounded with 
other dyes for drabs, fawns, and olives, and 
The fustic tree 
grows best near the coast and well drained 


with logwood for black. 


banks of rivers, but, of course, the most ac- 
cessible localities have already been cut off. 
One or two trees to the acre of forest is 
the average growth, a fact which makes get- 
ting out the fustic wood anything but profit- 
able, and this is particularly true where 
it is necessary to employ land transportation 
through roadless country. 


AN IMPORTANT series of descriptive works 
on the flora of the state of Florida has been 
issued during the last few years by Dr. John 
Kunkel Small, head curator of the Museums 
and Herbarium of the New York Botanical 
Garden. Dr. Small wrote in the JOURNAL 
of the American Museum for December of 
one of his several collecting trips to little 
explored sections of the Everglades and the 
islands off the Florida coast. The hand- 
books are based for the most part on mate- 
rial which he has collected on such expedi- 
tions and are much more complete than any 
survey hitherto published. They include 
Florida Trees, Flora of the Florida Keys, 
Shrubs of Florida, Flora of Miami (all 
1913), Ferns of Royal Palm Hammock and 
Ferns of Tropical Florida (1918). The last 
two are extensively illustrated with draw- 
ings of the ferns and photographs of their 
habitats. Southern Florida constitutes a 
unique province in the United States, being 
the only point touched by a strictly tropical 
vegetation, so that these extensive studies by 
a distinguished botanist form not only an 
extremely valuable addition to systematic 
botany but also practical guides to the iden- 
tification of the trees, flowers, and ferns of 
Florida by the interested sojourner there. 


GUATEMALA, with every confidence in her 
natural wealth of field, forest, and pasture, 
has traveled far on the route to recovery 


NOTES 


after the great earthquake catastrophes of 
December, 1917, and January, 1918.1 New 
and earthquake-proof structures are being 
raised of reénforced concrete and galvanized 
iron. Quick reconstruction was planned for 
the schools, and President Cabrera seized the 
opportunity to improve the school system 
and to establish a National University, whose 
faculty, under a superior council, will govern 
the curriculum of the primary and secondary 
schools of Guatemala. Within six months 
after the destruction of the city more than 
a million dollars had been contributed by citi- 
zens and friends and the preliminary steps 
toward reconstruction had already been 
taken. 


THE section of books on folklore in the 
Library of the American Museum of Natural 
History, which has hitherto been somewhat 
undeveloped, has acquired by purchase 1034 
volumes dealing mainly with European and 
Asiatic folklore and related subjects. In 

1 See description of the earthquake by an eye- 
witness, “The Guatemala Earthquake.” By Syl- 


vanus Griswold Morley, AMERICAN MusrEuM JourR- 
NAL, Vol. XVIII, March, 1918. 


SINCE the last issue of Naturan History 
the following persons have been elected mem- 
bers of the American Museum: 

Associate Benefactor, GEORGE F. BAKER. 

Patron, WiLLIAM AVERELL HARRIMAN. 

Fellow, FREDERICK POTTER. 

Honorary Fellow, HERBERT L. BRIDGMAN. 

Life Members, Major NokEt BLEECKER Fox, 
Dr. E. W. GupGrerR, MESSRS. CHARLES B. 
Curtis, GANO DuNN, Horace F. HurcHtn- 
son, RicHarp B. Ketuy, Huston WYETH, 
and Geo. A. ZABRISKIE. 


Sustaining Members, Miss S. D. Buiss 
and Mr. Geo. W. MANN. 


Annual Members, MrspAMES FREDERICK 
FRELINGHUYSEN, ALBERT EpwarpD Hurst, 
WILLIAM Logs, JR., WALTER WILLSON MET- 
CALF, WHEELER H. PECKHAM, ALICE B. 
TWEEDY, JOHN COLIN VAUGHAN, Miss M. R. 
Cross, Lizut. JoHN Kine Reckrorp, THE 
Rr. Rev. Mer. M. J. Lavette, Docrors 
Rosert ABRAHAMS, MILo HELLMAN, ALBERT 
R. Lepovx, Grorck Grant MacCurpy; Ep- 
WaArD H. Squisps, Messrs. FrEDERIC W. 
ALLEN, FRANK L. Bassort, ADOLPH D. BEN- 
HEIM, NATHAN I. BiJur, CectL BILLINGTON, 


239 


the selection of these works the Library has 
been ably assisted by Dr. W. L. Hildburgh, 
who has made a special study of this branch 
of literature. 


Av a February meeting of the trustees 
of the American Museum, Messrs. Horace F. 
Hutchinson, Richard B. Kelly, and Dr. E. 
W. Gudger were elected life members of the 
institution in recognition of services ren- 
dered. Mr. Frederick Potter was elected a 
Fellow, Mr. William Averell Harriman, a 
Patron, and Mr. George F. Baker, an Asso- 
ciate Benefactor in of their 
generous contributions and interest in the 
Museum’s work. 


recognition 


Mr. G. K. NOBLE has been appointed as- 
sistant curator of herpetology in the Ameri- 
can Museum and Mr. Karl P. Schmidt as- 
sistant in Mr. 
Moore, formerly associate curator of woods 
and forestry, who has been in France with 
the forestry branch of the Engineering 
Corps, has been appointed research associate 


herpetology. Barrington 


in forestry. 


CHARLES M. BreEpeEr, Jr., FREDERICK G. 
CLAPP, GEORGE W. DAVISON, JOSEPH P. Day, 
WILLIAM J. DOWNER, JOHN. W. EVERITT, 
FRANK S. HACKETT, FRANK Morton JONES, 
G. P. Kuaas, SAMUEL HOWELL KNIGHT, 
JOSEPH G. LippLE, DANIEL M. Lorp, JupsoNn 
LOUNSBERY, S. MALLET-PREVOST, ROBERT 
MARSHALL, WM. M. McBrinr, TOMPKINS 
McILVAINE, WM. MELZER, HArvEy Murpocr, 
C. W. NICHOLS, WILLIAM C, PATE, JOSEPH 
READ PATTERSON, LIONELLO PERERA, ARTHUR 
C. Rounps, Howarp A. ScHOLLE, H. S. 
STILES, JOHN TatTLocK, ELI S. WoLBarst, 
and ALL HaLLows INSTITUTE. 

Associate Members, THE REVEREND WaAL- 
TER I’. TUNKS, THE HON. WALLACE McCam- 
ANT, Doctors J. M. ARMSTRONG, JAMES 
S. GILFILLAN, Oscar Owre, M. Rosert 
WEIDNER, PROFESSOR S. C. SCHMUCKER, 
Messrs. C. F. ADAMS, J. D. ARMSTRONG, 
J. W. Cuts, A. A. CRANE, GAYLORD C. Cum- 
MIN, R. I. FARRINGTON, JAMES A. GREEN, 
H. SHumMway LEE, ErNest P. LENIHAN, 
WILLIAM COLHOUN MOoTTER, WINTHROP G. 
Noyes, Rocer B. SHEPARD, A. T. SrPson, 
B. W. STEPHENSON, RALPH WHELAN, PHILIP 
T. WHITE, and WILLIAM O. WINSTON. 


The American Museum of Natural History 
Its Work, Membership, and Publications 


The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incorporated in 
1869 for the purpose of establishing a Museum and Library of Natural History ; 
of encouraging and developing the study of Natural Science; of advancing the 
general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular 
instruction. 

The Museum building is erected and largely maintained by New York City, 
funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of sec- 
tions from time to time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation is made 
for heating, lighting, the repair of the building and its general care and super- 
vision. 

The Museum is open free to the public every day in the year; on week days 
from 9 A.M. to 5 p.M., on Sundays from 1 to 5 P.M. 

The Museum not only maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history, 
including the famous habitat groups, designed especially to interest and instruct 
the public, but also its library of 70,000 volumes on natural history, ethnology 
and travel is used by the public as a reference library. 

The educational work of the Museum is carried on also by numerous lectures 
to children, special series of lectures to the blind, provided for by the Thorne 
Memorial Fund, and the issue to public schools of collections and lantern slides 
illustrating various branches of nature study. There are in addition special series 
of evening lectures for Members in the fall and spring of each year, and on Satur- 
day mornings lectures for the children of Members. Among those who have 
appeared in these lecture courses are Admiral Peary, Dean Worcester, Sir John 
Murray, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Roosevelt. 
The following are the statistics for the year 1918: 


A thendance inl xdanionton. Gelallllics ee se eiere ees ce eee eee 627,302 

Attendance at Lectures . Sa ne Neu anne 64,036 

Lantern Slides Sent out for ican in Schools ao ae el Ser F298 

Schoo! Children Reached by Nature Study @alleccions SNe 817,610 
Membership 


For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research, 
publication, and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endow- 
ment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions 
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership 
Fund is of particular importance from the fact that it may be devoted to such 
purposes as the Trustees may deem most important, including the publication of 
NaturAt History. There are now more than four thousand Members of the 
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is 
doing a useful service to science and to education, the Trustees invite you to lend 
your support by becoming a Member. 


NATURAL 
HISTORY 


THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, 

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- 

MENT .OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
THROUGH THE MUSEUM 


MARCH, 1919 


VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 3 


NATURAL HISTORY 


VOLUME XIX CONTENTS FOR MARCH NUMBER 3 


Frontispiece, Total Eclipse of the Sun, June 8,1918............. Seen ete 
From the painting by Howard Russell Butler, N. A. 
her MoralesolarBelipserorel 0887 es ccsncet ais sewer et: oe S. A. MircHEeLL 245 


Various American astronomical expeditions were dispatched to favorable localities for inten- 
sive study of the sun and its atmosphere during the few seconds of totality 
With photographs of the corona by Lick, United States Naval, and Lowell observatories 


Pampmnev thes olary Corona. 2-5 fhe eee sectansie, om Howarp RusseLtt BUTLER 264 
Mr. Butler is the first artist to make a record of the solar corona on canvas. The painter 
tells how he overcame the difficulties of transcribing his subject, which posed for only 112 
seconds 


With reproductions in color of two paintings made by H. Russell Butler at the time of the 
solar eclipse of June 8, 1918 


The Plant Lite of Northwest Greenland............. W. ELMER HKBLAW 273 
The perpetual northern snows, far from reigning supreme over Greenland, give place in 
summer to flowers and grassy plots with Lilliputian forests of trees scarcely three inches tall 
Illustrations from photographs of Arctic flora by members of the Crocker Land Expedition 


Our Centriiucal Soctetyoae se +2 se EIA ETC Pe SOE G; TW. Parmion 9292 
Do we need to consider again the social importance of the ancient virtues of restraint, modera- 
tion, and self-control? The dominant ideals of the day, self-expression and self-realization, 
although marks of great vitality, tend to become disruptive forces 


American Indian Poetry. ss. esnes oso ee eee HERBERT J. SPINDEN 301 


This cultural heritage of the New World appeals in its lyric beauty not alone to the ethnologist, 
but to the modern poet as well 


Whakniowan:., Pamamial rah Mo aw. Stee saaly oo ceataenest nae TOWNSEND WHELEN 309 
At the very doors of the Canal lies a virgin tropical jungle, uncharted and unexplored 
MheqSensesvordiishiesews + smick mae Se Bae coasters C. Jupson Herrick 322 
Recollections of English Naturalists................ T. D. A. CocKERELL 325 
The stimulation of greater scientific interest calls for a greater regard for the amateur natu- 
ralist 


Nelson’s “Wild Animals of North America”: A Review. JoEL ASAPH ALLEN 331 
Dr. Nelson has given a valuable account of North American mammals, large and small. The 
book is illustrated in color from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes and in black and white 
from drawings by Ernest Thompson Seton and photographs by various naturalists 


“Our National Worests< Ay wevieweraae oa: BARRINGTON Moore 334 
A brief survey of Mr. Boerker’s book on the purpose, administration, and protection of our 
national forests 


Food for a Family of Five..... sis Ieevica, phohecs arinu o aeNege baits ooo Sey op VL AURIS GRIEG a amreyeont 


With the vast increase in the prices of foodstuffs it has become more imperative to select a 
diet which will give maximum nutrition value for the money expended. We should market 
less by the pound and more ‘“‘by the calorie’ and other food values 


Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the 


American Mauseums hore Oly see eee earner eee ... PRANK WH. Lutz 341 
Summary of the technical publications on invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and birds 

AO New Director tor bhe Brntishe Wise uis ee pais cnet ie ona esi cre s » 3847 

ithe: Climbime Kish: esas secre te een ere ent R. D. O. Jonnson 349 


INGORE SAE eco is aetna OEE Den cee aE EN Rr OL hdc ee 351) 


Mary CYNTHIA DICKERSON, Editor 


Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, 
New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. 

Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. 
and Central Park West, New York City. 

Natural History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges 
of membership. 

Entered as second-class matter February 23, 1917, at the Post Office at New York, New 
York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. 

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of 
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


MEMBERSHIP 


For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and 
exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural 
History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- 
erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who 
are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes 

’ of membership are: 


Pee er we ky es. 2 400,000 


meme HomIGer. . .. ©. « .> - . . ~ 4? 20,000 
Meroca@ie Genelactor . .. . . « - «» ~~ 10,000 
pi = 8s a aig TS ISI ee a 1,000 
PR en a i ea 500 
os UCT ee ae 100 
Sustaining Member. . . . . . . annually 25 
Meal Member... . . «  . «. annually 10 
Associate Member (nonresident) . . . annually 3 


Full information regarding membership may be obtained from 
the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. 


NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


Narurat History, recording popularly the latest activities in 
natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October 
to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History. 
The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. Natura History 
is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of member- 
ship. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the 
Museum. 


POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 


A large number of popular publications on natural history, based 
on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the 
form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of 
these publications will be found in the Appendix to Narurat H1s- 
Tory. Price lists and full information may be obtained-by address- 
ing the Librarian of the Museum. 


SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 


The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of 
Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- 
able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- 
eations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological 
Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the 
inside back cover of Narurat History. Price lists and complete 
data may be obtained from the Librarian. 


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NATURAL 


VOLUME XIX 


MARCH, 1919 


HISTORY 


NUMBER 3 


The Total Solar Eclipse of 1918 


By SB. 


ripe Ge) Madd Deal Oia st 


Director of the Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia 


HO is not interested in a 

total eclipse of the sun? 

He who has once seen such 
an eclipse can never forget it: the slow 
but gradual obscuration of the sun, the 
darkness covering the face of the earth 
even at noontime, and the glorious sight 
that meets the eye during the few short 
minutes of totality! It is no wonder, 
therefore, that in the early days of the 
world’s history these wonderful phe- 
nomena should have been looked upon 
with great fascination and dread, and 
that the astronomer—and more often 
the astrologer—should have been re- 
garded as almost a demigod because of 
his ability to predict the coming of 
eclipses. But with the increase of 
knowledge and the progress of science, 
the astronomer has gradually been 
dragged from his lofty pinnacle of 
fame, until now in the twentieth cen- 
tury the popular fancy pictures him as 
a foolish old man who would rather 
stay up at night and do his work than 
act as an ordinary civilized human 
being. 

Not only do eclipses appeal to the 
popular imagination by their spectacu- 
lar beauty, but there is also a great 
fascination to the lay mind in the al- 
most uncanny power with which the 
astronomer is able to predict, years in 
advance, the exact time at which an 
eclipse will take place, where this eclipse 
may be seen, and how long this eclipse 
will last. As a matter of fact, Op- 
polzer’s “Canon der Finsternisse” gives 


the elements of no fewer than 13,000 
eclipses, both of sun and moon, partial 
and total—all the eclipses, in fact, 
which have taken place since the year 
1207 B.c. or which will be seen before 
the end of the year 2152 a.p. Maps are 
given in this great work which, almost 
at a glance, tell when and where an 
eclipse was seen three thousand years 
ago, or where an eclipse may be ob- 
served two hundred and fifty years in 
the future. 

The earliest recorded eclipse is that 
which was seen in China in the year 
2136 B.c., or more than four thousand 
years ago! An account of this eclipse 
is given in one of the ancient Chinese 
classics. This eclipse, which was not’a 
total eclipse, had rather direful conse- 
quences for the two royal astronomers 
Hi and Ho, who instead of staying in 
the sober paths of science for this im- 
portant occasion, went and got drunk. 
In order that a terrible warning might 
be given to all future generations of 
astronomers, who might be tempted to 
follow in their footsteps, the emperor 
that both have their heads 
chopped off. 

The progress of science during the 
last fifty years is nowhere better illus- 
trated than in the attitude of astron- 
omers toward observations at the time 
Up to the 
middle of the last century, the only 
observations that were made at the time 
of a total eclipse were for the purpose 
of perfecting the tables of motion of 


945 


ordered 


of a total eclipse of the sun. 


246 


the moon, by noting the exact times of 
contact of the limbs of the sun and 
moon. The beautiful corona was 
watched with awe and admiration, and 
a few sketches were made of its form, 
—hbut there the study of an eclipse 
ended. In fact, an eclipse was watched 
only if the shadow happened to cross 
the observer. So little interest was 
taken in the phenomena, so few inves- 
tigations were planned, that no expe- 
ditions were sent out. 

How different is the scientific atti- 
tude in the twentieth century! In the 
year 1901, the writer of this article 
traveled halfway round the world to the 
far-off Dutch East Indies in order to ob- 
serve the total eclipse of May 18 of that 
year. In other words, he went as far 
from home as it was possible to go, and 
the purpose of this trip was to make 
observations which were concentrated 
within the time of six short minutes. 

The writer regards himself as very 
fortunate in having been selected four 
times to become a member of the party 
of the United States Naval Observa- 
tory, and he has thus seen the eclipses 
of 19005-1901. 1905. 1913. and ~alito- 
gether has traveled about 40,000 miles 
for this purpose. 

As a matter of fact, an eclipse is not 
of the rare occurrence that the fore- 
going remarks might lead one to be- 
lieve. Each and every year there must 
be two echpses of the sun, and there 
may be even more. Somewhere on the 
earth each year two eclipses of the sun 
may be observed, but usually these 
eclipses are partial eclipses, the sun 
being only partly obscured. Since few 
scientific facts can be learned at a par- 
tial eclipse, the astronomer takes little 
interest in them. It is only when the 
sun’s surface is wholly covered up that 
the matchless corona may be seen; it is 
only at the time of a total eclipse that 
there is furnished the unusual oppor- 
tunity of investigating the sun’s sur- 
roundings when the brilliant glare of 
the sun itself is absent. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


About once every two years a total 
eclipse may be seen somewhere on the 
earth’s surface, but as some of these 
eclipse tracks lie almost wholly on the 
water surface of the earth, or fall upon 
inaccessible portions of the globe, it is 
only on an average of about once in 
three years that a total eclipse falls at 
a habitable spot on the earth, even 
though that location, as in 1901, may 
be so far away. On the average a total 
eclipse lasts for about two minutes, so 
that in a century, about sixty minutes, 
or one short hour of time, is given to 
the astronomer for his investigations. 
Yet in spite of the brevity of time 
afforded, some very startling results 
have been accumulated ! 

As is well known, an eclipse takes 
place when the sun, earth, and moon 
are in a straight line, an eclipse of the 
sun occurring when the moon comes 
between the sun and the earth, or when 
the earth passes into the shadow cast 
by the moon. The earth makes an an- 
nual journey about the sun, traveling 
in the ecliptic at the speed of more than 
eighteen miles a second, and accom- 
plishing its journey in 36514 days. The 
distance from the sun is on the average 
of ninety-three millions of miles, but 
the earth’s orbit is not a circle but an 
ellipse, so that the distance from sun 
to earth may vary one and a half mil- 
hon miles on either side of the mean. 
Once a month, the moon revolves about 
the earth, but it hkewise does not move 
in a circle so that the distance from 
earth to moon varies considerably on 
either side of the average of 239,000 
miles. Moreover, the moon’s path is not 
exactly in the plane of the ecliptic, but 
is inclined to the ecliptic by a small 
amount, a little more than five degrees 
of angle. An eclipse of the sun can 
take place only at the time of new 
moon, so that manifestly it is only at 
the time of new moon, when in addition 
the moon is near the plane of the eclip- 
tic, that an eclipse of the sun can take 
place. 


THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 247 


Although the average motions of the 
moon have for some time been so well 
known that the general time and loca- 
tions of eclipses may be predicted at 
long range with a considerable degree 
of accuracy, still it may be truthfully 
said that the moon has given the mathe- 
matical astronomer more work and 
worry than all the millions of stars of 
the universe, with the result that to 
predict the time of coming of an 
eclipse at any one locality exactly to 
the fraction of a second taxes the in- 
genuity of the astronomer even today. 
It is no wonder, therefore, that man 
should always have regarded the moon 
as of the feminine gender! 

The distance and dimensions of the 
sun and moon being known, it is com- 
paratively easy to find out the diameter 
of the moon’s shadow intercepted by the 
earth. The maximum width of the 
shadow is 168 miles, and when all con- 
ditions are most favorable, the total 
eclipse may last for somewhat more 
than seven minutes. Under average 
conditions, the region on the earth 
where the total eclipse may be observed 
is less than one hundred miles in width, 
and the average duration of totality is 
about two minutes of time. The chance 
that the stay-at-home might see many 
total eclipses in his lifetime is very lim- 
ited. As a matter of fact, in London 
before the eclipse of 1751, there had 
not been a single total eclipse of the 
sun visible for more than six centuries. 
At any one location, an inhabitant 
would see many more total eclipses of 
the moon than of the sun. When the 
moon passes into the shadow of the 
earth and is eclipsed, then wherever 
upon the earth’s surface the moon is 
visible, the eclipse may also be seen. 
The result is that each total eclipse of 
the moon is visible over more than half 
the earth, while on the other hand the 
total solar eclipse is visible only over 
a narrow track. 

Ordinarily a total solar eclipse at- 
tracts astronomers from all quarters of 


the globe for the purpose of making 
observations. Thus in 1901, in far- 
distant Sumatra, in addition to a large 
party from the United States, there 
were gathered astronomers from Eng- 
land, France, Germany, Holland, and 
Japan. For the eclipse of 1905, which 
took place in Europe, there were con- 
gregated in the eclipse track, hundreds 
of astronomers, professional and ama- 
teur, from every civilized nation of the 
world. The trip in 1901 was a most 
fascinating one, including as it did a 
journey across the continent to San 
Francisco; from the Golden Gate to 
Manila, stopping en route for three 
days at Honolulu; and ten or a dozen 
days’ stay in Manila while waiting for 
the United States gunboat which took 
the party the remaining 2200 miles 
along the coast of Palawan and Borneo, 
across the equator, and through the 
Strait of Sunda to the west coast of 
the Island of Sumatra. A stay of eight 
weeks in the interior of the island was 
necessary in preparation for the eclipse, 
a site having been chosen at the termi- 
nus of the government railroad. The 
country was picturesque, the manners 
and customs of the people most inter- 
esting, for, belonging as it does to the 
Dutch, who have peculiar ideas of their 
own regarding colonization, few foreign 
influences had been allowed to disturb 
the primitive lives of the natives. In- 
deed, ten miles due east of the eclipse 
camp so little is known of the country 
that it is said cannibals are still in 
existence there. 

In 1905 there was another attractive 
trip, when a voyage was made across 
the Atlantic aboard the U. 8S. S. “Min- 
neapolis” which was the flagship of 
Rear Admiral Chester, then Superin- 
tendent of the United States Naval 
Observatory. At Gibraltar, we had the 
pleasure of viewing the British Medi- 
terranean fleet with Admiral Lord 
Beresford in command. Eclipse ob- 
servations were made from the little 
town of Daroca in the interior of Spain 


PATH OF THE TOTAL 
ECLIPSE OF THE 
SUN, JUNE 8, 
1918 


The sun could be seen 
totally eclipsed only in the 
area bounded by the two 
close parallel lines, which 
is about sixty miles wide. 
Outside of this area the 
sun was partly eclipsed. 
At sunrise the eclipse be- 
gan in the Pacific Ocean 
off the coast of China and 
Japan. The shadow trav 
eled across the Pacific at 
the rate of more than a 
thousand miles an hour so 
that it reached the United 
States well after noon. It 
is notable that with the 
exception of a few small 
islands the only land 
touched by the moon's 
shadow was the American 
Continent 


. Longitude 


Greenwich 


h. 


= 
° io 
es \ O BH Me 
A \/ q*A \J > 
ad yn3e aN 
as | 
/ Seo Ne \) | ° > 
Le 
: /5€ 7 a O 
re @ At S 7 
(5 
n 


| p. 


FOOTHILLS OF THE ELKHORN RANGE BEHIND THE CITY OF BAKER (UPPER PICTURE) 
iikhorn Range (the pipe 
the day of the eclipse the citizens of 
iew of the range and the valley, to 
with the 


The city of Baker obtains its water supply from the melting snows of the 
line comes over the hills at the point indicated by the arrow). O 
3aker repaired to these foothills, from which they could obtain a fine v 

for the shadow of the moon, which rushed across the landscape at the instant of totality 


great speed of about thirty miles a minute 


Maen 
Soe aa 
Ria 2 


THE CITY OF BAKER, OREGON (LOWER PICTURE 


Baker is situated at an altitude of 3500 feet and promised to afford to the observers 
he eclipse, with an abundance of clear in 


of the United 


States Naval Observatory an excellent opportunity to study t 


June; as it turned out, however, cloudy weather nea prevented work of the expedition The city is 


consideration in the selection of 


on the main line of the Union Pacific system to Portland, a fact taken into 


the site on account of the ssarv transportation of numerous instruments 
J ] 


which had boasted a railroad for only 
four years, but where civilization had 
existed for more than 2200 years as was 
shown by an old Roman fort still in a 
good state of preservation. <A visit 
from the New World to this old and 
worn-out kingdom was not without its 
fascination. 

The eclipse of the year 1918 took 
place on June 8. The shadow of the 
moon first touched the earth’s surface 
on the Pacific Ocean, far south of 
Japan. Due to the revolution of the 
moon about the earth, and to the rota- 
tion of the earth on its axis, the moon’s 
shadow crossed the Pacific Ocean at a 
speed well over a thousand miles an 
hour. It was well after noon before 
the shadow reached the American con- 
tinent, and the eclipse began in the 
state of Washington. Here the width 
of the shadow was only sixty miles so 
that only those fortunate enough to be 
within this narrow track were able to 
see the eclipse in its totality. The 
eclipse passed southeasterly through 
Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, 
and Colorado in succession. In Colo- 
rado the shadow had dwindled to forty 
miles in width. After passing through 
some of the central states, the shadow 
left the United States at Florida and 
left the earth’s surface in the Atlantic, 
off the coast of the Bahama Islands. 

The eclipse was seen almost exclu- 
sively from the United States, and so it 
will be known as the American Eclipse 
of 1918. As more than half the eivi- 
lized world was in the grip of the tre- 
mendous war, it was necessary for the 
American astronomers in the year 1916 
and early in 1917 to make their plans 
to see to it that this eclipse should be 
well observed. Before our own coun- 
try had become involved in the war, 
Congress had been asked for and had 
made a special appropriation to defray 
the expense of equipment and_ travel 
for the party from the United States 
Naval Observatory. 

The exact location of an eclipse site 


NATURAL HISTORY 


is of the greatest importance, since the 
utmost care must be exercised to choose 
one where the chances of clear skies will 
be as great as possible. Think of the 
disappointment of finding only cloudy 
skies on the all-important day! Even 
one small, dense cloud hanging over the: 
sun during totality would render use- 
less all the active months of prepara- 
tion, would make of no avail the deli- 
eate apparatus carefully adjusted after 
arduous toil, and make of no account 
the carefully prepared plans for scien- 
tific work. The majority of the mem- 
bers of the Naval Observatory party to 
Sumatra in 1901 had no results to 
show for their long trip which con- 
sumed about six months. Not only 
must a location be chosen where good 
weather is promised, but the location 
should be convenient to a railroad, and 
at or near a town so that the observers 
may be properly housed and fed with- 
out the necessity of forming a camp 
with extra arrangements for cooking, 
ete. In addition, most classes of eclipse 
work require a location as near as pos- 
sible to the central line of the moon’s 
shadow. 

In order to help the astronomers 
make as intelligent a choice of an 
eclipse site as possible, the Naval Obser- 
vatory, in 1917, had prepared a large 
scale map of the United States showing 
among other things, railroad lines, con- 
tour lines, and the location of towns, 
within the eclipse track. The city of 
Baker, in eastern Oregon, seemed to be 
the ideal spot for the government 
party, since the weather of early June 
promised an absence of rain, with an 
abundance of clear skies. This city, of 
about ten thousand inhabitants, is on 
the main line of the Union Pacific sys- 
tem to Portland, and at an altitude of 
about 3500 feet. 

In order to set up and adjust the ap- 
paratus, five of the party left the Kast 
about April 20. The party consisted of 
Mr. J. C. Hammond, Astronomer of 
the Naval Observatory, in charge of the 


THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 253 


expedition, Mr. W. A. Conrad and Mr. 
C. C. Wylie, assistants at the Naval 
Observatory, and Dr. L. G. Hoxton and 
Dr. S. A. Mitchell, of the University of 
Virginia. After locating ourselves at 
the Antlers Hotel, we viewed the city 
in order to find the best site for the 
eclipse location. Through the kindness 
of the Chief Engineer of the Union 
Pacific system, who provided us with 
excellent photographs and topographic 
maps, we were not long in deciding 
upon the Fair Grounds on the edge of 
the city as the most convenient spot. 
This was fairly near to the hotel where 
we lived, the grounds were surrounded 
by a high board fence which would 
serve to keep out the idly curious, and 
the buildings in the grounds were ade- 
quate to house our valuable apparatus 
until put in place. We were in Baker 
exactly six weeks before eclipse day, 
and the time was none too long. The 
apparatus was sent forward by through 
freight, and although we greatly feared 
delays, it arrived safely the second day 
after our own arrival. To assist in the 
work of erecting the apparatus, the su- 
perintendent of the Naval Observatory 
had requested the services of five sail- 
ors from the United States Naval 
Station at Bremerton, Washington, who 
were in charge of a chief petty officer. 
The sailors were carpenters and ma- 
chinists who assisted the astronomers 
in splendid style so that ten days before 
the eclipse, when the rest of the party 
began to arrive, the apparatus was all 
erected and partly adjusted, and there 
remained only the perfecting of the ad- 
justments in order to be ready for the 
all-important day of the eclipse. 

An idea of the scope and difficulty of 
the work to be attempted may perhaps 
be best visualized by the realization that 
it took five astronomers and half a 
dozen sailors six weeks to have things 
ready for the final adjustments. 

But what, people ask, is to be learned 
at the time of an eclipse? Why these 


expeditions which at times go so far 


afield, these elaborate preparations 
which must run the risk of accomplish- 
ing nothing on account of the clouds? 
Surely there must be something of 
great importance to be learned in order 
to warrant such an expenditure of en- 
ergy and money. Perhaps the best 
way to answer these questions would be 
to take up in detail the scientific pro- 
gram of the party of the United States 
Naval Observatory which was carried 
out at Baker, giving a brief account of 
the apparatus necessary and the prob- 
lem attacked. 

The first problem for a government 
expedition to attempt must necessarily 
be the determination of the precise . 
times of contact of the limbs of the sun 
and moon. The American Ephemeris 
and Nautical Almanac is published 
each year in Washington at the Naval 
Observatory. This book the 
exact place of the sun, moon, planets, 
and stars; for each and every day at 
noon, in the case of the sun, for each 
and every hour for the moon, and at 
longer intervals for the planets and 
stars. The positions are tabulated three 
or four years in advance, and the posi- 
tions determined are constantly checked 
up by observations. On account of the 
fact that the moon is such a near neigh- 
bor, its motion is very complicated. It 
is very necessary to make the computed 
positions agree with those calculated. 
One of the best ways of finding the ex- 
act position of the moon is to note the 
times of contact of its limbs with those 
of the sun at the time of an eclipse. At 
the eclipse of 1905, the programs of ob- 
servation were somewhat disarranged 
by the fact that total eclipse took place 
ten seconds earlier than the calculated 
time. In 1918, it was expected that the 
eclipse in Baker would begin about 
twelve seconds earlier than the time as 
computed from the American Hphem- 
To compute the phases of the 
eclipse one must know with accuracy 
the exact latitude and longitude of the 
eclipse location. This part of the 


gives 


eris. 


254 


eclipse work in Baker was under the di- 
rection of Mr. J. C. Hammond of the 
Naval Observatory, and in the observa- 
tions he was assisted by Mr. Wylie, by 
Mr. Conrad, and, to a lesser degree, by 
Chief Petty Officer Patrick Welsch. The 
latitude and longitude were determined 
by observations on stars on a dozen or 
more nights during the weeks of prep- 
aration for the eclipse. Since longi- 
tude is measured by the difference in 
time between any two places, it was 
necessary to determine the exact time 
at Baker, and at the same instant find 
the exact time at Washington. Since 
the longitude at Washington with re- 
spect to Greenwich is known, this 
would give the longitude of Baker with 
respect to Greenwich. In order to de- 
termine the difference in time between 
Washington and Baker, it was neces- 
sary to connect the two places with a 
direct telegraph line. On switching on 
the current, the beats of the clock 
could be heard by the relay in Baker, 
and a record of these could be made by 
means of the chronograph. Similarly, 
the beats of the chronometer used in 
Baker could be recorded in Washing- 
ton. In this manner signals were ex- 
changed between the two places on four 
different nights, with the result that 
the exact location of the eclipse site on 
the surface of the earth is known 
within an error that does not exceed 
fifty feet. 

There is a popular belief to the effect 
that since a telescope is used to mag- 
nify objects, and to show them in 
greater detail, then of necessity a very 
large telescope must greatly enhance 
the beauties of all objects in the sky 
and make the corona even more beauti- 
ful than it appears to the naked eye. 
This, however, is not the case. This 
splendid feature of the eclipse owes its 
charm to its delicate shadings of pearly 
light, stretching at times to two, three, 
or more diameters of the sun from its 
surface. But increase of magnifying 
power usually means decrease in the 


NATURAL HISTORY 


size of the area visible at one time, so 
that while a great telescope shows a 
small portion of the corona highly 
magnified and in great detail, the 
beauty of the spectacle as a whole is 
lost. As a matter of fact, the most sat- 
isfactory view of the corona is obtained 
with the naked eye, though a good pair 
of field glasses may aid in showing 
some of the features in better detail. 
The telescope used by Mr. Hammond 
on June 8 for observing the times of 
contacts was not a large telescope, but 
one of the moderate size of five inches 
in aperture. 

During the weeks of preparation, an 
opportunity was afforded the citizens of 
Baker to view the moon and some of 
the planets and brighter stars through 
this instrument, and many availed 
themselves of the chance to see the 
“Man in the Moon,” often standing in 
line for an hour or more, with the 
thermometer near the freezing point, 
in order to get their turn for a “look 
through.” 

The scientific program of the party 
which was readily understandable to 
the residents of Baker who came to the 
Fair Grounds to see the apparatus 
erected was the work of the cameras, 
large and small. These telescopes or 
cameras were used on eclipse day to 
photograph the corona and promi- 
nences with a greater or less scale. A 
camera of short focal length gives only 
a small sized picture, an ordinary ko- 
dak showing the sun about the size 
of the head of an ordinary pin. The 
greater the focal length of the camera 
employed, the larger the resulting pho- 
tograph of the sun. The largest camera 
used at Baker had a focal length of no 
less than sixty-five feet. We are all of us 
familar with the use of a kodak and the 
methods by which snapshots are taken, 
but how handle such a big camera? 
There are but two methods. One is to 
mount the huge instrument in such a 
fashion that at eclipse time it will point 
directly at the sun. A simple calcula- 


THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 


tion serves to orient the camera cor- 
rectly, but the satisfactory erection is a 
more difficult matter, since any shake 
given to the camera itself would be 
communicated to the lens and to the 
photographic plate. Even a very slight 
disturbance of the camera would blur 
the photographed image and make it 
scientifically useless. But how support 
such a huge instrument without a 
tremor? Even a gentle wind would be 
sufficient to shake it, and eastern Ore- 
gon promised an almost certain high 
wind at eclipse time. This problem 
was solved by Schaeberle of the Lick 
Observatory twenty-five years ago, 
when it was found necessary to build 
a double tower, the inner one of which 
supported the lens while the outer one 
acted as a wind screen. Another com- 
plication arises due to the fact that the 
exposures necessary to obtain the. -co- 
rona last for many seconds of time, 
sometimes totaling sixty or even one 
hundred in length. With a telescope of 
sixty feet focal length, the westerly mo- 
tion of the sun in the sky causes the 
image of the sun to move on the photo- 
graphic plate about one eighth of an 
inch every minute. Evidently some 
mechanism must be used to counteract 
this motion. This is accomplished by 
a clock mechanism, the details being 
thoroughly understood. 

The Lick Observatory of the Uni- 
versity of California has been most as- 
siduous in its observations of eclipses, 
and more than a dozen expeditions have 
been sent out to all parts of the globe. 
This splendid scientific record has been 
made possible through the generosity 
of Mr. William H. Crocker, of San 
Francisco. The Lick parties have al- 
ways adopted the same method of pho- 
tographing the corona—that of point- 
ing their camera directly at the sun. 

Owing to the difficulty of erecting a 
double tower, most other astronomers 
follow the mechanically simpler plan of 
laying the camera tube horizontally and 
allowing sunlight to be fed into it by 


255 


means of a plane mirror driven by 
clockwork to counteract the westward 
motion of the sun. Needless to say, the 
irregularities of the driving mechanism 
will affect the exact definition of the 
photograph—this being the chief draw- 
back to this type of mounting. In ad- 
dition to the sixty-five foot telescope, 
the Naval Observatory had two smaller 
cameras, of 104 inches and 36 inches 
respectively. On eclipse day, the large 
instrument was in the hands of Mr. W. 
A. Conrad, of the Naval Observatory 
staff, and the successful completion of 
his program demanded that Mr. Con- 
rad remain closed inside his darkroom 
during the whole of totality with never 
a single chance to gain even a glimpse 
of the corona. The other cameras were 
used by Mr. G. H. Peters and Mr. C. 
C. Wylie, also of the Naval Observatory 
staff. ‘Two smaller cameras pointing 
directly at the sun were employed by 
Mr. Kempton Adams. 

Photographic work of a vastly differ- 
ent character from that of these cam- 
eras, large and small, was demanded 
by the spectroscopic work. At the 
eclipse which took place just fifty years 
ago, in 1868, the spectroscope was em- 
ployed for the first time. By its use, 
Janssen in India saw the bright lines 
in the spectra of the prominences which 
proved that these outbursts from the 
sun were masses of heated hydrogen 
These flames from the solar fur- 
nace are shot to enormous distances 
from the surface of the sun, being sent 
upward at times with a velocity of one 
hundred miles a second! Such colossal 
distances as 480,000 miles from the 
surface of the sun have been reached. 
How puny in comparison with such 
outbursts on the sun are the explosions 
of dynamite, or the deadly TNT on this 
little earth of ours! 

The spectroscopic work at the time of 
an eclipse is for the purpose of sup- 
plementing such information as is 
gained daily by the same instrument. 
The most famous observatory in the 


gas. 


256 


world devoted to solar research is the 
Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mt. 
Wilson in California. There, under 
the direction of Dr. George E. Hale, 
many startling revelations regarding 
the central luminary of our system 
have been made. The dark lines in the 
spectrum of the sun are caused by the 
absorption of light from the white-hot 
body of the sun as it passes through 
the cooler layers of atmosphere en- 
circling the sun itself. But these lay- 
ers of atmosphere are cool only in con- 
trast with the much hotter sun. The 
gases are in fact very hot, and would 
give their spectra of bright lines if the 
still brighter background of the sun 
could be cut off. At eclipse time the 
moon comes between us and the sun. 
As long as there is only a small portion 
of the sun visible, its ight is so intense 
that the spectroscope gives the ordinary 
solar spectrum. At the instant that 
the moon entirely covers up the sur- 
face of the sun, the solar spectrum sud- 
denly changes from a spectrum of dark 
lines on a bright background to bright 
lines on a dark background. The 
change is so sudden that Young, of 
Princeton, who first saw it at the 
eclipse of 1870, named it the “flash 
spectrum.” This flash spectrum lasts 
for the brief space of about three sec- 
onds of time at the beginning of the 
total phase, and again at the end. It 
was not until 1893 that the first photo- 
graph was obtained of the flash spec- 
trum. At each succeeding eclipse, the 
photography of this spectrum has been, 
perhaps, the most important problem 
to be attacked. The eclipse of 1905, 
visible in Spain, gave the most perfect 
photographs of this phenomenon yet 
obtained. These photographs furnish 
us with much information of value re- 
garding the physical constitution of the 
atmosphere of the sun, the height in 
miles to which these various gases ex- 
tend above the surface of the sun, and 
other details of similar character. It 
may almost be said that we have more 


NATURAL HISTORY 


accurate information as to the consti- 
tution of the atmosphere of the sun 
nearly ninety-three million miles away 
than we have of our own terrestrial 
atmosphere ten miles above our heads. 

The spectroscopic work of the Na- 
val Observatory party for 1918 was 
planned in the hope of surpassing even 
the excellence of the photographs of 
1905, but mainly with the intention of 
extending our spectroscopic knowledge 
much farther toward the red end of the 
spectrum than had been accomplished 
by other echpse observers. Three sep- 
arate instruments were used, each con- 
sisting of a Roland concave grating. 
The scientists engaged in the spectro- 
scopic program were Dr. P. W. Merrill, 
of the Bureau of Standards of Wash- 
ington; Dr. Harriet W. Bigelow and 
Dr. Mary Murray Hopkins, both of 
Smith College; and Dr. L. G. Hoxton 
and Dr. 8. A. Mitchell, of the Uni- 
versity of Virginia. 

Fortunately for the work of prepara- 
tion, no rain fell during the entire 


stay of the astronomical party in 
Baker. According to the “oldest in- 


habitant,” the season was unusually 
dry even for eastern Oregon. By some 
mysterious force unknown to the as- 
tronomers, the eclipse seemed to exert 
some potent influence over the weather. 
At any rate, it was asserted by many 
of the rural papers that no rain could 
be expected until the eclipse was over. 
But if there was an absence of rain, 
there was no lack of clouds nor were 
the clear skies we had been led to ex- 
pect afforded us. As the time for the 
eclipse drew nearer, the continued ap- 
pearance of clouds began to cause 
anxiety among us. Would they inter- 
fere with the eclipse, and, at the last, 
make all the weeks of careful prepara- 
tion of no account? If this had hap- 
pened, it would not have been the first 
event of the kind. Unfortunately for 
the astronomer, his work is always at 
the merey of the clouds and_ the 
weather. But to have the whole work 


THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 


fail through the presence of clouds at 
the time of the few precious minutes 
of the total eclipse—that is indeed the 
keenest sort of disappointment ! 
astronomers seem to be always unlucky 
and always experience cloudy weather 
on their eclipse expeditions, while, on 
the other hand, others are always lucky, 
and sometimes, after all hope is aban- 
doned, a rift will appear in the clouds 
and the eclipse at totality be seen in all 
its glory. Would we at Baker be lucky 
or unlucky, would the clouds interfere 
or not? Nearly all the days spent in 
Baker, according to the classification 
of the United States Weather Bureau, 
were clear. But a “clear” day does not 
mean one when there is an entire ab- 
sence of clouds. In fact, clouds gath- 
ered almost every day shortly after 
noon, and this condition was usually 
accompanied by very high winds, that 
at times rose to the strength of a mild 
gale. The eclipse was to occur during 
the middle of the afternoon, and at this 
time of day the skies were usually over- 
cast. These same conditions prevailed 
over the whole of the western United 
States along the path where the as- 
tronomers were located. It was well to 
be an optimist under such conditions of 
sky, for the pessimist became more and 
more wretched as the day of the eclipse 
drew near and his law of averages 
showed him the almost certain chance 
of a thinly clouded sky during the total 
eclipse. 

The writer of this article had so far 
been among the lucky astronomers. In 
1900, at the first eclipse observed, the 
weather was ideal, not a single cloud 
in the whole sky. In 1901, he was a 
member of a rather large party which 
traveled halfway round the world. 
Only four of a total of thirteen saw the 
eclipse, the other nine witnessed the 
eclipse eclipsed by clouds. The writer 
was one of the fortunate four. Again 
in 1905, there were many clouds which 
spoiled the researches of many parties. 
At Daroca in Spain, a few minutes be- 


Some 


~2 


ras) 
Or 


fore totality a dense cloud covered the 
sun, but it cleared away before the all- 
important time, and the total phase was 
seen through a brilliantly clear sky. 
Three lucky chances out of three made 
a fine average. The hope was that 
June 8 would make it four out of four. 

3y May 30, the whole party had as- 
sembled in Baker. A full week was 
given up ta the final adjustments, and 
to the drills that were to play such an 
essential part in the work on eclipse 
day. During the partial phases of the 
eclipse, very few observations of im- 
portance were to be made; all observa- 
tions of value came during the period 
of totality which lasted for one hundred 
and twelve brief seconds. If a slide of 
a plate holder should stick in place so 
that it could not be removed, or a lens 
were not uncapped at the proper time 
so as to let in the light, the whole work 
of an instrument might come to naught. 
On each day of the week preceding 
June 8, drills were gone through 
several times in the morning and again 
in the afternoon. These drills were so 
well carried out that on eclipse day 
each and every one performed excel- 
lently the task allotted to him with the 
result that everything passed off with- 
out a single hitch. 

As the days in June progressed _ to- 
ward the eighth, there was an air of ex- 
citement as each astronomer grew more 
keyed up to the task before him. 
Would the day be clear? But more 
especially, would the two minutes from 
4:04 p.m. to 4:06 be clear on Satur- 
day? The skies were anxiously watched 
during the last days, and almost every 
day the skies were overcast. The opti- 
mist reasoned that if it were cloudy all 
the days before June 8, then on eclipse 
day perfect weather would — surely 
be forthcoming; while the pessimist 
reasoned that so many cloudy days 
meant still one more of the same char- 
acter, so there was no use trying to do 
anything. 

Saturday, June 8, dawned with the 


sky overcast with thin, filmy clouds. 
The sun was well visible through these 
clouds, however, and it was possible to 
examine again the focus that had been 
obtained with the spectroscopes and 
with a touch here and a touch there to 
decide that everything was in pertect 
condition. 


drills were again gone through with, 


During the morning the 


and these seemed to promise success. 
The weather during the six weeks had 
not held up the work, and everything 
that 
thought and work could do. The astron- 


seemed now to have been done 
omers who had been on the ground for 
the whole six weeks of preparation had 
the pleasant consciousness that all of 
their allotted tasks had been completed, 
that every little detail had been thought 
of, and that perfect success would cer- 


tainly crown their efforts if the clouds 


258 NATURAL HISTORY 


But during the 
course of the morning the clouds grew 
and it did 
little 


would only clear away. 


thicker instead of thinner. 


indeed seem as if there were 
chance of clear skies. 

The first contact was to take place at 
2:36 p.M. Shortly after noon the city 
of Baker took upon itself the aspect of 
Though the day was Satur- 
day, all stores were closed from three 
five in the that 


everybody could have a chance to see 


a holiday. 


until afternoon so 


the phenomenon. Naturally everyone 
in Baker wished to go to the eclipse site 
at the Fair Grounds to watch the as- 
tronomers at At the eclipse in 
Spain, this had been permitted with 
the result that the whole town was as- 
sembled, each inhabitant jostling his 
neighbor to get as close as possible. 
Unfortunately, each Spaniard seemed 


work. 


Photograph of the solar eclipse taken by a 40-foot camera with 4% 
Observatory Station in Goldendale, Washington. 


second exposure at the Lick 


The deep purplish blue shadow appearing over the 


sky was equally as dark as the black surface of the moon and.was sufficiently heavy to bring out the 


brighter stars. The ‘Eagle Prominence” 


appears above and to the left 


THE TOTAL 


to be bent on telling his friend just 
the 


| 
the 


what was being done. with result 


that such a din arose when eclipse 


became tota that it was impossible to 
hear the seconds counted off to give 
warning to the astronomers when to 
cl ang their plate holders. 

That t] s might not happe iva 
the residents of Baker were told that 
the gates of the Fair Grounds would 
be closed, and absolutely no one would 
be admitted within the _ enclosure. 


The mayor of the city sent a guard of 


Boy Seouts to see that these orders wer 


obeyed. Most of the town repaired to 
the hills to the southeast of the @ 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 


from which there could be obtained a 


fine view of the valley and the Elkhorn 


Range, and they were directed to look 


especially for the shadow of the moon 
which would come across the landscape 
at the speed of about thirty miles a 
minute or 1800 miles an hour. This 


shadow comes with the advent of total- 


WV ho have 


ity, and a seen the phenom- 
enon say that it is an awe-inspiring 
spectacle, making one feel that the end 
of the world is surely at hand. 


No appreciable improvement in the 
skies was observed from noon to the 


first contact. Through a thin 


ouds, Mr. 


Hammond, 


in the ¢& 


260 


using the five-inch visual telescope, ob- 
f the eclipse and 


The 


became thicker after 


beginning ( 


served the 


made a record of it. clouds, if 


anything, this so 


that at three o'clock it was impossible 


to see even where the sun was. Little 
thin rifts appeared at times, so that 
with the aid of smoked glass it was 


possible to see the moon encroaching on 
the face At three 
patch of brilliantly blue sky was 
off to the the 
cious minutes dragged along it became 


of the sun. thirty, a 
seen 
northwest, and as pre- 
evident that the clouds were moving in 
such a way that it was quite possible 
that the blue patch would reach the sun 
in time for totality. Fifteen minutes 
before the total phase, the clouds were 
that had totality 


scientific results would 


dense occurred 


then, the 


SO 


have 


NATURAL HISTORY 


but the bl 
learer and it mig 


been nothing: 


coming 


ime. 
Without 
th: 
lappening. 
fee 
the unnatural : 


looking at 
t something 1 
The heht of 


-ealized 


Came so 
spect of thi 
their songs as 1 


The cocks crowed on the fi 


ich was ordina 
Al 


seasol 


The wind w 
at tl 
husl 


is hour was quiet. 
ed. the 
mers who had seen two or t 
felt the thrill of 
acle. And still the | 
Would the clouds clear awa 
At five 
warning signal 
Petty Officer 


Evel 


before 


spec 


bef re 


minutes 
Was give 


Welsch of 


the 


E they were g 


ue sky was 


ht arrive in 
sky, one 
imusual was 


the sun be- 


le that even the birds felt 


17s and sang 
roing to rest. 
rm near by. 
rily blowing 
nature was 
ed 
iree eclipses 
the 
lestion was, 


astrono- 


unusual 


\ in time ? 

totality the 
Chief 
United 


n by 
the 


This photograph was taken during the 


Station at Syracuse, Kansas 


It shows the 
as the eclipse neared its end. 


“Ragle 


was uncovered 


station. The Prominence is above 


last seven seconds of totality by 
detail of the prominence 
A camera of 
and to the 


Lowe 


the 


s and the great sola 


left 


ll Observatory 


r storm which 


38 feet focal length was employed at this 


THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1918 


States Navy who was to watch the 
chronometer and count the seconds. 
This signal summoned each man to his 
post. One last look was given to the ap- 
paratus to see that everything was in 
place, the plate holders were adjusted — 
and then we waited. “Two minutes” 
before was called out, and then “one 
minute,” still again “thirty seconds” 
before the expected time of totality. 
The clouds by this time had thinned 
considerably, the patch of blue sky was 
only a short distance away. The plan 
had been that after the’signal of “thirty 
seconds” there should be nothing 
said until the word “Go” told that the 
total eclipse had begun. I was to watch 
for this with a pair of binoculars, be- 
fore one glass of which a direct vision 
spectroscope had been arranged. But 
due to the thin clouds at the beginning, 
it was impossible to see the spectrum 
lines with the spectroscope, and the sig- 
nal “Go” was actually given by Mr. 
Hammond who was using the five-inch 
telescope. No sounds disturbed the 
work of the party except the call of the 
seconds as the time passed, and the 
brief words of command and the shift 
of plate holders as each member of the 
party did his allotted task. Ten sec- 
onds after totality commenced, the 
clouds, thin at the beginning, had still 
further thinned, and at mid-totality the 
conditions were even further improved. 
What a gorgeous spectacle then met the 
eye! The sun was now in a very thin 
wisp of cloud with blue sky on either 
side. Although the cloud would detract 
from thescientific results, still it greatly 
enhanced the pictorial effect. The 
corona could be seen stretching for a 
short distance from the sun’s edge, but 
most remarkable of all were three great 
tongues of flame, one immediately at 
the top of the sun, one on the left-hand 
edge, and still a larger one on the right 
edge of the sun. These shone with a 
brilliant scarlet light, and made the 
eclipse of 1918 memorable as the eclipse 
of color. As the end of totality ap- 


261 


proached the thin clouds became still 
thinner—and two minutes after the 
eclipse was over the sun had reached the 
blue patch of sky. If the eclipse had 
occurred only two minutes later, or if 
the party had been only half a mile to 
the northwest, the sky conditions would 
have been perfect! If the eclipse had 
taken place fifteen minutes earlier, the 
scientific results would have been noth- 
ing at all. The optimists had won 
out. 

The developed photographs exhibit 
the painstaking care of the astronomers 
in procuring the precise focus with the 
result that all of the photographs show 
exquisite definition. - The thin clouds 
did not interfere at all with the details 
of the prominences or flames surround- 
ing the sun. Those taken with the 
sixty-five foot camera exhibit the prom- 
inences in splendid detail on a scale 
where the sun is more than seven inches 
in diameter. The longer exposures for 
procuring the extensions of the corona 
were not quite so successful since the 
thin, fleecy clouds cut down the fainter 
streams of coronal light. The smaller 
cameras showed the same results as the 
larger ones—splendid detail in the in- 
ner corona, but the corona not of very 
great extent. All the photographs 
unite in showing many polar rays, and 
they also exhibit some plumed arches 
of great beauty. The corona was of the 
sunspot maximum type, but with more 
polar streamers than were expected. 

The spectroscopes procured photo- 
graphs of exquisite definition, but these 
photographs suffered also from the 
clouds which cut down the amount of 
exposure that at best is none too great. 

What was perhaps the most interest- 
ing piece of scientific work accom- 
plished at the 1918 eclipse owes its con- 
ception to Mr. Edward D. Adams, of 
New York, who has shown his great 
interest in science by the founding of 
the Ernest Kempton Adams fellowship 
which is awarded each year by Colum- 
bia University for researches in the do- 


262 
main of pure science. Upon becoming 
a member of the United States Naval 
Observatory party, Mr. Adams took 
upon himself the responsibility of try- 
ing, by some method, by photography, 
by a drawing, or by a painting, to pro- 
cure a reproduction which would show 
the beauties of the corona, and which 
should be true not only as to form but 
more especially as to color. Unfortu- 
nately for science, it is impossible to ob- 
tain a satisfactory representation of the 
corona and the sun’s surroundings by 
photography. The corona is very bril- 
liant near the edge of the sun, but the 
intensity fades very rapidly. The eye 
can take cognizance of the details in 
spite of the great changes in brilliance, 
but not so the photographic plate. To 
obtain the faint extensions of the 
corona which are readily visible to the 
naked eye, a comparatively long expo- 
sure is necessary. This long exposure 
causes so much overexposure in the 
brighter inner regions of the corona 
that all detail there is lost by being 
burnt out. Short exposures give us the 
inner corona in exquisite detail, but the 
outer corona is then lost through short- 
ness of exposure. Many attempts have 
been made to cut down the relative ex- 
posure by means of mechanical devices 
—hbut none of these have been entirely 
successful. Heretofore, the only suc- 
cess In representing the corona has been 
obtained by taking photographs with 
different times of exposure and with 
different cameras in order to-procure 
photographs with detail both in the in- 
ner and brighter parts of the corona, 
and in the fainter outlying portions. 
After the eclipse is over, a composite 
drawing is usually made from the ex- 
amination of different photographs. 
This method has given several satis- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


factory drawings, but they still have 
left much to be desired. However per- 
fect they may have been as drawings, 
they took no note of color. Mr. Adams 
took upon himself the task of finding 
the right man to draw and paint the 
Color photography could not 
help out in procuring the right color, 
and there was left only the possibility 
of finding an artist who would have the 
true scientific spirit, and who could 
combine an accurate sense of form with 
a refined perception of color. Mr. 
Adams was successful in finding Mr. 
Howard Russell Butler, a_ portrait 
painter of note, who has developed a 
shorthand method of noting both form 
and color. 

During the echpse, Mr. Butler sat on 
a lofty perch overlooking the eclipse 
instruments, and from which he could 
obtain a fine view of the sun. The 
task he had taken to himself was no 
small one. And moreover this was the 
first corona he had ever seen! 

Those who were privileged to see Mr. 
Butler’s picture at the American Mu- 
seum of Natural History pronounced it 
a painting of rare beauty. The astron- 
omers who saw the 1918 eclipse and 
who have seen the picture look upon it 
as a marvel of perfection, true both as 
to form and color, a work of art which 
has the added advantage of being sci- 
entifically accurate. 

The scientific world owes a great 
debt of gratitude to Mr. Butler for his 
exquisite corona, but even a still greater 
debt to Mr. Adams, through’ whose 
conception, generosity, and enthusiasm 
the painting of the corona became pos- 
sible. One ventures to predict that this 
splendid painting will cause the recent 
total eclipse of the sun to be known as 
“Color Eclipse of 1918.” 


corona. 


£96 


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Painting the Solar Corona 


By HOWARD RUSSELL BUTLER, NA 


Illustrations from drawings which give the artist’s records made at the time of the eclipse and explain 


his method of work: also from the artist’s paintings of the phenomena of the eclipse, color plate 
opposite, and frontispiece in color ‘Total Eclipse of the Sun, June 8, 1918,” 


opposite page 245 


N May, 1918, I received an invitation 

from Mr. Edward D. Adams, well 

known as a patron of science and 
art, to accompany him to Baker, Ore- 
gon, where the United States Naval 
Observatory had established its station 
for observing the total solar eclipse of 
June 8, 1918. Professor S. A. Mitchell, 
director of the Leander McCormick 
Observatory of the University of Vir- 
ginia, and Mr. Adams had agreed that 
a painting of the corona might be made 
which would have both scientific and 
artistic interest. 

Many drawings and countless photo- 
graphs (some colored by hand) have 
been made of solar coronas, but I was 
told that no record existed of any 
painting actually made from direct 
observation. The invitation was there- 
fore accepted as a unique opportunity. 

As a portrait painter I have usually 
asked for ten or twelve sittings of two 
hours each: now I was asked to render 
my subject in 112 seconds. The method 
of procedure therefore became all-im- 
portant. 

The first step was to study the re- 
ports in astronomical and popular 
works of previous eclipses and thus 
familiarize myself with all attempts to 
describe or record the form and color 
of the corona and prominences. Of 
these attempts there are a great num- 
ber. They describe an outer corona, 
varying in extension from a fraction of 
a diameter of the moon to many diam- 
eters, the color usually being described 
as pearly and variously tinged ; an inner 
corona, more brilliant than the for- 
mer; and the prominences of incan- 
descent hydrogen, variously described 
264 


as red, ruby colored, pink, and blood- 
red. In addition to these, my picture 
would have to show the dark surface of 
the moon, and the sky with whatever 
color value it chanced to have at the 
moment of observation. 

As regards the shape and the exten- 
sion of the outer corona, a theory exists 
that it varies inversely in size as the 
combined area of sun spots, and this 
seemed to be confirmed by about twenty 
drawings of previous eclipses, which 
I made from photographs and prints 
and reduced to the same scale. Thus 
in the eclipse of 1900, when sun 
spots were at a minimum, the corona 
exhibited wide extensions, having inter- 
esting shapes, two of which became 
known as the “Angel Wing” and the 
“Herring Tail” extensions. As the 
number and size of sun spots seem to 
vary quite regularly, so that the maxi- 
mum is reached about every eleven 
years, and as we were hear a maximum 
period, wide extensions of the outer 
corona were not to be looked for. We 
expected about three fourths of a diam- 
eter on each side and this is about what 
we saw. 

All reports of the so-called “inner 
corona” agree that the part nearest to 
the sun is very brilhant and this inner 
corona is usually described as whitish 
in color. The transition from this inner 
portion to the far less brilhant outer 
part is quite abrupt, but one of the 
questions on which there seems to be a 
difference of opinion concerns an abso- 
lute demarcation between the inner and 
the outer coronas. I found none. 

As regards the prominences—while 
often discernible with the naked eye, it 


ee 


on ie mal 


Details of the hydrogen prominences, June 8, 1918, including the “ Eagle Prominence.” 


In outline this prominence looks like an eagle alighting on the top of a cliff 


a* 


oe 


ao 


a 


PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA 


is necessary to have a good glass to get 
the details of shape and to study the 
color rightly. The Naval Observatory 
put at my disposal a fine pair of Zeiss 
binoculars, which proved of the greatest 
value. I realized in advance that my 
hardest task would be to portray these 
prominences in their proper color and 
brilliancy. According to Professor 
Mitchell, I was to expect them to have 
a color not unlike that of the hydrogen 
line Ha in the spectrum, possibly 
slightly modified by the much fainter 
bluish line; and ample opportunity 
to study these lines in the spectro- 
scope was given to me. How best to 
render this color in paint and to give it 
its luminous character was the problem. 
tealizing that this would necessarily 
be the brightest tone in the picture and 
that it would have to stand out bril- 
liantly against the tone of the inner 
corona, also bright, I set to work to 
produce the brightest possible red ; that 
is, the one which stood highest in a 
scale of values of which varnished ivory 
black was zero and the best lead white 
(commercially known as silver white) 
was 100. I tried French pastels and 
rater colors, the latter over Whatman 
paper, but ultimately found that I 
could do best with oil paint. 

The process of obtaining this red de- 
cided upon for the final picture, but 
which takes more time than I had at 
Baker, was to prepare a hard surface 
of silver white, well dried, to paint over 
that a thin coating of zine white tinged 
with orange cadmium, and, when that 
was perfectly dry, to glaze it richly with 
rose madder or garance rose doré. This 
gave the tone with its fiery quality, but 
alas, its value, while the highest that I 
could get, was down to from 65 to 70 in 
the black and white scale. The highest 
value obtained by mixing wet colors at 
Baker was about 60. 

Granting this to be the highest note 
that I could have in my picture, I next 
addressed myself to the lowest. Would 


265 


this be the sky or the dark surface of 
the moon? Regarding the color and 
value of the clear sky during solar 
eclipses, there were varying opinions. 
Many drawings show the moon as black 
against a sky represented by a medium 
gray. These I believed to be incorrect 
and found them so. The moon, having 
a less luminous quality than the sky 
and surrounded by the brilliancy of the 
corona, should appear slightly darker 
by optical illusion. The sky value was 
at any rate the safer note to work from 
and, except for the slight variation al- 
luded to in the moon, it would surely 
be the darkest value in the picture. 

Assuming then a sky value of say 25 
and a prominence red value of say 60, 
the total variation in values would thus 
be limited to 35 points—surely a small 
range with which to reproduce so bril- 
liant a phenomenon. 

The method of working finally 
adopted may be called a shorthand 
method. It was to have a sheet of white 
cardboard on the easel with a series of 
concentric circles and radii drawn upon 
it in advance. One of these circles was 
to have the same diameter as the photo- 
graphs of the moon to be taken in the 
sixty-five-foot camera, namely, seven 
and three-eighths inches. There was to 
be an inner circle of half this diameter 
and outer circles whose diameters were 
respectively one and one half, two, and 
two and one half times that of the inner 
circle. I expected to use the seven and 
three-eighths inch diameter, and did 
actually use it, but I was thus prepared, 
in case of an unexpectedly extended 
corona, to reduce the scale to one half 
and get everything on the cardboard. 
In front and beneath my cardboard was 
a finished sample picture of a corona, 
painted in advance as I expected it 
would appear, and my plan was to indi- 
cate by initials at points on my card- 
board the variations of color from this 
picture ; thus b was to mean a variation 
toward blue from the sample picture, 


266 


and y more toward yellow. I wrote out 
the procedure as follows and tacked it 
alongside the easel. Practice enabled 
me to allot a certain number of seconds 
to each item. 


Procedure Seconds 

Note value and color of sky. . . . 10 
Draw value line on moon. . . . . 10 
Note colors of:moon, «= =~ . = = J0 
Draw outline of corona . . . . . 20 
Use Zeiss binoculars . . ee aU 
Record positions of prominences. peo lll) 
Note color and value of prominences . 10 
Note colors and values of corona, etc. . 20 
110 


Then my plan was to paint a first 
picture from this resulting memoran- 
dum, while the impression was vivid, 
and as soon as there was sufficient light 
to proceed by. 

Several methods of still further 
shortening the process naturally pre- 
sented themselves, which can best be 
understood by a simple diagram. Thus 
let the vertical axis (Fig. 1) represent 
values in the black and white scale and 
the horizontal axis distances in terms 
of lunar radii. Then a simple stroke A 
at 65 gives the value of the prominence, 
and the added expression ry means 
“rose very strong with a tinge of yel- 
low.” The line B represents the values 
of the corona. Any distinction between 
an inner and outer corona could benoted 
by a quick fall, as at b, in the line. Two 
tangents were drawn in advance on my 
cardboard for use as vertical axes. The 
line C would show the moon to be light 
in the center and dark on the edges, in 
this case tinged with green and brown. 
After the actual experience, I cannot 
think of a better plan than this one. 

The observation station was inthe Fair 
Grounds at Baker, about a mile and a 
half from the center of the town. It was 
surrounded by a wall and low buildings, 
which insured privacy. A grand stand 
ran north and south with a double 
door opening from the top aisle. This 
door, intended as an exit or fire escape, 
opened upon a platform with flights of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


steps descending both ways. This plat- 
form was assigned to me and on it I 
erected a strong easel and shelves ex- 
tending to right and left and making 
an angle with each other. Wind guards 
and braces were added. The platform 
faced west and, as the sun at the time 
of the eclipse was to be about 12° south 
of west, the position could not have 
been better. It had also a great advan- 
tage in being so high up that I could 
look over the surrounding walls and 
low buildings and get a fine view of the 
valley and of the Elk Horn Range in 
the direction of northwest along the 
line of the approaching shadow. By 
keeping the north half of the door into 
the grand stand closed and boring a 
small hole through the door, an excel- 
lent camera obscura was obtained, the 
image of the sun appearing on a tilted 
white covered board on the inner side 
of the door. I had been advised and 
had determined not to look at the sun 
for a considerable time before totality 
so as to avoid what is known as retina- 
fatigue, which is certain to result from 
looking at the brilliant crescent. The 
camera obscura gave all the informa- 
tion wanted as to the diminishing cres- 
cent and yet left me free to watch for 
the approaching shadow. 

As the day drew near drills were in- 
stituted, eight or ten of which I at- 
tended; each time I went through the 
procedure as outlined, drawing an 
imaginary eclipse. The counter, a 
naval officer, called each minute from 
five before to one before, and then gave 
the call, “thirty seconds.” The word 
“oo” was given by Mr. J. C. Ham- 
mond, astronomer of the Naval Obser- 
vatory. (On the occasion itself this 
word was given, of course, from ac- 
tual observation of the eclipse.) The 
counter then called seconds from 1 to 
112, when the performance would sup- 
posedly be over. These drills were in- 
valuable. 

At first contact, June 8, 2.47 P.M., 
all was ready, but the sky was so cloudy 


PAINTING 


THE SOLAR CORONA 


oo 
lor) 
~2 


Fio J 
TOTAL SOLARECLIFSE 
ZUNE 8, 19/8, BAKER, OHE- 
SHORT-HAND METHOD OF 
FECORLING YALVES&— 


SKY VALUE 


Two diagrams combined, one illustrating the artist’s shorthand method of recording during the 


few seconds of the eclipse the brightness of the colors in the corona, the other a method of noting the 
depth of shadow on different areas of the moon's disk. One diagram consists of the two perpendicular 
lines, or axes, and the curve B. The vertical axis represents a scale for measuring the brightness of 
a color, considering ivory black as zero and silver white as 100. Distance on the horizontal axis 
measures distance on the sky beyond the moon’s edge measured in radii of the moon (‘“1R” equals 
a distance of one radius or half the moon’s diameter from the moon’s edge). This horizontal axis 
is drawn through 30 on the brightness scale, that being the estimated brightness value of the sky 
during the eclipse. A curve drawn between the axes shows the variation in brightness of the corona 
at any given point, beginning at the inner edge of the corona and passing outward to the dark sky; 
that is, the color in the inner corona close to the moon is 60 on the scale (or in other words the tone 
of the inner corona is about three fifths as bright as silver white). From the curve drawn down- 
ward from 60 we see that the corona at 1R (one radius distant from the moon’s edge) had fallen to 
a brightness of about 40, and slightly beyond the length of 2R it disappears, blending with the sky. 
The line A is the artist’s shorthand to indicate that the prominences had a brightness value of 65 and 
“ry is a quick way of recording it if they were ‘‘very rosy, tinged with yellow.” These two axes 
were drawn on the cardboards on which the eclipse was to be drawn, in advance, on two sides of the 
circle of the moon (see Figure 2), being represented as tangents to the moon’s circle (see right hand 


and upper left hand of figure). 


By means of the curves drawn in on these axes with great speed 


during the eclipse, we can read off the brightness of the corona’s colors at any distance from the moon. 


The line C in the other diagram (the moon's 


disk at the left) is a shorthand way of indicating 


that the moon was lighter in the center than at the edges and that these edges were darker than the 
sky. The “Br.” and “Gr.’’ indicate a tinge of brown and green respectively 


that few of the eighteen members of 
the party expected any good results. A 
gloom more dense than the cloud over- 
hung the spirits of the camp. But at 
half past three the clouds had grown 
decidedly thinner, and at ten minutes 
of four a large area of blue sky ap- 
peared to the right of the sun. Then 
the sky cleared so rapidly that all hopes 
were revived, in the belief that when 


totality would take place at 4.03.52 the 
sun would be found in an absolutely 
clear sky. 

Standing with the sun back over my 
left shoulder—it was at an elevation 
of about 45°—I looked at the diminish- 
ing crescent on the face of the camera 
obscura until the eall “one minute” was 
heard. Then, turning my eyes to the 
northwest, I gazed at the north end of 


268 


NATURAL HISTORY 


FIG, 2 
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSk 
TUNE 8. 19/8. BAKER, ORE. 
¢ CRIGINA L DRAWING 


AGN 
/ hy 
SQ 4 


This is a reproduction of the actuai original sketch, made at the time of the eclipse, on a card- 


board on which the radial lines, circles, and tangents had been prepared in advance. 


This is 


the artist’s record, not only of the general outlines of clouds and corona, but also of the colors 


which are indicated by initials or words 


(underscored when the color is intense), and of the 


brightness of the various parts of the corona, indicated by numbers and by curves such as are ex- 


plained in the preceding figure. 


The artist had painted previously a picture of the way in which 


he ‘expected’ the eclipse to appear and no time was wasted putting in colors or tones which were 


approximately correct in the prepared sketch 


the Elk Horn Range and the inter- 
vening valley. Roosters were crowing 
loudly on the neighboring farm; a 
greemsh pallor overspread the land- 
scape—but it was not very dark. To 
the northwest, however, the sky was 
growing dark. The last half minute 
seemed long. My eyes were fixed on the 
sky line. Suddenly the entire range 
fell to a deep low-valued blue, and 
simultaneously the lower part of the 
sky above the range turned to a rich 
yellow inclining to orange streaked with 
two horizontal blue-gray clouds. Above 
me the sky darkened rapidly. For an 
instant the valley retained its lght 
green color and then the shadow 
seemed to rush toward us and all was 
engulfed as the call “Go” was shouted. 


The accompanying color illustration of 
the approaching moon shadow (op- 
posite page 264) is from a “memory” 
painting made the next day, the time 
ten seconds before totality. 

Turning on my heel, I looked at the 
corona, blazing steadily in the heavens 
as if it had always been there. The clear 
space in the sky had not quite reached 
the sun. The thin intervening cloud ex- 
tended to right and left of the sun and 
stood out with its edges illuminated 
and sharply defined against a velvety 
night sky of wonderful bluish violet. 

Here was a new problem. I had not 
expected the cloud. I began by draw- 
ing the outline of the cloud (slightly 
nearer the sun than it actually was so 
as to get both cloud and sky well on the 


PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA 269 


TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE! 
JUNE @. 1918. BAKER. ORE: 
AMENDED DRAWING 


BASED ON DRAWINGS, NEGATIVES 
UND FOS/T/VES. 4 


A beat 


The artist’s original drawing as amended later by reference to photographs made of the corona. 
S . t=) 


The details of the polar rays and of the prominences had been left for the cameras to record. 


Careful 


drawings of these features and of the variations in shading of the corona resulted in this composite 
picture on which was based the painting of the corona (see plate opposite page 245). The lines out- 
lining the corona in this figure may be regarded as contours of luminosity, showing the range and 
extent of certain degrees of brilliancy around the disk 


cardboard), then entered the value and 
color of the sky as 30 bv, and the cloud 
edges which were higher and silvery. 
The cloud itself, of varying thicknesses, 
Was warmer in tone than the sky and 
played, I estimated, between 30 and 40. 
The moon was about the same value and 
much grayer than the sky. I was not 
conscious of any considerable variations 
of value in the moon and failed to put 
in the value line. The blackishness of 
the moon and the center lighter than 
the edges were undoubtedly optical illu- 
sions. Next a quick outline of the 
corona was made, most attention being 
paid to the larger rays. Then the bin- 
oculars (which had been previously 
adjusted and focused) were used. Two 
splendid prominences, slightly pinker 
and lighter than I had expected, ap- 
peared—one near the top of the sun 


and the other on the left side below 
the horizontal. I gave these the highest 
value which I then thought could be 
produced by mixing oil paints, viz., 60r. 
A rose-colored glow stretched along the 
lower right side of the limb, the value 
of which was first recorded on the chart 
aseoUs 

I recorded two lines of values for 
the outer corona. I saw no distinct 


separation of the inner and _ outer 
coronas. On the upper left exten- 


sion greenish and yellowish tones were 
recorded. No time wasted on 
tones thought to be correct in the sam- 
ple picture. On the whole the corona 
was less biue than my sample and it 
retained briliancy farther out than | 
expected. Had it been seen against the 
blue sky it probably would have ex- 
tended still farther and its disappear- 


Was 


270 


NATURAL HISTORY 


PROMINENCE RED 
HYDROGEN « 


CORONA 


FIC.4 


TOTAL ECLIPSE OF SUN 
JUNE 8 1918, BAKER, ORE. 
VALUES AS NOTED BY 

He wa rid. Russe)] Puller 


A graphie representation of the scale of brightness values of the various colors found in the 
eclipse phenomena.—Varnished ivory black is taken as zero and the best white lead (silver white) 


as 100 for the points of reference. 


The most brilliant shades were found in the prominences which 


consist for the most part of incandescent hydrogen gas with a color approaching that of the red 


hydrogen line of the spectrum. 


By careful painting the brightness of the reds used in portraying the 
prominences was forced up to 67, and a very fiery quality given to them. 


The brightness of the sky 


was pitched at 25, as was the moon, while it was estimated that the clouds ranged from 30 to 40, and 


the corona from about 30 to 60 


anee might have been more gradual. 
Two of the so-called inner 
corona were very brilliant, although of 
course not as high in value as the prom- 
inences. ‘These were next to the limb 
and were very neutral as to color. I 
outhned them and marked them 
“whitish,” but got one of them in the 
wrong place. This brought my eyes to 
the picture for several seconds. About 
the ninety-fifth second I looked up and 
was surprised to see that the pink glow 
had lengthened out and risen in value. 
This change was due to the motion of 
the moon, which had by that time un- 
covered a magnificent solar eruption, 
but I had no time to take up the glasses. 
I outlined this glow, its value fully up 
to 60, which I entered afterward. Fig- 
ure 2 is a reproduction of the original 
drawing. 

Toward the end I re-outlined the 
corona, indicating rapidly the polar 
rays, for the accurate drawing of which, 
as well as for that of the promi- 


sections 


nences, I intended to rely on the photo- 


graphs. These rays were decidedly 
apparent. Suddenly I was blinded by 


the first of the “Baily’s Beads,” or 
the first glimpse of the solar crescent 
broken by the rough hmb of the moon. 
It looked like a miniature sun radi- 
ating in all directions. And all was 
over. 

Thanks to the privacy of the grounds 
and the consideration shown me I was 
able to proceed at once with my first 
oil sketch, and for two hours worked 
uninterruptedly. The next day, June 9, 
I painted the picture of the approach- 
ing moon shadow over the Elk Horn 
Range as I remembered it and also a 
second oil of the corona. 

While disappointed in not seeing the 
corona in a cloudless sky, the thin veil 
had its advantage from the artist’s 
standpoint. It added mystery and the 
effect was picturesque. The brilliant 
corona burned through the thin veil as 
if it were not there. Probably only the 


PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA 


outside edges of the corona were af- 
fected. 

On the tenth the photographic nega- 
tives were shown to me. Those of the 
sixty-five-foot camera were seven and 
three eighths inches in diameter, the 
others considerably smaller. I now saw, 
in minute detail, the two prominences 
which I had recorded and the mighty 
eyclone which had been increasingly re- 
vealed as the eclipse neared its end, be- 
cause of the direction of the moon’s 
motion. We are told that this group of 
prominences was forty-six thousand 
miles high. There were many other 
minor prominences. 

I now made careful drawings of these 
prominences from the negatives and of 
the variations in shading of the sur- 
rounding corona. Many arches were 
found springing over the prominences, 
and a few rifts or dark channels radi- 
ating from the limb but never coming 
very close to it. The negatives showed 
very clearly the hairy polar rays, not 
always radial in direction, and the be- 
ginning of a wing springing from the 
upper right-hand limb of the sun. 

By careful process painting, as al- 
ready described, I have been able to 
force up the value of the prominence 
reds, which appear in Figures 3 and 4 
at about 67. I also concluded to reduce 
the value of the clear sky from 30 to 


(at 


Faw 


25, thus obtaining a range of 42 points 
instead of 30, an increase in the ratio 
of 7 to 5. In this new scale the other 
values take their proportional places. 
Thus a value of 35 (30+ 5) in Figure 1 
becomes 32 (25+7) in Figure 3. 

In Figure 3 the corona lines, derived 
from the drawing and many photo- 
graphs, may be regarded as a sort of 
composite, suggesting contours of lumi- 
nosity very much as contours of eleva- 
tion appear on a map. 

Three paintings were made, the first 
immediately after the eclipse, the sec- 
ond on the succeeding day,and the third 
after all data had been secured. This 
final painting is the one reproduced in 
conjunction with this article. 

Returning with Professor Mitchell, 
we stopped at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, 
and I had the great pleasure and ad- 
vantage of discussing the problems of 
the final picture with Professor E. E. 
Barnard and Dr. E.. B. Frost, of the 
Yerkes Observatory. They also showed 
me excellent photographs taken at one 
of the Yerkes stations and spectroscopic 
photographs of the prominences taken 
at the Yerkes Observatory (at the time 
of totality at the Green River Station), 
apparently identical as to drawing with 
those taken at the Baker Station. I 
wish to acknowledge my indebtedness 
to these eminent astronomers. 


Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan 


WILD FLOWERS ‘‘FROM GREENLAND’S ICY MOUNTAIN” 


of the Arctic—poppies with nodding buds and ornamental 
There are about 120 species of flow- 
and where the Smith Sound Eskimos 


Between lonely rocks and wild crags grow the flower gardens 
leaves. the small white clustered Draba flowers, and green heads of Arctic timothy. 
ering plants—and probably “‘new’’ species waiting to be discovered—in the ice-free 1 
live, along the northwestern coast of Greenland between Humboldt Glacier on the north and Melville Bay on the 
south—a strip made narrow by the ice cap above and the iceberg-studded sound below. Long months pass when the 
botanist has few specimens to work with, however. Not until the ice breaks out and midsummer is at hand are 
many flowers in bloom. There is no spring in the Arctic like ours, or rather, there is only our spring, and 
no summer. All the plants awake together and hasten to their fruitage as if to make the most of the few 
weeks of comparative warmth. With equal suddenness at the end of summer, the vegetation is caught 
in full activity, and stiffened as it stands, with seeds half formed, or perhaps with buds, or open flowers 


The Plant Life of Northwest Greenland 


By W. 
of I}linois; 


EW people of our pleasant south- 

land even dream that under the 

shadow of the North Pole, al- 
most a thousand miles within the Arc- 
tic circle, more 
than hun- 
dred species of 
flowering plants 
flourish and 
maintain them- 
selvesagainst the 
frigid conditions 
of their” far 
northern home. 
Yet, in the coun- 
try of the Smith 
Sound Eskimo, 
a narrow belt of 
ice-free land be- 
tween the gleam- 


one 


ing ice cap and 


the iceberg- 
studded sound, 


from Cape York 
to Humboldt 
Glacier, 
nists have al- 
ready recorded 


bota- 


120 species, and 
the list is no 


ELMER 


Research Associate, American Museum of Natural History ; 


EK BLA W 


Research Fellow in Geology, University 


and Geologist and Botanist on the Crocker Land Expedition, 1913-1917 


unchangeable, the gleaming glaciers, 
cold and immobile, suggest no possible 
refuge for flowers, no likely niche for 
But in summer when 
he enters 
little 


O( eS 


ferns or grasses. 


some 

bay, or 
up one of 
the deep fiords 
and sets his foot 
upon the land, 
he finds that 
Greenland is not 
so cold, nor so 
bleak, nor so 
barren as he 
imagined. Every 
little crevice in 
the rocks is foot- 
hold for 
fern or glowing 
flower, every lit- 
tle pocket of soil 


some 


refuge for a bit 
of verdant turf, 
and every little 
slope or ledge 
shelter for wil- 
low, heather, or 
smiling poppy. 
How can they 


doubt yet incom- grow and_ blos- 
plete. No tall PAUtsaraDN by Donald B Mackfitan som and fruit 
trees or branch- The botanist of the Crocker Land Expedition at In the short 
ing shrubs, no North Star Bay summer, when 


trailing vines or 

waist-high grasses give character to the 
landscape, but the rocky slopes and 
ledges are dotted in summer with bril- 
liant blossoms or carpeted with low, soft 
growths of grass or sedge. 

When the explorer from the south- 
land approaches the rock-bound, glacier- 
ribboned coasts of Greenland, his first 
impression is one of bleakness and bar- 


renness. The frowning cliffs, stern and 


the snow begins 
to disappear only in mid-June, and 
killing frosts come in mid-August; 
when the warmest noonday has never a 
temperature higher than sixty degrees 
and often blanket the whole 
land with snow, even in mid-July? It 
is because the plants that hold their 


homes under these rigorous conditions 


storms 


are adapted to make the most of the 
twenty-four hour sunlight that shines 
273 


at4 


upon them, to survive the blanket of 
snow if it last not too long. ‘They are 
the frontiersmen of the plant world, 
hardy, inured to difficult conditions, 
tenacious of life in the most desperate 
struggles for existence. 

The climate of northwest Greenland 
is insular in character, much milder 
than most lands so far north, and than 
many lands much farther south, be- 
cause the strong tides and currents in 
Smith Sound keep open water along 
the shore, or not far away, usually 
throughout the year; and open water 
means warmer, moister air. This milder, 
moister climate of northwest Greenland 
is naturally the principal reason why 
the vegetation is relatively so luxuri- 
ant; but the reason the flowering plants 
succeed so well is beeause in addition, 
during the short summer season, the 
sun shines every day all of the twenty- 
four hours, and gives them opportunity 
to use every hour of their active life. 

Yet, even with this favorable milder 
chmate and the continuous sunlight, 
the vegetation could not survive if it 
were not fitted to endure the long 
frozen period, cold and dry, the de- 
structive changes from warmth to al- 
most blighting cold. In response to 
these conditions the plants are usually 
low creeping or tufted forms with 
tough, hard tissue, and are nearly all 
perennials, so that if fruiting cannot 
take place every year the species will 
not perish. 

Some of the plants that constitute 
the vegetation of northwest Greenland 
are widely and generally distributed. 
It would be hard to find a place where 
the purple saxifrage (Saxifraga opposi- 
tifolia) does not grow or the Arctic 
poppy (Papaver radicatum) does not 
flourish. The alpine chickweed of the 
north (Cerastium alpinum) and the 
Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) 
are common. ‘The pretty little Arctic 
heather (Cassiope tetragona) and the 
mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia) 
are perhaps the most numerous of the 


NATURAL HISTORY 


plants of the region, for they seem to 
be able to grow almost everywhere. 
Many others occur all along the coast 
and one expects to see them wherever 
one lands. 

But many plants are found widely 
scattered. Of several species I found 
a single station or collecting place. An- 
drosace septentrionalis, a delicate, in- 
conspicuous little flower, never before 
recorded from Greenland, I found 
growing on a little gravel slope just 
west of Borup Lodge, our headquarters 
house. In 1898 my good friend, Sim- 
mons, the noted Swedish botanist, when 
traveling along this coast with Sver- 
drup’s expedition, visited the delta on 
which, later (1913), our house was 
built, and must have passed over the 
very path beside which I found this 
little plant, and also a beautiful, luxu- 
riantly growing fern, Dryopteris fra- 


- grans. That these two plants eluded his 


careful, critical search, illustrates how 
easily even a specialist may fail to 
notice some of the small plants of the 
Far North. 

As a further illustration of how a 
plant may escape discovery, I like to 
cite my own experience at North Star 


Bay. Throughout the summer of 1914 
I lived at the little mission station 


there, studying carefully the vegetation 
of the large area of ice-free land that 
lies about Wolstenholm Sound. Only 
a few feet from the front door of the 
station les a small bog, in which I col- 
lected numerous plants, and helped my 
good colleague, Dr. M. C. Tanquary, to 
collect insects and plankton. Through- 
out the summer I thought I observed 
carefully every plant that grew in the 
bog, yet in 1916, when I again spent the 
summer at North Star Bay, I found 
there, growing in profusion, and in full 
bloom, the little red-stemmed, red- 
leaved Montia lamprospermum, which 
I had eagerly sought in 1914 without 
success. 

In passing, I may state that nowhere 
in the region did I find so satisfactory 


NLOYWY SHL NI ADOTO0S LNVId AO AGNLS YOS ALINOLYOddO 


a place to study the plants as at North 
Star Bay. Within half a mile of the 
station I found eighty plants; the habi- 
tats are so varied, and the general con- 
ditions so favorable, that it is a bota- 
nist’s paradise. It is also a splendid 
place in which to make a careful study 
of the and much- 


discussed 


much-worked-over 
Drabe. for I] think 
every northern form of this genus is 


almost 


found there in abundance, and in con- 
fusing variation. 
The study of plant association and 


Photograph by Donald B. 


Greenland arnica 


The yellow flowers of the 


like small sunflowers of temperate climes, but they are lowly in stature 


like all other Arctic flowers. 


Arnica alpina) look 


276 NATURAL HISTORY 


plant societies in this region is fasci- 
nating. A slight change in the quan- 
tity of some one factor,—it may be one 
of the primary components of the habi- 
tats, or one of the secondary,— produces 
a change in the vegetation that is all 
the more easily recognized because of 
the simplicity of the association or the 
society. The struggle for survival in 
the North is not one so much of compe- 
tition between the plants for light or 
foed, as it is one against the climatic 
Generally speaking, there is 
no crowding of indi- 
vidual plants as there 
is in regions of denser 
vegetation. Light and 
room enough there are 


conditions. 


for all that can with- 
stand and survive the 
stern climatic condi- 
tions. 


Among the groups of 
plants that may be read- 
ily distinguished are 
the luxuriant grasses 
(A lope curus, Poa, etec.). 
and the scurvy 
(( ‘ochlearia officinalis re 
association of the cliffs 
and slopes where the 
numerous Arctic birds 
nest ; the sedge (Carex ) 
and the cotton 
(Briophorum polysta- 


erass 


erass 


chium), association of 
seepage-water swales ; 
and the heathlike asso- 
ciation, on warm, airy, 
sunny slopes, of cat’s- 


eMill ; 
UOT (Antennaria al- 


paw 
pina), arnica (Arnica 


alpina), and reed-bent 


In the lower right-hand corner of the photograph appear a few 


glossy, oval leaves of the Arctic willow (Salix arctica). This most 


common and tallest of the ‘‘trees’’ of Greenland never attains a height 
of more than three inches, although its branches may spread over 
several square feet of ground. Stems of Arctic willows more than 
fifty years old, as proved by the number of their rings of wood, may 
Another willow species (Salix 
It grows one inch 


be no thicker than a man’s thumb. 
herbacea) must be the smallest tree of the world. 
tall and has two leaves and one tiny furry catkin each summer. The 
botanist in Greenland finds many interesting plant problems for his 
consideration, especially that of distribution 


grass (Calamagrostis). 
Many other similar dis- 
tinctive groups help to 
form as interesting a 
vegetation as one finds 
anywhere, even al- 
though the number of 
species is not so large, 


tives of the roses, sometimes cover and beautify 


whole acres of dry Arctic slope. 


Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan 


Cheery cinquefoils with saffron-centered flowers measuring an inch wide (Potentilla Vahliana), rela 


To make so astonish- 


ing a showing of flowers in the short two months of summer, even with perennial stems and the pro 
tected position of the plants closely hugging the ground, there must be a minimum of interruption from 


summer snowstorms and frosts. 
at the North, all with yellow flowers. 
nalis) belongs to the cress family 


The Crocker Land Expedition found a half dozen species of cinquefoils 
The plant known in the North as “‘scurvy grass” 
(a family represented by sixteen species in northwestern Greenland). 


(Cochlearia offici- 


It is used as a preventive for a disease which has brought death to the ranks of so many Arctic expedi 


tions. 
meat diet 


and the interrelationships not so com- 
plex as in that of more favored lands. 
Of northwest Greenland it can hardly 
the forest 
The tallest tree does not 
three from the 
the view, then, is not 


be said that one cannot see 
for the trees. 
rise more than inches 
ground ; appre- 
ciably obstructed by the forests. This 
tallest tree is the Arctic willow (Salix 
arctica), and it is the commonest. AI- 
though it grows so low, it often spreads 
over about a square yard or more of 
ground. Some of these trees, of which 
the trunk is not thicker than 
thumb, are more than fifty years old, 


one’s 


as I determined by counting the rings 
of growth. The soft, fuzzy catkins on 


these trees above the eround 


farther than the trees themselves, and 
tempt the swiftly flying, nervous Arctic 


rise 


bumblebees as few others of the flowers 
ean. Another willow (Salix herbacea) 
is about as tiny a tree as one can im- 


agine. It rarely grows more than an 


The Eskimos also sometimes eat the Cochlearia as a sort of salad, a pleasant variation from their 


inch high, and has but two little leaves 
and a tiny catkin each summer. No 
smaller tree grows anywhere, I am sure. 
The dwarf birch (Betula has 
been recorded from the neighborhood 


nana ) 


of our lodge, but I was unable to find 


it, even after the most careful search 
where it was supposed to grow. 

To the lover of rhododendrons, the 
little Lapland form which flourishes on 


the warm, sunny, well watered slopes, 


is most interesting. Its pretty little 
rose-purple, plumelike blossoms star 


basalt North 
Star Bay, first cousins to the gorgeous 
forms that color the ledges of the Ap- 
palachians. 


rocks about 


the brown 


Two northern species of 
the cranberry family (Myrtillus uligi- 
Vac nium Vitis-[dea ) bear 


OSA and 


numerous little pink bell-shaped flow- 
ers, sweet and delicate as lilies of the 
valley; but they rarely set fruit, except 
on the warmest slopes where the sum- 


mer snows melt as fast as they fall. 


9 
wil 


Kearsen Steppe, North Star 
the Arctic, grading to bog at the foot. 


frosts continually nip the growing ends of the plants. 
show for a few days stretches of warm autumn 


killing frosts begin to come, such slopes may 


Such slopes are 


Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 


3ay, looking over Wolstenholm Sound,—a typical heath slope of 


rarely bright green, for frequent summer 
In late July and early August when the 


coloring, the browns of mosses and the yellows of diminutive willows 


The curlewberry (Hmpetrum nigrum) 
grows in a few favored spots, where its 
pretty, purple, velvet flowers make it 
conspicuous, but it bears few berries. 
The Eskimos like to use it and the fra- 
grant branches of the heather (Cassio pe 
tetragona) to make outdoor fires over 
which to boil their tea or coffee. 

The so-called Arctic heather (Cas- 
siope tetragona) is one of the prettiest 
flowers of the northland, and it grows 
almost everywhere. Its dainty, cream- 
white bells color some of the rocky 
slopes. This, and Dryas integrifolia, a 
starry blossom of the same hue, are 
perhaps the most numerous of the con- 
spicuous Arctic flowers. These two 
flowers begin blooming early, and con- 
tinue until August comes with its 
frosts and freezes. 

A group of pretty flowers usually 
found on rocky ledges that the ptarmi- 
gan is wont to frequent, is that com- 
posed of the northern arnica (Arnica 
alpina), a smiling, bright, golden-face, 
not unlike a diminutive Kansas sun- 
flower; the woolly cat’s-paw (Anten- 
naria alpina), smaller than its cousins 
of the far southland, but otherwise 
quite lke them; the dainty pink and 
white shinleaf (Pyrola rotundifolia), 
ts thick, glossy leaves and fair blos- 


1 
278 


soms seemingly modeled from wax; the 
modest and lonely httle bluebell (Cam- 
panula uniflora) rising blue and gen- 
tian-like on its fragile stem; and with 
them a strikingly beautiful, dark pur- 
ple grass (Trisetum spicatum), of 
which the plumed tufts are noticeable 
rods away. This group of plants often 
includes one or another of the other 
sun-loving plants of the dry slopes, but 
they are not so definitely confined to 
the one habitat. 

The lousewort, or beefsteak family, 
numbers at least three representatives. 
Of these Pedicularis hirsuta grows 
everywhere along the coast. Its first 
cousin, Pedicularis lanata, a much pret- 
tier rose-red cluster of flowers, is not 
so generally distributed, but at Life- 
boat Cove, north of Etah, its bright 
dot the At Etah 
grows Pedicularis capitata, a plumelike, 
golden cluster; it has been found no- 
where else in Greenland. 

Bluebells ((Mertensia maritima) J 
found in profusion at but one place, 
the little Eskimo village at Sonntag Bay, 
and there the delta of a small moun- 
tain torrent was carpeted with them. 
On the same delta I found the most 
abundant growth of Statice maritima, 
a beautiful, dark pink globelet of florets. 


blossoms moors. 


THE PLANT LIFE OF NORTHWEST GREENLAND 


Of the cinquefoils (Potentille), of 
the rose family, I found six species, all 
and But 
Vahl’s cinquefoil is the cheeriest of 
them all, for its 
with their saffron centers, 


profuse-flowering golden. 


inch-wide blossoms 
shine from 
every dry slope. 

The early purple saxifrage (Sazi- 
fraga oppositifolia) ushers in a succes- 
sion of ten of the family, of which none 
is so beautiful as the leader. It is the 
earliest of Arctic flowers to burst into 
bloom; often purple pennants of its 
gorgeous blooms even border the snow- 
drifts. 

Sixteen species of the cress family 
inhabit the region. Nearly all of them 
are white-flowered. but one notable ex- 
ception is the purple rocket ( Hespe ris 
pallasw) , sweet with the odor of plum 
blossoms, the only fragrant flower in 
the North. The Drabe comprise ten of 
the sixteen cress species. It is to this 


_* 


A 


It was surprising to find that edible mushrooms grow abu 


siderable size, some nearly as large as a dinner plate, and were 


On 
a9 


family too, that scurvy grass (Coch- 
officinalis ) that far- 
famed. reputed preventive of the dread 


learia belongs, 


disease, scurvy, which has decimated so 
many Arctic expeditions. It tastes 
bitter, like cress. Few of the Arctic 


plants are eaten by the Eskimo, but 
they occasionally eat this scurvy grass; 
more often though, they 


digyna, a round-leaved plant, sour like 


gather Oxyria 
our sheep sorrel. 

Buttercups, Waxy golden anc bright, 
varied. Most of 
them are yellow, but one tiny white 


are numerous and 


form (Batrachium 
grows in the ponds, its starlike little 
flowers floating on the 


paucistamineum ) 


water during 
The 


favorite flower of many explorers is the 


about two weeks of midsummer. 


dainty pink Silene acaulis that grows 
in dense clumps on gravelly slopes, but 
I could not help feeling that its hard 
stems were too stiff. The Alpine chick- 


Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 
They 


delicious when cooked. 


ndantly at Etah. attain con 


The climate of the coast of northwest Greenland is far milder than would be expected for the 


latitude, because strong tides and currents keep open water in Smith Sound not far from the land 
usually all the year through. This open water produces a moister air and thus accounts in large 


measure for the 


relatively luxuriant vegetation of the 


Smith Sound region 


Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 


Even before the snow melted away, the plants on southern slopes at North Star Bay were budded for 


blossoming. 
slopes of course more nearly perpendicularly. 


cutting winds, the temperature of the soil may rise rapidly. 


On land that is level the rays from the low Arctic sun strike only obliquely, but they strike the 
Therefore, if the slope be southern and thus protected from 
Under the influence of this warmth and of the 


moisture of the fogs so frequent in summer, the low shallow-rooted plants of the Arctic flourish 


weed cheerfully everywhere, 
seemingly undaunted by the most un- 
favorable conditions. One of its near 
cousins (Melandrium triflorum), an 
Arctic catehfly, is found nowhere but 
in Greenland. 

The dandelion, so despised in the 
southland, merits more respect and con- 
sideration in the northland. Besides 
the bright, golden forms, closely re- 
sembling ours, a white-flowered form 


erows 


(Tararacum arctogenum) with pink 
border grows in profusion about Etah, 
and grows nowhere else in the world, so 
far as known. It would attract atten- 
tion anywhere as a pretty flower. 

It is to the sunny-faced Arctic poppy, 
however, that the explorer is always 
ready to give the highest praise. To 
the farthest northland that man has yet 
attained, this fragile, but hardy little 
blossom, has preceded him. On the 


3s Soe 
Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 


The tundra in general view appears barren and monotonous, but reveals variety and beauty of detail 


when studied close at hand. 
warm sunny slopes is the andromeda 


The most characteristic plant of the heath-forming association that grows on 
(Cassiope tetragona) with white bell-shaped flowers. 
forms a continuous carpet (as shown in the background in the photograph). 


berry (Empetrum nigrum) growing with it on the protected slopes of deep fiords 


280 


In places it 
Rarely one finds the curlew- 


species of plants within a radius of one half mile. 
country, 
as to work. 


At one time, he experienced for several days the 
narrowly 


plenty. 


or sledge journeys to points along the sound. 


escaped drowning when the ice gave way 
fected largely through the continued struggle of his 
North Star Bay he faced starvation, while only 130 


Throughout the summer the party was on extremely 


Photograph by E. O. Hovey 
At North Star Bay, in the summer of 1914, the botanist of the Crocker Land Expedition found eighty 


Every day he made long tramps over the rough interior 
except 
In March he had led one of the advance parties across Ellesmere Land ready for the Crocker 
Land search over the sea ice, but had been obliged to return to Etah because of badly frozen feet. 
ward, in April, he proceeded to North Star Bay to engage in a botanical survey. 


This year of 1914 was one of misfortune 


After- 

Misfortune followed him. 

agonizing pain of ‘‘snow blindness.’ At another, he 

under him, his sledge and dogs—rescue being ef- 
big white king dog. And for several weeks here 


miles away at Etah, but unobtainable, was food 
always hungry, and always 


short rations, 


watching the point on the horizon where a relief ship might appear. 


The photograph shows Dundas Mountain, 700 feet above sea level, and at the right about one mile from 
exploration (See AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL 


its base, the buildings of Thule Station, a base for 
for May, 1918, page 391) 


most lonely and desolate coasts it greets 


him all summer long whenever he 


travels there. Along the icebound sea- 
shores, upon the bleakest plateaus, in 
every lonely valley, wherever a crevice 
in the rocks or a pocket in the cliffs 
gives it foothold, it is sure to establish 
itself. fields of it 


Etah, and about our headquarters house 


Great flamed about 
it grew abundantly. 

No great, green meadows or pastures 
carpet any part of the far northland, 
but on the sunny slopes where some of 
the numerous Arctic birds have formed 


a rich guano soil, the turf becomes 
thick and soft. The frequent frosts 
that come through the Summer, sear 


the delicate tips of the grasses so that 


Danish 


they never appear verdant; a real green 
slope, therefore, is a rarity in the Far 
North. The most lush-growing grass is 
the misnamed Arctic timothy (A/lope- 
curus alpinus) upon which the Eskimos 
depend for padding to place between 


stockings and boot-soles and 


their 
under the skins of their bed platforms, 
and for disheloths or towels with which 
to wipe dry their few pots and pans. 
Many blue grasses grow in Greenland, 
villages, Ien- 


but about the Eskimo 


tucky blue orass (Poa pratensis) , tall 


and thick, is the most common form. 
In a few of the shallower ponds along 
the coast grows the beautiful little Pleu- 
ropogo) sabini, unique in its genus. 
Pretty, plum) eotton grasses ( Hrio- 


281 


282 


phorum polystachium and EB. Scheuch- 
zert) wave their white tassels along the 
banks of the streams and pools and in 
the wet swales; graceful little rushes 
and reeds (Juncus and Luzula) grow 
with the numerous sedges (Carex) to 
form mats of turf where no grass 
grows; harsh scouring rushes (Hquise- 
tum arvense and #. variegatum) form 
mats on some of the flatter stream beds, 
and a yellow-green club moss (Lycopo- 
dium selago) dots the upland swales; 
all of these help to create variety in the 
Arctic vegetation. 


Mats of mountain avens on crescent-shaped 
areas of earth resulting from the disintegration 


of the rock. This disintegration has been ac- 
complished through the action of overlying snow, 
drifted by fierce blasts of wind down the fiords. 
The hardy little Dryas (its flowers are shown 
on the opposite page) is probably the most com- 
mon plant in Greenland. It is absent from few 
places where there is any vegetation at all, main- 
taining a foothold even on plains of bare rock 
débris. It flowers by the middle of June and 
continues to blossom throughout the short summer 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Rather unexpected, but none the less 
welcome, four diminutive ferns that 
grow on the rock ledges carry one back 
in memory to the southland. Cystop- 
teris fragilis, the commonest fern of 
the North, grows abundant and luxu- 
riant in moist crevices on the steep 
cliffs. Aspidium fragrans, rigid but 
beautiful bronze-green, is a sweet smell- 
ing fern found on sunny shelves. Two 
little woodsias, Woodsia glabella, a Lil- 
liputian form scarce an inch high, and 
Woodsia_ silvensis, not much larger, 
complete the lst of ferns. 

To end the account of the vegetation 
of the northland without mentioning 
the large, edible mushrooms at Etah 
would be to leave the list incomplete. 
They are of a species probably not 
hitherto known. Some of them grow as 
large as dinner plates. They could 
stand for days, unspoiled and untouched 
by insects, and still be almost as good 
to eat as when fresh. Dr. Hunt and I 
gathered many, cooked them, and ate 
them. We considered them excellent. 

The plants and flowers of northwest 
Greenland have hardly*two months in 
which to grow. As soon as the snow 
melts, the first flowers begin to appear, 
usually only a few days before June 
first. At that time the midnight sun 
is a month and a half high and gives 
almost as much heat at midnight as at 
noonday. Even so, frequent summer 
snows and cloudy weather often retard 
the development of the plants so that 
they cannot blossom before the killing 
frosts begin to come in early August 
while yet the midnight sun graces the 
northern sky. In mid-July even, the 
little willow leaves begin to turn yel- 
low, and a week or two later the autum- 
nal golds, and tans, and browns indi- 
cate that the season of growth is ended. 

The flora of Greenland is a mixture 
of European and American forms. 
Many interesting problems present 
themselves in the occurrence and dis- 
tribution of many of these forms, and 
much work has been done toward their 


SS — 
Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw 
At the time when the ptarmigan were courting on warm, dry, Arctic slopes where the snow had melted 
early, the. botanist could always be certain of finding a particular association of small, low, sun-loving 


Among these were the yellow arnica, white woolly heads of “everlasting’’ or ‘‘cat’s-paw,’’ waxen 


pyrolas, and fragile, solitary bluebells (see page 278) 


Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan 


The white starlike flowers of the little mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia) are found on the inland 
plateaus and moraines which otherwise would be quite bleak and desolate This small representative of the 
rose family seems to be able to maintain itself everywhere and its multitudes of flowers often give color 


to the whole mountain-side 


solution. As yet, however, the evidence and data obtained by the Crocker Land 
for definite conclusions is not available, Expedition will make a considerable 
but it is to be hoped that the collections contribution to the knowledge needed. 


9eQ2 


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Photographs by W. Elmer Ektlaw 


A BARE AND BLEAK LAND, EVEN WHEN ICE FREE 


Along a narrow stream at North Star Bay (picture above), the heath and moor are finely car- 
peted with the pretty Polar rhododendron, with creeping cranberry, and with Arctic willow 


At this walrus hunting camp on Sonntag Bay (middle photograph) the tanist collected three 
species of plants which he found nowhere else along the whole North Greenland Coast. Many plants 
of the North are thus restricted in distribution 

On Arctie slopes soil-flow streams move slowly, like veritable ‘‘glaciers’’ of rock and soil (photograph 
at bottom of page). They present conspicuous scalloped fronts, covered in this case with cranberry, and 
the very edge of the advancing soil is outlined in northern heather 


OSs 


be) 


vente 


3 ‘ 

Photograph by E. O. Hovey 

In many places at North Star Bay, in July, bright orange lichens, brilliant as flowers, adorn the rocks 

and give the dominant tone to the landscape. Lichens and mosses | ly make up the flora of the coldest 

Arctic tundra, tending to be distributed in different local areas. The crevice in the rocks indicated in the photo- 

graph by the pocketknife opens below into the nest of a snow bunting, which each summer comes from south- 
ern regions to make its home in this far northern spot 


miles from water, 


989 


- 


a 
os. 


Like the crimson poppies of Flanders Fields, these yellow poppies grew where have been wrought 
heroic deeds which live in history. The golden Arctic poppy (Papaver radicatum) for a few 
weeks in summer greets the botanist with good cheer wherever he may wander. He has known 
Greenland during the long Arctic night as a stern land of bleakness and desolation. But some 
day in summer when he enters one of the forbidding fiords, shutting out a view of the ice cap 
above and the icebergs on the sound outside, he concludes that Greenland after all is not a grim, 
barren spot. For every little crevice in the rocks is foothold for some fern or g'owing flower, 
every little pocket of soil refuge for a bit of verdant turf, and every little slope or ledge shelter for 
willow, heather, or smiling poppy 


Photograph by E. O. Hovey 


There were about seventy-five poppies in this gleaming mat of yellow on the bare shingle 
flats (North Star Bay). In favorable localities they are so abundant that it is no exaggeration 
to speak of ‘‘fields of poppies.’ These northern pioneers in no way lack in beauty of hue or of 
texture when compared with the golden poppies of California. Many Arctic species bloom profusely. 
Draba plants may be rounded out into spheres wholly yellow or white with the multitudes of flowers 


290 


MacMillan 
How bleak and drear and lonely is the general landscape of the coast lands! This is at the head of Port 
Foulke, two miles southwest of Etah, where the ground is made up of the barren rock of an ancient seabeach. 
The Hayes Expedition of 1860-61 had its winter quarters here. The grave (see the center of the photograph) 
is that of August Sonntag, an explorer-scientist who lost his life in the ice of Smith Sound in December, 1860, 
ile a member of this pedition. > he served as astronomer with Kane, the first American explorer, 
on his expedition of 1853-55. The cl > lab at the head of the grave, bearing the inscription, still stands 


against the weather 


AF pet 4 
Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan 


brilliant flowers of their pic- 


Helping to gather poppies at Etah in June.—The Eskimos d it in the 
f plant life than of birds and animals 


991 


turesque country, but are on the whole. of course, far less observant of 


Our Centrifugal Society 


Is our current expansive philosophy of life, based upon liberty, equality, and self-expression, a safe 


and sufficient guide for the development of a high social order? 


Should it not be balanced 


by the unifying and integrating forces which come from self-restraint and 


control, moderation, and the limitation of desires ? 


These 


may lead to a far higher self-realization 


By 


UR present reconstruction pe- 

riod differs fundamentally 

from other such periods fol- 

lowing other great wars. It is not 
quite safe, therefore, to rest in any easy 
assurance that in a few years all will be 
well, since a period of painful recon- 
struction must follow every great war. 
It is becoming evident now to all cf us 
that we are confronted, not merely with 
a political and economic reconstruction, 
but with a radical social reconstruction. 

Long before the war it had come to 
be believed that society was on the sick 
list, needing drastic treatment, if not 
a major operation. We had become 
painfully conscious of certain social 
“evils,” and our attention was fixed 
more and more upon certain loudly ad- 
vertised “cures” for these evils. Among 
these evils were the unequal distribu- 
tion of wealth and opportunity, the 
constant clashes between labor and 
capital, the unjust exclusion of women 
from political and economic privileges, 
the alcohol evil, social diseases, poverty, 
crime,and the falling birth rate. Among 
the proposed “cures” were the further 
extension of democracy, socialism, 
syndicalism, votes for women, national 
prohibition, and codperation. 

Then came the war, and at once our 
attention was focused upon this as the 
worst evil of all. That such an awful 
calamity could suddenly befall the 
world increased still further our dis- 
trust in our whole social system, and we 
began at once to search for some cure 
for this further evil, and hoped to find 
it ina League of Nations, international 
agreements, and the self-determination 
of peoples. 


292 


Cass OWE 


Professor of Philosophy, 


PeASD Role 1K 


State University of Iowa 


The Spark of Divinity in the Human 
Mind 


It is characteristic of our age to be 
peculiarly sensitive to its evils. This 
sickening feeling that the world is in a 
very bad way and needs redemption is 
illustrated in the book written by Al- 
fred Russel Wallace shortly before his 
death, in which he bewailed the de- 
generacy of the times, dwelling upon 
the prevalence of poverty and crime, 
and frightful social diseases, and social 
injustice, in a note almost of despair. 

Certainly it is a hopeful sign that we 
have become so sensitive to injustice, so 
conscious of social evils, so intolerant of 
wrong doing, so repelled by the hor- 
rors of war, that our own era, which is 
really clean and wholesome and peace- 
ful and righteous as compared with 
past periods in human history, seems 
to us so imperfect. There is thus at 
any rate this element of hope in the 
situation that there must be some spark 
of divinity in the human mind, since 
we compare the present, not with the 
real past, but always with the ideal fu- 
ture. 


Conscious Control of Man's Future— 
Will it be Intelligent and Beneficial? 


The special characteristic of our time 
is therefore not the presence of evils, of 
which to be sure there are quite enough, 
but the peculiar consciousness of them 
and the resolute will to cure them,—a 
will so persistent and so determined 
that it is certain that the twentieth cen- 
tury will see profound changes in our 
social order. But it does not follow 
necessarily that these changes will be 


OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 


beneficial. They will be experimental. 
This is the first time in history that 
man has conscicusly and with de- 
termined purpose entered upon the task 
of directing his own fortunes. Hith- 
erto he has been a puppet in the hands 
of cosmic forces: evolution, climate, the 
struggle for existence, the industrial 
revolution wrought by mechanical in- 
ventions and the discovery of coal, iron 
and petroleum, and finally, the retro- 
active influences of the American and 
Pacific frontiers. Now the period of 
conscious control has come. 

But is this conscious control to be in- 
telligent control, or is it to be the kind 
which the newly rich suddenly acquire 
over their material surroundings? So 
far as we can see at present, the era of 
intelligent control lies far in the fu- 
ture, and the control which is to mark 
the twentieth century will spring from 
an impulsive idealism characterized by 
a keen sensitiveness to our present so- 
cial evils rather than by a comprehen- 
sive grasp of the whole social situation. 
We are to enter upon the deliberate at- 
tempt at social reconstruction but with 
a kind of adolescent impetuousness and 
a fatuous, almost fanatical faith in the 
magic of certain social symbols to cure 
social evils. This is, no doubt, a neces- 
sary stage in the progress of social con- 
trol, but it is not without its dangers. 
We have gained the power to remodel 
our social order. Have we gained the 
necessary poise, the scientific, historical, 
and psychological knowledge that will 
make our meddling safe ? 

There is, in all the discussion of evils 
and the cures for them, a singular dis- 
regard of the psychological and histori- 
eal factors of the situation, and a 
strange forgetfulness of the fact that 
however important social and political 
readjustments may be, the world can- 
not be made over as long as the human 
material, the minds and bodies of men, 
remains the same. Therelatively greater 
importance of education, of physical 
and mental health, of racial integrity, 


293 


of universal intelligence and self-con- 
trol, is overlooked. 


The Present Philosophical Basis of 
Social Reconstruction 

But my purpose in this article is to 
call attention to the philosophical basis 
of the reconstruction movements of the 
day. Underlying all these movements 
is the philosophy of the full, free and 
abundant life; of self-expression; of 
self-determination ; of self-realization ; 
of freedom from every kind of autoc- 
racy or class rule or oppression or re- 
pression ; of equality of opportunity ; of 
freedom for self-development and cul- 
ture ; of complete liberty to realize one’s 
own inner needs and one’s own per- 
sonality; of escape from all old and 
cramping conventions and institutions ; 
of naturalness, initiative, power, will, 
and efficiency. 

These are our ideals and to most of 
us they are so obvious that they seem 
to need no discussion. They have 
found expression in our current drama 
and fiction, in our moving pictures, in 
our books and magazines, and in all our 
plans for social reform. We have come 
to take them quite for granted. 


Is Self-expression an Obsession ? 


Perhaps it may be worth while to ex- 
amine these ideas with a little care. As 
ideals they are obviously good. This 
may pass unchallenged. But it is not 
self-evident that they are the highest 
ideals, nor is it self-evident that they 
are alone sufficient as a foundation for 
social welfare. It seems rather that the 
present age is merely obsessed with 
these ideas, just as other epochs of his- 
tory like that of the ancient Hebrews, 
or that of Greece and Rome, or that of 
the Middle Ages, were obsessed with a 
wholly different set of ideas. 

For instance, in the Middle Ages, 
poverty, chastity, and obedience were 
the monastic virtues, and every am- 
bitious boy aspired to be a monk. We 
look in vain now for many ardent devo- 


294 


tees of poverty, chastity, or obedience. 
Our attitude toward these medieval 
ideas is one of humorous superiority, 
not perhaps fully justified by the rela- 
tive differences in the two civilizations 
as measured by such standards as social 
stability or the development of the tine 
arts, such as architecture, painting, and 
poetry. 

Still another set of ideas ruled in the 
best period of Grecian civilization, like- 
wise wholly different from ours. These 
were temperance in the sense of bal- 
ance and moderation, measure, limita- 
tion, order, form, harmony, symmetry, 
and beauty. Francis Galton perhaps 
spoke with some exaggeration when he 
said that the average intelligence of the 
Athenian race was at least two grades 
above our own. But while we may 
smile at the ideals of the monks, we 
must take very seriously those of the 
Greeks as long as we are still using as 
models so many of their masterpieces of 
political philosophy, poetry, sculpture, 
architecture, eloquence, and literature. 
It is all a matter of historical perspec- 


tive. Some future period may smile at 
our child-like devotion to liberty, 


equality and fraternity, or self-expres- 
sion, or the full, free and abundant life, 
to the neglect of many other equally 
important ideas. 


Is the Philosophy of Expansion a Safe 
Philosophy of Life? 


In all our discussion now about so- 
cial reconstruction and a new social or- 
der, is it not a little peculiar that the 
ideas which we are trying so hard to 
realize in this new social order,—lib- 
erty, equality, efficiency, opportunity, 
self-expression, and self-determination, 
—are just the ones that already mark 
this period when compared with other 
past periods and past civilizations? We 
may be deficient in these virtues, but 
we have them in profuse abundance as 
compared with other times, and we have 
them in excess as compared with other 
virtues, such as love of beauty and of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


symmetry, proportion, moderation, 
measure, and limitation of desires. Is 
it safe to enter so passionately upon the 
remodeling of our social institutions 
with our eyes fixed so exclusively upon 
any one circle of ideas ? 

Self-expression is perhaps the best 
single term defining our present day 
philosophy of life—or, possibly, self- 
realization, or initiative, or energy. 
The keynote of modern painting, music, 
and poetry is expression, and that of 
modern sculpture is energy. In our 
educational systems our aim is to de- 
velop all the latent energies and possi- 
bilities of the child. He must express 
himself, bring out the full richness of 
his personality, give full scope to his in- 
dividuality, develop to the utmost his 
genius and his talent. When manhood 
and womanhood are attained, old social 
conventions must not stand in the way 
of this inner need of self-realization 
and self-expression. Our laws must be 
remade and our social institutions re- 
constructed so that each individual may 
enjoy his full rights and come into pos- 
session of his full share of the world’s 


goods. It would be a shame if others 
had superfluous wealth while any 


lacked the means of self-development 
and self-culture. 

This is the expansive philosophy of 
the age, the centrifugal motive in so- 
ciety, moving from within outward. 
But the ancient Greeks thought it bet- 
ter to draw from without inward, to 
observe limits and measure, to strive for 
inward poise and harmony. This is the 
centripetal motive in society, the unify- 
ing and integrating tendency. 


Germany's Experiment in Self-expres- 
sion 


It would be interesting to attempt an 
evaluation of these two methods. When 
Plato was unable to find the definition 
of justice in the case of the individual, 
he solved the difficulty by examining 
the idea as magnified in the state. So 
just recently we have had an instructive 


OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 295 


example of the trial of this philosophy 
of self-expression in the case of a great 
state. Germany five years ago had a 
deep longing for self-expression. She 
felt that she must expand, bring out 
the full richness of her personality, de- 
velop to the utmost her genius and her 
culture, give full scope to her peculiar 
individuality. Old international con- 
ventions and treaties between states 
must not stand in the way of her inner 
need of self-realization and self-expres- 
sion. Old laws must be reinterpreted 
so that she might have her full share of 
the world’s goods. It would be a shame 
if other nations had superfluous colo- 
nies while she lacked the sphere of self- 
development. 

But Germany made the unhappy dis- 
covery that there were other peoples 
who also desired self-expression, who 
also had a personality to conserve, a 
“mission” to fulfill. Five years ago 
self-realization was within Germany’s 
grasp. She had valuable traditions of 
education and science, of art and phi- 
losophy. She had great wealth, vast in- 
dustries, and a fruitful commerce, and 
she had the friendship and the respect 
of the world. Self-realization in the 
larger sense she could have had through 
the practice of the Greek virtues and 
the minding of her own business. 


Limitations and Dangers of the Cen- 
trifugal Motive 


It is important to understand the 
meaning and value of this new idea of 
the full and exuberant life. Its value 
we all recognize. Its limitations per- 
haps we do not realize. To many in 
the present day it seems like the very 
word of promise. It emancipates us— 
so we think—from all the narrow and 
cramping and dwarfing and galling re- 
strictions of the past and sets us free to 
enjoy, to live, to breathe deeply, to de- 
velop as we please. It emancipated our 
slaves. It is emancipating our women. 
It will emancipate our laborers. If this 
new gospel of energy, of affirmation, of 


spontaneity, of self-expression, does not 
work well in the case of nations, there 
must be—so we imagine—some error in 
the analogy, for as regards the indi- 
vidual it is the very evangel of our 
modern era. If there is any one idea 
prevalent now it is that there is some- 
thing intrinsically sound and helpful in 
this renouncing of old authorities and 
traditions in favor cf our primal in- 
stincts. Instinct, impulse, nature, the 
spiritual lfe—to dampen these, to 
dampen this inner need of self-expres- 
sion, this demand for joy, is the only 
sin. 

This modern gospel of self-expres- 
sion takes innumerable forms. With 
Nietzsche it is the will to power, gained 
through tragic suffering and pain. In 
Christianity it is the triumphant reali- 
zation of an essentially divine and 
spiritual individual life revealing itself 
in the typical modern expansive vir- 
tues—faith, hope, and charity. In 
Bergson it appears as the exaltation of 
instinct and primal creative impulse. 
In Goethe it is pictured as salvation 
through successive forms of objective 
experience. In Browning it is seen in 
the wild joy of living, in buoyant faith, 
optimism, and love. Even in the mod- 
ern mystic it is no longer passive rest- 
ing in God’s encompassing arms, but, 
as in Jean Christophe, an intoxication 
with the madness and fury of living. 
In the modern psychological novei it is 
the coming into some mysterious larger 
and fuller life through the conflict of 
motives and through rich subjective ex- 
perience. In the modern drama, some- 
times nothing but the experience of sin 
itself will bring it to complete fruition. 

In all these forms of self-expression, 
the common motive is the centrifugal 
motive, marked by a craving for excite- 
ment, impatience with restraint, a 
longing for freedom and expansion, for 
the enhancement of life, for the intensi- 
fication of consciousness. 

With this note dominant in our mod- 
ern life and literature, it is foolish to 


296 JATURAL 
speak of social or racial or national de- 
cadence. Clearly, the world is not suf- 
fering from age and decadence. It has 
the virile enthusiasm of youth, but with 
it also the defects of youth, an almost 
childish impetuosity and imprudence, a 
tendency toward no remoter end than 
the mere intensification of the momen- 
tary mood of joy and strength. 


“Tnner Check” 


What is lacking in all these forms of 
self-expression is the “inner check,” 
the motive of restraint and reserve, the 
discipline of the wise man who looks 
beyond the present.t In Platonic 
phrase, it is “justice,” the justice which 
the young man owes to his coming 
years, the justice which each generation 
owes to the next, the justice which each 
individual to society. Every 
young man is free to live the full and 
abundant life up to the point of not in- 
fringing upon the strength and in- 
tegrity of his coming manhood. Hvery 
generation is free to live the full and 
abundant life up to the point of not in- 
fringing upon the health and happiness 


Need of the 


owes 


of the next generation. Every indi- 
vidual is free to live the full and 


abundant life up to the point of not 
infringing upon the full and abundant 
life of all the others in the group. 

But the limitations come quickly and 


fast. Therefore, restraint is necessary ; 
and will be increasingly necessary. 


There is no error here in the anal- 
ogy between the nation and the in- 
dividual. Germany complained before 
the war that she was fettered by a 
surrounding iron ring. To be fettered 
by an iron ring is painful. She longed 
for expansion. But the world has had 
a wholesome lesson from the war. 
Hereafter expansive nations will under- 
stand that they must do their expand- 
ing within their own borders. The 
days of territorial expansion are gone 
by. And it is to be feared that there 


1 Compare Paul Elmer More, Platonism, 
ter V. 


Chap- 


HST ORY 


will soon be a limit to economic and 
commercial expansion. In fact  per- 
haps the virtues of the future will be 
not expansion, not self-expression, but 
self-control and limitation. And can 
we be sure that these latter may not be 
the surer road to peace and happiness ? 
Possibly there is a higher kind of self- 
realization than that found through 
self-expression. Self-realization may in- 
deed be the highest goal of human en- 
deavor, but the self to be realized may 
be the larger self of our collective be- 
ing, including succeeding generations. 

This is nothing, of course, save the 
age-old antagonism between liberty and 
justice. It is merely the habit of our 
modern thought that we have become 
so enraptured with the first of these 
that we have overlooked the vital im- 
portance of the second. Of course, we 
hear a great deal now about justice, but 
it is social justice that we have in mind, 
that glorious social state in which each 
class shall enjoy all the fullness and 
richness of life that any other class en- 
joys. It is not at all that kind of jus- 
tice which Plato taught us, consisting 
not in having, but in doing one’s full 
share. Plato understood, as all the 
older teachers did, that the centripetal 
forces in society must balance the cen- 
trifugal forces, if we expect stabilty in 
our social hfe. With Plato justice was 
the centripetal integrating principle. 
It was realized when every class, and 
every individual, performed its fune- 
tion in the state—in plain terms, did 
its duty. It was a socialistic state, but 
evidently the fundamental purpose was 
different from that of our modern so- 
cialistic state, in which the attention is 
focused more upon our rights than 
upon our duties. 

Socialism as it exists In theory today 
involves, unfortunately, no radical 
change in our current spiritual ideals. 
It accepts without much question the 
philosophy of the full and abundant 
life, and proposes usually a series of ad- 
ministrative and industrial changes, 


OUR. CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 297 


which it is hoped will do away with cer- 
tain evils of the time, such as inequality 
of wealth and opportunity, and the 
selfish exploitation of the laboring 
classes. The emphasis in all these 
modern movements is put upon getting 
one’s full share of the good things of 
the world—food, clothing, wealth, 
leisure, and opportunity—to the end al- 
ways of comfort, happiness, self-expres- 
sion, self-realization, self-development. 

The ancient socialistic state, on the 
other hand, was one in which the atten- 
tion was focused, not on the individual 
benefits to be enjoyed, but on the loyal 
part in the whole undertaking which 
each was to play to the end of having a 
healthy and permanent society. And 
they well understood that in the long 
run the individual found his greatest 
happiness, his highest good, when he 
fixed his attention on the permanence, 
stability and health of the social group. 
A social group in which the human 
units focus their attention upon getting 
each his full share will not bring to its 
members as full and abundant a life as 
a group in which the attention is fixed 
upon doing each his full part. 

Our modern conception of the per- 
fect state is one in which certain 
“evils,” such as poverty, inequality, in- 
temperance, clashes between classes, 
and wars between states, are to be ab- 
sent. Poverty is to be abolished, not 
by self-denial and a limitation of de- 
sires, but by the increase of wealth 
through efficiency, scientific manage- 
ment and new mechanical inventions, 
and by new Jaws regulating the pro- 
duction and distribution of wealth. 
War between nations is to be abol- 
ished, not by curbing our instincts 
of pugnacity, not by education in re- 
straining our expansive desires, but by 
some new political contrivance such as 
a League of Nations. Intemperance is 
to be done away with, not by making 
men strong to resist temptation, but by 
an act of legislation removing the oc- 
casion of temptation. Disease is to be 


abolished, not by assisting nature in 
providing powers of resistance to dis- 
ease, but by devices to protect men 
from the causes of disease. Inequality 
between the sexes is to be removed, not 
by fostering respect for womanhood and 
motherhood, but by votes for women 
and political privileges. 

I would not be understood as belit- 
tling the absolute value of democracy, 
and socialism, and feminism, and pro- 
hibition, and a League of Nations; but 
we oyer-emphasize their total relative 
value for social welfare, even if we 
consider only the welfare of the present 
generation. No society will survive 
without the integrating motive—the 
presence of justice in the Platonic 
sense. The world is stirred today by 
powerful centrifugal forces. Like a 
wheel, it will fly into pieces unless it 
is held together by equally powerful 
centripetal forces. These integrating 
forces are measure, self-control, obedi- 
ence, respect for law and authority, 
restraint, limitation of desires, the feel- 
ing of obligation. As one writer has 
said, we have a superabundance of vital 
energy ; What we need is vital control. 

The finishing touch has finally been 
given to our philosophy of expansion 
by Freud, who has shown us that the 
repression of our instincts and desires 
is dangerous. Why, yes,—dangerous 
now and then for the individual, but 
singularly wholesome for society! It 
is really very naive, this discussion 
about the danger of inhibiting our 
natural impulses. Freud might have 
read in a certain ancient writing of a 
certain wise teacher who said, “If any 
man will come after me, let him deny 
himself and take up his cross and fol- 
low me.” 

The great cry now is for equality of 
opportunity. But opportunity for 
what? If pressed for an answer, we 
say opportunity for self-development. 
Really it is opportunity for advance- 
ment, for wealth, for power. We seem 
to be blind to the existence of other 


298 


higher and more enduring values. The 
society which we picture for the future 
is always built on the Chautauqua plan. 
What we think we want is physical 
comfort, leisure for self-improvement, 
peace and quiet in which we may work, 
freedom from interference and escape 
from fear; but actually hfe is some- 
thing very different. Our socialistic so- 
ciety of the future pictures man as sur- 
rounded by comforts, working six 
hours a day and “enjoying” ten hours 
of leisure which he is supposed to spend 
in self-development; and when all this 
happens it is assumed that he will be 
happy and contented and peaceful. 

A very little knowledge of human 
psychology ought to dispel this dream. 
Life is anything but a Chautauqua 
gathering. Life is a struggle and must 
have the zest of struggle. There are 
values higher than comfort and leisure 
and material goods, and other virtues 
which we need to emphasize more than 
faith, hope, and charity. In an age of 
despair and depression for the masses 
of people such as the beginning of the 
Christian era, the expansive, outward 
and upward-looking Christian virtues 
were like a great light from Heaven. In 
a vital, expansive, centrifugal period like 
the present it may be necessary for us 
to return to the integrating and har- 
monizing virtues of the Greeks,—wis- 
dom, temperance, moderation, and re- 
straint; and it may be necessary for us 
to revise our list of highest values and 
in place of wealth, leisure, lberty, 
equality, and opportunity, write for a 
while conservation, limitation, integra- 
tion. The great things of life, wisdom 
and art and literature and heroes, have 
sprung from periods of storm and 
stress. It is such periods that have 
given birth to opportunity; but it was 
not opportunity for self-development, 
but opportunity for self-control, yes, 
even for heroism and for love. 

To be sure, we hear much about love, 
but it has come to take the forms of 
sympathy and charity. Of both of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


these we have a great and abundant 
measure. What we are trying to do in 
all these modern forms of social re- 
construction is to hit upon some social 
or political device by which we may live 
the full and exuberant life and allow 
our neighbor to do the same. There 
never was so much world-wide sympathy 
for the neighbor who does not live the 
full and exuberant life as there is now. 
We love and sympathize with every op- 
pressed class and every down-trodden 
man. We are taught to love our neigh- 
bor, and we have learned to love him 
with such intensity that we allow no 
one to exploit him but ourselves. As 
Professor Babbitt says, “Our twentieth 
century civilization is a singular mix- 
ture of altruism and high explosives.” 
We love our neighbor and we wish him 
every joy. In his need we shower him 
with charitable gifts. If others abuse 
him, we are ready to fight for him; but 
our conception of love does not quite 
extend to the notion of limiting our 
own desires for our neighbor’s good. 
It does not quite suffice to check the 
megalomania of our capitalistic classes, 
nor persuade them voluntarily to bear 
their just proportion of public taxes, 
nor teach them willingly to share their 
profits with their workers. It does not 
quite suffice to lead our laboring classes, 
when once they find power in their 
hands, to use this power in accordance 
with reason and moderation. 

It is owing to accidental reasons that 
the necessity for restraint and limita- 
tion has not been laid upon us in recent 
times. The discovery of America, the 
industrial revolution, the Pacific fron- 
tier—all these have opened to us a new 
world which has allowed the human 
spirit an indefinite expansion foreign 
to its long history. There has been for 
a short period in human history little 
need of the “inner check,” and it has 
been almost forgotten. 

To be sure, this wild display of cen- 
trifugal forces has brought no essen- 
tially valuable human product, no great 


OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY 299 


literature or art, no Grecian temples, 
no Gothic cathedrals, no Shakespearian 
drama; nor has it brought peace among 
men, nor physical stamina of race, nor 
freedom from vice and misery and crime, 
nor justice, nor reverence. In the midst 
of plenty, it has not abolished greed, 
nor graft, nor strife. But these defects 
have been little noticed, and meanwhile 
there has been stirred within us only a 
desire for still more rapid expansion. 

Only lately have the first signs ap- 
peared to teach us that limitation be- 
longs to the nature of things and can- 
not be escaped. In the crushing de- 
feat of Germany, the first emphatic 
“No” has been spoken to this cult of 
universal expansion. The whole world 
has awakened to its senses and recorded 
its ancient and instinctive protest 
against that ultimate injustice which 
flows from the theory of limitless ex- 
pansion in the case of nations but it has 
not thought of applying this to the in- 
dividual. 

Our little world is getting filled up 
and the need for the practice of re- 
straint and the limitation of our de- 
sires increases yearly. The rapid 
growth in the population of Europe 
and its still more rapid increase in the 
Americas, makes self-control and self- 
denial increasingly necessary if social 
order is not to give way to anarchy. 


A Whole Civilization Might Collapse in 
an Attempted Readjustment to 
New Moral Values 


Nietzsche was well aware that the 
full and exuberant life which he 
preached involved a “trans-valuation of 
all values.” But the trans-valuation of 
moral values is a hazardous business. 
It is life itself which has determined 
these values, and they cannot be re- 
voked by the mere will of heralds of 
revolt. The values which they would 
revalue represent the residual experi- 
ence of long ages of human life and so- 
ciety, during which mankind has dis- 
covered that there are certain rules of 


conduct which are necessary if men will 
live in social relations in peace and se- 
curity. The trans-valuation of these old 
racial values has been attempted many 
times and always something unpleasant 
happened. These unpleasant happen- 
ings may be deferred for many years. 
They may light upon one’s mother, 
one’s family, one’s children. They may 
affect society or posterity—but they 
happen. 

One would think that many of our 
hasty writers of recent fiction and 
drama regard our old rules of conduct, 
our moral codes, as the arbitrary pro- 
nouncements of some external au- 
thority, God, or the king, or parents, or 
the Church. We always think of our 
laws as being “handed down,” and we 
resent having our laws handed down. 
We want to make them. But what we for- 
get is that we have made them and that 
it has taken centuries—ages, to do it. 

The critical importance of such ques- 
tions as wars between nations, the 
equitable distribution of wealth and op- 
portunity, political justice toward our 
women, intemperance, has blinded us 
to other problems which affect the very 
existence of society, namely, social or- 
der and social stability, and physical 
and racial health. And since the whole 
world at present is in a very radical 
and iconoclastic mood, halting at no 
thorough-going change in political and 
social institutions, it has become vital 
that we shall turn our thoughts to these 
other problems. 

What are to be the elements of order, 
the centripetal forces in the new so- 
ciety? The forces working toward 
chaos and anarchy are many. Any 
newspaper page reveals them. The in- 
tense individualism inherent in all 
modern thought, the disintegration of 
states and of old established political 
programs, the constantly growing lack 
of respect and reverence for old insti- 
tutions, in fact the suspicion of any- 
thing that is old and established, the 
powerful influence of modern fiction 


500 


and the modern drama, the loss of the 
religious faith with which our moral 
sanctions have been closely associated, 
and the pragmatic philosophies of all 
kinds that rule in the present—these 
are some of the forces working against 
social integration. 

This is not to say that any of the 
old ideas or these old institutions are 
perfect, or holy, or even good. It is only 
that the obedience to laws, the restraint 
and self-control which are necessary for 
social order, have been in the human 
brain associated with these things. A 
wholly new set of motives for social or- 
der is perhaps conceivable, resting upon 
none of these old institutions, but the 
human brain changes slowly, and an 
entire civilization might collapse in the 
process of a crude and reckless attempt 
at readjustment. 

The disintegrating forces in society 
are many, and apparently increasing. It 
is necessary, if our civilization is to be 
saved, to turn our attention very seri- 
ously, and at once, to the integrating 
forces, to the forces which look to social 
stability, to law and order. 

In the past there have been three 
great institutions which have acted as 
powerful forces of integration—the 
State, the Church, and the Family— 
the integrating power of these institu- 
tions depending not merely on external 
sanctions, but on the powerful motive 
of personal loyalty and allegiance. 
Since in the new society we have prob- 
ably to look forward to the constantly 
decreasing authority of these three in- 
stitutions, it is of the gravest impor- 
tance to inquire what is to take their 
place. 

In particular we must inquire what 
is to take the place of nationalism in 
the new order. When the state is small 
and its emblems are ever present to the 
senses, or when it is unified by art and 
religion, as in ancient Athens, or when 
the very existence of the state is 
threatened by rival states, as in the re- 
cent war, then social integration within 
the state is relatively perfect. Then the 


NATURAL HISTORY 


group spirit, the community spirit, 
keeps the group itself a healthy organic 
unit, the members of the group all 
loyally, willingly, eagerly performing 
severally their proper functions. Then 
justice prevails within the group, laws 
are obeyed and order is preserved. A 
League of Nations, to prevent that 
form of social suicide which a modern 
war has become, seems, as it truly is, a 
ereat step forward in human progress, 
but in the long history of human de- 
velopment social integration and social 
order within a state have depended to 
a large extent on the menace of danger 
to the state from without. When that 
menace shall be withdrawn, social in- 
tegration within each state will be in- 
creasingly difficult. 

The spirit of nationalism at the mo- 
ment, to be sure, burns brightly, but 
the whole trend of the time is toward 
internationalism, due to the community 
of world interests in international labor 
movements, international commerce, 
banking, science and education. 

The trend of events, therefore, forces 
us to believe that loyalty neither to the 
state, nor to the church, nor to the 
family, is going to be a powerful in- 
tegrating force in the new society. The 
vital things now are labor unions, 
workingmen’s councils, women’s fed- 
erated clubs, manufacturers’ unions, 
trusts, and combinations, and countless 
other self-protective organizations and 
combinations of every sort. The old 
loyalty to the state and the church and 
the family has been in large measure 
replaced by loyalty to these countless 
social groups; but unfortunately there 
is no promise that loyalty to these 
eroups is going to be in any sense a 
principle of social integration. On the 
contrary, it appears often to be a source 
of social strife. 

The discussion of this problem in its 
positive aspects does not he within the 
purpose of this article. Possibly a solu- 
tion is not to be found in any political, 
economic, or social readjustments, but 
only in a change in human ideals. 


American Indian Poetry 


By HERBERT J.SPINDEN 


HE myths and songs of the 
American Indians are part of 
our national heritage along with 

the hills and plains that were wrested 
from their creators. These pieces of 
unwritten literature, first transcribed 
into strange hooks and symbols by 
ethnologists and then translated into 
direct and unvarnished English, are 
sources of inspiration for our poets as 
potential as the Mabinogion or the 
tales of Merlin in the literature of 
Wales and England. They are products 
of the environment that we have made 
our own and they express deep human 
feelings in relation to that environ- 
ment. 

When Longfellow wrote Hiawatha he 
took the name and character of his hero 
from the Iroquois, the incidents of his 
story from the myths of the Ojibwa, 
and he cast these materials into the 
poetic mold of the Norse saga of the 
Old World. But writers of today are 
prepared to keep closer to the sources 
and to consult native pieces m transla- 
tion. Ina recently published book! we 
find an interesting anthology of Amer- 
ican Indian poetry and a presentation 
of “interpretations” in the spirit of this 
poetry. While this book presents much 
that is new to the public, it leaves un- 
visited many pleasant fields known to 
special seekers. 

There are tender or tremendous pic- 
tures drawn in the simple words of many 
Indian poems. For instance there is 
something we understand in this one: 

The Sioux women 

pass to and fro wailing 
as they gather up 
their wounded men 
The voice of their weeping 
comes back to us. 


The Path On the 
songs and chants 
Boni and 


1 George W. Cronyn, Editor. 
Rainbow. An anthology of 
from the Indians of North America. 
Liveright, New York, 1918. 


But it is something of a shock to be 
told that this is not a Song of Compas- 
sion, but a Hymn of Hate. More ap- 
pealing to us in its psychology is this 
song of love-hurt that comes from the 
same tribe: 
Although he said it 
still 


I am filled with longing 
When I think of him. 


Or this from the Northwest Coast: 


My child says: 

Look around at the waves,— 
Then she fools me 

with unripe salmon-berries. 


Or this from the Kiowa of the open 
spaces where the winds ride with 
loosened rein at night: 

That wind, that wind 

Shakes my tipi, shakes my tipi, 

And sings a song for me, 

And sings a song for me. 


And what a striking phrase is contained 
in the following Navaho song to the 
magpie: 

The Magpie! The Magpie! Here underneath 
In the white of his wings are the footsteps 


of morning. 
! It dawns! 


It dawns! 

The simple and direct matter con- 
tained in the poems quoted above does 
not offer great difficulties in transla- 
tion. Even more sustained efforts like 
the following passage from the Iroquois 
Book of Rites? can be rendered in a 
natural and straightforward manner, 
although the construction of English 
varies widely from that of Iroquois, as 
may be seen at a glance. The trans- 
lation runs exactly across from line to 
line: 


*Horatio Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites 
(Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Litera- 
ture. Number II.), p. 153. Philadelphia, 1883. 


301 


o02 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Haihhaih! 
Jiyathontek! 
Niyonkha! 

Haihhaih! 
Tejoskawayenton. 

Haihhaih! 
Skahentakenyon. 

Hai! 
Shatyherarta— 
Hotyiwisahongwe 

Hai! 
Kayaneengoha. 
Netikenen honen 


Nene kenyoiwatatye— 


Kayaneengowane. 


Woe! woe! 

Hearken ye! 

We are diminished! 
Woe! woe! 

The cleared land has become a thicket. 
Woe! woe! 

The clear places are deserted. 
Woe! 

They are in their graves— 

They who established it— 
Woe! 

The great League. 

Yet they declared 

It should endure— 

The great League. 


Hai! 
Wakaiwakayonnheha. 
Hai! 


Woe! 


Their work has grown old. 


Woe! 


Netho watyongwententhe. Thus we are become miserable. 


There is a class of Indian composi- 
tions midway between the emotional 
outburst of the short songs and the long 
ceremonial pieces that are blocks in a 
great philosophical structure. Among 
the Eskimo, for instance, we find col- 
loquial poems full of excellent charac- 
ter drawing and understandable humor. 
It would be difficult to improve upon 
the matter of these verses in which 
Savdlat and Pulangit-Sissok pay their 
respects to each other in terms of 
raillery.! 


SAVDLAT SPEAKS: 


The South shore, O yes, the South shore I 
know it; 

Once I lived there and met Pulangit-Sissok, 

A fat fellow who lived on halibut, O yes, I 
know him. 

Those South-shore folks can’t talk ; 

They don’t know how to pronounce our 
language ; 

Truly they are dull fellows; 

They don’t even talk alike; 

Some have one accent, some another; 

Nobody can understand them ; 

They can scarcely understand each other. 


PULANGIT-SISSOK SPEAKS: 


O yes, Savdlat and I are old acquaintances ; 

He wished me extremely well at times; 

Once I know he wished I was the best boat- 
man on the shore; 

It was a rough day and I in merey took his 
boat in tow; 

Ha! ha! Savdlat, thou didst ery most pitiful; 

Thou wast awfully afeared ; 


1D. G. Brinton. American Aboriginal Poetry 
(Proceedings, Numismatic and Antiquarian So- 
ciety of Philadelphia, 1887-1889), pp. 21-22. 


In truth, thou wast nearly upset; 

And hadst to keep hold of my boat strings, 
And give me part of thy load. 

O yes, Savdlat and I are old acquaintances. 


Very different in feeling but of equal 
merit as a sustained effort is a love 
poem of the Tewa Indians of New 
Mexico.? 


My little breath, under the willows by the 
water side we used to sit 

And there the yellow cottonwood bird came 
and sang. 

That I remember and therefore I weep. 

Under the growing corn we used to sit, 

And there the little leaf bird came and sang. 

That I remember and therefore I weep. 

There on the meadow of yellow flowers we 
used to walk 

Oh, my little breath! Oh, my little heart! 

There on the meadow of blue flowers we used 
to walk. 

Alas! how long ago that we two walked in 
that pleasant way. 

Then everything was happy, but, alas! how 
long ago. 

There on the meadow of crimson flowers we 
used to walk. 

Oh, my little breath, now I go there alone in 
sorrow. 


The religious poems that are found 
especially well developed among the 
Pawnee, the Navaho, and the Pueblo 
tribes of the Southwest may have been 
inspired, in part at least, by the ancient 
literary products of Mexico and Central 
America. Unfortunately the anthology 


2H. J. Spinden, Home Songs of the Tewa In- 
dians (AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, Vol. XV, 
February, 1915), p. 78. 


AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY 


before us gives no examples of Aztecan 
or Mayan poetry and only one piece 
from Peru. 

I will therefore sketch briefly the 
best products of literature in these re- 
gions where something close to the 
drama was developed in connection 
with spectacular ceremonies and where 
specially composed verses were recited 
on oceasions of great rejoicing or 
solemnity. To begin with Peru, there 
are names for four different sorts of 
plays among the Incas, covering the 
range from tragedy to farce. Sir 
Clements Markham has given us the 
Inca drama of Apu Ollantay in two 
states, literal and literary. But this 
drama is so much like the drama of 
Europe in form that doubts have been 
cast on its authenticity. It surely con- 
tains native material, modified some- 
what by European influences. In one 
scene the chorus sings the following 
harvest song that has an allegorical 
reference to the love plot in the play. 
Tuyallay—my little tuya—is the name 
of a small finch, and Nusta means 
princess.* 


Thou must not feed, 
O Tuyallay, 

In Nusta’s field, 
O Tuyallay, 

Thou must not rob, 
O Tuyallay, 

The harvest maize, 
O Tuyallay, 

The grains are white, 
O Tuyallay, 

So sweet for food, 
O Tuyallay, 

The fruit is sweet, 
O Tuyallay, 

The leaves are green 
O Tuyallay, 

But the trap is set, 
O Tuyallay. 

The lime is there, 
O Tuyallay. 


We'll cut thy claws, 
O Tuyallay, 

To seize thee quick, 
O Tuyallay, 

Ask Piscaca, 
O Tuyallay, 


‘Sir Clements Markham, The Incas of Peru, 
pp. 353-354. New York, 1910. 


303 


Nailed on a branch, 
O Tuyallay, 
Where is her heart, 
O Tuyallay? 
Where her plumes, 
O Tuyallay ? 
She is cut up, 
O Tuyallay, 
For stealing grain, 
O Tuyallay. 
See the fate, 
O Tuyallay, 
Of robber birds, 
O Tuyallay. 


More ponderous and impressive are 
hymns to Uira-cocha, the unknowable, 
all-powerful and ever-benevolent Su- 
preme Being of the Incas. I quote* 
but a portion of one of these: 


O Uira-cocha! Lord of the universe, 
Whether thou art male, 
Whether thou art female, 

Lord of reproduction, 
Whatsoever thou mayest be, 

O Lord of divination, 

Where art thou? 

Thou mayest be above, 

Thou mayest be below, 

Or perhaps around 

Thy splendid throne and sceptre. 
Oh hear me! 

From the sky above, 

In which thou mayest be, 

From the sea beneath, 

In which thou mayest be, 
Creator of the world, 

Maker of all men; 

Lord of all Lords, 

My eyes fail me 

For longing to see thee; 

For the sole desire to know thee. 


The literary remains from Central 
America are scanty, especially those 
containing verse. Bishop Landa tells 
us that in northern Yucatan dramatic 
representations took place on prepared 
stages or platforms. In Mayan cities 
that flourished in the fifth and sixth 
centuries A.D. we find the ruined re- 
mains of courts surrounded by stepped 
walls. These probably served as amphi- 
theaters. 

Of the poems recited by the Aztecs on 
gala occasions we have fragments that 
make us realize the world’s loss in the 
destruction of this literature.* The 

2 Tdem, p. 100. 

2 Daniel G. Brinton, Ancient Nahuatl Poetry 


(Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Litera- 
ture, Number VII.) Philadelphia, 1887. 


304 NATURAL HISTORY 


sixty songs of King Nezahualcoyotl 
were held by the Aztecs as examples of 
the poetic art at its best. They ad- 
mirably expressed the philosophy of eat, 
drink, and be merry. Nezahualcoyotl 
is addressed in these words by a brother 
poet : 


And thou, beloved companion, enjoy the 
beauty of these flowers, rejoice with me, cast 
out fears, for if pleasure ends with life, so 
also does pain. 


A responsibility above mere pleasure 
was recognized, however, in subsequent 
lhnes, and a permanence for good deeds 
as contrasted with human vanities. 


I fear no oblivion for thy just deeds, stand- 
ing as thou dost in thy place appointed by 
the Supreme Lord of All, who governs all 
things. 


Poetry was flowery speech to the Az- 
tecs and the symbolism of flowers is re- 
peated in lovely phrases. For instance: 


Weeping, I, the singer, weave my song of 
flowers of sadness . . 


I array myself with the jewels of saddest 
flowers; in my hands are the weeping flow- 
ers of war; I lift my voice in sad songs; I 
offer a new and worthy song which is beauti- 
ful and melodious; I weave songs fresh as 
the dew of flowers . .. 


Let my soul be draped in various flowers ; 
let it be intoxicated by them . 


The divine flowers of dawn blossom 
FOTiM 6 s 


O youths, here there are skilled men in the 
flowers of shields, in the flowers of the pend- 
ent eagle plumes, the yellow flowers which 
they grasp; they pour forth noble songs, 
noble flowers; they make payment with their 
blood, with their bare breasts; they seek the 
bloody field of war. And you, O friends, 
put on your black paint, for war, for the 
path of victory; let us lay hands on our 


Commentary.—I. The ‘‘Yellow-Faced One” is a 
descriptive name of the Fire God who had many 
other names. Tzommolco was a temple to this 
god in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and Tete- 
mocan is probably a second name for the same 
building. The question “shall I affront you” 
means ‘‘shall I withhold from you the prescribed 
sacrifice.’ It is a formula that is often used. The 
plural ‘‘my fathers’’ may have been addressed to 
the several priests in charge of the ceremony who 
were regarded as representatives and impersona- 
tors of the god. 

II. Mecatlan was possibly a temple of music; 
at any rate the ‘‘yucca tree booms” refers to the 
beating of the drums which were made of the 
hollow trunk of the yucca. The next name, Chiue- 
yocan, may be translated “Place of Eight-ness,”’ 
—but even then the term is cryptic enough. It 


shields, and raise aloft our strength and 
courage. 


The religious chants preserved by 
Sahagun are written in archaic Na- 
huatl. The phrases must have sounded 
as strangely in the ears of the common 
Indian of those days as the verses of 
Chaucer do in our ears today—perhaps 
more so. Even when carefully trans- 
lated these chants are unintelligible to 
persons ignorant of Aztecan beliefs and 
usages. Therefore I have found it wise 
to follow this chant with a fairly de- 
tailed explanation. 


SONG OF THE YELLOW-FACED ONE? 


I. 
In Tzommolco, my fathers, shall I affront 
you? 
In Tetemocan shall I affront you? 


Ls 
In the temple of Mecatlan, O, my Lords, the 
yucea tree booms. 
In Chiueyocan, the House of Disguises, the 
masquerade has come down. 


III. 
In Tzommolco they have begun to sing 
In Tzommolco they have begun to sing 
Why come they not hither 
Why come they not hither. 


IV. 
In Tzommolco human beings shall be given 


The Sun has come up! 
Human beings shall be given. 


V. 
In Tzommolco now ceases the song 
Without effort he has grown rich, to lordship 


he has attained, 
It is miraculous, his being pardoned. 


VI. 
O little woman utter the speech 


Lady of the House of Mist utter the speech 
abroad. 


1 Eduard Seler, Die religidsen Gesange der alten 
Mexikaner. 


was possibly a temple where dancers donned their 
animal masks and other ceremonial regalia. 

III. and IV. These stanzas relate the pro- 
gression of the ceremony and call the priests to 
a sacrificial rite with human victims. The Fire 
God appears to have been the same as the Sun 
God and the sacrifice was made at sunrise. 

V. These words refer to the rewards given 
by the Fire God to the person on whose vow or 
petition the ceremony had _ been - called. This 
divinity was also God of Wealth and Honors. He 
was pleased by worship and he heaped sudden 
wealth and high rank upon his worshipers. 

VI. The last stanza doubtless has some esoteric 
connection with the preceding stanzas. The person 
referred to is possibly a mountain goddess connected 
in some mythical way with the Fire God. Possibly 
she is requested to herald his fame and powers. 


== ee 


AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY 


This Aztecan chant takes up events 
in succession and gives enough detail to 
indicate this succession to anyone fa- 
miliar with the words and the religious 
background. It must be evident to the 
reader that the feeling of mystery and 
illusion gained from the first perusal 
largely disappears when we are in pos- 
session of even a portion of the facts 
and formule known to the creators. In 
the absence of this knowledge we get an 
emotional reaction, it is true. Our in- 
telligence, that naturally strives to 
make sense out of words, is teased and 
thwarted. 

The religious poems of the Pueblo 
Indians, of the Navaho, Pawnee, and 
Omaha, are filled with formule and 
with more or less esoteric and priestly 
phrases that the Indians call “high 
words.” For instance, the repetition of 
a prayer to the four directions and to 
the above and the below is a formula of 
universality. The association with these 
world points of special colors, hunting 
animals, game animals, birds, ete.,.is a 
pictographic device probably taken over 
by the northern tribes from the highly 
developed cosmology of Mexico. The 
greater gods of the northern Indians 
lack, in general, the definite charac- 
terizations that we find in Mexico. They 
are formless powers that move in clouds 
and floods. But there are lesser gods 
who are commonly personifications of 
animals, plants, ete. Of course, the 
names of these gods can never have as- 
sociations for us of the same sort that 
they do for the original Americans. 

Indian invocations often carry a 
dreadful sincerity and give a sense of 
impending divinity. The argument is 
consistently made through objective 
reality to subjective ideality. Note how 
the Sia appeal through the eye and ear 
to the reasoning mind that would know 
the Makers of Storms: 


Cover my earth mother four times with many 
flowers. 

Let the heavens be covered with the banked 
up clouds. 


305 


Let the earth be covered with fog; cover the 
earth with rains. 

Great waters, rains, cover the earth. 
Lightning cover the earth. 

Let thunder be heard over the earth; let 
thunder be heard; 

Let thunder be heard over the six regions of 
the earth. 


To these Indians the esthetic arts 
are useful and filled with magic. Their 
songs are prayers for rain as are like- 
wise the designs they paint on pottery 
or weave on cloth. They live immersed 
in beauty, but it is the beauty that does, 
not the beauty that seems. While the 
Navaho god created he sang as fol- 
lows: 

In old age wandering on the trail of beauty. 
For them I make. 


To form them fair, for them I labor. 
For them I make. 


In these words is expressed the philoso- 
phy that beauty is truth and perfection 
in use and being. 

The question soon asked by a person 
skilled in the use of words on reading 
American Indian verse is this: “How 
much of the effect is real and how much 
is adventitious?” Someone has some- 
where observed that when you learn a 
new language you acquire a new soul. 
Words are not merely the carriers of 
thought, they are also to a large extent 
the molds of thought. New sets of 
words involve new ways of thinking be- 
cause they establish new associations be- 
tween objects and ideas. Literal trans- 
lation may put into the language of the 
second part some original quality of the 
language of the first part, but more 
often it puts in a new and picturesque 
something that comes from mere con- 
trast between two systems of word or- 
der and word association. 

Language makes possible the trans- 
ference of ideas from one human mind 
to another only because articulated 
sounds—or graphie symbols that substi- 
tute for them in writing—rest upon a 
social basis of common acceptance for 
the word and common experience for 
the meaning. But just as the art of 


306 


Weaving varies from one place. to 
another because tools, materials, and 
ideas of construction vary, so the art of 
presenting thought in sounds or pre- 
serving it in sound symbols, is modified 
and limited by the mechanical possibil- 
ties and suggestions inherent in the 
particular language. Textile design, 
properly speaking, must follow the lines 
of construction. Poetry is design in 
words and in any particular language 
it must also adjust itself to construc- 
tion. The device of rhyme, for in- 
stance, is not always possible. Rhythm 
of one kind or another is usually pres- 
ent because primitive peems are usually 
sung. Accent is common in polysyl- 
labic languages but the primitive singer 
does not hold himself strictly to these 
accents. Syllables may be slurred, 
lengthened, reduplicated, ete., to meet 
the requirements of the singing voice. 
Repetition often gives rise to stanza 
forms especially when there is an or- 
derly variation combined with the repe- 
tition. Thus in an extempore song of 
virtues in a funeral ceremony a qualify- 
ing phrase may vary between set 
phrases. For example: 
She is dead, the generous one, 
My daughter is dead, dead! 


She is dead, the loving one, 
My daughter is dead, dead! 


In the translation of poetry there are 
the prose and the poetical methods. 
The prose method is to translate simply 
the thought, and the natural tendency 
of the followers of this method is to 
translate the thought into English which 
is devoid of any emotional quality. The 
poetic method is to translate the 
thought as directly as possible into 
words of emotional quality. - The diffi- 
culty with this method is that it is hard 
to match emotional qualities between 


languages. Moreover, the persons who 
naturally prefer it have subjective 


rather than objective interests. Amer- 
ican Indian languages are rich in terms 
that single out details of the outside 


NATURAL HISTORY 


world and in classifications of the states 
of matter but they are weak in words 
that present or qualify the subjective 
world and the states of mind. Yet, far 
from being materialistic, the Indians 
recognized a persistent duality in na- 
ture and each thing had its soul. 

Some anthropologists, especially 
Frank Cushing, Alice Fletcher, Wash- 
ington Matthews, and Jeremiah Cur- 
tin, have treated Indian songs and 
myths in literary fashion. But they 
have worked from native texts and so 
have not gone far astray on the funda- 
mental meanings of the original words. 
The criticism of their translations hes 
not so much in denotation as connota- 
tion. An English word may have ap- 
proximately the same meaning as an 
Indian word and yet have entirely dif- 
ferent associations. They have given a 
poetic quality where there should be a 
poetic quality—but perhaps they have 
endowed the rose with the fragrance of 
the violet. 

When it comes to a second remove 
such as is seen in the “interpretation” 
of Indian verse we are on still more 
doubtful ground. Even the most pre- 
tentious interpreters of Indian modes 
of thought make mistakes. For in- 
stance, one might place greater faith in 
the emotional and intuitive judgments 
of Mary Austin if the poem chosen by 
her to represent the quintessence of In- 
dian art were not a flagrant fraud long 
since exposed. The epithalamium of 
Tiakens was written by a French stu- 
dent of languages named Parisot when 
scarcely twenty years of age. The dar- 
ing youth fabricated the grammar, 
vocabulary, and texts of a language 
which he declared to be that of the 
now extinct Taensa tribe and was suc- 
cessful in deceiving the world for seyv- 
eral years. 

Of course what the interpreters want 
are new themes and freshened expres- 
sions. They can get these by imitating 
the objectivity of Indian poetry that 
pictures causes and circumstances and 


AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY 


lets the mind of the hearer or reader 
interpret for itself. Sometimes the 
word association or the sentence struc- 
ture in a foreign language can be trans- 
ferred legitimately into English. For 
instance, in a song given above let us 
take the Tewa terms p’in’e and hae, 
the diminutive forms of p’in and ha, 
that mean “heart” and “breath.” These 
terms of endearment are different from 
the ones we use in English but are un- 
derstandable because we ourselves make 
use of the affectionate diminutive (as 
in little mother, motherkin, ete.) and 
we associate the heart and the breath 
with love and life. The exotic quality 
that exhales from Burton’s translation 
of the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments 
is partly due to peculiar similes and 
recurring phrases that strike forcibly 
upon our western imaginations. To 
eastern readers these are conventions 
pure and simple and the signs of real 
excellence something entirely different. 

A translation that is first and last the 
carrying over of a thought and all its 
associations from one language to an- 
other, is essentially a new creation. A 
human mind must intervene and re- 
ceive the terms and construction of the 
language of the first part and give out 
not the form but the content of the 
message in terms and constructions of 
the language of the second part. Poets 
who attain the grotesque by half trans- 
lations make an unfair use of Indian 
verses. 

Constance Lindsay Skinner, in the 
terminal essay to The Path On the 
Rainbow, unconsciously makes clear 
that her reaction to Indian verse is in- 
volved and subjective and that she sees 
only through the eyes of the English 
language albeit sympathetically. She 
says: “The Indian water-song is poetry 
to me because of a memory:—an old 
chief, his hair grayed and his broad 
brown face deep-lined by a hundred and 
ten years, his sightless eves—almost 
hidden under sagging, crinkled lids— 


307 


raised to the wet air.” After all it is 
the subjective of our own culture rather 
than the subjective of Indian culture 
that is stirred by Indian poems. 

I believe that the study of primitive 
American poetry should have a whole- 
some and stimulating effect upon mod- 
ern American literature. It is open, 
sincere, and inspiring, and it has an 
engaging quality of directness and sim- 
plicity. 

There is today, however, a pseudo- 
primitive school that in painting, sculp- 
ture, music, dancing, and poetry affects 
the mold but ignores the content of art 
that is genuinely primitive. The work 
of this school lacks communal accept- 
ance, undivided purpose, and innate 
sincerity, and is essentially individual- 
istic and revolutionary.. Nevertheless, 
good may come out of such efforts if 
only the public learn sufficient dis- 
crimination to select gold from dross. 
Real primitive art has behind it a tradi- 
tion of untold centuries while pseudo- 
primitive art can boast only a doubtful 
present. If a choice were to be made 
between the atavistic muse of Dr. 
Frank Gordon that sings: 

By south-way, east-way, shore-land place, 

Men come, 

Boats come, 

Float fast, 

Handsome. 

Man-who-Paints, much-talker, he much- 
walked 

Easterly, south also, 

All-time stalked— ... 


and the untutored savage of the 
Painted Desert whose immemorial gods 
of cloud and bush have taught him to 


say: 


May their roads home be on the trail of 
peace, 

Happily may they all return. 

In beauty I walk, 

With beauty before me, I walk, 

With beauty behind me, I walk, 

With beauty above and about me, I walk, 

It is finished in beauty, 

It is finished in beauty. 


What would the verdict be ? 


‘ 
4 


at 


ERE: 


A NUT PALM BESIDE THE JUNGLE TRAIL 


The nut palm is one of the most common of Panamanian palms. About 


every fifth palm has a 
family of opossums occupying the hollow 


center where the branches start. The photograph also 
shows typical second growth jungle about as high as it ever gets 


308 


Unknown Panama’ 


By TOWNSEND WHELEN 


Lieutenant Colonel, United States Army 


BELIEVE it will surprise most 
Americans, and perhaps a few of 
our field naturalists, to learn that 
right at the back door of the Panama 
Canal lies an almost unknown jungle 
wilderness, unmapped and _ practically 


uninhabited in the interior except 
for a few very primitive Indians. 


Virtually the entire eastern portion of 
the republic of Panama lying between 
the Canal and Colombia, roughly 
three hundred miles long by from fifty 
to one hundred miles wide, is unknown, 
and the published maps of this coun- 
try. except for the seacoast and the lo- 
cation of half a dozen small towns, are 
all faked. 

It was my good fortune to spend the 
entire dry seasons (December to 
June) of 1916 and 1917 exploring a 
part of this country. We found it 
necessary to know something of that 
portion of it nearest the Canal, and it 
fell to my lot, assisted by Companies 
E and H, 29th United States Infantry, 
to make a preliminary exploration with 
a view to planning and expediting its 
accurate mapping by the Engineer 
Corps. 

The coasts of Panama are all ac- 
curately charted. In the vicinity of 
the city of Panama are a few fair-sized 
towns on the larger rivers, and their 
location, as well as the general course 
of the rivers on which they lie, is indi- 
eated with fair accuracy on existing 


maps. Some of the mountain ranges 
which can be seen from the sea 
have also been set down. The re- 


mainder is unknown. Moreover, it 


will of necessity remain so. The 
Panamanian is not a pioneer. Ex- 
ploration does not appeal to him 


and, in fact, he dreads the jungle at 
his back door. No guides to this coun- 


try can be procured. The Indians of 
the interior are hostile to the invasion 
of the country by the whites. There 
are no roads or trails, and practically 
no navigable rivers, back packing be- 
ing the only practical means of trans- 
portation. Even maps are not availa- 
ble, and probably it will be very many 
years before they become so, owing to 
the necessarily confidential nature of 
such accurate maps as exist, because 
of their connection with the defense of 
the Panama Canal. 

It is because this little piece of jun- 
gle probably will remain virgin and 
unspoiled for many years that I think 
it ought to be brought to the attention 
of our field naturalists. It is so easily 
accessible, and yet only the borders of 
it have been scratched by the scientist. 
No one yet knows what is in the in- 
terior, what secrets it contains, what 
new fauna and flora its exploration will 
reveal. 

In the Canal Zone, which extends five 
miles to either side of the Canal, prac- 
tically all of the jungle forest has long 
since been cut off, and in its place has 
grown up a dense, impenetrable sec- 
ond growth of small trees, palms, 
creepers, thorns, and coarse grass. The 
casual visitor to the Canal never sees 
the real jungle, nor dreams of its ex- 
istence. In fact not 5 per cent of the 
inhabitants of the Canal Zone and the 
cities near by have ever seen the virgin 
jungle. To them the second growth is 
the jungle, uninteresting, impossible, 
terrifying. 

But if one cuts his way through this 
tangled growth for about five miles in 
from the Canal he comes to the real 
jungle, standing up like a gigantic wall 
of green verdure. Once in it all is 
different, even the very climate itself. 


1 The illustrations are from photographs by the Author. 


309 


310 


Here one can wander at will, unim- 
peded by thorns and creepers. It is 
even easier traveling here than in the 
woods of our own Northeast, because 
as a rule there is much less “down” 
timber. It is like a new world, a world 
that one has not even read about. 
From the blazing sun and sweltering 
heat of the second growth one enters 
what is almost an underground world, 
cool and balmy. Everywhere the giant 
trees go up limbless for from one hun- 
dred to two hundred feet, and then 
spread out their verdure, literally 
hiding the sky. Beautiful slender palms 
grow in great profusion in the semi- 
darkness forming the lower growth, 
impeding one’s view but not one’s 
Scarcely ever can one see 
more than fifty yards, and never does 
the explorer get an extended view, even 
from the tops of the highest mountains. 
When I first entered the jungle it was 
with an indescribable feeling of awe 
and wonder, and this feeling has never 
left me; nay, it persists, drawing me, 
calling me to come back, more insistent 
even than the “Call of the North.” 
That part of the jungle in which my 
most intensive exploration was con- 
ducted lies to the east of the city of 
Colon, between: there and the town of 
Nombre de Dios, and extending from 
the Caribbean coast inland to the head- 
waters of the Chagres River system. 
Between the Chagres basin and the 
Caribbean coast rises the cordillera of 
Cerro Bruja, a mountain range that 
starts about ten miles east of Colon, 
and rises steadily, culminating in the 
peak of Cerro Bruja (3200 feet) about 
fifteen miles south of the town of Porto 
Bello. East of Cerro Bruja peak the 
Rio Piedras rises almost in the basin 
of the Chagres, flows north around the 
base of Cerro Bruja, then west, and 
empties into the sea halfway between 
Colon and Porto Bello. The Piedras is 
one of the largest rivers of Panama, 
but you will not find it on any map, 
even its mouth having been mistaken 


progress. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


for a lagoon of the sea when the coast 
line was charted. 

The Rio Grande, figuring largely on 
existing maps, is an insignificant little 
stream, several miles long, really un- 
worthy of aname. Beyond the valley of 
the upper Piedras rises a really impos- 
ing range of mountains called Cerro 
Saximo, culminating in a peak some- 
where south of Nombre de Dios, which 
must attain an altitude of from six 
thousand to eight thousand feet. I 
think I am the only one who has ever 
viewed this range, as it seems to be in- 
visible from any place where there is 
any trace of human beings, and its 
presence is barely noted on only one old 
map, with no indication as to its alti- 
tude. 

Beyond Saximo neither I nor anyone 
else knows what. There are rumors 
that the interior beyond is inhabited by 
Indians of the San Blas (Cuna-Cuna) 
tribe, and that they are very hostile to 
invasion of their country by whites. 
Today one can enter the jungle ten 
miles east of the city of Colon, and 
travel eastward through this jungle 
wilderness for more than three hundred 
miles, and except for a few marks of 
my machete, he will not see the trace 
of a civilized being. 

In January, 1916, I established a 
base camp at the end of the extreme 
northeastern arm of Gatun Lake, and 
from there extended my explorations. 
Trails were cut for about fifteen miles 
into the jungle, and other base camps 
were established from time to time. 
Sketch maps were made of the sur- 
rounding jungle, the work being done 
by Companies E and H, 29th United 
States Infantry, which companies I 
commanded from time to time. The 
extended exploration, however, could 
not be done in this way. The difficul- 
ties attending the supply of a large 
number of men in a country without 
trails or horse feed made the work very 
slow. So I was forced to fall back on 
the most primitive of all methods of 


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= 
Zz 
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I 


n twenty 


THE FIRST STEP IN MAKING A JUNGLE BED IN PANAMA 


First a thick, springy mattress of palm leaves is cut (palm boughs in Panama taking the place 
of balsam boughs in northern woods), then the little jungle tent, with waterproof silk floor and roof 
and mosquito net sides, is pitched on top of the mattress, making a most comfortable bed, insect 
proof and cool. At every camp site there were always plenty of palms within a distance of twenty- 
five yards with which to make the bed ; 


312 


‘uipo tree Cavanilesi latanifolia) is 


It always gro\ I ie most 
surrounding 
limb for one 


314 


exploration, that of small parties of 
four or five men, packing all their sup- 
plies on their backs, and remaining out 
as long as their supplies lasted, or as 
long as they could subsist on the coun- 
try. 
of trips of from two weeks to a month’s 
duration, deep into the jungle, and 
learned something of what was beyond 
the edge. We saw the jungle at its 
best. familiar with it, and 
learned to depend on it for shelter and 
most of our food. 

I must confess to absolute incom- 


In this manner I made a number 


became 


One of the 
travel—The black palm is a 
the virgin jungle of Panama. 


things to beware of in jungle 
common tree in 
The thorns which 
cover it are very sharp, and the newcomer in 
the jungle invariably receives many painful 
wounds from it before he learns to look first 
instinctively 
small 


when about to lay his 


to push 


hands on 
aside as he walks 
jungle. The wood of the black 
beautifully colored in alternate 
longitudinal layers of black and white, and is 
much in demand for canes 


trees them 
through the 


paim is very 


NATURAL HISTORY 


petency when it comes to a description 
of the flora of the jungle, incompetency 
both scientific and linguistic. I doubt 
if the jungle as a whole can be de- 
scribed—it can only be marveled at. 
It is beautiful, appealing, terrifying. I 
never cease to wonder at the trees— 
giant moras, borigon,  cavanillesia, 
ceibas, rubber, and fig. The enormous 
trunks with great buttressed roots rise 
a hundred feet without a lmb, and 
then spread out literally to hide the 
sky. Limbs, so high that one can 
scarcely see them among the leaves, 
drop lianas to the ground—long 
tangled lines like the wrecked rigging 
of some masted ship. Then there is 
the secondary growth, a hundred va- 
rieties of tree ferns and palms, suited 
by nature to grow in semidarkness, 
robbed of the sunlight by their- giant 
neighbors. 

Between my first and second year of 
exploring, I came north in desperation 
and appealed to the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution! at Washington for some knowl- 
edge of the flora of this region. The 
reply I received was discouraging, and 
yet should be an incentive to every 
botanist and naturalist: “One man 
could spend a lifetime studying the 
flora of that jungle, and then not know 
it; more than 80 per cent of the jungle 
erowth in Panama is unknown to 
science.” 

My ignorance of the flora extends 
also to the fauna, except that from 
many years of wilderness loafing and 
big game hunting in the North I have 
naturally come to a sort of practical 
method of study all my own, and have 
learned to with some little 
truth, but with very little science. In 
fact, except temperamentally and phys- 
ically, 1 was in no manner equipped 
for a scientific study. Nor with my 
many military duties connected with 


1To Professor Henry Pittier, who probably 
knows this jungle more intimately than does any 
other scientist. having spent many years of field 
study in Costa Rica, and who has actually taken 
one trip into the very country in which I was 
working. 


observe 


UNKNOWN PANAMA S15 


exploration, mapping, and the manage- 
ment and supply of my men, was I able 
to devote much time to natural history. 
The first year I was totally unprepared. 
The second year [ went better equipped 
from a scientific point of view, and | 
believe | made a collection of speci- 
mens, notes, sketches, and photographs 
that might little 
value, but unfortunately these were all 


have been of some 
lost by the capsizing of my cayuca a 
mile out at sea when returning from my) 
Right here I can- 
not refrain from intruding a word of 
caution to men inexperienced in jungle 
field work. Put not too much faith in 
the waterproof qualities of 
the tin containers provided 


longest expedition.’ 


canvas 
bags or 
for waterproofing photographic films. 
Avoid the dug-out cayucas, particularly 
those with little freeboard, when travel- 
ing with precious material. Put no 
trust in the native judgment. 

The bird less 
than the The 
jungle is alive with birds. 


life is no wonderful 


vegetation. Panama 
The variety 
and coloring are truly remarkable. 
Even before | had begun to read any- 
thing on tropical birds I had noticed 
the remarkable restriction of the activi- 
ties of certain birds to certain areas or 
“zones” of the jungle. 


where | did 


In the region 
there 
bird life 
altitude, and three 


most of my work 


seemed to be three areas of 
dependent on the 
or more dependent upor. the jungle con- 
these there 
is what we may call the second-growth 
this 

seen in the virgin jungle. 


struction. In addition to 


area, the birds in being seldom 


As regards 
1When we emerged from the jungle we 
away down the Caribbean coast near the San Blas 
With 


canoe I 


were 


Indian country. 
lar 


a couple of natives and a 


ge dugout started to cruise up the 


coast to Co!on A few hours after we started we 


encountered rough seas off a 


the 


point of land and 


canoe was swamped, spilling us 


ocean, which was infested with sharks Fortu 
nately no men were lost and we were b!own ashore 
finally on a practically uninhabited coast But I 
did lose all my outfit except a little pack which 
contained my maps, films, and camera The 
camera was totally ruined, and although all the 
exposed films were in so-called waterproof cans 


they filled with salt photo 


graphs were spoiled. 


water and all the 


all out in the 


altitude there are the sea-level or low- 


country area, the two-thousand-foot 


area, and the area above three thousand 
feet. 
As regards the jungle at any point 


we can distinguish four areas, which 


we may designate as the ground, the 


low-bush. the medium, and the tree- 


top. On the ground I observed several 


varieties of quail, tinamou, and 


pheasants. In the low-bush area are 


wrens. humming birds, thrushes, ant 


birds, and a variety of other species 
United 


me. In the 


either common to the States 


or unknown to medium 
zone, halfway to the leaty celling of 
dwell owls, 
motmots, and trogans. 


parrots, 


the jungle, doves, guans, 
High up in the 
roof are parrakeets, macaws, 
toucans, and cotingas. 


Many birds seen in large numbers in 


Young ur captured from a herd of about 
forty in the Cerro Bruja Mountains.—After cap 
ture this little animal was kept in a cage for five 
la w! t managed to escape. We thought 


it gone for good, but several hours afterward 
it came back to the kitchen and rrunted to be 

Thereafter it could not be driven away 
from the kitcher ind was the inseparable com 
1 ion of one « ! cooks It was living and 


rood conditior ix months after capture 


316 


the low countries we found absent at 
high altitudes. JI never saw guans be- 
low one thousand feet, 
above that altitude. The yellow and 
black orioles build their hanging nests 
everywhere in the low country but they 
were not seen in the mountains. Please 
understand that what I write should 
not be taken as establishing anything. 
The time for observation was too short, 
and my own observations, while I think 


nor toucans 


they were accurate, were not based on 
scientific study. What I want to point 
out, in fact the whole reason why I have 
undertaken this sketchy description of 
the Panama jungle, is that I believe 
the region is very worthy of intensive 
study by a first-class field naturalist. 
Particularly that very high part to 
the south of Nombre de Dios should 
be investigated, as it may be found 
to contain new forms, or to mark a 
northern limit of some forms hitherto 


me ee 


NATURAL HISTORY 


believed to be confined to the Andean 
regions. 

The mammal life of the jungle is 
very abundant. The ordinary 
traveler, however, will see little of it 
owing to several conditions which only 
aman with extensive hunting or collect- 
ing experience will realize. The con- 
stantly shifting winds of the jungle 
The 
rustling of the vegetation and other 
noises as one walks, alarm the game. 
Moreover, everywhere in the jungle are 
sparks of bright light, the result of the 
filtering of the intense tropical sun- 
heht through small openings in_ the 
leafy roof overhead. These sun patches 


also 


carry one’s scent far and wide. 


sparkle lke diamonds everywhere. I 
think that the watches these 
patches and is particularly alarmed 


game 


when they are hidden by sudden 
shadow. At any rate, when I began to 


avoid these sunny spots, and to take 


The jungle is entirely uninhabited except for a few natives who live on the Caribbean coast 


and never venture into the interior. 


They subsist on coconuts, bananas, yams, and fish. 


They 


gather ivory nuts, raise bananas, and make charcoal for a living, selling their produce to small 


sailing vessels which visit the villages every three months or so. 


their cayucas are works of art. 
equipped with a small sail. 


They are expert canoe men and 


The coast cayuca always has a turned up bow and stern and is 
Invariably these natives of the coast have not the slightest knowledge 


of any of the country other than the route to the next village 


UNKNOWN PANAMA 


extraordinary precautions as to wind 
and noise, I began to see animals. 
Among those I observed were tapir, 
deer, peccary, agouti, paca, sloth, 
coati-mundi, kinkajou, anteaters, mon- 
keys, otter, puma, jaguar (spotted 
and black), ocelot, squirrels, opossums 
of many varieties, and rabbits. 

Snakes were fairly numerous, the 
harlequin snake, boa constrictors, and 
a very long and thin bright green tree 
snake being the most numerous. In 
the two years I observed only two fer- 
de-lance. It is said the bush master is 
met with occasionally, but I have never 
seen one. The snakes are most de- 
cidedly not a menace. In the fifteen 
years of American occupation of the 
Canal Zone the hospital records in- 
clude only one case of snake bite. In 
fact, practically the only dangers at- 
tending jungle exploration are those of 
malaria and getting lost, added to in- 
juries that may come from falling 
limbs and nuts. 

One night in permanent camp a limb 
fell on my cook shack where the three 
company cooks were sleeping, breaking 
the cots of the men, and pinning them 
down to the ground, but fortunately 
not injuring any of them severely. I 
made the remark after the accident 
that that was probably the safest place 
in the whole jungle now. Afterward, we 
abandoned this camp for about a month, 
and on our return discovered that the 
same shack had again been completely 
wrecked by an enormous fallen limb. 

There is one tree which bears a green 
nut about the size and shape of a foot- 
ball, and weighing seven or eight 
pounds. I have frequently noted nuts 
of this kind, that in falling to the 
ground have buried themselves three or 
four inches below the level of the earth. 
A blow on the head from one of them 
might easily killa man. Monkeys feed 
on them, gnawing a circular opening 
about three inches in diameter through 
one end of the shell, and then removing 
the contents with their hands. The 


17 


hollow vessel thus formed makes a most 
interesting and convenient water jug or 
vase. 

I cannot say that the dangers of the 
jungle ever caused me any loss of sleep. 
I do not believe they are any greater 
than the dangers of our own Canadian 
woods, certainly not as great as the 
dangers of our Rockies, and far less 
than the dangers of a modern city 
street. 

I was always interested in the im- 
pression that the jungle seemed to 
make on my men. For my long trips 
I always selected men having the 
characteristics of the pioneer—ability 
to travel without getting lost, physique 
capable of hard work including heavy 
packing, love for hunting, and a knowl- 
edge of camping and woodcraft. Splen- 
did men they were, every one of them. 
They enjoyed the work, just as any 
red-blooded young man would enjoy a 
camping trip in the woods. But there 
always caine, after a time, a difference 
in the way they regarded the jungle, 
and this difference in attitude always 
came at the same corresponding time, 
three or four days in from civilization. 
It would be just at dusk, camp made, 
the little mosquito-proof tents up, sup- 
per cooking, and the hush of evening 
started. Then far off would begin, 
“Wough, wough, wough, O wough-h-h, 
wough, wough,” booming from hill to 
hill, resounding through the whole jun- 
gle, terrifying, paralyzing at first until 
one knows what it is. It is seemingly 
the howl of some large wild beast, but 
in reality it is the call of the howler 
monkey. It is typical of the jungle, 
speaking at once of jungle peace and 
jungle war. From the time that my men 
would first hear this call, they would 
regard the jungle differently. They 
were now of the jungle, they had felt 
its spell, they were coming back; the 
eall of the jungle was in their blood 
never to leave. And so some day, God 
willing, I too shall go back, just as I 
do now in memory. 


Py 


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spoom Avo PUL P[eyULOD BV UDVAJOG JUBAIEYIP oy} SB pouyoep A[Ava]D SV ‘YSoLOF UTSALA OY} PUB YIMOLS PUODOS ay} Woda, { UOLJROLeUOp LRAT) SU SABM]B SI ILE, 


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VuV10O VNOV AHL NO VWVNVd 4O SLNH AAILVN 


1Wuryyy 8 WOples ynq “SNULYYST IS Vq ay} uo t ‘ { ‘ oas) 
} UD ; Pp Toy A Ml =Setin . H Sey BJStA BV [aun Os 


oud ul SIU} Sv Yous MOLA « r ue Pl Ss SI 1] 


03S 


[l@} SE POIYM JO Spay} OMY “WOOT XIS JO ISU, WINUIIXeM B SOTOVeI JJ ‘“WayoIyo rapusy 


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yseids oy} [ood ][Ws wv OJUT Joos petpuNny ouo sdt Joop XIS VUBNST UR UO AA “QUIT OY} FO JYStoy ol} JVYM J9}ZRU OU ‘19IVM OT} OFUT isn say} paqanjstp JT 


‘TaJVM OY} SUISuLYyAVAO soot} JO SQULIT oY} WO SaAjaSMIoY} Suruuns uses oq uvo puv ‘sfood puv seyv] oy} [[B JO Syuvq ayy yUonbery (MPDJNILAqQnN} DUDNHT) SpxEZIT ISO, 


ANIHSNNS 1VOIdOYL NI ONINSVE SVNVNDI 


rayye uo ¢ if ayy JO 4y 
1V  ‘“WRATS SIG} UO dO MAT 


oy} UL [NzYUs{d ATOA ¢ 


{ oy uo 9 


SUIPpBM }Uk 


Pp eq Avul yuRq 
ojoyd ay YM gurod ay 
OW JajMoy AURTY “UR 
apeM O} pojedui0s sem Ayaed a4 


BULBS JIM [nour OF 991n0s 


oy} jo SIOATI 4S ay} JO auo0 


The Senses of Fishes 


By C. 


JUDSON 


HERRICK 


Professor of Neurology, University of Chicago 


UR human world is a very lim- 
ited part of nature. The un- 
aided senses of primitive man 

open a few doors of communication be- 
tween the individual and his surround- 
ings, through which the sum total of 
his knowledge of things as they are 
must be derived. Science has greatly 
enlarged the efficiency of the natural 
sense organs—the microscope and the 
telescope have extended the range of 
vision, the periscope enables us to see 
around a corner, the spectroscope, 
photographic plate, X-ray machine, and 
innumerable other aids have enabled us 
to see deeper into nature. But no new 
senses have been developed and our 
furthest scientific advances and most 
recondite philosophical theories must be 
based in last analysis on such frag- 
mentary knowledge of the cosmos as is 
revealed to us by our senses. Great 
realms of nature remain wholly unex- 
plored, although new artificial aids per- 
mit constant advances into the hitherto 
unknown— Hertzian waves and wireless 
telegraphy, ions and the new chemistry, 
electrons and the new physics. 

Fortunately the traditional five senses 
do not represent our whole physiologi- 
cal equipment for this task. In fact, 
the human animal is endowed with 
about twenty distinct senses, including 
two in the ear, at least four in the skin, 
and numerous others in the deep tissues 
such as muscle sense, hunger, thirst, 
and other visceral senses. 

It is well known that fishes and other 
lower vertebrates possess numerous 
types of sense organs quite unlike any- 
thing in our own bodies, and it is quite 
impossible for us to form any concep- 
tion of what the world appears like to 
these animals except in so far as their 
sensory equipment is similar to our 
own. Even the companionable dog, who 
responds so sympathetically and intelli- 
gently to our moods, lives in a very dif- 


899 


v=aa 


ferent world. Recent experiments have 
shown that his sense of vision is very 
imperfect, especially for details of 
form, and everybody knows the incon- 
ceivable delicacy of the hound’s sense of 
smell. With us vision is the dominant 
sense and our mental imagery is largely 
in terms of things seen. Even a blind 
man will say, “I see how it is,” when 
he comprehends a demonstration. 

What sort of a world is it to a dog, 
whose finest experiences and chief in- 
terests are in terms of odors? And how 
does it feel to be a catfish, provided not 
only with large olfactory organs whose 
central nervous centers make up almost 
all of the cerebral hemispheres of the 
brain but also with innumerable taste 
buds all over the mucous lining of the 
mouth and gills and freely distributed 
over the entire outer skin from the 
barblets (“feelers”) around the mouth 
to the tail fin? We cannot conceive the 
epicurean delights which such an ani- 
mal may feel when he swims into the 
water surrounding a juicy piece of fresh 
meat, by whose odorous and savory 
juices he is bathed. One wonders, 
parenthetically, how far the fish him- 
self is able to conceive or even enjoy the 
pleasures of life. With how much mind 
of any sort the fish is endowed is at 
present an unsolved riddle; but it is 
certain that his behavior complex is of 
very different pattern from ours and 
whatever mind he may have would 
surely be as different as the pattern of 
his sense experience is different. 

Let us pursue this line of inquiry 
further and review what is known of 
the other senses of our catfish. This 
fish has small and poorly developed eyes 
and is largely nocturnal in habit, lying 
concealed in dark corners during the 
day. The retina has remarkable powers 
of adaptation to differences in illumi- 
nation and the fish is very sensitive to 
changes in intensity of light. But the 


THE SENSES OF FISHES 323 


eye is not the only light-sensitive organ. 
Experiments with blinded fish show that 
the entire skin surface is sensitive to 
differences of light intensity, a not un- 
common feature of aquatic animals. 
The image-forming power of the eye is 
probably not very good. Some catfishes, 
it is true, will take a spoon hook, and 
probably a bait must always be in mo- 
tion if it is to be sensed by the eye. The 
usual method of feeding is to trail the 
bottom with the barblets, which are 
very efficient organs of both touch and 
taste, and when contact is made with a 
worm or other suitable food to turn 
sharply and snap it up. 

Just as the eyes are supplemented in 
their functions by the skin, which has a 
very feeble sensitiveness to light, so the 
highly refined chemical sense organs in 
the nose and taste buds are also supple- 
mented by a chemical sense in the gen- 
eral skin. In some other fishes which 
have been carefully tested the general 
skin surface is found to be very sensi- 
tive to chemicals in solution, to some 
substances more sensitive, in fact, than 
are the taste buds themselves. 

In fishes, as in men, the ear contains 
two quite different sense organs—the 
organ of hearing and the organ of the 
sense of equilibrium. The latter lies in 
the semicircular canals, which in form 
and function are similar to those in the 
human body. Indeed, the semicircular 
canals probably play a larger part in 
the behavior of the fish, since main- 
taining perfect equilibrium is a more 
difficult matter for a fish suspended in 
water of about the same specific gravity 
as the body than for a man walking on 
solid ground. But when the man es- 
says to fly, his semicircular canals again 
take a dominant place in his sensory 
equipment. In the practical testing of 
the fitness of men who are candidates 
for the Air Service of the Army the 
most important point to be determined 
is whether the semicircular canals are 
functioning normally. 

Whether fishes hear at all has been 


hotly controverted. That they are very 
sensitive to mechanical jars and vibra- 
tions all agree, but it has been diffi- 
cult to prove whether their responses 
to these vibrations are brought about 
through their ears or by refined cuta- 
neous sensibility. The ingenious ex- 
periments of Parker! have shown that 
both of these organs serve and that, in 
fact, fishes do hear true sound waves of 
rather low pitch with their ears. To 
tones of high pitch they are deaf and 
probably they have no power of tone 
analysis, that is, they can hear a noise 
but cannot tell one tone from another. 
The fishes can boast no superiority 
over ourselves in being able to respond 
to low tones by both the ear and the 
skin. We can do the same, as can read- 
ily be shown by lightly touching the 
sounding board of a piano or organ 
when a low tone is struck. The same 
tone heard by the ear can be readily 
felt by the finger tips. But for per- 
ceiving still slower vibratory movements 
we, with all our boasted brain power, 
must admit ourselves inferior to the 
fishes. They possess an elaborate sys- 
tem of cutaneous and subcutaneous 
sense organs of which we have not a ves- 
tige. These so-called lateral line organs 
in the catfish comprise a complex sys- 
tem of fine tubes under the skin, the 
lateral line canals, and two kinds of 
sense organs in the skin, the pit organs. 
The canals ramify in various directions 
in the head and the main lateral canal 
extends along the side of the body back 
to the tail. They were formerly sup- 
posed to be for the secretion of mucus 
and are still often called the mucous 
canals. But they are now known to 
contain numerous small 
which respond to slow vibratory move- 
ments of the water. The pit organs are 
scattered over the skin, the smaller 
ones each in a flask-shaped pit with a 
narrow mouth and the less numerous 
larger ones exposed on the surface. 


sense organs 


1 See recent work on this subject by Prof. G. H. 
Parker, of Harvard University. 


324 NATURAL 

The lateral line sense organs are all 
supphed by a single system of nerves 
related to the nerves of the ear and quite 
distinct from those for the general tac- 
tile and chemical senses of the skin and 
the cutaneous taste buds. That the 
lateral line organs respond to slow vi- 
bratory movements has been clearly 
shown by Parker, but the distinctive 
features of the pit organs are unknown 
and, in fact, our knowledge of the func- 
tions of the system as a whole is still 
very incomplete. 

It is clear that cutaneous organs of 
touch, lateral line organs, and the or- 
gans of equilibrium and hearing in the 
internal ear form a graded series, and 
all have probably been derived in evolu- 
tion from a primitive type of tactile 
organ. When therefore we both hear 
and feel a musical tone of the piano we 
are reminded of the long and dramatic 
evolutionary history of the very intri- 
cate human auditory organ, whose first 
and last stages both may function at 
the same time in our own bodies. 

We cannot here recount the details of 
the long series of very tedious scientific 
investigations required. to replace the 
conjectures of amateur naturalists and 
fisher folk by accurate knowledge of the 
sensory life of fishes. And even with this 
precise information we are far from a 
true understanding of the fishes’ minds. 
To learn the structure and behavior of 
any animal requires only sufficient sci- 
entific skill and industry, but to under- 
stand the mind of an animal is the most 
baffling of all scientific questions. 

Our own thoughts are purely per- 
sonal matters. Even with the aid of 
language, facial expression, and ges- 
ture, we are able to communicate our 
ideas and feelings to our intimate 
friends only imperfectly, and this diffi- 
culty is multiphed many fold when we 
try to understand even the most intelli- 
gent of the brutes. The only recourse 
is to see how an animal behaves in a 
given situation and then in the light of 
what we know of human and animal 


HISTORY 


bodily structure and function try to 
imagine how we would think in such a 
situation, taking into account the ani- 
mal’s limitations of nervous organiza- 
tion. Obviously this is a poor and uncer- 
tain method at best,and no wonder many 
psychologists have given up the prob- 
lem in despair and decided that the 
only scientific procedure is to pay no 
attention to animals’ minds and limit 
our inquiry to their objective behavior. 
Indeed, so impressed are some of them 
by the futility of scientific study of 
even the human mind by introspection 
that they advocate throwing overboard 
the whole science of psychology. But 
this is too much like sinking the ship, 
cargo and all, to get rid of the rats. 

No, if we wish to attain the heights 
of a true understanding of the signifi- 
cance of mind in evolution, we must 
keep to the steep trail and not yield to 
the temptation to take smoother paths 
leading to the rest shelters by the way. 
But we must watch our steps. By this 
I mean that, although we can interpret 
the animal mind only in terms of our 
own experience, yet we must not un- 
critically read our thoughts and feel- 
ings back into animals’ minds. The 
only safe rule is to assume that an ani- 
mal acts reflexly or unconsciously ex- 
cept when it can be shown that the un- 
conscious mechanisms are inadequate 
to account for the behavior and intelli- 
gence alone is adequate. And these are 
very difficult things to prove in regard 
to animals so far removed from us in 
behavior type as are the fishes. 

The popular dramatization of animal 
life and imputation to them of human 
thoughts and feelings may have a cer- 
tain justification for literary or peda- 
gogic purposes, the same as other fairy 
stories. But let it not be forgotten that 
this is fiction for children, not science 
nor the foundation for science; and 
there is a long, long road to travel be- 
fore we shall be able to understand in 
any but the most shadowy outlines what 
a fish’s mind is really like. 


Recollections of English Naturalists 


Few things in life bind together all sorts and conditions of people, irrespective of age, money, or 


any class affiliation ; but natural history is a bond of such charm that it 


brings all to a common fellowship 7 


By TD; 


A. COCKERELL 


Professor of Zodlogy, University of Colorado 


NGLAND is a land of amateur 
naturalists. The organization of 
British science for public ends, 

now going forward with extraordinary 
vigor as a result of the war, has in the 
past been sadly inadequate to meet the 
needs of the country. It is true that 
such institutions as Kew Gardens and 
the British Museum have rendered in- 
calculable services to the British do- 
minions and the world in general; but 
even these have not always received ade- 
quate support, and the government has 
never in the past shown any real dispo- 
sition to foster research. 

Yet there can be no doubt that the 
English, as a people, possess in a high 
degree those aptitudes which lead to 
success in science ; and when conditions 
become more favorable who can say 
what may not be accomplished? The 
main obstacle, undoubtedly, has been 
the inadequacy of British education. 
Not only were the people in general 
brought up without scientific instruc- 
tion; but the leaders, who mostly had 
every advantage which wealth and posi- 
tion could confer, did not, as the phrase 
is, suspect anything about science. 
Most of them able and sincere men, they 
will seem to posterity like valiant sol- 
diers going to battle, having forgotten 
their weapons. 

In spite of all this, brilliant scientific 
work was done, and the century of Dar- 
win and Huxley, Bentham and the 
Hookers, Wallace and Bates, and a host 
of others, will always shine brightly in 
the annals of biology. One has only to 
consult a monograph on any branch of 
zodlogy or botany to see how great and 


varied have been the British contribu- 
tions. Not only this, but the country 
has been and is full of lesser men, 
spending their leisure moments in the 
study of plants, insects, birds, or fos- 
sils; forming societies and organizing 
excursions; everywhere worshiping at 
the shrine of nature, and gathering 
data for the advancement of knowledge. 

As I look back upon the activities of 
thirty years ago, I marvel at the pure 
zeal exhibited, the love of nature which 
could not be suppressed,—and then at 
the lack of organization for the applica- 
tion of all this energy to public ends. 
There was, no doubt, even a certain 
advantage in the disinterested and so- 
cially detached position of most scien- 
tific men. They were not in science 
“for revenue only,” as is too commonly 
the case in America. They were not 
obliged to tilt at windmills, or break 
their heads against the walls of stupid- 
ity and ignorance. No, they were free 
to pursue their studies as they would, 
tracing the pattern of life without bias 
and without hindrance. Darwin, the 
greatest of their kind, regretted that he 
had not been able to do more direct 
service to humanity ; but who today, for 
humanity’s sake, can wish him to have 
done otherwise than as he did? May 
not the same be said, at least in some 
measure, of the great host of nonpro- 
fessional naturalists who followed in 
Darwin's footsteps ? 

Yet, after all, we must have organiza- 
tion; and England came very near to 
fearful and irremediable disaster be- 
cause she could not quickly use even the 
science she had. Although in the last 

; 325 


century the English schools were so de- 
ficient in scientific courses, the youthful 
naturalist had access to some excellent 
sources of information. There were ele- 
mentary “natural histories,” suited even 
for children, with good colored illustra- 
tions. For those a little older, shilling 
books furnished guides to the butter- 
flies, beetles, common objects of the 
countryside, common objects of the sea- 
shore. The book on butterflies con- 
tained a complete account and good fig- 
ures of every species found in the is- 
lands. Then there were the museums. 
Not only the great British Museum, 
but many of the towns, such as Dover 
and Bristol, had museums, with good 
collections of the local fossils, insects, 
and other objects. Thus the boy was 
largely independent of formal instruc- 
tion, and could puzzle out things for 
himself. 

At the next stage, approaching man- 
hood, the amateur scientific journals 
assumed great importance. The best of 
these, now unfortunately extinct, was 
Science Gossip. In its prime this maga- 
zine had great influence, of a kind 
which I think no periodical has today. 
It was really an organ of the amateur 
naturalist, in which he recorded his dis- 
coveries and advertised his duplicates 
for exchange. It was the means of 
bringing together innumerable devotees 
of the same subjects, who might be in 
different parts of the country or belong 
to quite different social groups. Free 
from commercialism and free from 
preaching, it really represented the 
democracy of naturalists, the rank and 
file. Another much less ambitious pa- 
per, The Naturalist’s World, was pub- 
lished in Yorkshire. It was the organ 
of a society which carried on its affairs 
through the mails. It had something 
of the flavor of Gilbert White, and illus- 
trated very well the saying of William 
Morris, that the secret of happiness is 
in the appreciation of the small affairs 
of life. To the modern rather super- 
cilious doctor of philosophy, these pro- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


ductions would doubtless seem almost 
contemptible; but I can say, with many 
many others, that they gave us extraor- 
dinary pleasure at the time, and stimu- 
lated an interest which will never 
cease. 

In a country like England, where the 
sorts and conditions of men are so di- 
verse, few things bring all together on 
a common level. Natural history did 
this, and herein was one of its greatest 
charms. My brother and I, ardent 
conchologists, corresponded and ex- 
changed with people in many parts of 
England, Scotland, and Ireland. Some- 
times our correspondents would come 
to London, and we would invite them 
to tea at our house at Bedford Park. 
On such occasions the whole family 
would be agog with curiosity to see the 
stranger. He might be a country min- 
ister, an officer in the army, an aristo- 
crat, a man in a small way of business, 
—almost anything, in fact. In any 
event, he was a personality, and the 
bond of interest always made the meet- 
ing pleasurable. 

The love of snails could bridge all 
differences of years or social status. It 
would be hard to exaggerate the uni- 
form kindness shown by older men to 
us youngsters; the long letters they 
wrote, the trouble they took in identify- 
ing specimens, their generosity with 
their duplicates. The one we held most 
in respect was J. Gwyn Jeffreys, the au- 
thor of British Conchology, our stand- 
ard work of reference. He lived in 
London, but we never saw him; a post 
card came from him on the very day 
he died, the last of a long series of let- 
ters and cards; sometimes, when there 
was much to discuss, coming almost 
daily. He was greatly disappointed that 
the British Museum would not pur- 
chase his collection. It was eventually 
sold to the United States National Mu- 
seum, and Dr. Jeffreys wrote me a long 
letter about it, contrasting the attitude 
of the two countries. I fear his ex- 
tremely flattering opinion of the con- 


RECOLLECTIONS OF ENGLISH NATURALISTS 


chological activity in America was 
hardly justified by the facts. 

It was in an effort to see J. Gwyn Jef- 
freys that on May 20, 1884, I went to 
a meeting of the Zoological Society of 
London. It is a custom of the scien- 
tific societies in London to allow visi- 
tors to attend the meetings, if a fellow 
will sign his name after theirs in the 
attendance book. I think it was J. 
Bland-Sutton, now an eminent surgeon, 
then known for his studies in compara- 
tive anatomy, who signed for me on 
that occasion, as he certainly did many 
times thereafter. Jeffreys was to read 
a paper on the Mollusca of the “Light- 
ning” and “Porcupine” expeditions, but 
to my great disappointment he was not 
able to be present. The president, Pro- 
fessor W. H. Flower, was in the chair, 
and Dr. P. L. Sclater, the secretary, 
read the minutes. F. E. Beddard read 
a paper on the Isopoda of the “Chal- 
lenger” expedition; Francis Day, well 
known for his work on the fishes of 
India, spoke on hybrid Salmonide; F. 
Jeffrey Bell, of the British Museum, 
gave an account of the Cuvierian or- 
gans of the “cotton-spinner,” a holo- 
thurian. Then Dr. Bowdler Sharpe ex- 
hibited a new nuthatch from Corsica, 
and I think it was Henry Seebohm who 
showed skulls of Asiatic wild sheep. 
Altogether a wonderful occasion for a 
young man of eighteen, just old enough 
to realize that he was listening to the 
voices of the gods! After that, thanks 
to the unfailing kindness of the society, 
although I was much too poor to think 
of becoming a fellow, I was allowed to 
attend the meetings and use the library 
as much as I pleased. 

The library helped me a great deal, 
as it was close to my residence, and as it 
Was compact and entirely zodlogical, it 
was very easy to make cross references 
and find whatever I wanted. Mr. F. H. 
Waterhouse, the librarian, was one of 
the kindest of men. He so closely re- 
sembled his brother, the distinguished 
entomologist at the British Museum, 


art 


that for a time I did not realize that 
they were not the same person. At the 
meetings, Flower nearly always pre- 
sided, though I recall an occasion when 
St. George Mivart was in the chair. Sir 
William Flower was head of the natural 
history department of the British Mu- 
seum (really a separate museum), and 
whether seen in that capacity, or as 
president of the Zoological Society, he 
was remarkable for a gentle courtesy 
which seemed to make everything go 
smoothly. Temperamentally, he was an 
entirely different man from Sir E. Ray 
Lankester, who succeeded him at the 
Museum. 

About the time I first attended the 
Zoological Society, I began to go regu- 
larly to the British Museum. When I 
was a very small boy, my father took 
me to the Museum, and two things he 
said, as I marveled at the objects dis- 
played, have always remained in my 
mind. He said, “My son, this is your 
Museum,” and then explained how it 
belonged to everybody in the country, 
and all should support it and take pride 
in it. Then he said, “Perhaps some 
day, when you grow up, you will find 
something worthy to be placed in this 
Museum.” I thought that if that 
ever happened, I should be the happiest 
person alive. To this day, the place 
appeals to me with an indescribable 
romance, and my wife says that when 
I die, if I get my wish, I shall go 
to the British Museum instead of to 
heaven. 

At the natural history branch of 
the British Museum, at South Kensing- 
ton, the entomological collections are 
mainly kept in the basement. It is also 
in the basement that researches on Mol- 
lusca are carried on, the specimens re- 
quired being brought in a large wooden 
tray by an attendant. The student goes 
down a flight of steps, and rings an 
electric bell, whereupon the door opens. 
He signs his name in a book, and is 
then allowed to go to the room where 
he expects to work. If he goes regu- 


328 


larly, he has to have a student’s card. 
These precautions are obviously neces- 
sary; but once they have been taken, 
everything is done to facilitate one’s 
work. 

I undertook at one time to investi- 
gate the slugs (naked land Mollusca) 
in the Museum, and it seemed a marvel- 
ous thing to have before me the historic 
specimens of famous authors, even in- 
cluding some collected in the eighteenth 
century by Sir Hans Sloane, the 
founder of the Museum. When a pa- 
submit it to Dr. Albert Giinther, the 
keeper of zodlogy in the Museum. 
Giinther had none of Flower’s urbanity, 
and we were all rather afraid of him. 
It was currently believed that the best 
time to see him was just after lunch. 
I confess I thought him rather unsym- 
pathetic, to say the least; but I now 
recognize that he had a lot of good 
sense, and I have only kindly thoughts 
of him. The last time I saw him was 
shortly before his death, in the depart- 
ment of fishes. JI had grown much 
older and altered in appearance, and as 
he did not recognize me, I did not 
speak. I have regretted that I did not 
find some way to express my feelings 
toward him; but doubtless he did not 
consider that his contact with me had 
been anything more than that of mu- 
seum routine, and would have been sur- 
prised that I had given it much 
thought. 

Occasionally I went to the meetings 
of the Entomological and Linnean so- 
cieties. At the Entomological, the one 
great event I recall was seeing the ven- 
erable J. O. Westwood take the chair, 
and make a communication on a new 
plant louse found on the breadfruit tree 
in Ceylon. Westwood was by all odds 
the greatest of entomologists, and W. F. 
Kirby well said of him, in my hearing, 
“He never gets tired.” Physically, of 
course he did; but his zeal, like that of 
the botanist Sir Joseph Hooker, never 
faded until death came in extreme old 


NATURAL HISTORY 


age. Henry T. Stainton, well known 
for his book on British Lepidoptera, I 
also saw at the Entomological. When 
Stainton died, Westwood read the obit- 
uary in the Hntomologist’s Monthly 
Magazine, and remarked, “The next 
number will record the death of another 
old entomologist.” So it was, for West- 
wood had come to the end of his 
days. 

At the Linnean I have the liveliest 
recollection of hearing Patrick Geddes 
on anabolism and katabolism, and all 
the theory he wove out of and around 
these conceptions. The presentation 
was brilliant and interesting, and pre- 
occupied the mind for a long time, as 
does a well-acted play. 

A society which I regularly attended 
was the South London Entomological 
and Natural History Society, meeting 
in rooms near the south end of London 
Bridge. It included collectors and ama- 
teurs and, in particular, students of the 
British fauna. There was always a 
good series of exhibits, especially of re- 
markable varieties or rare species. Here 
one would meet J. Jenner Weir, of 
Beckenham, well known as a friend of 
Darwin and close student of the Lepi- 
doptera in their more philosophical as- 
pects. Here also came J. W. Tutt, a 
schoolmaster by profession, with un- 
bounded enthusiasm and_ decidedly 
radical views about entomology. It 
was Tutt who produced an elaborate 
study of the variations of the British 
Noctuide, naming all the forms, and 
who later undertook a vast work on 
British Lepidoptera in general, which 
he did not live to finish. He also pub- 
lished a charming series of books on 
his natural history rambles, and a guide 
to the British butterflies, and founded 
that lively journal The Hntomologist’s 
Record and Journal of Variation. A 
nervous and sometimes quarrelsome 
man, he made many enemies; but in 
the course of time he gained general 
respect, and the affection of many. He 
had just been elected to the presidency 


RECOLLECTIONS OF ENGLISH NATURALISTS 


of the Entomological Society when he 
died. 

Going back to a much earlier date, I 
count among the most potent sources 
of my interest in natural history the 
work of John W. Taylor and W. Deni- 
son Roebuck, of Leeds. A notice ap- 
peared stating that a Monograph of the 
Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the 
British Isles was to be published in 
parts. It was to be fully illustrated, 
and as exhaustive as possible. It would 
include not only all British species, but 
all foreign varieties of British species, 
with full details about distribution, 
‘habits, ete., ete. The author, Mr. Tay- 
lor, was to be assisted by Mr. Roebuck, 
who had specialized in the slugs. My 
brother and I quickly responded to the 
appeal to send specimens, as material 
was desired from every locality, and 
nothing came amiss. Our joy was great 
when we found that we had discovered 
an entirely new variety (//elix hortensis 
variety lilacina Taylor) and another 
new to Britain. Almost every trip pro- 
duced something interesting in the way 
of slugs, for England has a splendid 
slug fauna. Many preliminary papers 
appeared, but it was a long time before 
the first part of the monograph was 
ready. It is still incomplete and, owing 
to the war, publication had to be sus- 
pended ; but we may hope that it will be 
continued, and that Mr. Taylor will be 
able to bring it to completion. I never 
saw either Taylor or Roebuck, but there 
are few persons to whom I feel more 
indebted. 

In recording the above details I have 
been interested to describe some of the 
influences which, in my experience, 
tended to develop and mature an incipi- 
ent interest in natural science. Taken 
altogether, these influences constituted 
a potent environment, without which 
even a strong inborn tendency might 
have come to nothing. In a measure, 
they represent the peculiar genius of 
the English nation, which cannot be 


329 


exactly duplicated elsewhere ; but in our 
own way and through the means we 
have, we should in America strive con- 
tinually to create conditions more fa- 
vorable for the stimulation of scientific 
interests. We have indeed some great 
museums, learned and influential so- 
cieties, and excellent publications; but 
the country is vast, and we are only be- 
ginning to develop its intellectual pos- 
sibilities. 

More particularly, I think we should 
in America regard the amateur, and 
give him a chance to codperate in large 
undertakings. In this period of recon- 
struction, science must be our guiding 
star; but in the struggle for wealth and 
power, science is in peril. Under exist- 
ing conditions science tends to become 
commercialized, and economic necessity 
forces young men into positions where 
financial gains dominate all other con- 
siderations. The State must bid against 
all this, not by offering larger salaries, 
but by elevating and dignifying public 
service and the scientific life. 

But even so, it can perhaps count 
among the faithful only those who 
have early learned to love research, and 
to whom science is not merely a means, 
but an end,—the advancement and ele- 
vation of human thought. Thus, 
whether in leisure moments snatched 
from a busy life, or in the service of the 
public, naturalists may remain amateurs 
in the old-time sense of the word, lovers 
of a mistress whom they could not 
betray. 

Such a spirit may resist even the 
temptations of business life, and we 
may see commerce suffused with new 
motives, as the distinction between pub- 
lic and private purposes becomes oblit- 
erated. So much depends upon the 
mode of approach; and Great Britain, 
the land of amateurs, will, I think, in 
this hour of need find in her service a 
group of men and women whose sin- 
cerity and devotion are beyond re- 
proach. 


EDWARD W. NELSON 


Chief, United States Biological Survey 


As a noted American naturalist, for forty years the friend and student of wild bird and mammal 
life, Mr. Nelson has accompanied or led many expeditions to the western deserts, to Mexico 
and Central America, and to the Arctic. He served in several capacities on the staff of 
the United States Biological Survey and in 1916 was appointed chief. Mr. Nelson’s con- 
tributions to the technical literature on the North American birds and mammals is 
very extensive; recently he has enlarged his audience by the publication of a popu- 
lar book, Wild Animals of North America. The value to the layman of this 
account of our native mammals is increased by an unusually profuse illustra- 
tion, natural color portraits from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, track 
sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, and many photographs. The book 
was given preliminary publication in the National Geographic Maga- 
zine of November, 1916, and May, 1918 


330 


Nelson’s “Wild Animals of North 


. 95 . 
America’: A Review 
By Ochs AS A PR CAG ben 


Curator of Birds and Mammals, American Museum; Editor of the American Museum’s scientific zodlogi- 
cal publications (1889 to 1918); Honorary Member of the New York Zodlogical Society ; 
Foreign Member of the Zoological Society of London 


NE of the most valuable of the 
many important contributions 
of the National Geographic 

Society to popular education is Edward 
W. Nelson’s account of the mammals of 
North America,! with colored illustra- 
tions by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, track il- 
lustrations by Ernest Thompson Seton, 
-and half-tone reproductions of photo- 
eraphs of especial interest and_perti- 
nence, published,as stated by the editor 
of the magazine, at a cost of $100,000. 
The account was originally issued in 
two parts, “The Larger North American 
Mammals,” in November, 1916, and 
the “Smaller Mammals of North Amer- 
ica,’ in May, 1918. The two parts are 
now issued together in book form, 
ereatly facilitating their use as a conve- 
nient work of reference, useful alike to 
the naturalist and the general reader. 
Excellent books on North American 
birds, many of them well illustrated, 
have long been available, and also a 
number of magazines exclusively de- 
voted to these easily observed dwellers 
in our midst, graceful and attractive in 
form as well as vivacious and songful, 
their nest building and manner of hfe 
open to all observers. It is easy for any- 
one with the slightest interest in these 
wonderful creations to know intimately 
their life habits and to have a fair 
knowledge of perhaps a hundred species 
that frequent their home surroundings 
of field and woodland. On the other 
hand, it is safe to say that the wild 
mammals equally well known to them 
can be counted on the fingers of a sin- 
gle hand, and of only two or three of 
which will they have more than slight 
knowledge of their manner of life. 
1Wild Animals of North America: Intimate 
Studies of Big and Little Creatures of the Mam- 
mal Kingdom. By Edward W. Nelson. Published 


by the National Geographic Society, Washington, 
D>O, 4918. 


Mammals have, as a rule, no vocal 
powers to attract attention; they are, 
for the most part, secretive and noc- 
turnal in habits. Of the hundreds of 
field mice and shrews and moles that 
inhabit the fields and meadows through 
which we daily walk only a rare acci- 
dent may bring even one of them to our 
ken. Only the hunter and the trapper 
know the haunts of the fur bearers and 
the game animals. Only the profes- 
sional field collector, with his resources 
of skill and of especially devised traps, 
has the opportunity and the required 
knowledge to unveil the mysteries of 
our smaller mammal life. There is no 
“color key” or other popular device to 
aid the amateur in finding out the 
names and relationships of the forms 
he may chance to obtain. The recogni- 
tion of their distinctive features re- 
quires more or less technical training 
on the part of the observer before he 
ean determine the specimen he may 
chance to have acquired. 

The requisites of an author who 
could successfully prepare a volume like 
the present one are numerous and 
varied. Fortunately, Mr. Nelson, chief 
of the United States Biological Survey, 
is the possessor of them all in a high 
Inspired with a love of the 
wild and, above all, with the spirit of 
research and discovery, his natural 
history explorations have taken him 
throughout the continent from the Arc- 
tic tundras of Alaska to the jungles of 
tropical Mexico, and have made him 
familiar alike with the life of the desert 
and the forest. While an ardent orni- 
thologist, he is equally an ardent mam- 
malogist and a broadly trained natural- 
ist able to impart his experiences and 
observations with sympathy and direct- 
He has lived with the animals 


degree. 


ness. 


no 
vv 


NATURAL 
of which he writes and has studied 
them in their homes; on the technical 
side he is a monographer of many of 
the groups of which he so tersely and 
clearly sets forth the life histories. 

The forms (species and local races) 
of mammals now recorded from conti- 
nental North America number nearly 
2500, yet they are reducible, so far as 
their distinctive traits are concerned, 
to a few hundred types. As North 
America, in the sense of the present 
work, is mainly the continent north of 
the tropics, Nelson’s biographies of 
about 120 groups comprise all of the 
types of this large area which are of 
primary interest, from the large game 
and fur-bearing animals to the bats, 
shrews, mice, and squirrels. Thus, the 
hares and rabbits, numbering approxi- 
mately one hundred local forms that 
are considered worth distinguishing un- 
der the “higher criticism” of modern 
days, are treated as constituting six 
groups, each illustrated in color, and 
the distinctive external characteristics 
and habits of the constituents of each 
are clearly and satisfactorily presented. 
Never before has the general reader had 
placed before him in a connected and 
well balanced summary so much essen- 
tial information about North American 
hares and rabbits. And the same is 
true of all the other biographies. 

Mr. Nelson, in his introductory 
pages, contrasts the early days of the 
settlement of North America with pres- 
ent conditions in respect to the larger 
mammalian life of the continent—the 
abundance in the seventeenth and eight- 
eenth century times and the pitiful 
remnants that now remain—and makes 
a strong appeal for the conservation of 
wild hfe. In the introduction to the 
second part, the “Smaller Mammals of 
North America,” a dozen pages are 
given to the generalities of the subject, 
which are condensed under such sug- 
gestive subheadings as “Animals that 
learned to ‘dig in,” “A departure for 
every need,” “Strange adaptations to 


HESLOERY 


meet conditions of environment and 
competition,’ “Geography and color,” 
“Gnawers most numerous of mammals,” 
“Good housekeeping in rodent land,” 
“The ebb and flow of antagonistic spe- 
cies,” “Countless beasts that roam the 
night,” “Animals that put themselves 
in cold storage,” “Defensive and offen- 
sive animal alliances,” ete. Under these 
captions are presented a wide range of 
general statements and philosophic de- 
ductions, as the evident close relation- 
ship of certain northern forms to Old 
World types, and the presence on our 
southern border of a similar affihation 
with tropical American types, while 
others still are distinctly of North 
American origin with no close relation- 
ship to groups found elsewhere. 

The special adaptations of species to 
their particular environments, and to 
very diverse conditions of life, as arbo- 
real, subterranean, aquatic and aérial, 
and the modifying effect of climatic 
conditions, resulting in the develop- 
ment of geographic races in species 
which have a wide range, are also 
among the topics presented. ‘The abil- 
ity of desert inhabiting species to live 
without drinking, “through chemical 
action of their digestive tracts, whereby 
some of the starchy parts of their food 
are changed into water,” is also noted ; 
also the storing of food for winter use 
by some species, while others pass the 
winter in a torpid condition and thus 
do not require food. Molting, or the 
seasonal change of the coat, is also the 
subject of comment, and likewise the 
concurrent change of color from brown 
to white in autumn and the reverse in 
spring in many northern animals as a 
protective provision against enemies. 
In this connection a misapprehension 
of former days in respect to how the 
change in color is brought about is, let 
us hope, finally given its quietus by this 
statement of the now known facts of 
the case: “It was formerly considered 
that the change of mammals from the 
brown of summer to the white winter 


gathered in Canadian and American preserves. 
ward and southward with the seasons, 


manent landmarks. 


NELSON'S “WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA” 333 


coat in the fall, and from the white to 
the brown in spring, was due to a 
change in the color of the hairs, but it 
is now known that it is entirely due to 
The time of these changes de- 


molt. 
pends on the season, and this varies 
several weeks, according to whether the 
fall or spring is late.” 

Mr. Seton’s illustrations and descrip- 
tions of the footprints of a large num- 
ber of different 
when walking and when running, add a 
novel and interesting feature from a 
field that he has made practically his 
The subjects range from bears, 
coyotes, and other carnivores to deer, 


kinds of mammals, 


own. 


moose, and caribou among the larger 
mammals, and from jack rabbits and 
squirrels to field and 
They will vividly recall to many readers 
by them in newly 


mice shrews. 


the imprints seen 
fallen snow during many a winter walk 


The American bison once roamed the central plains and forests of North Ami 


the basis for some of our most picturesque Indian cultures 


Under primitive conditions the buffalo herds migrated 


in the country. In these sketches, en- 
titled “Footprints of Nature’s Wild 
Folk,” Mr. Seton tells us he “usually 
gives the track of a normal adult ani- 
inch of snow, that 
Some of the 


mal in about one 
being ideal for tracking. 
smaller kinds are shown in fine dust. 
The trail goes up or across the page at 
the ordinary gait of the animal. . . 

While there are endless variants in each 
kind, I aim to give the reader at least 
There are 
which 


one typical set of each.” 
nearly sixty of these sketches, 
represent the leading types of mammals 
over a wide range of country. 

Mr. Fuertes’ colored illustrations are 
of course of the highest excellence, and 
give the reader a vivid conception of 
the varied forms of mammal life in 
North America. Our bird 
draftsman may now be awarded equal 


foremost 


honor in another field. 


— 


Copyright National Geographic Magazine, 


Reproduced by special permission 


Even as late as 1870 it was estimated that five and 
a half million head still survived west of the Mississippi, but today there are not more than 4000 and these are 


always following the same trails which were consequently worn into per 


Indeed some of our highways and railways follow in the footsteps of these wild travelers 


1918. 


rica as sole monarch, supplying 


north 


Courtesy of the MacMillan Company 


Watching for the first sign of a forest fire-—To protect the vast resources of our National Forests an 
extensive patrol is maintained. Mr. Boerker tells of the vigilant work of this army of rangers who dur- 
ing 1916 extinguished 5655 forest fires, saving hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of timber and 
perhaps many lives. Lookout men are posted in small cabins on prominent mountain peaks or on high 
hills where they can observe wide areas and watch for fires day and night during the danger season. 
Telephone lines connect the posts with central stations so that information can travel quickly and the 
fire fighters be rapidly mobilized 


“Our National Forests’ ': A Review 


By BARRINGTON MOORE 


tesearch Associate in Forestry, American Museum; formerly in the United States Forest Service; 
Major of Engineers, American Expeditionary Force 


“Our National Forests” is a book by Mr. R. H. D. Boerker, Arboriculturist, Department of Parks, 
New York City, a man who was with the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1917. The book 
should be considered from two distinct points of view: (1) that of the professional forester familiar 
with the National Forests and their administration by the United States Forest Service; and (2) that of 
the general public. The first point of view requires an accurate statement of facts, the second requires 
It is difficult for any one reviewer to take both po:nts of view 
If he is a professional forester he will judge the book on the accuracy of its facts, and he 


that the facts be interestingly presented. 
at once. 
cannot avoid having interests which may not have a lively appeal to the general reader. If, on the 
other hand, he is not a forester, he will know whether or not the book is interesting, but not if it is 
accurate. The reviewer in this case, having been in the United States Forest Service for five years—on 
the National Forests, in the District Office and lastly in the central office at Washington—must confess 
to belonging in the first category, and will judge the book by its accuracy—although it seems to him to be 
also very interesting in the manner of presentation of its facts.—B. MOORE. 


HIS new book on our National Roosevelt, and other lovers of our great West. 


Forests does not attempt a general 
description of the National Forests 
in themselves. Such descriptions we already 


have from the pens of John Muir, Theodore 


Mr. Boerker gives us rather the human side 
of these forests as revealed in the work which 
the United States Forest Service is doing to 


administer them. He has given us the first 


1 Boerker, R. H. D., Our National Forests—A short popular account of the work of the United States 


Forest Service on the National Forests, pp. i-l; 23 


1918. 
o34 


80 illustrations. The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 


“OUR NATIONAL FORESTS” a05 


complete and faithful account we have of 
the activities of the Forest Service and of 
the relation of the National Forests to 
the welfare of the people. He sketches 
briefly the history of the establishment of 
the National Forests and the development of 
the Forest Service. He covers in detail the 
administration of the National Forests and 
the scientific work of the Service. His ac- 
count of how forest fires are detected and 
fought is most interesting. We are told how 
the timber is sold and cut in such a way as 
to preserve the future of the forest; the 
value of the National Forests to the live- 
stock industry, and how the forage is made 
available to this industry; lastly we are told 
of the other uses of the National Forests, 
such as water power and summer camp sites. 
This is but an outline of the main subjects 
treated; it would be impossible to summarize 
in small space all the interesting informa- 
tion contained in the book. 

Mr. Boerker, I would say, is not quite fair 
to the lumbermen (Introduction, page xlii) 
when he says, “Lumbering has been and is 
today forest destruction.” In the Northeast, 
particularly in Maine, lumbermen are awake 
to the evils of forest destruction and anx- 
ious to practice forestry. In fact they are 
practicing forestry, somewhat crudely per- 
haps, but as well as the present economic 
conditions permit. Such a statement as this 
tends to perpetuate unnecessarily the old 
animosity between lumbermen and foresters, 
which has died down as each has come to 
realize his dependence on the other. 

In advocating Government control of cut- 
ting on private lands (page 1), Mr. Boerker 
goes somewhat farther than even many 
ardent advocates of forest conservation. In 
France, where forestry is well established, 
the owner can cut without consent of the 
Government and as he pleases, provided he 
does not reduce the area under forest. 

In the historical part of the book (page 
14), the author gives credit to President 
Harrison for creating the first Forest Re- 
serve. This may be correct, but we have 
always understood that President Cleveland 
initiated the policy of setting aside public 


land for Forest Reserves, and that President 
Roosevelt developed this wise policy to its 
present point. 

The author gives the Forest Service great 
credit for its remarkable work and high ef- 
ficiency, but does not sufficiently emphasize 
two of its most important accomplishments. 
When the Forest Service took over the 
National Rooseyelt’s admin- 
istration, much of the grazing land on them 


Forests under 
was in bad condition through previous over- 
grazing and abuse. 
closing against grazing inflicted a great 
Accordingly the 
Forest Service undertook a thoroughgoing 


To restore this land by 
hardship on the stockmen. 


scientific study of the problem, and dis- 
covered a way by which the range can be 
fully restored without closing against graz- 
ing and without the expense of artificial 
reseeding. The practice of sheep grazing 
was revolutionized, much to the benefit of 
the industry, and the carrying capacity of 
the National Forests was greatly increased. 

The Forest Service has greatly benefited 
the lumber industry also. 
operating on private lands must buy up 
enough standing timber to supply his mill 
for a number of years ahead; often he buys 
enough for twenty years. Obviously this 
means an enormous initial investment on 
which he has to pay interest, taxes, and 
the cost of fire protection. In operating 
National Forest timber no such outlay is 
required. 
he cuts, and saves the expense of interest, 
taxes, and fire protection. 


A lumberman 


The lumberman simply pays as 


The Forest Service is, as the author states, 
under Civil Service. It has always jealously 
guarded against political influence of any 
kind. 


accomplishment of which our Government is 


We have here an example of the high 


capable when politics are kept out. 
Our 

read. 

valuable information presented in a clear and 


National Forests should be widely 


It not only contains a rich fund of 


interesting manner, but also represents the 
first opportunity the people of the United 
States have had of readily learning what the 
Government is doing with one of its greatest 
natural resources. 


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ae ood for a Family of Five’ 


By MARY 


GREIG 


Assistant in the Department of Public Health, American Museum 


ECENTLY two investigators in nutri- 
tion undertook to find out whether 
laboratory rats could pick out an 

adequate diet for themselves if left to choose 
from a variety of food set before them “cafe- 
teria” fashion. The rats selected a pretty 
good diet, although perhaps not quite as good 
a one as the nutrition experts could have 
chosen for them. 

Studies of diets from all parts of the 
world have shown that human beings, too, 
tend to choose adequate diets when food 
stuffs are abundant and varied. But, as a 
matter of fact, most of us do not have great 
enough variety in our diet to give this ten- 
deney room to work in. 

A woman stood looking at the food exhibit 
in the American Museum. She turned-— 
“Huh, I know how to buy the right fcods 
all right—I guess every mother does, but 
the prices is so high.” The critic partly 
answered her own eriticism. It is just be- 
cause the prices are so high that instincts 
do not find opportunity to work themselves 
out. Science must come to the aid of in- 
stinct under the conditions of modern civi- 
lized life. Already in one country even the 
law questions whether pazvents feed their chil- 
dren correctly just because they are parents: 
in England in 1906 an act of Parliament was 
passed to the effect that although a man may 
think he provides his children with food suf- 
ficient for their needs, if a school committee 
think otherwise, he may be forced to pay for 
other meals provided by the committee and 
charged to him. 

Probably the other chief reason that we 
do not choose perfect diets is our individual 
“likes” and “dislikes.” An extreme case will 
show how this works. A workingman came 
from a grocery store, eating a bunch of 
celery. I went in and inquired the price of 
celery. It was fifteen cents a bunch. At 
present food prices the lowest sum that will 
buy adequate food for one grown person for 
a day is about forty-two cents. This man 
would need from 3000 to 4000 calories a day, 


the celery would furnish about 30 calories. 
The man had spent one third of his money 
and he had received only Yoo of his energy. 
(The mineral salts in celery can be bought 
more cheaply in other foods.) If we see a girl 
shivering in a thin coat and wearing silk 
stockings and fancy shoes we smile, but we 
live in a glass house if we buy a “nice thick 
steak” or a “few lamb chops” before we have 
told the milkman to leave at our house every 
morning a quart of milk for every child and 
a pint for each grown-up. L. B. Mendel, of 
Yale, has said, “No one should buy tomatoes 
and lettuce unless he can afford an automo- 
bile’—although, as they are both valuable 
foods, we might buy them occasionally—as 
we would call a taxi. 

Does it “matter” whether we know food 
values or not? Evidence is accumulating 
every day that it does. Recent study of life 
insurance statistics shows that when people 
are overweight they decrease their “expect- 
ancy of life.” “After the age of thirty-five, 
overweight is associated with increasingly 
high death-rate, and at middle life it be- 
comes a real menace to health.” 

It is estimated that at least 10 per cent 
of our school children are undernourished. 
This condition is not confined to the children 
of the poor; in a study of more than 5000 
children in Boston some of the undernour- 
ished children came from well-to-do homes. 

A Phipps Institute study of the garment 
trade shows that “malnutrition is one of the 
most potent causes of tuberculosis among 
the working classes.” 

A recent study of ninety-two family 
diets in New York City might be summed up 
as follows: Food deficiencies were frequent 
where the amount of money spent for food 
was enough to supply sufficient nourishment 
had it been spent wisely. The money was 
spent in such a way as to give high amounts 
of protein at a sacrifice of energy—59 per 
cent of the families were getting less than 
the standard 3000 calories and only twelve 


families too little protein. One half the 


1The department of public health of the American Museum has installed in the forestry hall of the 
Museum an exhibit showing, among other things in wax reproductions of actual foodstuffs, an ideally 


proportioned diet for a family of five, based on the food needs of the body. 
food supply bought for $12 at prices prevailing in New York about December 1, 1918. 


The exhibit shows a week's 
This selected 


diet furnishes energy at the rate of fifteen cents a thousand calories, which is about as cheap as energy 
can be bought now in a diet adequate in other essentials. 


Cot) 


o> 
of 


338 NATURAL HISTORY 


families were spending more than one third 
of the food money for meat and fish. It was 
also found that one group of families which 
spent forty-six cents was getting no more 
food value than a group that was spending 
twenty-five cents. ; 

The amount of money spent annually for 
food in, the United States is 
around $7,000,000,000. 

Intensive investigations made in the last 


somewhere 


few years to learn how families actually 
spent their food money, have resulted in the 
discovery that the average American family 
spends too much of its food money for meat, 
poultry, and fish, spends in fact one third 
when it should spend only one tenth; that it 
spends not milk 
cheese, too much for sugar, and too little for 


nearly enough for and 


vegetables and fruit. 


Phosphorus . . 15.7 


Per cent of cost . . 11.9 
WY TEEN OD in ee ee 
Calories . . 9.9 
Protein . . 13,4 
Caleium .. 8.5 


Per cent of total food values 
obtained from vegetables 


No one group of foods furnishes a complete diet’ 
because each is lacking in some essentials and 
abundant in others. The accompanying three 


diagrams represent the figures given for 
tables, milk, and grain products, respectively, in 
the ‘“‘Perecentage of the total diet’ table. The total 
heights of the columns indicate 100 per cent, while 
the shaded part of the columns marks the actual 
percentage of the total supplied by the vegetables, 
milk, or grain products. For example, 11.9 per 
cent of the total cost of the sample diet was ex- 
pended on vegetables from which was derived 32. 
per cent of the iron found in the diet 


vege- 


When the National War Labor Board was 
chosen to look into labor difficulties during 
the war it became necessary for them to know 
The estimates of 
the experts whom they called in ranged from 


how much it costs to live. 


$1100 to $1500 a year for a subsistence 
minimum in a large eastern city for a family 
If $1500 is selected as the yearly 
income of such a family, then the amount it 


of five. 


may legitimately spend for food will be from 
40 to 50 per cent of this, which comes to 
about from $11 to $15 a week. 

The body has need of many more things in 
its food than the six that we hear so much 
talk about, namely, calories, protein, calcium, 
iron, phosphorus and vitamines, but, if we 
make sure that these are supplied in correct 
amounts, all the other needed materials will 
be included. 


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YMMV EEE A 


Per cent of total food values 
obtained from milk 


Milk is the cheapest of our common sources of 
calcium and a fairly cheap source of protein. It 
is, however, much more expensive as a source of 
iron than are vegetables. On the whole we spend 
too little for milk and cheese and too 
much for eggs and meat. A quart of milk a day 
child is considered as a fair standard for 
milk make it 


relatively 


for a 


the calcium and protein found in 


important in the diet of growing 
children. Milk is also one of the chief sources 
of the fat-soluble vitamines considered essential in 


a healthful diet 


particularly 


FOOD FOR A FAMILY OF FIVE 339 


Percentage of the total diet 


Protein Calories 


Calcium 


Grain products 32.8 32 3.4 
Milk 25.4 17.6 70. 

Vegetables 13.4 STS 8.5 
Meat 16.5 4.7 9 
Eggs 1.8 a ff 
Cheese 4.8 2.4 11.8 
Fats 6 15. 6 
Sugar a 8.9 : 
Nuts and nut products 2.4 6 a5 
Fruits 2.1 {le 2.0 


Tabulated above is a comparison of food 
groups in the diet selected for the American 
Museum exhibit, showing in terms of per- 
centage, the food values and which foods 
This 
diet will supply all the food needs of a typi- 


yield the most for the money spent. 


cal family of five, say a father engaged in 


~ 
ten 
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Ven) + 
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Per cent of total food values 
obtained from gram products 


Grains are almost the cheapest source of energy 
among the various foods and the need for 
cheapening the diet increases, greater reliance must 
be placed upon them for supplying the foundation 
of our nourishment. As the chart shows, however, 
grain products are conspicuously lacking in ecal- 
cium. They are also as a rule deficient in 
vitamines so that grain products should be used 
with foods high in calcium and vitamines such as 
milk and vegetables. These three, supplying in 
the largest quantities all the main elements of a 
complete diet, when taken together form an excel- 
lent foundation which can be supplemented by the 
other foods 


as 


Phosphorus Tron Cost Actual wet. lbs. 
23.4 30.3 15.5 19 
37.8 10.6 27.6 46 
15.7 32.4 LES, 22 

URS 11.3 12. 6 
1.3 2.4 oil 9 
6. 1.2 3.2 ] 

a) 6 10.3 BO) 
re steers 3.2 a 
L.9 Li 1.5 515) 
3.0 OG. 10.6 9 


moderate muscular work, a mother, a boy of 
twelve and one of six and a girl of ten. 
The diet covers the six requirements usually 
considered and therefore all the other essen- 
tials. 

The values for vitamines could not be in- 
cluded because the quantitative aspects of 
this problem have not yet been fully worked 
out for man. The need for the water soluble 
vitamines will be covered by an adequate diet 
of this character and the need for the fat- 
soluble vitamines is safeguarded by the milk. 

It is easy to pick out from this table the 
food groups which furnish each of the food 
needs for the least money. In the lists below 
the cheapest foods are at the top in each list, 
the next cheapest second, ete. 

Protein Caleium Iron 


Calories Phosphorus 


sugar grains cheese cheese vegetables 

grains nuts milk grains grains 

fat cheese vegetables milk meat 
meats fruit 


In the accompanying charts compare the 
height of each of the columns that stand for 
food 
column. 
those foods furnish that food value cheaply. 


values with the height of the cost 
Then it will be plain whether or not 


For instance, look at the chart for grain prod- 
ucts: a glance will show that in these foods 
we buy protein, calories, phosphorus and iron 
cheaply but that grains are expensive sources 
of calcium, 
this: 
very cheap food for calcium but rather ex- 


Compare the chart for milk with 


the values are reversed, as milk is a 


pensive for calories and protein and too ex- 


pensive to be considered as a source of 
iron. Now look at the chart for vegetables: 
vegetables more or less reénforce the food 


Indeed, in the Orient they 


milk, which is searee. 


values of milk. 
are used in place of 
Milk, grains, and vegetables supplement each 
other and make a satisfactory foundation 
diet which can be filled out by other foods. 


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Scientific Zoological Publications of the 
American Museum for 1918 


Summary of work on invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and birds * 


By FRANK BE. 


LUTZ 


Editor of the Bulletin of the American Museum 


OR the most part, papers in the Bul- 
letin and Memoirs of this Museum are 
technical in both language and sub- 

ject matter. Like other papers of the same 
character they are stones which have been 
carved for the great Science building and 
some of them, when viewed separately, may 
be of no more interest to the unprofessional 
man than an isolated building stone would 
be to one who was not an architect. The fol- 
lowing brief notes indicate the general set- 
ing of these technical publications and point 
out interesting features of individual papers. 


Researches on Invertebrates 


One of the Bulletin articles! describes the 
anatomy of a leech which lives on the skin 
of the under side of the flippers of the Flo- 
ridian green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Eight 
of the Bulletin articles and one Memoir deal 
with imsects, highly specialized—both in 
structure and habits—members of the same 
grand division of the animal kingdom, the 
Invertebrata, to which leeches belong. 

Mr. Olsen? reported on the leaf-hoppers 
which had been obtained from time to time 
by various expeditions and preserved for 
study. There are so many thousands of spe- 
cies of insects that no one man can be an 
authority on all of them; and this Museum 
has definitely connected with its scientific 
staff specialists in only three orders. As a 
result, the material obtained by expeditions 
cannot be even largely worked up shortly 
after an expedition returns, but the groups 
not immediately provided for must await the 


7MacCallum, W. G., and MacCallum, G. A. 
1918. On the Anatomy of Ozobranchus branchi- 
atus (Menzies). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
XXXVIII, Art. 12, pp. 395-408, Pls. XXXIII to 
XXXVIII. 

Chris E. Olsen. 1918. North American 
Cicadellide in the Collection of the American 
Museum of Natural History. Subfamily Cicadel- 
line. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 
Art. 1, pp. 1-6. 


call of some one actively engaged with the 
species in question. This was what happened 
with the leaf-hoppers. Mr. Olsen is an ama- 
teur entomologist who is an authority on 
these creatures, restricting his studies almost 
entirely to this one family. This paper is, 
furthermore, an illustration of the mutually 
helpful co6peration which exists between the 
American Museum and students and scholars 
outside of its scientific staff; the Museum 
stores up more material than its staff is able 
to study, but this material is eventually 
used by outside scientists and returned to 
the Museum properly classified and duly re- 
ported upon. It is of interest to note that 
seven of the nine entomological publications 
during 1918 were the result of such codpera- 
tion. 

The department of invertebrate zodlogy 
has for some time been planning its field 
work so as to get material for a study of 
geographic distribution, with special refer- 
ence to the problems of isolation and of 
faunal movements between North and South 
America. As a part of this work the 
Floridian insects have been carefully studied. 
The fifth of a series of reports on this 
part of the work, is by Messrs. Leng and 
Mutchler* on the water beetles of Florida. 
It lists all the known species and gives dis- 
tributional and biological notes, together 
with keys for the identification of certain 
species. 

Mr. Wm. Beutenmiiller, when connected 
with the American Museum, did much work 
toward the preparation of a monograph on 
moths: of the genus Catocala, the moths 
whose front (upper) wings are usually col- 
ored and marked like bark but whose hind 
wings, covered when at rest, are often banded 

3 Leng, Chas. W., and Mutchler, Andrew J. 
1918. Insects of Florida. V. The Water Beetles. 


Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 3, 
pp. 73-116. 


*Summary of work on mammals, recent and fossil, will be published in a later number of NATURAL 


HIsToRY. 


341 


d42 

with bright colors. After the severance of 
his connection 
drawings were sent for editing to Dr. Wm. 


here, the manuscript and 
Barnes, a physician who owns the largest 
private collection of moths and butterflies in 
America and who employs several assistants 
A Bulletin article! and a 
superbly illustrated Memoir? are the result 
of this codperation. The Bulletin article 
contains notes on the life histories of twenty- 
eight species, the outcome of extensive breed- 
ing experiments carried on by Dr. Barnes 


to work on it. 


and his assistant, Dr. J. MeDunnough, dur- 
For the most part the 
experiments deal with species of which the 


ing several seasons. 


early stages were either partly or totally un- 
The “text” of the Memoir consists 
essentially of the extensive captions of the 


known. 


twenty-two plates, giving notes on synonymy, 
The plates are the work of 
Mrs. Wm. Beutenmiiller, together with sev- 
eral by Mr. S. Fred Prince. 
the plates are in color, showing a large num- 
ber of larve and the adults of most of the 
American species wonderfully reproduced by 
the Heliotype Company. 

Dr. E. P. Felt, New York State Entomolo- 
gist and an authority on the small midges, 
many of which cause galls on plants, ex- 
amined and reported upon? the type material 
in the American Museum belonging to the 
family Itonidide (formerly known as Ceci- 
domyide). When an describes a 
species that he believes has not been de- 
scribed before, the material which he has 
before him at the time and from which he 
writes his description is known as “type” 
material, and the author usually designates 
(he always should do so) a single specimen 
as “the type.” Subsequent students refer to 
these types when revising the classification 
of a group. In this way Dr. Felt made some 
important changes in the nomenclature of 


distribution, ete. 


Seventeen of 


author 


the gall midges and drew up more complete 
technical descriptions than did the original 


author. Unfortunately, many authors keep 

1Barnes, Wm., and McDunnough, J. 1918. 
Life Histories of North American Species of the 
Genus Catocala. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
XXXVIII, Art. 5, pp. 147-77. 

? Barnes, Wm.,-and McDunnough, J. 1918. 
Tllustrations of the North American Species of the 
Genus Catocala by Wm. Beutenmiiller, with Addi- 
tional Plates and Text. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., III, N. S., Part 1, pp. 3-47, Pls. I-XXILI. 

3 Felt, E. P. 1918. Notes and Descriptions of 
Itonidid*# in the Collection of the American Mu- 
seum of Natural History. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 6, pp. 179-82. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


their types in private collections which are 
difficult of access and subject to all the 
dangers of storage in a private house and of 
possible lack of care when the owner’s in- 
terest lags or he dies. The American Mu- 
seum offers exceptional advantages as a re- 
pository of type material, being in a city 
which is a center of travel, and having not 
only fireproof cases in a fireproof building 
but also a system for the special care of 
types as distinguished from ordinary speci- 
mens. 

The red-eyed fruit fly (Drosophila melano- 
gaster, formerly known as D. ampelophila) 
has been much used for a study of the laws 
of inheritance. Dr. A. H. Sturtevant, who 
has been very active in such work, is also a 
good student of classification and has written 
a paper+ which furnishes keys for the identi- 
fication of the relatives of this interesting 
creature as well as notes on their biology 
and distribution. 

White ants, which are really not ants but 
are more nearly related to dragon flies, have 
most interesting habits. The paper5 by Mr. 
Nathan Banks does not deal with these 
habits but will help students of termite 
habits to identify the species with which 
they are working. Several new species from 
the American tropics are described. The 
same remarks apply to Prof. T. D. A. Cock- 
erell’s paper® on some bees from British 
Guiana. 

Dr. J. Bequaert has published? a. very 
full account of the Vespide (social wasps 
and their relatives) of the Belgian Congo. 
It is based on the collection brought back by 
Messrs. Lang and Chapin. Keys to and com- 
plete descriptions of the species are given, 
together with copious notes on habits, dis- 
tribution, ete. The author says of Synagris: 
“No other genus of solitary wasps offers such 
an amount of interesting ethological prob- 
lems. Some of the species are still true to the 

4 Sturtevant, A. H. 1918. A Synopsis of the 
Nearctic Species of the Genus Drosophila (sensu 
lato). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 
Art. 14, pp. 441-46. 

5 Banks, Nathan. 1918. The Termites of Pan- 
ama and British Guiana. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 17, pp. 659-67, Pl. LI. 

® Cockerell, T. D. A. 1918. Bees from British 
Guiana. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 
Art. 20, pp. 685—90. 

7 Bequaert, J. 1918. A Revision of the Ves- 
pide of the Belgian Congo Based on the Collection 
of the American Museum Congo Expedition, with 
a List of Ethiopian Diplopterous Wasps. Bull. 


Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXIX, Art. 1, pp. 1-384, 
Pls. I-VI and 267 text figures. 


AN AFRICAN WASP COLONY 


Wasps are conveniently distinguished as social or solitary in accordance with the methods they 
employ in building their nests The social wasps live in community nests, most commonly made out of 
a sort of paper which they manufacture by chewing wood: the solitary wasps construct individual 
mud houses Members of the American Museum Congo Expedition frequent found on the under side 
of thatched roofs a portion shown in the photograph) hundreds of \ Dp nests Sunagris cornuta) 
constructed from kaolin—a kind of clay used by the natives in whitewashing the walls of their huts. 
The wasps had sucked moisture from the brook near by and mixed it with the clay which they had 
then rolled with the front legs and kneaded with the mandible into the required shape of the nest 
This consists of cells each containing a larva and provided witl 1 bent-necked entrance Each female 
builds her own nest and feeds one larva at a time from da to day with ground-up caterpillars until 
it is fully grown; after which the neck of the cell is broken off and se iled for the period of metamorphosis 
to the fully developed wasp. Two or even three of the necked entrance however, can sometimes be 
seen on the same mud lump (not to be confused with the mar mall holes made | the full-grown 
wasps in breaking out); each of these necked entrances is attended by one temale wasp In the habit 
of nesting in dense colonies and of nursing its larve trom da to aa the horned synagris torms @4 
sort of connecting link between the solitary and the social wa 


345 


sa Vee ~ f 9 
2 ef SS i 
From Bequaert’s Revision of the 
Vespide of the Belgian Congo 
The paper nests of these social wasps (Polybioides melaina) of the Belgian Congo are found 
attached to branches overhanging streams. The outside covering consists of several layers of thin 
brittle “paper” with numerous entrance and exit galleries. Within this outer envelope the combs of 
cells in which the larve are reared hang side by side. Some of the nests are three feet in length so that 
with their dense population and numerous exits they become, when in the least disturbed, immediate 
centers of trouble for the intruding observer. Even Stanley, the first white man to enter this region, 
found the black wasps worthy of comment and attention 


= 2 2 
From Bequaert’s Revision of the 
Vespide of the Belgian Congo 
This photograph shows in natural size a tropical African wasp (Synagris cornuta) sitting outside 
the doorway of her clay nest. The nest was found to enclose four irregularly united cells, one empty 
and the others containing respectively a fully developed wasp, a translucent white pupa, and a full- 
grown larva. During the larval stage the wasp is fed daily on a meat diet. To rear the larva from 
the egg to the full-grown larva at the time when the cell must be sealed requires about one month in the 
case of this species (the habits of this horned synagris have been explained on the preceding page) 


344 


SCIENTIFIC ZOOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS 345 


primitive habit of the Eumenine, hurriedly 
accumulating a provision of caterpillars 
above the egg, then walling the orifice of 
the cell, and taking no further care of their 
offspring. In other species, however, the 
maternal instinct is much more perfect; the 
female nurses her young from day to day 
with caterpillars ground up into a paste; 
this is evidently a transition toward the 
feeding habits of the true social wasps. In- 
termediate conditions between these two ex- 
tremes are also found.” 


Researches on Fishes and on Amphibians 


Mr. Carl L. Hubbs, of the University of 
Chicago, has written! concerning the varia- 
tion, distribution, habits, and relationships 
of fishes belonging to the genus Atherinops 
and living on the Pacific coast of North 
America. They are smelts of several inter- 
grading varieties. After a consideration of 
the possible migrations leading up to the 
present distribution of the genus the author 
says: “It seems probable, on the basis of 
the evidence available, that the coarser- 
sealed type of Atherinops, subsequent to the 
northward migration of the finer-scaled type 
and to the separation of the southern islands 
from the mainland, has likewise moved north- 
ward, meeting the finer-scaled type on the 
central coast of California. By the inter- 
breeding of the two forms in this region the 
peculiar hybrid-like intergrades have proba- 
bly arisen. Now, if this intergradation 
should spread more widely, or if the typical 
form on either side should become extinct 
or differentiated, then, according to the 
above explanation, we should have a syn- 
thetic species produced not by divergence 
but rather by the fusion of two species 
which were formerly distinct.” 

Mr. J. T. Nichols, of the American Mu- 
seum, contributed two taxonomic papers on 
fishes. One2 deals with the genus V’omer, the 
material having come from the mouth of the 
Congo and from the Antilles. The other 
paper® treats of material brought back from 


1Hubbs, Carl L. 1918. The Fishes of the 
Genus Atherinops, Their Variation, Distribution, 
Relationships, and History. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 13, pp. 409-40. 

? Nichols, J. T. 1918. On Vomer dorsalis, with 
a Brief Review of the Genus. Bull. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 18, pp. 669-76. 

* Nichols, J. T. 1918. Some Marine Fishes 
from Northwest Greenland. Bul. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 19, pp. 677-83. 


Greenland by the Crocker Land Expedi- 
tion. 

A report by Mr. G. K. Noble, assistant 
curator of herpetology in the American Mu- 
seum, covers the amphibians collected by the 
American Museum Expedition to Nica- 
ragua.t The Expedition obtained twenty- 
seven species of frogs and toads, some of 
these very rare in collections. Two species 
of amphibians were described as new. One 
of these belonged to that curious group of 
Central American salamanders which have 
their digits bound together by fleshy webs. 
These salamanders are equally adapted for 
life in the trees or on the ground. 
new species was related to those tiny Neo- 
tropical tree frogs which, in the course of 
evolution, have dispensed with their vomerine 
teeth. Frogs of many different genera have 
become small, and have lost the vomerine 
teeth. In the Amphibia, teeth as a specific 
character are structures easily lost or ac- 
quired. Two of the tree frogs collected show 
remarkable adaptation to their environment: 
Agolchynis helene has the appearance of a 
green leaf which has been attacked by leaf 
mold; its whole back is vivid green with a 
few scattered spots of yellowish brown. 
Hyla boulengeri is colored very much like 
the lichens so abundant on the forest trees 
of Nicaragua. The scene on the Rio Grande, 
accompanying the report, was taken in the 
central part of Nicaragua. It was here that 
the Expedition camped while hunting the 
many forms of reptiles and amphibians 
which frequent the river banks of these re- 
mote Central American rivers. 


The other 


Researches on Birds 


Mr. R. C. Murphy, of the Brooklyn Mu- 
added®5 another “Contribution from 
the Brewster-Sanford Collection.” This one 
discusses the taxonomy, plumages, migration, 
breeding, and food of the Atlantic petrels, 
or Mother Carey’s chickens, belonging to the 
On page 340 is shown a 
flock of these birds skipping along the sur- 
face of New York Bay. 

This paper establishes the fact that Wil- 
son’s petrel of the North Atlantic is the 


seum, 


genus Oceanites. 


4 Noble, G. K. 1918. The Amphibians Collected 
by the American Museum Expedition to Nicaragua 
in 1916. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 
Art. 10, pp. 311-47, Pls. XIV—XIX. 

5 Murphy, R. C. 1918. A Study of the Atlantic 
Oceanites. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 
Art. 4, pp. 117-46, Pls. I-III. 


d46 


same bird as that found in the far South, 
the southern bird migrating, after its breed- 
‘hi Sis 
proved in two ways: first, by a continuous 


ing season, to the North Atlantic. 


record of migration made from daily obser- 
vation of the birds between the latitude of 
New York and 54 degrees south latitude; 
and second, by a study of specimens taken 
at many points in the North, South, and 


NATURAL HISTORY 


tropical Atlantic. The paper also deseribes 
for the first time the immature plumage of 
the petrel, the sequence of molt, and gives 
new data on the seasons and rate of migra- 
tion. 

Another bird paper is by Dr. Jonathan 
Dwight. It deals with the snow birds called 
Juncos and is illustrated by three color 
plates.» The new aspect referred to in its 
title! is given in the author’s summary 
as follows: “Instead of accepting the 
presence or absence of intergradation as 
a guide by which to separate species 
from subspecies, I have endeavored to 
show that species may be recognized by 
qualitative, and subspecies by quantita- 
tive characters. Specific and subspecifie 
characters in most of the Juncos are 
almost wholly and 
therefore by mapping the geographical 


confined to color 


distribution of color we are able to gain 
from a new angle a fairly distinct im- 
pression of relationships in this genus, 


This Nicaragua frog, Hyla boulengeri (Cope), has pre 
viously been known only from the type specimen in the 
National Museum at Washington, described by Cope 
in 1887. Note its peculiarly long and flat snout. 
Its coloration gives close resemblance to the patches 
of lichens on the trees where it lives 


A scene in central Nicaragua along the wooded shores of the Rio 


Grande, haunt of the rare Hyla boulengeri. 


This was one of the camp- 
ing sites of the American Museum Nicaragua Expedition in 1916 


Even if I am overestimating the 
role played by hybrids we very much 
need a nomenclature that will indicate 
better than at present the intermediate 
as well as the extreme portions of lines 
of variation. Zodlogists 
and botanists, by actual 
experiment, have of late 
years so revolutionized 
ideas regarding species 
and hybrids that sys- 
tematic ornithologists 
are likely to be looked 
upon as backward and 
unscientific unless they 
learn more of fluctua- 
tions and mutations, of 
manifestations of Men- 
delian and other laws, 
and all the modern 
theory that goes with 
them.” 


1 Dwight, Jonathan, 
1918. The Geographic 
Distribution of Color and 
of Other Variable Charac- 
ters in the Genus Jwnco: 
a New Aspect of Specific 


and Subspecific Values. 
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Jian POOOAUDI xr 12) 


pp. 269-309, Pls. XI—XIII. 


A New Director for the British Museum 


SIDNEY FREDERICK HARMER, F.R.S., ENGLISH ZOOLOGIST, APPOINTED 
TO THE POSITION PREVIOUSLY HELD BY EMINENT SCIENTISTS, 
OWEN, FLOWER, LANKESTER, AND FLETCHER 


NNOUNCEMENT comes from London 
of the retirement of Sir Lazarus 
Fletcher, F.R.S., from the director- 

ship of the British Museum (Natural 
History), and of the appointment of Dr. 
Sidney Frederick Harmer, F.R.S., the pres- 
ent keeper of zodlogy, to fill the vacancy. 
The retiring director is noted as a miner- 
alogist. He was formerly keeper of minerals 
in the British Museum, and succeeded Sir E. 
Ray Lankester as director of the Natural 
History Museum in 1910. 

The appointment of Dr. Harmer was made 
at a meeting of the Electing Trustees of the 
British Museum, namely, the Lord Chancel- 
lor, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the 
Speaker of the House of Commons. His 
appointment as the director of the Natural 
History Departments places a zodlogist of 
distinction in the place of the distinguished 
mineralogist. Dr. Harmer will retain the 
keepership of zodlogy until the end of the 
year 1920. During that period the assistant 
secretary, Mr. C. E. Fagan, I.8.0., will 
assist the director in the details of control 
of the Natural History Museum. Dr. Harmer 
was formerly a Fellow of King’s College, 
lecturer in zodlogy, and superintendent of 
He isa 
leading authority on invertebrate zodlogy 
and has published many papers on polyzoa, 
and with Dr. Shipley, now vice-chancellor of 
the University of Cambridge, he edited the 
Cambridge Natural History. In 1907 he 
was appointed keeper of zodlogy at the 
Natural History Museum, and at once threw 


the University Museum of Zodlogy. 


himself into his new duties with vigor. He 
has studied in particular the fauna of the 
sea, and, following the example of his great 
predecessor, the late Sir William Flower, he 
has paid special attention to whales. He 
has taken a deep interest in the conservation 
of animals, and has advised the Colonial 
Office on the preservation of whales and 
seals. He is one of the vice-presidents of the 
Zoological Society. 

Any event in the development of the Brit- 
ish Museum representing, as it does, the 


oldest and greatest museum of the English- 
speaking peoples of the world, is of interest to 
the American Museum. We like to feel that 
the welfare of our Museumis closely associated 
with the welfare of the museum in London. 
The American Museum of Natural History 
has historical connection through its scien- 
tifie founder, Dr. Albert S. Bickmore, with 
the British Museum of Natural History. 
More than fifty years ago, Dr. Bickmore, 
after three years (1865-67) spent in the 
Dutch East Indies, China, Japan, and Si- 
beria, stopped in London on his way home, 
where he showed Sir Richard Owen, at that 
time director of the British Museum, the 
plans for a natural history museum in New 
York, which had been maturing in his mind 
during his long journey in the East. Sir Rich- 
ard expressed general approval of the plan, 


thereby greatly encouraging the young 
traveler. Later, when the great ground plan 
of the American Museum appeared, Dr. 


Bickmore incorporated in it a large central 


lecture hall, the feature included in Sir 
Richard Owen’s plans for the British 
Museum. 


Another indebtedness that we feel to the 
British Museum came through the engage- 
ment of Mrs. E. 8. Mogridge and her brother, 
Mr. H. Mintorn, to prepare the first of our 
bird habitat after methods which 
had been introduced in the British Museum. 
They prepared thirty-seven of these small 
groups for the American Museum, the first 


groups, 


series being placed on exhibition in 1887, 
A third, 
sprang 


and the second series a year later. 
still 
from Sir 


and stronger bond of union 


William 
museum development, not only upon the mu- 


Flower’s influence on 
seums of Great Britain, but upon those in 
Sir William was for 
many years director of the British Museum. 

Still another bond exists because of the 


this country as well. 


courtesy of the older institution in welcom- 
ing members of the scientifie staff from New 
York to study within the hospitable walls 
of the British Museum. Such cooperation has 
been given in the researches of Dr. J. A. 


347 


d4é NATURAL HISTORY 


CO 


Allen on birds and South American mam- 
mals; of Dr. William K. Gregory on fossil 
and recent primates; of Dr. Daniel Giraud 
Elliot, for whose great monograph on recent 
primates every facility was accorded, not 
only in placing material at his disposal but 
also in aiding Mr. A. E. Anderson to make 
many of the photographs for that work at 
the British Museum; of Professor Bashford 
Dean and Dr. Louis Hussakof in their work on 
fossil fishes; and of Professor Henry Fairfield 
Osborn on the Mesozoic Mammalia, a work 
which has proved to be of great influence in 
paleontology. Indeed, there is scarcely a 
member of the American Museum staff who 
has not at some time enjoyed the facilities 
courteously placed at his disposal by the 
British Museum. 

Finally, the two institutions have been 
brought together more than ever before 
through the close bonds of allied scientific 
sympathy which have been created in the 
great war. Steps are being taken to unite 
more than one division of the respective 
museum staffs into similar scientific organiza- 
tions. 

The National Research Council of Amer- 
ica, one of the best outgrowths here of the 
war, is endeavoring to internationalize all 
the sciences, through a permanent coopera- 
tive society. Affiliation in chemistry, as- 
tronomy, and paleontology is under way. 
This suggests and leads the way to affilia- 
tion and cooperation between the museums, 
The American Museum hopes, not only to 
renew and strengthen the bonds. which 
already exist between the American and 
British institutions, but also to bring about 
new means of cooperation and interchange 
of ideas, with exchanges of specimens and of 
methods of exhibition. 

During the publicity and discussion which 
have come in England at this time of change 
of administration in the Natural History 
Museum there have been expressed certain 
ideals of the British Museum and of its of- 
fice of director. 
and educational status of the institution and 


These concern the scientific 


as such are of interest because of their pos- 
sible wide application. We quote from the 
London Times of February 27, the following, 
with full agreement: “The director has to 
represent natural history to the public, to 


other scientific institutions at home, in the 
Dominions and Colonies, and in foreign 
and to the Government 
Departments with which the museum has 


countries, many 


relations. There are few posts with such 
possibilities of advancing the natural history 
sciences, of making them useful to the na- 
tion, and of interpreting them to the public.” 

From the Times of March 5, we quote the 
following in order to help in refuting it: 
“Work in natural history is divisible into 
two—the formation and study of collections 
on the one side, and teaching on the other; 
the former mainly done at museums, the 
latter at universities.” 

The truth is that both universities and 
museums are teaching in character although 
they employ different general methods, and 
at the present rate of growth of the museum 
as a practical educator, its future competi- 
tion with the university is likely to bring 
modification of method in both institutions. 

The further truth is that both institutions 
are fundamentally character, 
with the educational output based on this 
An eminent English naturalist has 
answered in part this old-fashioned distine- 


research in 
research. 


tion between universities and museums, writ- 
ing in the Times of March 9: “The classifica- 
tion of naturalists into those who teach and 
those who form and study collections is very 
loose and misleading. Teaching in science is 
bound up with research, and research in 
laboratories is knit into one with research in 
museums. [The museum research laboratory 
should differ in no way from the university 
research laboratory!| There is no sharp 
division of interest such as your correspon- 
dent assumes, either between the universities 
and the national museums, or between teach- 
ing and the collections within the universi- 
ties themselves.” 

In the history of museum growth there 
has been a preliminary time of development 
of collections, and of accomplishment of a 
laborious mass of systematic and descriptive 
work on them. For most groups this work 
has been pretty well in hand, however, for 
some years; and the idea that a museum is 
limited to collections and taxonomy is no- 
where extant except in the minds of a few 
who have not kept themselves informed as 
to the development of the modern museum. 


The Climbing Fish’ 


py che ol) OC. 

P IN the Andean heights of the De- 

partment of Antioquia, Republic of 

Colombia, there is a climatic stra- 
tum marked by a uniformly cool temperature 
and great humidity. The rainfall is enor- 
mous in quantity. The topography included 
within the stratum is mountainous in the 
extreme. The streams are many and tor- 
rential in character, and their waters rush 
roaring down the steep and tortuous channels 
to the placid rivers of the plains below— 
they are but a series of falls, cascades, and 
blustering “riffles.’ The country rock is 
schistose in character and comparatively 
soft and the erosion of the stream beds is 
very rapid. 

Ancient stream beds high up 
canons’ sides are pitted with many potholes 
of unusual interest to the student of dynamic 
geology. There is not a waterfall in the 
region today so small or insignificant that 
it is not busily engaged in boring out a 
more or less cylindrical hole in the rock be- 
neath. The falling water at the point of 
impact seems inevitably to set up a rotary 
motion, carrying stones, sand, and gravel 
around with it, and the resulting wear bores 
out the pothole. 

Into these potholes falls the drifting, gold- 
bearing quartz with which the upper Andean 
regions abound, and within these mills of 
nature it is ground to an impalpable pow- 
der, and the gold freed from its matrix finds 
lodgment in the gravels and the alluviums 
of the plains and the river bottoms. It was 
the lure of the gold that indirectly drew my 
brother and myself so far into the jungle— 
jungle that answers the most rigid definition 
of the term. 

We were employed to install a hydroelec- 
tric plant to be used in connection with the 
operations of a company engaged in placer 
mining. A permanent camp had been es- 
tablished in niches cut in the steep sides 
of the caion and was located at an elevation 
of 115 feet above the roaring Santa Rita 
Creek. 

Since power streams were numerous, we 


on the 


JOHNSON 


most convenient to the 
The bed of 
this power stream held an average angle of 
thirty-eight degrees from the horizontal and, 
for a considerable distance, slipped down 
over the smooth surface of the worn rocks 
in a thin broad sheet. 

Our first efforts were directed toward as- 
certaining the volume of flow of the stream. 
To do this it was necessary to introduce a 
measuring weir at a point above the take- 
off of the plant. The weir was soon estab- 
lished and the deflecting dams were built in. 
When the water was turned, a part of the 
bed of the stream lay uncovered, exposing 
a couple of old gravel-filled potholes. Since 
such potholes not infrequently contained 
gold, my brother proceeded to dig out one 
of them while I was engaged in taking the 
readings from the weir. 

He had been at this task for only a few 
minutes when he called out to me: 

“Say, here’s a fish.” 


selected the one 
camp for beginning our work. 


I replied saying something about his “see- 
ing things,” and proceeded to expatiate upon 
the impossibility of his finding a fish in such 
a place, and upon the utter inability of any 
fish, even among the best swimmers, to sur- 
mount the difficulties of such a stream. 

I pointed out the absurdity of imagining 
a fish swimming with nine-tenths of its body 
out of the water, as it would have to be, 
up that part of the stream where the water 
passed in a thin sheet over the smooth rocks. 
“He’d have to be an aviator,’ I said. So 
I pooh-poohed the idea recklessly. 

Harry listened with suspicious patience to 
my lengthy dissertation, while I, from a 
theoretical standpoint, utterly demolished his 
unthinking assertion, then he blurted out: 

“Well, are you all through? Here’s the 
fish! This is a fact, not a theory you've 
butted up against.” 

He held in his hand a living fish, and a 
catfish at that, resembling the catfish or 
horned pout of the North. I took it and 
looked it There it was, a real live 
fish, nearly a half foot long. There could be 


over, 


*“Notes on the Habits of a Climbing Catfish (Arges marmoratus) from the Republic of Colombia.” 


By EK. D. O. 
20, 1912. 


Johnson, Annals New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. XXII, pp. 327-333, December 


349 


350 


no possible doubt about it, in spite of the 
utter impossibility of the thing. 

Harry had his laugh and returned to his 
I was completely puzzled—but I 
had pressing work to do. I carefully placed 
the fish in a small pothole at one side. This 
hole was about four inches in diameter and 
twelve inches in depth and held perhaps two 
or three inches of water. Catfish are hardy, 
so I figured that there was enough water 
to last this little fellow until I could give 
him more attention. 

After I had finished my work at the weir, 
I returned to the little pothole to give that 
amazing fish a closer scrutiny. 

He was not to be found, so I called out, 
“What did you do with the fish, Harry?” 

Harry asserted that he had not taken the 
fish and that he had paid no attention to it. 
That certainly was a mystery. I did not 
think it possible for a five-inch catfish to 
jump out of a four-inch pothole twelve 
inches deep. I concluded, however, that 
that was the only way of escape and con- 
tented myself with this rather lame explana- 
tion. 

Before we returned to the camp that 
afternoon, Harry had caught two more 
“cats” in another pothole. These we car- 
ried down to the camp in our dinner pail. 
We arrived at the camp just as the late 
afternoon meal was being served. I hastily 
poured the water and the fishes from the 
dinner pail into a three-gallon galvanized 
bucket and set it in an inconspicuous place 
outside the kitchen. After dinner I sought 
the bucket to get a better look at the fishes 
which had destroyed a good theory. They 
were not in the bucket. I inquired of several 
who might possibly have freed the fishes 
but no one knew anything about them. This 
mystery was getting too thick for comfort. 

The next day I made a special trip up the 
power stream and managed to secure two 
more of these fishes. I brought them down 
to camp and placed them in the same pail 
that had held the others and sat down to 
watch their maneuvers. 

For a time they were content to swim 
about, butting their blunt noses against the 
sides of the vessel. Then, to my amaze- 
ment, one of them thrust its “nose” out 
of the water and began creeping up the 
side of the pail. I watched it hitch itself 
up by short longitudinal movements until 
it had reached the top edge and fell out- 


digging. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


side of the bucket. I put it back and 
watched the performance repeated. Then I 
transferred one to a tall glass jar and 
through the glass watched the operation of 
the creeping mechanism. I caught others 
and dissected them and studied them until 
I was in possession of their secret. 

This lies in the combined action of two 
One of these is the 
ordinary sucker mouth, surrounded by a soft 
flap, very thin and flexible at the edges. 
The other is an interesting structure con- 
sisting essentially of a bony plate beneath 
the skin on the under side of the fish where 
the ventral fins are attached. These fins are 
broad and flat and their surface is studded 
with small sharp teeth pointing backward. 
The bony plate is given a shuttle action by 
muscles attached fore and aft so that the 
fins may be moved lengthwise of the fish 
through a distance equal to about one sixth 
its length. With this apparatus the fish is 
able to create a suction pressure, and by 
means of the alternate action of the two 
suckers, it is enabled to crawl, inchworm- 
like, on a smooth vertical surface.1 

Shortly after this, the mining company 
undertook the cleaning out of a large pot- 
hole which was eight feet in diameter and 
twenty-two feet in depth. Before the bot- 
tom had been reached, the water that re- 
mained in the pothole was found to be full 
of these climbing catfishes. They were nat- 
urally greatly agitated by the action of the 
workmen who were shoveling out the gravel. 
Several times some of them started to 
climb out but were frightened by the men 
and dropped back. I surmised that as soon 
as the work was stopped for the lunch hour 
these fish would essay the long climb to 
the top. I was not mistaken and my watch- 


sucking mechanisms. 


17The climbing catfish which Mr. Johnson de- 
scribes is not the only species of fish which is 
able to climb by means of its ventral musculature. 
In the Himalaya Mountains—so similar to the 
Andes in ruggedness—there occur several species 
which have adapted themselves in various ways to 
this environment. Nemachilus rupicola and per- 
haps other species of mountain cyprinids adhere 
to the rocks by means of their smooth, ventral 
skin and enlarged lips. The silurid genera Pseuw- 
decheneis and Glyptosternum cling by means of a 
well developed abdominal sucker. 'The mountain 
torrents of the Himalayas form the nursery for 
many species of frogs. Their tadpoles, like the 
fish, have become adapted to these terrific floods. 
Some of the tadpoles, such as Megalophrys parna, 
cling by means of their lips and the ventral mus- 


culature, while other species, such as Rana 
afghana, possess a well developed ventral sucker. 
—G. K.N. 


NOTES 


ing was rewarded by seeing four climb up a 
distance of eighteen feet to the pool of water 
above. They followed a thin film of water 
that trickled down the rock. This water 
kept their gills wet and sustained them on a 
climb that must have been arduous. It re- 
quired half an hour to make the ascent. 

To my own satisfaction I had answered the 
question of how it was done; there remained 
the question of why. The fish was evidently 
a case of extreme modification and adapta- 
tion to fit a peculiar environment. Some 
catfish do not climb, why should these? An 
analysis of the environment brought the an- 
swer. 

E found that the Andean torrents were the 
habitat of myriads of these curious crea- 
tures, “capitanes” they are called by the 
natives. The individuals I had examined 
were living in a torrential stream almost 
daily subjected to the sudden fury of sweep- 
ing floods. The violence of these floods is 
unimaginable to one who has not witnessed 


dol 


them. It seems that nothing unanchored in 
the stream bed can withstand their wild 
energy. As swimmers, however, these fishes 
are clumsy and inept. To witness their awk- 
ward, wriggling, swimming movements is 
to know at once that they could not by that 
means of propulsion alone make any head- 
way against even moderate currents. 

We can understand that to remain at home 
in time of flood, these denizens of the wild 
waters anchor themselves by means of their 
sucker mouths. Yet these catfishes are to 
be found in all parts of the streams, from 
the slender spring branches of the high moun- 
tains to the sluggish rivers of the plains. 
Travel they must and by using the climbing 
mechanism I had seen operate—the alternate 
action of mouth and ventral suction plate. 
That they are able to surmount even great 
falls is evident from their presence in the 
Santa Rita Creek, for this stream falls into 
the Santo Domingo River over a precipice 
more than two hundred feet in height. 


Notes 


Mr. Epwarp D. ADAMS has presented to 
the American Museum the oil painting of the 
solar eclipse of June, 1918 (reproduced in 
color in this number of Natura History), 
by the artist, Howard Russell Butler, N.A. 
It is the first time in the study of such as- 
tronomical phenomena, that the colors of the 
corona and its prominences have been ob- 
served by a trained artist, and recorded at 
the moment, eliminating the chance of in- 
accuracy. In connection with this most re- 
markable painting Mr. Adams writes of the 
especial interest attached to the 1918 eclipse 
from the fact that observations of it were 
confined to the area of the United States. It 
is true also that it was observed only by 
people of the United States and Canada, as 
the great war prevented foreign astronomers 
from coming to this country to witness the 
event. The resemblance of the flame at the 
tip of one of the prominences to the out- 
spread wings of an eagle prompted the as- 
sociation of the eagle with the astronomical 
event (it was just at the time of the victori- 
ous advance of the American and Allied 
armies) and suggested the use of the term 
“eagle prominence” in referring to the 
corona of the eclipse of 1918. 


LAWRENCE M. LAMBE, the well-known 
Canadian paleontologist, died of pneumonia 
on March 12, 1919. He had been on the 
paleontological staff of the Canadian Geo- 
logical Survey for thirty-five years, and for 
the last fifteen years had devoted especial at- 
tention to vertebrate paleontology. In re- 
cent years he had come to be regarded as one 
of the leading authorities on dinosaurs. 
When the Geological Survey collections were 
moved to the Victoria Memorial Museum at 
Ottawa in 1910, he took charge of the fossil 
vertebrates and succeeded in building up a 
remarkable collection, especially rich in the 
Cretaceous dinosaurs of Alberta. In secur- 
ing this fine material he availed himself of 
the aid of the veteran American collector, 
Mr. C. H. Sternberg, and of his sons. The 
American Museum staff has followed with 
work and success of Mr. 
Lambe, as he studied vertebrate paleontol- 
ogy in 1903 under Professor Henry Fairfield 
Osborn and learned here much of the field 
technique and methods of research which he 
applied to Canadian paleontology with such 
notable results. His unexpected death in the 
midst of a busy and suecessful career comes 
as a shock te his many friends and as a 


interest the 


B52 NATURAL HISTORY 


great loss to the science to which he had de- 
voted his life. 


A RooseveLtt Memorial Exposition to com- 
memorate the life and achievements of Theo- 
dore Roosevelt will be held by Columbia 
University in the Avery Library during May. 
The University has previously established in 
Columbia House one of the first of the col- 
lege centers for Americanization in the coun- 
try and will establish there a permanent 
memorial to Colonel Roosevelt. 


Proressor and Mrs. Henry Fairfield Os- 
born, accompanying Mr. C. William Beebe, 
left New York February 26 to inspect the 
unusual facilities for research at the New 
York Zoological Society’s station in British 
Guiana. Colonel Roosevelt in 1915 wrote of 
this station enthusiastically as marking “the 
beginning of a wholly new type of biological 
work capable of literally illimitable expan- 
sion.” 


THe Tropical Research Station of the 
New York Zoological Society in British 
Guiana has reopened for scientific investiga- 
tion, after a lapse owing to the absence of 
most of the staff with the American Army. 
Mr. C. William Beebe, the director, sailed for 
Bartica on February 26. Bartica is favorably 
situated for the study of both fauna and flora 
and its climatic conditions are ideal for the 
work. General ecological investigation will be 
made on the relations of plant and animal life 
in the jungle while special work will be car- 
ried on by individual investigators. Profes- 
sors William Morton Wheeler, of Harvard, 
Ulric Dahlgren, of Princeton, and Alfred 
Reese, of West Virginia, will make special 
study of ants, electric fishes, and crocodiles, 
respectively, while Director N. L. Britton, of 
the New York Botanical Garden, will make a 
survey of the forests. The New York Zodlog- 
ical Society assumes the financial support of 
the project through the generosity of five 
members of the board of managers, Colonel 
Anthony R. Kuser, Messrs. C. Ledyard Blair, 
Andrew Carnegie, George J. Gould, and A. 
Barton Hepburn. 


Dr. LivINGSTON FARRAND, president of the 
University of Colorado, formerly professor 
of anthropology in Columbia University (in 
1903-4 assistant curator of ethnology in the 


American Museum), has resigned his ad- 
ministrative work in the university to become 
executive head of the American Red Cross. 


THE establishment of a new Jardin des 
Plantes is proposed for France in the park 
of Versailles between the Trianon (villas of 
Louis XIV and XV) and the Forest of 
Marly. The new garden of about fifteen 
hundred acres will be, to a large extent, sup- 
plemental to the old Jardin des Plantes in 
Paris, the further expansion of which has 
been shut off by the growth of the city. 


Dr. HENRY ALLAN GLEASON, assistant 
professor of botany at the University of 
Michigan, was recently appointed first as- 
sistant to the director-in-chief of the New 
York Botanical Garden, to succeed Dr. W. 
A. Murrill who occupies the newly created 
position of supervisor of public instruction. 


THE New York Aquarium is to have con- 
structed a seaworthy well boat for purposes 
Such a boat with a 
10 x11 foot well for preserving the fish alive 
will make possible hereafter the transpor- 
tation in good condition of not only the 
local fish of Long Island shores but also the 
tropical species that migrate in summer up 
the Gulf Stream, and other large fishes re- 
ported taken in the trap nets of local fish- 


of marine collecting. 


ermen. 


AN example of the development of modern 
museum methods of instruction in connec- 
tion with university work is shown in the 
expansion of the museum of the University 
of Illinois. The plan includes, in zodlogy, 
both general synoptic series illustrating the 
principal forms of animal life, living and ex- 
tinct, and ecology groups, such as life in and 
about an old decaying log of the local woods. 
The first of a series of economic groups to 
show the presence and activities of common 
insect pests is also completed. 


Tue fight of the entomologist against in- 
sect pests has been greatly increased during 
the war. Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the 
Bureau of Entomology at Washington, has 
recently reviewed the work of his Bureau and 
of the subcommittee on medical entomology 
of the National Research Council. The 


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3o4 NATURAL HISTORY 


Friends of 1st Lieut. Charles L. Camp have 
learned that at a recent divisional review in 
France he was awarded the French War Cross 
with gold star for services in the Argonne. 
Lieutenant Camp was working in vertebrate 
paleontology and in herpetology at the Ameri- 
can Museum and Columbia University previous 
to his entering the Army. He has served with 
the 7th Field Artillery, 1st Division. At pres- 
ent he is giving courses in history to the men 
of the 18th Infantry. In telling his father of 
the honor he has received, he wrote, ‘Those 
who most deserve the decorations are, however, 
underground.” 


fighting of disease carriers occupied the 
attention of all governments from the very 
first. Body lice, carriers of typhus and, 
as was later discovered, of the very general 
trench fever, were thoroughly investigated 
and reported upon in England, France, and 
Germany before the United States began 
massing troops; but extensive experiments 
were later conducted in this country, in ¢o- 
operation with the Chemical Warfare Service, 
as to the possible utilization of war gases 
as fumigants against this pest, and an over- 
hauling of army laundering processes was 
undertaken with a view to complete steriliza- 
tion of clothing. 

The work of the Bureau in protecting crops, 
ground supphes, and lumber is perhaps more 
generally familiar to the public, although Dr. 
Howard says the preeminently practical men 
who have been working for years along this 
important line were “chagrined to find 
that even in certain high official circles 
the old idea of the entomologist still held— 
that he was a man whose life was devoted 
to the differentiation of species. a 
The stimulation of food and lumber produe- 
tion was one of the most important of our 
home activities. In assisting the farmer the 
duties of the Bureau were, as usual, multi- 
farious, as, for example, the heading off of 
a plague of grasshoppers in Kansas, there- 
by saving about $3,000,000 worth of wheat 
and $2,500,000 worth of alfalfa. The cul- 
tivation of castor beans for their oil arose 
as a special war measure inasmuch as 
the entire Mexican crop was bought up and 
shipped to Spain, probably to German 
agents. A large acreage of these beans was 
planted in the United States which the 
southern army worm and other insects 
quickly discovered and the entomologists 
were called in to prevent an insect raid. In- 
spection and protection of the great stores 
of grain, lumber, and wooden implements also 
fell to the entomologists and they found it 
necessary to investigate the ways and means 
of getting out logs so as to prevent their 
destruction by borers. Aside from this co- 
operative research, entomologists were also 
commissioned in the Army for medical work 
and their services received well merited 
praise from the Army authorities. 


A TALE of “pheasant farms” in China 
where thousands of golden and silver pheas- 
ants supposedly are raised for their plumes 


NOTES 


has grown up and lately been brought to the 
attention of the United States Treasury De- 
partment with reference to a proposed im- 
portation of the plumage. The New York 
Zodlogical Society has investigated the mat- 
ter and found the report untrue, Mr. C. Wil- 
liam Beebe, curator of birds at the Zodlogi- 
eal Park and author of the recent monograph 
on the pheasants, and Mr. Roy C. Andrews, 
leader of the American Museum’s expedi- 
tions to China, both deny the existence of 
any such farms in southwestern China. Dr. 
Hornaday wrote also to the French Consul 
at Mongtseu who further denied the reports.1 
The golden and silver pheasants, the consul 
reports, have never been domesticated and 
usually die in captivity. Certain of the 
aboriginal non-Chinese tribes of Yunnan do 
keep male pheasants for decoy birds in order 
to attract the hens in spring, but such decoy 
birds bring $13 (Mexican) while a pheasant 
for the table can be purchased in the moun- 
tain country for thirty or forty cents. The 
exportation of living pheasants or their 
plumage is absolutely prohibited in China 
and Indo-China, and the authorities are very 
much interested in preventing commerce in 
the feathers for, if the price should chance 
to rise, the natives would soon destroy the 
species. 


A CHINESE encyclopedia? has recently 
come from the Oxford Press. This is the 
first work of the kind that has ever appeared 
on China. “I send out the Encyclopedia 
Sinica,’ writes the editor, “in the sincere 
hope that it may help to interpret and open 
up China to the foreign reader, and may in- 
crease mutual respect and knowledge between 
East and West.” Many topics on the natural 
history of China are included and extensive 
bibliographies given; for example, under 
“ornithology” Mr. J. D. de La Touche lists 
155 articles and books. Mr. Norman Shaw, 
author of Chinese Forest Trees and Timber 
Supply, contributed most of the material on 
the products and exports of China and sup- 
plied many of the statistics. Many other 
distinguished authorities and Government 
Ministries and Services contributed impor- 
tant articles. 


1 Bulletin de la Ligue Francais pour la Protec- 
tion des Oiseaux, Nov.—Dec., 1918. 

*The Encyclopedia Sinica, by Samuel Couling, 
formerly Honorary Secretary and Editor of the 
North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 
London, 1917. 


Sra) 


IN spite of revolutions and brigandage in 
China, the academic work at the West China 
Union University, Chengtu, has continued at 
maximum capacity. Chengtu lies not far 
from the inland port of Chungking. It is 
the capital of the rich province of Szechwan, 
the governmental and educational capital for 
45,000,000 people and an important center 
of commercial enterprise and political re- 
form. The city is located at the beginning 
of the ancient caravan route to Tibet and is 
even today the center for the great drug ex- 
porting trade from that almost unknown 
plateau. The last ten years have seen the 
creation.of this modern university in Chengtu 
and its hearty approval by the Chinese. 
Not the least successful feature of the 
university is its buildings modeled after 
Chinese designs. Western attempts to imi- 
tate Chinese architecture have usually been 
failures, but the Chinese designs of the uni- 
versity’s colleges and halls were an impor- 
tant factor in winning Chinese approval of 
the institution. 


THE Reverend Harry R. Caldwell, repre- 
senting the Methodist Episcopal Church as 
missionary at Yenping, Fukien Province, 
will join Mr. Roy C. Andrews in October for 
field work in China under the auspices of 
the American Museum. The Reverend Mr. 
Caldwell assisted Mr. Andrews in 1916-17 in 
the Fukien Province, notably in an attempt 
to shoot a melanistic Chinese tiger, the “blue 
tiger,” the story of which was narrated in 
the AMERICAN MuSEUM JOURNAL for May, 
1918. 


IN answer to a question regarding the 
speed of the Mongolian antelope (Gazella 
gutturosa), Mr. Roy C. Andrews writes from 
China again that he has “no hesitation in 
placing this at sixty miles an hour.” “At 
one time,” he says, “our car was running at 
forty miles (by the speedometer) and a herd 
of antelope which had started when nearly 
opposite to us and about three hundred yards 
away, ran parallel with us for some distance 
and then gradually drew ahead and crossed 
in front; they kept about the same distance 
away all the time. In other words while we 
were running forty miles in a straight line 
they were going in a semicircle about us and 
still keeping almost the same distance away 
—perhaps they lost fifty yards, but not more. 
When we began to shoot, the animals in- 


356 NATURAL HISTORY 


creased their speed very considerably and 
the man with me estimated then that they 
were running about seventy miles an hour; 
there is no doubt that they can run sixty 
miles with comparative ease. I never knew 
what running was until I saw those antelope 
—they simply flew, and one had a strange 
impression that they were skimming the 
ground, for their legs appeared only as a 
blur.” 


To meet the growing demand for trained 
gardeners, and to afford convalescent. sol- 
diers and sailors opportunity for preparation 
for such work, the New York Botanical 
Garden has inaugurated a two years’ course 
in practical gardening. The remarkable 
natural facilities of the grounds comprising 
the Botanical Garden in Bronx Park, New 
York City, offer an unusual opportunity for 
training in this subject, while in addition 
the extensive library of horticultural books 
and the well equipped laboratories will be 
at the disposal of students. The instruction 
by the staff of the Botanical Garden will 
combine indoor lecture and _ laboratory 
classes with outdoor gardening. During the 
first year, classes will be conducted in such 
elementary scientific studies as elementary 
botany, zoology, plant physiology, and chem- 
istry, and practical training given in green- 
house practice, flower gardening, and vegeta- 
ble and fruit gardening. The second year’s 
course has not yet been announced, but will 
include such advanced subjects as surveying, 
garden design, garden pathology, and garden 
mycology. 


THE artistic planting of trees along roads 
not only adds beauty to the countryside, but 
also helps to preserve the roadbed and to 
break wintry winds. The possibilities in this 
form of highway improvement have just 
been presented for public consideration in a 
Circular of the New York State College of 
Forestry by Professor Henry R. Francis. 
New York State, with its network of im- 
proved highways, offers a splendid oppor- 
tunity for roadside tree planting. Roadside 
conditions at present are entirely haphazard 
and the care of the trees has been neglected 
or left in the hands of those unskilled in 
either landscape gardening or arboriculture. 
Recently a bill has been introduced in the 
state legislature to amend the highway law 
with a view to such improvement, providing 


for the appointment of a highway tree 
warden who shall be a scientific forester 


with practical experience along the lines of 


landscape engineering. The bill asks for an 
appropriation of $10,000 for carrying out 
the provisions of the act, and $10,000 for an 
initial demonstration on the state highway 
between Syracuse and Utica. 


THE Springfield, Massachusetts, natural 
history museum is to have special classes 
conducted Saturday afternoons by the 
junior high school art teachers. This plan 
grew out of the exceptional results obtained 
by school children of the city who have been 
working with pencil, brush, and clay on vari- 
ous museum subjects. One boy, becoming in- 
terested in the dinosaurs, executed a clay 
model of such merit as to warrant its receiv- 
ing a place in the permanent exhibit of the 
museum. The Saturday afternoon lectures 
which have been given on various subjects 
have proved an inspiration to these youthful 
artists and it is expected that the inaugura- 
tion of art classes will attract many stu- 
dents. This cooperation between art and 
natural history is an illustration of the com- 
plementary nature of much of the work of 
institutions traditionally looked upon as far 
apart in interests. 


ONE of the best known founders of the 
American Ornithologists’ Union is Mr. Wil- 
ham Brewster, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
who served as its president from 1895 to 
1898. Before the organization of the Union 
and for many years since, Mr. Brewster has 
been president of the Nuttall Ornithological 
Club, the oldest bird club in America, still in 
existence. He has devoted much attention to 
the development of his private ornithologi- 
cal museum, a unique institution at which 
the Nuttall Club holds its meetings and 
which recalls many pleasant memories in the 
minds of those bird students who have been 
fortunate enough to enjoy its hospitality. 
While primarily a systematic ornithologist, 
Mr. Brewster has always devoted much at- 
tention to the study of birds in the field, 
and as an accurate and skillful deseriber of 
their habits he is today without a peer. 


THE marine research of the Carnegie In- 
stitution! was somewhat modified during the 
1“Department of Marine Biology,’’ Carnegie 


Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 17, pp. 
149-172. 


NOTES 


past year on account of the war, and the 
work begun at Tortugas, Florida, had to be 
postponed, the yacht “Anton Dohrn” being 
in the service of the Navy. The director, 
Dr. Alfred G. Mayor, accompanied by Pro- 
fessor A. L. Treadwell, Duncan Gay (art- 
ist), and Mr. John Mills (engineer), made 
a two months’ trip to Tobago, British West 
Indies, where collections were obtained and 
extensive studies were made of siphonophores 
(jellyfish, ete.), and of the Eunicide (ma- 
rine worms). Especial attention was paid 
to the question of the southern distribution 
of the West Indian marine fauna and the 
influence of South America upon it. 
Further trips to the West Indies being 
prevented by the appearance of enemy sub- 
marines off our coast, the director, with Pro- 
fessor L. R. Cary and Mr. John Mills, vis- 
ited Pago Pago, American Samoa, to con- 


tinue studies of the coral reefs begun the 


previous year. The results of these two 
voyages show that certain stony corals 


(Madreporaria) of the Pacific grow twice 
as rapidly as do similar corals of the Atlan- 
tic. An Acropora, for example, increased 
sixty-eight ounces in the fifteen months. 
This genus is the most important element in 
the outward growth of the Samoan reefs. 
The Porites, which form irregularly rounded 
masses dangerous to navigation, grow at the 
rate of about one inch a year. Drilling 
through the fringing reef at Pagopago, Pro- 
feet thick 


Further 


fessor Cary found it to be 121 
and underlain by volcanic rock. 
study will be taken up on another trip when 
examination of the precipitous outer edge 
will be made by the use of diving hoods. 
The more rapid rate of growth of the Pacific 
corals evinces the fact that the present reefs 
may have attained their growth during the 
last 30,000 years or since the last Glacial 
Epoch. The greater rapidity is probably 
due to a better food supply. 

During the voyages continual tests were 
made of the acidity and alkalinity of the 
surface waters of the ocean and the results 
obtained 


may be of importance to navi- 


gators. For example, the water of the Gulf 
Stream is alkaline than that 


which drifts down the east coast of North 


much more 


America, so that a navigator, entering or 
leaving an Atlantic harbor, could easily de- 
termine his i 


with reference to it. 


Aretie water and water from great depths is 


position 


more heavily charged with carbon dioxide 


t 
~ 


Oo 


than warm surface waters and so maintains 


a higher state of acidity. 


“THE Superb Position of New York City 
as a Center for Physiographic Study” is the 
title of a paper by Dr. A. K. Lobeck 1 which 

1 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 


Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1—50. 


Little Blue Corn Flower). or 


Poh-we-ka 
Marie Martinez, a young Tewa woman of San 


Ildefonso pueblo who is attempting to keep 
alive the ancient symbolic art of the pottery of 
her people. Some of the best pottery of the 
eastern Pueblos was made at San _ Ildefonso. 
The designs are filled with meaning and refer 
mostly to clouds, rain, mountains, and vegeta- 
tion; in fact, these designs are in part prayers 
for the life-giving rain. Marie Martinez and 
her husband are fully acquainted with the an- 
cient pottery excavated from villages in Pajarito 
Park (one of our national monuments) as well 
as with the more recent productions of San 
Ildefonso ( Photograph by courtesy of El Palacio) 


358 


points out the unusual variety and complete- 
ness of the illustrations of earth sculpture 
within a radius of three hundred miles of 
the metropolis. In fact a great wealth of 
geological and physiographical material may 
be reached by half-day trips, or even within 
The various agencies of 
30th 
young and mature rivers are found and in- 
deed the 
stages in its upper and lower stretches re- 


the city’s limits. 
erosion are all typified in the vicinity. 
3ronx River alone illustrates both 
spectively. The Hudson presents the very 
old stages of river ageing with further refer- 
ence to repeated uplift and renewal as is 
seen in the stepped peneplains of its valley 
walls. The relation of streams to dividing 
capture” 


“ 


ridges and the subject of stream 
may also be mentioned, especially the ex- 
cellent example in the Catskill Mountains 
where the Kaaterskill has diverted the head- 
waters of Schoharie Creek. 

The great continental glacier reached its 
maximum expansion at New York so that 
here we find the various effects of ice erosion, 
and erratics, or 
carried in the ice from great distances. 

Well defined coastal plains lie within easy 
reach to the south, especially along the New 


terminal moraines, rocks 


Jersey coast, and here are illustrated the 
economic dependence of people on topo- 
graphic features and the determination of 
routes of travel by them. In the Alleghenies, 
throughout Pennsylvania and New York, 
we find examples of folded mountains, while 
Adirondacks, the White, 
the Green Mountains stand carved and worn 
down masses of complex ranges. The only 
important feature not well represented is 
the phenomenon of although 
there are roots of old volcanoes like Ascutney 
Mountain in Vermont and long intrusive 
ridges like those forming the Palisades. 

Not only is this region most accessible to 
the student located in New York City, but, 
in addition, there is no section of the country 
which has been so thoroughly worked over, 
mapped, and deseribed so that both the 
amateur and the expert geographer and geol- 
ogist have at their command a great wealth 
of literature. Dr. Lobeck gives an extensive 
bibliography of the region. 


among the and 


volcanicity 


Mrs. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN has re- 
cently presented to the Osborn Library of 
the American Museum a number of private 
letters written by Charles Lyell, the great 


NATURAL HISTORY 


date from 1836 
and are addressed to Dr. Benjamin Silli- 
man, founder of The American Journal of 
Science (which celebrated its centenary in 
July, 1918), and at that time professor of 
“chemistry, mineralogy, etc.,” at Yale. 
Lyell’s fame was world wide and his works 
on systematic geology were the standard 
world treatises and texts in that science. 
Most of the letters are concerned with busi- 
ness items relative to the publication and 
sale of these books in the United States—a 
matter which Professor Silliman, as Amer- 


English geologist. These 


ica’s most noted geologist, was eager to pro- 
mote. Lyell’s 
constant revision as contemporary invyestiga- 
tion advanced and as he himself traveled 
into new lands, and the proposed edition of 
the Hlements with notes and additions in 
American Geology came in for diseussion 


volumes were undergoing 


with Professor Silliman, especially in that 
part of the correspondence exchanged during 
Lyell’s American trip. 
mention of Darwin and _ other 


Continual personal 
historical 
characters gives an added interest to the 
manuscripts. Mrs. Osborn’s gift reverts at- 
tention, in these days of stenographers and 
typewriters, to the time when the world’s 
greatest scientists and most industrious in- 
vestigators laboriously wrote their letters 
with pen and ink on both sides of the paper. 


M. FELIX SARTIAUX is preparing a French 
translation of the Origin and Evolution of 
Life, by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, which 
will be issued from the press of Masson 
et Cie. M. Sartiaux, the author of Troie— 
La Guerre de Troie (1915) and Morale 


- Kantienne et Morale humaine (1917), is an 


authority both in the archeologic and philo- 
sophie fields. 


THE close of hostilities has released con- 
siderable discussion on the question of ma- 
rine camouflage and its relation to the 
theory of protective coloration of animals. 
There are two general types of marine cam- 
ouflage: (1) the low visibility patterns in- 
tended to make the ship invisible or indis- 
tinct at medium ranges; (2) the British 
“dazzle,” constructed of prominent patterns 
which serve to break the outline of the ship 
and to render calculation as to her length, 
speed, direction, and distance inaccurate. 
In order to “paint out” the ships it was 
found that monochromes were never as ef- 


NOTES 


fective as the contiguous 
various colored constituents of the shade of 


application of the 


gray. Accordingly the ships bore spotted coats 
of red, green, and violet, either one of which 
colors will predominate as the light changes 
in the resultant gray transmitted to the eye. 

Mr. Robert Cushman Murphy,! curator of 
the department of natural history in the 
Brooklyn Museum, has pointed out in this 
the 
esting living example 


connection inter- 


of low visibility, the 
whale bird (Prion) of 


the subantarctic At- 
lantic, whose domi- 


nant hue is practically 
identical with “omega- 
gray,” the 
vised by the Navy for 


low visibility in high 


color de- 


latitudes. The invisi- 
bility of this bird 


against the waves is 
also to 
and a slight pattern of 
light and dark bands. 


due shading 


A combination of this 
This photograph of the 


Courtesy oj Nea 


Early attempts at the production of a 


be 


sy means 


nature was ultimately found to most 
successful for protecting ships. 
of stripes and other “dazzle” figures all ver- 
tical and horizontal lines are eliminated so 
that it is nearly impossible to see the prow 
or tell in what direction it points. These 
stripes also destroy the perspective to such 
an extent that a range finder will miss the 
range In addition to the 


by meters. 


many 


Power and the Brooklyn Museum Quarterly 


‘dazzle’ were not very effective. 


3ritish transport ‘“Tuscania,”’ taken the day before 


1 ‘Marit Giaiart she was sunk, represents rather the vagaries of vorticists than any systematic 
1 “Marine amou- z : =o : rir é 
4 EL T SETA, method of deception. [The practical effectiveness of the later types of camou- 
flage, The Brooklyn vI 
Museum Quarterly, Jan flace is well established, however, as navy al records show definitely the 
w y, Jan., ; 


1919, p. 38. sreater ‘‘chance of life” of the protectively painted ship 
- 
Courtesy of Sea Power and the Brooklyn Museum Quarterly 
The “Vaterland,”’ the largest ship afloat, stripped of her dazzling lights, rechristened the 
“Leviathan,” and given a new ‘‘dazzle,” represents the best in marine camouflage. The “Leviathan” 
is here shown painted with a low-visibility dazzle. the essential elements of which are (1) the jux 
taposition of colors which, when seen at a distance, will combine to form a neutral tint, and (2) the 
‘painting out” of all horizontal and vertical lines which might fit the scale of a range finder. Espe- 


These 


ship's direction that she was almost 


cially noticeable are the series of dark triangles at the bow. triangles gave the impression of 


a series of prows and so completely confused judgment as to the 


a menace to her convoy 


360 


Courtesy of Sea Power and the Brooklyn Museum Quarterly 
A living example of protective marine coloration is found in the whale 
The color of this petrel is 
a neutral blue-gray, not unlike the “horizon blue’ of French field _uni- 
forms and of substantially the same wave length, saturation, and re- 
the shade used by the Navy for low 
visibility. It is said that the latest British experiments in airplane 
camouflage point toward designs and colors similar to those of Prion 


bird (Prion) of the subantarctic Atlantic. 


flecting power as ‘‘omega-gray,” 
= t—) 


confusing dazzle, however, the color scheme 
for the stripes and figures is so selected that 
the color combinations fuse at a distance 
into a blue gray of low visibility. 


A MODEL of a killer whale, the so-called 
“wolf of the sea” (Orca orca), posed as if 
making an attack on a 
whale, is now completed and on exhibition 
The killer is a 
small whale of no commercial value but dis- 
tinguished from other whales by its great 
strength and ferocity. 
blooded sea animals such as seals and sea 
lions and attacks other whales, biting off 
the ends of their flukes and flippers and tear- 
ing out their tongues. Killers hunt in 
“packs.” When attacking, they bellow in a 
way that paralyzes their prey with fear. 
The present model is a life-size reproduction, 
twenty-two feet long, built with a wooden 
framework planked diagonally in basswood 
and covered with wire netting. This surface 
is filled with a coating of white lead and 
whiting over which the final paint is laid. A 
structure of this nature eliminates the great 


sulphur-bottom 


in the American Museum. 


It preys on warm- 


weight which would encumber a plaster cast. 
Mr. Otto Block, of the American Museum’s 
preparation shops, model 
under the supervision of Director F. A. 


constructed the 


Lucas, from measurements and photographs 
taken by Mr. Roy C. Andrews, of a specimen 
captured on the Pacific Coast. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


THERE has_ recently 
passed out from within 
the American Museum’s 
walls an organization 
whose work has now be- 
come history. Local 
Board, Division No. 129, 
of the city of New York, 
here since the inaugura- 
tion of the draft, has 
quietly proceeded in its 
work of choosing men for 
the United States Army. 
On the occasion of final 
departure the President 
of the Museum received a 
letter of appreciation 
from Mr. Julius Henry 
Cohen, chairman of the 
Board, in the course of 
he said: “There 
nowhere a 


which 
appears rec- 

ord of this contribution 
which the American Museum has made to 
the great service of winning the war, but 
our Board has an indelible record; it has a 
very definite memory of the spirit of cor- 
diality and helpfulness displayed by every 
one connected with the Museum with whom 
our work brought us in contact.” 


Mr. GEORGE K. CHERRIE, ornithologist and 
field naturalist, has returned from Venezuela 
with a large collection of birds for the 
American Museum. Mr. Cherrie, well known 
to readers of NATURAL History and of Col- 
Through the Brazilian 
Wilderness, has had a long and varied ex- 
perience as a collector in South America, 
making twenty-eight expeditions into tropi- 
cal America and visiting every country in 
the southern continent except Chile. Mr. 
Cherrie took his latest journey alone, except 
for an attendant, and lived for weeks at a 
time on the native diet of corn and goat’s 
His recent collection contains about 


onel Roosevelt’s 


milk. 
eight hundred specimens of great variety 
and scientific interest. 


“A MOST interesting modern develop- 
ment,” observes the Report of the British 
Educational Mission, “is the increasingly 
important part played by the museums, not 
only in respect of educational visits of 
school children, popular lectures, ete., but, 
as at the Natural History Museum of New 


ve 


NOTES 


York, by means of traveling collections sent 
out to schools.” In this connection it is in- 
teresting to report that the Department or 
Edueation of the City of New York has 
made a supplementary appropriation of 
$4100 to renew the popular lecture courses 
for children and the distribution of nature 
collections to the schools, which had been 
suspended for a time for reasons of war 
economy. 


THERE are only two remaining colonies 
of gannets on the North American coast, 
one on Bird Rock near the Magdalen 
Islands, the other on Bonaventure Island 
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The 
rookeries of the latter are described in 
a recent Ottawa Naturalist. The seaward 
face of Bonaventure Island is a vertical cliff 
rising about three hundred feet from the sea. 
“Approaching this side from the sea, one is 
aware that every ledge and shelf is covered 
with white as though snow had piled in 
drifts upon them, allowing only the over- 
hangs to show dull red between the glisten- 
ing surfaces. A wind seems to stir the 
white masses, and they blow off in eddies 
and clouds of great white birds that swirl 
about the cliff faces and circle round the 
intruder amid a pandemonium of hoarse 
cries. These are the gannets, the solan 
geese of older authors, each as large as a 
goose, pure white with black wing tips... .” 
NaturaL History will publish in its next 
issue an article by Director John M. Clarke, 
of the State Museum at Albany, on the pro- 
tection of these bird colonies. 


THE possibilities in the utilization of peat 
are illustrated by a large exhibition at the 
Commercial Museum of Philadelphia. We 


SrNcE the last issue of Natural History 
the following persons have been elected 
members of the American Museum: 

Annual Members, MESDAMES THOMAS K. 
GALE, J. H. LANCASHIRE, Misses Harris W. 
PERKINS, Evupora D. Snyper, Capt. CLIN- 
TON PELHAM DarLINGToN, Doctors AN- 
DREW N. AvINoFF, Epwarp S. COowLEs, 
HEeNryY F. Merriam, J. B. Parpor, W. C. 
Twiss, Messrs. C. Lupwig BAUMANN, 
FREDERICK 8. BLACKALL, CHARLES ANDERSON 
Cass, Ropert M. DoNaLpson, GEORGE B. 
Gorpon, WILLIAM WEBSTER HALL, WILLIAM 


361 


usually associate peat with poor communities 
which cannot afford coal and must turn to 
the swamps for fuel, but in some places in 
Europe peat commands a higher price than 
the coal for which it is supposed to be a 
substitute. In this country we have about 
11,188 square miles of peat bog which would 
produce more than twelve billion tons of 
fuel. So far this natural resource has been 
almost unexploited. Numerous other uses 
of peat are explained in the Philadelphia ex- 
hibit, such as the spinning of fibrous peat into 
yarn and its manufacture into paper; its use 
for packing; and its value as a preservative 
because it contains large amounts of humic 
acid. Ground up peat may also be used as 
a filler for fertilizer, making possible the use 
of slaughterhouse waste, and as a filler for 
stock feed, such as molasses, which could not 
otherwise be fed to animals. Insulations, 
sound-proof boards, paving stones, and even 
alcohol are among its manufactured prod- 
ucts. 


Two publications! in the field of California 
zoology have recently appeared. One is an 
exhaustive treatment of the game birds of 
that state, including an account of their life 
histories, which should appeal to the hunter 
as well as the naturalist and serve as a basis 
for intelligent legislation on the matter of 
bird protection. The other treats of the 
ground squirrels of California and supplies 
information of importance to the farming in- 
terests with reference to a number of species 
inimical to the crops. 

1The Game Birds of California. By Joseph 
Grinnell, Harold C. Bryant, and Tracy I. Storer. 
Octavo, pp. 642, with 16 color plates by Louis 
Agassiz Fuertes and Allan Brooks. 


The Ground Squirrels of California. 
Grinnell and Joseph Dixon. 


By Joseph 


F. Hemet, Epwix W. INSLEE, FRANCOIS 
KLEINBERGER, ERNEST A. NEILSON, M. NEwW- 
BoRG, HaroLp OTIS, ALBERT F. THALHIMER, 
Samu. G. Trppats, S. W. TrRawick, and 
JOSEPH B. WHITNEY. 

Associate Members, Mrs. EtizaABeTH M. 
MOLINEUX, Miss Rose DouGan, Docrors 
ALBERT H. FREIBERG, W. P. MANTON, WAL- 
TER E. Newcoms, H. W. Osporn, MEssrs, 
FRANK DABNEY, DANIEL HOWLAND, EDWIN 
F. Mack, EpwarpD P. WELLS 2p, WALTER D. 
Wiucox, RoBert C. WRIGHT, and GEORGE W. 
YoOrK. 


The American Museum of Natural History 
Its Work, Membership, and Publications 


The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incorporated in 
1869 for the purpose of establishing a Museum and Library of Natural History ; 
of encouraging and developing the study of Natural Science; of advancing the 
general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular 
instruction. 

The Museum building is erected and largely maintained by New York City, 
funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of sec- 
tions from time to time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation is made 
for heating, lighting, the repair of the building and its general care and super- 
vision. 

The Museum is open free to the public every day in the year; on week days 
from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., on Sundays from 1 to 5 P.M. 

The Museum not only maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history, 
including the famous habitat groups, designed especially to interest and instruct 
the public, but also its brary of 70,000 volumes on natural history, ethnology 
and travel is used by the public as a reference library. 

The educational work of the Museum is carried on also by numerous lectures 
to children, special series of lectures to the blind, provided for by the Thorne 
Memorial Fund, and the issue to public schools of collections and lantern slides 
illustrating various branches of nature study. There are in addition special series 
of evening lectures for Members in the fall and spring of each year, and on Satur- 
day mornings lectures for the children of Members. Among those who have 
appeared in these lecture courses are Admiral Peary, Dean Worcester, Sir John 
Murray, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Roosevelt. 
The following are the statistics for the year 1918: 


Attendance in HixhubitionsEalis . p82 0s, ope tek Oreo Ue 

Attendancesat Mectumes a see. et Fete 1) oe eee ee 64,036 

Lantern Slides Sent out for Use in Schools . Se acer 12,287 

School Children Reached by Nature Study Collections . . . 817,610 
Membership 


For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research, 
publication, and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endow- 
ment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions 
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership 
Fund is of particular importance from the fact that it may be devoted to such 
purposes as the Trustees may deem most important, including the publication of 
Natura History. There are now more than four thousand Members of the 
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is 
doing a useful service to science and to education, the Trustees invite you to lend 
your support by becoming a Member. 


NATURAL 
HISTORY 


THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, 

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- 

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
THROUGH THE MUSEUM 


APRIL-MAY, 1919 


VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 4—5 


NATURAL HISTORY 


VoLuME XIX CONTENTS FOR APRIL-MAY NUMBERS 4-5 


Frontispiece, Portal of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 
In connection with “Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture,” page 449 


New College of Fisheries in the Northwest............ HueuH M. SmirH 367 
A new branch of technical education inaugurated by the University of Washington 
MY nyse Sao Mahe eh b a0Yo) Clee Roh pee eten ny WAN SINR eS Rigs seicucn Sani ectckc DAVID STARR JORDAN 370 
The New Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries.............-+-+-- JOHN M. CLARKE 373 
Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation.............../ ALFRED M. BAILEY 383 
Alexander Wilson....... Quotation from The Kentucky Warbler by James 
Lane Allen, through courtesy of Author and Publishers............ 397 


Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to Natural History...Jonn 8S. Patron 405 
Jefferson’s political activities have tended to crowd out remembrance of his wide interest 
and investigations in American natural history. It was his scientific zeal which prompted 
him to sponsor the Lewis and Clark Expedition 


War Impressions of French Bird Life..............-- LupLow Griscom 411 
Conserving Our Natural Resources of Sugar..........-. EK. F. Poitiers 416 
The Evolution of the Human Face.............. WitiiamM K. Gregory 421 


The bones about the orbit of the eye in the human skull can be definitely traced back through 
an evolutionary series to homologous bones in the primitive fish 


The Wars of the Waind-at “Timberline 5222s. . 23 = etegs cues oie Enos A. Minus 427 
Art, Motives:in Snow Crystals. 2. 75.2. -2-5-e-- - = HERBERT P. WHITLOCK 437 


Among the infinite forms of snow crystals are to be found geometrical designs for textiles, 
jewelry, and china 
Microphotographs of snow crystals by W. A. Bentley 


Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science 


AMICa VGIICATION Stet hart atc. trees coke eceete aoe ue comomene CHARLES F. Herm 441 
Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to 
INGROMERACINRE: | BSG Booowadeoaaoes S. Breck PARKMAN TROWBRIDGE 449 


The history of the architectonic use of animal and human designs from the Cré-Magnon cave 
sculpture to the present day illustrates the necessity of a blending of architectural and sculp- 
tural form, restrained and stylized with the repression of all unnecessary detail. Both an- 
cient and modern sculptural realism have marked periods of architectural degeneracy 
Tllustrations from photographs of a series of Assyrian sculptures in the British Museum 


Woaldesturte any oAmiess eee = ee ests teeter cieh acacl ere CHARLES R. KnicHt 461 


Critical review of a recent exhibition, at the Brooklyn Museum, of contemporary American art 
dealing with plant and animal life 


Zoological Statuary at the National Capital........... R. W. SuHuretpt 471 
Recent statues by Proctor in Washington illustrate the sculptural possibilities in native big 
game 
With photographs of Washington zodlogical statuary by the Author 

Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming......... FRANK Baker 479 


By systematic study of the life conditions in our lakes for fresh-water fish we may still fur- 
ther utilize these as valuable sources of food supply 
Quest of the. Ancestry of Man. < 22% 225% acc = oi eerste acetone eee 489 


Organizations to stimulate anthropological and archeological research and investigation of 
the problems relative to the origin and early history of man 


Ashetter: from: Jolin =Burroug hs ccs - lore ete 491 
Reply to Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew.......---..++-----+---- 491 
I = fae ee ne cop in Brokeehee tatoo to 6 Cod Ob yD gic comicl ois inno 493 


M. C. DicKERSON, Editor 


Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, 
New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. 

Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. 
and Central Park West, New York City. 

NaTuRAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges 
of membership. 

Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, 
under the Act of August 24, 1912. 

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of 
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


MEMBERSHIP 


For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and 
exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural 
History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- 
erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who 
are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes 
of membership are: 


Peer ee ee ee es, » 850,000 
PenccateBounders ..9s.0: - - -. « - +~—- 25,000 
Meeeiie Benctactor@ » ... . - -.-~. . 10,000 
MEE fe al x ey as Se te ee 1,000 
Palisa © 2) i Bae eg 500 
eeTCDeR ee) ket eS ee 100 
Sustaining Member. . - - - - -: annually 25 
Annual Member. .. .. . -- .. ~~ annually 10 
Associate Member (nonresident) . - . annually 3 


Full information regarding membership may be obtained from 
the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. 


NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


Natura History, recording popularly the latest activities in 
natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October 
to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History. 
The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. NatuRAL History 
is sent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of member- 
ship. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the 
Museum. 


POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 


A large number of popular publications on natural history, based 
on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the 
form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of 
these publications will be found in the Appendix to Narurat His- 
rory. Price lists and full information may be obtained by address- 
ing the Librarian of the Museum. 


SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 


The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of 
Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- 
able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- 
cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological 
Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the 
inside back cover of Natura History. Price lists and complete 
data may be obtained from the Librarian. 


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PORTAL OF NOTRE DAME TO ILLUSTRATE SCULPTURE IN CORRECT RELATION 
TO ARCHITECTURE 


The world rejoices with France that the war did not reach Paris 


Every figure in this portal of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, in Paris, expresses with infinite skill the 
beauties of Gothic architecture—the pose of the heads in the tympanum, the lines of the draperies and the 
shadows are all designed with reference to the structure. Even the voussoirs of the great arch are expressed 
by the shadows under the canopies over the saints’ heads. The central post is the acme of architectonic 
sculpture 

—From ‘‘Zodlogical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture,’’ page 449 


NATURAL 


VOLUME XIX 


APRIL-MAY, 1919 


HISTORY 


NUMBER 4-5 


New College of Fisheries in the Northwest 


DEPARTURE IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION PLACES AMERICAN FISHING 
INDUSTRIES ON A SCIENTIFIC BASIS 


Byer Ge Ee PMS Mit 


United States Commissioner of Fisheries 


HE recent establishment by the 

University of Washington of a 

college of fisheries is of such 
importance as almost to mark an epoch 
in the history of technical education 
and in the development of the fishing 
industry in America. 

This event is of great interest to the 
United States Bureau of Fisheries 
because the bureau 
agency that extends knowledge of and 
increases concern for the welfare of the 
Ameriean fisheries and the creatures 
which make those fisheries possible— 
and also incidentally because the di- 
rector of the college is a former valued 
assistant of the bureau. The founding 
of the particularly 
pleasing to the present commissioner 


welcomes every 


new college is 
because of his long and continued ad- 
vocaey of technical inst ruction in fish- 
eries and because it is the outcome of 
a special recommendation to and con- 
with the authorities of the 
University of Washington. 

The new college of fisheries provides 
a four-year course, divided into three 
sections, namely, commercial fisheries, 


ference 


technology or the methods of preparing 
aquatie products for foods and for use 
in the arts and industries, and aquicul- 
ture. The instruction will be both di- 
dactie and practical, but for the last two 
years of the course the students will be 
expected to devote a large part of their 


time to practical training at fishing 
establishments and fish hatcheries. 
The college has a strikingly fitting 
environment. Seattle is the principal 
city of one of the great fishing states, 
and, as pointed out by the university 
authorities, is the only American city 
within whose corporate limits or im ter- 
ritory immediately contiguous may be 
found in active operation practically 
every type of plant for turning raw 
aquatic materials into human food and 
Fishery op- 
erations are conducted in the very har- 
bor of Seattle; the great fleets of vessels 
resorting to the Alaska fishing grounds 
Seattle their principal 
quarters for outfitting and for discharg- 


other useful commodities. 


make head- 
ing their catch; the salmon fisheries of 
the Puget Sound - Fraser River - Strait 
of Fuca system are the most valuable 
in the Internationally the 
region is of special fishery interest. 
The Fraser River, the principal red 
salmon stream in the world, is in Brit- 
ish Columbia, and all the spawning 


world. 


grounds of the red salmon frequenting 
the the 
Canadian province, while the major 
part of the annual tribute exacted by 


international waters are in 


man from the salmon schools is taken 
in Washington. From the fish-cultural 
standpoint, the operations by nation 
and state in the waters of Washington 
are on a scale of almost unequaled mag- 


367 


Panoramic view of part of the campus at the University of Washington, showing Meany Hall and (on 
the opposite page) Science and Denny halls. The University is expanding its present instruction in ichthy- 
ology into a technical college of fisheries to train fish-culturists for government and private fishery work 


nitude, and every species of Pacific sal- 
mon abounds, spawns, and is artificially 
propagated in the local streams. The 
wide expanse of waters that may be re- 
garded as the real campus of the fish- 
ery school is rich in other life, and 
ample material is afforded students for 
work on the anatomy, physiology, em- 
bryology, and life history of important 
creatures whose conservation is a 
matter of public concern. 

A practical point in connection with 


The Hatchery Building of the newly established College of Fisheries 
is situated on the government canal connecting lakes Union and Washing- 
ton. Regular instruction and research in the subject of fisheries begin at 
the new fall term when two new professorships are to be established to 


amplify the work of the zodlogy department in this line. 
also be effected with government agencies and private industries 


the college of fisheries is that the gradu- 
ates in the various courses may expect to 
find congenial employment in national, 
state, and private fishery work. The de- 
mand for fish-culturists has far exceeded 
the supply in recent years. The need 
for young men and women qualified in 
aquatic zodlogy, in the use of fishing 
methods and applances, and in the 
technology of fishery products and by- 
products is very real and is certain to 
increase. In the fishery department of 
every state, there 
should be, as a part 
of the permanent 
staff, men with 
expert knowledge 
bearing on all the 
duties and prob- 
lems that arise in 
connection with the 
administration of 
the local waters 
and their inhabi- 
tants.* Some states 
have already real- 
ized and acted on 
this responsibility ; 
other states may be 
expected to fall in 


Cooperation will < 
line as the growth 


1In this connection, see one phase of necessary expert knowledge in Prof. Baker’s article on 


“Fresh-water Farming,’ pp. 479-488.—THE EDITOR. 


368 


— 


: 3 : ne 
= 7S ae in 
Abide Groth Linvht,. 


The University of Washington is most favorably situated for the study of fisheries. 
the center of the great northwestern fishing industry, and is the headquarters and discharging station 
of the Alaska fisheries 


of public sentiment demands it and as 
qualified assistants become available. 

The University of Washington, while 
entitled to all the prestige and honor 
that deservedly belong to it as a 
pioneer, should not indefinitely enjoy a 
monopoly of a college or school of fish- 
eries. Other universities favorably sit- 
uated should follow suit; and at the 
present time there should be serious at- 
tention given to the establishment of 
such institutions on the Atlantic and 
Gulf coasts, on the Great Lakes, and in 
the Mississippi Valley. 

Colleges of fisheries, through the in- 
fluence they exert at large and through 
their graduates, can do much to guide 


Seattle lies in 


fishery legislation and should become 
potent agencies for molding the public 
sentiment that should be back of all 
beneficent laws for the conservation of 
aquatic resources and the regulation of 
the industry. An improvement in the 
quality of legislative fishery measures 
should confidently be expected through 
the working of the leaven of fishery 
graduates in all parts of the country. 
One of the chief boons that colleges 
of fisheries can hope to confer on fishery 
work throughout the country will be 
the substituting of accurate observa- 
tions and sound biological principles for 
the unscientific methods that have often 
characterized fishery procedures. 


_ Fisheries Hall, University of Washington. 
Washington and the scientific work of the university can be closely connected with the practical work 
in fisheries 


The campus extends to the edge of lakes Union and 


369 


The Red Salmon 


A FISH WITH AN INSTINCT FOR LAKE WATER 


By DAVID 


HE habits of the red salmon 

(Hypsifario nerka Walbaum) 

are absolutely unique among 
fishes. The fish casts its spawn in the 
fall, but only in small streams tribu- 
tary to some lake. After hatching, the 
young fishes slip downward tail fore- 
most, with the current, into the lake. 
There they mostly remain through the 
first year, then dropping downward, 
head always against the current, to the 
seas. 

In the sea they remain until the 
fourth year, when they start upstream 
to the spawning grounds. Whether they 
go to the same grounds or not, no one 
knows. The idea that they do reach 
substantially the same streams is borne 
out by some evidence. Yet that this in- 
stinct should be minutely: accurate is 
not conceivable. 

After entering the river, the fish 
feeds no more. The digestive organs 
shrivel and the fat and cell-substance 
are gradually consumed. On arriving 
at the spawning grounds, the fishes, 
male and female, are battered and ex- 
hausted. The jaws are greatly elon- 
gated in the male, the front teeth en- 
larged, and the color changes from 
clear blue to dark dull-red. On the 
way upward the fishes pair off. The 


370 


STARR JORDAN 


male scoops a furrow in the sand or 
gravel. The female fills it with eggs. 
The sand is smoothed over, after which 


the fishes drift back into the eur- 
rent and float downward “tail fore- 


most in the old salmon fashion,” every 
one dying in the course of a week or so, 
none ever reviving or reaching the sea. 

A few spawn prematurely at three 
years; others are belated and spawn at 
five years, these being of larger size 
than the others which range from about 
seven to eight pounds. 

The age of the salmon, as Dr. 
Charles H. Gilbert has demonstrated, 
can be determined by the study of the 
scales. The scales are marked by close- 
set concentric rings of growth. These 
are widest apart in the summer, when 
feed is best, and become close together 
in the winter. By these, the age of the 
fish can be ascertained, in a fashion 
analogous to finding the age of a tree 
by its rings of growth. 

The most remarkable fact is that the 
red salmon never enter a stream which 
has-no lake. So far as their range 
goes, northern Japan to Bering Strait 
and south to Oregon, there is not a 
stream with a lake which they do not 
enter. And the time of starting to run 
in the spring bears some relation to the 


THE RED 


distance they have to go. In the Yu- 
kon, the first lake, Labarge, is about 
fifteen hundred miles above tidewater. 
Yet red salmon reach the head of Lake 
Labarge. Another notable salmon 
stream is at Boca de Quadra in southern 
Alaska, not a mile long, less than ten 
feet wide, and shallow at that. It heads 
in a beautiful lake with fine spawning 
grounds, and the stream is crowded 
with red salmon. 

The red salmon (locally called “blue- 
back”) runs in moderate numbers in 
the Columbia, a river with few lakes. 
At one place, above Umatilla, there is 
a bridge across the forks of a tributary, 
one branch heading in a lake, the other 
without a lake. From this bridge, Dr. 
Gilbert has watched the two species of 
salmon as they run. The bluebacks all 
turn toward the lake, while the Chinook 
salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) 
moye apparently indiscriminately either 
way. 

No one has ever seen a red salmon 
in any lakeless river. Mr. J. P. Bab- 
cock, Fish Commissioner of British 
Columbia, tells of an experiment of 
piping water from the outlet of a lake 
into the sea. The red salmon gathered 
around the mouth of the pipe, as 
though recognizing the peculiar kind of 
water, though they naturally could not 
ascend the pipe. 

It is probable indeed that the salmon 
has some sort of instinct by which it 
recognizes lake water in whatever form. 
It makes no difference whether it is ice- 
cold and milk-white from the foot of a 
glacier as in Chilkoot River, or clear 


SALMON 371 
spring water as in the Boca de Quadra 
or at Yes Bay. 

A certain number of red salmon 
never leave the lake. ‘These mature at 
a weight of a pound or two and at first 
were naturally taken to be a distinct 
species (IHypsifario kennerlyi). Such 
dwarf lake-locked salmon are found in 
almost every deep lake from Idaho 
around to northern Japan. 

By some unexplained freak, the run 
in Puget Sound and Fraser River is 
every fourth year about double the 
ordinary run. ‘The cause of this goes 
far back into the history of the species 
and is unexplained. 

In Puget Sound, the humpbacked 
salmon (Oncorhynchus  gorbuscha), 
which lives but two years, runs in enor- 
mous numbers on alternate years, being 
almost wanting in the odd _ year. 
Neither species shows this trait of alter- 
nation in any waters other than Puget 
Sound. 

The red salmon is known by vari- 
ous local names as “‘Krasnaya Ryba” 
(redfish), ‘“nerka” in Alaska and 
Kamchatka (although none of us has 
ever heard it called), “sockeye” 
(Sukkegh) in British Columbia, and 
“blueback” in Oregon. Its flesh is 
not so pleasant to the taste as that of 
the much larger Chinooks, but it is red- 
der in color and therefore sells better. 

The red salmon is the most valuable 
single species of fish in the world, as it 
occurs in uncounted numbers especially 
in the streams about Bristol Bay, the 
Karluk River of Kadiak Island, and in 
the Fraser River of British Columbia. 


sO 


Photograph by A. J. 35 
THE SHEER CLIFFS OF BONAVENTURE 


The cliffs of Bonaventure are exceedingly difficult of access and many of these photographs have 
been made only at great risk. This is one of the broader gannet ledges. Happily, the races of sea 
birds that frequent this remarkable breeding place have now com under government protection in 
Canada by the law just passed establishing Percé, Bonaventure I land, and the Bird Rocks as bird 
sanctuaries. Thus a ved to the world certain species of water fowl which were rapidly b coming 
extinct 


9 
ol 2 


The New Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries 


By JOHN 


M. CLARKE 


State Geologist and Paleontologist, and Director of the State Museum, Albany 


OR nearly four hundred years 

the navigators of the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence have wondered at the 
immense colony of sea fowl which 
nest upon the ledges of the Isles-aux- 
Margaulx—the “Bird Rocks,” as they 
are known to modern English geog- 
raphy. These remote bits of bare rock 
lie about ten miles to the north of the 
Magdalen Island group, and as they 
are constituted of the same rocks, they 
must be assigned to the same little 
archipelago. 

The Bird Rocks are three in number 
now. In the early days the two little 
fragments now called the “Little Birds” 
were one, but the sea has broken them 
apart. The “Great” or “Northern 
Bird” is a flat rock table, not so large 
as some ice floes, with sheer vertical 
walls on all sides, rising one hundred 
and fifty feet from the water to the 
base of the lighthouse 
which constitutes it 
the lone outpost of 
civilization. Ever 
since the days when 
Audubon visited this 
spot on his voyage to 
the Labrador, the 
islet has been the ob- 
ject of much visiting, 
collecting, and writ- 
ing by students of 
birds. It is probable 
that a century ago 
the bird colony here 
was the largest on 
the Atlantic Coast, 
but this is no longer 
true, for, while the 
inroads of the eggers 


which so depleted 
this colony and 


brought to extinction 


Anticosti Is. 
7 


Oy Perce Rock 


gt” 


ICK 


many of the bird colonies on the Lab- 
rador have ceased, other damage has 
been done; partly because the presence 
of the lighthouse with its noisy acces- 
sories for warning vessels of their 
proximity to the rock has helped to 
diminish the census of the bird popu- 
lation; partly from the invasions by the 
Magdalen Island fishing fleet; and the 
greedy “bird lover” who collects birds’ 
eggs “for exchange” is not without 
blame in this matter. 

The Great Bird Rock, in spite of its 
isolation and remoteness, is an island 
gem of much beauty; its level grassy 
top covers about seven acres of ground, 
and aligned on all the ledges which 
make up its gray steplike bastions are 
the ranks of gannets, the most beauti- 
ful of all waterfowl; of murres and 
kittiwakes; of guillemots, razor-billed 
auks and puffins; a short list of species 


st 


“Bonaventure Is. 
OF Bird Rocks 


f * 
Aa 
° Magdalen Is. 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


The Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries.—Percé Rock and Bonaventure Island, 
off the Gaspé Peninsula, and farther out in the Gulf the Bird Rocks of 
the Magdalen Island group, have been for centuries the breeding places 
of several species of birds which rarely or never nest on the mainland. 
These rocky islets, because of their isolation, are ideal resorts for sea fowl 


oro 
vivo 


The beautiful village of Percé at the point of the Gaspé Peninsula faces squarely the waters of the Gulf of 
It is one of the oldest settlements in eastern North America, having been established as a fishing 
Percé Rock, which lies off the point of Mt. Joli, often figures in the relations of 
Bonaventure Island, in the background, is also an ancient station and 


St. Lawrence. 
station before the year 1600. 
the early navigators and missioners. 
had a church as early as 1671 


Photograph by A. J. Cramp 


Bonaventure Island is in itself an object of great natural beauty and during the tourist season is visited 
daily. A climb to the summit from the wharf on the low western shore affords an effective distant view of the 
gannet ledges, while the boat trip around it gives a close view of its feathered community, considered one of 


the wonders of the Atlantic Coast 


Photograzh by A. J. Cramp 


The verdure-capped summit of Percé Rock is the home of a co!ony made up of herring gulls and crested 
cormorants. This assemblage has been here since the beginnings of human history on the coast, and the upper 
surface of the rock has never, so far as records show, been the breeding place of any other species. This pic- 
turesque and beautifully colored mass of vertical Devonian limestone is here viewed from the summit of Mt. 
Joli on the mainland. It is approximately 300 feet high, 1200 feet long, and 80 feet wide. Toward the sea 
end the rock is pierced by an archway which frames tue waters of the Gulf beyond 


Photograph ty F. M. Chapman 


Great Bird Rock is the only known rookery of the gannets outside of Bonaventure Is!and, on this side of 
the Atlantic. It has no human population except the lighthouse keeper and his assistants. When the Bird 
Islands were discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534, the ‘‘Isles-aux-Margaulx”’ as he named them, housed an 
enormous colony of water fowl. When Audubon visited the place, however, in 1833, he found that the attacks of 
eggers here and elsewhere, particularly on the Labrador coast, were resulting in the sale in the Boston and New 
York markets of hundreds of thousands of dozens of eggs annually. These attacks have undoubtedly been the 


cause of the extinction of the gannet roosts on the islands and coasts of Labrador 


oid 


376 


but an association of most ancient 
date. 

The romance and tragedy of the bird 
life of this colony have been depicted 
both by camera and pen. Few more 
effective pictures of birds have been 
made than the photographs taken here 
by Herbert K. Job and Frank M. Chap- 
man who risked limb and hfe in the 
acrobatic performances necessary to 
catch their effective views. And these 
were pictures taken when such photog- 
raphy was a new and perilous adven- 
ture without the help of telephoto 


lenses or long distance electric connec- 


4 


Photograph by L. D. Bostock 
Fledgling gannets on the Bonaventure Island 
ledges.—The young when hatched are naked and 


helpless. A white down soon appears; at a year 
old the plumage is a smoky brown with white 
V-shaped spots, which finally gives way to the 
pure white of the adult 


NATURAL HISTORY 


tion. It was here that Louis A. Fuertes 
went for subjects for his paintings of 
the “Birds of New York,” and these 
ledges furnished the setting for the 
Bird Rock Group in the American 
Museum of Natural History. 

A still larger colony of these water- 
fowl is that on the cliffs which bound 
the eastern face of Bonaventure Island, 
lying two miles out in the gulf from 
the point of Percé, the easternmost 
projection of the Gaspé coast. Bona- 
venture Island is nearly circular and 
about a mile and a half across. It is 
another insulated remnant of table- 
land, lke the top of a round center 
table tipped. down to low shores at the 
west but with high and vertical edges 
rising four hundred feet at the east. 
It is on these steepest, most elevated, 
and most inaccessible ledges of the 
island that the greatest of all the bird 
colonies left in the gulf makes its 
breeding home. Until late years these 
birds have never been subject to the 
assaults which have so gravely impaired 
the census of the Bird Rock colony. 

Bonaventure is a continental island 
and strictly within the control of the 
mainland, so that the eggers of the 
Gloucester fleet who in the old days 
made their regular inroads upon the 
colonies farther out in the gulf and 
carried back to the Boston market hun- 
dreds of thousands of dozens of eggs 
every spring, were not sufficiently ven- 
turesome to invade these mainland 
limits. On Bonaventure the damage 
done has been partly through the egg- 
ing carried on by the local fishermen, 
but of late years, as the beautiful Percé 
country becomes annually a more fa- 
vorite resort for tourists, there have 
been inereasing and ruthless attacks 
upon the nesting birds by the “fool 
with a gun,” who has slaughtered for 
the sake of slaughtering and shown his 
sporting blood by enfilading from a 
distance squads of harmless waterfowl 
nesting upon their young. 

The bird colony at Bonaventure 


THE NEW GASPE BIRD SANCTUARIES 


Island is of quite the same composition 
as that of the Great Bird Rock, and it 
is perhaps nothing more than an inter- 
esting coincidence that these two great 


colonies, constituted of the same aggre- 
sation of bird species, have chosen -to 
bring forth their young upon the same 


kind of conglomerate and sandstone 


The nesting mother gannet Sula bassana) 


overlooking the Gulf of St. Lawrence 7 


salt-water fowl The body of the 
neck and head washed with buff 


rocks of the same gray and red color, 
all of the same geological age and 
formation and having the same hori- 
zontal position. Mr. P. A. 
of the Canada, 
has estimated, from a series of photo- 
graphs, that the population of the 
alone in the 
TOOO 


Taverner, 


Geological Survey of 


cannets Bonaventure 


colony is between 


and 
very much larger number than that as- 


SOUUD. a 


on the 
is bird, ofter 
from its best known home on the Bass Rock near 


all the 
tical limestone tinted with red, yellow, 


and purple, 


ot two species ot 
cull and the 


since the days 


from Brittany and 


> 
~? 


signed to the gannets of the Bird Rock 
colony. 

The third of these notable Gaspe bird 
colonies is that on the top of the Perce 
This 


island les 


and dramatic 
upon the 


line of Percé village and is in itself the 


Rock. celebrated 


rock close coast 


most extraordinary scenic feature on 


7 


. = 
we ~ SS 
. 
. 
- 


Photograph by F. M. Chapman 

Courtesy of D. Appleton and Company 
conglomerate ledges of the Great Bird Rock, 
called the solan goose and taking its Latin name 


Edinburgh, is the largest and most beautiful of our 
adult bird is almost entirely 
and the bill bluis} 


white, the wing tips being black, the 


Tray 


Atlantic Coast—a mass of ver- 


with undulatine verdure- 


capped summit, and it is the wavy top 


that is the abode of a colony composed 


birds.—the herring 


erested cormorant. ver 


in the late years of the 


sixteenth century, when the fishermen 


the Bay of Biscay 


78 NATURAL 


A group of razor-billed auks on the ledges of the Great Bird Rock of the 
Magdalen Islands.—This bird is the nearest relative of the extinct great auk 
which at one time also inhabited Great Bird Rock 


began their operations at this celebrated 
fishing port, the eries of the sea birds 
have been the familar accompaniment 
of the life of the coast and the gulls of 
Percé Rock an historic part of the liv- 
ing scenery of the coast. No one kills 
a herring gull except a hungry fisher- 
man whose palate does not: yet resent 
the fishy flavor of the fluffy young bird 
stumbling about the The 
Percé Rock is unscalable and thus the 
birds have had a fair natural protec- 
tion, but their greatest protection has, 
I think, lain in the fact that here close 
upon the shore they have always been 
kindly regarded by the people of the 
place as their natural neighbors and 
helpful scavengers for dirty beaches. 


beaches. 


HISTORY 


The coming of the 
gulls and their de- 


parture mean to 
the people the 
promise and the 
farewell of the 
summer. 


All of these ter- 
ritories are in the 
Province of Que- 
bee and the County 
of Gaspé. On the 
seventeenth of last 
March a bill which 
had been intro- 
duced in the Que- 
bee Parliament for 
the purpose of es- 


tablishing these 
colonies as pro- 


tected bird sanctu- 
aries became a law. 
In many respects 
the law is a very 
extraordinary en- 
actment, for it is 
frankly based upon 
recognition of the 
“rapid and alarm- 
ing decrease in the 
number” of these 
birds by which 
there has resulted 
a “threatened extinction” ; and because 
these are “almost the last resorts of 
certain vanishing — species inter- 
esting to all lovers of nature and sci- 
ence and valuable as scavengers,” the 
law has been framed and passed with 
sentiment paramount and human econ- 
omy taking a secondary place. 

The birds are protected to prevent 
them from vanishing, because they are 
interesting and wondrous creations of 
great beauty, and incidentally because 
they are valuable as scavengers. Per- 
haps in the entire history of bird 
legislation in the western continent no 
other regulative measure, so essentially 
based upon the higher sentiment of the 
community, has been enacted, and for 


Photograph by P. A. Taverner 


GANNET COLONIES OF BONAVENTURE 


; : great gannet colony of Bonaventure Island is separated into two companies. The observer approaching the 
island from the north first comes upon the lesser colony; then a hiatus follows of barren rock cliff before the second 
and irger colony begins It seems possible that this uninhabited interval owes its existence to a great rock fall in 
the remote past, which blotted out for its bird inhabitants all memory of their former nesting places 

19 


580 


Bird Rock, Magdalen Islands. 


this reason the law stands tremendously 
to the credit of the parliament and the 
people of Quebec. It is a stringent 
law; it takes under its cover all the 
migratory game birds and migratory 
insectivorous birds as well as the mi- 
eratory nongame birds, in pursuance 
of the migratory bird law, this being 
an important but actually an incidental 
part of the legislation. 

To the sanctuaries thus created we 
have been referring: the Bird Rocks 
and a one-mile zone surrounding them ; 
a strip of land on the north and east 
sides of Bonaventure Island, ten feet 
in depth along the cliffs with the face 
of the cliffs itself, this provision pro- 
tecting all of the nesting places with 
but slight encroachment upon the wood- 
lands there under private ownership ; 
and the Percé Rock with a one-mile 


Photograph by F. M. Chapman 

Courtesy of D. Appleton and Company 
Gannets, murres, and puffins on the horizontal rock ledges of the Great 
In view of the years of persecution to which 
these birds have been subjected, they are still remarkably tame 


NATURAL HISTORY 


zone about it. Se- 
vere penalties are 
imposed for  of- 
fenses against this 
law. 

After the perfec- 
tion of this enact- 
ment, an order was 
issued by the Goy- 
ernor General in 
Council (March 
29) to the same ef- 
fect so far as the 
sird = Sanctuaries 
are concerned, thus 
giving to the res- 
ervations a na- 
tional recognition. 

The history of the 
movement which 
has led up to this 
result is not with- 
out its interest. 
About six years ago 
the anglers of the 
Gaspé district made 
joint allegation to 
the Ottawa govern- 
ment, regarding the 
depredations by the 
crested cormorant upon the salmon and 
trout pools. The indicted bird was ac- 
cused of being the greatest enemy of 
the young of the fresh-water game 
fishes, and as the cormorant colony on 
the summit of Percé Rock is the only 
large nesting ledge of its kind on the 
coast, the game inspector, the late 
Commander William Wakeham, was 
officially ordered to destroy these birds. 
He made arrangements to carry out 
this order by having the Percé Rock 
scaled, the young birds killed, and the 
nests destroyed, although it is within 
my personal knowledge that he did this 
with utmost reluctance. It seemed 
then a proper time in which to enter a 
demurrer so far as could properly be 
done until the indictment against the 
cormorant could be tried out. 

Ornithologists were not at all dis- 


THE NEW GASPE BIRD SANCTUARIES 381 


posed to unanimity in regard to the 
natural food of the crested cormorant, 
nor were they willing to grant that the 
indicted bird was guilty of the crimes 
laid at its door. 
mine this matter and in view of a more 
official protest against the procedure 
referred to, the Ottawa order was re- 
scinded until such time as the ornitholo- 
gists of the Natural History Survey of 
Canada could enter upon and conclude 
an investigation of the habits of the 
cormorant. Mr. P. A. Taverner, with 
his assistants, was detailed to make a 
special study of this problem on the 
ground, and as a result of the inspec- 
tion of the ingested food of these birds, 
re rendered judgment that the cormo- 
rant was not guilty. Mr. Taverner’s 
examinations, however, extended much 
further than to a solution of this prob- 
lem; he gave attention to the 
other birds of the Percé colonies, and 
he, too, perceived and emphasized the 
adverse conditions under which the 
birds were maintaining their existence. 

The long campaign which has at last 
come to so fine fruition had for its ef- 
fective conclusion the initiative of the 
Honorable Honoré Mercier, the Min- 
ister of Colonization, Mines and Fish- 
eries for the Province of Quebec, and 
the provisions of the law were drawn 
by Mr. E. T. D. Chambers, of Quebec, 


In order to deter- 


close 


whose sympathy in this undertaking 
was of prime moment. : 

[ think it safe to say that the crested 
cormorant is the sacred bird which, has 
saved the day for these St. Lawrence 
nesting places and, like many another 
martyr in a good cause, is itself alone 
left outside the pale of the protecting 
wois. A black bird have 
plenty of trouble under any of the 
protective laws. 


seems to 


The Province of Quebec now has 
a great bird reserve of the most at- 
tractive sort. The Percé Rock and 


cliffs are of 
themselves great natural 
beauty. The Perecé Rock is ever star- 
tlingly under the eye. Bonaventure 
Island les in the offing like a great 
green Whale revealing nothing of its 
bird wonders to the man ashore. The 
hoat trip around it beneath its sheer 
rock walls is the lifting of the veil to 
its most impressive feathered commu- 
nity. To the Bird Rocks of the Magda- 
lens it is about 124 into the 
heart of the gulf, a pleasant two-days’ 
journey by boat from Percé with agree- 
able weather. Such a trip is not pos- 
sible under present arrangement but it 
may be within the power of the Prov- 
ince which has gone thus far so well, to 
such great 


Island 


objects of 


the Bonaventure 


miles, 


arrange over its 


Marine Park. 


voyages 


“Bird Rock” is about seven acres in area, 


The lighthouse keeper and the birds 
St. Lawrence 


together 


Photograph by F. M. Chapman 
Courtesy of D. Appleton and Company 


with grassy top and weathered, precipitous sides. 
keep 


watch here at the entrance to the Gulf of 


SBS i aR sles ead 


MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS OF LAYSAN 


The frigate or man-o’-war bird (Frigata aquila) has a bright red gular pouch, an inflated air sac 
only indirectly connected with the lungs, so that it can be filled or emptied but slowly. When the bird 
is on the wing the red pouch bobs from side to side, giving a most bizarre appearance. These birds 
are adroit fliers. It is while on the wing that they gather twigs for the nest, catch surface-swimming 
fish, and even drink water, catching it up as they dart downward in long parabolic curves. The frigate 
birds are numerous on Laysan, and maintain a piratical warfare on their neighbors, the blue-faced 
boobies, who are skillful and industrious fishermen. The boobies are set upon when coming in from the 
sea laden with flying fish, and are rudely overturned in mid-air, a procedure which invariably causes 
them to drop the fish—which the man-o’-war birds scoop up as they fall. Afterward, the members of the 
expedition turned the tables and co!lected good specimens of flying fish for scientific study from the man- 
o’-war birds by rapping them lightly on the head with a cane, thus causing the birds to disgorge the fish. 

Laysan is the largest of the chain of islets running to the northwest of the main Hawaiian group, 
set aside by President Roosevelt in 1909 as a bird reservation. The islands are formed by the summits 
of a great submarine volcanic mountain range. Like most of these islands Laysan is probably an old 
atoll with a surrounding reef and central lagoon. Nowhere does it rise more than fifty feet above sea 
level. Tall, bushy grass and shrubs cover its inner slopes, supported by a soil formed through the dis- 
integration of coral and phosphate rock. At one time it was reported that there were several palm trees 
on the island but our expedition found only dead stumps of palm trees 


382 


a Se 


Laysan’s fringing reef over which the long P 
where landing can be easily effected in favorable weather 


acific rollers break.—The 


. 


Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation’ 


By ALFRED 


M. BAILEY 


Curator of Mammals and Birds, Louisiana State Museum 


UT in the mid-Pacific, extend- 
ing from the main Hawaiian 
group in a northwesterly di- 
rection for fifteen hundred miles, are a 
series of small islands famed the world 
over for their vast number of long- 
winged sea birds. ‘These islands are 
reached by boat from Honolulu and as 
one proceeds on the way to the famous 
bird paradises and sails past the green 
slopes of Kauai and Maui without see- 
ing a feathered creature except possibly 
a man-o’-war bird dark against the sky, 
one wonders why these other favorable 
places in the beautiful Hawaiians are 
not occupied by a greater bird popula- 
tion. 
We left Honolulu 
steaming close to 


December 16, 
verdure-covered 


1The Hawaiian Islands Reservation was est 
the millions of sea birds’ and waders which return 
migrating. 

An earlier article by Mr. Bailey, 
rookery of the rare monk seal, was published in the M 


th 


describing the discovery 


¢ 
t 


Kauai as we circled off toward Bird 
Island. This we reached the morning 
of the second day out. It is a precipi- 
tous little mountain, a mass of rock 
towering sheer for nine hundred feet, 
one portion crumbling to the water's 
edge, and the gentle interior slope like 
the bowl of a timeworn volcano. Thou- 
sands-of birds, flashes of white against 
the dark blue of the Pacific and dark 
against the light of the sky, drifted out 
to meet the on-coming boat. A few 
albatrosses were seen skimming the 
waves, and wide-stretching man-o’-war 
birds drifted lazily above the mast tops, 
circling rings about the boat with no 
apparent wing movement. We found 
that landing on Bird Island was im- 
possible, owing to the tremendous surf 


ablished in 1909 by Executive Order as a sanctuary for 


ere annually to raise their young or to rest while 


on Pearl and Hermes reefs of the main 


ay, 1918, AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, 


Illustrations from Photographs by the Author 


38 


0 


reef is open only on the western shore, 


their island in a fear] manner. They nest 1n iarge colonies among the matted bushes, making long excursions 
offshore for the fish on which they almost entirely subsist. These terns 
with a quick jerk of the head, the minnows that come near the surf 


Sharks glide stealthily from one cut to another in the outer coral reef, seeking such finny residents as they 
may devour. As we rowed in to the island, they nipped at our oar blades, noseing curiously the strange dis- 
turber of their unfrequented waters 


3s4 


During the winter months Laysan suffers from violent storms. The waves pile across the reefs with thunder- 
ous roars, rushing in and breaking over the south sea wall in clouds of spray, often sixty feet high. The greens 
and dark blues of the deep water meet sharply the light blue of the water over the reefs, and these, together 
with the prismatic colors of the spray, contrast with the dark and forbidding shadows of the broken bowlders of 


the reef 


The sea wall is cut up with innumerable potholes in which live queer goby fish which leap from one hole to 
Spined sea urchins line the most exposed places where they 


another to make their escape from pursuing enemies. 
receive the full force of the breaking waves. The reefs have, however, other stories to tell for on them may be 
found many a bolt and hasp from wrecked ships, reminders of tragedies of days long past 

38) 


386 


which crashed against the bowlder- 
strewn wall, so we turned westward. 

At sun-up next morning we sighted 
Necker Island, a distant, ghostly mass 
showing vaguely against the sky line. 
This wall of igneous rock, picturesque 
and forbidding with its red veins show- 
ing against the dark, is a little more 
than half a mile in length and three 
hundred feet in height. The walls are 
precipitous and only in the calmest 
weather is it possible to land a boat 
among the broken pinnacles. We pulled 
close to the island in a skiff, with sail- 
ors and a lieutenant to man the boat, 
but, although we rounded the northern- 
most point searching for a landing, the 
crashing waves kept us from a near 


approach. Sharks nipped at the oar 
blades and as we entered the deep 


shadow of the high wall, a great skate 
rose off our bow—an indistinct mass of 
glowing phosphorescence, and then 
sank slowly from view. 

It is majestic in the lee of that is- 
Jand. Thousands of birds shriek above 
one’s head, and the sight and sound of 
the waves, with their high-thrown spray, 
are bewildering. One of our party 
landed by swimming—a hazardous feat 
—and obtained a footing on the slip- 
pery rocks only after he had three 
times disappeared under water, sucked 
down by the undertow. This rocky 
islet, far from the main Hawaiian 
group, is noted for the old stone monu- 
ments built upon its crest. Numerous 
little idols have been found and it is 
supposed that the ancient Hawaiians 
used Necker as a place of worship—a 
long voyage for their small outrigger 
canoes, with no compass to guide them! 

Pearl and Hermes reefs with the rare 
warm-water seal, Midway Island, the 
farthermost of the chain, and Lisiansky 
were visited, all of interest for their 
wealth of birds. But it was on Laysan 
that we spent three months, studying 
the conditions of this Pacific reserva- 
tion. 

Laysan is apart from the world. It 


NATURAL HISTORY 


is 850 miles from Honolulu, and so far 
off the general line of boat travel that 
during our entire stay we saw not even 
the smoke of a distant vessel. The 
island is oval in shape, two miles in 
length by one in width, a dazzling strip 
of sand lost in the sparkling Pacifie— 
just a dot of white upon the broad ex- 
panse. It is supposed to be a raised 
atoll, and the interior area slopes gently 
to a little salt lagoon, bordered with a 
thick carpet of Portulaca. 

This island is the largest of the Lee- 
ward reservation and the best known to 
bird lovers the world over. Here on 
this little place are found five species of 
indigenous birds, one the Laysan teal 
so restricted in numbers that only seven 
individuals existed at the time of our 
visit; a wingless rail skulks among the 
grasses, the red honey-eaters, quiet- 
colored miller birds, and joyous-voiced 
finches dart among the Chenopodium. 
But to the casual observer the vast 
throngs of sea birds that crowd this 
sanctuary make it a delight. A great 
colony of Laysan albatrosses occupies 
the flat surrounding the lagoon, where 
they assemble each year to raise their 
young. <A great flock of these large 
white birds of immaculate plumage re- 
sembles the whitest of cotton fields, and 
hundreds of these darting albatrosses 
in the sunlight give a picture beyond 
the power of camera or artist to por- 
tray. On the exposed beaches, where 
the winds sweep viciously, are reared 
the young of the black-footed alba- 
trosses. These old pirates have a rug- 
ged disposition and are inclined to 
make a stand for their rights, fighting 
off intruders with beak and wing. 

Five species of agile terns make Lay- 
san their nesting ground, and when 
large numbers of graybacks and sooties 
are assembled, it is necessary for a man 
to shout if he cares to be heard above 
the calls of the birds. The large noddy 
and its smaller brother, the Hawaiian 
tern, choose the matted bushes as nest- 
ing sites, and often ten nests may be 


THE 
LIMTLE 
WHITE TERN 
OF 
THE PACIFIC 


The little white 
tern (Gygis alba 
kittlitzi), or the 
“love bird’’ of the 
Pacific, is not 
common on Lay- 
san, for it has 
been mercilessly 
slaughtered by 
poachers. Only 
three pairs of the 
terns were nest- 
ing on Laysan at 
the time of our 
arrival and one 
little brown chick 
hatched out the 
first day. Two 
months later he 
was flying about 
in company with 
his parents. This 
species lays only 
one egg, usually 
on an exposed 
rock with no nest 
whatever, but oc- 

nally the egg 

be found bal- 
anced precariously 
on a bare branch. 
Whenever an in- 
truder wanders 
near the brooding 
birds they flutter 
about examining 
him curiously. As 
the birds hover 
overhead their 
dark eyes seem 
all out of prope 
tion in size, and 
their rather harsh 
monotonous voice 
inappropriate for 
such delicate 
creatures. The 
young cling tena- 
ciously to the 
nest, and the par- 
ent feeds them 
with small silvery 
fishes which she 
carries crosswise 
in her beak, two 
or more at a time. 

The safety of 
this species seems 
assured, notwith- 
standing the per- 
secution on Lay- 
san, for the birds 
are found by 
thousands on Neec- 
ker, French Fri- 
gate Rock, and 
3ird Island, 
where they nest 
among the inac- 
cessible cliffs. 


ores 5 


Successful experiments have been conducted on sandy wastes in the Pacific in the transplantation 
of a species of sait grass trom California. The time has now come to reclaim the slopes of Laysan 
The rabbits, which were intro- 


Island because of the ravages of a rapidly multiplying rabbit horde. f : 1 ! 
are destroying the vegetation and will turn the already inhospitable island into a 
It will be difficult, however, to exterminate the pests owing to 


duced about 1903, 
desert unless they can soon be reduced. 


the presence of thousands of petrel and shearwater burrows which afford safe hiding 


found to the square yard. But the little 
white tern, the “Love Bird of the Pa- 
cific,” is the most beautiful of all, white 
of plumage with an indescribable flush 
given by the salmon color which veins 
the tail and wing feathers, and with 
deep-set black eyes and glossy beak. As 
388 


they poise a few feet overhead, white 
against the hght sky, they are the most 
interesting studies in light and shade 
imaginable. They lay a single egg on 
an exposed rock, although I saw one 
egg deposited on the limb of a bush in 
a depression scarcely larger around than 


The man-o’-war bird rises from the nest awkwardly, sprawling over the bushes, but once on the wing he is 
a powerful flier, soaring to great heights in an almost total calm. The immature birds (recognized in the photo- 
graph by the white feathers of the head) are playful and dart at the visitor with open mouth, but although very 
formidable-looking they can inflict no injury 


ee 


On Laysan the man-o’-war birds build their nests among the bushes, using a miscellaneous heap of sticks 
and vines. They build several weeks before the time to lay the eggs, and spend the intervening days holding 
down their claims, for such is the competition in the matter of space and nesting materials that if they leave the 
nest unguarded it is soon appropriated, as a whole or piecemeal, by neighbors. (See appearance of the inflated 
gular pouch when the bird is in flight, page 382) 


B89 


390 


the egg itself. 


are protectively colored and cling te- 
naciously to the rocks. 


The tiny brown chicks 


NATURAL HISTORY 


birds and make a welcome addition to 
the old frigate’s domain. 
to see one of these beautiful white birds 


It is common 


Petrels and shearwaters crowd the is- go squawking through the air, closely 


land, nesting in 
deep burrows 
dug in the loose 
coral sand. ‘he 
white-breasted 
petrel is a dove- 
like bird which 
literally 


over 


seems 
to swarm 
the island in the 
evening. The air 
was so filled 
with flying birds 
that we always 
had to protect 
our faces when 
near their nest- 
ing colonies, and 
they were con- 
tinually coming 
into the house at 
night, attracted 
by the light. 
ChristmasIsland 
shearwaters nest 
under the 
bushes, while 
the quarrelsome 
wedge-tails go 
far under- 
ground. Great 
colonies of the 
long-winged 
man-0’-war 
birds nest on 
the heights of 
the southern end 
of the island. 
Flocks of these 
birds will sail 
for hours ; higher 
and higher they 


go, as we watch, until they gradually 
disappear from view. The solemn-look- 
ing blue-faced booby and the smaller, 
more graceful red-footed booby nest in 
near proximity to these man-o’-war 


The black-footed albatross (Diomedea nigripes) is 
especially a bird of grace and power, a wanderer on 
the high seas for most of the year, but in season a 


careful attendant upon domestic duties. In the pres- 
ence of a human visitor the parent takes great pride 
in her offspring, but stands ready to resent any un- 
due familiarity. With the offspring of her neighbors, 
however, the parent albatross shows impatience, and 
not infrequently trounces all undefended nestlings in 
the vicinity. The young birds when approached by 
the visitor become excited, snap their b:l’s, and may 
even attempt to charge 


pursued by sev- 
eral old man-o’- 
war birds. If 
the booby is 
heavily laden 
with fish, he is 
soon overtaken, 
and if he does 
not disgorge 
eracefully, the 
man-o-war usu- 
ally grabs him 
by the tail and 
turns him com- 
pleteliys- omens 
thus persuading 
Him ‘i SEs: 7 re= 
source is to 
alight as quickly 
as possible, for 
his long-winged 
enemy is help- 
less. .0n" = Ene 
ground. 
Laysan, on 
our visit, was still 
a bird paradise, 
and this in spite 
of the fact that a 
few years prevl- 
ous it had been 
raided by poach- 
ers who killed, 
it is estimated, 
at least 180,000 
birds. We judged 
that during our 
stay there were 


present about 
50,000 — alba- 
trosses, 50,000 


pairs of petrels, 


half as many terns, and a few odd thou- 
sands of other species. 
many more birds on Laysan at that time 
than the poachers had killed. 
Waikiki dumping grounds in Honolulu 


There were not 


At the 


NOTES ON OUR HAWAIIAN RESERVATION 


we destroyed eleven wagonloads of the 
feathers and wings which had been col- 
lected by the poachers, besides a whole 
shedful left on Laysan when the rev- 
enue cutter “Thetis” took off the poach- 
ers with their plunder. I will not go 
into detail about the barbarous methods 
used in the slaughter, cutting off the 
wings and allowing the birds to die of 
hemorrhage, and other equally savage 
practices. 

When we were on the island, even 
though the birds had been so terribly 
persecuted such a short time before, 
they were responding to the renewed 
favorable conditions ; and now they will 
soon replenish their devastated colonies 
if adequate precaution is taken to pre- 
vent another raid. Before the war the 
island was protected by the revenue 
cutter which made several trips a year 
into those waters, which proved often 
enough to prevent a well-established 
raid. The poachers were on Laysan at 
the time the island was made into a 
reservation, and their plundering was 
well along before the officers had the 
authority to interrupt the ravages. Be- 
cause of late the war has interfered 
with our work of protection, advantage 
may be taken of our unpreparedness, 
and another raid, more serious than the 
first, is perhaps to be feared. 

But Laysan’s worst enemy is within 
her own borders, and if relief is not 
offered soon, the island will become a 
waste of drifting sand. Rabbits were 
introduced a good many years ago and 
have increased to such an extent that 
they now overrun the island. The 
vegetation is being depleted so rap- 
idly by them that there is danger the 
little indigenous birds will perish. The 
bushes, which once offered favorable 
nesting sites, are girdled, the bunch 
erass undermined and destroyed. Even 
the trailing vines are disappearing, and 
the loose coral sand, no longer an- 
chored by a network of roots, shifts in 


391 


creat clouds at every turn of the wind. 
The sea birds could go elsewhere, of 
course, but their inherited tendency to 
return year after year is strong, and 
their young perish in uncountable num- 
bers. The winds start the sands drift- 
ing, and the young birds are smothered 
under the forming dunes. Young alba- 
trosses start toddling with the swift- 
moving sea of sand, become exhausted, 
and are soon covered over. The little 
petrels, nesting underground, are the 
most terribly punished. I have found 
them where they had worked their way 
to the surface of their filled burrows 
and, unable to go farther, had died 
with their heads just above ground, 
buried alive,—and not one or two, but 
thousands. 5 

We killed more than five thousand 
rabbits by actual count, and that should 
be a help, but by now the pests will be 
as numerous as ever, and it is strongly 
recommended that something system- 
atic be done to lessen their numbers, 
and something also to increase the vege- 
tation. There is a tobacco which has in 
some way been introduced on the is- 
land; this seems to be increasing in 
abundance. But the tussock grasses, so 
necessary to hold the soil to the inner 
slope, the Chenopodium, and various 
bushes are fast disappearing. Rapid- 
growing forms which will hold the sand 
should be introduced,—the good work 
of reclaiming the waste land of Midway 
is proof that the work can be done, but 
it should not be delayed. 

The late Theodore Roosevelt estab- 
lished that great Hawaiian reservation 
in 1909, along with many others in this 
country. Roosevelt is gone now, and 
his many friends and admirers are 
secking to establish monuments to per- 
petuate his memory. <A Roosevelt 
Foundation for the Protection of Wild 
Life would be a fitting memorial and 
would meet many such emergencies as 
that of Laysan. 


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Frontispiece engraved for Sir 


London edition 


William 
Ornithology,” 


Jardine’s 


of “American 1832 


ALEXANDER WILSON, ONE OF AMERICA’S GREAT 
HUNTER-NATURALISTS (1766-1813) 


Inspired by the story of the life of Alexander Wilson, a Kentucky boy of today has searched until 


weary alone through the woods to find the Kentucky warbler, 
which James Lane Allen makes typify the boy’s self. 


a bird discovered and named by Wiison 
The boy dreams: 


Then there stepped forth into the open the figure of a hunter, lean, vigorous, tall, athletic. 


He discovered Webster and with a look of relief 


Webster held imprinted on memory 


stood 
from a picture those features, those all-seeing eyes; 
—weaver lad of Paisley, wandering peddler youth of the grey Scotch mountains, violinist, flutist, 


There mistake. 
Wilson 


the 


could be no 
it was 


still and smiled. 


poet who had burned his poem standing in the public cross, the exile, the school teacher for whom the 
boy caught the mouse, the failure who sent the drawing to Thomas Jefferson, the bold figure in the skiff 
drifting down the Ohio—the naturalist plunging into the Kentucky wilderness and walking to Lexington 


and shivering in White’s garret—the great American ornithologist, the immortal man. 


: He came and stood before Webster and 
looked down at him with a smile: 
‘‘Have you found him, Webster?” 
Webster strangely heard his own voice: 
“T have not found him.” 
“You have looked long?” 
“T have looked everywhere 
hime es ae 
‘“‘Why do you look for the Kentucky Warbler ?”’ 
Webster hesitated long: 


and I cannot find 


“T do not know,” he faltered. 

“Something in you makes you seek him, but 
you do not know what that something is?” 

“No, I do not know what it is: I know I wish 


to find him.” 

“Not him alone but many other things?” 
“Yes, many other things.” 

“The whole wild life of the forest?” 
“Yes, all the wild things in the forest—and the 
wild forest itself.” 

There was silence. The forest was becoming 
more wonderful. The singing of the unseen birds 
more silvery sweet. It was beyond all reality. 

The hunter hurled questions now with no 
pity: 


Quoted from James 


396 


“Would be 


alone?” 

“T would not.” 

“Tf, during the night, a storm should pass over the 
forest with thunder deafening you and lightning 
flashing close to your eyes and trees falling every- 
where, you would fear for your life and that would 
be natural and wise; but would you come again?” 

“T would.”’ 

“If it were winter and the forest were bowed 
deep with ice and snow and you were alone in it, 
having lost your way, would you cry enough?! 
Would you hunt for a fireside and never return?” 

“T would not.”’ 

“You can stand cold and hunger and danger 
and fatigue; can you be patient and can you be 
persevering ?”’ 

se Canere 

“Look long and not find what you look for and 
still not give up?” 
scan. 


you afraid to stay here all night 


There was silence for a little while: the mood 
of the hunter seemed to soften: 
“Come,” he said, as with high trust, “J 


will show you the Kentucky warbler.” 


Lane Allen’s The Kentucky Warbler, pp. 164—70 


* 


Alexander Wilson 


A LIFE THAT LED, THROUGH MANY YEARS OF DEFEAT, TO THE HIGH 
ADVENTURE OF PERSONAL SACRIFICE, PROFOUND 
ENDEAVOR, AND SUCCESS 


Quoted through the courtesy of the Author and of Doubleday, Page & Company, publishers, from 
“The School.’’ the second chapter of James Lane Allen's The Kentucky Warbler 


Foreworp.—The scene is a classroom in one of the high schools of Kentucky in 1916; an 
exchange professor is standing before the pupils ready to address them; the sunshine of an 
April morning enters at the windows, slanting across the faces of the pupils, and there is a 
sound in the air of distant bird song. Webster, the Kentucky boy whose vision of Wilson 
and the Kentucky warbler is told on the preceding page, is among the pupils, far back near 
a window, as though with a wish to jump out and be free. 

The lecturer's subject is the life of Alexander Wilson, but first he tells of George Eliot’s 
Silas Marner and his life as a weaver in Raveloe, England, for two reasons, to enforce the 
picture of Wilson as a poor Scotch weaver and to put emphasis on the great power of seeing 
which Wilson possessed in contrast with Silas Marner who saw only his thread and shuttle 
and loom. The following quotation is the story of Alexander Wilson, as the lecturer told it, 
and it is a great pleasure to be allowed to present it in the very beautiful prose of James 
Lane Allen, the author, carrying his keenness of understanding, his appreciation of both hu- 


man nature and nature, and his sympathy. 


AM going to speak to you boys about 

a boy who never reached high school. 

I want you to watch how that boy’s 
life first seen in the distance through 
mist and snow and storm as a faint 
glimmering spark, rudely blown upon 
by the winds of misfortune, endangered 
and all but ready to go out—I want 
you to watch how that endangered 
spark of a boy’s life slowly begins to 
brighten in the distance, to grow 
stronger, and finally to draw nearer and 
nearer until at last it shines as a great 
light about you here in this very place. 
Watch. I say, how a troubled ray, low 
on life’s horizon, at last becomes a star 
in the world of men, high fixed and 
resplendent—to be seen by human eyes 
as long as there shall be human eyes to 
see anything. 

“Now, about the period that George 
Eliot paints the life of her poor Eng- 
lish weaver there lived, not in merry 
England but in Bonnie Scotland—and 
to be bonnie is not to be merry—there 
lived in the little town of Paisley, in 
the west of Scotland, a man by the 
name of Alexander Wilson, a poor illit- 
erate distiller. He had a son—the boy 
I am to tell you about. 

“... The boy’s father and mother 
opened before him the two main hon- 


oured roads of Scottish life [that of a 
physician and that of a minister] and 
bade him choose. He chose neither, 
for he was self-willed and wavering, 
and did not know his own mind or 
his own wish. He did know that he 
would not take the roads his parents 
pointed out; as to them he was a road- 
less boy. 

“His mother died when he was quite 
young, a stepmother stepped into a 
stepmother’s place, and she quickly de- 
cided with Scotch thrift. A third 
Scottish road should be opened to the 
boy and into that he should be pushed 
and made to go: he must be put to 
trade. Accordingly, when he was about 
eleven years old, he was taken from 
school and bound as an apprentice to 
a weaver; we lament child labour now: 
it is an old lament. 

“The boy hated weaving as, perhaps, 
he never hated anything else in his life 
and in time he hated much and he 
hated many things. He seems soon to 
have become known as the lazy weaver. 
Years afterward he put into bitter 
words a description of the weaver: ‘A 
weaver is a poor, emaciated, helpless 
being, shivering over rotten yarn and 
groaning over his empty flour barrel.’ 
Elsewhere he called the weaver a scare- 


397 


Oo 
No} 


crow in rags. He wrote a poem en- 
titled Groans from the Loom. 

“Five interminable years of those 
groans and all his eager, wild, head- 
strong, liberty-loving boyhood was 
ended: gone from him as he sat like a 
boy-spider with a thread passing end- 
lessly into a web. During these inter- 
minable years, whenever he lifted his 
eyes from his loom and looked ahead, 
he could see nothing but penury and 
dependence and loneliness—his loom to 
the end of his life. 

“Five years of this imprisonment and 
then he was eighteen and his own mas- 
ter; and the first thing he did was to 
descend from the loom, take a pack of 
cloth upon his shoulders and go wan- 
dering away among the hills and val- 
leys and lakes of Scotland—free at last 
like a young deer in the heather. He 
said of himself that from that hour 
when his eyes had first opened on the 
hght of grey Scotch mountains, the 
world of nature had called him. He 
did not yet know what the forest and 
the life of the forest meant or would 
ever mean; he only knew that there he 
was happy and at home. 

“Thus, like Silas Marner, he became 
a poor weaver and peddler but not with 
Silas Marner’s eyes. Seldom in any 
human head has the mechanism of 
vision been driven by a mind with such 
power and eagerness to observe. And 
he had the special memory of the eye. 
There are those of us who have the 
special memory of the ear or of taste 
or of touch. He had the long, faithful 
recollection of things seen. With this 
pair of eyes during the next several 
years he traversed on foot three-fourths 
of Scotlands. = 

“But though he followed one after 
another well nigh all the roads of 
Scotland, he could find in all Scotland 
no road of life for him. It is true that 
certain misleading paths beckoned to 
him, as is apt to be true in every life. 
Thus he had conceived a great desire 
to weave poetry instead of cloth, to 


NALTUEAL TIS TORN 


weave music instead of listening to the 
noise of the loom: he had his flute and 
his violin. But what he accomplished 
with poetry and flute and violin were 
obstacles to his necessary work and ren- 
dered this harder. 'The time he gave 
to them made his work less: the less his 
work, the less his living; the less his 
living, the more his troubles and hard- 
ships. 

‘Robert Burns was just then the 
idolised poet of Scotland, a new sun 
shining with vital splendour into all 
Scottish hearts. Friends of the young 
weaver and apparently the young 
weaver himself thought there was room 
in Scotland for another Burns. Some 
of his poems were published anony- 
mously and the authorship was attrib- 
uted to Burns. That was bad for him, 
it made bad worse. Wilson greatly de- 
sired to know the rustic poet-king of 
Scotland. The two poets met in Edin- 
burgh and were to become friends. 
Then Burns published Tam O'Shanter. 

“The Paisley weaver by this time had 
such conceit of himself as a poet that 
he wrote Burns a caustic letter, telling 
him the kind of poem Tam O'Shanter 
should and should not be. Burns re- 
plied, closing the correspondence, end- 
ing the brief friendship and leaving 
the weaver to go back to his loom. It 
was a terrible rebuff, and left its mark 
on an already discouraged man. 

“Next Wilson wrote an anonymous 
poem, so violently attacking a wealthy 
manufacturer on behalf of his poor 
brother weavers, that the enraged mer- 
chant demanded the name of the writer 
and had him put in prison and com- 
pelled him to stand in the public cross 
of Paisley and burn his poem. 

“Darker, bitterer days followed. He 
shrank away to a little village even 
more obscure than his birthplace. 
There, lifting his eyes, again he looked 
all over Scotland: he saw the wrongs 
and sufferings of the poor, the luxury 
and oppression of the rich: he blamed 
the British government for evils inher- 


ALEXANDER WILSON 


ent in human nature and for the im- 
perfections of all human society : turned 
against his native country and at heart 
found himself without a fatherland. 

“Then that glorious vision which has 
opened before so many men in their 
despair, disclosed itself: his eyes turned 
to America. . . . In America he thought 
all roads were open, new roads were 
being made for human lives; that 
should become his country. One au- 
tumn he saw in a newspaper an adver- 
tisement that an American merchant- 
man would sail from Belfast the 
following spring and he turned to 
weaving and wove as never before to 
earn his passage money. At this time 
he lived on one shilling a week! . . 
When spring came, with the earnings 
of his loom he walked across Scotland 
to the nearest port. When he reached 
Belfast every berth on the vessel had 
been taken: he asked to be allowed to 
sleep on the deck and was accepted as 
a passenger. 

*. . The port was to be Philadel- 
phia but he seems to have been so im- 
patient to set foot on the soil of the 
New World that he left the ship at 
New Castle, Delaware. He had bor- 
rowed from a fellow-passenger sufficient 
money to pay his expenses while walk- 
ing to Philadelphia thirty-four miles 
away; and with this in his pocket and 
his fowling-piece on his shoulder he dis- 
appeared in the July forests of New 
Jersey. The first thing he did was to 
kill a red-headed wood-pecker which he 
declared to be the most beautiful bird 
he had ever seen. 

“T do not find any word of his that 
he had ever killed a bird in Scotland 
during all his years of wandering. Now 
the first event that befell him in the 
New World was to go straight to the 
American woods and kill what he de- 
clared to be the most beautiful bird he 
had ever seen. This might naturally 
have been to him a sign of his life-road. 
But he still stood blinded in his path, 
with not a plan, not an idea, of what 


399 


he should be or could be: he had not 
yet read the handwriting on the wall 
within himeelf. 

“His first years in the New World 
were more disastrous than any in Scot- 
land, for always now he had the lone- 
liness and dejection of a man who has 
rejected his own country and does not 
know that any other country will ac- 
cept him. A fellow Scot, in Philadel- 
phia, tried him at copper-plate print- 
ing. He quickly dropped this and went 
back to the old dreadful work of weay- 
ing—he became an American weaver 
and went wandering through the for- 
ests of New Jersey as a peddler: at 
least peddling left him free to roam the 
forests. Next he tried teaching but he 
himself had been taken from school at 
the age of eleven and must prepare 
himself as one of his own beginners. 
He did not like this teaching experi- 
ment in New Jersey and migrated to 
Virginia. Virginia did not please him 
and he remigrated to Pennsylvania. 
There he tried one school after another 
in various places and finally settled on 
the outskirts of Philadelphia: here was 
his last school, for here was the turn- 
ing point of his life. 

“T wish I had time to describe for 
you the school-house with its surround- 
ings, for the place is to us now a picture 
in the early American life of a great 
man—all such historic pictures are in- 
valuable. Catch one glimpse of it: a 
neat stone school-house on a sloping 
green: with grey old white oaks grow- 
ing around and rows of stripling pop- 
lars and scattered cedar trees. A road 
ran near and not far away was a little 
yellow-faced cottage where he lived. 
The yard was walled off from the road 
and there were seats within and rose- 
bushes and plum trees and hop-vines. 
On one side hung a sign-board waving 
before a little roadside inn; on the 
other a blacksmith shop with its ham- 
mering. Not far off stood the edge of 
the great forest ‘resounding with the 
songs of warblers.’ In the depths of it 


400 


was a favourite spot—a secret retreat 
for him in Nature. 

“There then you see him: no longer 
a youth but still young; every road he 
had tried closed to him in America as 
in Scotland: not a doctor, not a minis- 
ter, not a good poet, not a good flutist, 
not a good violinist, not a copper-plate 
engraver, not a willing weaver, not a 
willing peddler, not a willing school- 
teacher—none of these. No idea yet 
in him that he could ever be anything. 
A homeless self-exile, playing at lonely 
twilights on flute and violin the loved 
airs of rejected Scotland. 

“Now it happened that near his 
school was a botanical garden owned by 
an American naturalist. The American, 
seeing the stranger cast down by his 
aimless life, offered him his portfolio 
of drawings and suggested that he try 
to draw a landscape, draw the human 


figure. The Scotch weaver, the Ameri- 
can school-teacher, tried and disas- 


trously failed. As a final chance the 
American suggested that he try to draw 
a bird. He did try: he drew a bird. 
He drew again. He drew again and 
again. He kept on drawing. Nothing 
could keep him from drawing. And 
there at last the miracle of power and 
genius, so long restless in him and 
driving him aimlessly from one wrong 
thing to another wrong thing, disclosed 
itself as dwelling within his eyes and 
hands. His drawings were so true to 
life, that there could be no doubt: the 
road lay straight before him and ran 
clear through coming time toward eter- 
nal fame.} 

“All the experience which he had 
been unconsciously storing as a peddler 
in Scotland now came back to him as 
guiding knowledge. The marvelous 
memory of his eye furnished its dis- 
cipline: from early boyhood through 
sheer love he had unconsciously been 
studying birds in nature, and thus dur- 
ing all these wretched years had been 
laying up as a youth the foundation of 
his hfework as a man. 


1The naturalist was William Bartram. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


“Genius builds with lavish magnifi- 
cence and inconceivable swiftness ; and 
hardly had he succeeded with his first 
drawings before he had wrought out a 
monumental plan: to turn himself free 
as soon as possible into the vast, un- 
travelled forest of the North American 
continent and draw and paint its birds. 
Other men, he said, would have to 
found the cities of the New World and 
open up its country. His study was 
to be the lineaments of the owl and the 
plumage of the lark: he had cast in his 
lot with Nature’s green magnificence 
untouched by man. 

“For a while he must keep on teach- 
ing in order to live: he taught all day, 
often after night, barely had time to 
swallow his meals, at the end of one 
term tells us he had as large a sum as 
fifteen dollars. Often he coloured his 
first drawings by candle light, drew 
and painted birds without knowing 
what they were. Drawing and painting 
by candle lhght!—but now he had 
within himself the risen sun of a splen- 
did enthusiasm. ‘That sun kindled his 
school-boys. They found out what he 
wanted and helped. One boy brought 
him a large basketful of crows. An- 
other caught a mouse in school and 
contributed that—the incident is worth 
quoting by showing that the boy pre- 
ferred a mouse to a school-book. 

“Take one instance of the energy 
with which he was now working and 
worked for the rest of his life: he 
wished to see Niagara Falls, and to lose 
no time while doing it he started out 
one autumn through the forest to walk 
to the Falls and back, a short trip for 
him of over tweive hundred miles. He 
reached home ‘mid the deep snows of 
winter with no soles to his boots. What 
of that? On his way back he had 
shot two strange birds in the valley 
of the Hudson! For ten days—ten 
days, mind you!—he worked on a draw- 
ing of these and sent it with a let- 
ter to Thomas Jefferson. You may as 
yet have thought of Jefferson only as 


Wilson wrote to him in 1805, “They [his bird drawings] 


may yet tell posterity that I was honored with your friendship, and that to your inspiration they owe 


their existence.’ 


ALEXANDER WILSON 


one of America’s earliest statesmen: 
begin now to think of him as one of 
the first American naturalists. And if 
you wish to read a courteous letter? 
from an American President to a young 
stranger, go back to Jefferson’s letter 
to the Scotch weaver who sent him the 
drawing of a jaybird. 

“Pass rapidly over the next few 
years. He has made one trip from 
Maine down the Atlantic Seaboard to 
the South. He has returned and is 
starting out again to cover the vast in- 
terior basin of the Mississippi Valley: 
he is to begin at Pittsburgh and end at 
New Orleans. 

“Now you see that he is coming 
nearer—nearer to you here. 

“. . . It is the twenty-fourth of Feb- 
ruary: the river, swollen with the 
spring flood, is full of white masses of 
moving ice. . . . They warned him of 
his danger, urged him to take a rower, 
urged him not to go at all. Those who 
risked the passage of the river floated 
down on barges called Kentucky arks 
or in canoes hollowed each out of a 
single tree, usually the tulip tree, which 
you know is very common in our Ken- 
tucky woods. But to mention danger 
was to make him go to meet it. He 
would have no rower, had no money to 
hire one, had he wished one. He tells 
us what he had on board: in one end of 
the boat some biscuit and cheese, a bot- 
tle of cordial given him by a gentleman 
in Pittsburgh, his gun and trunk and 
overcoat; at the other end himself and 
his oars and a tin with which to bail 
out the skiff, if necessary, to keep it 
from sinking and also to use as his 
drinking-cup to dip from the river. 

“That February day—the swollen, 
rushing river, the masses of white ice 
—the solitary young boatman borne 
away to a new world on his great work: 
his heart expanding with excitement 
and joy as he headed toward the un- 


This letter is given in full in Vol. T, pp. li- 
liii, 1828 edition of American Ornithology; or 
Natural History of the Birds of the United States, 
By Alexander Wilson. 


401 


explored wilderness of the Mississippi 
Valley. 

“Wondrous experiences were his: 
from the densely wooded shores there 
would reach him as he drifted down, 
the whistle of the red bird—those first 
spring notes so familiar and so welcome 
to us on mild days toward the last of 
February. Away off in dim forest val- 
leys, between bold headlands, he saw 
the rising smoke of sugar camps. At 
other openings on the landscape gro- 
tesque log cabins looked like dog- 
houses under impending mighty moun- 
tains. His rapidly steered skiff passed 
flotillas of Kentucky arks heavily mak- 
ing their way southward, transporting 
men and women and _ children—the 
moving pioneers of the young nation: 
the first river merchant-marine of the 
new world; carrying horses and plows 
to clearings yet to be made for home- 
steads in the wilderness; transporting 
mill-stones for mills not yet built on 
any wilderness stream. 

“He records what to us now sounds 
incredible, that on March fifth he saw 
a flock of parrakeets. Think of parra- 
keets on the Ohio River in March! 
Once he encountered a storm of wind 
and hail and snow and rain, during 
which the river foamed and rolled like 
the sea and he had to make good use 
of his tin to keep the skiff bailed out 
till he could put in to shore. The call 
of wild turkeys enticed him now toward 
the shore of Indiana, now toward the 
shore of Kentucky, but before he 
reached either they had disappeared. 
His first night on the Kentucky shore 
he spent in the cabin of a squatter and 
heard him tell tales of bear-treeing and 
wildeat-hunting and wolf-baiting. All 
night wolves howled in the forests near 
by and kept the dogs in an uproar; the 
region swarmed with wolves and wild- 
eats ‘black and brown.’ 

“On and on, until at last the skiff 
reached the rapids of the Ohio at Louis- 
ville and he stepped ashore and sold 
his frail saviour craft which, at start- 


402 


ing, he had named the Ornithologist. 
The Kentuckian who bought it as the 
Ornithologist accepted the droll name 
as that of some Indian chief. He soon 
left Louisville, having sent his baggage 
on by wagon, and plunged into the 
Kentucky forest on his way to Lex- 
ington. 

“And now, indeed, you see he is com- 
ing nearer. 

“Tt was the twenty-fourth of March 
when he began his first trip southward 
through the woods of Kentucky. Spring 


was on the way but had not yet passed _ 


northward. Nine-tenths of the Ken- 
tucky soil, he states, was then unbroken 
wilderness. : 

“Tt was on March twenty-ninth that, 
emerging from the thick forest, he saw 
before him the little Western metropo- 
lis of the pioneers, the city of the fore- 
fathers of many of us here today— Lex- 
ington. I wish I could stop to describe 
to you the picture as he painted it: the 
town stretching along its low valley; a 
stream running through the valley and 
turning several mills—water mills in 
Lexington a hundred years ago! In the 
market-place which you now call Cheap- 
side he saw the pillory and the stocks 
and he noted that the stocks were so 
arranged as to be serviceable for gal- 
lows: our Kentucky forefathers ar- 
ranged that they should be conye- 
niently hanged, if they deserved it, as 
a public spectacle of warning. 

“On a country court day he saw a 
thousand horses hitched around the 
courthouse square and in churchyards 
and in graveyards. He states that even 
then Kentucky horses were the most 
remarkable in the world. . . 

“He slept while in Lexington—this 
great unknown man—in a garret called 
Salter White’s, wherever that was: and 
he shivered with cold, for you know we 
can have chill nights in April. He says 
that he had no firewood, it being scarce, 
the universal forest of firewood being 
half a mile away: this was like going 
hungry in a loft over a full baker-shop. 

“And I must not omit one note of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


his on the Kentuckians themselves, 
which flashes a vivid historic hght on 
their character. By this time he rightly 
considered that he had had adventures 
worth relating; but he declares that if 
he attempted to relate them to any 
Kentuckian, the Kentuckian at once 
interrupted him and insisted upon re- 
lating his own adventures as_ better 
worth while. Western civilization was 
of itself the one absorbing adventure 
to every man who had had his share 
in it. 

“On the fourteenth day of April 
he departed from Lexington, moving 
southward through the forest to New 
Orleans. Scarcely yet had the woods 
begun to turn green. 

“And now we begin to take leave of 
him: he passes from our picture. We 
catch a glimpse of him at the Kentucky 
tiver, standing on the perpendicular 
cliffs of solid limestone, green with a 
great number of uncommon plants and 
flowers—we catch a glimpse of him 
standing there, watching bank swallows 
and listening to the faint music of the 
boat horns in the deep romantic valley 
below, where the Kentucky arks, pass- 
ing on their way southward, turned the 
corners of the verdurous cliffs as the 
musical gondolas turn the corners of 
vine-hung Venice in the waters of the 
Adriatic. 

“On and on southward; visiting a 
roosting-place of the passenger pigeon 
which was reported to him as forty 
miles long: he counted ninety nests in 
one beech tree. We see him emerging 
upon the Kentucky barrens which were 
covered with vegetation and open for 
the sweep of the eye. 

Now, at last, he begins to meet the 
approach of spring in full tide: all Na- 
ture is bursting into leaf and blossom. 
No longer are the redbud and the dog- 
wood and the sassafras conspicuous as 
its heralds. And now, overflowing the 
forest, advances the full-crested wave 
of bird-lfe up from the south, from the 
tropics.. New and unknown species are 
everywhere before his eyes; their new 


A LEXA NDER WILSON 


melodies are in his ears; he is busy 
drawing, colouring, naming them for 
his work. 

“So he passes out of our picture: 
southward bound, encountering a cloud 
of parrakeets and pigeons, emerging 
from a cave with a handkerchief full 
of bats, swimming creeks, sleeping at 
night alone in the wilderness, his gun 
and pistol in his bosom. He vanishes 
from the forest scene, never from the 
memory of mankind. 

“Let me tell you that he did not live 
to complete his work. Death overtook 
him, not a youth but still young. 

“T told you I was going to speak to 
you of a boy’s life. I asked you to fix 
your eyes upon it as a far-off human 
spark, barely glimmering through mist 
and fog but slowly, as the years passed, 
getting stronger, growing brighter, al- 
ways drawing nearer until it shone 
about you here as a great light and then 
passed on, leaving an eternal glory. 

“T have done that. 

“You saw a little fellow taken from 
school at about the age of eleven and 
put to hard work at weaving; now you 
see one of the world’s great ornitholo- 
gists, who had traversed some ten thou- 
sand miles of comparative wilderness— 
an imperishable figure, doing an imper- 


403 


ishable deed. I love to think of him as 
being in the end what he most hated 
to be in the beginning—a weaver: he 
wove a vast, original tapestry of the 
bird-life of the American forest. 

“As he passed southward from Lex- 
ington that distant April of 1810, en- 
countering his first spring in the Ohio 
valley with its myriads of birds, some- 
where he discovered a new and beauti- 
ful species of American wood warbler 
and gave it a local habitation and a 
name. 

“He called it the Kentucky Warbler. 

“And now, would you not like to see 
a picture of that mighty hunter who 
lived in the great days of the young 
American republic and crossed Ken- 
tucky in the great days of the pioneers ? 
And would you not also lke to see a 
picture of the exquisite and only bird 
that bears the name of our State—the 
Kentucky Warbler ?” 

He passed over to them a portrait 
engraving of Alexander Wilson in the 
dress of a gentleman of his time, his 
fowling-piece on his forearms And 
along with this he delivered to them a 
life-like, a singing portrait, of the war- 
bler, painted by a great American ani- 
mal painter and bird painter—Fuertes. 

1 See page 396. 


It was not until the lecturer had progressed in his story to the point where Wilson came 


to America that Webster, back by the window of the classroom, was noticeably interested. 
Finally, however, his attention became so breathless that it filled the room and the other 
listeners were merely grouped around it as accessories; and the lecturer recognized that he 
was witnessing “that particular miracle in nature—the contexture of the generations—the 
living taking the meaning of their lives from the dead.2 You stand before some all but 
forgotten mound of human ashes; before you is arrayed a band of youths unconsciously 
holding in their hands the unlighted torches of the future. You utter some word about the 
cold ashes and silently one of them walks forward to the ashes, lights his torch and goes his 
radiant way.” 

Webster, the Kentucky boy of the present, filled with all that Wilson had been made to 
mean to him, spent a whole day wandering in pasture and forest, and returned home at night 
with the fragrances and bird songs still about him and the heat of the sun still in his blood. 
Then he lived in the reality of his great dream and wandered through the woods with Alex- 
ander Wilson. When finally the Kentucky warbler was revealed to him, he turned to his 
guide gratefully to thank him, but—-. 

“No one was near him. Webster saw the hunter on the edge of the thicket yards away; 
he stood looking back, his figure dim, fading. Webster, forgetful of the bird, cried out with 
quick pain: 

“*Are you going away? Am I never to see you again?’ 

“The voice that reached him seemed scarcely a voice; it was more like an echo, close to 
his ear, of a voice lost forever: 

’ “*Tf you ever wish to see me, enter the forest of your own heart. ” 

*The grave of Alexander Wilson is in the churchyard of Gloria Dieu (Old Swede’s) Church, of 

Philadelphia. 


THEIR FIRST VIEW OF THE PACIFIC, 1806 


Memorial in Bronze to Lewis and Clark by Charles Keck, Sculptor, New York 


Soon to be unveiled in Charlottesville, Virginia, the early home of Meriwether Lewis. They 
stand at gaze, with Sacajawea, the squaw guide, bending forward, intent on the vast expanse of 
the ocean revealed before them 


404 


Thomas Jefferson’s Contributions to 
Natural History 


HIS EFFORT SENT OUT THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPLORING PARTY 
INTO THE UNKNOWN WEST—RECOGNITION AND HONOR ARE 
GIVEN TODAY TO THE EXPEDITION’S LEADER, 
MERIWETHER LEWIS 


By JOHN 


Be ee AS Le OEN 


Librarian of the University of Virginia 


HE fact that Thomas Jeffer- 

son’s best service to mankind 

was political has limited the 
world’s estimate of his greatness to one 
contribution of his useful life. That 
he was the preéminent statesman of his 
day as today he is the dominating in- 
fluence surviving from the first years 
of the republic, was not owing to a pre- 
dilection for politics but to his answer- 
ing the need for a great constructive 
and safely guiding genius at the be- 
ginning of our independent national 
life. He rejoiced, instead, at the pros- 
pect of the studious life. His letters 
abound in expressions of his desire to 
retire from the arena in which he was 
the most notable figure. The one to 
Dupont de Nemours is often quoted: 
“Within a few days I retire to my 
family, my books and farms. Na- 
ture intended me for the tranquil pur- 
suits of science, by rendering them my 
supreme delight.” 

And by science he meant more than 
men do now. It included more than 
observed facts systematically classified 
and brought under general laws—he 
meant by it all that was connoted by 
the word scientia in the days of its 
widest acceptation. He was an eager 
student—going into every field open to 
him. It would not do to claim profound 
scholarship for him in all instances; 
his interests were too catholic, and 
limitations of time and opportunity 
so restrained him that the thorough- 
ness of the specialist, often meticulous, 


was not within his reach. But he 
had a more or less scholarly acquaint- 
ance with mechanics, astronomy, me- 
teorology, civil engineering 
(mensuration, strength of materials), 
surgical anatomy, 
botany, economic entomology, aéronau- 
tics, and paleontology. 

While this list transcends in some 
instances the limits to which “‘science” 
is confined by present day definition 
and intrudes upon the domain of the 
industrial arts, it is far from em- 
bracing all that Jefferson would have 
included in the meaning of science, 
scientia, the derivative of all informa- 
tion and skill. //is science enabled him 
to invent a plow, indeed the plow, to 
construct a barometer, a thermometer, 
a wind gage, a duplicating writing ma- 
chine, and what not; to realize West 
Point for the nation and the National 
Observatory, to build the University of 
Virginia and inform it with a spirit 
and purpose hitherto disregarded. 

The student who takes to the high- 
ways and byways of knowledge is sure 
to find wherever he penetrates that Mr. 
Jefferson has passed along before him 
with more or less careful observation. 
After twelve years of faithful, schol- 
arly work in rediscovering and deter- 
mining the truth of Latin and Celtic 
accent and rhythm and showing that 
our traditional rule of Latin pronunci- 
ation is at variance with the obvious 
usage of Latin verse, Professor Thomas 
Fitz-Hugh, of the University of Vir- 

405 


physics, 


geology, zodlogy, 


406 


ginia, turned in pursuit of another ob- 
ject —for he had published the results 
of his own discovery—to Jefferson’s 
essay, Thoughts on English Prosody, 
and found that he had been anticipated 
by Jefferson by more than a century, 
and that nobody had seemed to know 
it! While Jefferson was the first to 
assert and use the principle that the 
pronunciation of an ancient speech can- 
not contradict the known rhythm of its 
poetry, Fitz-Hugh has used the prin- 
ciple to reveal a new world of accent 
and rhythm in Latin and Celtic and to 
expose the error of the current theory 
in both fields. “Tt is well worth while,” 
Professor Fitz-Hugh warns, “for the 
scholar and technical scientist of today 
to examine Jefferson’s reflections upon 
any field of investigation in which he 
allows himself to make excursions.” 
And so Buffon thought long ago. He 
had announced his conviction that ani- 
mals common to the Old and the New 
worlds are smaller in the latter, that 
those peculiar to America are smaller, 
that those domesticated in both have 
degenerated in the New world, and that 
the western world has fewer species. 
Mr. Jefferson collected data and upon 
ascertained facts based three tables in 
which he contrasted aboriginals (1) of 
both the Old and the New worlds, (2) 
of only one, and (3) of those domesti- 
cated in both. The first table showed 
that of twenty-six quadrupeds common 
to both America and Europe, seven are 
larger in America, seven of equal size, 
and as to twelve the facts were not de- 
cisive; the second showed that eighteen 
quadrupeds are peculiar to Europe and 
seventy-four to America, while one of 
the American quadrupeds—the tapir— 
weighs more than all the eighteen of 
Europe together; and the third failed 
to sustain Buffon’s theory of animal 
degeneration in the New world. He 
did not stop here, but had the bones 
and skin of the largest moose obtain- 
able, the horns of the caribou, elk, 
deer, spike-horned buck, and some other 


NATURAL HISTORY 


large animals sent to Paris. Buffon 
was convinced, and said to the Vir- 
ginian: “I should have consulted you, 
Sir, before publishing my Natural 
History, and then I should have been 
sure of my facts.” It is scarcely worth 
while to inquire whether the great 
Frenchman was pleased by the revela- 
tion of the truth or irritated by defeat. 

In 1797 Jefferson was made presi- 
dent of the American Philosophical So- 
ciety, and took his place officially at the 
head of the scientific world of his coun- 
try. Elected Vice President of the 
United States, he went to Philadelphia 
to be inaugurated—and took with him 
the os femoris, a radius, an ulna, three 
claws, and some other bones of an ani- 
mal then unknown to science, the giant 
edentate, allied to the recent sloth. 
These bones, which he had collected in 
Greenbrier County, Virginia, he pre- 
sented to the Philosophical Society, 
with a statement of the results of his 
studies in connection with them. His 
discovery bears the name Megalonyx 
jeffersonit. 

“The spectacle of an American states- 
man coming to take part as a central 
figure in the greatest political ceremony 
of our country and bringing with him 
an original contribution to the scientific 
knowledge of the world, is certainly one 
we shall not soon see repeated,” said 
Frederic N. Luther, writing of Jeffer- 
son as a naturalist.1 “. .. During those 
exciting weeks,” Mr. Luther continued, 
“in February, 1801, when Congress was 
vainly trying to untangle the difficulties 
arising from the tie vote between Jef- 
ferson and Burr, when every politician 
at the capital was busy with schemes 
and counter-schemes, this man, whose 
political fate was balanced on a razor’s 
edge, was corresponding with Dr. Wis- 
tar in regard to some bones of the 
mastodon which he had just procured 
from Shawangunk, Ulster County. 
Again in 1808, when the excitement 


1 Magazine of American History for April, 1885 
(volume 13). 


THE ABOVE REMAINS OF 


| MASTODON 


hh; WERE’ COLLECTED BY 


| THOMAS JEFFERSON, 


| AND BY HIM PRESENTED TO Ty 


J UNIVERSITY of VIRGIN 


o-oo 


MASTODON JAWBONES COLLECTED BY JEFFERSON AT SHAWANGUNK, 
ULSTER COUNTY, NEW YORK 


We have had two men in the presidential chair in the United States who were naturalists and who 
Thomas Jefferson and latterly Theodore Roose- 


used their influence for the advance of scientific affairs 
velt Of both these men the words by Jefferson, so often quoted, were true, “Nature intended me for the 
tranquil pursuits of science, by rendering them my supreme delight.” That Jefferson received more 
blame than praise for his scientific work and that he is known in history only as a great statesman, but 
convinces us of the pioneer status of science a century ago and our greater enlightenment as to its value 


Regarding mastodon discoveries at Shawangunk, see note, page 496) 


today 


407 


408 


- 

These elk horns were highly valued by Jefferson and were long at Monticello. 
Lewis and Clark Expedition, sent out as a direct result of Jefferson's interest in natural history and ex- 
ploration, were the first white men to traverse the region now mapped as the states of Nebraska, North 


and South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. 


NATURAL 


A TREASURE OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF 
VIRGINIA 


Elk horns. one of the first trophies of the 
Lewis and Clark Expedition, carried to St. 
Louis in the winter of 1805 by a messenger 
from the expedition’s first winter quarters. 


HISTORY 


The members of the 


A memorial to Meriwether Lewis, leader 


of the expedition, is about to be inaugurated at Charlottesville, Virginia, his early home 


over the embargo was highest, when 
every day brought fresh denunciations 
of him and his policy, he was carrying 
on his paleontological studies in the 
rooms of the White House itself. . 
Never for a moment, however appar- 
ently absorbed in other work, did he lose 
his warm sympathy with Nature.” This 
_deyotion at that early time won for him 
less praise than ridicule and blame in 
his own country. The feeling it evoked 
was expressed by Bryant, then a boy of 
thirteen : 


Go, wretch, resign the Presidential chair, 

Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair. 

Go, search with curious eyes for horned 
frogs, 

*Mid the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs; 

Or, where the Ohio rolls his turbid stream, 

Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme. 


The man thus lampooned was the 
author of Notes on Virginia which a 
historian of science, the late G. Brown 


Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution, 
declared “is the most important scien- 
tific work as yet published in America,” 
if “measured by its influence.” It was 
the first comprehensive account of the 
topography, natural history, and re- 
sources of any North American com- 
monwealth, and Goode pronounced it 
“the precursor of the great library of 
scientific reports which have since been 
issued by the state and federal govern- 
ments.” 

He was deeply interested in what was 
concealed from the world a century and 
a quarter ago in the great unexplored 
region between the United States and 
the western ocean. The mammoth, he 
believed, might be found roving the 
great interior plains; indeed, nothing 
was too much for his credulity. The 
exploration of the Northwest was one 
of his fixed purposes, to be carried out 


JEFFERSON'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATURAL HISTORY 


at the first opportunity. When John 
Ledyard reached Paris in 1786, Jeffer- 
son, who was there as minister of the 
United States, believed the hour of the 
great adventure had arrived. Ledyard 
had been with Cook on his voyage to 
the Pacific and had engaged in other 
adventurous undertakings. He was ap- 
praised by Jefferson as “a man of gen- 
ius” and “of some science,” and the 
ereat American soon had him on the 
way to explore the western part of the 
North American continent. His itiner- 
ary was to take him through St. Peters- 
burg to Kamchatka and thence to 
Nootka Sound. Ledyard’s arrest by the 
Prussian government, which regarded 
the undertaking as impracticable, ended 
the enterprise, but not Jefferson’s in- 
terest in it. 

Six years later, in association with 
the American Philosophical Society, 
Mr. Jefferson, now Dr. Jefferson by the 
decrees of Yale and Harvard universi- 
ties, promoted a subscription for the 
exploration of the West, and personally 
became responsible for a thousand 
guineas of the amount to be raised. 
André Michaux, the noted French bot- 
anist and traveler, and Meriwether 
Lewis, a youth of nineteen, who lived 
within ten miles of Jefferson’s home 
in Albemarle County, Virginia, were 
chosen to make the westward journey. 
The letter of instructions, which was 
drawn with Jeffersonian care of details, 
discloses his interest in natural history. 
“Under the head of animal history,” 
Michaux is told, “that of the mammoth 
is particularly recommended to your in- 
quiries, as it, is also to learn whether 
the Lama or Paca of Peru, is found in 
those parts of this continent.” What- 
ever its motive, the French government 
interfered with the undertaking by 
charging Michaux with a mission rela- 
tive to the occupation of Louisiana. 
Later the French minister canceled the 
appointment. 

Ten years afterward Jefferson, then 


409 


President of the United States, decided 
that the exploration ought not to be 
delayed longer. In 1803 the continu- 
ance of the act for establishing trading 
houses with the Indian tribes was un- 
der consideration and the President 
seized upon the opportunity it afforded 
to propose to Congress, in a confidential 
message, a party to explore the Mis- 
souri to its source and thence to make 
its way to the Pacific. “. other 
civilized nations have encountered great 
expense to enlarge the boundaries of 
knowledge by undertaking voyages of 
discovery, and for other literary pur- 
poses,” Mr. Jefferson contended. “The 
nation claiming the territory, regard- 
ing this as a literary pursuit,’—thus 
he advanced in his plan to persuade 
Congress—‘“‘would not be disposed to 
view it with jealousy.” The necessary 
appropriation for the enterprise could 
be charged to “the purpose of extend- 


ing the external commerce of the 
United States,” which the President 


would understand as legislative sanc- 
tion. The bill was passed. 

Meriwether Lewis, who was to accom- 
pany Michaux, had now been for two 
years private secretary of President 
Jefferson, by whom he had been ap- 
pointed captain of the first regiment of 
infantry, and was eager to undertake 
the adventurous journey. “Of courage 
undaunted,” Mr. Jefferson wrote of 
him, “possessing a firmness and perse- 
verance of purpose which nothing but 
impossibilities could divert from its di- 
rection, careful as a father of those 
committed to his charge, yet steady in 
the maintenance of order and disci- 
pline, intimate with the Indian charac- 
ter, customs, and principles ; habituated 
to the hunting life, guarded by exact 
observation of the vegetables and ani- 
mals of his own country against losing 
time in the description of objects al- 
ready possessed; honest, disinterested, 
liberal, of sound understanding, and a 
fidelity to truth so scrupulous that 


410 


whatever he should report would be as 
certain as if seen by ourselves—with all 
these qualifications as if selected and 
implanted by nature in one body for 
this express purpose, I could have no 
hesitation in confiding the enterprise to 
him. ‘To fill up the measure desired, 
he wanted nothing but a greater fa- 
miliarity with the technical language 
of the natural sciences, and readiness in 


the astronomical observations necessary 
for the geography of his route. ‘To 
acquire these he repaired immediately 
to Philadelphia, and placed himself 
under the tutorage of the distinguished 
professors of that place.” 

With Lewis Mr. Jefferson associated 
William Clark, a brother of George 
Rogers Clark, the Hannibal of the 
West.! and, like him, a born leader of 
men, a soldier and an expert in wood- 
craft and in knowledge of Indian char- 
acter. The other members of the party 
were fourteen United States soldiers, 
nine volunteers, Clark’s colored valet 
(York), and an interpreter and his In- 
dian wife. 

The Lewis and Clark Expedition was 
a high adventure with vast results, 
whose characterization transcends the 
scope of a sketch. An abundant and 
thrilling literature has resulted, and 
will be increased. The first installment 
of the story was written—as was appro- 
priate—by Mr. Jefferson in his message 
“communicating discoveries made in 
exploring the Missouri, Red river, and 
Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark.” 


1 George Rogers Clark, born in Virginia in 1752, 
won fame as so!dier, surveyor, and Indian fighter, 
He was known as the conqueror of the large area 
northwest of the Ohio River, which was practically 
reclaimed from the warlike Indian tribes by him. 
He died in Kentucky February 18, 1818, and lies 
buried in an unmarked grave in Louisville. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


While the record in books is ample, in 
marble and bronze it has been singu- 
larly scant, as in the case of Clark’s 
elder brother, George Rogers Clark. 

The members of the exploring party 
were the first white men to traverse the 
region now mapped as the states of 
Nebraska, North and South Dakota, 
Montana, Idaho, Washington and Ore- 
gon. Meriwether Lewis, the leader, 
who contributed to our knowledge of 
the customs, manners, and languages of 
the American Indians, has had until 
recently, so far as my information goes, 
a single visible memorial. In Lewis 
County, Tennessee, “in the midst of 
wild and romantic scenery, surrounded 
only by the native growth of the forest 
and where but few travelers pass, there 
stands a gray stone monument com- 
posed of native rock, with a shaft of 
limestone in imitation of a giant of the 
forest untimely broken,” the tribute of 
the General Assembly of Tennessee 
rendered to Meriwether Lewis in 1848.? 

Another memorial is now on the eve 
of inauguration in Charlottesville, Vir- 
ginia, the home town of Lewis until 
he enlisted in the army at the time of 
the Pennsylvania whiskey insurrection. 
This monument, the work of Charles 
Keck, of New York, is a group in 
bronze, and commemorates the moment 
when Lewis and Clark had their first 
view of the Pacific. They stand at 
gaze, with Sacajawea, the squaw guide 
and only woman of the party, bending 
forward, intent on the scene. The 
group is the gift of Paul Goodloe Me- 
Intire, of Charlottesville. 


2 Since writing this I have been informed of a 
monument to Lewis and Clark in Portland, Ore- 
gon, but I have not been able to obtain facts rela- 
tive to the artist or to the details of its erection. 


War Impressions of French Bird Life 


By LUDLOW GRISCOM 


Member of the American Ornithologists’ Union 


PART from very obvious reasons 
for wanting to be in France 
during the war, the writer had 

long been interested in French bird lite, 
owing to former extended travel in that 
country, so that there was the addi- 
tional desire to renew acquaintance 
with old friends in the bird world, the 
hope of acquiring new ones, and the 
possibility of observing the effects of 
war upon them. 


Conditions for Bird Life in France 

The first fact about the 
France that impresses the traveler is 
the small number of species in any 
given area, coupled with the extraordi- 
nary abundance of individuals of some 
species and the equally marked scarcity 
of others. This is easily accounted for. 
In a country settled as long as France 
has been, the adaptive power of any 
given species to a changing environ- 
ment has been tested with merciless 
severity. It is obvious, therefore, that 
any species successfully passing this 
test has flourished in proportion, while 
the species that has failed must be 
sought for in game preserves, govern- 


birds of 


ment forest lands, and such more 
remote sections of country as_ have 
remained comparatively unaltered 


through the centuries. 

Another factor has served only to ac- 
centuate this process of elimination. In 
France, -whether legally or otherwise, 
almost every bird is a game bird, or at 
least has been game during a very long 
past and up to very recently. It 
follows, therefore, that birds, although 
abundant, are remarkably shy in a 
great many cases. An interesting com- 
parison can here be made with condi- 
tions in England, where the 
thrush, blackbird, and robin redbreast 
are familiar garden birds dear to the 


song 


hearts of the people. In France they 
are typical woodland birds, the two 
thrushes especially, so shy at times 
that they are about as easy to observe 
as a field mouse. 

England has frequently been likened 
to a vast park. In the same spirit 
France could be likened to a huge wheat 
field or a vegetable garden neatly di- 
vided into little squares, hedges doing 
duty for fences. All western, northern, 
and central France is under a nearly 
maximum amount of cultivation, and 
the peasants cling each to his little 
patch of land with a passionate deyo- 
tion which is a salient characteristic of 
the people. The bird lover, starting out 
from any given town in an effort to 
reach really good country, never gets 
there. All tempting patches of wood- 
land in the distance turn out to be pri- 
vate parks with a high fence around 
them, or government foréts, at best sec- 
ond or third growth, all the trees 
planted at the same time, of equal 
height, and so close together as to be 
almost impenetrable, through which 
the peasants are constantly wandering, 
plucking the dead twigs from the 
shrubs and picking up windfalls in a 
pathetic effort to reduce their fuel ex- 
penses. So it is not surprising that 
hawks and and the 
brightly colored birds are scarce, as 
well as all woodland species of retiring 
habits. 

The scarcity of large rivers and the 
canalization of nearly all the smaller 
ones have made all water birds nor- 
mally occurring inland very local. To 
make a broad statement, water birds 
are relatively much more abundant 
along the coasts than in the United 
States, and are scarcer inland. As re- 
gards land birds, they are most nu- 
merous specifically in southern France, 

411 


Woc val peckers, 


412 


most abundant individually in western 
France, and scarcest in eastern France. 
The migration phenomenon is most 
marked along the coasts, and especially 
in the delta of the Rhone. Eastern 
France is much more broken in char- 
acter, with a large proportion of wood- 
land, and a much colder winter. As a 
result, many of the rarer local species 
occur here, so that a very fair list of 
summer residents can be obtained, 
without, however, any great number of 
individuals. Water birds are uniformly 
scarce even in migration. The winter 
bird life is relatively very poor. 


The Birds of France and of America 

While most of the families of birds 
in France are the same as in the United 
States, naturally enough the species are 
different. In fact, the little bank swal- 
low has the unique distinction of being 
the only small land bird which is abso- 
lutely identical in the two continents. 
Even where the families are quite dis- 
tinct, as the flyeatchers and the oriole, 
there is often a surprising superficial 
resemblance in appearance and habits. 
One group, at least, of the European 
warblers, reminds one of our own puz- 
zling Vermivoras ; indeed, the chiffchaft 
could do duty very well as an orange- 
crowned warbler. In migration time 
mixed flocks of birds roam over the 
countryside just as in this country: 
kinglets, warblers, and titmice in the 
woods; buntings replacing sparrows in 
the fields, and swallows overhead. The 
wealth of species is, however, entirely 
lacking. 

But the greatest outstanding impres- 
sion is the difference in the relative 
representation of the same families of 
birds. The crow family is the best illus- 
tration. One can count on blue jays in 
the woods and crows in the fields al- 
most anywhere in New York or New 
England. The European jay and the 
rook may appropriately be regarded as 
homologues. But magpies are abso- 
lutely everywhere, even in salt marshes 


NATURAL HISTORY 


and dunes along the seashore. In the 
fields the carrion crow occurs with the 
rook, while in winter the northern 
hooded crow with a gray mantle joins 
its cousins. Even so, I feel quite con- 
vinced that rooks alone are more nu- 
merous than crows in this country. An 
old castle, a cliff, or a cathedral spire is 
pretty sure to provide a home for a 
colony of jackdaws. Should the given 
locality include some high mountains, 
such as the Alps, it would be possible 
to add the raven, a chough and a nut- 
cracker. 

To those accustomed to our somber 
little chickadee, the European titmice 
furnish another surprise. Five species 
cannot be missed by the observer almost 
anywhere in France, while two others 
are possibilities. Among the five com- 
mon ones some are by no means content 
with a staid and Quaker-hke garb, and 
a blue, green, and yellow titmouse 
seems quite remarkable to American 
eyes, until extreme familiarity breeds 
contempt. 

A third notable feature of the land- 
scape is the abundance of the wood 
pigeon, a large blue-gray bird with con- 
spicuous white wing patches—a_ true 
pigeon (Columba) with a short, square 
tail. Considering its conspicuousness 
and the fact that it must be good to eat, 
it is certainly amazing how it manages 
to exist in such numbers in so settled 
a country. Its wariness is one good 
reason at least, for out in the open 
country I have never been able to get 
within gunshot range of it. Where the 
chances for persecution are absolutely 
eliminated, however, it is quick to 
seize the opportunity: and today it is 
a common bird even in the smaller gar- 
dens of Paris, such as the Tuileries and 
the Pare Monceaux. In the late fall 
and early winter, especially in places 
where food is abundant, it gathers in 
large flocks, and a flight of several hun- 
dred birds streaming across the fields in 
the crispness of dawn is a very fine 
sight in the bird world. 


WAR IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH BIRD LIFE 


A War Study of Birds in 
Eastern France 


Circumstances prevented any indul- 
gence of my hobby until I arrived at 
Chaumont, the American Great Head- 
quarters, about September 1. The 
country here is a succession of steep 
hills, clad with evergreen and decidu- 
ous woods with open valleys between. 
The town is on the top of one of these 
long hills. To the south is open farm 
land, while, in the valley below, the 
infant Marne flows peacefully through 
green meadows. The buildings occu- 
pied by the Americans were at the end 
of a long boulevard bordered with trees, 
a few small gardens, and a park. Swal- 
lows and house martins flew up and 
down the streets. Chaffinches 
their simple trill in the park, and tit- 
mice of four kinds wandered through 
the gardens. In the pine woods on the 
slope of the hills were mixed flocks of 
titmice and kinglets. Creepers plodded 
patiently up the trunks, and tiny wrens 
for all the world like our winter wren, 
bobbed and scolded among the wind- 
falls. 

Down in the river valley itself, jays 
squawked and magpies chuckled. Rooks 
and carrion crows fed in the meadows; 
wood pigeons or stockdoves occasionally 
crossed high overhead, and over the hill- 
tops soared the buzzard, screaming very 
much like our red-shouldered 
hawk. The fishing rights of the river 
were amicably divided between a pair 
of dippers and some kingfishers, the 
latter a tiny feathered beauty, turquoise 
blue and chestnut, which darted up and 
down stream like nothing so much as a 
gigantic bumblebee, and gave sharp 
squeaks by way of relieving its feelings. 
The gray and the white wagtails, with 
long tails constantly going up and 
down, were permitted, however. to 
search for humbler food on the banks, 
while the sedge warbler nested peace- 
fully in the rushes. In the shade trees 
along the canal the green woodpecker 


sang 


own 


413 


made the American rub his eyes not 
only because of its general color, but 
also its notes, which strikingly resemble 
those of our yellowlegs. In the fields 
skylarks were restlessly flying about, 
with an occasional phrase of their 
matchless song. Goldfinches wandered 
about looking for thistles, and linnets, 
tree pipits and yellow buntings were 
constantly rising from the ground and 
dashing off in all directions. The latter 
is one of the few common birds of Eu- 
rope with a dash of bright color. It is, 
however, an alarmist, constantly an- 
noying the ornithologist by its strident 
chirp of alarm from the nearest bush or 
telegraph wire, continued long after the 
imaginary danger is past, and acting as 
a signal to less common species to make 
off. Its song is a slow monotonous trill, 
which incessant practice fails to im- 
prove. English country folk claim that 
the bird says, “A little bit of bread and 
no ch-e-e-s-e.” Occasionally with the 
common yellow-hammer was found the 
rarer cirl bunting, with a black, green 
and yellow striped head stuck incon- 
gruously enough on a dingy body, and 
with an apparently colorless personal- 
ity. In all about fifty species of birds 
were seen around Chaumont. 

On October 2, the writer was sent in 
a truck to the Vosges sector to deliver 
some dispatches to divisional head- 
quarters. The autumn migration was 
in full swing at this time, and birds of 
various kinds roamed over the country 
in flocks. Jays, magpies, rooks, and 
carrion crows were everywhere, and the 


first hooded crow of the season was 
noted. Larks, starlings, buntings, 


chaffinches, and goldfinches were ob- 
served every few minutes. Very few 
swallows were left, however, and only 
one house martin was seen, the very 
last of the dying year as it proved. As 
we proceeded east the hills became 
higher and higher until we plunged 
fairly into the Vosges Mountains, rising 
and twisting through the spruce forests 
to Saint-Dié, the headquarters of one of 


414 


the divisions. The town is im an open 
plain with the German lines on the 
tops of the hills a little more than a 
kilometer away. The valley road which 
was in plain sight was carefully camou- 
flaged, but, even so, one felt quite con- 
The country had 
been heavily shelled; every house was 


spicuous in a truck. 


in ruins, so | was not particularly sur- 
prised when I did not note a single 
bird. Saint-Dié itself was partly in 
ruins, and was considered an unhealth- 
ful spot due to constant bombing, shell- 
ing, and gassing—the last apparently 
the favorite method of annoyance. 
Everybody carried a gas mask at all 
times, and had picked a cellar into 
which to retire rapidly when a yearning 
for seclusion seized him. It was aston- 
ishing, therefore, to see the full quota 
of house sparrows quarreling on the 
roof tops, the swallows flying up and 
down the main street. They had no 
gas masks, and it is hardly likely that 
they descended to cellars. Just what 
they did was a mystery. As dusk gath- 
ered, the guns began to thunder and 
rumble a scant mile away. In the gar- 
den of the old chateau which did duty 
as Headquarters, was a mountain ash 
tree laden with fruit. Here by the 
hght of the setting sun, with the air 
pulsating with sound, three beautiful 
bullfinches were peacefully feeding on 
the crimson berries, heedless of three 
Fokkers which droned directly over- 
head. = Unperturbed) and unhurried 
they finished their meal, and then dis- 
appeared in the gathering gloom, leav- 
ing behind an impression so strong by 
its sharp contrast that it is graven 
deeply on my memory. 

The end of October I was ordered to 
the First Army Sector. The hills north- 
west of Verdun had been selected as an 
excellent sending station for a certain 
type of balloon, and I was sent there on 
November 2 to start a station. As we 
approached Verdun the country ap- 
peared more and more wrecked until it 
could be described as totally ruined in 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the hills to the northwest. There, 
where the flower of young French man- 
hood had died by the tens of thou- 
sands, there was nothing but a succes- 
sion of shell holes. The trenches were 
partly fallen in, the barbed wire en- 
tanglements were just as they had been 
left at the last triumphant advance, and 
here and there a few blasted tree trunks 
did duty for a wood. Vegetation even 
was scant. <A kestrel hovered over the 
dreary waste, a flock of goldfinches 
twittered around a thistle, and a great 
gray shrike had taken up his quarters 
in a barbed wire entanglement. 

As dusk fell we descended into a 
steep little valley to the ruined village 
of Frémonéville, and elected to spend 
the mght in one of the few houses 
which still boasted of a roof. That 
night the artillery fire at the front rose 
to the intensity of drum fire. The 
Allied heavy guns were concealed in the 
hills along a line lying a mile or two 
south of us. These jomed merrily in 
the chorus, so that in the early morning 
the ground fairly shook. The approach 
of dawn brought quiet, permitting a 
brief cat nap, and I was astonished to 
hear a wren singing in the rafters near 
by, as I woke up. A bird hunt in this 
ruined village and its outskirts started 
immediately. Wrens were common, the 
smashed roofs and torn rafters furnish- 
ing them an abundance of hiding places 
among which they ducked and bobbed. 
tobin redbreasts also common, 
singing sweetly in every bush that re- 
mained. Along the little brook flowing 
through the village was a solitary white 
wagtail, and a great tit kept it some sort 
of company in a willow bush near by. 
House sparrows were chattering around 
the church, and a flock of tree sparrows 
were feeding around the horse pond. 
Add a flock of rooks flying past over- 
head and a pair of yellow buntings in 
a field just outside the village, and we 
have quite a list for such a locality. 
Later on a few scattered shells burst 
on a hillside about a quarter of a mile 


were 


WAR IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH BIRD LIFE 


away, to which the birds in the village 
paid not the slightest attention. 

Somewhat later the bird hunt was 
rudely interrupted by the scream of a 
shell which fell near a field hospital on 
the outskirts of the village. A second 
shell, 14-inch high explosive, plumped 
through the roof of the church. This 
was the last straw for the sparrows of 
both species, which flew away in a 
mixed flock protesting harshly, their 
example being followed by the wagtail 
which departed in a different direction. 
The wrens and the redbreasts had all 
disappeared, and my men and I sought 
the seclusion of the nearest dugout. 
The shells kept falling for about an 
hour, but after a short while it became 
apparent that they were coming with 
clocklike regularity every four or five 
minutes. So after each burst I would 
go to the door of the dugout to look 
around and see what new damage had 
been done. 

Right opposite me was a bush on each 
side of which masonry was piled in such 
a way that down among the roots there 
was quite a little pit, an excellent re- 
treat from a bird’s point of view. <A 
robin redbreast had been singing in this 
bush all morning, and I was pleased to 
discover it among the roots, apparently 
alive and well, in spite of the fact that 
a high-powered shell had burst only a 
hundred feet away. One might think 
that the concussion alone would have 
killed so small a bird,—it is a bad 
enough jar tothe human frame. Know- 
ing possibly more about shells than the 
bird, I would appear immediately after 
the last piece of masonry had fallen 
down. The bird would be down among 
the roots, still as a mouse, and would 
not show any signs of life for about a 
minute, when it would begin to work 
up very cautiously toward the top of the 


415 


bush. The scream of the next shell was 
the signal for both of us to dive hastily 
back into our respective retreats. Five 
minutes after the last shell had fallen 
this particular redbreast was singing 
sweetly from the top branches of its 
bush, joined by several others in vari- 
ous parts of the village, in marked con- 
trast with the solemn-faced and quiet 
men who emerged somewhat later from 
scattered dugouts all over the hillside 
to take stock of the damage done, the 
lives lost, and the wounded who needed 
immediate attention. 

It is, of course, obvious that a small 
bird has an infinitely better chance of 
not being hit by a shell fragment than 
aman. If, therefore, its resistance to 
shell-shock and concussion were about 
equal to that of man we would have a 
partial explanation of the existence of 
bird life in the war zone. Although 
it is highly improbable that a bird is 
equally resistant, nevertheless we must 
not overlook that best of preventives, a 
barrier. And here it is again obvious 
that a tree trunk, a brick, or a rafter, 
would serve as an excellent deflector of 
concussion and sound waves for a bird 
crouched behind it, whereas the objects 
mentioned wonld totally fail to help a 
man. 

After all, the accounts, chiefly by 
English observers, of the existence of 
bird life in the war zone are too well 
substantiated to be questioned. Some 
explanation must be forthcoming, and 
is probably along the lines indicated 
above. Perhaps, too, the extraordinary 
powers of adaptability which account 
for the existence of common birds in 
France, a country so totally altered 
from its original condition, are again 
an aid in helping any given individual 
to endure so utterly abnormal an ex- 
perience as shell-fire. 


Conserving Our Natural Resources of Sugar 


By. Bike 


| ced Oe gd Oe) Dd ears 


Apiculturist, United States Department of Agriculture 


HE people of the United States 
consume enormous quantities of 

sugar made from cane and sugar 

beets, the average individual consump- 
tion during times of plenty being more 
than eighty pounds annually. There 
are produced within the boundaries of 
the United States several thousand tons 
of cane sugar and about twice as much 
from the sugar beet. From our out- 
lying islands we get more than the 
total sugar produced on the mainland 
and we also import great quantities 
from other countries. We go to much 
trouble and expense to get this sugar 
supply and if the quantity is reduced, 
as it was during the war, we feel that 
it is a great hardship. 
There is another 
supply which the people of the United 
States have sadly The 
amount of nectar secreted by the mul- 
titude of flowers is large beyond our 
comprehension. This is secreted that 
insects and other pollinizing agents 
may be attracted to bring about the 
cross pollination of the flowers, and to 
this end this sweet liquid is poured out 
The per cent of sugar in this 


source of sugar 


neglected. 


freely. 
nectar varies in the different species of 
flowers and is also influenced by en- 
vironmental factors. Whether or not 
it is a thick solution, the amount of 
sugar in each individual flower at any 
one moment of time is exceedingly 
416 


small, but the number of secreting 
flowers is stupendous, and they con- 
tinue to secrete nectar for some time, 
so that it is quite conservative to state 
that the total sugar secreted by these 
flowers in a year exceeds the amount of 
all sugars annually consumed by the 
American people. If only we could get 
it all, war and rumors of war would 
not affect our sugar markets! 

Unless collected, however, this nee- 
tar, from its very nature, soon disap- 
pears as the flowers wither, and is lost 
to human use. Any method for con- 
serving a portion of this abundant re- 
source must be through some agency 
that is ever on the alert for each fresh 
supply. Some of the flowers which se- 
crete nectar are of such size and shape 
that only birds or moths can reach this 
nectar, and what they get is lost to hu- 
man use. Then there are thousands of 
species of insects which seek out the nec- 
tar for their immediate use, and while 
many of these species are economically 
valuable, man does not get the sugar. 

Of all these nectar-seeking species, 
the honeybee alone is capable of being 
used by man as an instrument for col- 
lecting some of this vast sugar supply 
in such form that it can be used as hu- 
man food. In spite of all that we can 
do, most of this sugar will be lost, but 
far more of it might be saved if this 
insect could be put more widely into 


CONSERVING OUR NATURAL RESOURCES OF SUGAR 


the service for which its instincts and 
colony organization so well fit it. Even 
these useful insects cannot be consid- 
ered as examples of brilliant efficiency 
when viewed solely from man’s selfish 
point of view, for they use for their 
own purpose far more than the bee- 
keeper can take away. There are pro- 
duced, however, about 250,000,000 
pounds of honey annually as the bee- 
keeping industry is now developed. 

The worker bees gather the nectar, 
take it to the hive, remove the excess 
moisture, change the sugar chemically, 
and finally store it for future use. 
They use honey, as we call the finished 
product, for their own food, to feed the 
developing brood, and to provide stores 
for periods of the year when not enough 
nectar is available to keep them in food. 
Nectar is not secreted throughout the 
summer season in most places, but 
comes periodically with the blooming of 
the various species of flowers, these 
periods being called the honey-flows. 
Then in winter, after the first killing 
frost, there is the long period during 
which the adult bees must be fed, for 
the honeybee is unique among insects 
of the temperate zone in that it passes 
the winter as an adult and still does not 
hibernate. 

The amount of honey used by an 
average colony of bees to maintain its 
existence during the year is large. The 
strength of the colony varies from 
about 15,000 individuals at the close of 
winter to perhaps 100,000 at the peak 
of prosperity and then the number 
again decreases as winter approaches. 
These bees must be fed, not only as 
adults but as larvee, and they use great 
quantities of food during the period of 
development. When. we realize that a 
bee larva may increase in weight sev- 
eral hundred per cent in 24 hours, and 
that there may be 25,000 of these hun- 
gry larve in the hive at one time, it 
will be clear that the colony must main- 
tain a plentiful larder to care for the 
family needs. It will, perhaps, not be 


417 


far from the truth to assume that the 
total amount of ripened honey used by 
a good colony of bees is four hundred 
pounds during the entire year. This 
will vary enormously, for in lean years 
the bees do not rear so many young and 
thus their consumption more nearly fits 
their income, while in the fat years of 
nectar, if given the proper room and 
care, they carry on brood-rearing to the 
capacity of the queen, the colonies be- 
come stronger, and they gather still 
more nectar. 

Assuming, then, for the sake of a 
definite figure, that every colony must 
have its four hundred pounds, it is 
clear that this must be gathered before 
there is any honey which the beekeeper 
may take away. The honey removed 
for human use is usually called “sur- 
plus” by beekeepers and this is literally 
its correct name. In years of plenty 
the task-of finding so much nectar is an 
easy one and under such circumstances 
there is surplus for every beekeeper. 
Unfortunately in most seasons nature 
does not supply this sugar so freely, 
and only the beekeepers who manage 
their bees properly get a surplus. It is 
not the purpose of this article to tell 
what the beekeeper may do to increase 
the amount of honey gathered by the 
colonies, for this has been so well coy- 
ered in bee literature and it is so long a 
that we must pass on to the 
broader problem of planning to get 
more nectar by the promotion of the 
industry. Perhaps, in the average sea- 
son and with the fairly good beekeeper 
the amount of surplus honey for each 
colony will scarcely exceed fifty pounds. 

The honey removed for human use 
represents, according to our figures, 
only one ninth of the nectar gathered 
by the bees. 
an apiary of one hundred colonies may 
gather nectar equivalent to 224% tons 
of honey, whereas the honey crop, or 
that taken off by the beekeeper, will 
That the worker bees 
from one hundred colonies can find nee- 


story 


In such an average season 


be only 21% tons. 


418 NATURAL. HISTORY 


tar sufficient to produce 22% tons of 
honey within a radius of two miles will 
vive some idea of the stupendous 
amount of sugar at hand in a region 
where the unsuspecting individual 
would see no sugar production. Of 
course the bees are not able to get all 
the nectar during rapid secretion, and 
in most places there are not enough 
bees to get one tenth of it. 


many locations where more than one 


There are 


hundred colonies may be kept with 
profit or where more than a fifty pound 
surplus is obtained. It really would 
appear from a study of these figures 
that the chief end of nature is to pour 
out sugar syrup. 

In the face of these facts it 1s re- 
erettable that so many beekeepers in 
the United States fail to get even the 


small percentage which belongs to 
them. There are parts of the United 


States where nearly 90 per cent of all 
colonies of bees are kept in hollow logs 
or plain boxes, in which the combs can- 
not be handled. There are few places 
where the box hive is not found and 
probably one third of the bees of the 
country are so housed. Such beekeep- 
ing is almost as bad as no beekeeping 
at all, for bees in such hives cannot be 
handled and, without the contribution 
made by an intelligent beekeeper, the 
surplus honey of a colony is usually ex- 
ceedingly small. In this case both the 
equipment and the management are 
poor. 

It is not enough to buy good hives, 
however, for the greater number of 
those beekeepers who have their bees in 
such hives fail to get their full share of 
By failing to give the bees 
proper attention during the winter, by 
providing insufficient room for storage 
of honey (a mistake which is well-nigh 
impossible to understand and yet one 


the crop. 


which is most common), and by failure 
to control swarming, the crop is often 
reduced one half or more. The equip- 
ment is good but the management is 
poor. It is a common saying that the 


beekeeper invests one part of money 
and nine parts of brains in his busi- 
If he leaves out the major in- 
vestment, failure is sure to follow, and 
this most necessary article is not on 


ness. 


sale by the dealers in hives. 

The bright side of the picture is seen 
in the commercial apiaries throughout 
the country—even though their num- 
ber be relatively small—where the bees 


are properly housed in good hives, 
where swarming is controlled, where 
the bees are given just the right amount 
of room for storage at just the right 
time, and where they receive adequate 
protection and care in winter. The 
number of such apiaries is increasing 
in an encouraging manner throughout 
the country, but there is still room for 
more. Beekeepers who take the proper 
care of their bees receive an adequate 
return for their labor and, as it 1s only 
the good beekeeper who gets all the 
available crop, it may safely be stated 
that the honey crop is chiefly traceable 
to study and care. 
almost all parts of the country receive 
a good living from their bees and have 


Many beekeepers in 


incomes equal to those of the good 
farmers in other lines of agriculture, 
resulting from the proper directing of 
the energy of the bees. 

As it is only the good beekeeper who 
helps the bees to conserve much of the 
vast sugar supply of which mention was 
made earlier, it will be clear that from 
the standpoint of national economy it 
desirable to 
such beekeepers to go into the business. 
It will be equally clear that it is a detri- 
ment to have those take up the business 
who will not or cannot make the major 
investment—that of brains. We do not 
want in the bee those who 
have no brains, but there is little dan- 
ger from that class. The class which 
may do actual harm, and which is per- 
haps the greatest handicap to beeckeep- 
ing as an industry, consists of those 
who have the necessary brains but who 
do not intend to make the investment. 


is most encourage more 


business 


CONSERVING OUR NATURAL RESOURCES OF SUGAR 


Obviously, I refer to those owning a few 
colonies of bees, who take it for granted 
that “bees work for nothing and board 
themselves,” who occupy _ territory 
which might better be occupied by com- 
mercial beekeepers, who, through lack 
of care, often allow their bees to be a 
menace to all the about them 
through the dissemination of disease— 
in short, who desire to be merely ama- 
teur beekeepers. The amateur 
keeper, usually the suburbanite with a 
few colonies, is rarely of benefit to the 
beekeeping of the country. He may get 
a little honey at times for his own use 
and, if he has a little more than he 
needs, he may sell it in such a way that 
he spoils the market in his community 
for the sale of honey produced by a 
beekeeper who makes his living through 
the bees. If the beekeeper with a few 
colonies would study the problems of 
beekeeping, would study his bees, and 
really retain throughout the work that 
enthusiasm with which he began, he 
would be a help and not a hindrance to 
the development of beekeeping. 

The only class of beekeepers who do 
more harm than the amateurs is that 
group usually spoken of in beekeeping 
circles as the ‘“farmer-beekeepers.” 
There is no reason why a good farmer 
cannot be a good beekeeper, for he is 
able to make the investment of both 
money and brains. The great difficulty 
is that just at the time when the bees 
demand attention, the general farmer 
is exceedingly busy with other work. 
Usually the bees back in the orchard 
are neglected from one year to the next, 
an easy prey to disease, never properly 
packed for winter, and of no profit to 
the owner. Whenever you see a few 
colonies of bees back in the orchard in 
unpainted hives or behind the barn in 
all sorts and conditions of boxes, you 
may be sure that there is no profit here, 
and probably when the apiary inspector 
comes along for bee diseases he will 
“lose his religion” in trying to induce 
the owner to clean up the wreckage. 


bees 


bee- 


419 


I have tried to indicate why it is that 
all the agencies which are honestly try- 
ing to build up the beekeeping industry 
in the United States are making an 
effort to induce more people to take up 
beekeeping as their vocation, and are 
more or less openly discouraging the 
amateur. We all realize that everyone 
who goes in for beekeeping must one 
day make the start, and usually this 
start is a small one. Out of the great 
group of amateurs—there are now 
about 750,000 of them—must come the 
professional beekeepers of tomorrow. 
There is, however, an adequate supply 
of material on which to work in trying 
to make better beekeepers of those who 
now have bees, and it is unnecessary to 
try to make more beekeepers. As time 
goes on, some of those who now make 
a business of beekeeping may be driven 
out by the inroads of bee disease, unless 
they are able to invest enough brains to 
make the fight. Some of our present 
beekeepers engaged commercially can- 
not make this investment for, as before 
stated, they cannot get brains from the 
hive dealer. We will want some im- 
provement in the personnel of beekeep- 
ing, and it may well be that there are 
persons who now know nothing about 
bees who might make our very best bee- 
keepers. The risk of making an aver- 
age amateur is too great to run and, as 
a result, almost every person engaged 
in helping beekeeping in this country 
shudders a bit when anyone suggests 
taking up bees. 

Beekeeping offers opportunity as a 
commercial enterprise for thousands of 
alert people. The work of the 
keeper, while not at all a sinecure, is 
not so hard as that of many other lines 
of activity ; there are abundant periods 
for recreation and study especially dur- 
ing the winter, and the returns are 
good. As has been stated, the invest- 
ment is one part money and nine parts 
brains. There is no branch of agricul- 
ture in which the return is so large in 
proportion to the financial investment 


bee- 


42) 


as in beekeeping, but if the money is 
invested without putting in the larger 
investment, there is no hope of success. 
The prospective beekeeper may be sure 
that he will be associated with good 
people in a work which demands such 
care and study and he will be well 
repaid for his work and study. 

To the person who fondly hopes to 
have a few colonies of bees just back of 
the two apple trees to the rear of the 
suburban home, the best advice is to 
buy any honey needed at the top of the 
market, put money into W. 5. 3S. in- 
stead of into bees and hives, and read 
Maeterlinek for the beekeeping experi- 
It will be found more profitable 
than the plan which he has had in 
mind. He may, if he wishes, still look 
forward to the time when he buys his 
farm and can keep bees on that, but 
most suburbanites do not buy the farms 
to which they look forward. The best 
way to conserve the vast nectar re- 
sources of the United States is to leave 
the production of honey to professional 
beekeepers, for they and they alone can 
save it for us. 

For those who do not engage in bee- 
keeping or who may feel that this dis- 
cussion has barred them from a pursuit 
to which they have forward, 


ence: 


looked 


NATURAL HISTORY 


there still remains one of the great joys 
which have their origin in beekeeping ; 
there is the honey to eat. Comb-honey 
is of course a pure product just as 
made by the bees and it is not glucose 
in parattin cells, as the sensational press 
periodically asserts in an effort to por- 
tray the ingenuity of the Connecticut 
Yankee. Extracted Chiatemis. 
honey in liquid form, separated from the 
comb, is also pure for, since the passage 
of the Pure Food Act of 1906, honey 
adulteration is indeed rare. There is 
probably no food product on the mar- 
ket more free from contamination than 
either comb or extracted honey. 

It is quite possible to put in words 
an assurance of dietetic fitness and 
chemical purity. It is not possible to 
string together a group of English 
words which describe adequately the 
taste of fine honey. Its beneficial prop- 
erties and its value as a food for chil- 
dren and invalids are quite explainable, 
but the attractiveness of honey, the rea- 
son we eat it, lies in its flavor, which is 
quite beyond words. Each species of 
nectar-secreting flower gives forth a 
supply of characteristic flavor so there 
is abundant variety and a flavor for 
each taste. It is the nectar of the gods 


honey, 


and the very name is sweet. 


It is a conservative estimate that the sugar secreted by the flowers of this country each year exceeds 
the total amount of sugar consumed annually by the American people. 
however, the honeybee alone can be used by man for saving nature’s vast output of sugar. 


Of all the nectar feeding insects, 
Each colony 


requires about 400 pounds for its own living, this leaves the fairly good beekeeper a surplus of about 15 


pounds. 
rienced, ‘‘good beekeeper,” 


Hope for the industry lies in commercial apiaries, but only the thoroughly informed, expe- 
should be encouraged to enter the work 


The Evolution of the Human Face: 


Especially the story of the evolution, from fish to man, of the lacrymal bone as one of 


the bones around the eye socket 


By WILLIAM 


ARLY in the nineteenth century 
Cuvier, the famous French com- 

parative anatomist, and his col- 
league, the elder Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 
observed that in the skulls of croco- 
diles and alligators there are four bones 
around ;the orbits or eye sockets, and 
that two of them respectively corre- 
spond in position to the lacrymal or 
tear bone of the human skull, and the 
other two to the jugal (malar) or cheek 
bone. 

About the same time it was noted 
that in fishes also there is a ring of 
bones around the orbits, and in 1818 
Julius Victor Carus sought to identify 
the human lacrymal with the first sub- 
orbital bone of fishes. These identi- 
fications by Cuvier and Carus were 
further studied and accepted by Sir 
Richard Owen and later anatomists 
down to our own time; in 1910, how- 
ever, E. Gaupp, of Freiburg, cast seri- 
ous doubt upon them, holding that it 
was the so-called “prefrontal” or front 
upper element of the circumorbital 
series of lower vertebrates, which was 
the real homologue of the human and 
mammalian lacrymal. 

As the problems thus raised ramify 
in many directions, I have closely ex- 
amined the evidence cited by Gaupp, 
and during the last few years I have 
studied the bones around the orbits in 
all classes of recent and extinct verte- 
brates from fishes to mammals. I con- 
clude, however, that Gaupp was mis- 
taken, and that Cuvier and Carus were 
right. This is one of the conclusions 
in a report on the evolution of the 
lacrymal bone of vertebrates, compris- 


K. GREGORY 


ing about two hundred figures, which 
will shortly be published in the Bud- 
letin of the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History, and upon which the pres- 
ent article is largely based. 

In an earlier article in this magazine 
IT endeavored to summarize the main 
stages in the evolution of the eyes, nose, 
and mouth. In the present article at- 
tention is centered chiefly upon the 
evolution, from fish to man, of the bony 


elements around the orbits or 


eye 

sockets. 
In the earliest fishlike vertebrates 
the whole head was covered with a 


tough skin surrounding the eyes, the 
nose and the jaws and covering the 
roof of the skull and the region of the 
gills. In the stage represented by Fig. 
1 of our series this tough skin had 
already acquired a bony base which is 
preserved in many ancient fishes of 
Devonian and later ages and is still 
retained by the gar pike and other 
lowly forms of living fishes. At that 
time the eyes were surrounded by a 
ring of about five flat skin-bones named 
respectively the prefrontal (pf), the 
postfrontal (po.f), the postorbital 
(po), the jugal (7) and the lacrymal 
Cie 
face by a branch of the “lateral line” 
canal encircling the orbit. 

3etween this and the next stage of 
evolution there is a great gap in the 
paleontological record. But the cumu- 
lative of comparative anat- 
omy and embryology indicates that 
the oldest known four-footed animals, 
known only from certain footprints in 
the Upper Devonian and Lower Carbon- 


These were grooved on the sur- 


evidence 


‘Continued from the AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL, October, 1917. 


421 


EIGHT STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN HEAD 


To show especially the evolution of the lacrymal or ** tear” bone as one of the bones around the eye socket 


Stage 1—Head of a primi- 
tive fish, Osteolepis, of 
Devonian age, showing 
the five bones of the 
primitive circumorbital 
series ! (After E. S. 
Goodrich) 


Stage 2—Head of the 
most primitive known 
reptile, Seymouria, trom 
the Permian of Texas. 
The primitive upper jaw- 
bone (m2) is compara- 
tively slender and _ lies 
entirely below the lacry- 
mal, which extends from 
the orbit to the nostril 
(After S. W. Williston) 


Stage .38—Head of a 
later primitive reptile, 
Mycterosaurus, from the 
Permian of Texas. The 
upper jawbone (ma) has 
grown up over the lac- 
rymal (/) and is in wide 
contact with the nasal (7) 


Stage 4—Head of a still 
higher reptile, the mam- 
mallike Jectidopsis — of 
Triassic age, South 
Africa. The upper jaw- 
bone (ma) is still larger 
and the whole head is 
very mammal-like, except 
that the reptilian pre- 
frontal (pf) and postor- 
bital (po) bones are still 
present 


Stage 5—Head of a Vir- 
ginia opossum represent- 
ing the primitive mam- 
mals. The upper jaw- 
bone (mx) has now 
grown upward around 
the lacrymal (1) thus 
reaching the frontal (f). 
The prefrontal and post- 
orbital bones are no 
longer present 


1 « ) we j > } } . 
In all eight drawings the abbreviations are as follows: f, frontal; pf, prefontal; po.f, postfrontal; 
po, postorbital; 1, lacrymal; n, nasal; ma, maxillary; pmax, premaxillary; j, jugal (cheek); pa, parietal; 


8q, squamosal. 


422 


Stage 6—Head of a prim- 
itive Primate Notharctus 
of Eocene age, Wyoming. 
The  lacrymal (1) is 
pushed to the inner 
wall of the orbit. A 
new rim behind the orbit 
is formed by outgrowths 
from the frontal (f) and 
cheekbone (jugal, 7) 


Stage 7—Head of an 
Old World monkey (ma- 
caque), showing the for- 
ward direction of the 
orbits, the retreat of the 
lacrymal bone to the 
inner wall of the orbit, 
the formation of a bony 
partition behind the or- 
bit, the beginning of the 
expansion of the brain 
case and of the shorten- 
ing of the face 


Stage S—Head of a man, 
showing the final stage 
of evolution. The _ lac- 
rymal bone remains much 
as it was in the preced- 
ing stage, but the eyes 
are now directed wholly 
forward, the brain case 
is greatly expanded and 
the face extremely short- 
ened and deepened 


9 
-v 


424 


iferous rocks, were the descendants of 
certain very progressive “lobe-finned” 
or rhipidistian fishes, which had begun 
to use their fore and hind paddles as 
limbs, crawling about the margins of 
pools and swamps, and developing such 
incipient lungs as are found in the 
lungfishes of the present day. In these 
transitional creatures the gills were 
probably used only in the larval aquatic 
stage and gradually disappeared in the 
adults. Consequently the numerous 
skin-bones covering the gill-chamber in 
fishes and called the opercular series 
(op, Stage 1) disappeared, along with 
the gills themselves, so that in the old- 
est known four-footed animals (Stage 
2) there is a great notch at the back 
of the skull on each side, representing 
the outer part of the primitive gill- 
chamber. 

Thus, after an interval of millions of 
vears during the emergence of the 
four-footed vertebrates from fishes, the 
rocks reveal to us the second great 
stage of this lhne of evolution, repre- 
sented by the reptiles and amphibians 
of the Coal Measures and succeeding 
In these animals (Stage 2) we 
find the same ring of five bones around 
the orbit which was first developed in 
the fishes, but now the several elements 
of this series are more differentiated 
one from the other. The lacrymal bone 
(1), at the lower front corner of the 
orbit, is pierced by a duct correspond- 
ing to our tear duct, which it is be- 
heved is a modified remnant of the 
lateral line canal. The jugal (7) or 
bone beneath the orbit now suggests 
the beginning of the zygomatic arch or 
cheek bone of higher types. At this 
stage the lacrymal extends from the 
orbit to the nostril, and the maxilla 
(mx) or upper jaw bone is a slender 
element which is widely separated from 
the nasal (7) by the lacrymal. 

In the third stage (Stage 3), repre- 
sented in certain reptiles from the Per- 
mian of Texas, the lacrymal is re- 


ages. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


stricted through the upgrowth of the 
maxilla, which acquires a wide contact 
with the nasal. Here, also, we have 
the beginning of the temporal fossa or 
opening for the jaw muscles behind the 
orbit. 

The fourth stage (Stage 4) is repre- 
sented by the mammal-lke reptiles of 
the Triassic age found in South Africa. 
In these wonderful saurians there is a 
surprising mixture of mammalian and 
reptilian characteristics. The region 
around the eye is very mammal-lke. 
The upper jaw bone is much larger 
than in earlier stages and the lacrymal 
is still more restricted. The zygomatic 
arch is extremely mammal-hke in form 
and so is the temporal fossa. 

The fifth stage, which was attained 
in the latter half of the Mesozoic era 
or Age of Reptiles, is preserved even at 
the present time in the opossum (Stage 
5), one of the most primitive of exist- 
ing mammals. In this stage the upper 
jaw bone (maxilla) has grown upward 
around the laerymal, which is now 
further restricted. As compared with 
the ancestral reptiles the greatest 
changes in this region in primitive 
mammals are the loss of the prefrontal, 
which exposes the frontal, and of the 
postorbital, which makes the orbit 
widely continuous with the temporal 
fossa. The stout zygomatic arch is 
now fully mammalhan in form. 

The sixth stage is found in the very 
ancient Primates from the Eocene of 
Wyoming, here represented by Votharc- 
tus osborni (Stage 6). The lacrymal 
has now greatly dwindled and with- 
drawn to the inner wall of the orbit as 
in many existing Primates, this reduc- 
tion and retreat within the orbit being 
probably associated with the reduction 
of the parts of the nasal cavity which 
the lacrymal covers. The orbit is now 
guarded in the rear by a bony rim, 
which is, however, by no means the 
same as that in reptiles (Stages 2-5), 
since it is now formed, not by the 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FACE 


original postorbital bone (po), which 
has been lost, but by a new bony out- 
growth or postorbital process from the 


frontal. bone, which meets a similar 
new extension from the jugal. At this 
stage the face is somewhat shorter 


than it was in primitive mammals and 
reptiles, but the eyes still look out- 
ward. 

The seventh stage (Stage 7) is pre- 
served in the monkeys, especially those 
of the Old World, such as the macaque. 
These have advanced widely beyond 
the primitive Primates in the fact that 
the orbit is now shut off from the tem- 
poral fossa by a new partition growing 
out from the above-mentioned post- 
orbital process of the frontal and jugal 
bones. This great change is associated 
partly with the forward pointing of the 
orbits, which also causes the lacrymal 
bone to be pressed tightly against the 
inner wall of the eve. The large open- 
ing of the lacrymal canal or tear duct 
is now between the lacrymal and the 
upper jawbone or maxilla. The bony 
face is shortened and deepened and the 
whole brain case is expanded. 

The final or human stage (Stage 8) 


presents only an emphasis of the fea- 
tures already noted (Stage 7) in the 
monkeys, and is already attained in the 
higher anthropoid apes (see drawing on 
this page). The eyes now look directly 
forward, the brain case is enormously 
expanded and the face greatly short- 
ened and deepened. The position and 
characters of the lacrymal are essen- 
tially the same as in the preceding stage 
except that the tear duct is still larger. 

The series as a whole shows the dom- 
inating parts played in this evolution 
at first by the loss of the opercular 
bones following the loss of the gills; 
secondly, by the development of a tem- 
poral fossa and of a zygomatic arch in 
connection with the more efficient 
functioning of the jaws; thirdly, by 
the forward shifting of the orbits to 
obtain better vision; fourthly, by the 
final expansion of the brain case; and 
fifthly, by the retraction of the jaws 
beneath the brain ease. 

Thus in the course of many millions 
of years the lowly head of the Devo- 
nian fish has been refashioned into the 
voluminous brain and forward- 
looking face of man. 


case 


Forepart of the skull of a young chimpanzee showing subhuman character of the bones 
around the orbit, especially the lacrymal (as, alisphenoid; pl, palatine; other abbreviations 


as on page 422). 


Thus in the higher anthropoid apes, as in man, the lowly head of the 


Devonian fish has been refashioned. during the course of many millions of years, into the 
large brain case and the very different forward-looking face 


WEATHERED OUTPOSTS OF THE FOREST 


Glassy spicules of ice and sharp unworn sand grains grind at the windward side of the trunks, 
sometimes eating almost to the heart. On the leeward side the trees put forth their toughened 
branches and needles. The limber pines stand alone and take the punishment of the winds in unpro- 
tected spots where their neighbors, the spruces, cannot live 


426 


A snowstorm at timber-line.—The snowfall along the continental divide in Colorado is one of the 


heaviest of the country. 
west and tributaries of the Platte on the east. 


In the immediate vicinity of Longs Peak it feeds the Grand River on the 
“Eternal snow” 


lies all along the Front Range and 


from its border there flows a sheet of icy water during the summer days 


The Wars of the Wind at Timber-line 


THE FOREST RANKS IN THE DRY WIND-SWEPT HIGH ALTITUDES 
OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS ARE BEING DRIVEN 
DOWN THE SLOPES 


By ENOS 


A. MILLS 


Illustrations from photographs by the Author 


OR ages the high, dry, winter 
wind had blown out of the west 
across the Continental Divide. 
Down the eastern slope these winds 
swept roaring against the ragged, bat- 
tered upper ranks of the forest at tim- 
ber-line. At one place in the Rocky 
Mountain National Park they came 
down across a wide treeless moorland 
between two lateral moraines of huge 
size. They dashed so fiercely against 
the forest front that the aggressive 
trees had never been allowed to do 
more than peep over the edge of the in- 
clined moor. Again and again an ad- 
venturous seedling had dared the tree- 
less space only to be blown to pieces 
before it could get a good roothold. 
One day far up a mountain-side a 


cliff crashed and fell. The ice had at 
last wedged it off. It plunged and 
rolled down a steep slope with great 
leaps, and went to pieces. A few of the 
pieces tumbled far out on this moor. 
The largest stone formed a small wind- 
break a few hundred feet in advance of 
the forest’s wind-battered edge. 

In due time a few daring seeds 
sought to start a tree outpost in this 
shelter. They succeeded. In a close 
cluster they grew up. When they rose 
above the upper surface of the rock the 
terrific winter wind cut them off with 
sand blasts and the cutting edges of 
glassy sleet. New trees from time to 
time found a foothold to the leeward of 
the stone’s pioneer tree cluster. Thus 
a line of trees gradually extended in a 


427 


425 


long wind-battered row, thick as a 
hedge, to the front ranks of the forest. 
The wind did not allow a tree to start 
or a limb to extend beyond the shel- 
tered edges of the stone. 

The timber-line of which this wind- 
row was a part stretches along the east- 
ern or Atlantic slope of the high Con- 
tinental Divide for hundreds of miles. 
The Engelmann spruce and the Arctic 
willow represent the tree growth in the 
moister places, while it falls to the lot 
of some variety of the limber pine to 
maintain the forest front on the dry 
wind slopes and rock ridges. 

Timber-line, like the shore line of 
the sea, bends and curves. Here a 
mountain-side canon causes it to sweep 
back like a bay of the sea, and there it 
thrusts itself out around a peninsula- 
like headland. In places the topog- 
raphy causes it to extend for a mile or 
more in a straight line. Next it comes 
to an end upon an out-cropping of 
barren rock which offers it no soil; and 
in places a drift of “eternal snow” 
holds it at bay; while on slopes and 
ridges the dry and devitalizing winds 
say, “Thus far and no farther.” 

The winds and gales that strike and 
beat and break against the front ranks 
of the forest, roar as intensely as a 
storming sea upon the shore, and with 
all its terrible eloquence. 

Wind is the strongest factor in the 
life of these timber-line trees. This is 
shown in their attitudes and shapes. 
Standing trees are tilted toward the 
east, the vinelike, crawling trees are 
headed east, and those standing with 
banners and pennants of long, tattered 
limbs and foliage, extend their arms 
only toward the east. All proclaim, 
“Out of the west come the forces that 
direct us.” At timber-line, wind, the 
sculptor, has carved for himself a thou- 
sand graphic tree statues that proclaim 
his presence and his power. 

The stone on the moor continued to 
shelter the windrow at timber-line. 
Each winter around the stone the vio- 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


lent winds raged, and pounded it al- 
most incessantly. During the summer 
months the wind rarely blew. ‘Then 
brilliant flowers stood thickly in a 


green and snowdrift-dotted Alpine 
scene. But with the coming of autumn 


the wind again came pouring out of the 
west across the peak-broken heights. 
Through the long winter it commonly 
blew from the same quarter. 

As it poured around the stormward 
corners of the stone, the wind gradu- 
ally blew the earth away. ‘Then along 
the stormward front of the stone it 
connected these corner erosions with a 
channel. Finally it began to under- 
mine this immovable wind-defying 
piece of granite. Hach spring and 
summer the water from the winter 
snows and from the rains carried for- 
ward the eroding, undermining work 
of the wind. 

Occasionally an accident came to a 
tree or two in the windrow and a slight 
opening was left, between the grizzled 
edges of which a man might squeeze 
through. One day a bowlder rolled 
down and smashed a larger opening. 
But most of the trees in this long, nar- 


oO 


row hedge interlaced still more closely 
with new limbs. The wind did not al- 
low them to extend their tops upward 
or their arms outward beyond the line 
determined and sheltered by the stone. 
Each winter the hundreds of tiny ad- 
venturous twigs that had during sum- 
mer grown beyond the side or the top 
lines were clipped off by the wind. 

A long, long time the stone re- 


mained. Upon it many a white ptar- 
migan alighted; upon it, too, the 


crested noisy jay, the quiet camp-bird, 
and the curious magpie often sat to 
look upon the scene. Around it lived 
the bighorn sheep. Beside it a grizzly 
once dug for a chipmunk. 

On the wide moor here and there a 
partly embedded rock fragment. shel- 
tered a tiny persistent tree. Here and 
there a bowlder that had rolled down 
from one of the moraines sheltered 


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430 


somewhat larger growing trees. <A pile 
of débris that a landslide had brought 
down sheltered a grove almost twelve 
feet high. 

Immovable the great stone lay on 
the moor. Dust and trash accumulated 
beneath the trees in its shelter, as un- 
der any hedge, and formed a barrier 
which blocked the water coming down 
the slope of the moraine. This cut a 
small channel alongside the tree row. 
This water joined the wearing, under- 
mining forces of the wind that ever 
worked beneath the stormward founda- 
tion of the protecting stone. 

Immovable the stone continued to lie 
through the wonder summers amid 
Alpine flowers, and through the roar- 
ing windy winters, while invisible 
chemistry tinted it with many hues 
and the lichens came to color it. But 
at last the wash of water and the sweep 
of winds dug a great hole in front and 
beneath the stone. Early one summer 
as the frost was vanishing from the 
sogey earth the stone settled forward 
and rolled over into the hole on its side, 
leaving the windrow of trees to the 
winds. This was only a few years ago, 
but today those trees are only a mem- 
ory. 


Most of the forest front is without a 
windbreak. While ridges, landslide 
débris, and bowlders here and there af- 
ford protection, the main timber-line 
breasts the wind unsheltered. If one 
follows along this strange boundary 
line, the timber-line, he will see in 
some places trees which have been 
struck by lightning, others mowed by 
snowslides and in places crushed, and 
in still other places trees protected by 
bowlders or landslides that have come 
down from the treeless heights above. 
Trees that have grown up to the lee- 
ward of a shelter are quickly trimmed 
and markedly changed shortly after 
the sheltering barrier is removed. 

A tree may be forced out of plumb 
by prevailing winds and then be caught 


NATURAL HISTORY 


by heavy snow and crushed down and 
held so long that it never regains its 
upright position. There are acres of 
trees prostrate, chiefly from the effect 
of high winds, but perhaps incidentally 
from the weight of winter snow. <A 
combination of wind and snow causes 
many a tree, at a foot or less above the 
earth, to abandon the growth of its top 
and give all of its energy in sending 
out and maintaining long limbs which 
radiate in all directions. Many of the 
long, storm-tempered limbs are nearly 
as tough as steel. The smaller limbs 
may be knotted without breaking. 

In other places trees grow along the 
ground to the leeward with a few flat- 
tened limbs streaming out parallel to 
the top. The few scattered erect ones 
possess limbs on only the leeward quar- 
ter. Limbs on the stormward side have 
never been allowed -to grow. Many 
trees thus are standing, worn away to 
the heart on the stormward side, the 
naked bones showing, while on the lee- 
ward there is the green bark and long 
out-streaming limbs. 

Many of these dwarfed ancient look- 
ing little trees are not two feet high. 
Yet they are two and three centuries 
old and look as old as the mountains. 
Some are two or three feet in diameter 
and less than eight feet high. Num- 


op 


bers of trees, although at least a 
century old, are but small grizzled 
shrubs. In places a number of these 


may be growing together in a beautiful 
wild-flower garden composed chiefly of 
dwarfed flowers,—flowers with stalk 
and bloom perfectly formed but less 
than one inch in height. Like the trees 
themselves, many of these dwarfed 
plants have a strange and extensive 
root system, while others, like many of 
the trees, are growing on only the lee- 
ward quarter. 

Areas of a “block” or more are coy- 
ered with low matted growths as 
smooth and unbroken as the trimmed 
surface of a hedge. They are clipped 
off almost as level as a lawn, with the 


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Limber pines grow in exposed spots among the forests of Engelmann spruce. 


The spruces stand 


straight and true wherever they are found, but the pine develops a stunted, gnarled, and weathered ap- 


pearance as a result of its rigorous warfare with the winds. 


As is the case with all plant forms at the 


limits of vegetation, the pines increase very little in size in a single season so that a veteran of many 


decades may have developed but a small stature. 
the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies) 


Here and 
there in these growths a single tree 
trunk, badly battered, may stand like 
a tattered flag or banner. 


numerous twigs interlacing. 


Even in the 
worst wind-swept groves one may see. 
waved far aloft, the plume of one or 
more pines. 

On a moraine nearly 12,000 feet 
above sea level I once saw in the dis- 
tance a tree of striking appearance. 


(Photograph taken at an altitude of 11,200 feet, on 


Its substantial trunk was three feet six 
inches in diameter. The total height 
of the tree was seven feet nine inches. 
For two feet it was imbless, then came 
a great whorl of limbs. <A few of these 
at the base were nearly a foot in di- 
ameter. Apparently the tree had been 
shielded and its form and height de- 
termined by the presence of a few large 
bowlders thirty or forty feet up the 


The spruces form the regular heavy growth of the upper forests where they are associated with 


balsam fir. 


On the higher and more exposed localities the fir is replaced by foxtail and limber pines. 


Flowers in profusion, full of color although not highly varied, blossom on the mossy floor of the forest 
and in the Alpine meadows above. The spruce-fir forests are chiefly important as conservers of the 
water supply on which the surrounding country relies for irrigation; their value as lumber is slight, 
although the spruces may be employed for mine timbers 


99 


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This squatty giant of the timber-line, although not eight feet high, has a trunk three and one 
half feet in diameter. Such tabular forms are frequently assumed at both the mountain and polar tree 
limits. The height of the tree beyond which upward growth ceases is determined by the average depth 
of the snow, for twigs that project above the drifts throughout the winter are usually cropped by the 
dry Alpine blasts. Beyond the tree limit the same conditions reduce the tree growth to mere ground 
mats of shrubs. (Compare with page 431) 


slope. The annual rings in this tree front ranks of the forest at the sea- 
are exceedingly thin and the probable shore, are also greatly exposed, but the 
age is about two thousand years. It air here is damp. Sometimes in winter 
was killed by a forest fire in 1900. Its in the Rockies extremely dry winds 
wood is so dense, fine-grained, and blow for days in succession. If their 
tough, that the preservative treatment coming has been preceded by a drought 
given it by the fire should enable it they have a most devitalizing effect on 


to endure for a century or longer. the trees. Apparently they absorb 
Dry winds are the deadly ones. much of the moisture—the very life 
Trees on wind-swept beaches, the very from the trees, and as a result the fol- 


The prevailing winter winds which bring the heavy snowstorms blow from the west so that the 
trees are bent eastward and tend, after years of pressure, to put out their branches and point their 


heads permanently in this direction. The winds, sweeping the high ranges, sometimes blow more thar 
a hundred miles an hour with great regularity in direction Only where the direction and strength are 
continuous and persistent, as on high mountains and along some stretches of seacoast, is such direct 


contortion of trees to be seen 


133 


454 


lowing summer the needles of the trees 
turn brown. They are dead. 

It is in the arid climate of the east- 
ern front of the Rockies that high 
winds are most destructive. Dead 
trees in exposed places are literally 
eroded away. The lack of grass and 
other vegetation on the surface of the 
enables the wind to obtain 
tools of sand and gravel. These cut 
like sandpaper or powdered glass. 

Timber-line as seen in the life of the 
individual man is a fixed, permanent 
line, but in reality, in the general view of 
time, timber-line is not fixed. Despite 


eround 


Numbers of small pine trees, although at least 
a century old, are but short grizzled shrubs, con- 
torted out of all resemblance to their kind in the 


forest. Down among the spruces the limber 
pines grow taller than at timber-line, sometimes 
as high as thirty feet in northern Colorado and 
fifty feet in southern Colorado. Owing to the 
compact annual growth of the Alpine form, it is 
very difficult to tell the tree's age without the 
assistance of a lens. The most potent factor in 
this stunting of tree growth is not the cold but 
rather the desiccation caused by persistent icy 
winds. The winds in winter rob the tissues of 
their stored-up water which they are unable to 
replace from the frozen soil 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the aggressive work of the hardy trees 
which time has developed, the forest 
ranks in the dry wind-swept heights 
are being driven down the slopes. In 
moist timber-lne is slowly 
creeping up the heights, while in the 
drier regions, especially in the Rocky 
Mountains, it is losing ground. The 
surface of the earth is becoming drier. 
This condition in a few regions is fa- 
vorable to trees, but over many wide 
and wind-swept stretches it is most un- 
favorable. One may travel for miles 
along the forest frontier without seeing 
a single young tree in advance of the 
old front rank of the forest. 

Here and there along the timber-line 
in the Rockies is a bleaching log or a 
sand-eroded snag—all that remains of 
a former tree colony. Its nearest liv- 
ing representatives are several hundred 
feet down the slope, where there is 
more moisture and more shelter. 

The front ranks of the forest—the 
forest frontier—are fighting the winds 
on all of the high mountains of the 
world; in the forest’s farthest north 
near the Arctic Circle, the timber-line 
lies low, only a few feet above the level 
of the iceberg-dotted sea; in the Alps 
it is more than a mile above the sea; 
under the warm equator its ranks 
climb high into the mountainous sky : 
and in the Rocky Mountains they are 
dwarfed and broken by battles with the 
winds on the dry heights more than 
two miles above the shore line of the 
sea. 

The lot of a tree may be cast in a 
tropical jungle, on the ocean’s shore, 
alone out in the plains, or in a favored 
clime as where the unrivaled Sequoias 
grow. Every tree tastes adventures 
and looks upon.many stirring pageants, 
but none lives a more intense life than 
that tree whose shadows fall upon 
mountain snows—the tree which faces 
the winds of the high plateaus, bravely 
struggles for existence, and lives its 
vigilant and exacting life among high 
peaks and passes. 


places 


In places the trees grow along the ground to the leeward with a few flattened limbs streaming out parallel 
to the trunk. This condition is undoubtedly caused by the combined action of wind and snow, for the trees, 
while bent over in a blizzard, are buried under the great weight of snow, which bears down their branches and 
permanently alters their growth Snow falls to a great depth on the high ranges and lies late into the summer 
season, drifts of ‘perpetual snow being found down to the tree limit in protected spots 


Protected from the winds among the bowlders and with roots crowded into cracks among the rocks, a 
tary tree will start and persist in its lonely growth on the e! fringe of tree vegetation Seldom does its h 
rise above the protection, however. as it creeps eastward awa from the blasting winds The most astonishing 
feature in such growth is frequently the minimum amount of so which the tree requires for its roots 


5) 
=: 


COMPOUND STELLATE SNOW CRYSTALS FOR THE JEWELRY DESIGNER 


The intricate and branching forms of this group suggest jewelry designs in gold or enamel and 
patterns for lace or machine embroidery. These most complex snow crystals are probably formed in 
intense cold such as is found in the high altitudes from which the snow falls during general storms or 
during local storms in zero weather. The central usually hexagonal ice crystals act as nucleus for the 
intricate branches whose ribs are for the most part hollow tubes The upper left-hand crystal shows 


imperfect or asymmetrical growth from an imperfect nucleus 


436 


Art Motives in Snow Crystals 


BOREAL STUDIOS CONTINUALLY MAKING NEW DESIGNS 


By HERBERT P. 


ITH the resumption of 

manufacture upon a peace 

basis, a growing demand is 
being felt throughout the United 
States for American products which 
will express a distinctly American 
spirit in new designs. Manufacturers 
have voiced the opinion that an added 
impulse to applied art in this period 
of reconstruction of trade will come 
with the introduction of art motives 
which are not only striking but novel. 

The forms of the inorganic kingdom 
have as yet played little part in the de- 
velopment of art motives which have, 
up to now, been dependent mainly 
upon geometric patterns and upon 
more or less conventionally treated 
plant or animal forms. And yet it 
would seem that at least some of the 
mineral forms could be successfully 
substituted for those more stiffly geo- 
metric patterns which have — been 
handed down through the centuries as 
part of our art heritage. 

Snow crystals, combining, as they 
do, a wonderful symmetry of form with 
a practically inexhaustible variety of 
six-symmetric outlines, offer a fertile 
field for the designer. The snow crys- 
tals illustrated in these four pages 
are only a few examples—chosen from 
many hundreds—of the intricacy and 
beauty of nature’s geometrical designs 
as expressed in these tiny jewels of the 
air. The magnified photographs, en- 
larged about fifteen or twenty diam- 
eters, were obtained by the simple 
method of catching the falling snow- 
flakes on a black screen, which could be 
immediately introduced on the stage of 
a low power miscroscope fitted with a 
photographic apparatus. In order to 
secure the best results the photograph- 
ing of the snow crystals should be con- 
ducted in the open air while the snow 
is falling. Snow crystals have, for 


Wi TAD OC Kk 


many years past, been successfully 
photographed and studied by Mr. W. A. 
Bentley, of Jericho, Vermont, and the 
photographs here reproduced have been 
selected from his extensive collection. 

As a basis for art motives, it would 
seem that the range of uses to which 
these natural geometric forms could be 
applied is fairly comprehensive. Many 
of them suggest designs for cut and en- 
graved glass in a great variety of ap- 
plications. The stellate types, repeated 
with their extremities in contact, or 
nearly in contact, develop into allover 
patterns applicable to book covers, oil- 
cloth, wall paper, or textile designs. 
Some of the more delicately branching 
forms are strongly suggestive of jew- 
elry designs, as applied to brooches and 
pendants, either as settings for stones 
or enameled. The designer of stained 
glass rose windows may find in some of 
the compound tabular forms inspira- 
tion for unique patterns. 

Lace and drawn work, rosettes in 
fresco, tailpieces for books and maga- 
zines, and medallions for the centers of 
china plates, are some of the suggested 
uses which might be made of snow 
erystal motives. In fact the user of 
geometric designs in any of the decora- 
tive arts could well profit by the con- 
sideration of these varied and beautiful 
combinations of six-sided symmetry 
turned out of nature’s studio. 

Nor is there any limit to the supply 
of new motives, from this 
source. With fall of snow, in 
temperate and boreal regions, under 
the right conditions, combina- 
tions are being added to the thousands 
already photographed, constituting an 
ever growing portfolio of designs, and 


derivable 
every 


more 


presenting every degree of complexity 
from a simple hexagonal outline to in- 
tricate, branching forms of the com- 
pound stellate type. 

437 


TABULAR DESIGNS FOR CUT AND ETCHED GLASS 


The simple variations of the hexagon shown in this group of snow crystals suggest designs which 
could be used for cut and etched glass as applied to electroliers, bowls, and table glass. They could 
also be used as the centers of designs for china decoration in raised gold or color. These types of 


crystals are probably formed in relatively high temperatures and are found especially in local storms 


STELLATE SNOW CRYSTALS SUGGESTIVE TO THE TEXTILE DESIGNER 


440) ART MOTIVES IN SNOW CRYSTALS 


COMPOUND TABULAR SNOW CRYSTALS SUGGESTIVE OF WORK 
IN FRESCO AND STAINED GLASS 


This group of very modified crystals would furnish admirable designs for isolated rosettes in fresco. 
They even suggest rose windows in stained glass and Saracenic lattice work. All of the above forms are 
but illustrative examples of the many thousands of microphotographs which Mr. W. A. Bentley has 
taken during the last thirty-five years in Jericho, Vermont, and from which an infinite number of 


artistic designs adapted to different purposes might be selected 


Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern 
Science and Education 


By CHARLES F. HERM 


(Department of Physiology, American Museum of Natural History) 


ANY subjects in the various 

branches of biology which are 

discussed in the modern text- 
book belong to a region of observation 
inaccessible to the general reader or 
student. They can be approached only 
by means of refined techniques applied 
to special objects not ordinarily avail- 
able for practical study or demonstra- 
tion. A knowledge of these subjects 
must, therefore, in most cases be ac- 
quired from textbooks in which illus- 
trations take the place of the living 
object. Drawings or still pictures, 
however excellent, cannot always con- 
vey an accurate mental picture of the 
living object. It is extremely difficult 
for the most skillful technician to rep- 
resent even in a carefully preserved 
specimen the exact appearance of the 
real object. The fixative and stain ren- 
der the subjects in some measure more 
or less schematic and embody a consid- 
erable subjective element of interpreta- 
tion. 


The Cinematograph Faithful 
to Nature 

The cinematograph, whatever its 
shortcomings, gives an absolutely faith- 
ful representation of what appears un- 
der the microscope or before its lens; 
it contains no subjective element save 
that involved in the focusing of the in- 
strument, and hence conveys a true 
mental picture—a picture nearest to 
nature itself. 

There is no field of endeavor in 
which the cinematograph has not been 
tried, proved, and accepted, with the 
result that it has become an essential 
aid. The biologist, particularly, has 
an immeasurable opportunity for the 


production of films to show biologic 
phenomena such as function in health 
and disease, the action of parasites, 
and the many activities relating to per- 
sonal and public hygiene, especially 
as hardly anything has been done in 
cinematographic representation along 
these lines. 

Cinematographs of this sort would 
undoubtedly be a most important ad- 
junct to real educational effort. The 
arduous and method of 
study by memorizing textbooks can be 
materially moderated by the adapta- 
tion of the motion picture. These pic- 
tures can be arranged so logically, so 
clearly, and so free from puzzling 
questions that students can imme- 
diately absorb the most complicated 
subjects. 


wearisome 


Cinema-microscopy is a great need 
of the future; 
schools are eager 


an‘ 
to introduce its re- 
sults in their class rooms because they 
realize that no other device equals it 
for conveying a lecture or experiment. 
But at present where and how are 
schools to get films of such a charac- 


many colleges 


ter—films on microscopical subjects, 
strictly educational, having technical 
qualities, and produced by specialists 
just as textbooks are written and edited 
by specialists ? 


Cinema-microscopy a Problem for 
Hducational Institutions 

The production of a film textbook of 
zoology, physiology, or botany which 
contains hundreds of short reels or 
subjects, scientifically correct, up to 
the highest standard of learning, cor- 
relating with the approved textbooks, 
has so far not been a commercial suc- 
441 


44.2 


cess, due perhaps to the lack of special- 
ists, the large expense involved, and 
certain limitations of the subject. The 
public undoubtedly is interested; the 
secondary schools and colleges would 
welcome aid of this kind and it re- 
mains for some large educational insti- 
tutions to establish a micro-cinema 
laboratory for the production of such 
negatives. 

The producer of such films, if he 
be well acquainted with the various 
branches of science, can devise inter- 
esting and original experiments to suit 
any stage of knowledge. He can vary 
the experiments so as to bring the pupil 
face to face with something which can 
never be illustrated by diagrams in a 
textbook. He can lead the pupil step 
by step, and the more deeply he plunges 
into the particular branch of science, 
the wider will be his scope in the por- 
trayal of scientific phenomena by fasci- 
nating experiments. 


Cinema-biology a Demonstrator of 
Vital Life Factors 

Above all, the cinematograph gives 
the scientist an opportunity to illus- 
trate at will and repeatedly the results 
of the laboratory experiments. In 
many colleges, in medical schools, and 
even in certain classes of high schools, 
it is important to demonstrate the liv- 
ing phenomena as closely as possible; 
sketches, wall charts, or still photo- 
graphs do not show the different move- 
ments and the results of experiments ; 
they do not show the technique of the 
experimenter or the accompanying re- 
actions of the organism such as the 
beating of the heart, the circulation of 
the blood, and the acceleration of respi- 
ration. 

But by means of the cinematograph 
the most delicate operation can be re- 
corded and all its details reproduced 
with the utmost precision. At the same 
time this wonderful instrument will 
save many hours of tedious laboratory 
routine which could be used to far 


NATURAL HISTORY 


greater advantage in original research. 
On the other hand, cinematography 
will widen the teaching power of any 
single experiment or demonstration, 
and become the greatest of all teach- 
ers. 

When an experiment is well executed 
and recorded on the film, and then 
shown to a large audience of students, 
each individual can follow it precisely 
and in all its details. By varying the 
rapidity of the exposure the cinemato- 
graph can quicken or retard the move- 
ments. As is easily understood, this 
possibility offers great advantage for 
demonstration. 

Each film becomes a document repre- 
senting a scientific truth, and from this 
record any number of copies can be 
reproduced for the different schools 
and colleges of the country. The dem- 
onstration by cinematograph possesses 
certain marked advantages over the 
laboratory experiment: it reaches si- 
multaneously and equally a greater 
number of spectators; it enables the 
teacher to demonstrate an important 
fact leisurely and repeatedly; it per- 
mits the student to interrogate and 
thus accurately crystallize his deduc- 
tions from the experiment. 

A cinematographic apparatus for 
taking and exhibiting scientific motion 
pictures has been installed by the Fac- 
ulties of Medicine in Paris, Lyons, 
Bordeaux, at the Pasteur Institute in 
Paris and Lille, and even in certain 
museums. Records of the many sur- 
gical techniques and biological proc- 
esses necessitated by the great war have 
in this way not only been visually 
preserved but have also been actually 
used for disseminating the knowledge 
gained. 

But the auditorium and the class 
room should not be the only places in 
which to exhibit scientific motion pic- 
tures; a corporation should be estab- 
lished through whose agency certain 
scientific subjects could be exhibited to 
the public. Every day there are hap- 


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444 


penings of interest and importance in 
the scientific world of which the people 
at large have only a hazy understand- 
ing. Scientists make discoveries which 
illumine the dark phenomena of ordi- 
nary life; inventors create new wonders 
for the benefit of mankind—but about 
all these things the people for whose 
benefit the creative mind of the sci- 
entist really works, know little or noth- 
ing. Many of these subjects could be 
rearranged so that they would be en- 
tertaining and at the same time would 
give the public the kind of picture 
which is instructive, which demon- 
strates vital factors in life. 


Films Showing Circulation of Blood 
in the Chick Embryo 


My interest in this work has arisen 
through laboratory researches on living 
tissue in the department of physiology 
at the American Museum of Natural 
History. In collaboration with Mr. 
Alessandro Fabbri, research associate 
in physiology in the American Mu- 
seum, who is much interested in biolog- 
ical cinematography, there has been 
prepared a microscopical film 1200 feet 
long, on the physiology of the heart 
and the circulation of the blood in the 
chick embryo. This work was done in 
the private laboratory of Mr. Fabbri,— 
a laboratory completely equipped with 
all facilities for the highest grade of 
cinematography. 

The physiology of the heart and the 
circulation of the blood have attracted 
the attention of investigators from 
very early times. Far back in 1616 
scientists studied them. William Har- 
vey was the first to grasp the fact that 
the heart acted as a force pump to 
drive the blood in a circle through the 
blood vessels and back. Since the time 
of Harvey, however, physiological tech- 
nique has been remarkably improved. 
Many methods have been discovered to 
demonstrate the general function of 
the heart and vascular system. But not 
until cinema-microscopy attracted the 


NATURAL HISTORY 


attention of modern physiologists, has 
it been possible publicly to demonstrate 
the finer details of this phenomenon. 

In the film which has been made, the 
first scene demonstrates the necessity 
of carefully marking on the shell of 
the egg the date and hour when it is 
placed in the laboratory incubator, in 
order to obtain an embryo of known 
age. A constant temperature of 103 
degrees Fahrenheit is maintained. 

The second illustrates how, after 
forty-eight. hours, the egg is removed 
from the incubator and, after being 
carefully opened, is placed in a glass 
dish, embryo and vascular area upper- 
most. The vascular area, with its em- 
bryo, is now dissected from the yolk 
and transferred to a large culture 
chamber, which is sealed with a cover 
glass by means of hot paraffin and 
placed under the  micro-cinemato- 
graphic apparatus. 

We see the entire lving embryo, 
forty-eight hours old, demonstrating 
the circulation in the vascular area. 
The circulatory system of the young 
chick consists of branching tubes, the 
arteries coming from the heart, which 
is now outside of the body. Dividing 
into a fine network of capillaries in the 
vascular area, these vessels reunite into 
a large vein which carries the blood 
back to the heart at the opposite side. 

The picture shows the heart as a 
muscular organ which rhythmically 
contracts, decreasing its volume, and 
thereby driving out the blood which 
has flowed into it during the period of 
relaxation. In mammals and_ birds 
there are two separate circulations; the 
two pumps are combined side by side, 
the right auricle and ventricle form 
one pump, while the left auricle and 
ventricle form the other. 

The subject of the fourth scene is 
the heart of a living embryo thirty- 
three hours old, showing its first rhyth- 
mical activity and the course of the 
blood in the transparent heart cavity 
during contraction. 


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446 


The next picture shows us a heart of 
a living embryo thirty-six hours old, 
with body still transparent enough to 
demonstrate the action of the heart 
valves. In the following picture we see 
an embryo magnified 150 times, and 
we observe the circulation of the blood 
in the right and left mesenteric artery 


and the contraction of its walls. Next 
the vascular area is seen in detail 


where the blood vessels, as they become 
farther removed from the embryo, di- 
vide into smaller branches, and there is 
evidence that an increased internal 
friction results which causes consider- 
able resistance to the flow of the blood. 
A high pressure is therefore required 
in the main arteries to drive the blood 
through the small vessels. Next we see 
the mesenteric artery demonstrating 
the arterial flow of blood; we follow 
the blood vessel until it divides into 
several branches, which in turn are 
often connected by anastomosis; then 
the arterioles in fore- and mid-brain 
and the capillaries in the hind-brain; 
then we see the capillaries of the poste- 
rior vitelline area, the posterior car- 
dinal vein, the capillaries of the anterior 
vitelline vein, all leading back to the 
mesenteric venous system and reaching 
the embryo again at the right mesen- 
teric vein, where the even flow of 
venous blood is nicely demonstrated. 
Another film has also been con- 
structed in collaboration with Mr. 
Fabbri, emphasizing the behavior of 
transplanted heart muscle. Many ex- 
periments have been made in trans- 
planting heart muscles into a tissue 
culture to determine the conditions 
which will prolong their life and func- 
tion. The heart of a chick embryo will 
beat rhythmically from six to ten days 
after having been removed from the 


animal and transplanted in blood 
plasma. But if tissues are retrans- 


planted from time to time into a fresh 
culture, it is known that the muscles 
will live for more than sixty days. 

In order to obtain such cultures for 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the motion picture the heart of an em- 
bryo is dissected into small pieces about 
the size of the head of a pin, and each 
piece transferred to a cover glass and 
quickly imbedded in a drop of blood 
plasma. The cover glass is then in- 
verted over a hollow ground slide and 
sealed with hot paraffin to prevent dry- 
ing; the prepared slide is then rein- 
cubated. 

In the picture we see the trans- 
planted heart of an embryo eight days 
old, which is still beating rhythmi- 
eally after six days of transplantation ; 
also a section. of heart muscle fifty 
times magnified showing its rhythmi- 
cal activity ten days after transplan- 
tation. 

Scientific authorities agree that one 
of the most valuable possibilities of 
such films lies in the fact that they 
bring within the comprehension of the 
student mind a wide range of informa- 
tion, thereby encouraging -reflection, 
original thought, and research. 

The cinematographic apparatus used 
for the production of these films is a 
special and rigid table, and a Debri 
camera. The source of ight should be 
automatic, as it otherwise would be dif- 
ficult to keep a subject properly illumi- 
nated for a certain length of time. The 
condenser and cooling trough are at- 
tached in front of the arc, between the 
microscope and the light. The ver- 
tically arranged camera has attached 
to it a handle by which it can also be 
swung in a horizontal position when 
detached from the microscope. This 
camera is provided with a direct focus 
tube through which the image on the 
film can be watched during exposure. 
This arrangement is of extraordinary 
importance, because it is absolutely 
necessary to watch the lving subject 
while under the camera in order to 
obtain the best pictures. The mech- 
anism for moving the film is worked 
by a small electric motor which is con- 
nected by pulleys and a leather belt to 
the shaft of the camera. The micro- 


CINEMA-MICROSCOPY 


scope used is a Zeiss No. 1. This in- 
strument is of excellent construction 
and is supplied with an Abbé con- 
denser, a dark-field illuminator, and a 
special rotating and centering me- 
chanical stage with very slow move- 
ments for micro-cinematography ; but 
the ordinary stage is preferable for 
most of the work. Here the vertical 
movement is built into the stage and 
the bar carrying the lateral movement 
is removable. The substage is focused 
by rack and pinion, but does not carry 
centering screw. The Berger fine ad- 
justment is a very practical arrange- 
ment fitted with lateral milled heads. 
The body tube is 50 mm. wide. The 
diameter of the body tube is quite im- 
portant for cinematographic purposes, 
for in working without eyepiece it gov- 
erns the area of the projected disk 
and, within the covering power of the 
objective, the size of the specimen that 
is to be photographed. The ordinary 
microscopes generally carry a tube 37 
mm. in diameter, but for the reasons 
just mentioned, a 50 mm. tube is much 
to be preferred. To utilize the wide 
tube to full advantage arrangements 
must be made for the removal of the 


> 


447 


draw tube. The interior of the tubes 
must be dead black, so as not to cause 
reflections. 

The difficult problem in 
cinema-microscopy is the illumination. 
Sunlight would be ideal for the pur- 
pose, but because of the uncertainties 
of its availability recourse must be had 
to artificial hghts, of which the electric 
arc lamp is the most useful. 

Arc lamps are made to work with al- 
most any current, direct or alternating, 
from 4 to 60 amperes or upward, giv- 
ing a light that varies correspondingly 
from 300 to 10,000 candle power. The 
most useful lamps for the purpose un- 
der consideration are the smaller types 
taking 10 amperes or less. 

The Bausch and Lomb 10-ampere 
lamp is very well adapted for cinema- 
microscopy. It is a hand-fed are ren- 
dering about 1506 candle power; the 
carbons are regulated by milled heads 
which work very smoothly, and despite 
constant attention necessary to keep 
the are in reliable working condition, 
this lamp has proved perfectly satis- 
factory. The arc is adjustable to dif- 
ferent heights on a suitable pillar, and 
can be tilted if required. 


most 


Microphotograph of a hydroid, Gonothyrwa (enlargement about 100 diameters), showing growth 


in branching colonies, also two kinds of members 


appearance) and reproduction polyps 


of the colony, feeding polyps (flower-like in 


A MASTERPIECE OF ASSYRIAN LOW RELIEF 


This and the examples of Assyrian sculpture following, from copyrighted photographs of the originals 
in the British Museum, are reproduced through the courtesy of 
W. A. Mansell §° Co., of London 


The foundation for low relief was laid from twenty to thirty thousand years or more ago, before historic times, 
in southern France, by the Cré-Magnon race. Their sculptures on the walls of caves, in low or in high relief, 
or in drawings incised or painted, challenge our admiration today by firmness of touch and sureness of 
line, and by what some of us in this twentieth century A.D. should take to heart—the restraint which 

cautions against unnecessary detail. 

Low relief in relation to architecture had its foundation in early historic times as a develop- 
ment in Egyptian art.. Egyptians discovered that conventionalism and simplicity even to the extent 
of stiffness of the lines and figures brought harmony of the sculpture with the building. They, 
however, did not use animal sculpture to a great extent, whereas the Assyrians did; there- 
fore, the direct line of tradition of architectonic principles in animal sculpture comes to 
us by way of the Assyrians—for instance, through the beautiful sculptured friezes of 
Nineveh. The above low relief of the head of a horse is a masterpiece in which ac- 
curacy of drawing is combined with simplicity of modeling 


A group of wild asses from the Palace of Nineveh 


Zoological Sculpture in Relation 
to Architecture 


With especial reference to development from the Cré-Magnons through Eqypt, Assyria, Greece, 
Rome, and France.—Whether in high or low relief or in the round, the posture as well as 
the planes, the lights and the shades, should carry the lines of the architecture.—A vast 


future for modern architecture lies in the lessons of the past on animal sculpture 


By 8S. BRECK PARK 
HE recent discovery of animal 
paintings and sculptures on the 
walls of 


western France and the Pyrenees writes 


the caverns in south- 
the prologue of the history of art and 
at the same time makes an important 
contribution to the science of zodlogy. 

These works of art, executed in the 
Aurignacian and Magdalenian periods, 
that is, about twenty or thirty thousand 
years ago, give striking evidence of the 
high state of intellectual development 
of the Cré-Magnon race to whom their 
creation is attributed. Their value to 
science consists in the truthful and ac- 
curate representation of a great num- 


ber of animals. some of them lone since 


Appointed by Roosevelt when he was President, 
incorporator, vice president, and trustee American 
ston, Architects, New York City. 


feAN TR OOW BRA DG He 
extinct in Europe, such as the mam- 
moth, the horse, the cave bear, the wolf. 
the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and espe- 
cially the bison, whose majestic and im- 
posing form seems particularly to have 
appealed to the fancy of the artists. 
Their artistic qualities challenge un- 
qualified admiration. Paintings, incised 
drawings, sculptures in low or in high 
relief abound, and all are characterized 
by firmness of touch, sureness of line 
and by admirable restraint in the omis- 
sion of unnecessary detail. 


Prehistoric sculpture had for its 
background the bold and rugged rock 
walls of the caverns and shelters. and 
never erred in too great refinement of 
as chairman of the National Council of Fine Arts 
Academy in Rome; member Trowbridge and Living 


$49 


here: 


Spe" 


4 2 


From “Men of the Old Stone Age” through courtesy 
of the Author and Charles Scribner’s Sons 


Part of a frieze of six horses, each horse relief seven feet long, found sculptured in the limestone 
under the sheltering cliff at Cap-Blane (in Dordogne, France). Cré-Magnon artists invented low relief— 
a conventional method of representation of the round in a series of very flat planes by a proportionate re- 
duction of thickness. Their subjects were many European animals now extinct, especial predilection 
being shown for mammoth, bison, reindeer, and wild horse. To view their work today, in comparison 
with modern sculpture, is to recognize the ‘“‘unity of purpose, the sincerity, the restraint, the appreciation 
of plane and shadow combined with truthful and accurate delineation,” which place it not as an effort of 
savages but as a work of true art by a highly developed human race 


From “Men of the Old Stone Age” through courtesy 
of the Author and Charles Scribner's Sons 


From the Cré-Magnon painting of the Celtic horse from the ceiling of Altamira, in northern Spain~ 
This ceiling of ancient paintings, now so famous throughout the world, was discovered in 1879 by the 
little daughter of the Spanish archeologist, Sautuola, who was hunting flints on the cavern floor. The 
paintings are polychromes, ochreous brown in color, the outlines etched in the stone, given strong contour 
lines in black, and often a second series in red. On the Altamira ceiling the paintings are placed in 
groups, often on bosses of the limestone, the Cré-Magnon artist having had sufficient creative genius thus 
to adapt his work to the surface of the rock. (This painting of the Celtic horse may be seen in color as as 
mural in the American Museum and is reproduced in color in the American Museum Journal for De- 
cember, 1912, in connection with articles by Professor H. F. Osborn and Dr. Clark Wissler) 


450 


(Above) The Wounded Lioness from Nineveh —This Assyrian relief is remarkable not only for truthful 


drawing and modeling but for the suppression of every unnecessary detail and the emphasis of every part neces- 


sary to the impression of unbeaten courage which the artist wished to convey 


Below) A beautifully composed group of wild asses from the frieze of Nineveh. Compare the drawing of 


the heads of these animals with the sculptured Cré-Magnon horse on the opposite page 


$51 


CN ere seeneantiAsttharetere: 9'~ 


Nineveh, the groups of which are conspicuous for their excellence in com- 


Part of a frieze in the Palace of 
Their work proves 


Among the Assyrians we find first in historic times animal sculpture as such. 
had love and knowledge of animal life and that they sought to express the characters of the wild 
Assyrian sculptures followed rather closely in artistic quality the cave sculptures of Cro-Magnon man, 
separation in time and the entire lack of knowledge of the early artists 


position. 
that they 
beasts. 

notwithstanding 15,900 or more years’ 


among the Assyrians 


Here at least six planes of surface are expressed 


Another group from the frieze in the Palace of Nineveh. 
in the slight projection. No country has ever equaled Assyria in the amount of animal sculpture used as a 
decorative feature in building, although to the Greeks belongs the credit of bringing such work to its highest 


expression 


— 
= aaa 
a i ew 


Lions from the same Nineveh frieze. The conventional treatment of the mane recalls the cuneiform in 
scriptions. The spirit of conventionalism in Assyrian seulpture connected with architecture passed on as a 


heritage to medizval architecture, but the development there entered the fie!d of human figure representation 


All the figures of this frieze, in their treatment of detail, show ver) stinct architectonic qualities in that 
they harmonize perfectly with their architectural setting 


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HSASNIN WOYS SASSV ATIM SAO dNOUD V 


156 NATURAL HISTORY 


detail. Whether in flat or low relief 
or whether in bold relief, as in the case 
of a frieze of six horses, each seven feet 
long, carved on the wall of the rock 
shelter at Cap-Blanc, on the River 
Beune in Dordogne, these sculptures 
always show the unity of purpose, the 
sincerity, the restraint, the apprecia- 
tion of plane and shadow combined 
with truthful and accurate delineation, 
which characterize all the work of the 
Cr6-Magnon artists and place them not 
among the primitive efforts of savages 
but in the realm of true art. 

It is a far cry from the Magdalenian 
art to that of the present day, but one 
cannot look upon the former without 
feeling that both are inspired by the 
same impulse and that underlying both 
are the same basic principles, so that 
we may justly attribute to the Cro- 
Magnon race the inauguration of the 
great traditions of art which have come 
down to us through the ages. 

After a long gap of approximately 
fifteen thousand years, sterile in art as 
far as our knowledge goes, we come 
into the more familiar ground of his- 
toric times. As the architecture of 
Eeypt developed and finally crystallized 
into a definite style, sculptural decora- 
tion necessarily followed the general 
trend and became highly convention- 
alized. 

In order to produce unity, harmony 
of line, of surface, and of hght and 
shadow in their architecture, Egyptian 
artists discovered that in their sculp- 
ture simplicity of modeling, firmness of 
outline and restfulness, even. stiffness 
of pose, were essential, and to them we 
owe the tradition of those architectonic 
qualities which are so necessary to make 
of sculpture an integral part of a 
building. 

Although there are many very beauti- 
ful examples of animal seulpture in 
Egypt. they are generally found grouped 
with human figures, and are more or 
subordinate or incidental to the 
In Assyria, however, 


less 
scenes presented, 


we find once again after many thou- 
sand years a return to the use of ani- 
mals as the principal motive of wall 
decoration. Like their forerunners of 
Magdalenian times, love and knowledge 
of nature led the Assyrian artists to 
express the emotions and characters of 
the wild beasts. With no possibility of 
any knowledge of even the existence of 
the earlier art and with a separation 
of about fifteen thousand years between 
them, it is interesting to note how 
closely in artistic quality, in the es- 
sence of characterization, the Assyrian 
sculptures resemble the Cro-Magnon. 

The lon hunt from the palace in 
Nineveh is but one of many groups 
adorning the palace walls which dis- 
play not only great artistic quality in 
the individual figures but also a very 
marked ability in composition as well; 
and “the wounded lioness,” one of 
these individual sculptures, is one of 
the most exquisite sculptures in exis- 
tence, in which sincerity and simplicity 
are the salient characteristics and 
which, as an expression of unbroken 
courage and unconquered spirit, is un- 
rivaled. All these animal figures are 
necessarily stylized, or conventionalized 
to the degree necessary to conform to 
the architectural setting, but in artistic 
feeling and in technique, as well as in 
truthful interpretation, they are un- 
surpassed. 

As in Egypt conventionalism made 
possible the depiction of mythological 
forms such as the gryphon and the 
sphinx, so in Assyrian caryatid figures, 
where required for the portals of the 
palace, conventionalism permitted the 
use of the great bulls with human 
heads. In the use of animal sculpture 
as a decorative feature of architecture, 
no country has equaled Assyria. 

“Another recent discovery has added 
one more chapter to the history of art 
and illustrates again the principles laid 
down by our Cro-Magnon forerunners. 
No enumeration of the great animal 
sculptures of the past would be com- 


ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE .457 


plete without at least a mention of the 
sculptured bulls of Crete. 

To find, however, the highest expres- 
sion of architectural animal sculpture 
we must, of turn to 
As the Parthenon has no equal in its 
architectural perfection, so the sculp- 
ture which adorns it is unparalleled in 
its beauty. As we should expect, there 
is a perfect blending of architectural 
and sculptural detail. The frieze de- 
picting the Procession from Eleusis at 
the Panathenaic Festival, with its 
long line of horsemen, is a perfect 
illustration of the application of the 


course, Greece. 


Detail from the Panathenaic Procession of the Parthenon Frieze. 


principle of architectonic sculpture. 
The horses and men are rendered in low 
rehef, vigorous and clean in line and 
contour, simple in modeling, restrained 
in detail, conventional to just the right 
point, and the proportionate relief of 
the different parts is preserved with- 
out confusion or the loss of a necessary 
shadow. 

The posture of figure, par- 
ticularly the horses, though all are 
supposed to be in motion, is at that 
point of momentary rest which indi- 
cates the completion of one movement 


each 


and the beginning of the next. giving 


Among the Greeks, architectonic 


sculpture reached its highest development. The frieze of which this is a small part is perfect in com- 


position, posture, drawing, and modeling, and eight distinct planes are shown without confusion 


458 


the impression of progress to the whole 
procession without violating the canon 
that the medium of sculpture precludes 
the translation of actual movement. 

The later Greek sculpture fell gradu- 
ally into a realism which marked its 
decadence. Rome, however, revived to 
some extent the early Greek spirit and 
produced some notable animal sculp- 
ture. The very beautiful relief which 
adorns the rostra in the Roman Forum, 
as a single example, is sufficient to show 
that the Roman artists were still influ- 
enced by the early Greek spirit, and 
understood the necessity of convention- 
alism in architectural sculpture. 

Medieval architecture, although 
abounding in sculpture, has little to 
offer in the representation of animals 
if we except the grotesques, but in the 
use of the human figure it is unsur- 
passed and teaches a wonderful lesson 
in architectonic ornament. 

Quite different in character but equal 
to the Greek sculpture in its adapta- 
tion to the lines of its architectural 


NATURAL HISTORY 


setting, Gothic figure sculpture; aided 
by the use of lines of draperies, not 
only melts into and blends with the 
mass and the detail of the building, 
but in the cathedrals and churches is 
also the means of proclaiming the 
spiritual and religious feeling of the 
architecture. The very rigidity of 
the figures, carried sometimes even to 
the point of awkwardness, typifies the 
mysticism and religious fervor of the 
Nothing could better illustrate 
the meaning of the “architectonic 
quality” than the portals of the great 
French cathedrals. The pose of the 
figures, the lines of the draperies, the 
quality of the modeling, the introduc- 
tion of the crocket-like figures in the 
arches, all harmonize with and are a 
part of the architecture. 

The saints of the portal of the Ca- 
thedral of Notre Dame in Paris (see 
Frontispiece) when seen apart appear 
erotesque, stiff, and uncouth, but in 
their proper setting, with the straight 
lines carrying up the vertical lines of the 


age. 


Rostra, in the. Forum of Rome—The treatment differs materially from that in the Parthenon 


frieze. 


Harmony with the architecture has been preserved, but a decline in the art of relief is notice- 


able in that there is an attempt to produce the actual roundness of the figures, violating the essential 


principle of low relief 


ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE 459 


architecture, and with the wonderful 
adaptation of planes and angles, they 
are the very acme of architectonic art. 
It is impossible to imagine these fig- 
ures in a Greek temple or the frieze of 
the Parthenon on a Gothic church, yet 
each in its proper place is as near per- 
fection as the art of man has been able 
to attain. In later Gothic times the 
tendency to realism again marked a 
decline and a decadence; as sculpture 
became more perfect in the imitation 
of nature it lost in architectonic quality 
and, as a result, in power of expression. 

The Renaissance, in which one may 
include our own times, has given few 
great examples of animal sculpture as 
applied to architecture. For three hun- 
dred years sculpture has shown a ten- 
dency to fall more and more into 
realism with a resultant loss of archi- 
tectural value. The history of art has 
been marked both in painting and 
sculpture by a succession of alternate 
waves of simplicity and complicated 
realism. We seem now to be coming 
to the end of a phase of the latter and 
there are unmistakable signs of a reac- 
tion. 

A number of schools of various de- 
grees of extravagance have appeared, 
the eubists and the modernists, but in 
passing they have rendered an un- 
doubted service. They have at least 
notified the world that art is not photo- 
graphic imitation, and they have 
broken the spell which seems to have 
bound us for nearly three centuries— 
but they, like children groping in the 
dark, have not found the way. Whether 
through deficient education or through 
lack of reasoning power, they have 
tried to persuade the world that artis- 
tie expression can be reached without 
work, that accuracy and skill in de- 
lineation are unnecessary or harmful ; 
whereas the exact contrary is true. 

The whole experience of mankind, 
the whole history of art from the Cré- 
Magnons to this day, teaches that there 
is no short cut, that there is no easiest 


way. Work, hard work, through years 
of incessant effort, is necessary to pro- 
duce the qualities which enable men to 
great and noble thoughts 
through the medium of dead immut- 
able materials. 

The error into which we have fallen 
and that into which the modern schools 
would lead us are the same. Inbothcases: 
it is due to the neglect of the great 
tradition which has come down to us in 
an unbroken line from the Cré6-Magnons, 
through Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, 
and France, that, in the art of sculp- 
ture, as in all art, there must be sin- 
cerity and truth, accuracy in delinea- 
tion and fidelity in modeling, and the 
suppression of every detail unnecessary 
to expression. The quality of beauty, 
which is the very essence of art, imples 
that the subject should always appeal 
to the higher and not to the baser 
emotions. 

Where sculpture, whether of men or 
animals, is used in architecture, the 
treatment should be architectonic in 
order that it may be an integral part 
of the building. Whether in high or 
low relief or in the round, the posture 
as well as the planes, the lights and the 
shades, should carry the lines of the 
architecture. These are the lessons of 
the past. The ability to carry them 
out depends. upon great technical skill, 
which can be reached only by infinite 
pains and a lifetime of labor and study. 

Advocates of new styles in architec- 
ture who are constantly crying for new 
motives might do well to consider the 
possibilities of animal sculpture. There 
is a peculiar charm, an appealing 
pathos, in the expression of human 
emotions through the medium of the 
dumb animals, and by an_ endless 
variety of forms nature has provided 
a fertile field for the imagination. As 
far back as the Old Stone Age art 
sought its inspiration in the forests and 
plains and left traditions of interpre- 
tation which experience has shown 
cannot be “neglected with impunity. 


express 


ON VIEW AT THE FIRST EXHIBITION OF ANIMAL PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN THIS COUNTRY 


This bronze, the black rhinoceros with tick birds on its back, was modeled by James L. Clark in 1914 shortly after 
his return from a trip with A. Radclyffe Dugmore to Africa, where they followed the big game over the African 
plains and obtained a famous collection of photographs. Mr. Clark has studied his animals in the field at close range 
and is interested in them as individuals. He shows in the arrangement of his subjects a familiarity with their inner 
psychology as well as with their external anatomy. The love of the animal for its own sake marks the true animal 
painter or sculptor. This rhinoceros bronze (which stands about two feet high) takes on additional interest because it 
is a duplicate of one which formed the centerpiece on the library table of the late Colonel Roosevelt's trophy room. 
at Oyster Bay 


460 


By Grace Mott Johnson 


Wild Life in Art 


WORK OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ARTISTS IN SCULPTURE, PAINT- 
ING, AND BLACK AND WHITE, DEALING WITH ANIMAL LIFE 


Bys@H A hiihsS &. K NIGH T 


Illustrations from the work of Carl Rungius, James L. Clark, Charles 
Livingston Bull, Carl E. Akeley, and others! ; 


O the Brooklyn Museum belongs the 
credit of holding what is probably 
the first exhibition of animal paint- 


and therefore regarded by artists and lay- 
men as a true art expression along the lines 
selected by the sculptors and painters who 


By this The purpose of those who 


I mean an exhibit shown in a picture gallery 


took part in it. 
had the exhibition in charge was to include 


ing and sculpture in this country. 


Nore.—That our country is young and has, to date, been developing commercially rather than in the 
arts is evidenced in the lack of local encouragement of art. We have great centers like New York City 
where the painter or sculptor is recognized, finds some small chance for study, inspiration from the atti- 
tude of the people to do the best that is in him, and also the very necessary commercial market for his 
canvases or bronzes. But there is an emphatically disadvantageous situation in this country as a whole 
for the artist—perhaps particularly for the animal artist. 

A young artist in America has to go to a great art center like New York to sell his work. His towns- 
people in the West, or the South, or the North, would seldom think of buying it, or even of holding him 
in the high esteem his work deserves. As a people we are not yet educated to it. The only art seen in 
many places is by means of the circuit system of sending pictures from city to city, and these of course 
do not reach the small towns. 


Even in New York an artist must hire a place himself if he wishes his work exhibited. The American 


* For examples of the animal sculptures of A. Phimister Proctor the reader is referred to pp. 470—476 
of this magazine; for further illustrations of the work of Carl E. Akeley, to the AMERICAN MusruM 
JOURNAL for April, 1913, ‘pp. 172—178, and May, 1914, pp. 175-187; for that of Louis Agassiz Fuertes 
to the JouRNAL for May, 1915, pp. 220-224; and the work of Charles R. Knight is illustrated in the 
JOURNAL for March, 1914, pp. 82-98. We regret that we have not been able to give a reproduction of 
- Bruce Horsfall’s “California Condor’ or other of his notable canvases 


Her ele- 
phants are studio models rather than wild life, but modeled with a suggestion of movement and force. 


Miss Grace Mott Johnson approaches the study of large game animals purely as a sculptor. 


She follows an interesting insistence on the planes of the muscular surfaces 


461 


462 


works having both decorative and realistic 
character, with the result that many dif- 
ferent styles of design were presented at the 
This seems to me a very excel- 
being that the 


same time. 
lent idea, my only regret 
necessarily limited space forbade the assem- 
bling of a still larger and more comprehen- 
sive exhibit. It was with much pleasure, 
therefore, that I was privileged to spend 
several hours wandering about the alcoves 
set apart for the purpose. 

On first entering the main hall a bronze 
statuette of a rhinoceros caught my eye. 
This is the work of James L. Clark, at one 
time connected with the American Museum 
of Natural History. Mr. Clark made this 


NATURAL HISTORY 


model, which represents a black rhinoceros 
with several small tick birds on its back, 
shortly after his return from a collecting 
trip in Africa in 1913. The character of 
the great beast is very well expressed and 
one is impressed by the fact that Mr. Clark 
loves animals for their own sake and strives 
to depict not merely their outer form, but 
their inner psychology as well. This is a 
most important point and always marks the 
true animal painter or sculptor as the case 
may be. Miss Grace Johnson, on the other 
hand, to judge by her models such as those 
of elephants and lions has evidently studied 
modeling in the schools, as her work shows 
an insistence on the planes of the muscular 


art museum seldom holds an exhibition of the work of American artists, except perhaps of such men as 
Whistler and Sargent. It buys mostly foreign pictures or bronzes, yet—and here is the crux of the whole 
matter of comparison of conditions in America and Europe—not many European paintings or bronzes 
and never any European wild life art is seen for sale in America, because if there is any cleverness in 
that kind of work in Europe, it is kept in the particular home town of the artist as a special possession. 
In Europe artists do not have to flock to the great centers to find encouragement or market for their 


work. 


In France and various other European countries there are many art galleries scattered in many 


towns, and there is a well developed general appreciation of art by the people. 
It will take time to educate ourselves to a similar spirit in Americ2, but this is what we must accom- 


plish if art in America is to become at all comparable with art in Europe. 


Can we doubt that obligation 


—responsibility for the result—rests upon the great centers, especially upon New York?—C. R. KNIGHT. 


The famous bronze, ‘The Wounded Comrade,” represents two elephants assisting a wounded bull to 


a place of safety. 


its sympathetic treatment make a strong emotional appeal. 


It is perhaps Mr. Carl E. Akeley’s best known group. 


The subject of the bronze and 
Mr. Akeley, noted as a hunter of African 


elephants, has studied intimately the animals he portrays, and he gives to his sculptures the true form 


and character of wilderness life, which animals living in captivity do not possess. 


(An illustrated de- 


scription of the clay model of ‘‘The Wounded Comrade’’ appeared in the JOURNAL for April, 1913) 


“Children of the Sage,’’ a canvas showing the pronghorn antelopes in their wilderness home, by Carl 


Rungius. 


The artist is a hunter and traveler who has lived much among the western game, painting 
the animals as he found them in their natural surroundings. 


This picture sets forth well the life of 


the pronghorn antelope, one of our most graceful ruminants and once the commonest large animal of the 


Plains. 
York Zodlogical Society. 


Mr. Rungius has been making a large series of paintings of western big game for the New 
All of these are from sketches and observations in the field and are valuable 


records of our disappearing North American wild life 


surfaces,—a good point, but one which may 
easily be carried too far. She is vastly more 
interested in this study than in the real char- 
acter of the animal and I therefore mention 
her work in this connection as diametrically 
opposite that of Mr. Clark. She has an ex- 
cellent eye for general proportion and a 
certain suggestion of movement in her work, 
yet I feel that she approaches the subject 
purely as a sculptor and not as a lover of 
animal life. 

Two points of view apparently prevail in 
any collection of paintings or sculpture con- 
nected with this subject: one which deals 
with the animal as a living creature and 
gives a portrayal of its exact character as 
is done in a portrait, the other merely re- 
garding the animal as a piece of color or 
pattern and treating it accordingly. Both 
seem logical and I suppose are really cor- 
related, as in most other fields of artistic 
endeavor. 

Mr. Moorepark’s interesting compositions 
in pastel, for example, show a love of color 
and decorative line, but the birds themselves 
are often quite lacking in construction and 
the finer drawing which should accompany 


every serious attempt in art. The condor in 


one of these panels is absolutely grotesque 
in its proportions, with its huge head and 
puny body. I fear that work of this sort 
rather takes for granted the general public’s 
lack of knowledge on the subject and for 
this reason, if for no other, the practice is 
a bad one. Mr. Moorepark evidently has 
very little interest in his subjects as living 
entities, which is to be deplored, as no one 
who regards them merely as spots of color 
can grasp the full beauty of the living 
They are so fine, so graceful, and 
withal so vigorous in line and construction 
that it seems a pity not to do them full jus- 
tice. 


creatures. 


Mr. Benson’s studies of wild ducks and 
geese represent the work of an artist who, 
if I am not mistaken, began life as a figure 
painter. They show what one would expect, 
a knowledge of composition and values es- 
sential in the work of a serious painter. I 
understand that Mr. Benson has had great 
success with these pictures, yet they are 
sometimes trivial in handling and not well 
enough drawn to be convincing. One panel, 
for example, presents a flight of swans or 
geese, but the individuals in the group are 
so carelessly drawn that their real identity 


463 


“The Mountaineers,” 


Copyright by Carl Rungius 


an oil painting of bighorn sheep, by Carl Rungius, portrays magnificent speci- 
mens of an animal in many ways the most picturesque of the Rocky Mountain fauna. 


Mountain sheep 


are now so nearly extinct that to attain his sketch Mr. Rungius must have spent many difficult weeks 


or months among the wilds of the Rockies. 
York Zoological Society 


is rather a mystery. 
and in no way adds to the artistie effect. 
In other pictures the character of the birds 
is most accurately indicated and one gets an 
impression of life and atmosphere which is 
Taken as a whole, the work 
is interesting and a departure from the more 
As a 


This seems unnecessary 


very charming. 


hackneyed paintings of game birds. 
complete contrast with the above, one may 
mention a drawing of a partridge done by 
Gerald G. Thayer. This is an elaborately 
painted work illustrating the value of pro- 
tective coloration in birds of this species. 
The picture is unique in its way, as the 
values of the bird against its background 
have been most painstakingly indicated, with 
the result that the creature is almost invis- 
ible at first sight, so closely does it merge 
into its surroundings. It was painted under 
the personal guidance of the artist’s father, 
Abbott H. Thayer, and exemplifies many of 
the points so carefully brought out by the 
celebrated painter in regard to what we now 
call “camouflage,” or the science of con- 
cealing an object by means of masses of 
color artfully distributed over its surface. 


464 


This canvas is one of the series belonging to the New 


The picture was loaned by the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, and will repay careful 
study on the part of the observer. 

Carl Rungius, rather meagerly represented 
in this exhibit by his bighorn picture and 
studies of pronghorn antelope, is a hunter of 
big game—a man who has lived for months 
in the mountains of the great West, shooting 
and painting during a considerable part of 
each year. All his studies are made in the 
field, and the animals he depicts are rarely 
seen in our zodlogical parks where they are 
represented at best by a few sickly individ- 
uals not at all comparable with the mag- 
nificent creatures so ably portrayed by the 
artist. Mr. Rungius has endured hunger 
and privation in his search for the various 
species of big game, and he has been work- 
ing for some years on a series of pictures 
for the New York Zoological Society. These 
pictures, which include the moose, elk, cari- 
bou, antelope, and musk ox, have all been 
painted in the true environment from 
sketches made on the spot, and should prove 
a valuable record of our rapidly vanishing 
big game animals. 


WILD LIFE IN ART LO 


ratively or realistically, but I can detect no 


In the work of the artists already referred 
such intention on the part of Mr. Nadelman. 


to, a more or less serious attempt has been 
in the examples of his work 


definite and withal 


Rather do I se 
a trifling with all that 


made to portray some 
makes for good art 


beautiful phase of animal life either deco- 


A VALUABLE PERMANENT RECORD OF ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS 
OF AFRICAN BIG GAME 


This study in bronze (about two feet high) of the African buffalo, by James L. Clark, is an excellent 
example not only of fine modeling but also of natural pose and expression It is a duplicate of the 
bronze presented by the members of the African Big Game Club of America to the Nairobi Club, in 

Selous, the “Great Hunter, True Sportsman, and Gallant Sol 
One of the most adventuresome 
lost his life 


memory of the late frederick Courtenay 
1917 


who was killed in action in German East Africa, January 
he liked best to tell was the oct 


dier 
of Selous’ experiences and the story ision when he nearly 
before a charging African buffalo 


466 


and a generally misdirected energy. The 
irritating part of it all is that Mr. Nadel- 
man knows better and he presumes upon our 
good nature when he presents to us as works 
of art the distorted lumps of bronze which 
When 
work of this sort is excavated from some 


he is pleased to call animal sculpture. 


prehistoric grave we are lenient in our judg- 
ment of it, but there can be no excuse for 
such monstrosities in our day and time. 

As a relief from work of this character, 
let us turn to that of a sincere student and 
lover of animals, Mr. Carl EH. Akeley. As 
a hunter, taxidermist, and inventor, Mr. 
Akeley is well known. He has collected for 
many years in Africa and his groups of 
mounted animals in the Field Museum of 
Natural History, 
deserve all the praise accorded to them, As 


Chicago, and elsewhere 
a sculptor Mr. Akeley is best known by his 
group “The Wounded Comrade,” which shows 
a wounded bull elephant being assisted to a 
place of safety by two companions. The 
work makes a strong human appeal and the 
“The Elephant Herd 
Charging” while less dramatic gives one a 


sentiment is excellent. 


good idea of a herd of swiftly moving 
Mr. Akeley is a close student, 
a keen observer, and above all a serious- 


pachyderms. 


minded man who believes in trying to pre- 
sent (as does Mr. Rungius) the actual form 
and seen at 
their best in captivity. 

Mr. Charles L. Bull, whose numerous illus- 
trations are well known to readers of our 


character of animals seldom 


current magazines, is a firm believer in the 
decorative qualities of animal form and 
color, 
that of the Japanese is nevertheless original 


in conception and treatment. 


His work while based primarily upon 


Composition 
is perhaps Mr. Bull’s strongest point, al- 
though he shows a fine feeling for color in 
many of his pictures. His work includes a 
wide range of subjects but the treatment is 
substantially the same in all. He affects a 
flat delineation of surfaces which grows 
rather monotonous at times, although the 
lack of roundness in his animal forms is not 
evident to most people. He shows excellent 
taste in his arrangements of light and dark 
surfaces and altogether his work occupies a 
rather unique place in the field of animal 
art. If one might criticise work of this 
sort, I should say that the constant reitera- 
tion of a certain scheme of treatment grows 
rather tiresome no matter how pleasing it 


NATURAL HISTORY 


may be, and makes one long for some totally 
different conception of the subject at hand. 

In the work of Bruce Horsfall we find a 
decided contrast to the flat decorative panels 
so characteristic of Mr. Bull’s method, and 
a return to the strictly realistic point of 
view. Mr. Horsfall is a trained and com- 
petent painter who, while not primarily a 
lover of animal life, is nevertheless capable 
of conveying to our minds some very pleas- 
ing impressions of animal nature. His 
“California Condor” is a scholarly piece of 
work, well painted, well drawn, and withal 
It depicts the great 
ungainly bird standing on a rocky ledge, 


excellent in character. 


with outstretched wings poised for flight. 
The sunlight strikes sharply on the gro- 
tesquely wrinkled head and neck, and casts a 
strong shadow upon the glaring yellow cliff 
in the background. The picture is interest- 
ing and convincing, and illustrates what can 
be done in the portrayal of a wild creature 
by a skillful and observing man. 

It was with great regret that I learned 
of the untimely death of Mr. Rembrandt 
Bugatti, shortly after the completion of the 
“Giraffe,” a bronze model loaned to the 
Brooklyn exhibition by Mrs. H. P. Whitney. 
Just how much this talented young man knew 
or cared about animals I cannot say, but the 
bronze is certainly the work of a clever 
sculptor and one who, had he lived, might 
have made a name for himself along these 
lines. The ungainly body and long awk- 
ward legs of the giraffe are nicely indicated, 
and the modeling itself is thoroughly well 
done. 

Miss Anna Hyatt is represented by sev- 
eral minor pieces which show, nevertheless, 
her ability to catch and preserve a difficult 


pose. Her “Jaguar Tearing a Piece of 
Meat” is well composed and the main action 
good, but the muscular anatomy of the 


shoulders is not well understood and the 
statuette loses something thereby. It is 
difficult in such a small exhibit to represent 
adequately the work of any one artist and I 
very much regret that Miss Hyatt could not 
have shown at least a small study of her 
“Joan of Are,” the bronze original of which 
now occupies a splendid site on Riverside 
Drive, New York City. 
tainly Miss Hyatt’s supreme effort thus far, 
and to my mind the best equestrian statue 
in this country. The sculptor’s love of 
horses has stood her in good stead in this 


This is most cer- 


x TEE CHARLES LIVINGSTON @Ube, 


“ PEACOCK AND PANTHER’’—STUDY IN ) ANIMA FORM AND COLOR 


The work of Charles Livingston Bull. well known to the public. alwavs shows origina lity of conception although 
often related in treatment to Japanese art His work covers a very wide range of sae jects and is the exponent of 
his profound belief in the decorative qualities of animal form and color His canvases are recommended to those 
who wish to analyze fine composition in animal painting and to develop appreciation of fine feeling for color 


167 


468 


Miss Eugénie F. Shonnard at work on the excellent model of Dinah, 
a young gorilla lately on view at Bronx Park 


instance and the of the Maid of 


Orleans is both graceful and statuesque in 


figure 


pose. 

Z. H. Pritchard strikes a new note in his 
paintings of fishes made on the Tahiti reefs. 
The artist took no end of trouble to obtain 
these pictures, actually going below the sur- 
The 
results are interesting, yet one feels that Mr. 


face of the water to observe his effects. 


Pritchard could have done much more from 
the art standpoint with his subjects had he 
been so inclined. The color is interesting 
but not very convincing as a suggestion of 
a watery medium. 

A. P. Proctor, long and favorably known 
as an animal sculptor, shows several small 
works which are mostly studies for his large 
“Buffalo Bull” is the scale 
model for the heroic statue recently set up 


bronzes. His 


on one of the new bridges in Washington, 
D. C., while his “Princeton Tiger” is also a 


NATURAL HISTORY 


carefully wrought statu- 
ette, 
one of the buildings at 
Princeton, New 
Like all of Mr. Proctor’s 
work, great care has been 


later enlarged for 


Jersey. 


taken with the superficial 
finish of the pieces but 
as a work of art I much 
prefer the buffalo to tne 
great feline, the former 
being much better under- 
stood in every way. lew 
men are able to grasp the 
salient characters of all 


types of animals with 
equal facility, and I feel 
that Mr. Proctor’s feline 
lack- 


ing in this regard. His 


types are rather 
standing “Puma” for ex- 
ample (made some years 
ago) is decidedly off an- 
atomically, and certainly 
does not give one the im- 
pression of a great cat 
standing in an attitude 
of attention. 
ever, much more happy 


He is, how- 


in his delineation of the 


horse, and his “Indian 


and Horse,’  unfortu- 
nately not shown here, is 
a most excellent piece of 
work. A number of the 
animals and birds decorating the buildings 
in the New York Zodlogical Park are the 
work of Mr. 


many other large and successful commissions 


Proctor, and he has exeeuted 


throughout the country. 

Mr. Julius Rolshoven contributes a large 
and ambitious panel in pastel and tempera— 
“Sun Arrow,” 
The subject of the panel is an Indian chief 


and several smaller studies. 


mounted on a most extraordinary looking 
horse, which at first sight seems to have 
stepped from the canvas of some old Dutch 
painter. The anachronism leaves a bad im- 
pression on the mind of the spectator and 
discloses a lack of close study on the part 
of the artist. Surely no Indian brave ever 
rode such a horse as this, and where Mr. 
Rolshoven found him, I can’t imagine. 
With all its brilliant color and flashy tech- 
nique the picture leaves one cold and un- 


impressed. The smaller studies of Indians, 


however, are very charming in color and 
decidedly interesting. 

The small models of birds by Miss Shon 
nard are very well done and have a certau 
style and statuesque quality about them 
most pleasa &t to see. An excellent bust of 
Dinah (the young gorilla lately on view in 


Bronx Park s unfortunately not show 


Ws exnil 

Eli Harvev has one large and several 
sma pieces | exhibition. They are all 
characterized by this serious sculptor’s usual 
attention to detail and his “Lioness and 
Cubs” shows very good character inde 


The large roaring lion ““Menelik” is exeel 


lent as to attitude but the hind quarters 


seem small and weak for the general physique 
ot the grea Heast. 
Paul Herzel also shows a number of small 
odels of feline S \ lioness and eubs 


vy this voung utist s Kes me is beige 
particula or compositio! ind att 
tude, but I] innot say as much for tl 
tiger 11 pvthor moce evi though tl 
latter did get a e in a school exhibitio1 
The action in this group while very violent 
s decidedly false and unpleasant in concep 
ion, and the work 1s a VoO0d exan ple ol 
what not to do in an effort to obtain a 


dramatic effect. No tiger, I am convineed, 
would or could assume the attitude shown in 
this group and the pose of the snake is 
equally poor. It seems to the writer that all 
such attempts at super-action are distinctly 
bad art and should be condemned as such. 
Barye, the celebrated French sculptor, loved 


action for its own sake, but he never made 


the mustake o ove iolIng ne movement ol 
his i mais i | theretore t} results are 
ilwavs 11 S o and artist Vir. Herzel 
Vil S I t! ture stick more 
closely to actualities in his work and direct 
his undoubted ability into more realistic and 


beautitul channels. 

The very charming little models by Mr. 
Roth are full of life and action. Mr. Rock 
well’s fountain and rhino group ve 


dence ot thoughtful care and study, while 


Miss Crittenden’s little pastels are charn 
color. Unfortunately, Mr. Chandler’s 
screens had been removed before my vis 
it I fee sure that their brilliant olo 
ancitul arrangements of fishes 
and birds are very interesting. 


he exhibition as a whole is a convinei 


istratiol t the fact that at last the hide 


types of Ww 

the reproat 
ine works 

ite as well the 
us by the 
gardens in 
serious stu 
lerive so m 


wi n 
1 the 
{ 

( 
abo 
as 
Ht 
nh al 


ot 


art. Let 


humerous mu 


us le 


‘ums 


lar e 


and he 


xhibit 


6 
t10 

10 
nee 
ions 


s throughout 


arn 


ana 


trom 


Oa I 
re 1n 
ed To 
hat 
rust 
the 


) apprecl 


great opportunities ofttered to 


sho 
ooloomlcal 


which 


art 


the 


MAJESTY OF THE POWER OF BRAIN AND BRAWN EVOLVED IN WILD ANIMALS 


‘he United States shows its youthfulness in the lack of art works in the cities and towns, and is likely in the coming dec- 
ade to reveal the advancing years of its civilization by a great development in communal art and architecture. Much 
of this is certain to be carried out in a record of wild animal life. No nation more than the American people has shown 
fine sentiment toward the preservation of wild birds and animals, but with all this the big game is rapidly becoming 
extinct. Zodlogical statuary of the highest order will not only set up before us the greatest beauty and power, out- 
side of man, that the earth has evolved, but also will preserve in imperishable stone and metal great races which 
are vanishing from the ranks of life. The giant Bengal tigers by the sculptor, A. Phimister Proctor, which 
mark the termination of the Sixteenth Street Bridge, crossing Piney Branch, Washington, are examples of 
the best animal sculpture to be found in our national capital. Washington was laid.out on a predeter- 
mined plan and therefore possesses generous opportunities for the use of municipal statuary. Such 
statues as have been erected, however, are largely war memorials, with few zodlogical subjects, al- 
though a number of lions and more or less conventionalized eagles embellish or disfigure certain 
public monuments. We value highly as subjects for our statues the Old World species—tigers, 
lions, elephants—for are not these the forms we know from our ancestry, from our literature 
and traditions? But notwithstanding this cosmopolitan interest, as Americans we should 
like to see immortalized our native American fauna, in connection with which the pio- 
neer history of the United States has developed 


:7 0 


Zoological Statuary at the National Capital 


By 2s iW. 


No edt i O09) ck) ial BS) D db 


Fellow American Ornithologists’ Union, honorary member Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union, 
member Zoological Society of London, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 3 
and many other scientific societies of Europe and America 


N all modern cities of the civilized nations 

of the ‘world we find in parks, public 

places, and buildings, statues which, in 
the main, are devoted to distinguished per- 
sonages of one nation or another, to alle- 
gorical subjects, and to general designs, 
usually exemplifying the stage of develop- 
ment attained in that branch of the fine arts 
at the time of their erection; or else the 
statues are the materialization of the con- 
ceptions of some of the noted sculptors of 
the period. Often these statues are of great 
merit, lending a peculiar dignity to the city 
and to a degree tending to exert, through 
their presence, an elevating and refining in- 
fluence upon the minds of the members of 
the community. 

I have turned my attention recently to a 
special department of this particular activ- 
ity, with the view of making a study of the 
merits of such statues in Washington as are 
purely of a zodlogical type in design, and of 
those in which animals have been employed 
in allegorical pieces or groups.1 

It is surprising how very few 
statues we find in the city of Washington. 
It is the more to be wondered at because no 
other city in the world today lends itself 
better to the exhibition of this branch of 
art. Washington’s streets and avenues are, 
in the main, generously laid out, with great 
width between the broad sidewalks; they are 
abundantly lit at night by electricity and 
are ever tidy in appearance; their numerous 
intersections at common points are often the 
chosen sites for “circles” or parks of various 
dimensions. These are admirable locations 
for statues, pieces, or groups, and are usu- 
ally available for such purposes. Many of 
them have already been utilized in this man- 
ner, and we find, in not a few instances, 
bronze statues of heroes of our Civil War, 
commanders of the Federal troops in that 


animal 


‘In pursuing this study I have been assisted in 
the matter of obtaining data by Col. William W. 
Harts, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, 
in charge of public buildings and grounds at the 
national capital, and by Daniel J. Donovan, sec- 
retary to the Commissioners of the District of Co- 
lumbia, to both of whom it affords me pleasure to 
extend my thanks. 


With 
has nothing to do; nor is it my purpose 


conflict. these the present article 
to take into consideration those groups in 
Although they 


are, in a way, zoological, they are not of 


which horses form a part. 


the ferine class which I have in mind for 
treatment. 

Taking animals in natural sequence, it 
may be pointed out that fish and reptiles 
but rarely enter into sculpture of the class 
under consideration; still, some nondescript 
animals of the latter group are to be seen 
in the great fountain in the Botanical Gar- 
dens, and a more elaborate representation 
of a similar form is found in the famous 
Hinton Perry fountain of the Congressional 
Library, where we see on the primal base at 
the foot of Neptune, certain frogs, hawksbill 
turtles, and an eel-like creature which seems 
to have been modeled after the famous 
Japanese shark, Chlamydoselachus anguineus 
—the oldest existing type of vertebrate, 
named and described by the late Samuel 
Garman. The fore-flippers of the turtles 
(Caretta imbricata) are too long and too 
narrow for adult examples, and it would 
appear that the distinguished sculptor of 
this group selected rather young specimens 
for his models. As we know, the limbs— 
especially the forepair—are proportionately 
much narrower and longer in the subadult 
animal than in the matured specimen. 

Among birds, the eagle is the only species 
that has been selected for representation, 
so far as I have observed; and that this has 
been used is doubtless due to the fact that 
the eagle happens to be the emblem of the 
United States of America. In no instance 
known to me is the eagle represented natu- 
rally in any piece of sculpture, or in any 
metal reproduction, in the city of Washing- 
ton,—that is, so far as groups in publie 
places are concerned. Scores of these birds 
are to be found, either as single pieces or in 
groups; but they are all more or less ideal- 
ized, and performing some feat that makes 
them appear ridiculous, from whatever view- 
point we may select. The arrangement and 
number of the feathers in the wings and tail 


Illustrations from photographs by the Author 


471 


a Sa 


. 


aN 
& 


One of the four concrete lions, modeled by a New York sculptor in 1909, for the Connecticut Avenue Bridge, 
Washington. This figure is on the southwest end of the bridge and measures nine feet in height and twelve feet 
long. Here was an opportunity to model the great ‘‘King of Beasts’ so that the majesty of his creation would ap- 
peal to all observers through generations to come. Instead we have what appear to be “sick lions unwillingly pulled 
from some passing menagerie, to pose just as death was overtaking them”’ 


One of a pair of lions on the Columbus Memorial, Washington, modeled by a Chicago sculptor. This also is an in- 
stance where the sculptured marble brings little pride to American art of the twentieth century 


$72 


ZOOLOGICAL STATUARY AT 


are invariably incorrect; other parts are not 
‘he 
eagles at the base of the McClellan statue, 
opposite “The Highlands,” are supporting a 
heavy wreath in the most unnatural way 


in due proportion, much less natural. 


imaginable, and the sight is sufficient to 
send chills down the spine of any well-in- 
formed ornithologist. There could not have 
been a more fitting opportunity to have 
placed at every angle of the base of this 
handsome production a fine, adult eagle, in 
bronze or other suitable metal, of natural 
size, normal proportions, and perfect in all 
other respects. There are plenty of live 
birds in the big, out-door eagle cage at the 
National Zodlogical Park, not fifteen min- 
utes’ walk from this McClellan statue, that 
the sculptor might have selected as models 
for this work. Indeed, in my opinion, this 
is one of the purposes for which we keep 
wild animals confined in zodlogical gardens; 
at least, it is 
other to 


just as important a pur- 


pose as any serve aS an excuse 


"THE NATIONAL CAPITAL. 473 
for our making life prisoners of these 


creatures, 

Speaking of the National Zodlogical Park, 
here is certainly an opportunity of the first 
order to introduce some work of the class 
I am considering. Especially is this true of 
mammalian sculpture, which at present is 
not represented there. All of the entrances 
to this great reservation for the public ex- 
hibition of captive animals from all parts 
of the world, are singularly unattractive and 
primitive in character, and to no little de- 
gree a disgrace to such a country as ours; 
this apphes particularly to the main en- 


trance on the Connecticut Avenue = side. 


Apart from a few simple signboards placed 
there, nothing indicates to the visitor that 


he is about to enter the confines of the 
National Zoological Park of the United 


States of America. For example, we find 
nothing to correspond to the fine lion group 
at the Girard Avenue entrance to the Zoo- 


logical Gardens of Philadelphia, or to simi- 


Lion statue on one of the marble pedestals of the unfinished Grant Memorial in the Botanical Gar- 
dens, Washington.—Our native big game fauna is large 


tain goat and sheep, several species of deer, and 


Strength and beauty and dignity in our municipal or national statuary 


exterminated it will be as if only tomorrow 


in the story of the earth’s history 


antelope, elk, moose, buffalo, musk ox, moun- 


all the bears. Any of these would appear with 


; and so fast are they becoming 


that all have disappeared 


474 
lar groups in other parts of the world. 
Surely it is time that a suitable sum be 


appropriated for this purpose. Let us trust 
that, when it does come about, when the pro- 
posed enterprise can be properly financed, 
animal statues worthy of the name will be 
selected by the authorities having this im- 
portant matter in charge. 

Personally, I am distinctly opposed to the 
choosing of non-indigenous animals for pro- 
jects of this kind. In Washington, foreign 
animals have been employed altogether too 
often as subjects for statues of this class. 
There are lions here, lions there, hons every- 
where, and several of them very impossible 
lions at that. We have an unusual number 
of large mammals in this country, all of 
which are upon the highroad to extinction ; 
among these I may mention the antelope, 
the elk, the buffalo, the musk ox, the moun- 
tain goat and sheep, several species of deer, 
and all of the bears. Comparatively speak- 
ing, the time is not far off when the greater 
number of these animals will be extermi- 
nated; we shall know them only through 
preserved skins, mounted museum specimens, 
and pictures of various kinds—all of which 
are more or less perishable in their nature. 

What would form at this time a desirable 
addition to the National Zoodlogical Park 
would be two life-size statues of famous 
American mammals in bronze, placed upon 
suitable pedestals at the main entrance on 
Connecticut Avenue. Perhaps none better 
could be selected for this particular purpose 
than an adult, antlered, bull elk, in a char- 
acteristic pose, upon the one hand, and, on 
the other, an old, male moose, modeled after 
as fine a specimen as the northern wilds can 
furnish. The work should be placed in the 
hands of a sculptor familiar with the super- 
ficial or topographical anatomy of these ani- 
as well as with their characteristic 
In time, similar statues 


mals, 
nature, 
could be placed at the remaining entrances 
to this Park, in keeping with their impor- 


poses in 


tance and in harmony with their surround- 
Finally, at suitable points within the 
Park, another piece or two—perhaps three— 
could be placed to good advantage. One of 
these might be an extinct animal form, for 
example, the ponderous Stegosaurus stenops, 
the ancient herbivore so successfully mod- 
eled recently by Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, of 
the United States National Museum. 
Personally, I am much averse to sculp- 


ings. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


tural license in the modeling of the animal 
pieces that are to occupy various salient 
There 
excuse for such unscientific and often ghastly 


points throughout the city. is no 
work. 
diture of funds, and publicly perpetuates a 
bunch of errors in comparative anatomy and 
practical zoology that can have only an un- 
desirable effect upon the mind of the popu- 
lace, old and young, as it passes down the 
ages to come. Take for example the four 
concrete lions that occupy the terminating 
pedestals of the Connecticut Avenue bridge, 
one upon either hand at the entrances. 
Here was an unusual opportunity to place 


It is a miserable, misdirected expen- 


a couple of pieces that would have been 
not only a credit to the nation but also a 
source of inspiration and education to the 
people for generations to come. But what 
have we? The sculptures present the ap- 
pearance of sick lions, unwillingly pulled 
from some passing menagerie, to pose just 
as death was overtaking them. No lion liy- 
ing ever possessed such a form as has been 
given to any one of these by the sculptor. 
Their musculature is absolutely incorrect in 
every particular, and idealism has been car- 
ried to the point of the ridiculous; they ap- 
pear like starved, dead lions, with impos- 
sible muscles, manes, and morphology, bol- 
stered up in cadaveric poses. 

Even more impossible leonine pieces are 
those on the Columbus Memorial, in front of 
the Union Station. These lions are hideous 
in their facial expressions, terrible in their 
unnatural proportions, and passing strange 
in their superficial anatomy. Muscles are 
shown that have no existence in nature and 
are absurd from any point from which we 
may study or view them. They are pitiable 
examples of the cheap, American sculptural 
work of the twentieth century, and they 
will, in the years to come, furnish food for 
laughter and ridicule for students of correct 
lines in animal contours and normal poses 
of the big carnivores of the present time. 
No lion ever looked the least bit like the 
two that confront one on this celebrated 
Columbus Memorial in Washington, 

Better lions are those upon the marble 
pedestals which form a part of the Grant 
Memorial in the Botanical Gardens, oppo- 
site the Capitol. This elaborate and long 
unfinished piece of work was intended to 
commemorate the deeds of a great Ameri- 


can military hero; but it stands now as 


O9NIVYIS PozV[OSt UV UL PYVA 9q AOAOU P[NOD OIYsS[VANyVU OY} WOL] UOIRIAEP Yous ynq ‘ajoyAr ary 


yeu ST VIM Joy, Jou 
‘y AQ OZUOIG UL JSVO PUR Pa[IPOUI BIOM BZIS OLOLOY JO UOSIG UnoouUly INO 


IOF GIGL Ul AOPVOIg soysruMm1y J 


ea 


eR ~  e 


Bengal tiger on the Sixteenth Street Bridge, Washington (see front view of the same figure, page 470).—This 
great cat, ten feet long in the bronze, by Proctor, 1911, has been given a pose characteristically feline, and the ana- 
tomical detail, where indicated, is perfect, giving a result altogether pleasing both to the zodlogist and the artist 


The Sixteenth Street Bridge is an object of admiration in the eyes of all visitors to Washington, and the bronze 
tigers of heroic size lend an appreciable dignity and elegance to the highway. It is suggested that at the entrances 
of the National Zoological Park the addition of life-size statues of American big game, especially of elk and moose, 


would fill a great present need 


476 


ZOOLOGICAL STATUARY AT THE NATIONAL CAPITAL v7 


though evidence of an ease in forgetting our 
country’s great among the warriors she has 
produced in her history and civilization. 
Apart from their glorifying representa- 
tives of the mammalian fauna of certain 
parts of India, the four bronze Bengal tigers 
on the Sixteenth Street 


Bridge, crossing 


Piney Branch, are superb pieces of work. 
The pose, which is the same in each animal, 
is full of dignity, natural, and with a certain 
subtle meaning that is not only characteris- 
tically feline, but especially appropriate for 
pieces of this character, occupying, as they 
do, a prominent position in one of the best 
Washing- 


ton is to be congratulated upon this achieve- 


known avenues of a modern city. 


ment; and Proctor’s great, tigerine cats will 
be objects of admiration for all who view 
them in the ages to come. 

Proctor was also given the opportunity to 
model and erect four bronze American bisons 
at the Street 


terminals of the Q Bridge 


(crossing 


Rock Creek in line of Q Street 


between Twenty-third and Twenty-fifth 
streets )—a work which was finished July 22, 
1915, or 


were completed. 


four years after his bronze tigers 


It will be at 


that in his 
poses, Mr. 


once observed 


idealization of animal Proctor 


does not allow the just principles of conven- 
tionalism in sculpture and modeling to over- 
rule what we recognize to be natural. His 
buffalo 


represented for the purpose for 


conception of how the American 
should be 
which most 


he employed it, emphatically 


stands for this. These four splendid bisons 
are sculptured or cast so close to nature that 
their grandeur and naturalness impress all 
beholders favorably. Their very presence at 
the entrances to the above-named bridge at 
once stamps the latter as one of a series of 
famous spans in the history of American 
And it is to 


be fervently hoped when Washington comes 


enterprises of that character. 


to repeat such work in other 
that 


parts of the 


city, each achievement will bear the 


stamp of a similar knowledge of require- 


ments; that it will prove to be an exposition 
of all that constitutes a correct conception 
of zodlogical and anatomical facts as we 
know them, and that this knowledge will be 
employed, in any particular instance, to per- 
petuate the normal and the real in such of 
our big mammals as we may select for the 
purpose, especially as these creatures are 
being as rapidly exterminated upon this con- 
tinent as they are in the wilds of other parts 


of the world. 


Few instances of fish or reptiles in statuary car 
the base, at the feet of Neptune, in the 
Washington As shown in the photograp ve! 


as model 


ndicated by the great lengt! nd slenderns 


found [There are iwksbill turtles and frogs on 
Oo Pe ( ( e Congressional Library, 
ng specime of the hawks] must have been used 


= 
He 


cS Nae 1) OS Ae ONES 


mm 
ec ake! 


sf acs 


Ses eR es a ea 


a 


Rain . 
Pidite a Maeeel deka ids 


ic ae saa See 


"eh 


as sal « 


ANIMAL POPULATION FOUND ON MUD BOTTOM OF ONEIDA LAKE 


A biological survey of Oneida Lake, New York, illustrates the relation of physical environment to plant 
and animal life. Six general types of lake bottom could be definitely distinguished: bowlder, gravel, sand, 
sandy clay, clay, and mud. These different soils support varied types of vegetation, which in turn serve 
as food for different animal groups, which in their turn serve as food for various species of fish. Although 
the invertebrates and plants of the lake are not directly of economic interest to man, they are, in their 
capacity of food supply for the edible fish, of great and hitherto largely unrecognized importance. 

In the above photograph are assembled the invertebrate animals collected on 768 square inches of mud 
bottom under eleven feet of water. The animal life here is principally molluscan, snails and finger-nail 
clams. Caddis fly cases, mostly empty, a few midge larve (Chironomus) and a dragon fly larva (Tetrago- 
neuria) are also present. [The last-named, unfortunately for the attractiveness of its portrait, has lost 
four of its legs] 


478 


Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming 


By PRANK COLLINS BAKER 


Curator, Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois 


HE great war that has but recently 

come to a close has shown in a most 

forceful manner the intimate rela- 
tionship between the food supply and the 
well-being of the human race. [ood short- 
age has caused our people more or less will- 
ingly to economize food supplies and to 
increase food production, and to submit 
almost without a murmur to restrictions that 
in peace times would not have been toler- 
ated. Perhaps other than this 
world tragedy could have turned the atten- 
tion of the nation so intensively to the study 
of increased crops. Yields of wheat and of 
corn have risen to unthought-of proportions 
and the vast number of home gardens at- 
test the magnificent spirit of the American 
people in meeting the problems of decreased 
food supply. 

And while the land is being made to give 
up an ever increasing share of its products, 
the waters are being studied and experi- 
ments carried on to demonstrate the pos- 
sibilities of water culture. But the water 
has received no such careful study as the 
land; yet there are immense, almost un- 
known possibilities in the way of food crop 
productions in our inland lakes and rivers. 
These possibilities are being realized in 
some places and extensive and far-reaching 
studies have been made, principally in the 
states of Illinois, New York, and Wisconsin. 
From these studies, and from others carried 
on by the Federal Bureau of Fisheries, it 
has been shown that of fish and 
aquatic food animals can be raised in ponds 
and streams, artificial and that 
rival or surpass in value the land crops pro- 


nothing 


crops 
natural, 
duced from the same area. Much has been 
done for agriculture through the various 
agencies organized for the solution of its 
problems. Aquiculture, or the study of the 
conditions governing the production of ani- 
mals and plants living in fresh water, has 
received no such extended investigation and 
we are still ignorant of many important 
facts which are necessary before aquiculture 
is on the same sound basis as agriculture. 
Professor 8. A. Forbes, whose early stud- 


ies of the food of fishes in Illinois waters 
have been epoch-making, 
lake to a 


likens a pond or 
miniature world. 
In it all of the processes of life go on al- 
most independently of the land around it. 
But within this microcosm all are interde- 
pendent, the large fish feeding upon the 
smaller organisms, and these in turn upon 
those still smaller, and agencies that affect 
any one group of animals or plants influ- 


microcosm or 


ence in a more or 
of the Furthermore, in 
studying any one organism in this micro- 


less marked degree the 
whole life pond, 
cosm it is necessary to include all organisms, 
as well as all physical agencies, that are re- 
lated to it or that come in contact with it. 
For example, if we wish to understand the 
life history of our black bass, one of our 
most valued food and game fishes, we must 
not only learn what we can concerning this 
fish, but also what it feeds upon, what the 
food supply feeds upon, and finally the gen- 
eral character of the environment, whether 
favorable or unfavorable. In other words, 
a complete natural history survey of the 
pond life is necessary to understand fully 
the history and value of this beautiful fish, 
or of any fish. 

Realizing the poverty of our knowledge 
on the subject of fish life as it relates to 
the food supply and to general ecological 
conditions, the New York State College of 
Forestry at Syracuse University sought to 
remedy this defect, in a measure, by carry- 
ing on studies in Oneida Lake, New York’s 
largest inland lake. Accordingly, Dr. C. C. 
Adams, of the Department of Forest Zo61- 
ogy, College of Forestry, established labor- 
atories on the lake, and the writer was priv- 
ileged to conduct studies bearing on these 
1975, L916; and” 1917. 
These studies included examinations of the 


problems during 


ascertain the 
kind and quantity of food eaten; an inten- 


stomach contents of fish to 
sive study of the animal and plant life of 
the lake to of the 
biota to the fish fauna; and quantitative 


ascertain the relation 
studies to find out, if possible, the size of 


the fish that the lake was able to 


479 


fauna 


Sand bottom in Oneida Lake is usually found in lagoons and other spots protected from the di- 
rect action of the waves. In such places the bulrushes flourish and here are found the best condi- 
tions for the growth of the small clams, snails, and insects which form an important element of the 
food of fish. This photograph of the sand bottom area of the lagoon east of the steamboat landing, 
Lower South Bay, was taken from a mud bottom habitat in the foreground where the vegetation 
is more dense but less favorable for mollusks, and illustrates the close relation between the lake 
fauna and flora and the type of lake bottom. The lagoon is one of the best habitats for the fila- 
mentous alge known as Cladophora 


The invertebrate population of a sixteen-inch square of sand bottom under four feet of water. 
The bivalve mollusk (Sphwriwm) at the left, the pond snails (Lymnaea) below the center, and 
small snails (Amnicola) in the lower right-hand corner are in notable predominance. Only five ani- 
mals other than mollusks were found here, although over the sand bottom as a who'e the latter 
make up only about 50 per cent of the invertebrate life. The mo!lusks of this lake serve as food 
especially for the pumpkin seed and the common sucker and indirectly for the bass and pike which 
eat mollusk-eating fish 


480 


STUDIES IN AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING 481 


support with the amount of the biota pres- 
ent. The investigations, in a way, paral- 
leled those carried on in the study of agri- 
cultural problems, the environments of the 
objects studied being quite different. 

Fully realizing the significance of the fact 
that the lake is a microcosm, the problem re- 
solved itself into a study of the relation of 
the fish fauna to the general physical char- 
acteristics of the environment, to the biota 
as a whole, and to the other members of the 
fish fauna present in the lake. The data for 
solving such a problem can be obtained only 
by making an intensive and exhaustive sur- 
vey of the body of water. To accomplish 
this result it was decided to select a limited 
area of known extent and to study this from 
several angles. Oneida Lake is 21 miles long 
and more than five miles wide and has a max- 
imum depth of 55 feet which occurs near the 
east end of the lake. There are several 
large bays or indentations which provide ad- 
mirable localities for habitat studies. One 
of these, Lower South Bay, situated near the 
southwest end of the lake, was selected for 
carrying on the intensive studies planned. 
This bay is one and five eighths miles long 
and about a mile wide and contains 881 
acres of surface water. It is a compara- 
tively shallow body of water, ranging from 
a foot or two in depth at the west end to 
nineteen feet at the east end where it enters 
the larger lake. It is protected on the west 
and south sides by the land which rises more 
or less abruptly from the shore; on the north 
a long point and several shallows protect it 
from the rough water. At the east end, 
however, it is open to the storms from this 
direction which have a more or less marked 
influence upon the bay. 

In this investigation one of our aims, and 
perhaps the chief aim, was to ascertain as 
definitely as possible the actual amount, nu- 
merically, of animal life that lived on the 
bottom or on the vegetation at this time of 
the year (July). To accomplish this result 
dredges were constructed to take up a por- 
tion of the bottom measuring approximately 
four inches square or sixteen square inches. 
On a rocky shore a number of bowlders were 
carefully removed from the water and all of 
the life, both animal and vegetal, was re- 
moved to vials to be sorted and counted 
later. Vegetation was carefully taken from 
the water and the attached 
moved. 


animals re- 
To minimize the liability of error a 


large number of samples were collected (up- 
ward of 800). When sorted and identified 
this material gave a clear idea of the rela- 
tion of animals to the different kinds of 
bottom, to the vegetation, and to each other. 
A feature of the investigation worthy of 
mention is the fact that more than twenty- 
five specialists, many of them in the front 
rank of America’s biologists, cobperated in 
the identification of the different groups of 
animals and plants. In this way only can 
results of a dependable character be ob- 
tained. 

To support a large plant and animal pop- 
ulation a body of water must provide varied 
and suitable conditions, and these are found 
in Oneida Lake in Detailed 
studies indicate that there are three primary 
types or kinds of these habitats which are 
The first includes the 
headlands or points and some portions of the 


abundance. 


more or less distinct. 


shore which are shallow and have been swept 
clean of fine sand and clay, leaving the 
stones and small bowlders as a rocky pave- 
ment, the stones ranging in size from large 
gravel to huge bowlders several feet in di- 
ameter. This type of habitat affords lodg- 
ment for many in the 
sand or gravel between the stones, for a 


mussels which live 


multitude of snails which live on the rocks, 
and for crawfish, insect larve, and leeches 
which live on, under, and between the rocks. 
The vegetation of such habitats consists of 
water willow and bulrush. 
The second kind of habitat 
sheltered bays and in other partly protected 


is found in 


spots where the force of the waves is some- 
what arrested. The bottom is composed of 
fine sand; the vegetation is abundant, con- 
sisting of pickerel weed, bulrush, swamp 
reed, the water lilies, and 
a few pondweeds (Potamogeton). 


loosestrife, bur 
Many 
mussels live here, but the most important 
life is made up of small clams, snails, in- 
sects, and other small animals which form 
such a large proportion of the food of fish. 

The third kind of habitat is found in the 
well protected bays, where there is a mass 
of vegetation consisting of submerged plants 
such as pondweeds, hornworts, milfoils, water 
lilies, and the emergent plants such as pick- 
The bot- 
tom is usually of fine clay or mud. 


erel weeds, cat-tails, and bur reeds. 
Many 
fragile snails as well as insect larve inhabit 
this kind of habitat which provides excellent 
food for fish and other aquatic animals. 


482 


The striking feature of the plant life in 
many habitats, which was constantly forced 
upon our attention, was the presence of 
large quantities of the water plants known 
as filamentous alge, which covered the bot- 
tom as well as the higher plants like a thick 
blanket, and greatly modified the natural 
character of the bottom. It seems probable 
that the great wealth of animal life in parts 
of this lake is largely due to the presence of 
this lowly plant, which provides a rich food 
supply for the invertebrate animals. 

In the bays and the shallow areas border- 
ing the shores of this beautiful lake, the 
floor is carpeted with a great variety of 
plants, many of which, like the feathery 
water milfoil (Myriophyllum), form minia- 
ture aquatic forests. The rocks, the plants, 
and the whole bottom in many places are 
covered with masses of the delicate green 
water plants, the filamentous alge. 

Among this wealth of plant growth many 
kinds of animals live in great abundance. 
The alge are inhabited by the young or 
larve of flies, and small jointed worms 
related to the earthworms. (Olgocheta), 
whose bodies are as green as the color of 
the alge which they have eaten. Myriads of 
little crustaceans, called scuds or water fleas 
(amphipods and Cladocera), dart about and 
thousands of fresh-water sow bugs (isopods) 
crawl over the filmy masses of alge. The 
little spider-like mites (hydrachnids) ac- 
tively search the alge and weeds to prey 
upon the smaller animals. The young or 
nymphs of dragon flies (Odonata) le in am- 
bush among the alge or bury themselves in 
the muddy bottom; the young of May flies, 
with their feathery gills attached to the out- 
side of the body, and the caddis fly larve, 
with their curious houses or cases made of 
grains of sand, snail shells, bits of sticks, 
and plants, crawl over the bottom, dragging 
after them the houses that protect their soft 
bodies. Water bugs, water boatmen, beetles, 
both adult and young, and many kinds of 
snails complete the variety of this wealth 
of animal life on the bottom. 

The rocky shores afford good foraging 
ground for many snails, with which are as- 
sociated the young of May flies (Heza- 
genia), the flat, disklike larve of a beetle 
(Psephenus), the spiral caddis fly (Heli- 
copsyche), that resembles a snail, and other 
small animals, such as worms and leeches. 
The stones on many points are covered with 


NATURAL HISTORY 


sponges which look like patches of green vel- 
vet through the water. The higher plants 
afford resting places as well as foraging 
grounds for many snails, aphids or plant 
lice, some beetles, and numerous hydras. 
The study of this rich storehouse of ani- 
mal life by the unit- area method brought 
out many facts of interest and importance 
concerning the distribution of life in this 
body of water. 
habitats and the animal and plant life show 
a corresponding variation. Dividing the bay 
into three areas, each separated by a con- 
tour line at 6, 12, and 18 feet, we find that 
the greatest development of invertebrate 
life occurs within the six foot contour. Of 
the 1164 acres of bottom examined in Lower 
South Bay and vicinity, 205. acres occur be- 
tween the shore and the six-foot contour and 
959 acres lie beyond this line in deeper 
water. Careful computations indicate that 
88 per cent of the total individual animal 
life lives in water six feet or less in depth, 
and that but 12 per cent lives in the deeper 
water of the area surveyed. When reduced 
to actual figures, which in a measure are 
difficult to comprehend, the result shows 
that upward of 6786 million individuals 
live in 205 acres in water six feet or less in 
depth, while but one million individuals live 
in 959 acres in water deeper than six feet. 
When we consider this animal life in re- 
lation to acres the results are clearer and 
can better be compared with acreage pro- 
ductions of land crops. To the acre, the in- 
vertebrate animals within the six-foot con- 
tour number 33 million individuals, while be- 
yond this line in deeper water the life per 
acre is but one million individuals, the shal- 
lower water being 33 times as productive of 
life as the deeper acres of the bay. These 
figures, of course, do not include the plank- 
ton, or floating population, only those ani- 
mals that cling to some support, the bottom 
or the vegetation. The addition of this pop- 
ulation would greatly increase the numerical 
results, but it was only with the bottom 
fauna that these studies were concerned. 
The population of the 6-12 and 12—18-foot 
contours does not show such a marked drop 
in individuals, the water deeper than 12 feet 
containing 59 per cent of the population of 
the deeper areas. When we remember that 
fish life, as well as other aquatic vertebrate 
life, is more abundant in water six feet or less 
in depth, and that here the greater number 


There are several diverse 


7 


’ MULT 


On the clay and sandy-bottomed portion of Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake the shore is bordered 
with the typical growth of cat-tails, surrounded on the lake side by American bulrushes. The lake 
here is only about one foot and a half to four feet deep and well protected from waves, which have 


a 
marked effect on vegetation. In all parts of the bay large quantities of vegetable débris are found 
floating in the water and covering the bottom. Even the ‘‘dust-fine detritus” is probably a valuable 


source of food for many of the mollusks and crustaceans, as well as for the bottom mud-eating fish. 
The bay, with its abundance of vegetation, affords excellent breeding grounds for the fish of the lake, 
particularly those species which build nests, such as black bass and rock bass 


\_— 


—— 


- 
= 


. 
% 
' 
* 
: ww 
» wf 


Animals collected 


Caddis fly larva A 
fresh-water sow b ig 
0 orm These 
I I mo 
only su m 
r mollusks increa 1 rec € 


The south side of Lower South Bay illustrates the vegetation on sandy clay bottoms, particularly 
the cat-tails along the shore. These are not found on sand. SBordering the cat-tails on the lake side 
grow the ever present bulrushes. From the point of view of animal population the most important 
vegetation in this area is composed of submerged plants and especially the algae which coat the bot- 
tom and other plants, and which float in filamentous masses. The alge supply the most valuable 
vegetable food of the invertebrates of the lake 


Invertebrates supplied by one hundred square feet of surface on a log five feet under water. The 
principal forms are the snails (Bythinia and Amnicola) and the scuds (Hyalella knickerbockeri). 
ie latter crustaceans are eaten by fishes and frogs, and are also useful scavengers. was notab 
The latt t ten by fist d frogs, 1 ] ful scavenger It wa table 


that the sunken log which served as a home for these animals was covered with a thick coating of 
filamentous alge and this undoubtedly supplied their chief source of food 


484 


Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake looking west from Short Point.—This shows a transition from 


the shallow bowldery point in the foreground, with its scanty vegetation of water willow, to the 
protected bay in the background with its sandy or clay bottom and its abundant vegetation of cat- 
tail, willow, lake bulrush, water lilies, pickerel weed, and a number of pond weeds In general, 
bowlders and gravel cover the floor of exposed points, while shallow bays have sandy bottoms and 
those of the deeper bays and the main floor of the pond are composed of clay and mud. $v far the 
greater part of plant and animal life of the lake feet deep; 


is found where the water is less than six 
below a depth of twelve feet there is little or 


no vegetation 


Invertebrates yielded by approximately 768 square inches of mud bottom under ten feet of water 
illustrating the marked falling off in numbers witl nerea 1 dey espe illy of mollusks Finger 
nail clams Pisidium), snail shells {mnicola), the larve of midges Chironomus), and the nymphs 
of May flies (Hexagenia) are the principal animals; the caddis fly cases (on the left) are practi 

i all empt The larve are of great importance in tl 00 ip] of most of the larger species 
n the iKé neluding other nymphs and larva the May flies are ¢« s i nckere The 
" els whi were taken in this area are not shown in the photogra 


486 NATURAL HISTORY 


A rocky wind-swept shore devoid of vegetation.—From Long 
Point, north side of Lower South Bay, an exposed gravel bowlder 
bottom extends into the lake on all sides. Mollusks easily obtain 
a foothold on the bowlders and among the gravel. Crawfish, insect 
larve, and leeches also live on, under, and between the rocks, and 
many small fishes feed hereabouts 


This group of invertebrates, taken from a small bowlder in water 
20 inches deep, consists mostly of insect larve (beetle, caddis. fly 
and May fly) and of snails (Goniobasis). Bowlder bottoms have 
the smallest percentage of the plant life of shallow water areas, al- 
though they afford good feeding grounds for minnows and young 
fish, even in water only a few inches deep. Most fish vary their 
food with age, at first taking only the smallest insects and larvie 


of young fish live and 
adult fish breed, the sig- 
nificance of this rich store 
of animal and plant life in 
shallow water is at once 
apparent and the impor- 
tance of studies in such 
areas bordering the shores 
is at once recognized. It 
is in such situations that 
fish culture can be carried 
on most successfully. 

The kind of bottom was 
also found to play a large 
part in the abundance or 
scarcity of animal life. In 
Oneida Lake six kinds of 
bottom are found, depend- 
ing upon the physical con- 
dition of the shore: bowl- 
der, gravel, sand, sandy 
clay, clay, and mud. Of 
these different kinds of 
bottom, sand supported 
the greatest number of in- 
dividuals. If the sand 
bottom be valued at 100 
per cent, the relative values 
of the other kinds of bot- 
tom, as related to num- 
ber of individual animals, 
stand as follows: sandy 
clay, 87 per cent; clay, 
66 per cent; gravel, 57 per 
cent; mud, 42 per cent; 
bowlder, 36 per cent. It 
will be noted, therefore, 
that not only depth acts 
as a controlling factor in 
the density of the fauna, 
but also the character of 
the bottom material. 

One of the chief factors 
in providing a favorable 
environment for the de- 
velopment of animal life 
is the presence of an abun- 
dant and varied flora. In 
Oneida Lake the vegeta- 
tion fully measures up to 
the maximum requirements 
in this respect as has al- 
ready been indicated. The 
value of this abundance of 
vegetation is perhaps not 
fully realized by many fish 


STUDIES IN AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING 48% 


culturists. It may be said without fear of 
successful contradiction that when the flora 
is insufficient or wanting the animal life 
will be correspondingly rare or 
There is also another source of food supply 
which has received little attention by 
American students of fish culture. 
the fine covering of the bottom which Dr. 
C. G. Joh. Petersen, the Danish biologist 
and fish culturist, has called dust-fine de- 
tritus. This material is composed of the 
finely comminuted fragments of vegetation, 
together with diatoms, desmids, and other 
biotic material, and is largely used by 
many of the invertebrate animals and by 
some fishias food. It is believed by Peter- 
sen and other Danish workers on fish food 
problems that this is of greater value than 
the plankton organisms which are so abun- 
It is 
known that marine animals use it to a large 
extent but its proportionate use by the in- 
habitants of fresh-water ponds and streams 
is not definitely known. That it is of some, 
if not great value, is highly probable. 

When we consider the sources of food of 
the invertebrate population of this bay, as 
well as other bodies of fresh water, we find 
that the herbivorous animals, those that live 
on plants and detritus, greatly predominate 
over the animals that have 
habits and prey upon the other animals pres- 
ent. Dividing the population of the area 
of Lower South Bay into herbivorous and 
carnivorous animals we find the astound- 
ing result of 7743 million individuals that 
feed on plants and detritus 
million individuals that are 
In per cents this means that the 
orous animals make up but 
cent of the entire population. 


absent. 


This is 


dant in most of our fresh-water lakes. 


carnivorous 


against 25 
carnivorous. 
carniv- 
3%49 of 1 per 
This fact 
is of great importance, for the herbivorous 
animals are producers of fish food and the 
carnivorous animals are 
food. 
some food value to fish, it is the great mass 
of herbivorous animals that is transforming 
plants and débris into animal flesh, that 
forms the principal food supply of our food 
and game fishes. 

One of the most interesting features of 
the Oneida Lake investigation was the vari- 
ety of animal life found on the bottom of 
Lower South Bay. Seven of the ten phyla 
of invertebrate animals (the Protozoa are 
not considered for obvious reasons) are rep- 


consumers of fish 
While the carnivorous animals are of 


resented by twenty-five classes or higher 
groups, forming a microcosm of large size 
and great variety. 

The mollusks, snails and clams, and the 
insects are about equal in number of species, 
the mollusks forming 35 per cent of the 
When 
the number of individuals of the two groups, 


entire number of species represented. 


mollusks and the other associated animals, 
are compared, it is found that the former are 
30 per cent greater in number. This pre- 
ponderance of mollusks over associated ani- 
mals has also been noted by students con- 
Of the 7766 
million individuals of invertebrate animals 
caleulated to be present on the bottom of 
Lower South Bay and vicinity, 4704 million 


ducting marine investigations. 


are mollusks and 3062 million are associated 
form a 
large part of the food of such valuable fish as 


animals. The mollusks or shellfish 
the sturgeon, sheepshead, suckers, red horse, 
whitefish, and bullheads. 
Of the 225 different species of fish inhabit- 
ing the waters of Illinois and New York, 46 
or about one fifth are eaters of shellfish to a 
Of ali the classes 
of food, insects are by far the most valu- 
able, about 40 per cent of the food of all 


pumpkin — seed, 


greater or less degree. 


fishes being of this group of animals. 

One of the results hoped for in the Oneida 
Lake investigations was a knowledge of the 
size of the fish fauna that the natural food 
To find this it 
was necessary to know the amount of food 
eaten in a period of time, as in twenty-four 
Studies on marine fish (notably the 
indicated that the digestive canal 
emptied twenty-four hours. 
These marine fish, however, are not strictly 


of the lake could support. 


hours. 
plaice ) 
was onee in 
comparable with the fresh-water fish in this 
respect. In 1917,a study of fish caught in trap 
nets and allowed to remain in these nets for a 
period of 24, 48, and 72 hours, indicated that 
the digestive tract might be emptied in . 
Of the fish caught, 50 per 
cent had full stomachs in the 24-hour inter- 


about 24 hours. 


val, 15 per cent in the 48-hour interval, and 
all were empty in the 72-hour interval. 

It is known that the digestive powers of a 
fish become slower in cold weather, and it 
that 
March fish eat 


is probable between November and 
about two thirds or less of 
the amount of food eaten during warmer 
In the 
examination of the stomach and intestines 


of Oneida Lake fish it was found that on the 


mouths in spring, summer, and fall. 


488 


average a fish with a full stomach contained 
about 115 invertebrate animals. If we as- 
sume that this amount is a daily average, 
and that fish eat this 
months of the year, then the invertebrate 
animal life on the bottom of the 1164 acres 


amount for nine 


examined in Lower South Bay and vicinity 
furnish food for 337,500 
Predatory fish like the 
pike perch consume a large number of fish. 


is calculated to 


bottom-feeding fish. 


By using data from Illinois and New York 
it was estimated that a single fish of this 
species will eat 250 to 600 small fish in a 
year. When we remember that there are 
hundreds of individuals of the pike perch, 
as well as other predatory fish, in Oneida 
Lake, it is at once realized that the number 
of small fish in this lake must be very great to 
supply these fish with food. It also follows 
that a large number of invertebrate animals 
as well as an abundance of vegetation for 
the smaller animals to feed upon is neces- 
sary to provide food for these small fish. It 
has been shown by these investigations that 
Oneida Lake meets, in full measure, all of 
the conditions and requirements favorable to 
fish and these provide the essentials for a 
large and varied population of food and 
game fish. 

The studies carried on at Oneida Lake and 
elsewhere have shown that there are great 
possibilities in the production of animal life 
of a useful character to man from the fresh- 
water streams and bodies of water in our 
country. The recognition of the value of 
shellfish and other associated animals which 


SS 
OER RRS: 


NATURAL HISTORY 


form the food of fish, will lead in the not 
distant future to the artificial introduction 
of these animals, as well as needed plants, 
into waters where they were previously want- 
If the en- 
vironment and other factors are favorable 


ing or insufficient in number. 
there will be no insurmountable difficulties 
to hinder this procedure. The fresh waters 
will be cultivated to the extent that the land 
areas are now worked, as has been the case 
in parts of Europe, where ponds have been 
made artificially and stocked with fishes and 
their 


shellfish, insects, crustaceans, and the like, 


food. Food in the form of plants, 
will be introduced where needed before the 
fish are planted, paralleling in a way the 
preparation of the land before the crop is 
sown. Given a species of fish whose life his- 
tory and natural history are known, it is 
comparatively easy to prepare the right kind 
of habitat and the natural and suitable food. 
Thus in the course of time we may hope to 
have a flourishing water culture or aquicul- 
ture, so that our streams and lakes may be 
made productive to the same relative degree 
Water 
culture has the additional advantage of af- 


that the fields and forests now are. 


fording healthful recreation to a degree not 
shared by any branch of agriculture.* 


1Those who may be interested in the details of 
the studies carried out on Oneida Lake are 
referred to the following technical papers, pub- 
lished by the New York State College of Forestry 
at Syracuse University, N. Y.: Publication No. 4. 
The Relation of Mollusks to Fish in Oneida Lake. 
1916; Publication No. 9. The Productivity of 
Invertebrate Fish Food on the Bottom of Oneida 
Lake, with Special Reference to Mollusks. 1918; 
Circular No. 21. The Relation of Shellfish to Fish 
in Oneida Lake. 1918. 


3etween Dunham and Frenchman islands in the distance lies a sandy shoal where the water is 


for the most part less than five feet deep. 


Norcross Point looking northwest 


On this hard, smooth bottom a greater average number of 
animals was found than in any other part of the lake. 


This photograph of Oneida Lake is taken from 


Quest of the Ancestry of Man 


WO institutions have recently been 
founded to investigate the problems 
of man’s antiquity, human ancestry, 

and cultural development—the Institut de 
Paléontologie Humaine, founded in Paris in 
1910, and the Galton Society, recently es- 
tablished in the United States with rooms 
at the American Museum of Natural His- 
tory. 

In founding the Institut de Paléontologie 
Humaine in 1910, the Prince of Monaco ad- 
dressed the Minister of Public Instruction as 
follows: 1 

“In the course of my laborious life I have 
often regretted that in the intellectual activi- 
ties of our epoch a more important place has 
not been given to the study of the mystery 
that shrouds the origin of man. The more 
my mind has been stimulated by scientific 
study, the more ardently I have desired to see 
established on methodic foundations the in- 
vestigations necessary to uncover the fugi- 
tive traces left by our ancestors in the bosom 
of the earth during an incalculable succes- 
sion of centuries. And I thought that the 
philosophy and ethics of human society 
would be less uncertain in view of the history 
of past generations, written in their own 
remains. 

“Therefore, when I had finished establish- 
ing the pursuit of Oceanography in the in- 
stitutions of Monaco and of Paris, I devoted 
a part of my effort to the search for means 
which would further the development of Hu- 
man Paleontology. And, after the founda- 
tion of the Museum of Anthropology of 
Monaco (Musée anthropologique), which was 
soon enriched with veritable treasures; after 
the publication of the marvels found in the 
caverns of Spain; I resolved to establish 
near some university center a strong founda- 
tion for studies based on methodic excava- 
tion. Immediately I made choice of the capi- 
tal of France, where my earlier foundation, 
the Oceanographic Institute, had already 
been so largely developed. 

“T have selected a site for the building of 
the Institute of Human Paleontology, and 
I have selected the first scientists who will 


‘Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, Fondation 
Albert 1°, Prince de Monaco. Statuts, p. 5. Let- 
ter of His Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco 
to the Minister of Public Instruction. 


direct its scientific undertakings; I have also 
named an Administrative Council who will 
control its financial resources. 

“T must add that I do not limit the patri- 
mony of the new institute to the building to 
be erected at Paris: the collections which I 
have installed at Monaco, although destined 
to remain there so long as my wishes for 
their conservation are followed, will become 
a conditional donation on my part to the In- 
stitute of Human Paleontology, to which I 
have given, for a working endowment, the 
sum of sixteen hundred thousand franes. 

“Being anxious that this foundation should 
survive me under the most favorable con- 
ditions for the advancement of Science, I 
make request to the French Government to 
recognize it as a public utility and to ap- 
prove its statutes.” 

The Institute is directed, from the techni- 
cal and scientific side, by a “Comité de Per- 
fectionnement” (Committee of Develop- 
ment), composed of twelve members, either 
French or foreigners. The members are 
chosen without distinction of nationality and 
without observing any especial proportion in 
the representation of different countries, 
from among those scientists best qualified to 
serve. It is to this body that Henry Fair- 
field Osborn of the American Museum has 
recently been elected. 

The Founder, and, after his decease, the 
Comité de Perfectionnement, designates— 
either among its members or outside them— 
a French scientist to whom it delegates a 
portion of its powers, and who has the title 
of Technical Director of the Institute. He 
receives compensation on account of his re- 
sponsibilities. The Director is appointed for 
three years at most and with the possibil- 
ity of reappointment. The Administrative 
Council may call upon the Director to at- 
tend any of their meetings in an advisory 
capacity. This office has been held since the 
beginning by Marcellin Boule, who is also 
head of the paleontology of the Museum of 
the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. 

The Comité de Perfectionnement fixes the 
program of work to be undertaken upon the 
recommendations of the Technical Director, 
presents to the Administrative Council those 
scientists who may be attached to the Insti- 
tute and who will form its scientific person- 


489 


490 


nel, assigns to these their undertakings, and 
decides upon the proper distribution of the 
results of excavations among those scientific 
establishments best qualified to receive them. 
After consultation with the Administrative 
Council in regard to ways and means, it 
decides upon the various publications of the 
Institute and determines the regulations for 
the laboratories and libraries. 

Under the original organization the In- 
stitute selected a number of the most dis- 
tinguished scientists in France to conduct 
its explorations and carry on its researches. 
With a personnel including such experts as 
Marcellin Boule in paleontology, Verneau 
in anatomy, and Cartailhac and Breuil in 
archeology, no surprise can be felt at the 
brilliant results which are already the fruit 
of their labors during the few years that 
have passed since the inception of the Insti- 
tut de Paléontologie Humaine through the 
scientific ardor and wise judgment of the 
Prince of Monaco. Natura History will 
from time to time publish abstracts and re- 
ports of the latest work of the Institute. 

It is not an exaggeration to say that the 
researches and publications of the eight 
years elapsing since its foundation mark a 
new epoch in anthropology. On the anatomi- 
eal side, Boule in a masterly manner has 
described the Neanderthaloid characteristics 
in his monograph on La Chapelle-aux-Saints ; 
Verneau has studied the skeletal remains of 
the Cré-Magnon artists in a very complete 
way, although there is still much to be done 
on this race; Breuil has covered the marvel- 
ous field of paleolithic art of France and 
Spain and has firmly established the connec- 
tion between the stages of its development 
and the respective stages of the flint indus- 
try; the relatively unknown period of the 
Aurignacian flint culture has been fully 
studied, and Breuil and Obermaier have con- 
nected the art of Spain with that of France, 
and the Aurignacian and “Capsian” culture 
of Spain with that of Africa. 


The Galton Society for the Study of the 
Origin and Evolution of Man held its first 
meeting in New York on April 17, 1918, 


NATURAL HISTORY 


when the object of the Society was outlined 
and especial emphasis laid on the importance 
of cooperative effort on the part of special- 
ists, so that the problems to be considered 
might be studied from widely diverse lines 
of approach. In addition to the original 
charter members, comprising Madison Grant, 
Henry Fairfield Osborn, John C. Merriam, 
Edward L. Thorndike, William K. Gregory, 
Charles B. Davenport, George 8S. Huntington, 
J. Howard McGregor, and Edwin G. Conklin, 
there have been added at subsequent meet- 
Ernest A. 
Hooton, Gerrit Smith 
Miller, United States National Museum; 
Raymond Pearl, United States Food Admin- 
istration; L. R. Sullivan, American Museum 
of Natural History; Frederick Tilney, Co- 
lumbia University; Harris H. Wilder, Smith 
College; Clark Wissler, American Museum of 
Natural History; and Nels C. Nelson, Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History. Two 
patrons were elected: Mrs. E. H. Harriman 
and Mr. M. Taylor Pyne, New York. 

At the five meetings so far held significant 
addresses have been contributed by Profes- 
sor McGregor, Dr. Wissler, Dr. Sullivan, Pro- 
fessor Davenport, Professor Merriam, and 
Protessor Huntington; and the opportunity 
afforded for informal mutual discussion of 
the problems presented already justifies the 
hopes of its founders that the Galton Society 
might constitute a symposium of specialists 


ings the following fellows: 


Peabody Museum; 


qualified to consider the origin and evolution 
of man from widely different points of view. 
The Society has resolved to establish a labo- 
ratory to be known as the Galton Laboratory, 
in furtherance of its objects, and a com- 
mittee is now considering plans for this pro- 
ject. Many of the members are at present 
engaged in special investigations within the 
field of the Society’s interests and it is 
planned that a suitable medium of publica- 
tion for the scientific and educational docu- 
ments of the Society shall be secured. A 
special object of the Society is to encourage 
the establishment of courses in anthropology 
in universities, colleges, and other centers of 
education. 


A Letter from John Burroughs 


With a question for the palwontologist on evolution 


O THE EpiToR OF NATURAL HISTORY: 

Dr. W. D. Matthew in his admirable 

little pamphlet on the Dinosaurs! 
thinks their progenitors in late Paleozoic 
time were small animals like the modern 
lizards in size, appearance, and habitat; he 
adds in a footnote that if “some vast catas- 
trophe should today blot out all the mam- 
malian races including man, and the birds, 
but leave the lizards and other reptiles still 
surviving, with the lower animals and plants, 
we might well expect the lizards in the 
course of geologic periods to evolve into a 
great and varied land fauna like the Dino- 
saurs of the Mesozoic Era.” 

Is not this an astonishing statement? If 
Mesozoic times could be brought back and 
the earth, air, and waters be in every way 
as they were in that era, this might happen 
but, in my opinion, not otherwise. Does not 
the evolutionary impulse run its course? 
Can or will it repeat itself? 
world today, from surface to center. 
geologic era had its typical 
The dinosaurs appeared in different parts of 
the world in the same era, as Doctor Mat- 
thew says, and “the cutting off of the Dino- 
saur dynasty was nearly, if not quite simul- 
taneous the world over.” These 
of the primeval world were highly special- 
ized to meet special conditions, and thes? 


By W. D. Matthew, Ph.D. De- 


It is another 
Each 
life-forms. 


monsters 


1 Dinosaurs. 
cember, 1915. 


Reply to Mr. Burroughs 


HE footnote to which Mr. Burroughs 
refers came very near being cut out 
of the 
printed, as a speculative and fanciful sup- 
position that had no place in a brief sum- 
mary of what is known about dinosaurs. It 


manuscript before it was 


was left in chiefly because such speculations 
and I 
with 


have for me a certain fascination, 
thought it 


others. 


might be the same way 


That Mr. Burroughs has picked it 
out from its lowly position for comment and 
criticism shows that he, too, finds it of in- 


terest. 


conditions can return to the 
We still have reptiles but they are 


never again 
arth. 
insignificant and eut no figure in the life of 
the globe. That the huge Brontosaurus, for 
instance, could ever reappear in the Age of 
The Age of the 


dinosaurs covered about nine million years 


Mammals is unthinkable. 
and its end is now at least three million 
years behind us. Can we believe that the 
life of the different periods was as acci- 
dental and unrelated as Doctor Matthew's 
statement would seem to imply? 

Might not one as well declare that were 
our deciduous trees and plants and all exo- 
gens swept away, the mosses and ferns and 
horsetails and ground pines would again 
produce the tremendous growth of cryptoga- 
mous plants that gave us the main part of 
our coal producing calamites 
thirty or forty feet high, lycopods sixty to 
ninety feet high, giant sigillarias, lepido- 


measures, 


dendrons, and others? 

“Amelioration is one of the earth’s words,” 
Says our poet of the cosmos, Whitman, and 
it is as true in science as it is in poetry. 
The and 
hanging like fruit on the great sidereal tree, 


earth has developed ripened, 
and can no more repeat the stages it has 
passed through, than can any other fruit or 
growing thing. 


[Signed] JOHN BurrsuGHs. 


Riverby, West Park, New York. 


by Dr. W.D. Matthew 


From the standpoint of the older con- 


cepts of cosmic and geologic history his 
objections are undoubtedly valid. If we 
believe that the earth has been gradually 
cooling off during geologic time, the atmos- 
phere becoming less warm, humid, and 
with acid 
cooler, the climate changing from a moist, 
to the 
that prevail 
then undoubtedly one would conclude that 


result of the 


loaded carbonic gas, the seas 


tropical uniform condition cooler, 


drier, zonal climates today, 
ultimate 


supposititious case I raised, it would not be 
491 


whatever were the 


492 


the evolution of lizards into a fauna paral- 


leling the dinosaurs. 


But these geologic concepts cannot be 
reconciled with the evidence of glacial 


periods in the Permian, in the pre-Cambrian, 
and even farther back in geologic time, nor 
The 
geologic theory, which I outlined briefly in 
the introductory pages of the Dinosaur hand- 
book, conceives of the physical condition of 
the earth’s surface as passing through a 
series of cyclic changes in climate, topog- 
raphy, and other factors that constitute the 
physical environment to which life is 
adapted, but without any very fundamental 
permanent change during geologic time. The 
recurring cycles bring about a recurrence of 
the physical environment sufficiently iden- 
tical to condition substantially similar adap- 
tations. 

It is of course different with the biotic 
the fauna and flora, which 
equally condition the trend and scope of 
evolution of any one group. This has 
changed in a generally progressive way, since 
there are certain factors in adaptation and 
specialization which operate independently 
of changing physical environment, certain 
upward steps that, once attained under its 
stimulus, are retained as advantageous under 
all circumstances. The physical environ- 
ment is cyclic, but the biotic evolution moves 
in a reaching corresponding but 
higher points with each recurrent cycle of 
climatic change. 


with various other lines of evidence. 


environment, 


spiral, 


The physical conditions at the beginning 
of the Mesozoic when the dinosaurs arose, 
were much like those of the present day. 
The earth had just passed through a glacial 
period, believed to be quite as intense and 
widespread as that from which we have just 
emerged. The continents were extended to 
or even beyond their present limits, arid 
climates prevailed widely through their in- 
terior as they do now, and probably cold 
climates at the poles. The atmospheric and 
climatie conditions cannot have been very 
different from what they now are; whether 
the outlines of the continents were substan- 
tially the same or not, makes no difference 
to the problem in hand. The physical en- 
vironment does substantially correspond at 
the present time to that under which the 
dinosaurs arose. 


The animals and plants are widely dif- 


ferent. The presence of higher types of 


( 


NATURAL HISTORY 


vertebrates prevents the lizards or any lower 
vertebrates from expanding into a varied 
fauna of large land animals as were the 
dinosaurs. They are unable to compete with 
the higher types save in certain special fields 
to which these last are not well adapted. 
My supposition involved the removal of this 
competition by extinction of all higher ver- 
tebrates, leaving a free field for the lizards 
such as was open to the lizard-like ancestors 
of the dinosaurs. 

It may well be objected that the evolu- 
tion of the dinosaurs was conditioned by the 
nature of the vegetation quite as much as 
by the competing animal types. The higher 
types of plant life now prevalent would 
bring about a different trend and scope of 
evolutionary progress among lizards in our 
supposititious case than occurred with the 
dinosaurs. Probably this objection is valid 
to some extent, and certainly as to any de- 
tailed correspondence. But I do not think 
it would prevent a marked general corre- 
spondence. For the dinosaurs in fact passed 
through two distinct periods of evolution 
and expansion, the first in the early Meso- 
zoic, which culminated in the late Jurassic 
dinosaurian fauna, and the second in the 
late Mesozoic culminating in the upper 
Cretaceous dinosaurs. 

The first evolution was correlated with a 
flora lacking the higher plants (angiosperms ) 
now dominant, but the second with a flora 
very like that of the present day, the her- 
baceous perennials being the most significant 
element lacking. These two dinosaur faunas 
correspond in a broad way; they include 
armored and unarmored dinosaurs, bipedal 
and quadrupedal types, great and small car- 
nivorous forms, terrestrial and amphibious 
adaptations; but similar or equivalent adap- 
tations occur in many cases of different races. 
There is little correspondence in detail; yet 
the place they occupied in nature was sub- 
stantially the same, and there is a great deal 
of parallelism in their adaptations. We do not 
find any of the gigantic Sauropoda, Bron- 
tosaurus and its allies, in this later fauna. 
But their place as an amphibious adaptation 
was taken by the wading and swimming 
trachodonts. The armored dinosaurs of the 
Cretaceous are like those of the Jurassic 
only in the fact that they were gigantic and 
heavily armor-clad. The unarmored her- 
bivorous dry-land dwellers were even more 


NOTES 


contrasted in detail. Only in the carnivo- 
rous dinosaurs is there any near correspond- 
ence and relationship. 

It would seem therefore that the evolution 
of dinosaurian types of specialization is not 
tied to the more ancient flora, and that so 
far as this objection is concerned it would 
not prevent the lizards from evolving in the 
absence of higher animal types into a varied 
fauna of large land animals paralleling the 
Cretaceous dinosaurs in a broad way, al- 
though doubtless as different from them in 
detail as they are from the Jurassic dino- 
saurs. That they or some other group of 
lower vertebrates might in the course of 
further geologic periods give rise to higher 
types corresponding as to their place in na- 
ture to birds, mammals and man is conceiv- 
able, but too speculative for discussion. 
Their limitations in brain, in circulation of 
the blood, ete., would first have to be over- 
come, and so far as paleontology can teach 
us this is a vastly slower progress than the 
expansive evolution into large specialized 
and varied faunal adaptations. 

Certainly such an expansive evolution of 
the lizards with their higher competitors re- 
moved would not cause the huge Bronto- 
saurus to reappear on earth. But it might 
—if we accept the modern theory of geo- 
logic history—bring about the appearance 
of gigantic wading or amphibious reptiles 
equally huge and equally innocuous, al- 


493 


though probably not at all like a Brontosaur 
in appearance. 

It would seem equally true that under our 
modern tenets we must be prepared to be- 
lieve that were all the higher plants swept 
out of existence the lower plants would pro- 
ceed under physical environment 
sponding to that of the late Paleozoic to 
evolve into specializations with a broad gen- 
eral resemblance to the Carboniferous flora. 
They would not reproduce calamites and 
sigillarias, but they would produce some- 
thing to take their place, probably no less 
gigantic and impressive. 

This aspect of adaptive evolution receives 
many illustrations from the fauna and flora 
of oceanic islands and isolated continents, 
where, in the absence of certain higher types 
of animals or plants, certain lower types are 
evolved and specialized to take their place. 
The adaptive evolution of marsupials in 
Australia or of the Tertiary mammals of 
South America, affords notable instances. 
Such adaptive parallelism sometimes results 
in a curiously close imitation or correspond- 
ence of particular types; more often the 
correspondence in habits and in position in 
the economy of nature leads to a resem- 
blance only in certain parts and a wide dif- 
ference in other parts of the animal. 

[Signed] W. D. MATTHEW. 
American Museum of Natural History, 
New York City. 


eorre- 


Notes 


Iv is with profound regret that the Amer- 
ican Museum records the death, on April 25, 
of one of its Trustees, Augustus D. Juilliard. 
Mr. Juilliard, who was senior member of A. 
D. Juilliard and Company, has been before 
the public for many years as a patron of 
art and science. He left several bequests 
to carry on the work in which he has been 
personally interested, including a gift to 
the American Museum of one hundred thou- 
sand dollars. 


Owrmne to the lateness in publication and 
especially to the very greatly increased cost 
of engraving and printing still effective 
from war times, the American Museum is 
combining its last two spring issues of 
NaAtTuRAL History in this number. 
cause of the prohibitive expense of prepara- 


Also, be- 


tion, it will reduce somewhat the number of 
pages in the three fall issues, and will omit 
statements of the 
membership, and advertisement of its pub- 
lications—exeept in so far as such matter 
can be carried on the inside cover pages. 


institution’s work and 


AN account of the library of the Univer- 
sity of Louvain and of the sack of the city 
and the wanton destruction of this ancient 
collection of manuscripts and books was 
written and partly printed during the early 
days of the German oceupation, by Ed. 
de Moreau, S.J., but it has only recently 
seen publication after lying hidden from 
the German police four and a half years. 
The 


seripts, ineunabula, and literary, historical, 


library, with its treasures of manu- 


and scientific collections which were burned 


494 NATURAL 


25, 1914, 
The uni- 


of March 


and glorious history. 


in the incendiary fire 
had a 2 


versity itself was founded in 1425 and in 


lon 


the next century ranked as one of the fore- 
institutions of 
the 
In 1913, 2855 students attended the univer- 
sity and it was reported that the library at 
that time contained 250 incunabula and be- 
120,000 230,000 (M. 
Moreau quotes the latter figure as too low) 


scientific Hurope until 


Revolution. 


most 


suppressed during French 


tween and volumes 
in addition to a larger number of manu- 


scripts of ancient and medieval authors. 


A movement is under way among the 
world’s universities to rehabilitate the l- 


om 


brary, but, as M. Moreau says, “The library 
of Louvain cannot be restored, for the l- 
brary was formed day by day in intimate as- 
sociation with the history of the University, 
and this history cannot be restored to it.” 


The Life of Frederick Courtenay Selous, 
D.S.O., Capt., 25th Royal Fusiliers, who, ac- 
cording to Roosevelt, was “the greatest of 
the world’s big-game hunters,” has recently 
been written by J. G. Millais. Mr. Millais 
is himself a noted author, artist, and nat- 
uralist, and brings to his task a personal 
The 
volume is enriched with a beautiful set of 


appreciation of the work of Selous. 


illustrative drawings. 

Selous went to Africa at the early age of 
nineteen, where he resided for the most part 
until 1897, hunting big game and fighting 
in the Matebele Wars. His later years he 
spent lecturing, writing, collecting in Eu- 
rope and America, and elephant hunting in 
Africa. In 1915 Selous took part with the 
Royal Fusiliers in the invasion of German 
East Africa where he lost his life while lead- 
ing an attack against the German fort at 
Behobeho on January 4, 1917. Roosevelt 
said of him: “No other hunter alive has had 
the experience of Selous, and, so far as I 
now recall, no hunter of anything like his 
experience has ever also possessed his gift 
of penetrating observation joined to his 
power of vivid and accurate narration.” 
The biographer has faithfully scanned the 
public and private writings of the great 
hunter, especially his correspondence with 
Roosevelt, for notes on African natural his- 
tory. 


“THE Old and the New 
Science” was the subject of the presidential 


Humanities 


ATS TORY 


before the Classical Association 
(England) delivered by Sir William Osler, 
of at Oxford. 
Sir William, according to Nature, pointed 


address 


regius professor medicine 
out the necessity of a well-rounded educa- 
of 


There is, how- 


tion in which would be found a union 
science and the humanities. 
ever, he pointed out, a marked need of re- 
vision of the present classical instruction at 
the English universities which should aim 
to inspire in the student some of the spirit 
of the classics rather than to raise up a race 
of philologists. 

Sir William also opened at Oxford a loan 
exhibition of ancient manuscripts and instru- 
ments illustrating the scientific history of 
Oxford. 
Moorish 
1067. 


1693, and a slide rule dated 1635 which is 


The earliest were two Persian and 
astrolabes dated A.D. 977 and 
There are exhibited a microscope of 


probably the oldest in existence. 
Dr. PATTON in his article in this number 


of HISTORY 405) 
Thomas Jefferson, the great statesman, who 


NATURAL (page on 
was also the advocate of science and friend 
of naturalists, makes us admire the force 
of Meriwether Lewis, the young leader of 
an expedition across the western plains and 
to the Pacific. Lane 


Allen (page 397) brings to our understand- 


mountains James 
ing and sympathy young Alexander Wilson 
of the same period of pioneer life in Amer- 
ica—but we gain no hint of the interlock- 
ing of the interests and lives of the two 
young men. If we follow the young nat- 
uralist and the young explorer only a few 
years further, with just a matter-of-fact 
statement of events, our interest is not de- 
creased: Wilson desired keenly to go as 
ornithologist on the expedition with Lewis 
through the unknown West, but his letter 
to Jefferson and that of naturalist 
friend, William Bartram, for some unknown 
reason did not bring response. The expedi- 
proceeded (1805) and Wilson 
mained in Philadelphia. Wilson 
Lewis in his first volume of American Orni- 
thology (1808) regarding the distribution 
of the blue jay on the Missouri. 


his 


tion re- 


quoted 


Lewis 
returned in honor and became governor of 
Louisiana. Wilson, at his own expense and 
difficult expedition 
to New 


disease 


made his most 
the 


on 


alone, 
through 
Orleans, 


southern country 


which he contracted 


\ 


At the 
last white man’s house, on the border of the 


which soon was to cause his death. 


Indian country, he came upon the story of 
the tragic end of Lewis (1810), who had 
been murdered there but a few days before 
and buried beside the common path. He 
left money from his small store to build a 
fence about the grave where the legislature 
of Tennessee erected the monument in 1848. 
He returned North most enthusiastic and 
successful in his work; he worked harder 
than ever. By 1812 he had published five 
volumes; in 1813 he finished the seventh; 
he worked indefatigably on the eighth and 
last volume because he eagerly saw ahead a 
revision and perfecting of the whole, but 
died with it incomplete, in August, 1813. 


RELATIVE to Thomas Jefferson (p. 405) 
and the all-round man, of which we have 
even in this day of specialization many re- 
well for 


markable examples, it is every 


specialist to take to heart certain recent 


letters and editorials in the New York 
Times. For instance, Dr. W. W. Keen, of 


Philadelphia, under date of July 31, writes 
apropos Stewart’s axiom, “No human letters 
without natural science and no science with- 


out human letters.” In this connection he 


gives a brief history of our American Phil- 
osophical Society of which we as Americans 
are proud: 


“The policy of the American Philosophical 
Society, ‘held at Philadelphia, to promote 
useful knowledge, is most instructive. 
Founded by Franklin on the model of the 
Royal Society, which until a relatively few 
years ago, embraced both the humanities 
and science, the American society has ad- 
hered to the broad original scope, and still 
embraces both letters and science. Among 
our members we inelude philologists, his- 
torians, archeologists, statesmen, lawyers, 
ete., as well as astronomers, physicists, 
chemists, physicians, etc. From the ranks 
of the society have been chosen eight presi- 
dents of the United States, and Thomas 
Jefferson was our president during all his 
eight years as President of the United 
States, and for ten additional years—a 
unique record as a society.” 


THE tooth of a mammoth has been pre- 
sented to the American Museum by Dr. A. 
K. Kouznetsov, Director of the Museum of 
the Russian Geographical Society at Tchita, 
Siberia. Dr. Kouznetsov, who extended this 
expression of cordiality through Mr. Frank- 
lin Clarkin on the occasion of the retirement 
of American agents from that district, says 


NOTES 


495 


in his message that he is the oldest political 
exile in Siberia, having served a fifty-year 
sentence, and that he hopes if he survives 
of all intelli- 
Bolsheviki he will see in 


the threatened annihilation 
by the 
Russia a democracy patterned after that in 


America. 


gentsia 


Many bones of the mammoth and other 
extinct animals are found imbedded in the 
impervious clay in the gold mines of the 
province (Transbaikalia) of which Tchita is 
capital. Farther to the north in the proy- 
ince of Yakutsk the famous discoveries were 
made of mammoths preserved intact by the 
One of these mammoths, 
taken out in 1801, is the well-known skeleton 


cold in erevices. 


set up in the zodlogical museum in Petro- 
grad. Dr. Kouznetsov is of the opinion that 
it had stood less than two thousand years in 
the ice. Its skin and long hair were in 
and its flesh 
eaten by the dogs of the party. Dr. Kouz- 
netsov reports that the natives of Yakutsk 
Province are selling every year two thousand 


fairly good condition was 


pounds of mammoth tusks to be used for 
ivory imitation. 


THE report for 1918 of the “Explora- 
tions and Field-Work of the 
Institution” ! extensive 
spite of the war, in the fields of anthropol- 


Smithsonian 
reveals work, in 
ogy, archeology, geology, botany, zoology, 
and astrophysics. The institution is rapidly 
of the 
toms, and traditions of the American Indian 


collecting records languages, cus- 


tribes. The astrophysical observations at 


Mount Wilson on the accurate measure- 
ments of solar radiation have been ¢on- 


tinued. <A station was also established at 
Calama, Chile, as the most cloudless spot on 
the earth for 
3y this work it is hoped to lay a founda- 


simultaneous observations. 
tion for the application of such accurate 
measurements to the forecasting of terres- 
trial temperature changes. Botanical ex- 
ploration was carried on in Eeuador and in 
the southwestern United States; and other 
expeditions for general collecting were sent 
to the French Congo, and to Borneo and 


Celebes. 


Two initial volumes have appeared of 
notable 


Experimental 


what will be a most series of 


“Monographs on Biology,” 


1 Smithsonian Miscellaneous G@ollections, Vol. 70, 
No. 2. 


496 


edited by Jacques Loeb, head of the depart- 
ment of experimental biology in the Rocke- 
feller Institute, T. H. Morgan, professor of 
experimental zodlogy in Columbia Univer- 
sity, and W. J. V. Osterhout, professor of 
Harvard University. The two 
volumes which have so far appeared are 


botany in 


Forced Movements, Tropisms, and Animal 
Conduct, by Dr. Loeb, and The Elementary 
Nervous System, by G. H. Parker, professor 
of zodlogy in Harvard. 


IN connection with the illustration of 
mastodon bones collected by Thomas Jeffer- 
son at Shawangunk, Ulster County, New 
York (see page 407), it is interesting to re- 
call that both Ulster and Orange counties 
have been prolific in mastodon remains. 
After the recession of the transcontinental 
glacier, large marshes were left in this 
region where these huge animals frequently 
The most perfect skeleton 
so far unearthed, the “Warren mastodon” 
now in the American Museum, was taken 
out near Newburg, in 1845. This skeleton 
together with the “Shawangunk skull” was 
purchased and described by Professor John 
Collins Warren, of Harvard, in his famous 
memoir, The Mastodon Giganteus of North 
America (1852). Farmers in these counties 
are frequently turning up bones in a greater 
or less state of decay, which they not in- 
frequently take for pieces of tree stump. 
Remains of mastodon hair also have been 
reported from Ulster County, “of dark, 
golden brown color, long, dense and shaggy.” 


became mired. 


RECENTLY preliminary reports on the 
scientific work of Rasmussen’s Second Thule 
Expedition have been printed by the Danish 
Geographical Society. An ancient folded 
range (probably paleozoic) was discovered 
extending from Robeson Channel along the 
whole north coast of Greenland into Peary 
Land, probably continuous southward with 
the range in Grinnell Land. It was found 
that the great ice-free highlands of the in- 
land ice belt, which the expedition crossed 
on its return journey, are entirely devoid 
of higher forms of vegetation. With refer- 
ence to the evidences of Eskimo occupation, 
especially at Independence Bay, Mr. Ras- 
mussen is of the opinion that it would never 
have been possible for Eskimo to migrate 
from the west along the northern coast to 
the point where the expedition found tent 


NATURAL HISTORY 


rings, and that accordingly these remains in- 
dicate migration northward along the east- 
ern coast. 


The Fisheries of the North Sea has been 
written to inspire a greater appreciation of 
“our magnificent heritage of the sea.” It 
gives a sketch of the history of the fishing 
industry of these northern waters from the 
time of primitive bone hooks to the modern 
steam trawler. The book contains much 
useful information on the industry in Scan- 
dinavia, Holland, Germany, France, Russia, 
and America. We are all fully awake after 
the late war to the economic and naval im- 
portance of the subject. 


THE total eclipse of the sun which oc- 
curred on May 29 was notable for its dura- 
tion—5 minutes in Brazil, and 6 minutes 
51 seconds on the Atlantic Ocean. The 
eclipse was visible in Bolivia and Brazil, 
South America, and in the French and Bel- 
gian Congo, and Mozambique, Africa. 


More than one thousand contributions 
for the Roosevelt Memorial Bird Fountain 
to be erected by the National Association 
of Audubon Societies of the United States, 
had aggregated $11,684.19 on May 1. It is 
estimated that $100,000 will be needed to 
make the memorial a fitting monument to 
the memory of the great naturalist presi- 
dent. 


THE summer course of the Marine Bio- 
logical Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massa- 
chusetts, enters on its thirty-second year. 
A new department, Protozoology, is added, 
and Professor Gary N. Calkins, of Columbia 
University, offers a formal course in this 
subject for advanced students. The faculty 
of the investigation branch of the botany 
department has also been expanded by the 
addition of Edward M. East, professor of 
experimental plant morphology in Harvard, 
Robert M. Harper, professor of botany in 
Columbia University, E. Newton Harvey, as- 
sistant professor of physiology in Princeton 
University, and Winthrop J. V. Osterhout, 
professor of botany in Harvard. 


THE summer courses at the Cold Spring 
Harbor Biological Laboratory are adapted 
to both elementary and advanced students, 
and facilities are granted as usual to stu- 


1 [The Fisheries of the North Sea, by Neal Green. 
London, Methuen & Co., 1918. 


NOTES 


dents wishing to undertake original inves- 
tigations. Associated with Dr. Charles B. 
Davenport, director of the laboratory, is a 
large staff, including Professors Herbert E, 
Walter, field zodlogy, Henry S. Pratt, com- 
parative anatomy, John W. Harshberger, 
plant geography and ecology, and Harris 
Hawthorne Wilder, physical anthropology, 


THe Carnegie Institution of Washington 
reports for the year 1918 a transference of 
many of its activities into war channels 
for both the Institution as an organiza- 
tion and for the individual members of 
the staff, many of whom were temporarily 
drawn from their regular duties for special 
government service. Most of the big war 
tasks the Institution had in hand were still 
confidential at the time President Woodward 
submitted his yearly report and so are not 
included, with the exception of the organiza- 
tion of an optical glass industry by the 
Geophysical Laboratory. Most of the high 
grade optical glass used in this country be- 
fore the war had been imported from 
Europe. Not only was this supply cut off, 
but the entrance of the United States into 
active military participation entailed an in- 
creased demand for all sorts of optical in- 
struments. The Geophysical Laboratory at 
the request of the government undertook to 
investigate the processes underlying this 
industry and then assumed the direction of 
establishments built for manufacturing the 
glass. As a result of their work the output 
of uneut optical glass in the country was 
increased from one to one hundred tons a 
month. 

The continuation of the regular scientific 
work of the Institution, however, was not 
entirely interrupted, Even the menace of 
German raiders did not keep the nonmag- 
netic ship “Carnegie” in port throughout the 
year. The magnetic surveys of the “Car- 
negie” have carried her over 189,176 nau- 
tical miles, more than eight times the 
circumference of the earth. 
this survey to navigators cannot be overesti- 
mated, for even slight errors in compass 
bearing may prove disastrous to a ship rely- 
ing on an erroneous chart. In places in 
the South Pacific, the errors in magnetic 
variations of the best charts were discovered 
to be as much as 16 degrees. 

At the beginning of 1918 there was in- 
corporated into the Carnegie Institution the 


The service of 


497 


Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Har- 
bor, Long Island, founded by Mrs. E. H. 
This office has been serving as 
a clearing house and repository for eugen- 
ical records and as a training school for 
field workers in connection with the summer 
course given at the Harbor by the Brooklyn 
Institute A large 
number of bulletins and several memoirs on 
subjects of heredity and eugenics had been 
published and the office had accumulated 
nearly 52,000 pages of first-hand manuscript 
data before coming under the control of the 
Carnegie Institution. 


Harriman. 


of Arts and Sciences. 


It is interesting to note that 372 volumes 
of scientific researches have so far been 
published by the Carnegie Institution, not 
to mention the 


many articles and books 


printed elsewhere by its investigators, 


CoLor patterns of fishes with reference to 
the habits and environment of the species 
have been the subject of intensive studies 
conducted during the past year in the 
Hawaiian Islands by Professor William H. 
Longley under the auspices of the depart- 
ment of marine biology of the Carnegie 
Institution, Professor Longley made most 
of his observations under water by means of 
an equipment of diving-hood and submarine 
cameras, remaining at considerable depths 
for as long as four or five hours at a time, 
Also he has been carrying on experiments 
in submarine color photography, and re- 
ports that he is convinced of its possibility, 
although a special color screen is required 
to stop more of the shorter light waves than 
does the customary screen. 


One of the first results of the war, in 
England and America at least, is exaltation 
of what is national, and one of the earliest 
reactions is a turning to peaceful out-of- 
door sports and quiet country living and 
travel. It is safe to prophesy that Amer- 
icans will know America far better 
than ever before, and will understand and 
appreciate as never before the fundamental 


now 


facts of the natural history of America, 
especially of physiography, geology, arche- 
ology, and of course of plant and animal 
life. 
remarkable abundance of authentic litera- 


There promises to be available a most 


ture on natural history subjects. 

Probably the greatest movement on foot 
in America along this line results from the 
organization of the “National Parks Asso- 


GRAND CANON, THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXAMPLE OF STREAM EROSION 


Model of part of the Bright Angel section prepared at the American Museum. Horizontal scale, 1000 feet to the inch; 
vertical, 500 feet to the inch. (This exaggeration counteracts the flattening effect which results from 
having the eye of the visitor (standing before the low model) at a comparatively great altitude, 
asif looking from an aéroplane about 24,000 feet above the famous El Tovar Hotel.) 


Method of Preparation.—The primary object was to show topography and geology, purely artistic results were sec- 
ondary in importance. The topographical map of the United States Geological Survey was enlarged by photog- 
raphy four diameters. The chosen contour lines of the map were then transferred by means of impression paper to 
boards of the proper thickness to give vertical distances of 100 feet between contours. These boards were then 
sawed along the contour lines, and the resulting pieces glued and nailed one on top of another in the proper order, 
forming a reproduction of the map in relief. The core thus built up was coated with a modeling composition which 
could be moulded and carved into shape to represent the actual surfaces of ground and cliffs as nearly as possible. 
During the progress of the task the modeler made a special trip to the Grand Cajon to gain first hand data, including 
color sketches for surface and sky. When the modeling on the core had been completed a plaster cast was made, the 
surface was retouched, and the whole colored in accordance with the studies from nature. The background was then 
painted, with “‘flies’’ similar to those used in theatrical scenery to heighten the pictorial effect. 

The preparation of the model, begun under the direction of Chester A. Reeds and completed under that of E. O. 
Hovey, was carried ont by P. B. Hill, E. J. Foyles, A. Brickner, and A. Latzko. Modeling, coloring, and background 
are by Morgan Brothers 


498 


NOTES 


It is outside of the United States 
of the National 
Park Service; it will work in codperation 


ciation.” 
Government, independent 


with the Government but “untrammeled by 
precedents and politics’—the Service to de- 
velop the parks, the Association to educate 
the people for the higher enjoyment of the 
parks. Space will not permit quotation of 
the long lists of representatives of travel 
clubs and scientific societies, of universities, 
and of influential individuals, but to one 
interested in the results these lists are en- 
couraging in the national importance of the 
included authors, journalists, educators, 
geographers, geologists, explorers, conserva- 


About 
twenty universities are represented in the 


tionists, publicists, artists, ete. 

Association by their presidents, 
America’s numerous national parks are to 

be utilized as a 


“People’s University of 


Natural Science,” where a half million or 
more in attendance may study the natural 
history of our country and the formative 
processes that have given the continent its 
physical characteristics. Our national parks 
have been viewed largely as scenic wonders: 
“National Park” 


for conspicuous 


should be a trade-mark 


grandeur and majestic 
beauty, but it should also represent a stand- 


ard of out-of-door living and natural his- 


Kaban 


499 


The 


fore will try to function as interpreter, a 


tory appreciation. Association there- 
medium through which scientific knowledge 
may be made available to the general public, 
and it is greatly hoped that the various uni- 
versities will cooperate by sending classes 
and instructors to the parks, allowing credits 
toward a degree as in regular course work. 

The National Park Service of the De- 
partment of the Interior through its Edu- 
cational Committee has been carrying on 
preliminary work of this nature in coépera- 
Education. 
Publications have been introduced into the 


tion with the Commissioner of 
schools and one series of pictures sent out 
for public exhibition. The Director of the 


Forest Service has emphasized the impor- 


tance of this work in his annual report, ex- 


pressing his desire to see its wide extension. 
“T want to see pictures of American moun- 
tains, geysers, glaciers, and canons in 
every classroom of geography in the land; 
I want to see the beautiful pictures of na- 
tional park scenes placed in the school- 
houses with portraits of national heroes and 
views of historic places; I want to see text- 
books in certain subjects made more truly 
American by referring to features in our 
national park system rather than to similar 


objects in foreign lands.” 


LIMESTONE 700°T 


COCONINO SANDSTONE 300°" 


‘TONTO SHALE ano SAN 
a . ~ 


Detail of the Grand Cafion model in the American Museum, showing the geological section as given 


on its front. 


: The names appearing on the beds of rock are those which have been applied to the groups 
of rocks by the geologists who have made special studies of the region: 


The bed of the Vishnu gneiss and 


granite at the base is of Archwan age. the oldest in the geological series, and its approximately flat top 
indicates the elapse of a vast period of exposure and erosion before the Tonto shale and sandstone began 


the series of sedimentary rocks above 


which form the principal features of the cation 


Photograph by Trevor Kincaid 


The summer laboratory of the Puget Sound Biological Station, connected with the University of 


Washington, is situated just above high tide at Friday Harbor. 
fresh and sea water at a constant temperature to all individual research rooms. 


Pipes laid deep in the channel supply 
The tides rise about 


twelve feet at this point, rushing through the channels of Puget Sound, thus keeping the local water 


well aerated for marine life. 


For facts regarding the work in fisheries at the University of Washing- 


ton, see the article, in this number, by Dr. Hugh M. Smith, United States Commissioner of Fisheries 


A natural 


course is offered this summer of 1919, by 


NOTABLE out-of-door history 
the University of California, in the form of 
the the 
Yosemite Valley. be 


Lectures in 


lectures 


Memorial 
These 


Le Conte 
will 
delivered in localities in the valley which 
illustrate the physiographic subjects under 


discussion. They include three series cover- 
ing the botany, geology, and ethnology of 
the region. A fourth series, on John Muir, 


will be given by Professor W. F. Bade. 


Far Away and Long Ago,! by W. H. Hud- 
the British South 
uralist and author, gives us a glimpse into 


son, and American nat- 
his early life on the pampas of Argentine 
where he spent his boyhood, keenly observ- 


Mr. 


Hudson writes in a reminiscent spirit more 


ing the wild things of the plains. 


to express the joy he found in living in the 
great outdoors than to give an autobiog- 
“When I hear people say,” he writes, 
and life so 


raphy. 
“they have not found the world 


agreeable or interesting as to be in love 
with it—I am apt to think they have 
never been properly alive nor seen with 


clear vision the world they think so meanly 
OL tee 


Ago: A History of My 
Hudson. London and 


and Long 
Wie JH 


1 Far Away 
Early Life. 
Toronto, 1918. 


sy 


500 


THE University of Montana is holding for 
the nineteenth season its six weeks’ outdoor 
courses in geology, botany, and zoology at 
the Biological Station on Flathead Lake. 
As in previous years the students camp at 
the lake in tents provided by the university. 
Outdoor, laboratory, and lecture courses are 
offered and opportunity afforded for indi- 
vidual Morton J. Elrod, profes- 
sor of biology, Paul W. Graff, assistant 
professor of botany, and Roy Wilson, in- 
structor in geology, all from the state uni- 


research, 


versity, constitute the scientific staff. 


A FIELD course in anthropology is being 


offered for six weeks during July and 
August by the University of Arizona. The 


work will take the students over the Navajo 
Reservation and the homes of the Pahute 
and the Hopi Indians, and visits will be 
made to the Grand Canon of the Colorado, 
the Painted Desert, Monument Park, and 
the (Rainbow) natural arch. 
Students undertaking this work must be able 
to ride horseback and will have to be pre- 
pared to spend most of the time tramping 
As a scenic trip 


Nonnézoshie 


and camping on the desert. 
the route cannot be excelled; it is also one of 
the best localities of the country in which to 
study both the ruins of the cliff dwellings 


and contemporary Indian tribes. 


\ 


A pEPARTMENT of forest recreation has 
been established at the New York State 
College of Forestry to undertake investiga- 
tion and instruction in the proper use of the 
public forest reserves for recreation. Prof. 
Henry R. Francis has accepted this chair 
and will give his attention to the forest 
and park areas of the state with reference 
to their playground possibilities. This is 
the first department of the kind to be estab- 
lished in a school or college in this country. 


THE State Ranger School of the New 
York State College of Forestry undertakes 
to train men to fill positions in the field of 
work between that of the lumberman and 
the professional forester. The school is 
located at Wanakena in the Adirondacks. 
Practical forest work is emphasized and a 
nursery is maintained where many thousands 
of trees are produced annually. 


THE Bureau of the Associated Mountain- 
eering Clubs of North America in its recent 
bulletin for 1919 proclaims a wide interest 
in the pleasures of outdoor recreation among 
America’s forests and mountains. Twenty- 
nine different clubs, societies, and institu- 
tions compose the Bureau, comprising most 
of the organizations of this country and 
Canada which are actively interested in the 
protection and development of the scenic 
treasures of America. They are: American 
Alpine Club, Philadelphia and New York; 
American Forestry Association, Washing- 
ton; American Game Protective Associa- 
tion, New York; American Museum of Nat- 
ural History, New York; Adirondack Camp 
and Trail Club, Lake Placid Club, N. Y.; 
Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston and 
New York; Boone and Crockett Club, New 
York; British Columbia Mountaineering 
Club, Vancouver; Colorado Mountain Club, 
Denver; Field and Forest Club, Boston; 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 
Washington; Fresh Air Club, New York; 
Geographic Society of Chicago; Geograph- 
ical Society of Philadelphia; Green Moun- 
tain Club, Rutland, Vermont; Hawaiian 
Trail and Mountain Club, Honolulu; Klah- 
hane Club, Port Angeles, Wash.; Mazamas, 
Portland, Oregon; Mountaineers, Seattle 
and Tacoma; National Association of Au- 
dubon Societies, New York; National Parks 
Association, Washington; National Park 
Service, U. S. Dept. Interior, Washington ; 


NOTES 


501 


New York Zodlogical Society, New York; 
Prairie Club, Chicago; Rocky Mountain 
Climbers Club, Boulder, Colorado; Sage- 
brush and Pine Club, Yakima, Washington ; 
Sierra Club, San Francisco and Los An- 
geles; Tramp and Trail Club, New York; 
Wild Flower Preservation Society of Amer- 
ica, New York. 

The current bulletin of the Bureau an- 
nounces an International Congress of Alpin- 
ists, called by Baron F. Gabet, vice president 
of the French Alpine Club, to meet in 
Monaco, May 10-16, 1920. The proceed- 
ings of this congress, to which the National 
Park Service will contribute, are to be pub- 
lished. 


At the annual meeting of the American 
Camp Directors’ Association and the Wood- 
craft League of America, held at Greenkill 
Camp near Kingston, New York, in May, 
Prof. George L. Meylan, of Columbia Uni- 
versity, gave a vivid account of his work 
abroad in introducing athletic games in our 
armies and in those of France. Demonstra- 
tions in wooderaft were in charge of Er- 
nest Thompson Seton, and of camperaft in 
charge of Dillon Wallace, the Labrador 
explorer. Bird study was condueted by Dr. 
G. Clyde Fisher, representing the American 
Museum. 


THe “Roosevelt,” Admiral Peary’s ship 
which made possible his discovery of the 
North Pole, is called to mind in connec- 
tion with the recent death of Eugene D. 
Hawkins. It was Mr. Hawkins who in 1904 
favorably presented Peary’s projects to his 
client, the late George Crocker, with the 
result of a prompt subscription of $50,000 
for the ship and expedition. 


OnE New York artist’s impression of the 
recent exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum 
of relics of the whaling industry on Long 
Island is as follows: “The little collection 
contained many instructive things connected 
with this once flourishing industry. Chief 
among them from the artist’s point of view 
were the numerous pie-markers artistically 
wrought from pieces of sperm whale teeth 
or bone. The ingenuity displayed by the 
rough whalers who made these little tools 
for the kitchen is truly remarkable, but the 
artistic side of the work is even more worthy 


of notice. One sees here how successfully 


502 NATURAL 
such homely objects may combine usefulness 


and beauty: a charming object lesson to 


students of design in household furnishing.” 

PRESIDENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN has 
recently been elected to one of the trustee- 
ships of the Institut de Paléontologie Hu- 
maine of Paris, as a member of the Conseil 
In announcing his 
election, Boule 
“Tl a voulu reconnaitre ainsi, non seulement 


Perfectionnement. 
Marcellin 


de 
Director writes: 
les éminents services que vous avez rendus 
au la Science, mais encore la sympathie que 
vous avez montrée a nos préhistoriens en 
écrivant votre bel ouvrage sur les Hommes 
de la pierre. Je suis heureux d’avoir 
le privilége de vous annoncer cette nomina- 
tion. Elle ne peut que resserrer les liens 
@amitié qui unissent votre pays au notre, et 


qui nous unissent personnellement.” 


A DINNER was given in honor of Dr. N. 
L. Britton, director of the New York Bo- 
tanical Garden, by the managers of the Gar- 
den on May 7. The organization of the 
work twenty-three years ago and its subse- 
quent success were reviewed, and Dr. Brit- 
ton was presented with a loving cup on 
behalf of the board of managers. 


A PLAN is being carried out for the im- 
provement and development from a scenic 
standpoint of the forests and open lands 
along the Du Pont Road in Delaware. This 
road, which forms a part of the Lincoln 
Highway, extends throughout the length of 
Delaware and in its improved form will be a 
great asset to the state. It is two hundred 
feet wide, with roadbed The 
right of way was presented to the state by 
Mr. E. C. Du Pont, who also financed the 
undertaking of its development. The up- 
keep and control of the road, forty miles of 
which already have been completed and 
opened to travel, are in the hands of the 
State Board of Agriculture. Mr. George B. 
Sudworth, dendrologist of the United States 
Forest Service, recommended the plan for 
making the highway scenically attractive by 
planting forest trees along the roadway to 
supplement and improve natural woodland 
effects. At several places cleared lands are 
to be planted with fruit trees, and various 
horticultural and agricultural projects will 
be undertaken as object lessons in practical 
Incidentally the excellent road- 


of cement. 


farming. 


HISTORY 


way makes it possible to carry harvested 
crops easily and quickly to markets. 


THE AMERICAN SOCIETY MAMMALO- 


GistS has been organized in Washington. 


OF 


The Society will be devoted to the general 
problems involved in the study of mammals, 
their evolution, behavior, and life histories, 
well as to and anatomical 


as systematic 


studies. More than two hundred and fifty 
charter members. The 
elected: C. Hart 


Merriam, president; E. W. Nelson, first vice 


were enrolled as 


following officers were 
president; Wilfred H. Osgood, second vice 
president; H. H. Lane, recording secretary ; 
Hartley H. T. Jackson, corresponding sec- 
retary; Walter P. Taylor, treasurer; N. 
Hollister, editor. Glover M. Allen, R. M. 
Anderson, J. Grinnell, M. W. Lyon, W. D. 
Matthew, John C. Merriam, Gerrit S. Miller, 
Jr. T. S. Palmer, Edward A. Preble and 


Witmer Stone were elected councilors. 


Dr. J. 
ment of mammalogy and ornithology at the 


A. ALLEN, curator of the depart- 


American Museum, has been elected the first 
of the newly formed 
American Society of Mammalogists. 


honorary member 


THE history of science in England and in 
America has been reviewed in two recent 
books! by notable scientists of the two coun- 
tries. The work on American science by 
Professor Dana, and by other members of 
the Yale faculty, for the most part was 
published to 
dredth anniversary of the founding’ of the 
The general 


commemorate the one hun- 


American Journal of Science. 
progress of science through the 
especially as illustrated by the Journal, is 
depicted in chapters devoted to special 
fields. The first chapter, written by Pro- 
fessor Dana, is an account of the Journal 
itself and its vicissitudes the 
of Professor and his suc- 
cessors. In its the American 
Journal of Science, as the first American 
scientific magazine, aimed at a very com- 
prehensive program “to advance the inter- 
ests of this rising empire by exciting and 
concentrating American — effort, 
both in the sciences and in the arts.” No 


century, 


various in 


hands Silliman 


inception 


original 


14 Century of Science in America with special 
reference to the American Journal of Science 
1818-1918. By Edward Salisbury Dana, et al. 

Britain's Heritage of Science. By Arthur 
Schuster, F.R.S., and Arthur E. Shipley, F.R.S., 


London, 1918. 


NOTES 503 


better means of measuring the scientific ad- 
vance of the century and the country could 
be found than the pages of this Journal 
which has been the fortunate publisher of 
some of the most notable 
coveries of the time. 

The greater part of the volume is devoted 
to geology, mineralogy, and paleontology to 
which the Journal has been especially de- 
voted, but there are in addition chapters on 
chemistry, physics, zodlogy, and botany. 

The British work by the secretary of the 
Royal Society and the vice-chancellor of 
Cambridge undertakes “to give a plain ac- 
count of Britain’s great heritage of science,” 
from Roger Bacon to the present. The 
authors have treated their subject as a series 
of biographies presenting the main facts 
concerning the lives and discoveries of dis- 
tinguished British scientists. On the whole 
the work does not aim to include accounts of 
living scientists, although exceptions have 
been made in certain cases. Both volumes 
are illustrated with numerous portraits. 


scientific dis- 


Dr. W. D. MatrHew, curator of verte- 
brate paleontology of the American Museum, 
has recently been elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society of Great Britain. The citation 
accompanying his election is as follows: 


“A Canadian paleontologist distinguished 
for his valuable contributions to our knowl- 
edge of the fossil mammals of North Amer- 
ica, and his philosophical discussions of the 
modern results of vertebrate paleontology. 
By geological research in the field he has 
helped largely in the more exact determina- 
tion of the relative ages of the fossils occur- 
ring in the Tertiary rocks of western North 
America. He has also done much to popu- 
larize vertebrate paleontology and to spread 
a general interest in the subject. Author of 
numerous memoirs and papers, among which 
may be enumerated:—Revision of the 
Puerco Fauna (1897); Fossil Mammals of 
the Tertiary of N. W. Colorado (1901) ; 
Hypothetical Outlines of the Continents in 
Tertiary Times (1906); Osteology of Blas- 
tomeryx and Phylogeny of the American 
Cervide (1908); Carnivora and Insectivora 
of the Bridger Basin (1909); Phylogeny of 
the Felide (1910); Revision of the Lower 
Eocene Wasatch and Wind River Faunas 
(1915-16), (Bull. and Memoirs, Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist.); On Certain Theoretical Con- 
siderations Affecting Phylogeny and Corre- 
lation (1914), (Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer.) ; 
Climate and Evolution (1915), (Annals, 
New York Acad. Sci.).” 


This citation is signed by three of the 


most eminent paleontologists of Great 


Britain, namely: A. S. Woodward, C. W. 
Andrews, and H. Woodward, of the British 
Museum; also by E. S. Goodrich, of Oxford, 
Oldfield Thomas, of the British 

and G. Elliot Smith, the anatomist. 


Museum, 


Two handy pocket manuals of common 
woody plants have been published during the 
last two years by Professor William Tre- 
lease,. of the University of Illinois, com- 
prising admirable keys to the trees, shrubs, 
and woody climbers in eastern United States 
and northern Europe during both winter and 
summer. Most of our 
and flower characters for the basis of their 


manuals use fruit 
keys, making it impossible to identify the 
plants throughout the greater part of the 
year, but Professor Trelease has based his 
first book, Plant Materials, as he says, “in 
large part on differences used by the old 
herbalists,—position and other peculiarities 
of foliage,” and the second volume, Winter 
Botany, in a similar manner on leaf scar 
and bud differences. For the who 
wishes an introduction to some of the de- 


man 


lights of out-of-doors, as well as for the 
entomologist who wishes to determine the 
habitat of certain larve, for the mycologist 
identifying the host of his fungus speci- 
mens, for the gardener in winter, and for 
the amateur or even professional botanist, 
these little volumes will always prove valu- 
able guidebooks in the field. 


THE great change which has come in the 
literature and art of Chile since the begin- 
ning of the twentieth century was empha- 
sized by Sr. Enrique Molina, director of 
Coneepcién High School, in a leeture at Co- 
lumbia University. Chilean literature espe- 
cially has become both more national and 
better appreciated throughout the country 
so that it is now possible for an author to 
live by his profession. Chile has made no- 
table recent 
years and particular attention to the build- 
ing of schools is being given by the present 


educational advances during 


government under President Sanfuentes. 


A very valuable exhibition in late spring 
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
York, illustrated plant forms historically 
used in design, and called attention to the 


1Plant Materials of Decorative Gardening, Ur- 
bana, 1917, and Winter Botany, ibid., 1918. 


504 NATURAL 
possibilities in the use of American plant 
subjects for new ideas in design. A col- 
lection of native and exotic objects of art, 
tapestries, china, wood carving, and archi- 
tecture was arranged in connection with 
examples of living plant forms which con- 
tributed their dominant motives,—such as 
acanthus and papyrus, lotus, grape, cypress, 
and almond. 

THE American Museum was represented 
at the fourteenth annual meeting of the 
American Association of Museums, held in 
Philadelphia in May, by Messrs. E. O. 
Hovey, Herbert J. Spinden, and Roy W. 


Minor. Dr. Spinden addressed the session 
with reference to the utilization of mu- 
seum material in industrial art. He ex- 


plained the extensive adaptations by textile 
manufacturers of decorative motives found 
among North and South American In- 
dians and the more primitive peoples in 
other parts of the world. Anthropolog- 
ical collections make available many old 
ideas that can be put to modern use. The 
commercial success along this line of de- 
velopment has already been great. For the 
first time American houses have been able to 
market silks and ribbons in both Paris and 
London in competition with European de- 
signers. The problem before America is to 
develop an everyday art that properly ex- 
nationality. Dr. Spinden’s 
paper aroused a lively discussion. 


presses our 


THE value of the educational work which 
the American Museum is doing for the pub- 
lic schools of New York City is emphasized 
by the recent action of the Board of Edu- 
cation in providing a special appropriation 
which will enable the institution to extend 
its full-time service to the schools during the 
current year. This service to the schools is 
quite outside the terms of the contract be- 
tween the Museum and the City: conse- 
quently, when the Board of Estimate reduced 
the appropriation for the maintenance of 
the Museum in 1919, the trustees were com- 
pelled to suspend activities which were not 
provided for in the letter of the contract. 
Under the limited program provided, the 
Museum was obliged to discontinue supply- 
ing nature-study collections to the schools 
of the Bronx, Brooklyn, Richmond, and 
Queens, to reduce the lectures for school 
children to half the number, and to dis- 
coutinue entirely the circulating collections 


HISTORY 


for public libraries. President H. F. Os- 
born, of the American Museum, brought the 
situation to the attention of members of the 
Board of Education at a conference held in 
the Museum on February 18, 1919, at which 
President Arthur S. Somers, Mrs. Ruth F. 
Russell, and Dr. Gustave Straubenmiiller rep- 
resented the Board of Education, Professor 
Stephen P. Duggan, the College of the City 
of New York, and President Henry Fairfield 
Osborn, Director Frederic A. Lucas, Mr. 
George H. Sherwood and Dr. G. Clyde 
Fisher, the American Museum. As a result 
of this conference, at which the various 
phases of the Museum’s activities with the 
schools were presented and discussed, the 
Board of Education, at the request of Presi- 
dent Somers, made a special appropriation 
of $4,100 to enable the Museum to resume 
its full-time service to the schools. 


DuriNnG the past winter and spring the 
auditorium and other assembly halls of the 
American Museum have been in almost daily 
use for lectures or meetings of scientific 
societies. At the autumn course for mem- 
bers Mr. Branson M. DeCou lectured on the 
Colorado, Yellowstone, and Glacier National 
Parks; Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson on the United 
States bird reservations; Mr. Charles Craw- 
ford Gorst on bird music; and Mr. Graham 
Lusk on the food supply of the Alles. For 
the spring course Mr. Carl E. Akeley lectured 
on Africa; Mr. George D. Pratt on the for- 
ests and wild life of New York; Professor 
Herbert E. Gregory on Australia; and Dr. 
G. Clyde Fisher on a naturalist’s rambles in 
Florida. The children’s course included two 
series of four lectures each on wild birds 
and animals, the Eskimo, Indian stories, and 
the winds. For the children of the public 
schools four courses of six lectures each were 
offered by members of the Museum staff 
on the industries of the United States, 
natural history, early history of America, 
and geography respectively. 

In addition to these regular courses a 
number of special lectures have been de- 
livered at the Museum from time to time. 
Professor S. A. Mitchell spoke in December 
on “The Result of the Eclipse of 1918”; Dr. 
Lindley M. Keasbey in January gave three 
lectures on “Wealth and its Ways”; and Mr. 
John Kendrick Bangs lectured on “Light 
and Shade in the Land of Valor.” On Feb- 
Sir Arthur Pearson, the blind 


ruary 9, 


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members of the 


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506 


SF eae 
NATURAL 
founder of St. Dunstan’s Hostel, London, 
addressed seven hundred New York blind 
| their friends. This spring a special 


ourse of 


travel lectures was arranged for 


siting soldiers and sailors who were ad- 
lressed on three occasions by Messrs. Carl 
I. Akeley, George H. Sherwood, and James 
Barnes. 

The small assembly rooms of the Museum 
have served as meeting places and lecture 


halls for the New York Academy of Sciences 


THE following persons were elected mem- 
bers of the American Museum during the 
months of April and May: 


Patron, Mrs. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. 
Fellow, Mr. S. N. Bonn. 


Life Members, Mrs. Harotp F. McCor- 
MICK, MISSES E. M. KITTREDGE, ISOBEL H. 
LENMAN, Dr. PEARCE. BAILEY, MESSRS. 
JOHN EpWarD ALDRED, JOSEPH C. Bat.p- 
WIN, JR.. EDMUND G. BUCKNER, C. L. CaArR- 
PENTER, WALTER S. CASE, FRANCIS B. 
CROWNINSHIELD, J. S. CULLINAN, HEYWARD 
CUTTING, WILLIAM DU PONT, W. CAMERON 
ForBES, HENRY S. HALL, JR., REYNOLD JAN- 
FairFax S. LANDSTREET, JOHN M. 
MoOREHEAD, HOWARD PHIPPS, HERBERT L. 
Pratt, DANIEL G. REID, FRANCIS BEACH 
WHITE, WILLIAM WHITMAN and GEORGE 
Woop. 

Sustaining Members, Mrs. Cart FEREN- 
BACH, Mgssrs. R. J. CALDWELL, WALLACE DE 
WITT, WILLIAM B. GOODWIN, ELON HuUNT- 
INGTON Hooker, G. B. MCCANN and _ ED- 
WARD MILLIGAN. 


NEY, 


Annual Members, MESDAMES HEZEKIAH 
A. BRAYTON, S. B. BROWNELL, C. N. EDGE, 
HERBERT SPENCER GREIMS, CLEMENT ACTON 
GrRIscoM, H. MHARDINGE, FRANKLIN S&S. 
HENRY, RoBert I. JENKS, Wo.ucott H. 
JOHNSON, LEO LORENZ, F. MAurRIcE NEw- 
TON, JAMES F. SHAW, FAYETTE SMITH, 
MISSES ANNE HAMPTON BARNES, Mary F. 
BARTLETT, IDA M. Harris, BESSIE NATHAN, 
MartHA R. WHITE, REAR ADMIRAL C. 
McR. WINSLOW, U.S.N., Doctors ALICE G. 
Bryant, Ropert Goop, THOMAS HOWARD 
GROSVENOR, SAMUEL SWIFT, FraNcis W. 
WHitr, J. SHERMAN WIGHT, MESSRS. WIL- 
LIAM APPLETON AIKEN, HENRY A. ALKER, 
B. I. ASHMUN, EDWARD S. AVERY, Woop- 
WARD BABCOCK, CHARLES CHANEY BAKER, 
Harry 8. BaNnpDLER, C. D. BARNES, ROBT. 


HIST ORY ; 


and affiliated organizations, which inelude 
the Linnean Society of New York, the New 
York Mineralogical Club, New York En- 
tomological Society, Torrey Botanical Club, 
New York Microscopical Society, and the 
American Ethnological Society. Special lec- 
tures were arranged by the educational de- 
partment of the Museum for several of the 


city’s high schools, the Ethical Culture 
School, art classes, the School Nature 


League, and the Boy Scouts. 


I. Barr, EDwArRD R. Barton, H. C. BECcK- 
MAN, SIDNEY FORBES BECKWITH, E. R. T. 
3ERGGREN, JOHN D. Brown, Howarp SumM- 
NER CANDEE, HENRY B. CANNON, THEO- 
DORE W. Cask, C. H. B. CHAPIN, GEORGE 
CHASE, W. H. CLARK, JAMES LIDE COKER, 


Henry <A. COLGATE, RUSSELL COLGATE, 
HENRY E. Cooper, R. C. Davis, E. Der 
GOLYER, WyLLys E. Down, Jr., ROBERT 


D. EMMERICH, JACKSON EVANS, S. J. FELD- 
MAN, FRANK B. Foster, LEO FREEDMAN, 
JOHN H. FULTON, GEorGE R. E. GILCHRIST, 
W. E. Guyn, WM. E. S.. GRISWOLD, JOHN 
HARRIS GUTTERSON, SIDNEY HARRISON, WIL- 


LIAM HOLABIRD, CHARLES C. HOMER, JR., 
FRANK T. Huuswit, ArtHuR M. HuNtTER, 


C. L. HuTCHESON, WALTER N. Kaun, G. H. 
KENT, EMIL L. KIEGER, HERBERT T. KING, 
ALLAN F. KITCHEL, W. M. Lapp, ALFRED LE 
BLANC, PERCIVAL MANCHESTER, SAMUEL G. 
McCuurE, CHARLES MCKNIGHT, EDWARD J. 
NALLY, JAMES C. O’CONNOR, WILLIAM TAFT 
PITKIN, SHERBURNE PRESCOTT, GEORGE W. 
RAYNES, WM. 8S. ScarBoROUGH, E. H. Scott, 
WILLIAM PAINE SHEFFIELD, FRANK R. 
SHULL, I. SIBBERNSEN, CHAS. H. SIMMONS, 
B. HERBERT SMITH, ISAAC STERN, FREDERICK 
PHILIP STIEFF, JR., FREDERICK M. P. Tay- 
Lor, GEORGE F. Tirus, H. O. UNDERWwooD, 
FRED VOGEL, JR., JUSTUS VON LENGERKE, 
RocEer B. WILLIAMS, Jr., H. LEONARD WIL- 
TON, J. WALTER Woop and T. B. YUILLE. 

Associate Members, MESDAMES A. S. 
PIERCE, FREDERICK SuNDT, MISSES ABIGAIL 
H. BisHop, LiLiaN GILLETTE CooK, COLONEL 
CHARLES K. WINNE, U.S.A., MrEssrs. W. 
L. CHAMBERS, P. R. CLurFr, HENRY W. 
CORNING, WALTER L. DUNHAM, CHARLES W. 
FARNHAM, RicHARD A. FEISS, ARTHUR L. 
A. HIMMELSTEIN, Epwin Hoyt, Howarp F. 
Marston, F. C. McMatH, BENJAMIN F. 
Myers, F. B. Ray, CraigG—E MCCOMB SNADER 
and SAMUEL F. WADSWORTH. 


| 


NATURAL — 
HISTORY 


THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 


DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, 

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- 

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
THROUGH THE MUSEUM 


DECEMBER, 1919 


VOLUME XIX, NUMBER 6 


NATURAL HISTORY 


VoLuME XIX CONTENTS FOR DECEMBER NUMBER 6 
Frontispiece, The Last Bust of Roosevelt Modeled from Lite tee Beene 510 


By Sigurd Neandross, Sculptor 
A Geographer at the Front and at the Peace 
Conterence seaman oc ee ee Doucitas W. JoHNSON 511 


The nature of the terrain influenced the strategy of the World War, and the geography of 
Europe was fundamental in the settlement of boundary problems at the Peace Conference 
With photographs of famous strategic positions in France 


Kive WandaReatines: of loro icone. see oe eee ae ee eee: A. K. Lopeck 523 


Knowledge of the geological formation of Porto Rico is of value to the tourist bent on study 
or adventure 


“Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children”.:..HERMANN HAGEDORN 541 


Sculptures of the Late Theodore Roosevelt......... FRANK OWEN PayNE 543 
ae reproductions of most of the notable likenesses of Roosevelt in bronze, clay, and 
marble 

PherComine Wack or the Wisoms ssc... to) <r eer ie oe C. Gorpon Hewitt 553 


Under Government and private protection bison have increased to many thousand head 
With photographs from Buffalo Park, Alberta, and reproductions of old and famous pictures 
of the bison hunt 


Boulenger, the Manvand, Eis Work: soccer ac THoMAS Barspour 567 

[he Honorable Position of Naturalist=.<-.5 9.5 426+06- G. ClypE FIisHEerR 568 
Relative to the work of Gilbert White, of Selborne 

The ove or Natures. =... iL fests | bers. stn eC Tt D:-A. Cockeretn, 571 


A review of Field and Study by John Burroughs. With the American naturalist and 
author, we enter into sympathy with the beauty and meaning of the natural world 
Previously unpublished portraits of John Burroughs and scenes from his favorite haunts 


Bird -Photographsrot Unusual Dishmctiony.s perce ee ee eee . 583 
Work of noted bird photographers and naturalists, published in honor of John Burroughs 
Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees....... HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBorN 599 


Among the many natural beauties and resources of the country which have fallen before in- 
dustry the redwoods have suffered in an especial degree because of their great value for 
timber. If a remnant is to be saved for our own generation and the delight and use of 
posterity, it is imperative that the Government immediately acquire redwood reservations 


Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia.......... Li. C. Reap 614 
The Dawnrot Ants sAPoems coe a ctaci si ctueteds oy eis cians, « GEORGE LANGFORD 621 
Creating: at National Artcrs a2). eee. ae teen HERBERT J. SPINDEN 622 


National art an embodiment of the common cultural traits of a united country 


Series of Photographs from the First Exhibition of American Textiles, 


Costumes-and= Mechanieal MProcesseseeen seit Eee eee ee 631 
Held at the American Museum of Natural History, November 12 to December 1, 1919 
An “Old Tramp” Among the Florida Keys........ CHARLES T.. SIMPSON 657 
JS eniel eiraalis\enavshaleliebaisany oo Gk ae oanecuaanccs WILLARD G. VAN NAME 665 
Anmiy dinteliimence Wests tsges score ye ier eee eerie Grorce F. Arps 671 


To render possible a rapid classification of the millions of recruits taken into our Army dur- 
ing the war, a Psychological Division was established in the Medical Department which gave 
intelligence tests in the army and reported on the mental abilities and disabilities of the men 


The Intelhgence ot Negro: Recruits: 02-5 ee ee M. R. TrRABUE 680 
A serious educational problem, calling for a radical departure from our current educational 
policy 


M. C. DICKERSON, Editor 


Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History, 
New York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year. 

Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. 
and Central Park West, New York City. 

NaturRAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges 
of membership. 

Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, 
under the Act of August 24, 1912. 

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of 
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. 


CONTENTS (CONTINUED) a 


iememenmmenaces Of Man... .. 06... asec le wc eee es Louts R. SuLLIVAN 
Probably not surviving primitive types of man, but aberrant groups which have developed 
independently 


Sem warts and Civilization................0.cceeee HERBERT LANG 
Mr. Lang traveled and lived among the Pygmies of Central Africa where he collected valu- 
able anthropological data 


With reproductions of photographs of the Pygmies taken in the Congo by the author and of 
a photograph of the Pygmy group in the American Museum 


En OLY anc Ce os = WILLIAM J. LAVARRE 
British Guiana, a country of rich natural resources 
oe SS MUG nS er \LLAN Brooks 
The New York State Wild Life Memorial to 
SIeRHIEC! URMIOBCVELL. 6 =. osc sc ties obec caan eave CHARLES C. ADAMS 


The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station opens to the field naturalist opportunities 
for study of our game animals 


Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum............. Joun 'T. NicHous 


Scientific Zodlogical Publications of the 
ree SIME TESOTSINN «Suse clsoe s fodik‘cc.v'e sve De Secs eee Frank FE. Lutz 
Summary of the work on fossil mammals 


peeeeron ton Alkalime for Crops... ..-..-..6..5.2+2.5.-. E. W. NELSON 


The. Klamath Lake district of California and Oregon is an ideal locality for a bird reservation 
but useless for agriculture 


emmecdsstates Biolorical Surveys of States...........0...cnccevcccuuc 
5 J 

Latest Conservation News from the Pacific Coast 

William Brewster: In Memoriam 


noeesonservanon im New. York State. ........0..2........h0us oes 
Extracts from a Report by the State of New York Conservation Commission 


PMPEVCEMAMM. FTCPATAbOG a . os ee eee ee W. D. MatrHEew 


Notes + ers 


Including brief statements of science, exploration, and conservation news, personal mention of 
various men of the scientific world, and activities of the Red Cross, Rockefeller Foundation, 
International Research Council, and several scientific departments of the United States Gov- 
ernment 


Pini sie eles «aoe ws a 0.0) e « «6 eco © 6 eee ee SOC Ope ec mee aoe tea dc LSE 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


MEMBERSHIP 


For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and 
exploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural 
History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the gen- 
erosity of friends. More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who 
are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes 
of membership are: 


MPHPPACLOR 2 a 8. 2 oo + + So OeROOD 


Beseciate Founder . . : . . . . =. . + 28,000 
mmeociate Benefactor- . . . . . .« « « «+ 20,000 
RE Sa es ee Oe ce 1,000 
oe eR eC ee i 500 
MeeeIper kk 100 
Sustaining Member. . . . . . . annually 25 
Annual Member. . . « annually 10 
Associate Member (nonresident ) - .  . annually 3 


Full information regarding membership may be obtained from 
the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. 


THE LAST BUST OF ROOSEVELT MODELED FROM LIFE 


The work of Sigurd Neandross 


euted from 


Mr. andross aimed to make a faithful life portrait of the older Roosevelt. The work was ex 
just before 


studies made at Mr. Roosevelt’s New York office and at the American Museum of Natural History 
Roosevelt was taken to the hospital prior to his death, and the bust was never completed. 
At the close of a new single-volume edition of Rudyard Kipling’s verse, just from the press of 
Page & Company, are these lines on Roosevelt: 
“Concerning brave Captains Of whom o’er both oceans 
Our age hath made known Both peoples may ve 
For all men to honor, ‘Our realm is diminished 
One standeth alone With Great-Heart away.’’ 


Doubleday, 


NATURAL 


VOLUME XIX 


DECEMBER, 1919 


HISTORY 


NUMBER 6 


A Geographer at the Front and at the 
Peace Conference 


By 


rou Gi AS W. 


JOHNSON 


Professor of Physiography, Columbia University; lately Major, Military Intelligence Division, United 
States Army, and Chief of Division of Boundary Geography, American 
Commission to Negotiate Peace 


From stenographic notes of an address delivered on the occasion of the annual dinner of the New York 


Academy of Sciences, December 15, 1919. 


HAD the opportunity, in connec- 

tion with a codperative undertak- 

ing by the American Geographical 
Society and the authorities of the 
United States Army, to visit the battle- 
fronts from Belgium to Salomiki dur- 
ing the military operations, for the 
purpose of studying on the ground the 
influence of the terrain upon military 
strategy and tactics. It will be possible 
in the few minutes this evening to pick 
out from my interesting experiences 
during that trip only a few examples 
of the very evident influence topog- 
raphy has on strategy, and then to 
show how we applied geographical 
knowledge not only of strategic mat- 
ters, but also of other territorial ques- 
tions, in solving the problems of the 
Peace Conference. 

In northern France and Belgium 
we have a region of low plain, above 
which there are occasional low topo- 
graphical eminences, which played a 
striking part in the military operations 
of the Great War. Farther southeast, in 
the area east of Paris, the land is made 
up of a series of plateaus, each having 
a general slope westward toward the 
Paris basin, and a somewhat 
and steep escarpment overlooking a 
lower plain to the eastward. These 


ragged 


Illustrations from photographs by the speaker 


steeper slopes face toward Germany, 
and have been called the natural de- 
Paris. It was no accident 
that the main German offensive came 
not from the east, across the low plains 
dominated by high escarpments, but 
instead from the north to take the nat- 
ural defensive lines in the flank.1 

I am going to describe a few typi- 
cal areas in the northern plain, begin- 
ning at the Belgian coast and the Mt. 
Kemmel-Vimy Ridge area, where the 
topography had a very striking influ- 
ence on the local fighting; then in the 
Verdun region and the St.-Mihiel sa- 
lient; and finally in the vicinity of 
Nancy, where the topography was ably 
utilized by General de Castelnau in his 
magnificent defense of that city. 

Turning first to the Belgian coast, 
we find that the battle-front ended lit- 
erally not only at the sea, but in the 
sea, the barbed wire entanglements 
crossing the line of dunes which sepa- 
rates the lowland of Belgium from the 
sea and extending out into the water in 
order to prevent local flanking move- 
ments. In that lowland the surface 
over extensive areas is below the level 


fenses of 


* For full explanation see Topography and Strat- 
egu in the War (pages 2-10), Henry Holt & Co. 
$v Douglas W. Johnson. 


d11 


512 

of the sea at high tide. By opening 
the tide gates, it was possible to admit 
the waters of the sea at high tide and 
flood large tracts of land. This means 


of topographie defense was utilized, 
as you will remember, in the great 
battle for the Channel ports, and with 
such success that an inferior number 
of Allied troops were able to stop the 
great German drive in one of the big 
bids which Germany made for success 
in the war. On every railroad embank- 
ment or other slight elevation above the 
low-lying waste of waters it was pos- 
sible to construct a series of sandbag 
protections to serve as lines of resis- 
tance against which the Germans always 
had to advance across submerged areas. 
The danger of these submerged areas 
lay not merely in the fact that ma- 
neuvers in the water were difficult and 
the footing very insecure and uncer- 
tain, and that concealed beneath the 
waters were deep ditches and trenches 
where a man might suddenly drop into 
depths far over his head, but also in 
the fact that in such a flooded region 
every wounded man is a dead man. 
When he falls from his wound, he falls 
not on the battlefield to be carried off 
to a hospital, but into the water to be 
drowned. Hence it was that the Ger- 
man losses in killed were unusually 
heavy in the battle for the Channel 
ports. 

Some distance southeast of the Bel- 
gian coast and just northwest of Lille 
is a series of low hills rising only a few 
score of feet above the general level of 
the flat plam. Mt. Kemmel forms the 
easternmost member of these hills. 
When one of the German commu- 
niques stated that their best mountain 
troops had been able to scale the 
heights of Mt. Kemmel, the world may 
have imagined that the climb was a 
difficult one. JI think, however, that 
the most corpulent of individuals could 
easily reach the summit in a ten or 
fifteen minute walk from the base of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the hill. Yet that slight elevation 
gives a perfect command of every road 
and of every obstacle capable of con- 
cealing a gun, over a broad stretch of 
country. From Mt. Kemmel it was 
possible on a clear day to see north- 
westward clear to the line of dunes at 
the sea; then to sweep the entire pano- 
rama of the battle-front north, east, 
and south, until it faded away on the 
horizon south of Vimy Ridge. It is 
not difficult to understand why there 
were such bitter struggles for so com- 
manding a point of observation. 

Southwest of Lille, and not far from 
the town of Arras, there rises above 
the plain a ridge which has a gentle 
southwestern slope and a steep north- 
east-facing escarpment. This is the 
famous Vimy Ridge. In the early days 
of the war the Germans made a point 
of seizing this ridge. I may say par- 
enthetically that it was the testimony 
of officers all along the western front 
that the Germans showed unusual skill 
in selecting and seizing topographi- 
cally favorable points, and that as a 
result the Allies were, at the beginning 
of the war, usually at a topographic 
disadvantage as compared with the 
enemy. 

What was the peculiar value of Vimy 
Ridge that such a terrible price should 
be paid for its recapture by the Allied 
armies? It was a question of observa- 
tion. So long as the Germans held the 
southwestern slope of the ridge they 
could see every moyement within the 
Allied lines for a great distance north 
and south; whereas, the Allies them- 
selves, facing up hill against the Ger- 
man lines, could see nothing but the 
obstacle of the rising ridge. The Ger- 
mans could carry on their maneuvers 
on the plain behind the ridge unham- 
pered by enemy observation except such 
as was possible by means of aéroplane 
and balloon. Continuous and easy ob- 
servation direct from the ground has 
great advantages over the more uncer- 


A GEOGRAPHER AT THE FRONT 


tain observation from the air, where the 
observer is subjected to great annoy- 
ance and danger if he flies low, and 
suffers from restricted vision if he flies 
high. 

The Allies lost many tens of thou- 
sands of killed and still larger numbers 
in wounded, to gain a few hundred 
yards of this valuable terrain. It was 
worth the price, for with that gain the 
roles of the two armies were reversed. 
The Germans were on the defensive, 
their back areas under perfect observa- 
tion, and the possibility of their plan- 
ning a surprise attack greatly reduced, 
while the Allies enjoyed the protection 
from direct terrestrial observation 
which the enemy formerly enjoyed. 
The path to victory was being pre- 
pared. 


Now let us pass far eastward to the 
region of Verdun. It is in the topog- 
raphy of this region that we find an 
explanation for the direction of the 
German attack, which was from the 
north down the valley of the Meuse, in 
spite of the fact that the east-west 
spurs, projecting into the winding val- 
ley, gave a series of positions very dif- 
ficult to take. The high plateau 
escarpment facing eastward and over- 
looking the low plain of the Woévre, 
was even more difficult, however, for 
the French troops on the plateau crest 
possessed a truly wonderful command 
of the whole low country to the east 
over which any German attack from this 
direction would be compelled to move. 
The plain of the Woévre is dotted with 
marshes and ponds, roads are few, and 
are in full view of observers on the 
heights above. Artillery control of the 
relatively few approaches to the cliffs 
leading up to the plateau was so per- 
fect that an attack from the east would 


1The full significance of Vimy Ridge, and its 
place in the fighting of several campaigns, cannot 
be told in a few moments but will be fully de- 
seribed in a large monograph to be published by 
the American Geographical Society in 1920. 


513 


offer even less chance of success than 
an advance down the valley. 

During the battle of the St.-Mihiel 
salient, the American troops pressing 
north across the plain of the Woévre 
were aided by troops sweeping down 
from the plateau on the west, and by 
observers posted on the plateau crest in 
order to observe and direct the progress 
of operations. The American troops 
occupied, at the beginning of the oper- 
ations, a line running east and west 
across the low plain. Facing them 
were the Germans in a very strong po- 
sition selected with such skill that, 
while the Americans on taking over 
this part of the French line found 
themselves down in the marshes and 
mud, the enemy stood high and dry on 
the projecting spur of the plateau 
forming Montsec and its adjoining 
ridge. 


In the battle of Nancy the Germans 
did attempt the difficult task of attack- 
ing the face of a plateau scarp from the 
low plain to the east of it. The scarp 
in question lies next east of that near 
Verdun, and is known in part as the 
Grand Couronne. North of Nancy the 
scarp is high and forbidding, while to 
the south it appears less formidable. 

The battle of Nancy was divided into 
three phases. The Germans, realizing 
the difficulty of scaling the heights 
north of Nancy, first marched their 
armies southward and attacked the es- 
carpment where it was lowest. The 
attack failed because the French, even 
on the lower escarpment, had a com- 
mand of the low plain in front which 
made it impossible for the Germans to 
attempt any movement of surprise, 
and which enabled the French artillery 
to decimate the attacking columns as 
they moyed into position. The second 
attack was against the city of Nancy 
itself and that part of the plateau just 
north; but although the Germans were 
able to cross the plain toward Nancy 


514 


for a considerable distance, on twelve 
successive days they were beaten back 
by the artillery fire controlled from ad- 


vantageous observation points. The 
final attempt was a drive southward 
from the direction of Metz, against a 


projection of the plateau at Ste.-Gene- 
vieve, with the hope of passing down 
the Moselle Valley to reach Nancy. 
After the attacking forces had _ suc- 
ceeded in reaching the crest of the 
plateau at one point they were pushed 
back into the plain and held there for 
the remainder of the war. 


These studies were carried on in part 
for the purpose of making the Amer- 
ican Government acquainted with the 
importance and significance of stra- 
tegic frontiers. We knew that when 
the Peace Conference convened certain 
countries were going to press extensive 
claims for strategic annexations of ter- 
ritory in order that they might have 
good, defensible frontiers; and we 
thought it advisable to know from ob- 
servation under modern conditions of 
warfare just what was the value of to- 
pography in defensive and offensive 
warfare. It is interesting to record 
that the testimony of the officers with 
whom I talked, including both com- 
manders-in-chief and generals of lesser 
rank all along the fronts from Bel- 
gium to the Balkans, was to the effect 
that topography not only affects the 
movements of military forces today as 
much as it did in the past, but that 
under modern conditions of warfare 
the control of topography is even more 
effective than ever before. As Marshal 
Haig expressed it, one would not be 
exaggerating to say that the entire war 
has been a struggle for topographic 
position. 


It may perhaps interest you if I 
sketch for a moment the kind of or- 
ganization we had at the Peace Con- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


ference, and tell where the geographic 
work came in. 

The question of language interested 
many of us, particularly when we first 
saw the Peace Conference begin its 
operations. English and French were 
on an equal footing as the official lan- 
guages of the conference, and the pro- 
ceedings of the Supreme Council and of 
the Big Four were carried on in both. 
Only in some of the commissions where 
everyone spoke French, was French 
alone employed, in order to reduce by 
half the time required for such com- 
missions to do their work. In the Su- 
preme Council and other more im- 
portant meetings the translating was 
done by the wonderful Mantoux, a man 
of high distinction as an authority on 
certain English economic problems, 
possessing perfect command of a num- 
ber of different languages, and gifted 
with a most remarkable memory and a 
power of mimicry which enabled him to 
reproduce not alone the words but also 
the thought and spirit of those whose 
words he translated. Inasmuch as he 
is probably the one man who was pres- 
ent at most of the important meetings 
from the days of the Supreme War 
Council to the close of the Peace Con- 
ference, his memoirs, if ever published, 
should prove a valuable and fascinat- 
ing document. 

I shall never forget the first time I 
saw this remarkable man at work. It 
was at a meeting of the Supreme Coun- 
cil, and the representative of a smaller 
power was presenting his country’s 
claim to certain territory. As the pres- 
entation proceeded, Mantoux, sitting 
to the right of and slightly behind 
Clémenceau, jotted down hasty notes 
on large sheets of paper lying on the 
small table before him. I waited, with 
erowing surprise, the moment when 
the speaker would cease and allow the 
translation to begin. But five minutes, 
ten minutes passed, and still the 
speaker continued; and still Mantoux 


A 


- ——_ gr a 


A GEOGRAPHER AT THE FRONT 515 


calmly jotted down his notes. The door 
opened, a liveried porter slipped into 
the room, and laid a letter on Man- 
toux’s table. Note taking ceased, Man- 
toux read the letter, wrote a reply, and 
handed it to the porter. All this time 
the delegate of the power in question 
continued the earnest argument in fa- 
yor of his country’s demands. What a 
shame, I thought, that the translator 
should be missing a vital part of that 
argument! And I made a mental note 
of the points which would escape the 
knowledge of those who did not un- 
derstand the original presentation in 
French. Finally, after a lapse of time 
which seemed to me almost intermina- 
ble, the speaker paused, and bowing to 
Mantoux, intimated that the first sec- 
tion of his address might now be ren- 
dered into English. A moment’s hesi- 
tation, during which he glanced hastily 
over his several pages of notes as if to 
visualize the whole argument in its en- 
tirety, and Mantoux began. In clear 
tones and a forceful manner, the trans- 
lator now reproduced with remarkable 
fidelity the thought, the phraseology, 
the very emphasis of the original 
speaker. Nothing was lacking, and 
while I breathlessly awaited the hiatus 
which should mark that portion of the 
address lost during his preoccupation, 
Mantoux calmly reproduced it all, not 
a sentence missing. His mind had re- 
corded each word even while it seemed 
otherwise engaged, and now gave back 
in another tongue all it had received. 
Assuredly Mantoux was one of the out- 
standing figures of the Peace Confer- 
ence. 

With the Supreme Council and its 
general organization you are already 
familiar. Later, this Supreme Council 
(popularly called the Big Ten) broke 
up into the Big Four and the Big 
Five—the Big Four being Mr. Wilson. 
Signor Orlando, Mr. Lloyd George, 
and M. Clémenceau (the Japanese rep- 
resentative not participating actively 


where matters of the western world 
only were concerned), and the Big 
Five consisting of the Ministers of 
Foreign Affairs. Next below there 
came a series of commissions including 
the territorial commissions composed 
of two delegates from each of the four 
great western powers. There were such 
commissions to consider the territorial 
demands of Greece, Roumania, the 
Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slovaks, and so 
on. The appropriate territorial com- 
mission would give a hearing to any 
small power which desired to present 
its case, or to two or more powers 
where there were conflicting claims to 
territory. After hearing both sides 
of the case, the members of these 
commissions and their associated geo- 
graphical, economic, historical, mil- 
itary, and other experts would debate 
the issues at length, and decide what 
was just in each claim and what was 
unjust, and where the new boundary 
lines should be drawn, striving to fix 
the frontiers as nearly as possible along 
lines of racial division but taking into 
due account the geographic, the eco- 
nomic, and to some extent, the stra- 
tegic factors, in order to get the wisest 
and most permanent settlement of the 
various complicated territorial prob- 
lems. I think it is just to say that in 
most cases a sincere effort was made 
by the disinterested technical men of 
the different great powers to lay down 
the frontiers of Europe in the way 
which would be fairest to all con- 
cerned. And while political considera- 
tions sometimes influenced the repre- 
sentatives of this or that nation, and 
questions of politics or policy some- 
times caused the recommendations of 
the experts to be set aside by the 
higher authority of the Supreme Coun- 
cil or the Big Four, nevertheless, the 
frontiers of the new Europe as you will 
see them on the map were, for the most 
part, drawn in the territorial com- 


516 NATURAL 


missions by disinterested geographic 


and other experts. 

Now, the kind of problems which 
constantly came before the territorial 
commissions can best be illustrated by 
taking one which did not come before 
such a commission; for then I will re- 
veal no commission secrets by referring 
to it. I will select a problem in which 
you are very much interested at the 
present time; namely, the Adriatic 
problem. We have here an issue which 
is fundamentally based on great ques- 
tions of political, physical, economic, 
and strategic geography. It was the 
duty of the different geographic, eco- 
nomic, historical, and other experts 
to know all phases of this and other 
territorial problems: to say, for ex- 
ample, that the linguistic and racial 
boundary between the Jugo-Slavs and 
the Italians lay far over on the western 
edge of the Istrian peninsula, and that 
if a decision were made on the basis of 
nationality alone, not only Fiume but 
most of Istria would have to go to 
Jugoslavia. It was also for them to say 
that the natural or geographic frontier 
lay on the high mountain ridge form- 
ing the backbone of Istria and located 
close to its eastern shore; that all eco- 
nomic relations of the people west of 
that divide may lie most naturally 
with the Italian side of the mountain ; 
and, hence, that it may be wisest to 
push the new international boundary 
away from the racial boundary and on 
up the western slope of the mountain 
until its crest is reached, in order to se- 
cure not only a good economic and a 
natural geographic frontier, but also a 
frontier that is strategically defensi- 
ble. For all these reasons there may 
be very just grounds for giving to Italy 
a part of the territory she desires to 
annex, despite the fact that in so do- 


HISTORY 


ing, a solid block of 370,000 Jugo- 
Slavs must be put under Italian rule 
against their very strong protests. 

On the other hand, the geographer 
and economist must point out the fact 
that along the whole eastern coast of the 
Adriatic runs a high barren mountain 
belt, very little populated and across 
which at the present time there is not 
a single standard gauge railroad south 
of Fiume; that no commercial inter- 
course of great importance can ever 
take place across that barrier; that if 
one takes a map of the standard gauge 
railway system of the new Jugo-Slav 
nation he will find that it is almost en- 
tirely concentrated in the northern 
part of the country, and that its one 
and only natural outlet is the port of 
Fiume; and to point out that because 
of these peculiar conditions, any power 
which controls Fiume holds in the hol- 
low of its hand the entire economic life 
of a nation. It is the duty of the 
higher political authorities to balance 
the claim of an isolated group of Ital- 
ians constituting a minority of the to- 
tal population of Fiume, against this 
claim to economic life of a whole na- 
tion, and against the further fact that 
if the frontier of Italy is brought far 
enough eastward to include the few 
Itahans of Fiume, a vastly greater num- 
ber of Jugo-Slavs must be sacrificed. 

In conclusion I can assure you that 
the work of supplying such a variety of 
technical information on a large num- 
ber of vitally important problems taxed 
to the utmost the capacities of the sci- 
entific advisors. If the work was ex- 
acting, it is a satisfaction to know that 
the advice of the territorial experts was 
frequently sought and extensively used, 
and that it played no inconsiderable 
role in establishing the new frontiers 
of Europe. 


le 


A GEOGRAPHER AT THE FRONT d17 


Mont Kemmel as seen from the plain at its base—In the foreground is one of the muddy roads 


typical of the Flanders plain beside which are the ruins of a former village. Mont Kemmel is the east 


ernmost of a number of low hills just northwest of Lille. From its summit could be obtained a pano- 


ramic view of the battle-front from the dunes of the Belgian coast on the north to the horizon south of 


Vimy Ridge near Arras. Accordingly, the army which possessed the hill held command over every 
road and gun position available to the enemy. 
the northern lowland were the centers for some of the most severe struggles of the war 


It is easy to understand why such small eminences on 


The plateau scarp southeast of Verdun.—At the right is seen the plateau upland, its higher, 


steeper slopes wooded, while at the left is the low plain of the Woéevre, effectively dominated by the 
escarpment. This illustrates the nature of the scarps presented by the series of semi-circular plateaus 
which extend eastward from Paris. Artillery fire from these commanding heights could not success- 
fully be faced, therefore the great attacks against Verdun were from the north down the valley of the 
Meuse. The east and west cross ridges of the Meuse gateway, however, proved equally effective ob- 
stacles. It was the natural topographic defenses of Verdun and not its modern fortifications that 


made possible its stubborn and successful defense 


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VIEW FROM THE EDGE OF ONE OF THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF PARIS 


battle 


the 
Americans were aided by troops moving 


and the American line before 


left distance 


is visible in the 
In advancing from this position, 


—Montsec 


as seen from the dominating plateau to the west.— 


The flat plain of the Woévre 


the 


middle distance. 


areas in the 


wooded 


plain just beyond the 


Mihiel crossed the 
down from the plateau and by observers on the heights who were 


of St 


attack 


able to watch the progress of the 


COCONUT PALMS, A STRAIGHT ROAD, AND A LEVEL COUNTRY 


The first as common a sight in Porto Rico as the other two are uncommon. But this photograph is char- 
acteristic of the limestone plateau in the northwestern part of the island. Coconut palms are universal along 
the coasts of Porto Rico and may be readily distinguished from their upright relative, the royal palm, by a flex- 
ible appearance and a thinner trunk. Compare with the royal palms shown on page 531 


ART, 


re . 


| me pila Rica 
ee ai 


a = 


The port of San Juan is the 
to islands near by, notably to Saint Thomas. 
peneplane), broken by the Plata 
foreground are the 


notches of the 
fantastic 


mooring place for sailing vessels which frequent the coast 
In the distance 
and Bayamon rivers, 


and ply 
the even sky line of the upland (upper 
Nearer to the 


is easily seen. 


limestone hills which border the coast 


Five Land Features of Porto Rico: 
A Story of Cause and Effect 


By Ae 


LO BEC K. 


Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences 


OR the traveler in a new coun- 
try, the conditions of travel and 
the comforts which await him 


in the places where he stops are often 
more important in molding his 
pressions than are the charms of 
country itself. The traveler 
Porto Rico from the magnificent auto- 
mobile route between San Juan and 
Ponce will return with glowing mem- 
of pictures of idyllic 
rugged mountain grandeur, 


im- 
the 
who sees 


ory landscapes, 
tumultuous 
waves on rocky coasts, broad plains ot 
waving cane, 
views over the sparkling 


and 
Caribbean — 


sugar far-away 


with its wealth of exploits in the days 
of Spanish glory. 
But the man who steps aside and 


goes over the native trails or 


the 


stops im 


he 


smaller 


towns, although may 
feel more the romance of his under- 
taking, will nevertheless, later, prob- 
ably have his thoughts often tinged 
with the memory of the inconyen- 


iences and hardships to which he was 


subjected. This is true not onlv of 


Porto Rico, it would be the same any- 
where. Most of the show places of 
America, our national parks, our 
places of scenic interest, are beautiful 
us according as 
have seen them in comfort or misery. 
Porto Rico deserves to make herself 
hospitably comfortable for the tourist. 


or otherwise to we 


She deserves a setting among these 
other gems of natural beauty. She 


deserves to be known in all her parts. 
The charm of her the variety 
of her features, and the peculiarities of 
her people place her in a novel position 
as a retreat for American nature lovers. 
She can add a distinctly new set of in- 
terests to those already known in our 
national parks and monuments. 

Look at Porto Rico from the tour- 
ist’s standpoint. What does she have 
and what does she lack? She has an 
unexcelled system of automobile roads 
encircling the 


scenery, 


island and crossing it in 


several places. But she has only two 
cities, San Juan and Ponce, which 
provide that degree of comfort to 


=99 
ao 


524 


which the traveler is accustomed. 
The ninety-mile ride—a five-hour trip 
overland from San Juan to Ponce— 
a comfortable night at the Hotel Melia, 
and the return next day is the usual 
itinerary of the tourist. It leaves with 
him a delightful panorama of things 
tropical and a good idea of Porto 
Rican geography. No other towns in 
the island provide comfortable hotels. 
At some places like Arecibo, Manati, 
Mayaguez, and Yauco, the little hotels 
are reasonably good, but they would 
never leave a satisfactory impression 
upon the traveler. Now, what parts 
of Porto Rico are most worth seeing, 
what parts will most repay the efforts 
of visiting, what parts can we look for- 
ward to as most likely to have, some 
day, the facilities to attract and en- 
tertain the tourist bent on study or 
adventure ? 

First of all there is the Luquillo 
National Forest with its virgin tim- 
ber, open and parklike, its quiet 
trails, its streams and bold cataracts. 
From Mameyes to Naguabo is a two- 
days’ tramp through the mountains, a 
journey of supreme interest, but at 
neither end of it are there any real 
comforts to be found. So the only 
visitors to this garden spot are the 
occasional men of science who come 
prepared for what they find. Some 
day it will have its little chalets, not 
very elaborate but at least provided 
with American beds and facilities for 
preparing meals. 

A distinctly different type of coun- 
try is the bold haystack hill region be- 
tween Lares and the north coast. Deep 
sink holes without outlets, streams 
plunging underground to follow their 
subterranean channels for many miles, 
sharp and picturesque limestone cliffs 
and pinnacles, overgrown with a 
tangled network of vines and tropical 
plants, are easily seen by trail; but 
here again the traveler must be will- 
ing to accept the hotel accommodations 
as he finds them and to put up with 


NATURAL HISTORY 


annoyances which few are willing to 
endure. 

Of even greater interest and _ still 
more venturesome is the trip to Mona 
Island, fifty miles to the west of Porto 
Rico. The trip is made by sailboat 
from Mayaguez in less than twenty- 
four hours, but Mona Island is a wild 
place with only a lighthouse and occa- 
sionally a little colony of workers who 
come to extract the guano from the 
caves. On this little plateau, facing 
the sea in bold cliffs on all sides, one 
may see how forbidding nature can be 
and yet subtly lure one on in quest of 
strange sights. The jagged limestone 
surface, devoid of water and covered 
with a thick growth of cactus, is thor- 
oughly inhospitable, but there is no 
reason why some day a little boule- 
vard trail may not be cut through it 
and a place constructed to accommodate 
visitors whose tastes carry them to the 
unusual and unique places of the earth. 

A fourth region of exceptional at- 
tractiveness in Porto Rico is the 
stretch of the northwest coast in the 
vicinity of Isabela and Camuy. The 
bold cliffs, the high sand dunes, the 
peculiar platforms and reefs at the 
water’s edge, and the incessant activity 
of the waves make this place one of 
sustained interest and life. The waves 
that roll in upon the coast are some- 
times ten feet or more in height under 
the impulse of the steady northeast 
trade winds. 

These, then, are some of the attrac- 
tions of Porto Rico, so different from 
those of our homeland, and so acces- 
sible that we can confidently look for- 
ward to the time when they will be 
made more hospitable to the stranger. 

If a certain degree of comfort makes 
more profitable the time spent in visit- 
ing and studying a country, so also 
does a slight previous knowledge of the 
meaning of the things seen. Land- 
scape is not unlike music, it is not un- 


‘like a written composition, it is not 


unlike anything else which is organ- 


Morro Castle and the entrance to San J 


1an Harbor.—Th foreground owe 
to the precipitating action of the sea water 


their stepped character 


The city of Guayama is one of 
covered with 


the largest towns 


Caribbean 


or tl 
sugar 


cane front the 
Government. While 
is deficient 


in the di 
United States 


e island Broad 
the northern 


alluvial 
s located the 
ern side 


irrigation service of the 
side of the island is abundantly provided with water, the south- 

in rainfall It consequently draws a large supply for irrigation by means of deep tunnels 
from the northern side of the watershed where large collecting reservoirs hay 


e been built 


The trees show the effect of the incessant heavy trade winds which blow against the north coast of Porto 


Rico. Along a roadway near San Juan not only have the branches been forced to grow in one direction but 


the trunks as well show a marked inclination away from the wind 


A forest of cactus.—The surface of 
tation of this character. Herds of wild 
out a difficult living. 
which they are now subjected. For 
nent tusks two or three inches long 


526 


Mona Island, several square miles in area, is densely covered with vege- 
goats, pigs, and cattle, escaped from domestication, roam over it and eke 
The animals have taken on characteristics in keeping with the harsh conditions of life to 
instance, the pigs have apparently reverted to a type of boar with promi- 


.% 


PIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO 


ized. The various parts may give 
pleasure in themselves. Indeed, ordi- 
narily, we enjoy hill, valley, stream, 
cliff, plain, and beach each on its own 
merits without regard to the fact that 
they are all only parts of an organized 


whole and that they are all interre- 
lated. Some people profess to enjoy 


music better if they do not under- 
stand the secret which underlies the 
composition of its parts. They would 
rather listen to it in a dreamy and 
languid way. There may be some 
people, too, who would rather enjoy 
scenery in the same way. But obser- 
vations upon the usual traveler will 
show him quite eager to know how the 
features of the earth came to be as 
they are. Such a knowledge not only 
awakens in him a much deeper love 
for the things that he sees, but also 
this same knowledge helps him to 
remember these things because it in- 
troduces a logical and coherent rela- 
tionship among them. 

Five different types of land forms 
make up Porto Rico. Of course, land 
forms, like everything else in nature, 
exist in almost infinite variety, but if 
we confine ourselves to the five most 
important types, we can obtain a thor- 
oughly satisfactory picture of the 
island and have a framework upon 
which to add any other types we may 
discover. 

As we approach Porto Rico by boat 
from the north we are impressed by 
the remarkably even sky line over the 
central part of the island, interrupted 
only by the notches of the Plata and 
Bayamon rivers. When we travel into 
the interior, as on the route between 
San Juan and Ponce, we find that 
part of the course lies upon this rolling 
upland surface. The streams flow in 
deep gorges below this upland level 
and when the road runs along the bot- 
tom of the valley or along the side of 
the gorge the aspect of the country on 
all sides is rugged and mountainous, 
and not until we have climbed out of 


527 


the valley on to the upland, about two 
thousand feet above sea level, do we real- 
ize how level-topped it is. And if in- 
vestigation is made as to the attitude of 
the rocks in the road cuts, it is found 
that this level surface is so not because 
the rocks lie in level beds, for they are 
intensely folded and the upland surface 
apparently “planes” across the beds in- 
discriminately. Geologists have come 
to the conclusion that a surface like 
this which planes across the structure 
represents an old worn-down land 
surface, a surface worn down during 
many ages of time to sea level and 
then later bodily uplifted to its pres- 
ent height. It is because of this later 
uplift that the rivers have had their 
activity much renewed, and in conse- 
quence have cut deep gorges or canons 
below the upland surface. 

Examples like-this are rather com- 
mon, too, one of the best known being 
the upland of southern New England, 
standing in Massachusetts about one 
thousand feet above sea level and, like 
Porto Rico, having deep gorges cut be- 
low its surface. The name “peneplane” 
has been assigned to such a land surface, 
a term which means “almost a plane,” 
although it must be noted that most 
uplifted peneplanes are very rugged 
regions for they have been much dis- 
sected by streams and only the even 
sky line beveling their complex strue- 
ture reveals their true identity. This, 
then, is the explanation of the upland 
of Porto Rico, the central rugged por- 
tion, mountainous in aspect when 
viewed from below but even-topped 
when viewed from a distance or from a 
knoll upon its surface. This is the first 
of the five important types of land 
forms in Porto Rico. 

A second type is exemplified in the 
two mountain masses, the Luquillo 
Mountains and the Cordillera Central. 
They stand as groups of peaks above 
the upland surface. Their present 


height is ascribed to the fact that they 


are made up of harder or more resis- 


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In the background rugged haystack hills form the margin of the limestone country. 


Photograph by Ae K. Lobeck 
In the fore- 


ground the underlying formations, mainly volcanic tuffs and shales, give rise to a more flowing topog- 


raphy, often thickly covered with trees. 


to serve as a screen to the coffee plants beneath. 


The forests, however, are not a virgin stand, but are planted 
Thus, throughout the central upland much of the 


region that is apparently wild forest is actually planted in coffee and does not at first give to the 
visitor a true conception of the thorough use that is actually made of it 


tant rocks which were not worn all 
the way down to the level of the up- 
land when the peneplane was formed. 
These mountains are “residuals” or 
“monadnocks,” a name derived from 
Mount Monadnock in southern New 
England, the type example of such a 
form. 

The third distinctive land feature 
occurs as a rolling lowland belt ten 
miles or so in width along the north 
side of the island, and separated from 
the upland level on the south by an 
abrupt and rugged escarpment a thou- 
sand feet or more in height. In origin 
it is similar to the higher upland— 
that is, it represents a land surface 
worn down during long ages of time 
so as ultimately to form a rolling 
country. It also is a “peneplane,” and 
may be called the lower peneplane. 
It was formed during the period fol- 
lowing the uplift of the higher pene- 
plane. Presumably much of the rock 
was worn away by streams, but it 


532 


is also conceivable that the pounding 
of the waves against the north side of 
the island eventually cut this platform 
to sea level and that its present eleva- 
tion is due to a later uplift. 

A fourth land feature of Porto Rico 
introduces a new idea—and new rocks. 
Whereas the rocks underlying all the 
upland peneplane and the lower pene- 
plane as well as the two mountain 
masses are of a complex nature, some- 
times very much folded, oftentimes 
quite resistant and apparently of great 
age, the rocks making up the limestone 
plateaus and hills on the north and 
south sides of the island are in reality 
quite soft, and they lie in almost hori- 
zontal beds. And moreover, they are 
abundantly filled with the remains of 
marine organisms, corals especially, 
oyster shells a foot long, sharks’ teeth, 
and parts of crabs and sea urchins. 
These beds represent accumulations of 
limestone and chalk, deposited under 
the sea upon the flanks of the much 


FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO 


older land region, and later the uplift 
of the old land has brought these 
newer deposits far above sea level. As 
a result of this exposure to the rain 
and to streams the original smooth sur- 
face has been worn down irregularly 
in many places to form fantastic hills 
known as “haystacks.” Elsewhere, be- 
cause of the solvent nature of the lime- 
stone, these streams have dissolved 
out underground courses, a condition 
which is true of parts of Camuy and 
Tanama rivers where they flow beneath 
the limestone plateau between Lares 
and Arecibo. 

Finally, there are extensive flat 
tracts of bottom land, or “playas,” 
which fringe much of the coast and 
extend inland along the rivers some- 
times for many miles. These alluvial 
plains represent deposits of fine ma- 
terial carried down by the streams and 
spread out along the coast either as 
deltas or alluvial fans as on the south 
side of the island where the water is 
quiet, or as a filling of the shallow 


or 
1S) 
(S) 


bays which deeply indent the coast on 
the east and west ends. The seaward 
margin of these plains is formed by 
beautiful curving beaches of white 
sand which swing like ares between 
the promontories on each side, some- 
times for a stretch of two or three 
miles. With their groves of waving 
coconut palms silhouetted against the 
ocean and the sky, they add just that 
touch of picturesqueness which gives 
so much charm to the coasts of Porto 
Rico. 

With these five types of relief fea- 
tures in mind, the central upland, the 
mountains rising above it, the lower 
rolling platform on the north side, the 
limestone plateaus, and hills, and the 
flat playa lands, it is comparatively 
easy to see the different parts of Porto 
Rico, even in their diversity, as ele- 
ments of a larger unit. It is possible 
also to add many new and smaller 
features, placing them in some definite 
relation to these five important ones 
already known. Similarly other obser- 


Photograph by A. K. Lobeck 


These miniature erosion forms show characteristics which are found in the larger features of 
Porto Rico, intricate systems of branching valleys, sharp cuchillo or knife-edge ridges, and very steep 


slopes, sometimes almost vertical. 
picture 


The barefoot boy with his brace of fish provides scale for the 


DIPPING BEDS IN THE LIMESTONE COUNTRY (UPPER PHOTOGRAPH) 


The limestone region on the north side of the island of Porto Rico, known technically as the coastal 


plain, is made up of beds of limestone altogether several hundred feet in thickness, sloping gently northward 
This view provides a transverse or cross section of the beds in the valley of the Manati 


toward the sea. 
differential erosion or the wearing 


River and shows small sloping terraces in the valley sides formed by 


away of the less resistant layers 


534 


A. K. Lobeck 
OWER PICTURE) 


bY 


otographs 


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the 


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the 


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bein 


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covered with 


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tobacco 


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th 


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chees 


bei ee i : 
Photograph by A. K. Lobeck 
So-called tidal deltas are formed when the ocean waves break upon the beach to such a height that they 
pour over the narrow bar into the adjoining lagoon. The sand that is carried over is deposited in the fan- 
shaped mass which is a miniature delta, but oddly enough it is formed not by a stream entering the ocean but 


by the ocean entering the stream 


Photograph by A. K. Lobeck 
Sand dunes along the beach west of Arecibo.—Where the sand is kept moist by the spray from the waves 
it has become quite compact and solid through the deposition of lime in its interstices. All stages may be noted 


from loose sand on the landward side of the dunes to a hard coating over the seaward side, and finally to con- 
solidated rock at the water’s edge where the waves are continually breaking. Even the flat beach is hard and 


firm like a pavement, except where loose sand has just drifted upon it 


536 


FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO 537 


vations such as those upon the location 
of towns, the agricultural pursuits of 
the people, the character of the vege- 
tation, may best be made with the 
topography as a background. For in- 
stance, we may note certain geograph- 
ical facts with regard to each one of 
these topographical areas. 


Rugged cliffs mark the limit of the limestone plateau 
After each rush of the waves the retreating water pours out of the hollows and 


pound incessantly. 


On the rolling lower peneplane, be- 
cause of the greater ease of movement 
and because of the proximity to ship- 
ping ports, fruit raising and _ the 
growing of some sugar cane are prac- 
tised. 


The limestone regions of the north 
and south sides of the island, both the 


Sa 
Se i 


Photograph by A. K. Lobeck 


against which the waves of the Atlantic 


irregularities of the rock and, by depositing a thin film of lime around the edge, gradually develops a 


series of terraces like those of the Mammoth Hot 


Springs, and for a similar reason. At first they 


suggest a wave-cut platform uplifted a few feet, but the random disposition of the small terraces and 


the presence of a thick pinkish 
origin 


Because of its elevation and its 
rugged character the central upland is 
not densely populated and has prac- 
tically no large towns. Coffee growing 
is the chief industry there because it re- 
quires almost no culture, and because 
the crop is of small bulk and is easily 
transported over the rough trails. 

In the higher mountains the extreme 
ruggedness and the numerous rock ex- 
posures preclude practically all agri- 
cultural pursuits. 


deposit of lime around the 


margin of the pockets indicate their true 


flat plateaus and the dissected haystack 
hill areas, are usually too dry and bar- 
ren, because of the subterranean drain- 
age, to permit the raising of large 
Locally among the haystack hills 
there are flat spaces developed upon the 
more clayey beds of the limestone. 
The soil is excellent for fruit raising 
cultivated. For this 
reason not a little of the north coast 
region between San Juan and Manati 
cultivation of 


crops. 


and is easily 


is given over to the 


538 NATURAL HISTORY 


Many of 
the Americans Porto 
Rico their home are engaged in this 


citrus fruits and pineapples. 
who have made 
work. 

By far the lands of 
Porto Rico are the great alluvial plains 
or playas. The word “playa” really 
“shore,” but in Porto Rico it is 


most valuable 


means 
used to designate the whole expanse 
of flat land bordering the rivers along 
their Here are the 
sugar cane lands. Extremely rich, ex- 
tensive in area, easily cultivated, well 


lower courses. 


watered, readily served with roads and 
small railroads, close to the shipping 
centers along the coast, they have the 


ideal combination of desirable attri- 
butes which have caused the sugar 


crop of Porto Rico to be worth each 
year three times the total of all her 


other exports—made up chiefly of 
fruits, and tobacco. Each of 
the great playa lands is a unit in it- 
self. 


neighbors by the hilly promontories 


cottee, 
Separated more or less from its 


which extend down from the uplands to 
the sea, it seems like a little world of its 
own. The chief town les in its center. 
Here is located the sugar mill or 
“central,” to which all of the cane of 
the neighborhood is brought for grind- 
ing. The towns of Humacao, Mau- 
nabo, Yabucoa, Fajardo, and Naguabo 
near the east coast, are especially rep- 
resentative in this respect. 

Intimately related with the topog- 
raphy, too, is the interesting climate 
of the country. In a small area Porto 
Rico offers some striking contrasts. 
Lying as it does within the tropics 


The native huts in Lares are typical of the whole island. } 
pliable bark of the banana tree of which a grove is seen in the right of the picture. 


during the moments of a torrential downpour. 


They are usually roofed with the flat 
It is becoming 
common, however, especially among the more pretentious individuals, to use corrugated zine or sheet 
iron, which, however, is not so picturesque, but is more durable and somewhat more satisfactory 


The general use of the automobile in Porto Rico 


with the introduction of the common square five-gallon tin containers for gasoline has solved many 
a native’s problem for weatherboarding, but unfortunately a building sheathed in this convenient 


material does not appear in this view 


Growing tobacco under cheesecloth produces leaves of finer and thinner te, more suitable for ci 
wrappers than those grown in the oper nd the leaves are lso much freer from holes, eesecloth keeps 
out many biting insects The cloth is stretched over poles and wire yout ten feet ground. Such 
plantings are extensive and are followed mostly by lar companies, the small pla r being unable to invest 


in the enormous supply of cloth necessary) 


A pineapple field in the mestone ountr Oo the orth coast Che iystack hills resulting from the wear 
ng down of the origina mestone plateau are racteristic of the regior Between the iystacks’’ there are 
occasional sink oles or depressions without outlet Elsewhere there re broad flat areas opened out upon a 
more clave laver in the horizont hedded mestor These flat re provide the principal fruit-raising lands 


of Porto Rico 


540 

and directly under the belt of trade 
winds which blow from the northeast, 
it is subject to their influence which is 
expressed in opposite ways. Trade 


winds are recognized as producers of 
desert conditions. Most of the deserts 
of the world he in trade-wind zones. 
Around Porto Rico the islands which 
are not of sufficient size or height to 
induce precipitation are very dry and 
support abundant growths of cactus. 
This is especially true of the small 
islands Culebra, Desecheo, and Mona. 
Even on Porto Rico, the northeast tip 
of the island has a similar aspect be- 
cause of the drying influence of the 
trade winds. But when these winds, 
with the great quantity of moisture 
which they have accumulated, are 
forced to rise over the mountainous in- 
terior of Porto Rico, their capacity for 
retaining moisture is diminished and 
excessively heavy downpours result. 
From out of the brilliant sky dense 
cloud masses form with great rapidity 
over the uplands and throughout most 
of the year several downpours may 
be expected every day. But when the 
winds reach the lower lands of the 
southern coast they not only have 
lost a large part of their moisture, 
but also in their downward journey 
they have been transformed into dry- 
ing winds again, with the result that 
this whole coastal area is almost barren 
and parts of it experience months and 
even years without rainfall. There- 
fore irrigation is essential for the culti- 
vation of large crops, and in the 
southwestern corner of the island 
where there occur the longest periods 
of drought, considerable areas are 
densely covered with cactus. 

The torrential character of the rain- 
fall over the uplands is a significant 
factor in the development of the sharp 
cuchillo, or knife-edge divides, com- 
mon in the interior. Because of their 
very steep slopes, often of twenty- 
five to thirty degrees, and even of forty 
to forty-five degrees, the valley walls 


NATURAL HISTORY 


are pronounced barriers to progress. 
The average annual rainfall over the 
uplands is between 80 and 90 inches, 
or more than twice that of the vicinity 
of New York. Unlike the precipita- 
tion of middle latitudes, where the 
duration is to be measured in hours 
and even days and the amount in hun- 
dredths or tenths of an inch, the aver- 
age duration of a shower in Porto 
Rico is ten or twelve minutes. ‘There 
are numerous instances of successive 
showers which totaled 10 inches rainfall 
in twelve hours, while amounts of from 
4 to 5 inches in twenty-four hours are 
of frequent occurrence. A record of 23 
inches for twenty-four hours, as an ex- 
ample of an extended period of heavy 
precipitation, and of 1 inch in nine 
minutes for a short period, may sug- 
gest that important consequences must 
result from the accumulation and run- 
off of so great a volume of water in so 
brief a period of time. 

An interesting phase of the situation 
is the impervious character of the soil 
throughout the “oldland portion” of 
Porto Rico—that is, the region made 
up of the voleanic rocks. The soil which 
develops from the decay of these rocks 
is a red clay or mud, excessively unctu- 
ous and tenacious, and exasperatingly 
slippery. It acts as an impervious 
mantle which prevents the penetration 
of water into the ground, thus caus- 
ing it either to accumulate in all of 
the little pockets and irregularities of 
the surface, or immediately to run off 
and flood the streams. The exceed- 
ingly rapid run-off may be appreciated 
from the fact that many streams im- 
mediately rise 15 to 20 feet after 
heavy showers. In one case, the Plata 
River, twenty-five minutes after it 
began to rise, poured over the dam 
near Comerio in a sheet 15 feet or 
more in thickness throughout the en- 
tire length of the dam, about 575 feet, 
the flood continuing all day at 10 feet 
above the dam. 


“Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children” 


By 


HERMANN 


HAGEDORN 


Poet and Playwright; Author of Boys’ Life of Theodore Roosevelt; Secretary of the 
Roosevelt Memorial Association 


O those who were privileged to 
know Theodore Roosevelt in his 
intimate relationships, the cries 
of mingled delight and astonishment 
that have greeted the volume of letters 
which he wrote to his children, have 
themselves brought a shock of surprise. 

“How perfectly extraordinary,” ex- 
claims Tom to Dick and Harry, “these 
letters are tender !” 

“Amazing,” cries Dick, “he was a 
real father, a wonderful father! In the 
midst of that noisy, busy life of his, he 
actually had time every day for his 
children.” 

And Harry gasps helplessly, “Who 
would ever have imagined it!” 

All of which goes to show that the 
most discussed man of his time, the 
man who filled more newspaper col- 
umns and more magazine pages and 
more books than any dozen of his con- 
temporaries put together was actually 
unknown to the millions whose hero 
and idol he was. They thought of him 
in terms of the Big Stick of the swash- 
buckler of the cartoons, the Apostle of 
Strenuosity, the Man-eating Lion, the 
Thunder-god before whose word parties 
died and parties came to birth—that 
was Roosevelt to them. One wonders in 
bewilderment what these millions im- 
agined concerning him in his capacity 
of husband and father. A tyrant un- 
questionably they thought him, dom- 
imeering over his family, thundering 
laws from Sinai, stamping through the 
house like an elephant trumpeting 
down the slopes of Kenia. One won- 
ders what these folks with their estab- 
lished notion of what “T. R.” ought to 
be, would have said if they could have 
seen him on a certain summer’s day 
during the last year of his life. 

It was at Sagamore. The day was 
warm and the youngest grandchild was 


1Theodcre Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, edited by Joseph Bucklin Bishop. 


Sons, New York, 1919. 


lying in her crib in a shaded corner of 
the porch, dreamily content. Around 
the corner from the porte-cochére came 
the Colonel, espied the baby, and with 
a chuckle of delight lifted her out of 
the crib and hugged her, making ab- 
surd, joyous noises. 

Suddenly at his back he heard a soft, 
familiar voice. “Now, Theodore,” pro- 
tested Mrs. Roosevelt, “do you know 
what you've done? That baby was per- 
fectly happy there. Now someone will 
have to hold her the rest of the after- 
noon.” 

“All right,” 
hold her !”’ 

And hold her he did, rocking back 
and forth in his favorite rocking-chair 
all afternoon, as he carried on his po- 
litical conferences. 

To those who knew Theodore Roose- 
velt in the intimate and friendly at- 
mosphere of Sagamore Hill, this book 
of his letters to his children is no rev- 
elation; but it furnishes perhaps an 
even keener delight to them than it 
furnishes to those startled others, since 
it gives as possibly no other written rec- 
ord could, a reflection of that wise, 
warm-hearted human being, so gay, so 
boyish, so full of tenderness and hu- 
mor, who was the master, and the per- 
vasive spirit, of Sagamore. In these 
letters, the man of the cartoons gives 
way to the sympathetic father, the 
playmate without peer, the boy who 
never grew up. 

The collection begins with the pe- 
riod of the Spanish War, although hid- 
den in some drawer somewhere, there 
must be similar letters written during 
his ranching days, for he began send- 
ing illustrated communications to his 
children from the time the oldest of 
them was scarcely more than a year 
old. The great affairs of this world 


eried the Colonel. “Ul 


Charles Scribner's 


541 


1 


542 NATURAL 


are touched on here and there, but only 
touched Ol. 

“Tomorrow the National Conven- 
tion meets,” he writes to Kermit on 


June 21, 1904, “and barring a cata- 
| shall be nominated.” But he 
seems less interested in the surge of 
great human currents at Chicago than 
he does in the little matters of daily 
life which make the world of his chil- 
dren. On that same day—the day pre- 
ceding also the transmission of the 
famous ultimatum, “We want Perdic- 
aris alive or Raisuli dead”—he wrote 
from the White House to each of his 
four younger children. 

“The garden here is lovely,” he tells 
Ethel. “A pair of warbling vireos 
have built in a linden and sing all the 
time. The magnolias are in bloom, 
too, and the jasmine on the porch.” 

“Blessed Archikins” receives word 
the same day concerning Bill the Liz- 
ard. ‘The other day when Mother and 
I were walking down the steps of the 
big south porch,” writes his father, “we 
saw a movement among the honey- 
suckles and there was Bill the Lizard— 
your lizard that you brought home 
from Mount Vernon. We have seen 
him several times since and he is evi- 
dently entirely at home here. The 
White House seems big and empty 
without any of you children puttering 
around it, and I think the ushers miss 
you very much.” 

But it is “Dear Quentyquee” who re- 
ceives that day the most weighty com- 
munication of all. “The other day 
when out riding what should I see in 
the road ahead of me but a real B’rer 
Terrapin and B’rer Rabbit. They 
were sitting solemnly beside one an- 
other and looked just as if they had 
come out of a book; but as my horse 
walked along B’rer Rabbit went lippity 
lippity lippity off into the bushes and 
B’rer Terrapin drew in his head and 
legs till I passed.” 

On the day following (while the 
Convention was opening its delibera- 


clysm 


HISTORY 


tions and the chancelleries of Europe 
were beginning to mutter and flutter 
and hold up their metaphorical hands 
at the implications of the Moroccan 
ultimatum), the President was writing 
and elaborately illustrating a letter to 
Ethel, including among other works of 
art a picture of a policeman and a 
squirrel which bore this caption: “A 
nice policeman feeding a squirrel with 
bread; I fed two with bread this after- 
noon.” What after all were presidential 
nominations and ultimatums in com- 
parison with matters of such import ? 

Roosevelt was and remained, among 
his children’s companions, the best 
beloved and most eagerly sought after. 
His sympathetic understanding  en- 
abled him to meet them always on the 
level of development on which they 
stood. As they grew he seemed to 
grow with them. Imperceptibly al- 
most, as the years go on, the letters 
deepen, and in place of the stories of 
lizards and rabbits, come analyses of 
the relative merits of Japanese and 
American methods of wrestling and 
bits of sage advice given almost apol- 
ogetically concerning studies or ath- 
letics or the choice of a career. 

Theodore Jr’s arrival in college drew 
from the President a series of in- 
dignant and sympathetic letters con- 
cerning “the newspaper men, camera 
creatures and idiots generally” who be- 
set the path of one whose home ad- 
dress happened to be the White House. 
To Kermit he wrote largely of books. 
Through all the letters runs the delight 
of living, the joy in beauty of color and 
sound and fragrance, the quiet content- 
ment of a happy home. 

Books will be written without num- 
ber in the years to come concerning 
Theodore Roosevelt, and many will tell 
of the things he did and many will 
paint or attempt to paint the man that 
he was. But this book of his own 
letters to his children will always stand 
alone, for in it lives and breathes for- 
ever the very man himself. 


SCULPTURES OF THE LATE THEODORE ROOSEVELT 


BY FRANK OWEN PAYNE! 


THE MAN OF LETTERS 
Roosevelt Bust, recently executed by John E£ttl 


This portrait bust is intended to depict Theodore Rooseve he appeared in later life—as the lover of books, 
the contributing editor, the creative man of letters It the death mask and on one of his best known 
photographs of recent years 


‘Contributor on sculptural subjects to Art and Archeology, International ] Architectural Record. ete 


THEY GLADLY FOLLOWED WHERE HE LED 


Bronze statuette by James E. Kelly 


A sculptor’s portrayal of Theodore Roosevelt as a military leader of his regiment of Roughriders. Roosevelt 
refused a sitting for this, when urged by the sculptor, after returning from Cuba; but granted it later on learn- 
ing that the sculptor was the author of ‘“‘Sheridan’s Ride.” For that inspiring bronze was then in his own 
study: he had seen it one day in Tiffany’s window, when he was just out of Harvard, and had been so im- 
pressed by its spirit that he sacrificed other things to buy it. Replicas of this portrait of Roosevelt, sent to 
grammar schools, for the boys of America to see daily, would be well worth the monetary cost 


A PORTRAIT THAT WILL ALWAYS LIVE 


“The Senate Bust,” by James RB. Fras r 


A sculptor’s portrayal of Roosevelt as President of the United States Roosevelt would not ‘waste 
time” in sittings, so Mr. Fraser did the work at the regular Cabinet meetings His subject was not easy to 
model, for Roosevelt was absorbed in business of state, his pose never constant, and his expression con- 
tinually changing The bust which was executed in marble for the United States Senate Chamber is repre- 
sented with the conventional vesture of the Chief Executive, rather than with the Roughrider garb of the 
sculptor’s original work. (John Burroughs, after touring and camping through the West with Roosevelt 
when he was President in 1903, reports that he said all he cared about being reside) was just ‘“‘the big 


work.” Our California redwoods need the big work o just such a mar 


THE DEATH MASK 


By James E. Fraser 


Immediately after death came, the sculptor who had modeled the living Senate Bust was called to 
make the last record of the head and features of Theodore Roosevelt. This record, in the white plaster, 
gives the authoritative form for all sculptures of the future, and without the fire and the spirit, still carries 
the nobility and heroie sincerity and strength which molded the face of the Roosevelt we knew 


IN WAR A FIGURE OF UNRIVALED ARDOR AND DARING 


Roosevelt, in the statuette by Frederick MacMonnies 


Modeled and executed in MacMonnies’ Paris studio soon after the war with Spain and presented by the sculptor 
to Roosevelt when he was President. The photograph reproduced here is from the original statue, the property of 
the Roosevelt family, who have always set high value on it because of its truthful portrayal of Roosevelt’s enthusi- 
asm. So far as known, this is the only copy in America. 

Today, at the close of 1919, when the great personal Roosevelt of our time is passing into the Roosevelt of his- 
Lory and memory, we are beginning to see him in his permanent proportions and are united in desire to do honor 
to him in great and unique ways. Representative of his ‘‘spirit of youth and swift strength and mounting joy of 
life,’ an American flag was carried by relays of young American boys from station to station across New York State 
and through the city of his birth, stars were sewed on by young American girls at each stop, and the completed flag 
finally brought to his grave at Sagamore Hill 


AT THE BEGINNING OF HIS CAREER AS STATESMAN 


Bronze Bust, by PY i Massey Rh nd 


Within the imposing memorial structure at Niles, Ohio hich marks the birthplace of the 
I I 


martyred President McKinley, are portrait busts of the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, and 


many important men of McK ‘’s administratior Elihu Root, Mark Hanna, John Hay, and 
thers This Roosevelt portrait stands at the right of that of McKinke and in the expression there 
seems to be foreshadowed the lread moment vher tl I Kil né or the assassination of 
McKinley came Mr. Rhind’s work shows the young state n vithout quite the characteristic 


was soon to 


look of the man, largely because of lack o 


tep into the duties and responsibil 


pl 


PORTRAIT FROM A FAMILIAR PHOTOGRAPH 


A medal by Anna Vaughn Hyatt 


Subscribers to the fund of 
the Woman's’ Roosevelt Me- 
morial Association, representa- 
tive of all political parties and 
every religious faith, are _ pre- 
sented with a copy of this 
medal. The Association has 
purchased the house in which 
Theodore Roosevelt was born, 
at No. 28 East Twentieth 
Street, New York City, and will 
make it, together with the house 
which adjoins it, into a perma- 
nent memorial, with the aim of 
continual promulgation of the 
principles of Americanism 


On October 27, the anniversary of 
the birth of Roosevelt, Major General 
Leonard Wood, in speaking for the 
Roosevelt Memorial Association, said: 
“Theodore Roosevelt stood for uni- 
versal service in war as well as in 
peace, service for each one wherever 
he could best serve. Theodore Roose- 
velt stood for the square deal, one 
flag, one language, and one loyalty— 
loyalty to the American people—for 
industrial justice, for public and _ pri- 
vate morality, for a strong and vigor- 
ous America, charitable and _ helpful, 
ever ready to do her duty to civiliza- 
tion and humanity, but an America 
always under the dictates of her own 
conscience rather than under. the 
direction of others” 


FOR ALL TIME A LEADER AMONG AMERICANS 


The Roosevelt who will always stand for that “intense Americanism” which will make us use our 
strength not only for ourselves but also for the less fortunate, “well behaved” small nations of the 


earth. Bust by James EB. Frase r (compare with profile vprew 


Article X of the League of Nations embodies the intense Americanism Rooseye preached—a promise that the 
United States, Great Britain, and France, will not abandon the small peoples of the earth, proclaimed free at the 
Peace Conference in Paris. Never before in all the course of history has any other nation enjoyed the profound 
admiration given to the people of the United States—because our spirit ‘ ricanism, both in the World War 
and at the Peace Conference, stood firm as a rock for the rights of others t is the pleasure of the great, as well 


as their sacred duty, to protect the weak 


BISON HERD WENDING ITS WAY TO A WATERING PLACE ON THE UPPER MISSOURI 


In the days when the bison grazed at will over the continent and herds numbering thousands moved 
together through the hills to their watering places, they made trails which were masterpieces of engineer- 
ing. Many of these well-worn pathways remain as conspicuous monuments of the bison’s former numbers, 
and mark out the routes now followed by automobile road or railway. 

This illustration shows a section of a picture by Bodner, the artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian 
on his famous trip through central United States in 1832-34 


The Coming Back of the Bison 


By C. 


GORDON 


HEWEE® 


Consulting Zoélogist to the Commission of Conservation, Ottawa 


HE disappearance of the Ameri- 

can bison to the verge of exter- 

mination constitutes one of the 
greatest and most striking catastrophes 
to our wild life that have occurred in the 
experience of modern man. The manner 
in which the total loss of this magnifi- 
cent animal as a member of our fauna 
has been prevented should fill all who 
are endeavoring to conserve our wild 
life on this and other continents with 
confidence and hope. 

There has always remained in my 
mind the impression which I received 
when, as a student of zodlogy, the trag- 
edy of the American bison was brought 
home to me by a little colored chart in 
the Manchester University Museum 
showing the past and present distribu- 
tion of this animal and its gradual de- 
erease in numbers. Frank Evers 
Beddard’s excellent volume on “Mam- 
malia” in The Cambridge Natural 
History had recently been published, 
and the sad history was summarized 
in these words: “The Bison of Amer- 
ica, formerly present in such numbers 
that the prairies were black with count- 
less herds, has now diminished to about 
a thousand head.” Little did I think 
at that time that I should later become 
directly interested in the bringing back 
of the bison. 

The extent of the destruction of the 
bison appalls us by its immensity when 
we consider the character of the animal. 
It would seem inconceivable that this, 
the largest of the wild fauna of our 
continent, should have been reduced 
within the limits of the last century 
from countless millions to the point of 
extermination. Formerly ranging over 
about one third of the entire continent 
it has been practically wiped out of ex- 
istence except for a small band of so- 


called “wood bison” now to be found 
in the Athabaska region of Canada. 
That its disappearance was an inevi- 
table result of the development of the 
country does not diminish the character 
of the tragedy. ‘The bison is the great- 
est of all our American animals and un- 
doubtedly the most noble of its family 
in any part of the world. Now it has 
practically disappeared from the face of 
the continent and only by the foresight 
of the Canadian and United States 
governments has it been prevented from 
becoming completely exterminated. 
The history of its disappearance and 
the most complete account we have of 
this noble member of our native fauna 
have been given in a memoir by Dr. W. 
T. Hornaday, director of the New York 
Zoological Park.} 

Its former range in North America 
according to Hornaday, was as follows: 
“Starting almost at tide-water on the 
Atlantic coast, it extended westward 
through a vast tract of dense forest, 
across the Alleghany Mountain system 
to the prairies along the Mississippi, 


and southward to the Delta of that 
great stream. Although the great 


plains country of the West was the 
natural home of the species, where it 
flourished most abundantly, it also 
wandered south Texas to the 
burning plains of northeastern Mexico, 
westward across the Rocky Mountains 
into New Mexico, Utah, and Idaho, and 
northward across a vast treeless waste 
to the bleak and inhospitable shores of 
the Great Slave Lake itself.” The vast 
herds of bison seemed to clothe the 
prairies in a coat of brown. They were 
as thick as the leaves in the forest. 
These immense herds greeted the ad- 


across 


1W. T. Hornaday, The Extermination 
American Bison, Washington, 1889. 


of the 


Si} 
ii 
Ww 


Jamieson Lake is one of several in Buffalo Park. 
bison, but also as sanctuaries for large numbers of waterfowl. 


Photograph by C. Gordon Hewitt 
These serve not only as watering places for the 
In time the bison ranges should support 


herds of elk also, of deer, and antelope, natural neighbors which live together in the greatest harmony. 
The bison, when given a chance by protection against hunters, increases so rapidly that already the 


problem has arisen as to what disposition should be made of the surplus animals. 


It is hoped that new 


ranges will be established and possibly that domestication for commercial purposes may be inaugurated 


vance guards of civilization and that 
process spelled their doom. 

The history of the bison is an illus- 
tration on the largest possible scale of 
the history of every species of wild ani- 
mal when man invades its natural 
haunts with an unrestrained desire to 
kill. No part of our wild life can with- 
stand the destructive influence of man 
armed with modern guns; the only 
salvation for any species is the restric- 
tion by law of the number that may be 
killed. These considerations, however, 
had no part in the early days with the 
bison. It was faced by men armed with 
powerful firearms who killed without 
any regard for the future, and. there 
was a complete absence of any restric- 
tions on the part of all the governments 
concerned. ‘The Indians who had al- 
ways regarded the bison as the source of 
their meat supply had their point of 
view entirely changed so far as the 
number of animals to be killed was con- 
cerned. ‘Their passion for killing was 
inflamed by the example of the white 
hunters with serious economic results 
when their source of meat was wiped 
out. 


dat 


Various methods of slaughter were 
followed. ‘The extraordinary stupidity 
of the animals made them an easy prey 
for the still-hunters. Still-hunting was 
conducted on business lines and was 
highly profitable when more than a 
hundred animals could be killed from 
one stand and the robes were worth $2 
and $4 each. The practice of hunting 
on horseback provided an exciting sport 
and when the hunters, white, half- 
breed, and Indian, went out in armies 
the results were disastrous to the herds, 
particularly as the cows were especially 
chosen owing to the superior value of 
their skins. A favorite method em- 
ployed by the Indians was that of im- 
pounding or killing the animals in pens 
into which they were driven. This 
method was commonly practiced among 
the Plains-Cree in the South Saskat- 
chewan country. The terrible scenes 
that attended these wholesale slaugh- 
ters of the herds are beyond description. 
Other methods of slaughter on a large 
scale were surrounding, decoying, and 
driving the animals, and all tended to- 
ward the same end-—complete exter- 
mination of the herds. As the animals 


THE COMING BACK OF THE BISON 555 


became scarce the half-breeds and In- 
dians vied with the white hunters in 
destroying them. Far more bison were 
destroyed than could 
utilized. 

But this could not long continue. 
No longer did the prairies thunder with 
the sound of thousands of galloping 
hoofs: The great herds were driven 
farther and farther afield. Indians who 
formerly merely cut out the tongues of 
their victims, if they teok any part of 
the carcass at all, now almost starved 
for want of food. In 1857 the Plains- 
inhabiting the country around 
the headwaters of the Qu’Appelle 
River decided that on account of the 
rapid destruction of the bison by the 
white men and half-breeds they would 
not permit them to hunt in their coun- 
try or travel through it except for the 
purpose of trading for their dried meat, 
pemmican, or robes. 

Catlin! has given some idea of the 
enormous numbers of bison that were 
killed during the first half of the nine- 
teenth century. In 1832 he stated that 
150,000 to 200,000 robes were marketed 
annually, which meant a slaughter of 


possibly be 


Cree 


Illustrations of the Manners 
North Ameri- 


Catlin, 
and Customs and Conditions of the 
can Indians, London, 1841. 


1 George 


2,000,000 or perhaps 3,000,000 bison. 
was the destruction that he 
prophesied their extermination within 
Frémont about the 
same time also bore witness to the ap- 


So great 
eight or ten years. 


palling destruction. 

The death knell was struck when the 
construction of the Union Pacifie Rail- 
way Omaha in 1866. 
advent of the first 
railway the difficul- 
ties of marketing the results of the 
slaughter served as a slight check on 


was begun at 
Previous to the 


transcontinental 


the rate of extermination for, although 
the bison were being killed out at a rate 
greatly in excess of their natural in- 
crease, they would have existed for 
some years longer than the coming of 
the railroads and additional swarms of 


white hunters rendered possible. This 
railroad divided the original great body 
of bison into southern and northern 


That was the beginning of the 
Although the range of the north- 
ern herd was about twice as extensive 
as that of the southern, the latter con- 
tained probably twice as many bison. 
Hornaday estimates that in 1871 the 
southern herd contained 3,000,000 ani- 


herds. 
end. 


mals, although most estimates give a 
higher total than this. 


3ison do not always show respect for a fence; 


stability. The nine-foot fence at Buffalo Park 


wire, strengthened with upright wires at one foot 


twenty-five feet wide is 
across the preserve. 


keeps the guard strips permanently broken up 


A one-horse team, journeying nearly 


Photograph by OC. Gordon Hewitt 


consequently the enclosure must be given genuine 


is composed of fourteen strands of galvanized steel 


intervals. On either side of the fence a strip 


kept plowed as a fire guard and similar guards against prairie fires are cut 


five hundred miles throughout the year, 


9¢¢ 


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558 NATURAL HISTORY 


The slaughter of the southern herd 


began in 1871 and reached its height 
two years Jater. From 1871 to 1872 
the wastefulness was prodigious. The 


were marketed bore no in- 
dication of the enormous slaughter. 
In four short years the great southern 
herd was wiped out of existence, and 
by 1875 it ceased to exist. 

By the time the destruction of the 
northern herd began in earnest, the 
bison in Canada had already become 
very scarce. The remnants of our former 
herds were assiduously hunted by the 
Indians as they constituted their main 
supply of food. As Hornaday states: 
“.. . the herds of British America had 
been almost totally exterminated by the 
time the final slaughter of our northern 
herd was inaugurated by the opening 
of the Northern Pacific Railway in 
1880. The Canadian Pacific Railway 
played no part whatever in the exter- 
mination of the Bison in the British 
Possessions, for that extermination had 
already taken place. The half-breeds 
of Manitoba, the Plains-Cree of 
Qu’ Appelle, and the Blackfeet of the 
South Saskatchewan country swept bare 
a great belt of country stretching east 
and west between the Rocky Mountains 
and Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific 
Railway found only bleaching bones in 
the country through which it passed. 
The buffalo had disappeared from that 
entire region before 1879 and left the 
Blackfeet Indians on the verge of 
starvation. A few thousand buffaloes 
still remained in the country around 
the headwaters of the Battle River, be- 
tween the North and South Saskat- 
chewan, but they were surrounded and 
attacked from all sides, and their num- 
bers diminished very rapidly until all 
were killed.” 

The main part of the northern herd 
was to be found in the United States. 
Here the Indians of the northwestern 
territories were waging a relentless war 
on the animals. Hornaday computes 
that the number of bison slaughtered 
annually by those tribes must have been 
about 375,000. The destruction of the 


skins that 


northern herd began in earnest in 1876 
and became universal over the entire 
range four years later. By this time 
the annual export of robes from the 
buffalo country had diminished three 
fourths. The construction of the 
Northern Pacific Railway hastened the 
extermination of the herd. White and 
Indian hunters killed so long as there 
were buffaloes to kill. The hunting 
season which began in 1882 and ended 
in February, 1883, completed the an- 
nihilation of the great northern herd 
and only a few thousand head were left, 
broken into straggling bands. The last 
shipment of robes was sent out from 
the Dakota Territory in 1884. In 1889, 
Hornaday, on the basis of all available 
data, estimated that the number of buf- 
falo running wild and unprotected was 
635 animals! Was the destruction of an 
animal ever so completely brought 
about? It furnishes what is undoubt- 
edly the most striking and appalling 
example of the fate of an animal exist- 
ing in apparently inexhaustible num- 
bers, when left exposed to unrestricted 
slaughter, and should be a serious les- 
son to the people of this continent and 
of the world for all time. That in the 
face of advancing civilization the buf- 
falo had to go was inevitable. It oc- 
cupied lands that were to furnish 
homes and occupation for millions 
of immigrants and that now produce 
so large a part of the world’s staple 
crop. 

‘Time, however, will not efface the 
traces of the bisons’ occupation of the 
continent. They blazed the trails that 
later became important highways. As 
A. B. Hulbert in his Historie High- 


~ waus of America has pointed out, the 


bison selected the route through the Al- 
leghanies by which the white man en- 
tered and took possession of the Missis- 
sippi Valley. They found the best 
routes across the continent and “human 
intercourse will move constantly on 
paths first marked by the buffalo.” It 
is interesting that the bison found the 
strategic passageways through the 
mountains; it is also interesting that 


THE COMING BACK OF THE BISON 


they marked out the most practical 
paths between the heads of our rivers, 
paths that are closely followed today 
by the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and 
Ohio, Chesapeake and Ohio, Wabash, 
and other great railroads. 

But there came finally a brighter 
period in the history of the bison in 
America. In 1889, when they had 
reached their lowest level, there were 
only 256 buffalo in captivity, 200 pro- 
tected by the United States Govern- 
ment in the Yellowstone Park, and 635 
running wild, of which number 550 
were estimated to be in the Athabaska 
region of the Canadian Northwest Ter- 
ritories; the whole bison population at 
that time to be 1091 
head. An attempt was now made in 
the United States to protect the rem- 
nant and by 1903, according to the cen- 
sus of the American Bison Society, they 
had increased to 1753 head. 
chiefly confined in the national reserva- 
tions and parks of the United States 
Government: some were owned by pri- 
vate individuals. The largest private 
owner appears to Michael 
Pablo, of Montana, who had a herd of 
about 700 animals in 1906, the value of 
which he fully appreciated. 

In 1907 the Canadian Government 
learned that the Pablo herd was for 
sale and with commendable foresight 


estimated 


Was 


These were 


have been 


Indian hunters under cover of wolf skins approaching a herd 


559 


purchased it, realizing the importance 
of acquiring so valuable a herd of what 
had formerly been the most abundant 
For its 
reception and maintenance a special na- 
tional park was established at Wain- 
Alberta. This reservation 
area of about 160 
miles, the whole of which is enclosed 


of our large native mammals. 


wright in 
covers an square 
in a special wire fence about 76 miles 
in length. Judging by the abundance 
of old bison wallows it evidently formed 
a favorite place for bison in years gone 
by. Several lakes, the largest of which 
Lake, about seven miles 
long, provide an ample water supply. 
The difficulties involved in the capture 
of the Pablo herd of and the 
transportation of the animals to the 
Buffalo Park at Wainwright, Alberta, 
can better be imagined than described. 
From the date of the receipt of the last 
animals in 1909 they have increased 
steadily each year until in 1918 they 
numbered 3711 head, or more than 
three times the total number of bison 
known to be living in North America 
in 1889. 

The United States Government also 
took steps to protect and increase the 
herds of bison remaining. A national 
range was established in Mon- 
tana; and in the Yellowstone National 
Park national reservations 


is Jamieson 


bison 


bison 


and other 


From a sketch by George Catlin 


560 
the bison were carefully protected, 
with successful results. 

There are now eight herds protected 
by the United States Government com- 
prising altogether 891 animals. The 
largest number is contained in the Yel- 
lowstone National Park, Wyoming, 
where there were on January 1, 1919, 
457 animals. In the Montana National 
Bison Range there were 242 animals 
on the same date, and the third largest 
herd is to be found in the Wichita 
National Forest and Game Reserve in 
Oklahoma where there are about 100 
bison. 

The total number of captive bison in 
the United States in January, 1919, 
according to a statement kindly fur- 
nished to me by Mr. M. S. Garretson, 
secretary of the American Bison So- 
ciety, was 3048 head. It is estimated 
that there are also about 70 wild bison, 
making a total of about 3118 bison in 
the United States. 

In Canada the Canadian Govern- 
ment has bison in three of the national 
parks. In 1918 the numbers of bison 
in these reservations were as follows: 
in Buffalo National Park, Wainwright, 
Alberta, 3520 animals; in Elk Island 
Park, Alberta, 183; and in the Rocky 
Mountains Park, Banff, Alberta, 8; 
making a total of 3711 head. In ad- 
dition it is estimated that there are 
about 500 wild bison, or wood bison, 
in the Athabaska region where they are 
now protected. Scattered throughout 
the Dominion in public and _ private 
parks there are approximately 40 ad- 
ditional bison. The total number of 
bison in Canada at the beginning of 
1919, therefore, was about 4250 ani- 
mils. 

From the above estimates it will be 
seen that we have now approximately 
7360 bison in the United States and 
Canada, as compared with 1091 in 
1889. These figures show that the 
bison are coming back, and that they 
are doing so rapidly. 

The rapid increase of the bison in our 
national reservations raises the ques- 
tion: “What shall we do with our sur- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


plus?” Jn the Buffalo Park at Wain- 
wright, Alberta, this question is becom- 
ing a serious one as they will soon occupy 
as much range as is capable of sustain- 
ing them. The natural answer to this 
question is to create additional reserva- 
tions, which policy undoubtedly will be 
followed, particularly in the United 
States where much additional range 
suitable for bison but less suitable for 
agricultural purposes is available. In 
addition provision is being made for 
the donation of surplus animals to 
municipalities, puble organizations, 
and institutions. But cannot we go a 
step farther and consider the desir- 
ability of encouraging farmers to pur- 
chase surplus animals from the goy- 
ernment and to maintain them? Any- 
one who has visited the bison in our 
national reservations will agree that if 
they were maintained in a semidomesti- 
cated state they could be treated in 
the same manner as range cattle, pro- 
vided they were enclosed. The cost of 
building suitable fencing might prove 
an obstacle in many cases, but it should 
not proye insuperable in view of the 
high price of beef. As a beef animal 
the value of the bison is well worth the 
careful consideration of our agricultural 
authorities. In addition it proyides a 
robe of proven value in more northerly 
states and provinces. Not the least of 
the advantages of the bison over domes- 
tic cattle is their ability to “rustle” 
for themselves in winter and under 
climatic conditions which prove a hard- 
ship to our introduced cattle. 

The proposal to utilize the bison in 
the manner suggested may appear im- 
practicable, but how many of our ideas 
as to what was possible and what was 
impossible have, in the course of time, 
proved unfounded? The future alone 
will show. In the meantime all who 
are interested in the conservation of our 
wild life will be encouraged to further 
efforts by the story of the manner in 
which the bison was rescued from the 
fate which has befallen less magnificent 
members of the world’s mammalian 
fauna. 


Impounding bison was the wholesale and wasteful method of killing employed by the Assiniboin, Plains-Cree, 
and other Indian tribes of the Northwest, a method which allowed all members of the tribe, even the women and 
children,.to be in at the death The pound was constructed of logs and its gate placed under a ledge down which 
the bison could jump but which was too high for them to climb 1in From this gate a fan-shaped runway sev- 
eral miles out into the plain was constructed by means of bunches of branches and bushes, known as ‘“‘dead men,” 


lined up fifty feet apart. Behind these ‘dead men” the Indians hid and frightened back the herd whenever it 
showed signs of departing from the track After the bison had been stampeded into the pen the tribe gathered 


around to slay the fright-maddened animals which charged wildly about crushing and tossing one another. Several 
hundred might be killed by this method in a single foray. The illustration is from a cut (engraved from a photo- 
graph) in Hind’s Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 


eS SN ee 


ee 
ae | 


The Still Hunt,’ from a painting in the National Museum, Washington, | J. H. Moser, 1888.—With the 


coming of the railroads through the West and an inereased demand for buffalo robes, the butchery of the “‘still 


hunt’ began Other methods were too slow for the commercial hunter who must kill hundreds of bison in order 
to realize on pelts worth but from 65 cents to $4 a piece The sti inte! ipproached the herd to within one 
hundred to two hundred and fift yards and proceeded with great deliberation to shoot down the animals without 
stampeding them Their leader, usually the oldest cow, was first disposed o and then the others slaughtered one 
by one Any individual of the herd which attempted to lead off the others was pr ly stopped by the hidden 
rifle The target a bison is about a foot in diameter but even witl mark of that size and employing a high 
power rifle, the professional hunters were usually such poor shots that the scored only one death out of about 
every three hits the other two bullets inflicting broke: legs and collar bones One to two shots a minute could be 
fired and with good luck a hundred bison killed from one stand so that one hunter was able to account for from 
one to three thousand head a season 


561 


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All American zodlogists pay tribute to the work of Dr. George Albert Boulenger 
and voice thanks for the fundamental assistance that his work has been to 


them. He has been in charge of the collections of amphibians and reptiles, depart- 
ment of zodlogy, in the British Museum, since 1882, and besides a constant yearly 
output of technical papers in English and French scientific journals, he is author of 
works on African fresh-water fishes in four volumes and on the world’s reptiles and 
amphibians in nine volumes. He is associate, corresponding, or honorary member of 
most of the great scientific societies of the world, and by his indefatigable personal 
effort in scientific research he has brought honor to the British Museum for all time 


r3).9)8) 


Boulenger, the Man and His Work 


By THOMAS BARBOUR 


Associate Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians, Museum of 
Comparative Zodlogy, Harvard College 


OULENGER—what charming memories may _ be 
awakened by a name! Unfailing candor, erudition, 


courtesy, a simple dignity, a flaming love for Belgium 
of his birth and for England the land of his adoption, a son 


wounded at Gallipoli yet who paused later during the horrors 
of the campaign on the Euphrates to send his father speci- 
mens of a favorite genus. Yes, these and many more were 
the natural flashes of impression which this photograph 
caused when first I had the pleasure of seeing it. It recalled 
delightful chats and visits, amazement at the wealth of treas- 
ures in his care, and cups of tea before a cheery blaze. 


To be more matter of fact, however, Dr. George Albert 
Boulenger has had opportunity, by which he has richly 
profited, to become entirely familiar with most of the fishes, 
amphibians, and reptiles in the world; probably more familiar 
than anyone who has ever lived. While the common British 
custom of not fixing types and of not drawing up descriptions 
from specifically indicated specimens rather grieves students 
in this country—yet Dr. Boulenger’s writings have been more 
widely used and of more general service than those of any 


Proud to be numbered among the systematists in a day 
when many seeking an easier highway to recognition speak 
of them with scorn, he has fared afield as well, and his con- 
tributions to our knowledge of the habits especially of the 
European amphibians are well worthy of careful study as 
examples of painstaking observation, well recorded, and then 
left entirely unadvertised. They stand in dignified contrast 
to some of the capitalized “new discoveries’ we oft have 
dinned into our patient if somewhat skeptical ears, though 
happily not by American herpetologists. 


567 


The Honorable Position of Naturalist 


By (G2 Giliwy ae 
Assocl 
HE greatly famed village of 
Selborne, England, looks much 
today as it did a century and 
half ago when Gilbert White was 
humble curate, naturalist, and fellow 


Today, as then, it has a 
picturesque and strag- 
“lovely landscapes and 
beechen groves,” and everywhere invit- 
ing footpaths. Here a path leads 
across a pasture, through a wicket gate, 
meandering on beneath the shade of 
bosky trees, and through undergrowth 
tangled with dog-rose and meadow- 
sweet. Yonder on the right hand of 
the village street footpaths cross the 
village green, the “Plestor,” with its 
central sycamore tree, still the focus of 
village life on summer evenings; and 
here, most wonderful, a footpath zig- 
zags up a steep beech-grown hillside, 
the “Hanger,” curving back and forth 
upon itself until it reaches the summit 
and stops at a great “Wis shing Stone.’ 
And in the “Outlet” back of Gilbert 
White’s house are many interlacing 
footpaths which lead about earden, 
hedge, and meadow. 

Gilbert White gave to Selborne vil- 
lage the fame it bears. What he did 
unusual was to hold a great and true 
sympathy with nature, in consequence 
of which he was led to observe, through 
very many years until he was sure 
of his facts, and to describe, simply 
and truthfully, the wild flowers, in- 
sects, birds, and many other living 
things of the fields about his native 
village. He wandered daily through 
the footpaths of his “Outlet” and the 
byways of Selborne; he made new 
paths and planted new trees; with his 
brother's help he built the steep “Zig- 
zag, and placed the “Wishing Stone.” 
F inally, in the Natural History of Sel- 


citizen there. 
single street, 
gling, set in 


borne, he described the countryside in 
a way so simple and alluring that 


everyone who read saw Selborne with 
its walks and loved it. 


568 


ate Curator of the Department of Public Education, 


FISHER 


American Museum 


Gilbert White is very much the 
type of naturalist we need throughout 
America today. The importance of the 
position of naturalist has been en- 
hanced by the war in a new valuation 
set on all original investigation along 
scientific lines. Any man, if he be a 
sincere student in natural history, will 


be more or less a leader in his local- 
itv—a leader in study, appreciation, 


and protection of local birds, of wild 
flowers or of insects, of woodlands, of 
scenic beauty. 

There is in Selborne a suggestion 
for each village of America. If we 
walk in the country is it not most often 
in the middle of the dusty or muddy 
roadway? Even in New England how 
often are there paths along the edges 
of fields where the stone wall is covered 
with bittersweet and clematis and the 
chipmunk wanders and the bobwhite 
calls, or across the meadow where the 
bobolink starts up from the grass, or 
across pasture land, through the wood 
lot, around the hill, along the river— 
or anywhere except where dread busi- 
ness takes us? We have no smallest 
chance to get close eye views of the 
world of wonderful small hfe forms 
that call our countryside their home. 

I venture that one great step toward 
developing a love and knowledge of na- 
ture in America would be to make and 
open up inviting paths over and 


through the farm land for the use of 


members of one’s family and for 
friends: and, for the use of all in the 
community, similar footpaths and by- 
ways about the environs of the village. 
Even the most weary will return again 
and again to the refreshment of a 
shaded path to some vantage point of 
view or rest, and it is by such frequent 
and leisurely wandering over the same 
way, until it is as f familiar as the house. 
the garden, or the village street, that 
we come to know and appreciate the 
abundant wild life about us. 


Photograph by Frank M. Chapman 


THE HOME OF GILBERT WHITE’S “NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE,”’ 1788 


Photographed in the summer of 1919 from the beech-wood hill known as the ‘‘Hanger,’”’ the most 
beantiful feature of the countryside, remaining unchanged from the eighteenth century until today. 
Selborne village and countryside, Hampshire County, England, will remain famous as long as the story 
of English literature is told, for here was written a book, through a long period of twenty years, which 
was so delightfully readable and so filled with interesting and true observations that it soon gained an 
assured fame and has since been listed with such classics as Bacon’s Essays, Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, 


Walton’s The Compleat Angler, and Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress 


PBO ss i 
Hie 


ah 


a 
3 
2 

< 


Photograph by Laura Mackay 


BOOKS AND NATURE 


and flowers, trees and rocks—can be supple- 


birds 
which 


and thought, or with historic incidents in 
some interesting part. Thus, enjoyment of life is manifolded in an association 
and history. Burroughs rates high ‘‘the pleasure of knowledge.” 

our American nature essayist, re presenting sympathy w ith all phases 


for good in America through its entrance into the school life of 
city 


First-hand observation of the living world—of 
mented from early years with what others have seen 
these objects have played 
of knowledge of nature, literature, 

The work of John Burroughs, 


of country life, has become an influence 
children. Children like Burroughs’ plant and animal stories, and as various teachers have explained, 


children especially are benefited by the gentle influen¢ of this literature from the woods and hills 


The Love of Nature’ 


CONTEMPLATION OF THE BEAUTY AND INCIDENT OF THE NATURAL 
WORLD BRINGS RENEWED STRENGTH TO THE MIND 


By 


Pate A. ©CO-C KER ELD 


Professor of Zodlogy; University of Colorado 


MID the disorderly chaos of hu- 
man affairs even the most vig- 
orous become weary in time 
and long for some refuge where the 
mind may relax and renew its strength. 
For the tired muscles comes the bene- 
diction of sleep; but sleep, as we know 
too well, does not mend a sorrowful 
heart or relieve the anxious mind. 
There can be no doubt that William 
Morris was right when he described our 
activities as normally governed by two 
moods, which he called the moods of 
energy and of idleness. In the mood 
of energy we must be doing something, 
or at least pretending to do something ; 
but in the mood of idleness the mind 
wanders over pictures of the past, or 
contemplates that which is beautiful 
or interesting. The major purpose of 
art, as distinguished from the obvi- 
ously utilitarian, is to render the 
period of contemplation pleasant and 
fruitful. Thus it may be rescued from 
mere inanity on the one hand, and cor- 
ruption on the other. 

Morris was lecturing on the aims of 
art when he put forward this theory, 
but he was also keenly alive to natural 
beauty and incident, as his writings 
abundantly show. Powers of observa- 
tion and description are combined in 
these charming lines from The Earthly 
Paradise : 

“They left the house, and, following up the 


stream, 
In the low sun saw the kingfisher gleam 


*Twixt bank and alder, and the grebe steal 


out 

From the high sedge, and, in his restless 
doubt, 

Dive down, and rise to see what men were 
there; 


They saw the swallow chase high up in air 
The circling gnats; the shaded dusky pool 
Broke by the splashing chub; .. . 

They watched the poppies burn across the 


grass, 
And o’er the bindweed’s bells the brown bee 
pass 
Still murmuring of his gains... .” 
Morris had little use for modern 


science, and might even have been a 
trifle impatient if we had criticized the 
last line, on the ground that it was cer- 
tainly a female bee. Mr. Burroughs 
is more scientific and less poetical, yet 
he tells us: “In my excursions into na- 
ture, science plays a part, but not the 
leading part; it is like a silent monitor 
and friend who speaks when spoken to. 
Or I may say that I carry it in the back 
of my head and only now and then in 
the front. I do not go forth as an 
ornithologist taking note of the birds, 
nor as a botanist taking note of the 
flowers, nor as a zodlogist studying the 
wild creatures, nor as a biologist, peep- 
ing and prying into the mysteries of 
life, but as a nature-lover pure and 
simple, who gathers much through 
sympathy and observation.” 

The English naturalist Wallace kept 
a beautiful garden in the latter years 
of his life for pure relaxation and en- 


* John Burroughs, Field and Study, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919. 
With previously unpublished portraits of John Burroughs, the American naturalist and author, and 
scenes from his favorite haunts: followed by a series of bird photographs of unusual distinction published 


in his honor. 


In connection with the illustrations it is especially a pleasure to be able to quote through 


the courtesy of the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company, various brief passages from the writings of 


Burroughs.—THE EpITor. 


571 


572 
joyment, not for scientific experiments. 
He was working to the last, but the 
flowers were for what Morris called the 
periods of idleness. Happy the man 
who at ninety years of age, after a life 
of fruitful labor, can still enjoy nature 
with the simplicity of a child! Con- 
trary to the imagination of some, sci- 
ence is in no sense inimical to this 
faculty, and it would be easy to recall 
many scientific men who retained it 
unimpaired. Even Herbert Spencer 
found his moment of maximum enjoy- 
ment in the contemplation of a beauti- 
ful landscape, with the accidental 
accompaniment of music. 

In the case of our nature writers, 
whatever may have been their original 
attitude, the problem of art is neces- 
sarily in the background. Mr. Bur- 
roughs, when he walks in the woods, 
cannot altogether forget that he is a 
reporter. He tries to forget it, and 
would if possible communicate his feel- 
ings to others by some process of 
telepathy: “. . +I try to get language 
out of the way as far as possible, and 
to put my mind directly to that of my 
reader. Hence, when I have been told 
that my page does not seem like writ- 
ing, that it offers no resistance, and 
so on, I feel highly complimented. I 
would have it fit the mind as water fits 
the hand. Deliver me from language 
as such, from fine phrases; in short, 
from conscious style.” 

It is this simplicity and directness 
in Mr. Burroughs’ writings that con- 
stitute their charm. He is a friendly 
companion, keen-minded but not too 
remote from the ordinary level of man- 
kind. He brings us no astounding 
revelations, but introduces us to the 
good company all around us. For 
some he quickens pleasurable mem- 
ories, for others reveals a new world. 
He writes, it would seem, for those who 
may see the things that he has seen; 
his book is a species of guidebook, not 
literature independent of time or place. 
He is even chary of his words, and does 


NATURAL HISTORY 


not tell us so much about the wood- 
chuck or the warbler that we can form 
a clear picture of the creatures, never 
having seen them. Those who read 
Burroughs, never having lived in the 
northeastern United States, will wish 
that the publishers had introduced a 
series of pictures of the dramatis per- 
sone. Yet, as he himself well says, 
literature cannot be merely photo- 
graphic. When we make literature or 
art out of things, “. we must invest 
them with a feeling, an atmosphere, 
that the literal fact cannot give; we 
must work some magic upon the facts.” 

The question is, how much magic, 
how much of the human element, how 
much of that element personal and 
peculiar to the writer? Says Mr. Bur- 
roughs, “. .. Burns’s ‘Mouse’ is a 
real mouse, but not the one you catch 
in a trap; and Shakespeare’s violets— 
where do they grow save in the magic 
page of Shakespeare?” Poets through- 
out the centuries have employed the 
worn images of antiquity, things once 
real and immediate ; now chosen rather 
for their accumulated content of hu- 
man emotion, like the “blessed word 
Mesopotamia.” 

No doubt the highest art is that 
which is most completely humanized, 
which expresses most perfectly vital 
human emotions, connected usually 
with periods of activity and with the 
interplay of personalities. It catches 
the flood of human passions at its 
height, and preserves for us images of 
the maximum products of heart and 
brain. Hence it is often relatively 
independent of external circumstances, 
appealing to the facts of nature within 
rather than without the man. 

Nature writing cannot be all this, 
and must not be it, if it is to serve its 
true purpose. One hesitates to de- 
clare that its humbler objects are the 
more vital to our needs, but who can 
contemplate modern life and not per- 
ceive the necessity for more healthy 


THE LOVE OF NATURE 


simple objectivity, more restful con- 
templation of beauty and incident? 

It is an interesting question, how 
much of the love of nature as shown 
in the observations of any mature mind 
is simple and naive. I had, when a 
child, a delight in bright colors which I 
no longer possess in its original simple 
form. The blue of the sky, the red of 
the rose, produced an intensely pleasur- 
able sensation which had no relation 
to previous knowledge or experience. 
With the years, one necessarily loses 
his simplicity. Even the unfamiliar 
reminds us of something; hence the 
American “robin,” which is no robin, 
and “primrose,” which is not a prim- 
rose. 

This brings us the question: should 
we cultivate the association of ideas in 
the young, or leave them to weave un- 
consciously a web of thought around 
every familiar object? Certainly, it is 
possible to go too far in cultivating as- 
sociation—to hide the real thing under 
a mass of the débris of the ages, things 
which have accidentally stuck to it 
rather than issued from it. One recalls 
the occasion when Lord Brougham and 
the Duke of Wellington met and chaffed 
each other in this wise: “My lord,” 
said the Duke, “I used to suppose you 
would be remembered as a statesman, 
but now I know that you will go down 
to posterity in the name of a very un- 
comfortable sort of carriage.” ‘Your 
grace,’ replied Brougham, “I once 
thought you would always be known as 
the hero of a hundred fights, but it ap- 
pears that you are to be famous for a 
cumbersome type of boots!” “Damn 
the boots,” said Wellington, and we 
rather agree with him. In a certain 
sense, the United States to the eagle, 
Scotland to the thistle, Rome to the 
geese, are all “boots.” Yet when I see 
a species of woodpecker common in 
this vicinity, I am likely to think, not 
of the structure and habits of the 
family of woodpeckers, the Picide, but 
of Lewis and Clark and their ever 


573 


memorable expedition. It is pleasant 
and profitable to do so, and I often re- 
mind my students of such associations. 

Were it possible, however, to develop 
our ideas of each animal and bird 
through pure observation we should 
know and understand it as we do our 
intimate friends. It is really to the 
credit of Mr. Burroughs that the ani- 
mals do not remind him continually 
of the classical authors or of the poets; 
or if they do, that he keeps the fact to 
himself. He tells us what he has seen, 
and the ideas he associates with each 
creature are those derived from previ- 
ous experience with it. 

But again, life is short and one can- 
not learn everything at first hand. 
Those of us who cannot know nature in 
detail in this way are’ glad to see what 
Mr. Burroughs has seen, in some meas- 
ure with his eyes. Much of the pleasure 
of a woodland ramble comes from ex- 
pectation, and from appreciation of 
the meaning of what one sees. If a 
bird is rare, it is well to know it; if 
it is high in a tree, one likes to know 
what it would look like close at hand. 
I know a lady whose eyesight was de- 
fective, and to whom a tree was simply 
a mass of green. When at length she 
was fitted with glasses, she was greatly 
astonished to find that it was possible 
to see the separate leaves. So might 
one learn to know many animals and 
birds at a distance, and be surprised to 
note their finer markings and peculiari- 
ties of form when seen close at hand. 

The painted lady butterfly (Pyra- 
meis cardui) is rare in England, but 
occasionally visits the country in great 
numbers from the continent. As a boy 
in Kent, I had read the interesting life 
story of this butterfly before there 
came a certain famous Pyrameis 
cardui year, and I particularly remem- 
ber my first capture of the species. 
My hand trembled, and in my en- 
thusiasm I insisted on showing the 


_butterfly to a telegraph boy who came 


along. The insect was indeed a lovely 


574 NATURAL HISTORY 


felt as I 


knowing what it 


d not have 
c<omethinge about it. 
ir question seems to 

teach even young 
children something about the facts of 


nature. and the result will be to in- 
crease their pleasure and quicken their 
interest. It is undesirable to leave 


them to see everything for themselves, 
for indeed, they usually will not look. 
In Europe, where there is so much 
traditional nature lore, children grow 
up little naturalists ; but in many parts 
of America, where the parents neither 
nor the children remain 


know care, 


jonorant. 


More especially, perhaps, should we 
emphasize those facts which, though 
vital, could not be appreciated by the 
mere observation of a single individual. 
The migrations of birds and the data 
of geology have been elucidated by 
many men working at different times 
and places, and yet the general results 
can often be stated lucidly in a few 
words, and readily appreciated in re- 
lation to what is actually seen. It is 
not always easy judiciously to combine 
book observation; and 
even Mr. Burroughs, compared with 
whom most of us are slaves of the book, 
falls into the error of referring to the 
“TTalictus moth,” because he had never 


learning and 


Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher 


This great stone under the ironwood tree, where John Burroughs played when a boy, lies in pas- 


ture land less than a half mile from the house of his birth on the old farm in Delaware County, near 


Roxbury, in the western Catskills. 


C. S. Pietro (see photograph on page 581). 


On this stone he posed for ‘The Seer,” 


a bronze figure by the late 


Burroughs, commenting on the work of the camera, and the value of photographs not only for the 


accurate delineations of science but also for portraiture of friends and reproduction of scenes linked 


with personal 
and no memory, 

ity. ... Our owr 
with the charm it has in my 


the pathos with which it haunts me?” 


memories and feelings do the rest. 


associations. writes in Field and Study: ‘‘The camera has no imagination, no sentiment, 
and its literal truth is not art; but for that very reason, it gives us the nude real- 


. Who could paint for me the old homestead 


memory, not changing a single feature, but touching every feature with 


Young woodchuck, jumping mouse, and gray 


home on the Hudson 


seen the little bees of that genus, which 
certainly abound in his own garden. 
On the other hand, Fabre, most mar- 
velous of observers, made a mistake 
concerning the identity of an insect be- 
cause he did not sufficiently consult the 
books, and had to be corrected by his 
friend Pérez. 

We need many nature writers. Not 
only is the field too great to be covered 
by a single man in any locality, but 
every part of the country must have its 
We doubt- 


necessa ey) 


own observers and writers. 
less have in midst the 
ability, potentially at least, but it is 
difficult to stimulate it to production. 
Unless the work is based on observa- 
tion, it has small value, and how many 
can take the time to master the mys- 
nature? The professional 
usually. works under 
high pressure, and has little leisure to 
sit in the woods and watch the proces- 
sion of events. Many thousands may 
be true lovers of nature, but as ama- 
teurs they cannot prepare themselves 
to interpret her in literature. A life- 
time is short for this, and who can be 
sure that, even so, he will succeed? It 
is a high calling, demanding excep- 
tional ability and fidelity. Perhaps 
public appreciation, coming with the 


our 


teries of 


scientific man 


Burroughs about his 


squirrel—friends of Mr. 


spread of higher education, will even- 
tually smooth the way. 

The underlying unity of nature may 
reflected in the human 
creating harmonies in place of 


come to be 
mind, 
discord. . Out of simple pleasures and 
reactions may grow a philosophy of life 
more in harmony with the facts of ex- 
istence than other more pretentious 
schemes. Every true naturalist is 
probably something of a mystic, be- 
cause he cannot fathom the depths of 
life, and will not that the 
greater may be completely explained in 
terms of the less. Yet he increasingly 
feels the bond which unites all living 
things, and desires to play his game 
according to the rules which he per- 
ceives to have been established in the 
dawn of the world. He is not con- 
vinced so much by rigid logie, as by a 
multitude of concordant observations. 
He comes to trust nature as one trusts 
a friend. Of him we may write, as we 
wrote Wallace’s 


concede 


some years ago in 


Malay Arch ipelago . 


The love of nature makes the whole world 
kin, 
To East and West the gospel preached herein 
Must stir the soul. 
All living things his comrades were, he saw 
The harmony which underlies all natural law, 


Saw nature whole. 


Chipmunk, white-footed mouse, cottontail rabbit, flying squirrel 


fields and woods about Mr. Burroughs’ home 


still other good friends in the 


‘“SLABSIDES,” BURROUGHS’ CABIN IN THE WOODS 

“Slabsides”’ is nearly two miles west of John Burroughs’ home, “Riverby,’’ at West Park, Ulster County (on the 
Hudson, eighty miles north of New York City). Within the cabin one sees partition walls made of yellow birch, a 
skeleton stairway, and rustic chairs and beds. The late Theodore Roosevelt and many other noted men among Bur- 


roughs’ friends have visited him here. John Muir was one of his first visitors, in 1897, the year after the cabin 
was built. At one side of the cabin Burroughs made a garden for celery and other vegetables which demand black 
rich soil—for in recent geological time the land here had been the bottom of a small lake. When digging into the 
peaty soil, he found sections of wood which had been gnawed by beavers in days long past 


576 


Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher 


IN THE GARDEN AT FOURSCORE YEARS 


The squash that eventually grew to great size in Burroughs’ garden at Woodchuck Lodge on the old 


homestead farm, and was presented to his friend Thomas A. Edison 


no garden or other matter can hold his attention if he hears a new or unwonted bird song: he hears even 

distant calls, inaudible for the man of fewer associations with woods sounds. “If we have no associations 

sounds, they will mean very little to us Their merit as musical performances is very slight.’’ On this 

ghs quotes Roosevelt: ‘Yet I cannot say that either song [meadowlark’s or skylark’s] would appeal to 

eals to me; for to me it comes forever laden with a hundred memories and associations, with the cht 

1 the dawn, with the breath of cool morning winds blowir ross lonely plains, with the scent 

prairie, with the motion of flying horses, with all the strong thrill of eager and buoyant 

ee [ doubt it ly man can judge dispassionately the bird f his own country; he cannot disassociate 


them from the gehts d sou s of the land that is so dear to him 


Photograph by G@. Clyde Fisher 


WHERE MAY AND JUNE ADD BIRD SONG TO THE SOUND OF FLOWING WATERS 


Each May Burroughs comes to the woodland along these falls on Black Creek, near Slabsides, to look for the Louisiana 
water thrush and other warblers, for the scarlet tanager and phcbe. Here he often camps and cooks his favorite “brig- 
ind’’ steak. 

“The camper-out often finds himself in what seems a distressing predicament to people seated in their snug, well- 


ordered houses; but there is often satisfaction when things come to their worst,—a satisfaction in seeing what a small 


matter it is, after all; that one is really neither sugar nor salt, to be afraid of the wet; and that life is just as well worth 
living beneath a scow or a dugout as beneath the highest and broadest roof in Christendom. 

“When one breaks camp in the morning, he turns back again and again to see what he has left. Surely he feels he 
has forgotten something; what is it? But it is only his own sad thoughts and musings he has left, the fragment of his 
lite he has lived there. . . . Where he hung his coat on the tree, where he slept on the boughs, where he made his coffee 
or broiled his trout over the coals, where he drank again and again at the little brown pool in the spring run, where he 


looked long and long up into the whispering branches overhead, he has left what he cannot bring away with him,—the 
flame and ashes of himself.”’—From Pepacton 


Ji 


MEMORIES 


“« ~. . The voice [of the nut 


hatch! is that of a child, soft, 
confiding. . . . His call in 
the spring woods when 
we made maple sugar 
in my boyhood 
‘yank, yank, yank’ 
—how it comes 
back tome! Not 
a song, but a 
token—the 
spirit of the 
maplewoods 
finding a 
voice.” 
“How dis- 

tinctly I re- 
member where 


our schoolboy 


path throug! 
the woods 
crossed in old 
brush fence, and 


in winter the fre 


prints in the snow ol 
the feet of the red and 
gray squirrels to whom 


a 


the old fence served as 
highway. How vivid the pic 
ae ail tn- 5 . 7 - 
ture ofr 1t all 1 in m) memor Photograph hu 
The delicate tracks of the wood mice G. Clyde Fisher 


here and there beside our path—they are 


Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher 


still unfaded in my mind, after a lapse of more than sevent ears The wild life around us becomes in 
teresting e moment one gets into the current of it nd sees its char erist ind bv-pla The search for 
the eler ts of the interesting in nature ant erso i in things ve] 3 ; nteresting 
searc rom Field and Studi The fireplace s b t of native rock fron he cinit of Burroughs 
home From t ~ ttle red schoolhouse he vent to Cooncrstown Ser nar 


~-—¢ 


oie 


ants a 


w 


ce Si Bile 


IN THE SOUTHERN CATSKILLS 
Mr. Burroughs has written various chapters of charming description of the Catskills. ‘The Heart of the 
Southern Catskills,” in the volume which he calls Riverby, is a delightful invitation to the mountains and valleys he 
portrays. No quotation can carry the spirit of it; one must read the whole thirty pages,—seeing with him the wide 
sweep of view from Wittenberg (the mountain top at the left in the lower photograph), sleeping the night on the 
moss under ba'sam boughs; following the trail down into the wonderful Woodland Valley (upper photograph) with its 
fine trout brook, its sweet seclusion; watching the change from the summer fruit of shadbush and wild strawberry to 
springtime flowers during the difficult climb of Slide Mountain (at the right in the lower photograph). 

‘In any such view [from Slide Mountain, 4000 feet elevation] the wild, the aboriginal, the geographical greatly 
predominate. The works of man dwindle, and the original features of the huge globe come out. Every single object 
or point is dwarfed; the valley of the Hudson is only a wrinkle in the earth’s surface. You discover with a feel- 
urprise that the great thing is the earth itself, which stretches away on every hand so far beyond your ken.” 


ot su 


From Riverby 


Photographs by G@. Clyde Fisher 


JOU 


Courtesy of Toledo Museum of Art 


JOHN BURROUGHS 


“I never tire of contemplating the earth as it swims through space. As I near the time when I know these contem- 
plations must cease, it is more and more in my thoughts—its beauty, its meaning, and the grandeur of the voyage we are 


making on its surface. The imaginary and hoped-for other world occupies my thoughts very little. There is so much to 
know here, so much to enjoy, so much to engage every faculty of the mind and develop every power of the body, such 
beauty, such sublimity, and such a veil of enchantment and mystery over all—how can one ever tire of it, or wish for a 
better. I am in love with the earth.”’—From Field and Study. 

This portrait of John Burroughs was modeled by the late C. S. Pietro, and is the property of the Toledo Museum 
of Art. The rock on which Mr. Burroughs posed is on his old home farm in the western Catskills. A photograph of it 
8 reproduced on page 574 


581 


Photograph by J. D. Johnson 


IN THE DOORWAY AT SLABSIDES—A BIRD SONG SUGGESTS 
A TRAIN OF THOUGHT 


“The traveler sees little of the Nature that is revealed to the home-stayer. You will find 
she has made her home where you have made yours, and intimacy with her there becomes 
easy Familiarity with things about one should not dull the edge of curiosity or interest. 
The walk you take today through the fields and woods, or along the river bank, is the walk 
you should take tomorrow, and next day, and next. What you miss once, you will hit upon 
next time. The happenings are at intervals and are irregular. The play of Nature has no 
fixed programme. If she is not at home today, or is in a noncommittal mood, call tomorrow, 
or next week. It is only when the wild creatures are at home, where their nests or dens are 
made, that their characteristics come out.’’—From Field and Study 


a orA 


BIRD PHOTOGRAPHS OF UNUSUAL DISTINCTION 


THE SERIES ON THE PAGES FOLLOWING, THE WORK OF SOME OF OUR NOTED BIRD 
PHOTOGRAPHERS AND NATURALISTS, IN MANY PARTS OF THE COUNTRY, 
IS PUBLISHED IN HONOR OF JOHN BURROUGHS, WITH MANY 
BRIEF QUOTATIONS FROM HIS WRITINGS 


WHERE CAN BE HEARD “‘THE WHISTLE OF RETURNING BIRDS” 


“T do not know a bird till I have heard its voice . .. A bird’s song contains a clew to its life, and establishes a sym- 
pathy and understanding . .. ''—From Wake-Robin. 
“One sees the passing bird procession in his own grounds and neighborhood without pausing to think that in 
every man’s grounds and in every neighborhood throughout the State, and throughout a long, broad belt of 
states, about several millions of homes, and over several millions of farms, the same flood-tide of bird-life is 
creeping and eddying or sweeping over the land. . . . Think of the myriads of dooryards where the ‘chip- 
pies’ are just arriving; of the blooming orchards where the passing many-colored warblers are eagerly 
inspecting the buds and leaves; of the woods where the oven-birds and water-thrushes are searching 


out their old haunts; of the secluded bushy fields and tangles where the chewinks, the brown 


thrashers, the chats, the catbirds, are once more preparing to begin life anew—think of all this 
and more, and we may get some idea of the extent and importance of our bird-life. 
“The birds . . . are always the same familiar birds, the birds of our youth, but they are 
new as the flowers are new, as the spring and summer are new, as each morning is new 
Like Nature herself they are endowed with immortal youth From Field and Study 


a) 


583 


Photograph by Leslie W. Lee 
THE BROWN THRASHER-—IN NEW ENGLAND 


“People who have not made friends with the birds do not know how much they miss. . . . The only time I saw Thomas 
e, I remember his relating that in his earlier days he was sent on a journey to a distant town on some business that 
him much bother and yexation, and that on his way back home, rn and dejected, he suddenly heard the larks sing 


ll about him,—soaring and singing, just as they did about his father’s fields, and it comforted him and cheered him up 
4maZz1n 


; There something almost pathetic in the fact that the birds remain forever the same. You grow old, your friends 
lie or move to distant lands, events sweep on, and all things are changed. Yet there in your garden orchard are the 
birds of ur boyhood _. The call of the high-holes, the whistle of the quail, the strong piercing note of the meadowlark, 


the drumming of the 


-ouse.—how these sounds ignore the years, and strike on the ear with the melody of that springtime 
when your world 3 


s young, and life was all holiday and romance!’’—From Birds and Poets 


IN FLORIDA 


Fs 
O 
uJ 
ap 
Zz 
WW 
uu 
a 
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b 


4 
Photograph by Alvin R. Cahn 
IN TEXAS—ONE OF OUR FAMOUS SONG BIRDS A KINSMAN 
OF THE MOCKING BIRD 


“Tt might almost be said that the birds are all birds of the poets and of no one else. So true is this that all the great 
ornithologists . . . have been poets in deed if not in word. Audubon is a notable case in point, who, if he had not 
the tongue or the pen of the poet, certainly had the eye and ear and heart . . . the singleness of purpose. the en- 
thusiasm, the unworldliness, the love, that characterize the true and divine race of bards. So had { Alexander ] 
Wilson, though perhaps not in as large a measure; yet he took fire as only a poet can While making a jour- 
ney on foot to Philadelphia, shortly after landing in this country, he caught sight of the red-headed wood 
pecker flitting among the trees . . . and it so kindled his enthusiasm that his life was devoted to the 
pursuit of the birds from that day. . . . The very idea of a bird is a symbol and a suggestion to the 
poet. A bird seems to be at the top of the scale, so vehement and intense is his life,—large- 
brained, large-lunged, hot, ecstatic, his frame charged with buoyancy and his heart with songs.” 


—From Birds and Poets 


586 


—_. 


Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman 


Pacific yellow-throat—in Oregon.—‘‘The current notion that the parent birds teach the young to fly—that of set 
purpose they give them lessons in flying—is entirely erroneous. The young fly automatically when the time~comes, 
as truly so as the witch hazel nut explodes, and the pod of the jewel-weed goes off when the seeds are ripe. The 
parent birds call to their young, and I have thought that in some cases they withhold the food longer than usual to 


stimulate the young to make the great adventure . . .’—From Field and Study 


Photograph by Wiiliam L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman 


Black-throated gray warbler—Oregon.— “Till the middle of J ily there is a general equilibrium; the tide stands 


poised. . . . But as the harvest ripens beneath the long hot davs. the 1 ody gradually ceases The young are out 
of the nest and must be cared for, and the molting season is at hand Aiter the cricket has commenced to drone:his 
monotonous refrain beneath your window you will not, till another season, hear the wood thn in all his matchless 
eloquence The bobolink has become careworn ind fretfu Some of the sparrows t ¢, and occasionally 
across the hot fields, from a tall tree in the edge of the forest, comes the rich note of the scarlet tanager.” Prom 


Wake-Robin 
587 


Photo 


GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULLS ON A LAKE OF NOVA SCOTIA 


gulls in the winter time. It is a silent, alert sentinel of un- 
civilization nor the ready sources of food about the fish- 
gives a very different idea of these shy winter visitors 


graph by G. K. Noble 


This species is the most majestic of the Atlantic Coast 
inhabited beaches, never seeking the protection offered by 
ing village. A glimpse into the summer colony, however, 


oo 


roul 


air 


Rooseve 


Klamat 


heur 


the I 


a conti! 


mone 


American 


I 


western 


rrebe 


marshes, 


(above), and 


a young avocet, of the Malheur 


Photoaray 


INHABITANTS OF INLAND WA 


was set aside in 1908 as a federal wild bird reser 

It is the greatest wild bird reservation in the United St S 
ff all water from entering the lake 
rORIAL Nott In letters to the Editor Mr. Finle entio! 
Lake reservation “I do not know whether you have a1 ( 
reservatior Lower Klamath Lake where Dr. Frank M ( 
Museun now dried up and the reservation practica i 
d State heclamation Service opens the dykes along Klamath ] 
ii hight igainst this sort et commercialism that vVants to destro 
See page 736 


hs 


TER 


am Finley and H. 7 
S 
Malheur Lake, Oregon 
b special proclamation of 
ibout to be destroyed by 
truction in prospect for 
g regard to Klamath 
in got his great habitat group 
d trom the bird standpoint 
nd lets the water back in. 
rything in the hope 


L 


with its 


sur- 


President 


promoters 


this 
and 


We 


ot turning it 


ind 


Mal 


tor the 
unless 


have 
into 


5S9 


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3 pe XS 
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ee ee 
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heceseiatan oe zs Be Sa eR es le a 


500 


Photograph by Edward A. Mellhenny 
THE BLUE GOOSE IN ITS WINTER HOME—THE LOUISIANA MARSHES 


Photograph by Frank Over 


THE MARSH HAWK ON LONG ISLAND, PHOTOGRAPHED RISING FROM ITS NEST 


rae 


ts 


4 
ui 
4 
4 


ton 


a9] 


_ 


f ' os % Rina 
Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman 

The California condor (adult) in southern California.—Several hundred photographs were taken, show- 
ing the life history of the California condor. Eight different trips were made back into the mountains to 
the nest. The old birds became tamer at each visit until, on the last trip, they were photographed at a 


distance of only a few feet 


Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman 

We recall John Burroughs’ characterization of the late Theodore Roosevelt as an observer “in preémi- 

nent degree.” He says apropos this power: ‘“‘You may know the true observer, not by the big things he sees, 

but by the little things; and then not by the things he sees with effort and premeditation, but by the quick, 
spontaneous action of his mind” 


592 


Photographs by Arthur A {7len 
STUDIES IN. NATURE’S EBONY—IN NEW YORK STATE 


3ronze grackles have been accused of doing damage in the cornfield, but they feed on cutworms and 
other insects in summer, and this particular bird, while under observation at arm’s length from a blind, fed 
its young upon grasshoppers. ‘The great thing in observation is not to be influenced by our preconceived 


notions, or by what we want to be true, or by our fears, hopes, or any personal element, and to see the thing 


just as it is. A person who believes in ghosts and apparitions cannot be depended upon to investigate an 


alleged phenomenon of this sort. . - Above all don't lump to conclusions Be sure the crow is pulling 
corn instead of probing for grubs, before you kill him From Riverb 

Today State Conservation Commissions, aiming to keep extant our native races of game birds and to 
introduce others like the pheasants, are giving the crow an unsavory reputation so far as unselfish respect 
for the rights of others is concerned. vident y aware ol this objector ble feature in the crow 
but likes him withal; he gives many a character description of him The crow is always in the 
p ibliec eve or ear His color gives him a\ ce gives him awa on the earth or in the sky he 18 seen 
and heard afar. No creature wants hi dy wants his plume, thoug + more perfect and brilliant 
ebony cannot be found in nature. He night yet the open day is his passion, publicity his 
PASSILOI He is a Sp} i policeman a I a rood fellow 1 oval triend iI ilarmist a socialist all in 
one he is never disgruntled, come rair » shine, come heat, come snow , From Field and 
Study 


-(1)9 
Fa ba Bs) 


#66 


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Photograph by Edward A. MclIlihenny 
AT THE SOUTH IN WINTER TIME—OUR AMERICAN ROBIN 


“We never know the precise time the birds leave us in the fall: they do not go suddenly; their departure is like that of 
an army of occupation in no hurry to be off; they keep going and going, and we hardly know when the last straggler 
is gone.” (From Pepacton.) A few individual robins remain in sheltered spots in the North. 
In comparison with English song birds it is said that ours are fewer in number and less famous’ as mu- 
sicians. surroughs says: “Our birds are more withdrawn than the English,’ with ‘‘notes more plaintive and in- 
termittent.”’ 
family 


The robin comes very near the head of the list of well-known American bird musicians, in the 

with the thrushes and bluebird. and sharing the honors with the family of mocking bird, brown 

thrasher, and catbird. He is one of the greatest sources of cheer and companionship in city or country. 

[t is therefore all the more pity that spring after spring the number returning to the North has been 
smaller and smaller, owing to destruction of the migrating flocks at the South,—robins shot in 

thousands for food 


596 


Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes 


At the North in winter time, just chickadee.—A view within the window 


Jee i 
ae - “ 
Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes 


A view without.—‘‘If you would study the winter birds. . you can bring them to your own 
door—chickadees, nuthatches, downy woodpeckers, brown creepers .. . little waifs from the winter 
woods that daily or hourly seek the bounty you prepare for them ... The woods and groves seem 
as barren as deserts, the earth is piled with snow, the trees snap with the coid ... the wonder is 
that . . . these little adventurers can subsist at all. . . . How much company they are to me! What 


thoughts and associations they bring!’ From Field and Study 


5m 


enya 


Freeman Art Co., Eureka, Humboldt County, California 
THE HERITAGE OF AMERICANS 
1 all are in the hands of private capital. We must 


The northern redwood forests are a heritage for every Ameri 

purchase sections of this redwood land from the lumber companies who own them, at once before everything has been ley- 

bled by the ax and fire. For these forests are the greatest the earth has ever seen in all the millions of years of its history 

The trees tower into the sky between three and four hundred feet and attain a prodigious thickness of trunk; and so an- 
seen the passing of more than four thousand generations of men 


cient are they that the largest of them have 


” 


; 
: 
| 


Freeman Art Co., Eureka, Humboldt County, California 


The contrast !— Hundreds of thousands of acres of redwoods in California have been cut in the last 


_ sixty years. 
especially through waste and fire 


Each sawmill is a center of incalculable loss not only through the timber removed but 


Sequoia— the Auld Lang Syne of Trees 


AN IMMEDIATE WORK FOR EVERY LOVER OF AMERICA IS THE 
PRESERVATION OF THE REMNANTS OF REDWOOD 
FORESTS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA 


By 


Pre whe PFALRETEUD- OSBORN 


President of the American Museum of Natural History, Member of the 
Council of the Save the Redwoods League 


T was said pithily by John Muir 

that any fool can destroy trees; 

they cannot run away from him, and 
if they could they would still be chased 
and hunted to their death—as long as 
fun or a dollar could be got out of 
them. Speaking of the Sequoias, he 
contrasted the ability of the Creator 
to protect their race, as he has 
done, through millions of years from 
drought, disease, avalanches, tempests, 
and floods, with the inability of that 
same divine power to protect them even 
for a generation from fools—‘“only 
Uncle Sam can do that.” 


If the American Museum, by some 
magic of power, could hope for large 
influence in conservation matters, it 
would vote to save these Sequoia wood- 
lands. Their venerable and colossal 
splendor is a heritage for the future 
America. Many of these trees have 
lifted their heads to the sunshine of 
more than a thousand summers, and 
the largest of them have outlived the 
passing of four thousand generations 
of men. Mere matter-of-fact and 
commercial consideration, moreover, 
entirely apart from any sentiment re- 
garding their beauty or their age, 

999 


NATURAL 


OUU 


“in the of 
and love of coun- 


them: name 


should save 
thrift. and foresight, 
ef _ys Roosevelt would have said. 

The destruction has progressed far, 
and has been especially augmented of 
late. The most majestic among the 
manifestations of life on the globe are 
being cut for—breathe not aloud the 
uses to which they are being put, lest the 
recorders of human history laugh! Se- 
quoias towering more than three hun- 
dred feet into the sky are being brought 
to the ground for grape stakes for the 
vineyards of California; for shingles 
and railroad ties for the temporary con- 
venience of a mankind which is slow to 
evolve beyond aims of immediate per- 
sonal gain. 

Do we ask why the burden of saving 
the redwood forests falls so immedi- 
ately on the shoulders of the state and 
national governments—outside of the 
general reason that state and national 
governments should look out for the 
welfare of the people? Uncle Sam 
owned all this western timber coun- 
try—yet Uncle Sam was so desirous of 
giving every man in the free United 
States his chance, that millions of acres 
of timber land were sold at two and one 
half dollars an acre when just one indi- 
vidual tree of the wide-stretching for- 
ests was worth at the lowest figure one 
hundred dollars. Thus the timber 
went into the hands of private and cor- 
poration capital—and “nothing could 
be done about the crazy bargain !”’—at 
least the sales could not be undone. 

This was the condition when Muir 
wrote these words in 1900, and the 
twenty vears since that time have seen 
the ranks of the redwoods pushed far- 
ther and farther back from the sea, by 
lumbering methods involving frightful 
waste. Some solution of the problem 
must now be sought which will return 
to the government as large a part of the 
redwood lands left as money for pur- 
chase can be found, to remain perma- 
nent possessions of the American people. 

One of two courses we shall follow. 


HISTORY 


Either we shall now, at a goodly ex- 
penditure of money, save the redwood 
forests as they stand, or we shall lose 
them, and after a few years, at an 
exceedingly greater expenditure of 
money, try to save a few small muti- 
lated tracts which may be left, knowing 
that we have doomed the redwood as a 
race to an eternal extinction. We rec- 
ognize the second course as that usually 
consummated in the forest policy of 
any new community. Have we not 
learned the lesson of loss, especially in 
the East, so that we can apply the prin- 
ciple to the redwood? We all realize 
that we long ago passed the day when 
we could afford to look upon trees as 
giant weeds to be got rid of by any 
method, as our forefathers in America 
looked upon them, or even as imex- 
haustible gifts of Heaven to be man- 
aged wastefully. They are one of the 
few vital assets of the country. If we 
have not learned the lesson, we shall in 
this particular instance not merely 
burden our children with the bond is- 
sues of an attempted restoration of 
what we have destroyed, we shall lose 
the redwoods beyond all possibility of 
restoration. For in the case of trees 
such as white pine, black walnut, and 
others now nearly exterminated, we 
have not been dealing with species that 
take half a thousand years to reach ma- 
turity and two or three times that to 
attain their greatest nobility of size. 
One hundred years has been more 
nearly the maximum—and that has 
seemed too long to the man who lives 
for himself only and for today. 

The species of Sequoias are only 
two,! the big tree (Sequoia gigantea) 
and the redwood (Sequoia sempervi- 

iThe genus Sequoia is not closely related to any 
other living group of trees, but in former geolog- 
ieal times, reaching back as far as the Jurassic 
and Trias, near relatives of our Sequoias were 
common, with many species scattered widely over 
the northern lands of the globe. Their fossil re- 
mains have been discovered in Europe and in va- 
rious lands bordering the Arctic seas—Siberia, 
Spitzbergen. Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. The 
big tree and the redwood are therefore representa- 
tives of a family whose existence with small varia- 


tion must be measured in millions of years—they 
are “the auld lang syne of trees.” 


SEQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE OF TREES 


Tens). If we journey — southward 
through the warm interior valley of 
California, on our left hand tower the 
snow-capped Nevada = Moun- 
tains. These bear in their high altitudes 
on the seaward slopes the big trees. They 
Mixed with other 
conifers in open groves, they stand mas- 
sive and battered like ruins from an 
age when life was measured not by 
single revolutions of the earth around 
the sun but by thousands and tens of 
thousands. Fortunately, this species of 
Sequoia is protected by its very inac- 
cessibility, from five to eight thousand 
feet up the mountain slopes.! 


Sierra 


are heroic in size. 


On the right hand as we journey 
southward through California is) the 
low verdant Coast Range (one thou- 
sand to two thousand feet elevation) ; 
and over its seaward slopes and in its 
wide moist vallevs are the remnants of 
the forests of the redwoods. But a very 
few vears ago they reached from ierth 
of the California and Oregon boundary 
line southward ino an unbroken belt 
of forty miles maximum width, to 
the southern boundary of Mendocino 
County, California, then on farther 
south in isolated small forests as far as 
the Bay of Monterey—a total distance 
of nearly five hundred miles, twice the 
north and south lap of the big trees in 
the Sierras. 

These redwoods show striking adap- 
tation to the depth of soil and amount 
of moisture, On the steep slopes where 
the soil is shallow, they do not attain a 


height of more than 225) feet, with 
greatest diameter of trunk ten feet, 


and here they grow in) open stands 


‘This is the Sequoia that has been made world fa- 
mous by the eloquence of John Muir, whose main 
work was in the Sierra Nevada Mountains; and it 
is the great scenic feature of Sequoia National 
Park—one of the first of our national parks, in 
stituted in 1890, the sume year as Yosemite, and 
the first to be instituted after the Yellowstone in 
1872. The greater number of the remaining big 
tree groves are now under the protection of the 
National Park Service. On the other hand, the 
hig tree, although it has received so mueh more at 
tention and protection, is not as great an economic 
asset for the future as the redwood, particularls 
because it reproduces only by the slow method of 
seeding and that with great uncertainty, especially 
in the northern part of its range. 


6OL 


mixed with other trees 
(especially red fir). At increasingly 
low altitudes and consequent greater 


less 


nore or 


depth and moisture of soil the red- 
woods increase in size and predominate 
the forest more and- more until they 
form 
with other 
hottoms of 


unmixed 
Qn flats and in the 
vallevs where rivers cut 


close. crowded stands 


trees, 


their way through the Coast Range to 
the Pacific, they make giant redwood 
fastnesses, many of the trees reaching 
well hundred feet, fre- 
quently with a diameter of trunk from 


above three 
sitteen to eighteen feet. 

Many of us have entered these great- 
est) forests of the world, in) our own 
northern Califormia. “Architecturally” 
they consist of lone curving aisles be- 
tween the giant columns of the trees, 
sometimes with spacious vistas opening 
to the sea: and the ground and the dark 
fluted trunks are patterned with shift- 
Ing mosaics of sun and shadow. — For 
long ages they have stood here in the 
face of the winter rains that 
down from the northwest. They have 
been wrapped about by the moisture- 
laden summer foe that drifts in from 


sweep 


the sea and dips low among the green 
spires. So great is the moisture among 
the redwoods of the bottom lands that 
not only are the trees themselves won- 
ders of growth and verdure, but they 
are draped with mosses and the ground 
at their feet is bedded with ferns. 

It has been said that this tree, from 
the standpoint of its timber, is “too 
wood to lives” and certainly history has 
proved it so sinee the white man. dis- 
covered its Pacific. 
The wood has all the qualities to rec- 


home alone the 


ommend it for the uses of commerce: 


it is rich in color and takes a beautiful 
polish, the eran Is ever ana fine, it 1s 
firm vet soft and easy to work? it is 


“This refers especially to the redwoods of the 
hottom lands. The trees of the slopes are likely to 
hase wood Jess valuable, more “flinty’ in) ehar- 
aeter, The redwood tree is the type which 
has been so disastrously ent and burned over the 
eoustal flats. until today it represents but a small 
proportien of the whole redwood area, 


“soft 


i > . a 
vob ah ea 
Courtesy of Mrs. Edward L. Ayer 


In Montgomery Grove above Ukiah.—It is hoped and believed that Mendocino County will buy the Montgomery 
Grove of redwoods. This would make the town of Ukiah the entrance to the great scenic State Highway through the 
redwood region. Isolation of the United States during the war has emphasized travel within our own boundaries, 
while rapid development in the ease of motor touring has added a new possibility to such travel for all. Northern Cali- 
fornia will now find it to the advantage of the many among its population to save its scenic beauty. Meager profits 
from redwood lumbering for the few lumbermen among its citizens will no longer be considered adequate return for 
the present desolation and future poverty of the country 


a 


ee 


2 yen - 

Courtesy of Mrs. Edward. L. Ayer 

Luxuriance of growth in a redwood stand near Mendocino.—Sonoma County has taken a step in the right direc- 

tion in purchasing the Armstrong Grove; Humboldt County has very recently bought up the holdings of operating 

lumbermen along the State Highwav: Marin County fortunately has been presented with the Muir Redwoods on Mount 

Tamalpais, by former Congressman William Kent, of San Francisco: but the world has yet to hear from Mendocino and 
Del Norte counties that their enthusiasm and patriotism have saved valuable sections of local redwoods 


602 


A 


SHQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE. OF TREES 


almost fireproof—and in addition to 
all these good qualities, it is incom- 
parably durable. It is said that trees 
which have lain five hundred years on 
the damp ground in the forest have 
been carried to the mill and made into 
good lumber.t 

Do we need to ask if our redwood 
forests are economically worthy of pres- 
ervation? Or can we question that 
they should be removed from individ- 
ual and corporation interests which 
must perforce look to an immediate 
gain in order to realize on invest- 
ments? Under the ownership of state 
and national governments, experts in 
forestry can keep them forests while 
still making them yield a product of 
timber.? 

Hundreds of thousands of acres of 
redwoods have been cut during the last 
sixty years. San Francisco is largely 
built of redwood. The whole state is a 
land of redwood bungalows, paneled 
and beamed with the choicest grains of 
the wood,—which is good, except that 
on an average one half of a tree has 
been wasted for every one half used, 
and all the young trees which grew 
near the mature trees cut have been 
killed. Especially during the last 
thirty years, since improved equipment 
came in, redwood lumbering has pro- 
ceeded with disastrous speed, and the 
wood has been used not only for con- 
struction and finishing. for shingles 
and grape stakes, but also for a multi- 
tude of other things, among them tele- 
graph and electric light poles, paving 


‘Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 38, “A Study 
of the Redwood,”’ 1903. 


*That this can be done is largely owing to the 
fact that the redwood is an active dominant type 
of tree although of such ancient lineage. It 
sprouts vigorously from the stumps when cut, 
soon forming great circles of tall young trees. 
Cireles of mature trees with the central stump no 
longer in existence are found in the primeval for- 
est, indicating that this has been the method of 
growth. It is probable that, if the redwood lands 
can come under government ownership, such sec- 
ond-growth forest with proper management can be 
made to supply a large part of the demand for 
redwood timber, and the primeval forests be left 
undisturbed, except as certain trees may need to 
be removed for the health of the others. 


603 


blocks, and water tanks. And now re- 
cently, because of a scarcity of available 
timber brought about by the war, the 
United States Railroad Administration 
authorized the use of redwood for rail- 
road ties. This, coupled with the build- 
ing of the roads of the new California 
State Highway through some of the 
best of the remaining northern red- 
woods, started an army of small con- 
tractors into lumbering operations, 
with resulting destruction and waste. 

Such was the condition in the early 
summer of 1919 when Colonel Graves, 
chief of the United States Bureau of 
Forestry, and Secretary Houston, of 
the Department of Agriculture, visited 
Humboldt and Del Norte counties and 
impressed upon the people the irre- 
parable loss they were sustaining. It 
was still the situation in July, 1919, 
when the “Save the Redwoods League” 
was organized at San Francisco under 
the spur of interest of various public- 
spirited men (see page 605). 


The Redwoods League National 
in Scope 

The Redwoods League has the support of 
the national and state governments, and is 
national in scope.* Although its Council is 
made up mainly of influential men from 
California, it includes also prominent repre- 
sentatives from the East. 

One of the first steps of the League was 
to call the attention of the United States 
Railroad Administration to the injury to the 
California State Highway by the cutting of 
railroad ties along its margin. At once the 
Administration issued an order that no ties 
should be purchased from areas which would 
come within the proposed reservations, or 


’'The story of the work and aims of the Red- 
woods League and of the survey of the northern 
redwoods which was made under its auspices is 
told by Mr. Madison Grant, a member of the Coun- 
cil of the League, in the September issue of the 
Zoological Society Bulletin of New York—an ar- 
ticle which carries the interest and conviction of 
authoritative knowledge. 

Many of the facts in the accompanying state- 
ment of the situation of the various groves and 
forests and of the plans for their conservation are 
taken from the typewritten Official Report of the 
Survey madé under Mr. Stephen Tyng Mather, 
director of National Parks, and from Mr. Grant's 
article. 


J24 


“SAVE THE REDWOODS” MAP 


Compi'ed from the 1916 geological map of the Cali- 
fornia State Mining Bureau, the 1911 forest 
map of the Caifornia State Board of Forestry, 
and from data regarding the state highway and 
approximate eastern limit of redwoods, re- 
ceived in December, 1919, from Mr. M. B. 
Pratt, State Forester of -California.. It is unfor- 
tunate that a 1919 forest map has not been is- 
sued by the California Board, because the eight 
years since 1911 have seen appalling destruc- 


OREGON 


v2 


tion of redwoods, especially bordering the sea 


All the best redwoods remaining (and they are 
all owned by lumber companies) are north of San 
Francisco in the coastal counties of California — 
Sonoma, Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte. 
The best trees grow on the bottom lands along the 
rivers, and those especially adapted for preserva- 
tion in national or state parks are the Bull Creek 
and Dvyerville stands (owned mainly by the Pacific 
Lumber Company) in Humboldt County, and in 
Del Norte County the Redwood Creek (owned by 
the A. B. Hammond and Sage Lumber Com- 
panies), Klamath River, and Smith River stands. 
The best of the Mendocino and Sonoma redwoods 
have been cut, some very recently; it is hoped that 
the various groves left, especially along the motor 
highway, will be set aside by these counties. 
Marin County has no redwoods left, except ‘Muir 
Woods,” on Mount Tamalpais, near San Francisco. 

If we travel northward on the State Highway 
from San Rafael, we find the first redwoods just 
above Ukiah—the small ‘‘Montgomery' grove,” 
which it is hoped Mendocino County will purchase. 
Between Ukiah and Bull Creek there are alto- 
gether about 10,000 acres of redwoods, seattered 
in groves of a few acres with occasional larger 
stands of a few hundred acres, most of them badly 
devastated by lumbering and fire but all worth sav- 
ing for the sake of the attractiveness of the high- 
way. For instance, there are 5 acres at Phillips- 
ville and about 500 acres near Miranda. 

Along the South Fork of the Eel River the mo- 
tor highway runs through some extremely fine red- 
woods which were rapidly being cut for grape 
stakes and railroad ties until the influence of the 
“Save the Redwoods League’ was recently brought 
to bear, and which are still threatened along very 
many miles of the highway. In fact, between 

Garberville and Eureka, lumbering operations 

are more or less in full swing, and the nation’s 

loss from waste and fire in the forests which 

are being cut about equals the loss from 
legitimate uses of the timber. The right 

bank of the Eel River below its junction 

with the South Fork resembles devastated 

France, and the devastation is complete 
everywhere on the left bank also ex- 

cept for one fine stand just beyond 
Bull Creek, which belongs to the 

Pacific Lumber Company. 

There is need for immedtate 
action if the last of these most 
ancient and heroic trees are to 
be saved. Who will dedicate a 
redwood grove to the health and 
happiness of the American peo- 
ple? The lumber companies 
offer every codperation in sell 
ing for such purpose 


41 


39 


we Slate highway (approximate) 
ee Laslern linet of redwood 
(2pprox/mate) 
= No West Poeific railroad 
\Terehan /a ble forest 


p Seale 
98 Woodland ond brush 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 
O Nonforested area I | i | | | 
Miles 
| OO) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70) (80) 90 
| | | ! ! 


Kilometres 


604 


SEQUOIA—THE AULD 


within four hundred feet of any state high- 
way. This is the federal cooperation we 
should expect and explains that the situation 
was not previously understood. 


Situation of the Redwood Forests 


A survey of the northern redwoods was at 
once inaugurated by the League, especially 
with reference to the selection of a suitable 
area for a national park. 

The survey (August 5 to August 10) was 
made by Mr. Stephen Tyng Mather, director 
of National Parks, and Mr. Madison Grant, 
accompanied by Mr. Charles Punchard, land- 
scape engineer of the National Park Service. 
On the way northward from Ukiah to the 
junction of the South Fork of the Eel River 
with its tributary Bull Creek and with the 
main Eel River, the surveying party passed 
about ten thousand acres of redwoods (see 


map). These are in groves of a few acres 


LANG SYNE OF TREES 


605 


each with occasional larger stands of a few 
hundred acres, many of them badly devas- 
tated by lumbering, most of them pitiful 
remnants of the original forests, but all of 
vast importance from the standpoint of the 
attractiveness of the highway. 

Northward beyond these scattered groves 
are more nearly solid stands grouped natu- 
rally by the drainage of the region into 
great forests. Prominent are the Bull Creek 
and Dyerville flats, culminating the north- 
ward stretch of the South Fork groves, Bull 
Creek at the west in the triangle between the 
South Fork and its tributary Bull Creek, the 
Dyerville forest at the east in the triangle 

1 Tt must be understood that one acre of forest 
even on the most crowded bottom lands means only 
about three dozen redwoods, 20 inches and more 
in diameter (known as merchantable timber), 
with about a dozen additional trees less than 20 
inches in diameter. In the mixed forests on the 


slopes the number of redwoods to the acre may 
run below 25, inclusive of all sizes. 


Officers of the Save the Redwoods League are as follows: 


President, FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary of the Department of the Interior 
Secretary and Treasurer, ROBERT G. SPROUL 


COUNCIL OF 


E. C. BRADLEY 
Former Assistant Secretary of the Interior 
WILLIAM E. COLBY 
Past President of the Sierra Club 
GEORGE M. CORNWALL 
Publisher, The Timberman, Portland, Oregon 
WIGGINTON E. CREED 
President of the Alumni Association, and Re. 
gent, University of California 
WILLIAM H. CROCKER 
Regent of the University of California, Trustee 
of the California Academy of Sciences 
FRANK S. DAGGETT : 
Director, Museum of History, Science and Art, 
Los Angeles, California 
JosEPH D. GRANT 
Trustee of Leland Stanford Junior University, 
Trustee of the California Academy of Sciences 
MApIsoN GRANT 
Chairman, New York Zoological Society 
HENRY S. GRAVES 
Forester, Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 
WILLIS L. JEPSON 
Professor of Dendrology, University of 
California 


THE LEAGUE 


WILLIAM KENT ; 
Donor of Muir Woods, California 
STEPHEN TYNG MATHER 
Director of National Parks 
JOHN C. MERRIAM 
President, Pacific Division, American 
tion for the Advancement of Science 


Associa- 


RALPH P. MERRITT 
Comptroller, University of California 


WALTER MULFORD 
Professor of Forestry, University of California 
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 
President, American Museum of Natural 
History, New York 
CHARLES F, STERN 
State Superintendent of- Banks, San Francisco, 
California 
BENJ. IDE WHEELER 
President Emeritus, University of California 
Ray LYMAN WILBUR 
President, Leland Stanford Junior University 
CHARLES B. WING 
Acting Chairman, State Redwood Park Com- 
mission of California 


The immediate purposes of the League are stated as follows: 

1. To purchase redwood groves by private subseriptions and by county bond issues. 

2. To secure a state bond issue to buy the finest redwood groves along state highways. 

3. To establish through federal aid a National Redwoods Park. 

4. To obtain through state and county aid the protection of timber along the scenic highways now in 


course of construction throughout California. 


5. To encourage the state to purchase cut-over redwood areas for reforestation by natural means, or by 
replanting where repeated fires have made sprout reproduction impossible. 


The fee for annual membership in the League is two dollars. 
It is hoped that through the coGéperation of all organizations and individ- 


to support the plans proposed. 


“Membership is an expression of desire 


uals definitely giving their interest to this project the purposes of the movement may be realized while it 


is still possible to secure those ancient groves which now invite protection.” 


is chairman of the Executive Committee. 


Professor John C. Merriam 


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608 


made by the junction of the South Fork and 
Eel. Then in order northward 
along the coast, the Redwood Creek forest, 


the main 


the Klamath River groves, and, just south of 
the Oregon boundary, the Smith River groves 
(see map). 

The report of the committee makes it evi- 
dent that all these forests, or a major part 
of each, should ultimately be made state or 
national reservations—national parks or for- 
The Smith River 
picturesque with old, weirdly shaped trees, 


est reserves. tracts are 
and have good camping sites and good fish- 
The Redwood Creek stand is similarly 
picturesque and is especially tropical and 


ing. 


fantastic in its luxuriant growths of moss 
and ferns. In both of these areas the trees 
are larger and older than elsewhere, less 
adapted for good timber, and more suitable 


for park purposes. 


Choice for Immediate Reservation 

The Survey would direct the first purchase 
for park purposes either to the Redwood 
Creek Forest, or to the more southerly Bull 
Creek and Dyerville stands, connecting with 
the groves along the South Fork of the Eel 
River, 20,000 to 25,000 
3ull Creek is deseribed as a 


acres altogether. 
magnificent 
stand of about 10,000 acres, belonging in 
largest part to the Pacific Lumber Company, 
and the Dyerville forest has about an equal 
The Dyerville 
bounded on the lower right bank of the Eel 
River by 


acreage. stand is sharply 
as the battle 
fields of France,—an urgent demand upon 
the observer to save what remains from a 
similar desolation. On the lower left bank of 


the Eel, however, is one of the best stands 


land as devastated 


examined, about 20,000 acres, belonging also 
to the Pacific Lumber Company and with 
the new State Highway traversing it,—al- 
though it also is bounded beyond by devas- 
tated territory. If the great expense of this 
20,000-acre tract precludes its purchase in 
the reservation of Bull Creek, Dyerville, and 
the South Fork areas, the Survey recom- 
mends its addition to these forests at the 
earliest date possible. 


The Money for Purchase 


That all these redwood lands are under 
the ownership of Jumber companies means 
that saving them from the ax will be done 
only so fast as money can be found for their 
purchase. The survey committee gives seven 


NATURAL HISTORY 


suggestions as to ways by which the money 
may be raised—outside of direct federal ap- 
propriation. 


1. State taxation 

2, County taxation 

Local taxation 

4. Public subscription 

5. Donations of money 

6. Donations of forest 
redwood area 

7, Exchange where possible of state or fed- 
eral forests for private forests within 
the desired area 


lands within the 


Action of the state of California is cer- 
tain to rescue one or more of the large tracts. 
That of Dyerville Flat, for instance, is espe- 
cially threatened at present by the opera- 
tions of the Pacific Lumber Company. 

It cannot be said that the state of Califor- 
nia has been wholly indifferent to its red- 
wood forests heretofore. More than twenty 
years ago $250,000 was appropriated to buy 
redwood land near Santa Cruz which remains 
today a state park. On the other hand, the 
state must be blamed for the unfortunate 
work of its Highway Commission in failing 
to get a right of way wide enough to protect 
the scenic effects along the roadway. In the 
future the need for the codperation of a 
landscape engineer will be understood; also, 
that the right of way should never average 
less than three hundred yards. The Commis- 
sion even went so far in certain areas as to 
buy only a one-hundred-yard strip of land 
with the proviso that the owners remove the 
timber! 

Anyone who has lived even briefly in Cali- 
fornia can understand the loyalty of Cali- 
fornians to their homeland—apart from the 
influence of the great friendliness of its peo- 
ple and its prominent commercial position. 
Surely they may well ask if there is any sun- 
shine like that which falls on California’s 
valley meadows, and over her warm foothill 
slopes, and through the mist-draped  red- 
woods against the sky. These things have 
profound influence even if we are not con- 
The public sentiment of the 
been aroused to the 


scious of it. 
whole state has now 
danger threatening its northern forests, and 
Governor Stephens, the Legislature, and the 
people may be trusted for the result. 


Humboldt County Purchases SOO Acres 
along the State Highway 


As to county action there is already, since 


the formation of the Redwoods League, 


SHQUOIA—THE AULD LANG SYNE-.OF TREES 


a definite story to be told. It is a story of 
activity on the part of the citizens of Hum- 
boldt County, coupled with personal gen- 
erosity of two members of the League—as 
well as a spirit of codperation which in- 
cluded members of the State Highway Com- 
mission and all the operating lumbermen, A 
matter of paramount importance was ac- 
complished in early September when there 
was stopped all work of lumbermen directly 
bordering the highway under construction 
along the South Fork of the Eel River.1 And 
now the deeds for the holdings are in the 
hands of the county. This gives immediate 
protection, for a part of the distance, to the 
narrow strip of the forest which contributes 
so much toward the beauty of the roadway— 
and also to its popularity through protection 
from sun and blowing dust. 

County action has thus proved itself, and 
county and local money are certain to ac- 
complish much, but cannot be expected to 
purchase the great tracts. The area occupied 
by the redwoods includes relatively small 
communities of people. It cannot be ex- 
pected that the local population should carry 
the heaviest burdens of taxation. 

Sonoma County had previously purchased 
one small grove of redwoods, the Armstrong 
Grove; and it is hoped that Mendocino 
County will buy the Montgomery Grove. 
This is situated just beyond Ukiah, on the 
west side of the State Highway, and if saved 
will, together with the town, form the motor 
tourist entrance to the northern redwood 
region. 

Certain lumbermen among those owning 
the land have already made gifts to the state 
and others are certain to do so, but it is 
scarcely fair that they should be expected to 
be more generous than the rest of us. It 
speaks well for these men, who know the 
forests and their value, that they have al- 
ready shown themselves willing to coéperate 
in a manner advantageous to the Government 
in any transfer of ownership. What the 
Redwoods League hopes for is not only gifts 


‘There have been many printed reports of the 
notable meeting held at Eureka, September 6. 
The small lumbermen who were operating along 
the Highway, cutting grape stakes and shingles, 
were brought together, and they agreed to suspend 
cutting for the sum of $60,000 and to give two- 
year options on their property. The county gave 
$30,000 toward the amount, Mr. Mather, $15,000, 
and Mr. William Kent, $15,000. Mr. Kent had 
previously proved himself interested in the relation 
of these trees to the public welfare by presenting to 
the nation the Muir Woods on Mount Tamalpais. 


609 


of redwoods from the owners in the proposed 
reservations, but, especially, gifts of red- 
woods owned, or purchased, in other areas, 
which can be exchanged for sections in the 
proposed reservations. 


Let All the Nation Contribute 


Puble 


money 


donations of 
whole United States are 
among the most hopeful methods for saving 
the redwoods, and the quickest. 


subscription and 
over the 


But every 
means must be taken to spread a knowledge 
of the situation or it will not be possible to 
catch the thought and heart of the people in 
the complex condition of national and inter- 
national affairs today. 

All the people of the nation are concerned 
in the matter. So unique are the redwood 
forests and so especially fitted for recrea- 
tional purposes that they should become pos- 
sessions of all the people, looked upon with 
a sense of ownership by every American. As 
brought out in the report on the League's 
survey, in connection with the large expendi- 
ture necessary, “the resultant benefits from 
the area preserved will be measured in units 
more valuable than gold or silver—in health, 
in joy and pleasure from the -recreational 
opportunities afforded, and in pride that we 
have saved these trees from the ax and the 
circular saw and that they belong to us and 


” 


to our children forever.” 


As to direct federal appropriation, not- 
withstanding recognition of the need the 
process will prove a slow one in the present 
reconstruction period. Unele Sam has usu- 
ally designated national parks and forest 
reserves out of some part of the public do- 
main; redwood conservation, unfortunately, 
is a case for purchase. Congressman Clar- 
ence F, Lea, of California, has presented a 
resolution to the House of Representatives 
calling for an investigation of the problem 
with reference to the establishment of a na- 
tional redwoods park. 

The following relative to federal action is 
quoted from a recent letter from Colonel 
Graves, chief of the United States Bureau 
of Forestry: 


“I regard the movement as of very great 
importance and one which should be backed 
up by the entire nation. In many ways the 
redwoods represent the most remarkable for- 
ests in the world. They may not be quite as 
large as the giant trees of the Sierras but, 
growing as they do in dense continuous 


A MAY DAY IN THE SIERRAS AT 5500 FEET ELEVATION 


never made inaccessible by heavy snows 


are 


oast Range 


\ 


C 


altitudes of the 


> low 


1€ 


] 


ves 1n 1 


TC 


ichel 


aa 


> 
ué 


Vee i 


ograph by George 


Phot 


THE DRIVEWAY PASSES THROUGH THE B!G TREE 


WAWONA” 


oe 


7 fect. 


ght 22 


4000 years old, heig 


3000 or 


ly 


probat 


“Wawona” 


ig trees of Mariposa Grove, 


611 


NATURAL 


612 


stands, there is impressiveness which to me 
makes them unique among all the forests 
that I have ever seen. 

“This splendid undertaking is going to be 
possible only through combined action of the 
Government, the state, and the public at 
large. As to the contribution of the Federal 
Government, it is very likely to be delayed 
and to come as aid to a project in which the 
state and the citizens of the nation are al- 
ready liberally contributing.” 


What will appeal to the country as 
the thing to do in the necessity of the 
case is that we, each and all, shall pur- 
chase these forests as fast as we can, 
for our own, with money subscribed in 
small or large amounts; then, that we 
shall present them to Uncle Sam so 
that they may remain forever under 
his protection. This will be a definite 
recognition of the unitedness of goy- 
ernment and people in America, and of 
the interest and generosity Uncle Sam 
has always accorded the people in the 
matter of the country’s natural re- 
sources. 

[ am including in this article only 
photographs of the northern redwoods 
unmolested by lumbering (with the 
one exception, page 599). The fright- 
ful destruction continues. It is not 
to be wondered at that the people of 
the northern coast area who see it go- 
ing on about them and realize that 
their prosperity, their very existence 
commercially, depends on the mainte- 
nance of these forests, have awakened 
to the waste. 

But the point is, the country is now 
awakened, after the many hundreds of 
thousands of acres are gone, and it is 
still not too late to save the tens of 
thousands of acres left. There is now, 
besides, a definite organization in the 
Save the Redwoods League to repre- 
sent the people of the country ana to 

1See many full page illustrations in Mr. Grant’s 


article, Zoological Society Bulletin, September, 
1919. 


HTS ROT 


handle money or gifts of land to the 
best advantage. 

I would put emphasis, therefore, not 
so much on what is lost, as on what 
can be saved. There are parts of the 
northwestern highways where for miles 
the road is narrowed and blocked with 
piled grape stakes and shingles, and on 
either hand the ground is covered with 
a jumble of treetops, branches, slabs, 
and bark, which should have gone to 
the manufacture of some by-product. 
But also there are stretches where the 
roadway leads from open sunshine and 
distant views of green, wooded moun- 
tain slopes into the giant forest and on 
through colonnades of trees where the 
air is cool and fragrant and long beams 
of sunhght slant down through the 
green of redwood foliage. 

Nor would I direct the gaze to the 
miles of desolate country where eyery- 
thing has been leveled and only charred 
stumps of giant trees mark the site of 
the forests destroyed. Instead I would 
bring to the imagination the acres of 
forests still uncut and the potential joy 
for Americans of today and tomorrow 
in their possession. 

The war has made the surface of the 
earth seem smaller and all the lands 
nearer and the peoples nearer. If 
France and England and Belgium and 
Italy seem not far away from America 
today, how very close to all other parts 
of the United States is California! To 
go to the western coast, to tour through 
these northern forests is no longer the 
impossible dream for the many. It 
will be realized by tens of thousands of 
people in 1920. 

The redwoods are not only the “glory 
of the Coast Range” and the pride of 
Californians, they are the pride and 
satisfaction of all Americans. Good 
luck will surely attend us if we save 
our Sequoia woodlands. 


‘ 


ov 
i 
tf 


eka, Humboldt 
CATHEDRAL AISLES—!IN HUMBOLDT COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 


The sunshine penetrates the roof of green f: above and illumines the aisles between the giant pillars, imparting a 
effect of architectural grandeur Redwood forests ‘e the planet’s vast cathedrals 


for the spirit of worship of its peopl 
Somehow American money will dedicate ese f st cathedrals to the 


American people 


14 
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GIYOM IVAAWIYd V SAO 30! AHL 


The Dawn of Art 


By GEORGE LANGFORD 


I 
N age remote when beasthood was in flower, 
A race of broad-cheeked, big-boned stalwart men— 
Vanguard of first full- fledge d humanity — 
Moved westward from the dark mysterious East 
And settled near the bounds of southern France, 
Beneath the shadow of the Pyrenees 
Where caves and rock-walls served them to defy 
Chill storm-wrath of the glaciers sweeping down 
From Seandinavia and the Baltic Sea. 
Bold spirits, these true pioneers of France, 
Warriors of Cro-Magnon., 
II 
TROGLODYTES—cave men of the Old Stone age— 
To whom the use of metals was unknown, 
With flint-tipped dart and hafted paleolith 
They fought the mammoth and rhinoceros 
And matched their strength with lion, wolf, and beat 
Naught but the skins of beasts and gloomy dens 
Shielded their nakedness, while kindled fires 
Divine bequest, the Staff of Human Life 
Guarded their thresholds from fierce prowling brutes 
And furnished means to thwart the glaciers’ chill— 
Long-headed, high-browed, of five senses keen, 
With human attributes deeply ingrained, 
Hunters of Cr6é-Magnon. 
Ill 
ALL praise for those to whom meet praise is due, 
Whose heritage inborn full well compares 
With the Athenian Greek true ken of art. 
How small their means and crude! Grayers of flint 
For etching work, and pigments black or red 
Laid over incised lines or bas-relief 
Carved on the walls and ceilings of their caves. 
The forms of beasts—not those of men—they drew ; 
None knew just why. Some mystic awe inspired 
These ancients to portray their mural work 
Not at the cavern’s mouth but far within 
The dark cramped depths befouled with slime and ooze, 
Where none but bats and owls dared penetrate ; 
Where kneeling, crouching, lying prone to earth 
Beneath low roofs, betwixt converging sides, 
With fat-fed lamps of stone to light the way, 
Laboriously they scribed each masterpiece 
With flint-point on the mold-stained limestone walls— 
Artists of Cré-Magnon. 


62] 


Creating a National Art 


By HER Bet JS 2 Nepean 


Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology, 


American Museum 


Nationality develops the essentially intellectual bond of common thought. Because 
of this common thought there is before the people of America the possibility of evolv- 
ing an art which will represent a new complex of life, based on a philosophy of logi- 


cal and mechanical efficiency, political equality, and personal service to society. 


The 


art to come which fittingly embodies these things will be our national art. 
This art must be useful in itself and not a senseless load upon the utilities of the age. 


nor anempty gratification of vanity. 


Tt must be beauty in cotton as much as in silk, in 


copper as much as in gold. It will be joyous Romance and heartfelt Ceremony in our 
homes and in our streets, in our work and in our play, for the seven days of the week. 


RUE nationality has always ex- 

pressed itself in art: we judge 

the nations of the past by the 
objects of use and beauty which they 
created. Likewise by our peculiar art 
shall the nations of the future judge 
us. But have we been able, up to the 
present time, to stamp a clear imprint 
of our collective individuality—or na- 
tionality—upon the things that we 
make and the thoughts that we think ? 
And, if so, are we content to let the 
record of our achievement stand for 
all time on the qualities of form and 
ornament that now enter into our 
lives? 

Most persons, thinking of art only as 
fine art and knowing the works of Eu- 
ropean nations where collective indi- 
viduality is seen in literature, music, 
costumes, architecture, and many other 
things, will humbly admit that we have 
failed to produce in America a mass of 


works that fittingly embodies our na- 
tional hopes and ideals. But art is 


more than fine art and therein lies the 
promise of our future. We have al- 
ready laid the ground for coming ex- 
cellence in ways which few consider. 


The Length and Breadth of Art 


Art, in its widest meaning, is man’s 
expression or embodiment of his ideas 
of use and beauty in different modes 
and materials. If the emphasis is laid 


§22 


on use, the product is called utilitarian 
art; if on beauty, it is called esthetic 
art. But never are use and beauty en- 
tirely dissociated, for the utmost de- 
velopment of usefulness depends upon 
orderly construction, and the finest 
expression of beauty is necessarily or- 
There law and order in 
common speech as well as in poetry: 
there are qualities of form which please 
the eye while they administer to me- 
chanical excellence, in the canoes, cook- 
ing pots, and automobiles of everyday 
life as there are, for instance, in marble 
statues of all but forgotten gods that 
we now regard as purely esthetic. 

Of course these marble statues of an- 
cient gods originally played an im- 
portant and useful role in the life of 
the people to whom they are accredited, 
although to us they are merely beauti- 
ful. It was an intensely practical thing 
for the Greeks to bribe and flatter a 
god into bestowing his divine favor 
upon an individual or a city by pledg- 
ing a statue in his honor, as they be- 
lieved such means effective. And when 
to this idea of ensuing benefits were 
added religious awe, pride of place, 
and good craftsmanship abetted by 
competition of fellow workers, the 
marble monument found a _ quality 
greater by far than the quality of the 
man who carved it. Such art is not 
individual—it is communal. ‘The at- 


ganic. are 


\ 


NATURAL HISTORY 


tention of the Greek sculptor may have 
been directed toward the human body 
as an almost exclusive subject for 
skillful portrayal not because this is 
necessarily any more beautiful than 
the bodies of other animals, or plant 
growths, or shapes of land and _ sea, 
but because in the communal under- 
standing the gods had human forms. 
Other cultural facts doubtless contrib- 
uted to this specialization but the re- 
ligious idea was foremost. If the great 
florescence of Greek culture had come 
a thousand years earlier, perhaps Hera 
would have been represented as a cow, 
like Hathor of the Egyptians, instead 
of as a stately woman. Under such 
conditions Greek art would have had a 
different scope and interest without a 
necessary decrease in esthetic quali- 
ties. In a word, every great expression 
of art has its roots in communal con- 
cepts, religious or otherwise, and the 
artist is at his best when he forgets 
himself and speaks for his people and 
his times. The frieze of Phidias was ob- 
secure architectural decoration wrought 
with sincerity in a place where the gods 
could see better than the critics. In 
the history of dead nations from least 
to greatest there was never art for art’s 
sake, but always art for life’s sake. 
The Creative Civilizations 
History shows comparatively few 
great civilizations that gave rise to high 
and original forms of art but it shows 
many lesser and derived cultures which 
were able to develop a considerable de- 
gree of individuality. Even among the 
great creative civilizations there are nu- 
merous features taken from earlier or 
outside sources. The type civilizations, 
upon the products of which must be 
based any statement of what a national 
art can and should be, are as follows: 


. Chinese 


us 


1. Assyrian 
2. Egyptian 
3. Greek 


). Mayan 
6. Peruvian 
7. Christian 


- 


- 


623 


In addition to these, mention may be 
made of the welter of signs and sym- 
bols strewn over the Far and the 
Near East by the great religious tides 
of Buddhism and Mohammedanism. 
Then there are the numerous special- 
ized fields of decorative art spread 
across all the continents and down the 
centuries. For instance, there is the 
realism of Paleolithic art in ancient 


. France and Spain, and its modern 


counterpart among the Bushmen of 
Africa. There are the Neolithic, 
Bronze, and Iron age cultures of Eu- 
rope and the rich remains of pottery 
from various archeological provinces in 
America. Lastly, there are the various 
“culture areas” of the ethnologists 
among our present day Indians, South 
Sea Islanders, and African Negroes. 

The term national art may, perhaps, 
be used in connection with these great 
creative civilizations but it must be ad- 
mitted that linguistic bounds, which 
many persons hold to be the bounds of 
a nation, are exceeded in nearly every 
instance by cultural bounds. Commu- 
nity of thought is established more 
easily within a single language than 
across several languages, yet there are 
numerous instances where a single cul- 
ture covers the field of several lan- 
guages. A good example is that of the 
Pueblo Indians of the Southwest, the 
descendants of the ancient cliff dwell- 
ers, who speak four distinct languages 
yet have practically identical religious 
beliefs, art forms, and social organiza- 
tions. We naturally think of imperial- 
ism and military conquest in relation 
to the spread of culture, but some of 
the most artistic peoples have been sin- 
gularly devoid of the military spirit. 
Religious conversions account for the 
spread of significant and symbolic art 
in some instances and in other in- 
stances there simply has been expansion 
from the area of high culture into ad- 
joining areas of low culture, a phenom- 
enon known to anthropologists as ac- 
culturation. 


624 NATURAL 

Of the type civilizations already 
listed the Assyrian, Egyptian, Chinese, 
and Mayan are primary in features 
such as the invention of writing, and 
the development of elaborate religious 
and social systems strongly reflected in 
ceramics, textiles, and architecture. 
But, long before the foundation of 
these civilizations, must have come the 
inventions of agriculture which were 
independently achieved in the New and 
the Old World and which made possi- 
ble a great increase in population and 
stimulated the growth of religious and 
social orders. 

The had its 
base the developed art, religion, and 
philosophy of the earher civilizations 
in the classic field. It started from a 
higher level of positive achievement. 
Greek art is characterized by a cold, 
chaste realism which speaks to all peo- 
ples, but it is singularly weak in orna- 
ment and is practically devoid of the 
formal creations arising usually from 
a belief in beast gods, that are so im- 
portant in the arts of Asia and the 
New World. 

After the militant era of Rome the 
art of Greece passed into eclipse and 
was succeeded by the warm art of the 
Christians, which on the ornamental 
side drew many of its forms from the 
Bronze age and Iron age products of 
northern Europe. The Renaissance 
was a rebirth of classic form but not 
of classic spirit, although in the minds 
of many persons the most satisfying 
productions of the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries are really the full- 
blown flowers of Christian symbolism. 

The political units of modern Ku- 
rope have distinguishable products but 
none of them has a really great na- 
tional art. The mere variation in lan- 
guages creates a feeling of greater dif- 
ference than actually exists. After all, 
language affects only a part of the art 
products of a country, and, at that, 
nearly all European languages belong 
to one great family. 


Greek efflorescence as 


ATSTORY 


The Substance of National Art 


National art means more than an 
objective “complex” of design motives, 
or a mass of monumental sculptures 
formally related to history, or schools 
of painting with distinguishable teeh- 
nique. It means permanent and con- 
tinuous expression of the ideals and 
emotions that characterize and unite 
the members of a large social group. 
Without this spiritual and intellectual 
content, art is nothing more than an 
assemblage of shapes and sounds which 
react harmoniously on sensory organs 
that are practically the same for all 
humanity. 

Many artistic shapes of universal oc- 
currence have come about for no other 
reason than that they express absolute 
esthetics in line and mass, just as vari- 
scales in music express absolute 
harmony in sounds. Among such 
shapes may be mentioned the fret, spi- 
ral, and swastika. Geometric art can 
be understood universally for the sim- 
ple reason that it has no meaning but, 
instead, a sensuous appeal. Of course 
sometimes 


OUs 


it can be given a meaning: 
one hears it said that the swastika is a 
sign of good luck and that the fret 
meander represents the endless wander- 
ing of the soul after death. 
versal shapes came into being in differ- 


Those uni- 


ent parts of the world, as has been said, 
beeause they embody a simple and fun- 
damentally artistic relation of lines just 
as the pentatonic scale embodies a fun- 
damentally artistic relation of sounds. 
In one region these shapes may have 
been given the arbitrary meanings 
stated above, but such meanings are 
not inherent in the shapes. 

Realistic art can be understood uni- 
versally because it is frankly objective. 
Of South American Indians 
might not understand a drawing of an 
elephant or a walrus, and an Eskimo 
would probably turn the picture of a 
palm tree upside down before he recog- 
nized it as the feather duster of the 


course 


CREATING 


missionary. The first graphic art in 
the world, that of Paleolithic man, was 
realistic and rather finely so. But real- 
istic art may have significance quite 
beyond the objective fact. To France 
the fleur-de-lis is more than a flower. 
Conventionalized art, as it is often 
called, or formalized figures that have 
elements of realism and elements of 
geometric order, are more intellectual 
than either realistic or geometric art. 
They are not found among the lowest 
peoples but only among those who have 


ceremonies, religious beliefs, and so on,. 


of fairly dey eloped types, and their sig- 
nificance is relative, or cultural, rather 
than absolute. They constitute a posi- 
tive contribution to the mass of human 
creations. 

The esthetic quality of art will take 
care of itself if only there is a proper 
field and sufficient time for selection 
and the survival of the fittest. The 
eye and the ear are mechanical organs 
that naturally select shapes and sounds 
with certain physical characters. More- 
over, many kinds of construction, es- 
pecially in textile art, compel a fine 
quality of order in decoration. Besides 
this, animal and plant forms and even 
shapes of land and sea have esthetic 
qualities which are the direct result of 
the mechanical forces that operate 
within or upon them, with the result 
that finely realistic art reflects organic 
beauty in nature. 

But before we can have a really na- 
tional art we must express or embody 
a mass of national ideas and emotions 
in things of everyday life. We have 
solid ground to build upon and blocks 
for the building. Politically, the de- 
mocracy that exists in America today 
is of a type and quality that has never 
existed elsewhere in the world. The 
old religion of rewards and punish- 
ments is giving place to a new religion 
of social service. Mechanically, we 
have wonderful new appliances to save 
labor and turn the energy of the hand 
into energy of the mind. In other 


A NATIONAL ART 6: 


oO 
t 


ay 


words there is before us the possibility 
of writing into art a new complex of 
life, based on a philosophy of logical 
and mechanical efficiency, political 
equality, and personal gratification at- 
tainable only through service to society. 
The art to come that fittingly embodies 
these things will be our national art 
even though it spreads beyond our po- 
litical limits and proselytes the world. 


Out of Efficiency Comes Beauty 


Out of efficiency comes beauty, that 
is the law not only of human art but 
also of that greater art seen in the re- 
finement of all natural forms. Sur- 
vival in the struggle for life among 
plants and animals is made possible by 
the proper correlation of many fune- 
tions in the body of an organism which 
is, in effect, a complicated, self-operat- 
ing machine. When the mechanism is 
perfect, the lines are good. An esthetic 
interest resides in shapes modeled for 
use, 

The proof of the mechanistic basis of 
esthetics is manifold. In this connec- 
tion it is interesting to read a passage 
from the ancient writings of Plato in 
which Socrates instructs Protarchus 
concerning the place of knowledge in 
the handcraft arts. After saying that 
little will be left if arithmetic, men- 
suration, and weighing be taken away 
from any of these arts, he continues : 


Socrates. The rest will be only conjee- 
ture, and the better use of the senses, which 
is given by experience and exercise, in addi- 
tion to a certain power of guessing, which is 
commonly called art and is prove to per- 
fection by pains and practice. 

ProTarcHus. That is very certain. 

Socrates. Music, for instance, is full of 
this sort of thing as is seen in the har- 
monizing of sounds, not by rule, but by con- 
jecture; and this is always the case of flute 
music, which tries to discover the pitch of 
notes by a guess, and therefore has a great 
deal that is uncertain and very little of pure 
science. 


After two thousand years these 
statements come pretty close to the 


626 NATURAL 
truth. But by “the better use of the 
senses” draftsmen discovered the facts 
of perspective drawing centuries before 
demonstration and proof of vanishing 
points and horizons were made by an 
English mathematician. Similarly the 
harmonies of sound were written down 
in scale music long before Helmholtz 
and others elaborated the facts that 
vibrations carry sound, and_ that 
harmony is due to mathematical cor- 
respondences between the numbers of 
vibrations in a given period of time. 
Some day, science, after gaining a 
proper understanding of the human eye 
as a super-delicate keyboard of rods and 
cones for the testing and selecting of 
shapes, tones, and colors, will be able 
to demonstrate exact rules of visual 
esthetics. In the long history of human 
art these rules are illustrated by the 
independent invention of the 
shapes and color combinations in dif- 
ferent parts of the world. 

A> close parallel may be drawn be- 
tween the life history of the art of a 
social group of human beings and the 
life history of plant and animal fami- 
Both are organic and have a long 
period of development and a_ shorter 
period of florescence. In the case of 
human art the cycle is completed in a 
few centuries while in plant and animal 
life it may take geological epochs. 
Conservative and radical forces operate 
throughout nature as they do in hu- 
man art. If we take a given form em- 
bodying use, which may be a tool, a 
magical design, a plant, or an animal 
species, we find it modified, first by a 
continual refinement leading to a type 
form that meets the general conditions 
and requirements of life, second by a 
continual selection of special forms 
that meet special conditions. A canoe, 
for example, is refined until it reaches 
a shape that moves most readily 
through the water. Such a shape can- 
not avoid having an esthetic interest 
because it is orderly. But while such 
refinement leads to a type form, it is 


same 


lies. 


HISTORY 


found that the canoe men have also 
been introducing changes in shape for 
sea-going canoes as contrasted with 
those for river navigation. Usually 
there is a new factor of mechanical ad- 
vantage entering into the question. 
Differentiation in plants and animals 
is usually along lines of new mechanical 
advantage. 

But specialization, while it strength- 
ens in a special field, weakens in the 
general field of activity. Thus Palzo- 
lithic man had at first a stone tool that 
came to have pretty definite shape and 
which he used to chop, cut, and drill 
with. Later special shapes were de- 
veloped for these special uses but 
general efficiency was lost in the pro- 
In other words it was more dif- 
ficult to chop or cut with the drill form 
than it was with the original undiffer- 
entiated tool of all work. 

In any case esthetic qualities come 
into a form which is developed by and 
for use. There is a point of fine balance 
and after that the quality of esthet- 
ics In an object becomes a growing 
danger. Biologists recognize as “end 
products” many highly — specialized 
plants and animals which have de- 
veloped esthetic characters along with 
their adaptations to narrow conditions. 
Such esthetic characters are irides- 
cence and similar bright color effects, 
and other fantastic 
cences, and extreme convolution or at- 
tenuation of the body. Among plants 
the orchid family shows many example: 
of extreme specialization in life asso- 
ciated with strange shapes and colors, 
and among animals, the many-cham- 
bered nautilus is analogous. ‘These are 
about to die, as the sea lilies, trilobites, 
ammonites, brachiopods, and giant liz- 
ards have already died through over- 
specialization, leaving only a few of 
the more sturdy members to represent 
the family. 

The life story of human art on the 
esthetic side is from strong simple 
forms associated with use to comph- 


cess. 


spines, eXxcres- 


‘ 


cated and flamboyant forms in which 
the usefulness is largely suppressed. 
Then comes the end. There is flamboy- 
ant Greek art, flamboyant Gothic art, 
flamboyant Mayan art, all showing the 
same tendencies that parallel the end 
products of natural history. Out of 
efficiency comes beauty, and out of 
beauty comes death. 


The Art of a Mechanical Age 


It has never fallen to the lot of any 
nation to give to the world so many 
new ideas in processes, machines, and 
constructions as we of the United 
States have given in the brief span of 
our history. Invention has been riot 
among us ever since the English officer 
observed that the children on Boston 
Common breathed in freedom from the 
very air. Our faculty of doing new 
‘things unthought of before, or of doing 
old things in new ways, is essentially 
a social phenomenon coming out of the 
release from traditional restraints. 
The citizens of the United States of 
America have shown a collective quality 
of mind as regards mechanics, which 
does not owe its origin to any particular 
line of blood or training. That some- 
thing “from the very air” infected 
John Ericsson no less than Robert Ful- 
ton, and it continues to infect the 
heterogeneous sons of a hundred Old 
World nations who come to our shores 
to build new homes in the sunlight of 
a new philosophy. 

The decoration that goes into the 
lives of people in this mechanical age 
must be largely produced by ma- 
chinery ; but it must be given spiritual 
and intellectual content. We may 
wink at Homer and take our designs 
where we will, but we must fill these 
designs with the spirit of our own 
times. There is work for great artists, 
and those who regret they could not 
learn their trade at the feet of Phidias 
or Michelangelo need not apply. 

There are still many persons in 
America who judge art by three tests 


CREATING A NATIONAL ART 627 


when only one is necessary. For them, 
a thing to be artistic must be rare and 
costly as well as beautiful. As a re- 
sult of this curious kink in apprecia- 
tion the industrial art of a previous 
epoch is to these people fine art while 
that of today is not. An invidious dis- 
tinction has been fostered in the public 
mind that objects of art, passing into 
quantity production, necessarily lose 
fineness and spirituality and take on a 
smell of machinery. 

It is true that to have fine art you 
must have the scrutinizing care of fine 
workmen over their product. But there 
have always been machines and each 


.age has used the best it could devise. 


The sculptors of today model in imper- 
manent materials and then turn the 
making of the permanent copy over to 
an artisan operating a power-driven 
chisel or to a bronze founder who 
knows the technique of casting metals. 

There are class distinctions among 
artists which have come down from the 
days when princes were patrons and 
which hardly belong in a democracy. 
A portrait painter is put on a higher 
artistic plane (quite aside from the 
merits of his work) than a maker of 
costumes who may administer to the 
same personality for a comparable 
reward. One kind of art is condemned 
as regards the higher values of ap- 
preciation by being called commercial 
and the other vaunted as noncommer- 
cial. The distinction is no longer a 
real one. As to the relations between 
emotional expression and money, every- 
one has heard divergent sentiments 
like the following: ‘No real work of 
art was ever made for money.” ‘Poor 
man, his finest efforts were potboilers.” 
There is a great deal of false senti- 
ment concerning artists. They are 
nothing more than specialized workers, 
like physicians, lawyers, and scientists, 
and they earn a precarious or magnifi- 
cent livelihood by a display of individ- 
ual ability. But there is also splendid 
romance amid the whir of wheels, or 


625 


where the cantilevers reach out to join 
hands across the river. ‘There are men 
in all walks of hfe who have faith to 
follow airy voices and logic to prove 
the impossible easily possible. There 
are master workmen in mills and fac- 
tories who, while they recognize the 
master workmanship of a distant past, 
see in it only a spur toward greater 
achievements in the future. 

Has decorative art a practical value 
in commercial products? In the naive 
minds of savages designs are often re- 
garded as magical devices to bring 
good and ward off evil, and as con- 
tinuous prayers to the gods. I lke to 
think that decorative art is still magi- 
cal and able to fill dark places with 
sunshine. But the business man often 
wants practical value counted out on 
the table. Suecessful decoration adds 
distinction to any product. American 
textile houses during the last four 
years have learned how to add good 


decoration to good construction. As a 
result American silks have sold in 


Paris, and selling silks in Paris is like 
selling coal in Newcastle. With such a 
guarantee of artistic quality, should we 
not sell to the most discriminating 
buyers both at home and abroad? Ar- 
tistic quality in the goods of commerce 
means a higher proportional value of 
mind and a lesser value of material in 
the manufactured article. Where the 
raw materials have to be imported as 
in the case of silks, fine pottery, and 
the like, it behooves the manufacturer 
to enlarge the proportional value of 
workmanship in the completed product. 

Art education in America has until 
recently been in appreciation rather 
than in production. The most success- 


ful artists in textiles and costumes 
have come out of commercial work- 


shops rather than art schools. But the 
schools are better capable of inculeat- 
ing a sound and fundamental philos- 
ophy of art than are the workshops. 
The youth of America should be taught 
that only the good is beautiful and 


NATURAL HISTORY 


that only normal and organic orna- 
Let the slogan 
Beauty is as beauty does.” 


ment deserves praise. 
be 


ee 


Symbols and Loyalties 


Because man is a herding animal he 
cannot avoid community — loyalties. 
There are the family, the tribe, the 
nation, each based upon a larger and 
larger idea of codperation. There are 
also other human associations that fall 
outside the three already mentioned 
and that compete with them for a share 
of loyalty and support. For instance, 
secret societies and lodges are found 
among both primitive and_ civilized 
peoples; there are ceremonial organiza- 
tions of warriors, hunters, and medi- 
cine men; there are masons’ and drap- 


ers’ guilds, granges, trade unions, 
clubs, and political parties. But as a 


supreme human group the nation goes 
far beyond the primitive bond of blood 
or the selfish bond of common yoeation 
and develops the essentially intel- 
lectual bond of common thought. For 
a civilized people the first of all group 
loyalties should be loyalty to the nation, 
and this becomes stronger as symbols 
are invented to express it. 

The flag is preéminently a svmbol of 
nationality, and other symbols are pub- 
lic buildings and utilities such as high- 
ways and wide-arching bridges, which 
give a sense of common ownership 
stretching beyond narrow acres. And 
there are many other subtle or direct 
symbols that unexpectedly yoice widely 
felt but inarticulate desires. National 
art brings about social amalgamation 
whether the means of expression be 
slogans and rallying songs, monuments, 
parades, uniforms that put rich and 
poor in the same rank, or simple ob- 
jects of use and beauty, such as cos- 
tumes, flower jars and fountain pens, 
that build up an understanding of life 
which is good, true, and of our own 
times. With common thoughts as warp 
and weft a strong fabric may be woven 
which shall become truly beautiful as 


X 


CREATING A NATIONAL ART 


it is embroidered with deeper and 
deeper emotions. 

And loyalties that are developed 
through art, what part may they take 
in the political life of a people? It is 
strangely true that loyalty thrives on 
the very duties and sacrifices that its 
existence makes practicable. If an 
organization, great or small, does not 
demand service of its members it can 
hardly continue to exist. The success 
of revolutionary movements in art, 
politics, or religion is measured by the 
degree in which the individual is made 
to feel his submersion in the group. 
Always there must be symbols, like the 
carved fishes in the catacombs, to 
lighten the hours of trial and torment 
and to record permanently the hours 
of joy and triumph. The nation is 
best equipped to exert its full power for 
progress and production when it can 
oppose the forces that would under- 
mine its hold on individual members, 
by loyalty that is personal, concrete, 
and pictured in every mind. 

We hear much of internationalism. 
Perhaps this means sympathy and a 


sense of justice among nations and a 
modus operandi of securing these 
things. Nationalism divides mankind 


geographically and develops vertical 
loyalties that unite different classes of 
society into an organic whole capable 


629 


of diversified production. ‘There is, of 
course, always the danger of conflict 
between two nations just as there is be- 
tween two individuals. But if interna- 
tionalism means a horizontal division 
of mankind on the basis of class, with 
the threat of conflict above or below, it 
can offer no advantage to the world. 
History indicates that the nation is 
the largest association of human be- 
ings capable of having and adequately 
expressing communal ideas of use and 
beauty. It may expand far beyond the 
limits of blood and speech and may, 
perhaps, even encompass the world. 
Let there be friendliness between polit- 
ical units by all means but let there 
also be refreshing contrasts in thought. 

A truly national art will express and 
extend the joys and satisfactions of the 
people as a whole; it will awaken a 
consciousness of universal sympathy, 
and put new purpose and beauty into 
many lives. The esthetic art will be 
organic and useful in itself and not a 
senseless load upon the utilities of the 
age, nor an empty gratification of 
vanity, nor a mere sensuous tickling of 
nerve ends. It will be beauty in cotton 
as much as in silk, in copper as much 
as in gold. It will be joyous Romance 
and heartfelt Ceremony in our homes 
and in our streets, in our work and in 
our play for the seven days of the week. 


POSTSCRIPT 


SINCE the preceding article was written the 
first general American exhibition of textiles 
and costumes, illustrating the splendid ad- 
vances in industrial decorative art during the 
last six years, has been held in the halls of 
the American Museum of Natural History. 
The exhibition developed the value of first 
principles in construction and decoration even 
where commercial and 
women’s Historical 


vogue in fabrics 


clothes is concerned. 
sources were shown for the machine, for the 
design, and for the costume. 

The great roaring machines of today are 
but the logical extension of mechanical parts 


and principles known of old, weaving in 
some form or other is as old as human so- 
ciety, and there has always been personal 
adornment forming a basis of the costumer’s 
art. 
shuttles and myriad harness strings, bewilder 
with a multiplicity of detail. 


The Jacquard looms, with their busy 


Yet the essen- 
tial features can nearly all be seen in simple 
All the 


types of weaving, as well as many methods 


machines used by Philippine tribes. 


of decoration, such as cylinder printing, 
block printing, warp tie-dyeing, batik, em- 
broidery, appliqué, and stenciling, are found 
The 


among the lesser and earlier nations. 


63 NATURAL HISTORY 


modern designer and artist cannot afford to 
neglect fields in which the fittest and finest 
have been determined by centuries of selec- 
tion. 

The special contributions of our age are 
new sources of power to replace the muscles 
of man, new possibilities of collection and 
distribution that bring us materials from 
afar and that send our made products across 
the limits which divide nations, and, lastly, 
new horizons of suggestions and inspiration 
for our ideas that are practicable and profit- 
able. 

In five or six years America has come a 
long way toward developing an adequate ex- 
pression of her artistic individuality. But 
this progress has been in the shops rather 
than in the schools. It has come from a use 
of facts, not theories, and from an objective 
study of the relations between form and or- 
nament, between the technical process and 
the design. The examples of applied art in 
the various museum collections have aided in 
this forward movement. 

Behind all progress, however, there are hu- 
man personalities. Always there are some 
men and women who see with an inner eye 
the things that may be and then with in- 
genuity and courage make them the things 
that are. It is not only to the new artists 


who have found success that praise should go 
for the recent advances of American indus- 
trial art and for the bright hopes of the 
future. Likewise a tribute should be given 
to certain definite 1D), Gh 
Crawford, who established contacts between 


individuals: M. 


science and the trade and who wrote, talked, 
and clarified till the last doubt died; E. 
W. Fairchild, who put money and enthusi- 
asm into a program of publicity when the 
skies were unpropitious; David Aaron, Al- 
bert Blum, Charles Cheney, Irving E. Han- 
son, Max Meyer, and Jessie Franklyn Turner, 
who from the first have joined their faith 
with ours and whose artistic skill and per- 
ception have stamped qualities of distine- 
tion on new products. 

The problem now broadens to one of gen- 
eral education-in the public and private 
schools of America. For the schools will be 
called upon to supply the industries with 
craftsmen whose minds and hands have been 
prepared for efficient service in the present 
The explorers and the pioneers have 
They have 


world. 
blazed a trail and marked a road. 
come with an earnest of accomplishment in 
their hands and an offer of experience and 
tested success that those who come after 


may build safely and grandly. 


The principal exhibitors who codperated with the American Museum of Natu- 
ral History in the exhibition of Industrial Arts in Textiles and Costumes were as 


follows: 


Davip Aaron & Co., INC., embroideries 

AMERICAN BEAD Co., INC., dress accessories 

A. BELLER & Co., cloaks and suits 

EMILE BERNET, tapestry yarns 

BuLancK & Co., embroideries 

SIDNEY BLUMENTHAL & Co., INC., velvets 

Bonwit TELLER & Co., tea gowns and 
negligees 

CHENEY BROTHERS, silks 

Harry COLLINS, costumes 

B. C. FAULKNER, blouses 

MARSHALL FIELD & Co., INC., cretonnes 

A. H. FLANDERS & Co., blouses 

FUNSTEN Bros. & Co., sealskins 


JOHNSON, COWDIN & Co., INC., ribbon 
weaving 

Orro Kaun, INc., fur garments 

KEVORKIAN GALLERIES, oriental art 

H. R. Mauuinson & Co., INc., silks 

J. A. MiGEL, INc., Jacquard loom 

Marian Powys, laces 

RutH REEVES, batiks 

MartTHa RyTHER, batiks 

BarBara SrmMonps, hand prints 

HazeL BuRNHAM SLAUGHTER, batiks 

Mary TANNAHILL, batiks 

J. WISE Co., INC., costumes 

Womens Wear, costume books 


The Museum gratefully acknowledges the assistance of many of these exhibitors toward the 
cost of the following photographic insert covering the exhibition. 


SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS FROM THE FIRST EXHIBITION 
OF AMERICAN TEXTILES, COSTUMES, AND 
MECHANICAL PROCESSES 


HELD AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NOVEMBER 12 TO DECEMBER 1], 11! 


LEGENDS BY HERBERT J. SPINDEN 


YOUNG AMERICA IN THE RAIMENT OF OLD PERSIA 


In former times each nation had its few special styles in dress and there were slow processes of refinement 
that operated upon these styles. Now dress is cosmopolitan, but cosmopo'itan with an almost personal variation 
in detail. ‘There are fundamental types that return in the vogue from time to time. and these go back to the old 
national styles. The wraiths of the past come and go like shadows—or shall we say silhoucttes ? 

Kevorkian Galleries 


Proposed Museum 


Connected with the American 


MERICA has reason to be 
vastly proud of her recent 
progress in expressing beauty 
through the things of everyday use. 
The Exhibition of Industrial Art in 
Textiles and Costumes, covered in 
part by the series of photographs 
that accompanies this brief state- 
ment, disclosed new forces in Amer- 
ican life. It disclosed a will of the 
people to work and think together, 
an ideal of individual satisfaction 
in the common good, a conception 
of the nation as the exponent of a 
philosophy of justice, industry, and 
well-being, and a recognition of the 
place of beauty and good craftsman- 
ship in the things that men and 
women spend their lives to create. 

Such emotional forces, engrossing 
society, are the surest protection 
against the doctrines of individual 
or class selfishness. When the na- 
tional consciousness shall be duly 
expressed through all the little 
things that touch life, through gar- 
ments and dishes and house furnish- 
ings, the great things will assume a 
new significance. And in bringing 
about such a realization what would 
be more effective than a great Mu- 
seum of the Passing Today, which 
would stage kaleidoscopic exposi- 
tions of those emotional qualities 
that glorify labor and serve as an 
educational clearing house of objec- 
tive teaching in what is good? 

A museum of commercial arts 
would, in effect, be a museum of the 
ethnology of today. It would be en- 
tirely justifiable from every scien- 
tific standpoint and would receive 
public support because of its direct 
relation to life in its broader aspects 
and to the special problems of arts 
and industries. Such a museum 
need not be involved directly in the 


A Bokhara Reproduction.— Bonwit Teller d& Co. 


of Commercial Arts 


Museum of Natural History 


competitive activities of commerce. 
It can reserve for itself a position 
above criticism as an umpire of the 
best in construction and decoration 
and as a teacher of facts and funda- 
mentals. 

The great arts into which decora- 
tion enters, or into which it may 
enter, involve tremendous values in 
men and money. Mention need only 
be made of textiles, costumes, pot- 
tery, jewelry, and house furnishings. 
All of these have their foundations 
set deeply in the arts and crafts of 
the lesser and earlier nations. It 
would not be proper to show such 
arts except in historical perspective 
and the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History with its great collec- 
tions from all times and all parts of 
the world is best able to furnish 
such a perspective. Moreover, this 
public institution has a record of 
solid achievement in its relation, 
first to industry, and second to edu- 
cation. 

Let us imagine a large section of 
the American Museum of Natural 
History given over to the needs and 
uses of commerce. First there 
would be halls so arranged that the 
modern materials could be placed on 
temporary exhibition without risk 
or deterioration. Second, there 
would be more permanent educa- 
tional collections covering the world 
range of definite processes. Third, 
there would be ample provision for 
classes in design coming from pub- 
lic or private schools and for profes- 
sional designers coming from manu- 
facturing establishments. Fourth, 
there would be scientific laboratories 
where special problems relating to 
fibers, dyes, pottery clays, cabinet 
woods, and so on, could be studied 
by experts. 


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SINGLE AND CUMULATIVE PRINTS FROM CYLINDERS 


These cylinders must be ground down to exactly the same diameter and in the machine 


In roller printing of textiles there must be a separate cylinder for each color. 


the registration must be perfect 


Tne. 


Marshall Field & Co., 


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SHUTTLES CAUGHT IN FLIGHT 


The mystery of rapidly moving shuttles, spilling their spider’s thread of color, was solved for this child and for many 
adults no less interested. In the ribbon being woven on the loom installed by Johnson, Cowdin & Co., the warp threads 
are black and the design is brought out through the use of four shuttles each with a thread of a different color. The 
lowermost shuttle is seen in the act of passing between the lifted warp threads and those that have not been lifted. 

In the Jacquard attachment, which makes possible the weaving of exceedingly complicated designs, there must be a 
separate, perforated card for every weft thread that crosses the ribbon until the repeat in the pattern is reached. In the 
case of the ribbon being woven here there were 1200 cards. When the card reaches a certain place it is presscd against 
a surface of projecting pins. All the pins are pushed back except those that are in position to enter one of the holes in 
the card. In this way a mechanism is released that determines which warp threads are to be lifted so that the colored 
weft threads will appear upon the surface to form the pattern. 

The narrow loom is used among many primitive nations in the weaving of belts and hair bands, which were the first 
ribbons. In America ribbons with beautiful patterns are fo:nd among various Indian tribes in New Mexico, Arizona, 
northern Mexico, Guatemala, and Ecuador 


Johnson, Cowdin & Co., Ine. 


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oi, 


= Nae TTT, 


THE GUATEMALAN HUIPIL AS A COSTUME TYPE 


where the Indian women wear gaily em- 
sacklike blo ss bat the designs are striking and the colors bril- 


Three days south from New Orleans lies Gua*emal: 
broidered huipiles. These are simple, 
liant. 

J Woe Co., Ine 


643 


MOSAICS IN FUR MADE BY THE KORYAK TRIBE OF NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA 


The Siberian tribes that are dependent upon the reindeer are the world’s most skilful work- 
ers in fur. Their long coats are provided with a hood and with a high neck piece or collar that 
ties up under the chin when the hood is raised or is made to lie down flat over the breast when 
the hood is thrown back. The decoration on these garments is often a patchwork or mosaic of 
fur in contrasting colors. In the garment shown here it is estimated that there are nearly twenty 
thousand separate pieces carefully cut and sewed together 

American Museum of Natural History 


644 


A COAT FROM SIBERIA AND A WRAP MODELED AFTER IT 


The natives of Siberia are wonderful makers of fur garments In the specimen shown at the right the material is 
reindeer skin with the fur turned in and the decoration consists lar ly of medallions of blue and white beads. The 
essential features of this Siberian coat are followed in the exquisite wrap of 
the left 


blue velvet trimmed with fur, reproduced at 


A. Beller & Co. 


645 


resident 
pouches 
dis- 

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has led to the 
soldiers 


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and 


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Bead Co., 


necklaces 
dress 


price 
American 


the 


woman’s 
the fact that 


the purchase 
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accessories 


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Manhattan 
which the Indians made from these beads. 


aboriginal 


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use 
6 


A SUGGESTION FROM SIBERIA 


It is a far cry from prepared fishskin to Fan-Ta-Si silk yet a wonderful fishskin garment from 
the Amur River in Siberia, decorated by the stencil and appliqué methods, gave form and character 
to this lovely gown 


J. Wise Co., Ine 
647 


alue. 
that 
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EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL REPRODUCTION 
tenaissance 
of Italy 


work 


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wd 


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shsas 


BEAL. 


A MODERN AMERICAN BATIK 


Batik is a wax paint process making possible etl 
was used on ancient American pottery as well as on 


ration on this graceful gown is in the spirit of South 
Mary Tannahill 


649 


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s 
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i 
z 
ES 
fp: 
2 


A STORY OF ADAPTATION OF DESIGN THROUGH BLOCK PRINTING 


Above we see a detail of an ancient Peruvian mantle with embroidered figures in soft but brilliant colers and 
below a commercial use of this design. In the central strip are some of the blocks used in the printing 
H. R. Mallinson ¢ Oo., Inc. 


A WOMAN'S DRESS OF THE PLAINS INDIANS 

The 
The lines of con- 
of value to modern 


Harry Collins 
651 


The Indian women of the Great Plains wore graceful dresses made from two deerskins. 


decoration by beadwork and fringes grew naturally out of the construction. 
struction and decoration of garments as simple as this one contain suggestions 


dressmakers 


sat 


i 
P ns 
23 
ae | 


A COMMUNITY OF INTEREST BETWEEN NEW YORK AND THE PHILIPPINES 


The Bagobo tribe of the Philippines make hempen jackets which they decorate with beads. A @is- 
tinguished example showing how suggestions in primitive garments can be applied in the dress of today 
is seen in this graceful suit of brown cloth with decoration in brown beads. Note how the shape of the 
Bagobo jacket has been copied, as well as the little pockets, the strings in front that take the place of 
buttons, and the design that follows the edges and runs down the sleeves 

A. Beller & Oo, 


CHILDREN’S DRESSES 


A distinct field for development is to be found in the hes of children Le ve se ° 


girls wearing adapt: 

unusual 
grown-ups, at lea rta f its phase 
land or sea, but which appear in primitiy 
» chords and scale 


tions of Guatemalan and Philippine models. The colors are p* 
The romance of de is one that children can understand 

Children live in a state of make-believe Birds and beasts whicl 

designs and perform in primitive m ths, appeal stror ontl Geometl 

of abstract beaut realistic art pictures the things that I 1, d, v formal or art, growing, 

it does, out of strange religions and philosophies, res ilt fol that have xistene cept in the min 


of man 
Ine 


654 AMERICAN TEXTILE AND COSTUME EXHIBITION 


A BLOCK-PRINTED CURTAIN FROM INDIA 


; Block printing and hand painting as means of decorating large surfaces in pictographic manner are finely developed 
in India. In the example we see a medley of more or less realistic details drawn out of all proportion to one another but 
with fine decorative effect 


M. D.C. Crawford 


bs 


} 


An “Old Tramp” Among the 


By CHARLES 


N days gone by the only way in 

which a naturalist could visit the 

Florida Keys was by boat, but since 
the completion of the extension of the 
Florida East Coast Railway he can get 
off the train at Jewfish on Cross Key, 
tramp to Largo, Long and Windlys 
islands, Upper and Lower Matacumbe 
keys, Long, Grassy, Crawl and Vaccas 
keys, Bahia Honda, Big Pine, Torch, 
Ramrod, Cudjoe, Sugarloaf and a 
number of other islands of lesser im- 
portance, until he finally reaches Key 
West. By following the track of the 
railroad he will visit most of the prin- 
cipal islands of this interesting chain 
and will cross many miles of the won- 
derful causeway built across the sea. 
The stupendous arches carry a single- 
track railroad and are too narrow for 
a train and foot passenger to pass, but 
the company has built wooden cages 
hung out over the water at regular in- 
tervals along the viaduct, and the 
tramp can always reach one of these 
before the train passes. 

I have been familiar with the Florida 
Keys since 1882, having resided in 
Lower Florida the greater part of the 
time since that date and from time to 
time I have made collecting and ex- 
ploring trips among them. Now, al- 
though more than threescore and ten, I 
cannot resist the’ temptation to visit 
them occasionally in order that I may 
study their natural history and the 
geographical distribution of their life. 
Such a trip I undertook the latter part 
of October, 1919, running from my 
home near Miami to Big Pine Key by 
rail and making that island my head- 
quarters while I visited the keys near 
by in a small boat. My outfit consisted 


tcocotllyu 


= 


Florida Keys 
T SiMe SON 


of two Suits of khaki—ineluding the one 
I wore, an old, narrow-brimmed slouch 
wool hat, the best thing for getting 
through the thick scrub, socks, a high 
pair of strong canvas shoes, a coat, 
toothbrush, and some small sacks for 
holding snails. Instead of a grip, which 
is an awkward thing to carry through 
thick, tangled growth, I put my things 
into a large sack which I hung over my 
shoulder. A blanket, mosquito netting, 
and two-quart water can completed my 
stock. Fresh water can be obtained on 
the keys only at the cisterns of the na- 
tives or at the railroad tanks. Meager 
as this outfit was, it became a heavy 
burden when one tramped long dis- 
tances on the railroad or through the 
scrub on a hot day. 

The objects of my trip were to study 
the distribution of the tropical vegeta- 
tion, make a list of the butterflies seen, 
and collect specimens of the large and 
beautiful arboreal snails belonging to 
the genera Oxvystyla and Liguus. The 
snails were once abundant in the ham- 
mock growth of nearly all the keys but 
of late years are becoming scarce or are 
in some cases exterminated. The shells 
of all are highly polished; those of the 
genus Oxrystyla are colored with various 
shades of brown; the Liguus are white, 
yellow, green, brown, black, orange and 
scarlet, while a few are tinted with 
violet or blue. All of our Liguus 
specimens have been derived from 
Cuba, having crossed the Florida Strait 
on floating timber, and are among the 
most wonderfully painted of any snails 
on earth. I wanted to observe the ef- 
fects of the hurricane of early Septem- 
ber, the one which wrecked Corpus 
Christi, Texas, and which had _ been 


Collaborator, United States Department of Agriculture, author of works on mollusks, especially of the 
West Indies and Florida, and recently of a book on the Florida Keys, their geology, and the geographical 
distribution of their fauna and flora, entitled In Lower Florida Wilds, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 


657 


658 
among the most destructive of any 
recorded in Lower Florida; there 


were also two or three points in the 
geology of the keys which I wished to 
study. 

The geology of Lower Florida, in- 
cluding the keys, is simple but inter- 
esting. During middle Pleistocene 
time, perhaps, a subsidence of the Flo- 
ridian area occurred and all that part 
of the state south of the Caloosahatchee 
River was carried beneath the sea. A 
great bed of limestone was formed 
along what is now the southwest coast ; 
another, an oolitic, in the Key West re- 
gion, is the Key West limestone. A 
somewhat similar formation was laid 
down along the southeast coast of the 
mainland which bears the name of the 
Miami limestone. <A period of eleva- 
tion followed during which the land of 
south Florida assumed something of its 
present shape and dimensions, but the 
greater part of the Key West beds 
probably formed a single island. Va- 
rious tropical tree and plant seeds, 
drifted by the Gulf Stream, were de- 
posited along these old shores and be- 
came established as colonies, and the 
same was true of many different kinds 
of land animals which belonged to the 
Antillean region. 

A subsidence of a few feet followed, 
then a second elevation in which 
the land of Lower Florida reached a 
slightly higher level than it has at 
present. At this time an old dry-land 
connection existed between the upper 
part of the Florida Keys and the south 
shore of the mainland, over which 
plants and animals migrated. The 
upper part of the chain of keys is a 
worked-over coral reef which formed 
outside the shore of the Miami lime- 
stone country and it extends from near 
Cape Florida to the Newfound Harbor 
keys which come to an end south of 
Ramrod Key. The curious tail of land 
which forms the lower part of Big Pine 
Key is a part of this coral reef and is 
connected with the main island of Key 


NATURAL HISTORY 


West limestone by an irregular mud 
flat. 

During the two subsidences, the east- 
ern end of the Key West island was 
depressed so that the water of the Gulf 
of Mexico was driven across the lowest 
parts of it into the Florida Strait 
during severe northers, thus scour- 
ing out channels which have a north- 
northwest, south-southeast direction, 
leaving long, narrow islands between 
them. The tides are high in the gulf 
at the time they are low in the strait 
and vice versa, hence they continually 
scour out these passages and eat away 
the limestone by means of the carbon 
dioxide which the sea water contains. 
The upper and lower islands are thus 
of entirely different origin. That the 
upper are much the younger of the two 
is proved by the fact that, although the 
dry land of the two groups is nearly 
equal, the flora of this upper group is 
meager in species while that of the 
lower islands is very rich, the latter 
having more than 175 forms not found 
on the Upper Keys. 

The latest earth movement of this 
region was a slight subsidence which 
has been sufficient to submerge and 
partly destroy the old land connection 
between the Upper Keys and the main- 
land. At no time since the present 
life has existed in this area has the sub- 
sidence been sufficient to drown out the 
dry-land flora and fauna, nor has the 
elevation been great enough to form a 
dry-land connection between the upper 


‘part of the chain and the Miami main- 


land. Although the elevated land of 
some of these islands hes within eight 
miles of the high, rocky east coast, the 
floras of the two regions are quite dis- 
tinct, and there is a slight difference in 
the faunas of the two areas. 

For several days I made my head- 
quarters on Big Pine, making cruises 
to the neighboring keys in a row 
boat propelled by a big, good-natured 
Bahama darky. ‘The hurricane had 
wrought terrible havoc in these islands. 


\ 


AN “OLD TRAMP” AMONG THE FLORIDA KEYS 


During its continuance the wind blew 
from nearly every point of the compass 
and it drove the water of the sea high 
up over the dry land everywhere. 
Along the railroad, between Big Pine 
and the West Summerland keys, it 
broke over the tracks which are per- 
haps eleven feet above the level of or- 
dinary tide, piling débris up on the side 
of the roadbed to several feet above it. 
Houses were torn down or drifted 
away, trees broken or uprooted; in 
places the seashore was encroached 
upon, and in others sand and debris 
were built far out into the sea. Every 
conceivable kind of drift and rubbish 
was carried far in on to the dry land. 
In well-elevated hammocks there were 
millions of tropical seeds, washed in 
perhaps from Cuba or the Bahamas 
and mixed with broken wood, trees, 
and bark. This material lay in drifts 
and immense beds, and already many 
of the seeds were sprouting and coming 
up—the forerunners of colonies of im- 
ported plants. 

No finer lesson could be given of the 
manner in which our tropical flora has 
been planted and established, and it is 
in just this way that the work has been 
done in past ages. The land mollusks 
of the West Indian region which are 
now inhabitants of Lower Florida to- 
gether with some other members of the 
animal kingdom have been carried in 
and established in much the same way, 
arriving on floating timber which has 
been carried inland on tidal waves. 
The splendid Liguus, for which I was 
searching, lives entirely on the trees 
and lays its eggs in the ground or in de- 
caying wood on the floor of the forest. 
Both animals and eggs sink in sea 
water but the former may be trans- 
ported while clinging to the trees on 
which they live and the eggs may be 
carried in the rotting wood which 
is washed into the sea during great 
floods. The snails are not injured in 
the least by immersion in salt water 
even for many hours, as I have ascer- 


659 


tained by experiment, and the eggs 
suffer no harm from a sea bath. 

My entire search of the lower islands 
resulted in finding nothing more than 
a few broken and faded shells of 
Liguus and Oxystyla. On one of the 
exposed beaches a considerable number 
of fragments were washed up and some 
of these still showed the characteristic 
color of the shells belonging to these 
islands. But it seems probable that 
both of these genera of splendid snails 
are now extinct on the Lower Keys. 

My next run was to Marathon on 
Key Vaccas. This island is invariably 
called “Key Waccy” by the natives. 
Outside of Boot Key Harbor and 
Marathon, it is inhabited by a few Ba- 
hama Negroes who live by fishing, tur- 
tling, sponge gathering, and charcoal 
burning. They are a peculiar people 
who do not seem to relish having the 
whites come among them. ‘Their 
speech, which is little changed from 
that of the Bahamas, is sometimes diffi- 
cult to understand. The letter “a” is 
pronounced as it is in the word “what,” 
and there is a peculiar monotony in 
their conversation. 

Five years before, when I had visited 
the island, I met an old darky by the 
name of William Lowe, who told me 
he had seen Liguus on the trees in 
some hammock land which belonged to 
him. Questioned more closely, he said 
he had seen the “black snail,” as a 
certain very dark-colored variety of 
Liguus is called, in this forest. I had 
hired him to make a half-day search 
and he found a single living specimen. 
When I left him he promised to keep 
a diligent lookout for this variety or 
any others whenever he had opportu- 
nity. Although this dark form was 
formerly abundant and by diligent 
search I had found about fifty dead 
specimens, I had never taken it alive. 
So far as I know, it is now to be found 
only in this island, although it once ex- 
isted on Cape Sable, at Chokolaskee 
among the Ten Thousand Islands near 


660 


Miami and on one or two islands in the 
lower part of the Everglades. I made 
my way to Lowe’s house and was told 
that he was in the field at work and 
would be home at night. When I asked 
Mrs. Lowe if I might stay all night she 
refused, and said I would have to talk 
with her husband. I sat on a stump 
in the little yard, tormented by mos- 
quitoes and sand flies until dusk when 
he appeared. He didn’t seem to re- 
member me, although I had written 
to him that I was coming and wanted 
him to help me collect. All the people 
in the little settlement apparently re- 
sented my presence and made me feel 
that I was anything but welcome. 
When I asked Lowe if I might stay all 
night he replied very emphatically that 
I could not, and he also said in answer 
to my inquiry that no one about there 
would keep me. He wasn’t even willing 
that I should sleep on the floor of his 
little cookhouse. I asked him if he in- 
tended to turn me out to sleep in the 
rain, for a steady downpour had set in. 
He at last reluctantly permitted me to 
come into the house. It was a little 
better than most of the dwellings of 
the natives, being in size about 14 by 20 
feet, with board sides and a shingled 
root; a narrow hall, not more than 
three feet wide, ran from side to side of 
it, and dark ill-smelling little rooms or 
cubby-holes were partitioned off in the 
rest of it. 

I determined to get into the good 
graces of these people if possible, and 
began to tell them of my adventures 
and mishaps. I wanted to get them 
interested and to have them become 
friendly, and I hoped to have their as- 
sistance in collecting. Soon Lowe be- 
gan to listen in an interested way and 
IT could hear the women, who had 
crawled into one of the little rooms, 
laughing; two or three neighbors came 
in and stood in the smoke of the ever- 
lasting smudge pot and eagerly lis- 
tened. Finally Lowe got up, unlocked 
a door opening into one of the rooms 


NATURAL HISTORY 


and from a shelf brought out a Ma- 
son’s fruit jar and unscrewed the top. 
To me, although the odor was nauseat- 
ing, the sight was thrilling, for it was 
nearly full of dead specimens of Liguus 
and Oxystyla which he had captured 
from time to time and shut up in this 
glass prison. Among them I saw some 
specimens of the black snail which I 
was so eager to obtain, and when I 
asked him if the lot was for me he re- 
plied, “Yas, sah, wen you pays me foh 
dey.” I offered to give him the money 
then but he was not ready to take it 
and he wouldn’t even allow me to take 
the jar in my hand. 

I wanted to get him to collect for me 
the next day but he said he had a char- 
coal pit on hand and couldn’t leave 
it under any circumstances. Finally 
after some dickering, when I offered 
him a price that would have tempted 
a striking union labor man to go to 
work, he scratched his head and said, 
“Maybe I can fix dat pit so she go ovah 
one day, and den I he’p yo’.” 

I rolled myself up in my blanket and 
lay down on the floor at bedtime in one 
of the dirty, awful-smelling little dens. 
Lowe shut the doors; the windows, 
which are of boards, are always closed 
at might. I asked him if I might open 
the window in my room but he was not 
willing. ‘Twice in the night, however, 
when nearly suffocated I got up and 
quietly pushed it open while I gasped 
in a few breaths of fresh air. 

In the morning I went with the old 
man to the hammock and he seemed to 
be in an excellent humor. “Mans in dis 
islan’,” he said, “gwa’ cut down timbah 
an’ Ah tell him yo’ pay him good money 
foh any of dem tree snail. He fine 
some of dey and pick dey off an’ lay dey 
on de groun’ ’side he coat an’ he tink 
he get dey wen he go home at night. 
Well, sah, wen he go dare at night dey 
ain't no snail dare; Ah reckon dey half 
mile away, up in de tree likely laughin’ 
at him.” And he threw back his head 
and shoulders and laughed, “Yah kya 


\ 


AN “OLD TRAMP” AMONG THE FLORIDA KEYS 


kya kya!’ until he fairly made the 
woods ring. “Ah reckon he tink dem 
snail gwa’ to lay dare and wait till he 
get ready to come an’ git dey. Yah 
yah yah yah!” And he laughed again 
uproariously. 

We hunted together for several hours 
with the result that he found four of 
the black snails, two of which were 
dead but in good condition, while I got 
none. I asked him how it was that he 
could see them so much better than J, 
who had been used to hunting for them 
so long, and he said, “Ah reckon it 
*ea’se | been bohn an’ bred in de scrub, 
sah.” No doubt this was the reason. 
The eves and other sense organs of men 
who habitually live in the wild are 
much sharper than those of any one 
whose abode is within the pale of civi- 
lization: Such persons live in a great 
degree by the use of the senses while 
the man of civilization lives by his wits. 

While on the island I took a long 
tramp to its upper end, then over to 


Little Vaccas, an unnamed key, also to 


Lower, Middle and Upper Crawl keys, 
but though I made diligent search 
everywhere, I found but few Liguus. 
On my way back I went into a piece of 
fine, original hammock near the upper 
end of Vaccas and found a magnificent 
orange-colored variety. Some of the 
shells were superbly shaded and stained 
with scarlet and I collected until night 
was coming on. Near a little pool in 
the hammock a water moccasin, which 
was partly concealed under a palmetto 
leaf, struck viciously at the inside of 
my left leg as I was walking forward. 
I happened to carry in my hand a 
stick about four feet long and less than 
an inch in diameter, which I used to 
push off snails from the trees. In- 
stinctively I struck at the snake as it 
lunged at me, and hit it a sharp blow 
on the “neck.” This knocked it to the 
ground, but the force of its stroke was 
so great that its head shot on between 
my legs. 

It seemed to me that all the darkies 


661 
in the settlement gathered at Lowe’s 
house that night to hear my adven- 


tures, with the result that they all be- 
came quite friendly. Next morning 
old boxes and corners were searched in 
all the houses and a number of fine 
Liguus and Oxystyla shells were 
brought to light which their owners 
sold to me at a good round price. 
Lowe got me a box to pack my shells 
in and accompanied me to the railroad, 
carrying it for me. When I bade his 
wife good-by she said, “Boss, we shorely 
miss yo’ tonight,” which I felt was a 
very high compliment. 

I next visited Long Key and found a 
fine piece of rocky hammock near the 
flag stop called Crescent, but although 
I searched it diligently for several 
hours I did not find even a fragment of 
a Liguus. Then I went on to Upper 
Matacumbe and was fortunate enough 
to be taken in at the home of a Mr. Lee 
Pinder at the village of Matacumbe. 
The room which I occupied faced on 
the open sea and to me it was a para- 
dise after the miserable den I had re- 
cently occupied. I tramped to the 
southwest end of Lower Matacumbe 
Key and back one day, a distance of 
more than sixteen miles, and searched 
the island carefully but found only a 
few living snails. Another day, Mr. 
Pinder took me to Lignum Vite Key 
in his launch and we spent several 
hours searching for snails with rather 


meager results. Formerly Liguus 
swarmed on this island but it seems as 
though some cause besides the en- 


croachment of civilized man is acting 
to exterminate these beautiful snails. 
Very little of the fine hammock has 
been cut and no one lives on the island. 

I tramped up the railroad track 
from Matacumbe and crossed over to 
Windlvs Island which has the distine- 
tion of being the loftiest of any of the 
entire chain of keys. Two little knolls 
near its eastern end rise to a height of 
about eighteen feet above the sea and 
in so flat a region they seem like small 


662 


mountains. To the left of the flag stop 
called Quarry, I noticed some fine, lofty 
hammock at a little distance and, al- 
though I had searched it through with- 
out results several years before, it 
looked so tempting that I hid my be- 
longings by the railroad track and 
pushed through the tangled, thorny 
scrub until I reached its Tramping 
through it I saw again the very rare 
West Indian tree Hypelate trifoliata, 
or white ironwood, which is not known 
to exist elsewhere in the United States. 

I searched the tall trunks of the trees 
diligently for two hours but saw no 
snails, so at last I turned toward the 
railroad and concluded there were 
none. As I went back I saw at some 
distance high up on a tree something 
which looked a little lke a white 
Liguus, but it seemed to be altogether 
too large. I hurriedly made my way 
nearer to it, and saw to my astonish- 
ment an enormous specimen which, al- 
though it was more than thirty feet 
above me, I was sure was the largest I 
had ever seen. I at once set my wits to 
work to study how I might secure it. I 
could not possibly cut with my knife 
any pole that would reach it, neither 
could I handle such a pole if I had it. 
Mr. Pinder, who had been with me to 
Lignum Vite Key, was very expert at 
throwing chunks of wood, and he could 
strike a lofty limb and loosen a snail 
nearly every time, but I am a poor 
thrower. I might hit the side of a 
barn if it were not too far away and the 
wind was favorable, but that is about 
all. Besides, if loosened, the shell 
would most likely be broken by falling 
on the rocks below. The only thing to 
do was to climb for it, but much of the 
way the trunk of the tree on which the 
snail was fastened was bare of limbs. 
‘I dragged. a dead trunk of a sapling 
and leaned it against the tree so that 
by working up it I could reach the 
lower branches which extended along 
the trunk for perhaps ten feet. Then, 
at a distance of about six feet above 


NATURAL HISTORY 


these, a stout limb grew out which had 
been broken off a foot or more from the 
trunk by the hurricane. If I could 
only get up and stand on this broken 
branch it seemed to me that I might 
reach the snail. 

I cut out with my big pocket knife 
the top of a small live tree which the 
storm had overthrown. It had two 
strong branches about two feet apart 
near its base and I believed I could 
use them for steps. I trimmed up the 
somewhat slender main shoot and care- 
fully bent it in a loop, tying the upper 
end to the stem below, and when my 
“contraption,” as Uncle Remus would 
have called it, was finished, it looked 
something like a gigantic sixteenth 
note or semiquaver. At one of the 
platforms along the railroad I had 
found a long piece of stout string and I 
tied one end of it to the contrivance 
and the other to my suspender and 
commenced my ascent of the trunk of 
the sapling I had leaned against the 
tree. When I got up about six feet 
above the rocks this dead trunk broke 
and I fell with a crash but was not 
much hurt. Then I cut off the only 
root which held the little tree that had 
been overthrown, dragged it up, and 
leaned it against the tree bearing the 
snail. Although it sagged it bore me 
and soon I was among the branches, 
and stood on the topmost one. I pulled 
up my ladder and hung the loop of it 
on the broken limb, securely tying its 
base to the trunk, then I carefully 
worked up by stepping on the rungs 
until I stood on the broken limb. 

But I had miscalculated the distance 
and I found that I could not reach the 
snail by more than three feet. Must I 
give it up after all that trouble? I 
wouldn’t push it off and let it fall for I 
was certain it would be broken. It 
looked so large and handsome that I 
determined I would try to shin up to it. 
Shinning a tree is pretty good exercise 
for a young fellow but for a man nearly 
seventy-four and weighing more than 


\ 


AN “OLD TRAMP” AMONG THE FLORIDA KEYS 


175 pounds it is a good deal like hard 
work. I slowly worked my way up and 
whenever I was completely exhausted I 
rested, clinging tightly to the tree, 
while the sight of the great, glittering 
jewel above my head tempted me to 
make further efforts. At last by reach- 
ing far out I could just touch it; then 
one more tremendous struggle and I 
held it in my hand. I carefully loos- 
ened it, put it in my overalls pocket, 
and in less than a minute had slid to 
the foot of the tree. Then I took it 
out; I fairly shouted and capered 
about like a boy; I rubbed it against 
my cheek and talked foolishly to it. 
No miser ever gloated over his gold as 
I did over that magnificent snail. 
Years before I had found on a shell 
mound back of Chokolaskee in the Ten 
Thousand Islands a Liguus which 
until now was by far the largest I had 
ever seen. Sometime during its life 
this specimen had had a quarter of an 
inch of the tip of its shell broken off 
and it had soldered up the opening. 
But even with that, when I came to put 
it beside my Chokolaskee shell, this 
was longer, more solid, and had greater 
diameter. Counting in the broken 
part, my new shell is exactly three 
inches in length and one inch and 
nine-sixteenths in diameter. It is a 
glossy ivory white with faint bronzy 
green, revolving lines, which are more 
distinct on its base, and it must be 
about seven years old, a veritable patri- 
arch, since most of our Liguus do not 
live more than three or four years. 
This magnificent specimen amply re- 
paid me for all the hardships of my 
trip. 

From Windlys Island I worked my 
way along the railroad through Long 
Island and into the great Key Largo 
which has a length of nearly thirty 
miles, and at the little flag stop called 
Keylargo I took the train for home. 

The greater part of the original for- 
est of the keys has been cut—that 
along the upper part of the chain in 


663 


order that pineapples might be planted. 
As soon as the roots of the trees de- 
cayed, most of the soil which covered 
the fields was washed down through the 
loose rock, and pines would no longer 
grow on it. Then the hammock sprang 
up again, this time a scrubby growth, 
filled almost solid with thorny trees, 
shrubs, and vines. In most places it is 
so dense that one cannot work his way 
through it and it is possible to pro- 
gress only by hunting out the more 
open parts of it. The heat is almost in- 
tolerable and mosquitoes and sand flies 
swarm everywhere during the wetter 
part of the year. Most of the few resi- 
dents are poor and live in small, badly 
constructed shanties. It is difficult to 
get entertainment, even the privilege of 
sleeping under a roof, no doubt be- 
cause of the number of tramps and bad 
men who are found on the keys. But 
the whole region possesses a peculiar 
charm; it is a bit of the tropics, it has 
a rich and interesting vegetation 
which, with its rather meager dry-land 
fauna, presents some remarkable prob- 
lems in geographical distribution and 
evolution. During the winter there are 
comparatively few annoying insects, 
the sky is marvelously clear and beauti- 
ful, the few clouds have a summery 
look, and the water is lovely with a 
hundred tints of green and blue. A 
vast marine fauna literally swarms in 
the seas, and for the naturalist no more 
attractive region exists in the United 
States. 

Everywhere I went I was taken for a 
tramp—my appearance no doubt help- 
ing to create this impression; but in 
every place I stopped I was able to con- 
vince some one that I was all right. 
One evening I tramped into the little 
village of Plantation and applied to a 
woman at a decent-looking house for a 
night’s lodging. She told me to go 
away and shut the door in my face. At 
another house the women ran in, but by 
persistent hammering on the door one 
of them came and told me that no one 


664 


in the hamlet would keep me, that a 
short distance down the beach I would 
find a house. I hid my bag and walked 
a half mile along the shore to find no 
house and concluded that she expected 
me to sleep in the sand. When I came 
back I spoke to an elderly man who 
stood in a door and asked to be allowed 
to sleep on his floor. He refused to let 
me come in and didn’t want even to 
converse with me. Finally I asked him 
if he thought I was a tramp and he 
said he did. I pulled out a gold watch 
and asked if tramps carried things like 
that. Then I took out a roll of money 
and said, “Do tramps carry this?” His 
severe scowl changed into a smile and 
he said, “Oh, come in, I guess you are 
all right.” He gave me a good supper 
and breakfast and we parted the best of 
friends. As I left he said, “Ill tell the 
folks here what a fine visit I had with 
the ‘old tramp.” At a little flag stop 
where the postmaster sold railway 
tickets I asked for one to a neighboring 
station, and the man said, “Have you 
any money?” I handed him a twenty- 
dollar bill and in surprise he said he 
couldn't change it. Then I counted 
him out the exact amount and told him 


NATURAL HISTORY 


that he mustn't always judge people by 
their appearance. 

My trip was a complete success for it 
enabled me to solve several problems 
that I had puzzled in vain over before 
going. J added not a little to my col- 
lections and as usual found things in 
places where the books said they should 
All the scrub was glorious 
with flowers—I have never seen such 
an array in the tropics. Two Echites, 
vines closely related to the oleander, 
had glossy leaves and charming flowers, 
the one sulphur-colored, the other rich 
yellow, and both should be introduced 
into cultivation. ‘There were masses of 
a yellow-flowered Cassia and acres of a 
lovely morning glory with great purple, 
blue, or pinkish salvers. In the scrub 
its slender, half trailing, half climbing 
stems catch and trip whoever ventures 
into it, but whenever I gazed on its 
splendid masses of bloom I forgave it. 
In the early morning and late in the 
evening ‘the moonflowers were as con- 
spicuous as their blue-flowered cousins, 
the morning glories. Such tramps 
bring one into the closest contact and 
with nature, and renew 


10l g@row. 


communion 


one’s health and vigor. 


Tree snail shells (Ligwus fasciatus, about one half natural size) from the collections of the Ameri- 


ean Museum of Natural History 


Island Animals and Plants 


THEIR CONSERVATION IS URGENTLY NEEDED 


By WILLARD 


(Department of Invertebrate Zoology, 


LTHOUGH the animal and 

plant life of small islands and 

of island groups, particularly 

of those which are more or less remote 

or inaccessible, is characterized by the 

presence of fewer species than on the 

mainlands, these species are often 

peculiar and _ strictly limited in their 

distribution, or of especial interest to 
science for other reasons. 

Islands have in many cases been the 
last refuge of species of animals and 
plants which were unable to maintain 
themselves against the more numerous 
enemies that beset them on the con- 
tinents. Sometimes the islands have 
preserved some survivors of forms 
which used to inhabit larger areas of 
land, now submerged under the sea, a 
remnant of which the existing island 
represents. The more or less complete 
isolation of animals and plants living 
on islands restricts or altogether pre- 
vents their interbreeding with members 
of their species from other regions, and 
the variations they may develop from 
climatic or other causes may become 


fixed and permanent, resulting in the 
formation of the new species found 


nowhere else. Such islands often af- 
ford exceptional advantages for observ- 
ing the processes of evolution, as the 
factors affecting these processes in such 
isolated species are often fewer and 
simpler than on the continents. There 
is no doubt that Darwin in developing 
his theory of evolution was influenced 
by the observations of island animals 
and plants made during his earlier 
years as a naturalist. 

The relationships existing between 
the creatures inhabiting the various 
groups of islands and those of other 


G. VAN 


American Museum of Natural History) 


NAME 


regions, and especially the presence or 
absence of terrestrial forms which could 
not easily cross wide stretches of water 
by any natural means, disclose facts 
about the geography of past geological 
periods and aid in determining when 
and where former land areas now sub- 
merged must have existed. In this 
way they have afforded a valuable 
check on the conclusions arrived at 
by geologists by entirely different 
methods, for while they indicate that 
many existing islands were formerly 
a part of some continent or of a much 
larger island, they lend no support to 
fantastic theories of vanished conti- 
nents or former land connections 
across what are now extents of wide 
and deep ocean. Added to all this, the 
strange character and, in many cases, 
the great and increasing rarity or the 
recent complete extinction of some of 
these creatures lend interest to them 
from a more popular point of view also. 

It is not only distant oceanic islands 
that possess such interest, since even 
those close to the shores of continents 
occasionally have certain peculiar spe- 
cies not found anywhere else, or they 
may afford, through their comparative 
inaccessibility and freedom from pred- 
atory mammals, safer breeding places 
for animals such as seals or sea turtles, 
or ground-nesting sea birds, than can 
be found elsewhere. There is no ques- 
tion that, but for the breeding places 
provided by the islands off the Atlantic 
coasts of the United States and Canada, 
many of our sea birds such as the gulls 
and terns and members of the auk 
family would by this time have been 
practically exterminated from this part 
of the world. The gannet, for instance, 


665 


666 


one of the largest and most beautiful of 
our sea birds, now breeds on this side 
of the Atlantic in two island colonies 
only, both much reduced from their 
former size; fortunately these colonies 
have at length been taken under the 
protection of the Canadian govyern- 
ment. On the coast of southern New 
England, the breeding colonies of terns 
and laughing gulls on Muskeget and a 
few other more or less inaccessible is- 
lands were able to persist during the 
years of persecution to which these 
birds were subjected for the millinery 
trade, and have served as centers of 
distribution for repopulating other 
parts of our coast with these beautiful 
species, now that protection is given 
them everywhere. 

The survival of the heath hen on 
Martha’s Vineyard is another striking 
example, while the. development of a 
species of sparrow, the Ipswich spar- 
row, which appears to be confined in 
its breeding entirely to Sable Island 
south of Nova Scotia, although it mi- 
grates in winter to the mainland, af- 
fords an instance near home of the 
tendency of insular life to result in 
differentiating new species. 

In another respect Sable Island, just 
mentioned, is of interest, for although 
it is but little farther north than Port- 
land, Maine, its shores were in the early 
days of the settlement of America still 
inhabited by a herd of walruses, the 
most southern colony of that species of 
which we have any historical record. 

Forty miles off the coast of Lower 
California, not very far south of the 
United States boundary, is a small 
island, Guadaloupe, remarkable in 
much the same way. It was probably 
the last home of an extinct species of 
fur seal, and possessed three or prob- 
ably four peculiar species or very dis- 
tinct varieties of land birds that have 
recently become extinct. But its chief 
interest lies in its being the last strong- 
hold of the California sea elephant, 
closely related to the sea elephant of 


NATURAL HISTORY 


the southern hemisphere. This ani- 
mal formerly inhabited the coast of 
the mainland of southern California, 
as well as Lower California. It was 
supposed to have been entirely de- 
stroyed, when a small herd of about 
one hundred individuals was found 
still in existence in 1911 at Guadaloupe 
Island, so that even at that recent date, 
it would still have been possible to save 
this remarkable animal from extine- 
tion. 

Unfortunately the rapid increase of 
human population and the commercial 
expansion during recent times, and es- 
pecially the development of rapid and 
convenient transportation, have put an 
end to the immunity of these places 
from occupation or at least from fre- 
quent visitation by the most destruc- 
tive enemy of nature that this planet 
has ever seen—civilized man. As a 
result, hundreds of the forms of animal 
and plant life peculiar to them have 
already become totally extinct, and 
each year that passes adds more to the 
list. Some of the most beautiful of the 
birds of paradise are of very restricted 
range and have become nearly or en- 
tirely extinct because of their slaugh- 
ter for the millinery trade. Members 
of many groups are on the list of 
extinct or threatened species, especially 
birds, reptiles, land mollusks, insects, 
and many trees and smaller plants. 
Their remote and isolated homes pro- 
tected them against their natural 
enemies but do not avail against the 
unnatural ones that now beset them. 

Our own Hawaiian possessions af- 
ford a good example of what is taking 
place on many island groups. The 
native land birds of Hawaii are re- 
markable for the large proportion of 
peculiar species and genera found in 
no other part of the world. A recent 
writer! states that “Due to the opera- 
tions of various malign influences, the 
native forests and birds have greatly 
diminished within historic times. 

1 MacCaughey, in The Auk, January, 1919. 


\ 


ISLAND ANIMALS AND PLANTS 


Many known species of plants, trees, 
and birds have become wholly extinct, 
and many others are on the verge of 
extinction. A time is speedily ap- 
proaching in which the extinct avian 
species will exceed in number those still 
surviving.” Farther on he says, “Oahu 
has been more completely despoiled of 
its native bird life than any other of 
the larger islands. More of the known 
Oahu passerine species are extinct than 
are living today. The Oahu elepaio [a 
small flycatcher] is the most abundant 
of the remaining native birds and is 
practically the only species commonly 
seen.” 

That this unpromising outlook is no 
exaggeration is proved by many other 
writers and observers. A_ study of 
Rothschild’s account of the birds of 
these islands, although published nearly 
twenty years ago and based chiefly on 
collections and observations of con- 
siderably earlier date when conditions 
were better than at present, records 
7 of the 70 indigenous birds considered 
peculiar to this group of islands as 
already certainly extinct, and a num- 
ber already very rare, known, in spite of 
extensive collecting, by but very few 
specimens, while of the remainder only 
a comparatively small minority were 
widely distributed and common on one 
or more of the larger islands. The 
Hawaiian Islands are characterized 
also by the great number of land mol- 
lusks, one family, the Achatinellide, 
being almost restricted to those islands 
and differentiated into a large num- 
ber of species, some of them of ex- 
tremely local distribution. Many are 
entirely extinct and others are becom- 
ing very uncommon. 

A species restricted to one or more 
small islands for its habitat is at a dis- 
advantage for many reasons some of 
which can easily be recognized : 

First, because island species usually 
comprise but a small total number of 
individuals, even though being crowded 
on a small island may make them ap- 


667 


pear abundant. If many are killed it 
means a seriously large percentage of 
those in existence. 

Second, some catastrophe, perhaps 
a natural one such as a volcanic erup- 
tion, but more often one in which man 
has some complicity, may wipe the en- 
tire species out. An example of this 
is the destruction of the greater part 
of the race of heath hens on Martha’s 
Vineyard (which under careful pro- 
tection had been increasing in num- 
bers) by a single forest fire in May, 
1916, so that the total extinction of the 
species is now probably only a matter 
of a short time. In the case of widely 
distributed species this could hardly 
happen. But if the breeding places of 
a species are restricted, even though it 
ranges widely at other seasons, it is 
exposed to the same danger. The Gala- 
pagos albatross breeds only, so far as 
is known, on Hood Island of the Gala- 
pagos group. If this breeding colony 
were destroyed we cannot be sure that 
another would be successfully estab- 
lished. 

Third, a species confined to a small 
island has no place to escape to from 
enemies which it cannot resist, or from 
the destructive changes, such as de- 
forestation, that man may bring about. 
On scores of islands, human occupation 
has been followed by the destruction 
of every bit of the former forest 
growths, in many cases resulting in 
the complete extinction of some of the 
trees and other plants composing them, 
and of the birds and animals peculiar 
to them and dependent on them for 
food and shelter. 

Fourth, the advent of man is in- 
variably accompanied by the introduc- 
tion of destructive animals, especially 
domestic cats, rats, dogs, hogs, and 
goats, and in warm climates often of 
the mongoose, to say nothing of noxious 
insects, weeds, and disease germs ac- 
cidentally imported. The species thus 
introduced are apt to have many ad- 
vantages over the native ones. They 


668 NATURAL 
are forms which have lived for long 
periods in association with man. The 
wild species among them know his 
habits; they do not fear him unneces- 
sarily, understanding how to take ad- 
vantage of the results of his labor, 
while evading the consequences of the 
hostihty that their depredations cause ; 
the domestic species benefit by his care 
and protection. They are vigorous and 
prolific creatures. The changes in the 
condition of the land brought about by 
clearing and cultivation make the en- 
vironment more and more suitable for 
them as time goes on, but less adapted 
for the native forms. Moreover, among 
the new arrivals there are apt to be 
some that find their new home pecu- 
hiarly well adapted to their needs, so 
that they increase to an extent that 
crowds other species practically out of 
existence by the mere effect of their 
numbers, and by their consuming the 
available food supply, even if they are 
otherwise harmless. This is especially 
the when domestic animals are 
allowed to run wild in such places. It 
was a common thing in the early days 
of navigation to stock uninhabited is- 
lands with cattle, goats, or hogs, so 
that ships visiting them for water 
could also get a supply of fresh meat, 
an item of no small importance when 
voyages were of indefinitely long dura- 
tion and cold storage was as yet un- 
dreamt of. The literature of many of 
these islands is full of references to 
the deforestation and other damage 
that these animals caused. 

Fifth, as the number of individuals 
in a species becomes reduced, inbreed- 
ing becomes unavoidable, and its well- 
known weakening effect makes the long 
survival of the species impossible. If 
an animal is to be saved, protection 
must be given before its numbers be- 
come too small.  Laysan- Island, an 
outlying member of the Hawaiian 
group, possesses among other peculiar 
birds a species of duck, the Laysan 


Case 


TEMS INO Fede 


teal, found nowhere except on this 
one small island. Fisher, in 1902, 
reported this species as reduced to 
fewer than one hundred individuals. 
Bailey, in the April-May, 1919, num- 
ber of NaTurAL Hisrory, reports it as 
reduced to seven. Even if among these 
seven individuals there are members of 
both sexes that can breed, it is inevit- 
able that the species will soon die out 
from the effects of inbreeding. It is 
inbreeding that is likely to make the 
permanent preservation of the heath 
hen impossible, unless it may be found 
practicable to introduce the necessary 
new blood by crossing with a few in- 
dividuals of the prairie chicken of the 
western states. The two species are for- 
tunately so closely allied that crosses 
in all proportions would probably be 
fertile, and any changes in plumage 
or other visible characters produced by 
the crossing would probably soon breed 
out. Such an experiment seems well 
worth trying, as it appears to offer the 
only possibility of preserving the heath 
hen. 

Last, but by no means least, life in 
the more uniform and protected en- 
vironment of islands, produces in 
course of time a lack of adaptability in 
the species to endure changes or to re- 
sist new enemies, and may result in the 
loss of certain powers and functions 
through their disuse. Some of the 
birds for instance, having only short 
distances to travel and few enemies to 
escape from, have more or less com- 
pletely lost the power of flight. Such 
retrogressive changes are not physical 
only but also mental. Compare, for 
instance, with the clever resourceful- 
ness of the crow and the red fox, which 
maintain themselves in thickly settled 
districts in spite of man’s hostility, the 
stupid tameness of the dodo and Stel- 
ler’s sea cow described in contempo- 
raneous accounts, or the senseless 
timidity of certain small native Ha- 
waiian birds of which it is said, though 
probably not without some exaggera- 


. 


ISLAND ANIMALS AND PLANTS 


tion, that they are afraid even to cross 
a road cut through the forest, and re- 
main always on the side where they 
happened to be when it was built. 

We cannot expect that among the 
small population of remote islands 
there will be many influential people 
with a taste*for scientific or popular 
natural history, or with any apprecia- 
tion of the unique character of the 
native plants and animals and a re- 
alization of the urgent need for their 


care and protection—although few 
communities are now without some 
persons with such interests. But if 


these peculiar island species are allowed 
to become extinct through neglect and 
indifference, it is not merely a matter 
of local concern; it is also a loss to 
science and to scientific men, and to 
all with an interest in zodlogy and 
botany, scientific or popular, through- 
out the world; a loss that cannot be 
repaired in the future and that will 
always be a reproach and a discredit 
to the present generation. 

Our Government and our scientific 
societies should see to it that on our 
own island possessions at least the rare 
and disappearing species are given 
every care and protection, but the mat- 
ter is such an urgent one and of such 
importance to science that the duty 
should not be considered as limited by 
political boundaries, and we should re- 
gard it as a proper ground for inter- 
national codperation, or for assisting 
those even in foreign possessions who 
need encouragement or help to enable 
them to carry on such protective work. 
Even if we regard science as such a 


669 


lofty and transcendental conception as 
to be indifferent to the mere extinction 
and annihilation of the most interest- 
ing part of the material with which it 
deals, the information about the life, 
habits, food, and reproduction of these 
vanishing species that would be ac- 
quired in a serious effort to preserve 
them would add to our knowledge facts 
that must be studied now or never. 
Neglect of this plain duty and of this 
last and only opportunity will be a 
cause of regret in the future. 

The whole subject of conservation is 
one that must receive greater consid- 
eration than that which has yet been 
conceded to it. We too often dismiss it 
from our minds, and silence our con- 
sciences with the thought that it can be 
dealt with by the Government or by 
other people who have not. sufficient 
troubles of their own. That we ought 
to do as little damage to the world 
and to nature as we can during our 
brief stay here, and that we should 
leave for those who come after us some 
of the natural resources and as many 
as we can of the wonderful and inter- 
esting animals and plants and the other 
beautiful objects in nature which we 
enjoy, instead of turning the world 
over to them in the condition of a 
squeezed lemon, is a doctrine too sel- 
dom taught in our schools or colleges 
and too rarely preached in our 
churches. But after it is too late— 
and that time is now not far ahead— 
there is likely to come a realization that 
the greatest mistake ever made by the 
human race was not to have taken that 
idea as the foundation of its code of 
ethics and conduct. 


MAJOR ROBERT M. YERKES 


Lately Chief of the Division of Psychology, Medical Department, United States Army 


Line of draftees entering the psychological examining building for intelligence rating 


The Army Intelligence Tests 


By GEORGE F. 


Professor of Psychology, the Ohio State University; lately Major, S. ¢ 


HEN the internecine strug- 

ele of 1914 drew this nation 

into the vortex the Ameri- 
can Republic was confronted with an 
emergency of such proportion as ap- 
peared likely to require the services of 
That 
psychology, in many respects the most 
youthful of the applied sciences, was 
able to place at the disposal of the 
Government a technique whereby a 
fairly measurement 
could be made of each raw, problem- 
atical recruit, is but a striking illustra- 
tion of American resourcefulness, orig- 
inality, and initiative. It is likewise 
an effective commentary on the relative 
merit of 


every phase of modern science. 


accurate mental 


German 
points of view in the problem of hu- 
man behavior. 


American versus 


A workably accurate scientific clas- 
sification of brain power of the man- 
hood of the Army would not only enor- 
mously abbreviate the period of organ- 
ization, but also make possible a wise 
expenditure of this power and thus pre- 
vent wastage of material resources as 
has been the 
writer's experience that commanding 
officers are everywhere and always eager 
to adopt 


well as man power. It 


any technique or method 


ARPS 


}., U. S. Army 


which will enable them to discover na- 
tive resourcefulness and utilize it in 
positions of leadership and responsibil- 
ity. It is equally important to dis- 
cover those so low in the scale of intel- 
ligence as to constitute a menace in 
the use of firearms and to the success 
of any military undertaking. 

In recognition of these clearly desir- 
able ends the Medical Department of 
the Army, in August, 1917, accepted 
for trial the details of the technique, 
methods, and procedure prepared by 
the Committee on the Psychological 
Examination of Recruits, whereby a 
mental classification of all recruits 
could be made shortly upon arrival in 
the various The trial 
results led the Surgeon General of the 
Army to recommend to the War De- 
partment the extension of intelligence 
examining to “all company officers, all 
candidates for officers’ training camps, 
and all drafted and enlisted men.” 

Early in 1918, the War Department 
approved the recommendation of the 
Surgeon General and created the Di- 
vision of Psychology in the Sanitary 
Corps of the Medical Department for 
the purpose of carrying into effect the 
psychological service. 


cantonments. 


671 


672 


Group of literate draftees taking ALPHA intelligence test 


2 


Scoring ALPHA examination papers. If 


it was possible to score the papers almost as rapidly as succeed- 


ing groups were examined. 


results within twenty-four hours after examination 


Psychological Personnel 
Upon the creation of the Division of 
Medical Depart- 
officers and 


Psychology in the 
ment, about one hundred 


three hundred enlisted men were mo- 
bilized at Camp Greenleaf, Georgia, in 
the Medical Officers’ Training Camp, 
and there given intensive military 
training, instruction in the technique 
and methods of psychological examin- 
ing, army paper work, and such other 
instruction required of the regular 
medical officer. 

The above personne] were then as- 
signed to the various large canton- 
ments to carry into effect the methods 
of psychological From 


three to five commissioned officers and 


examining. 


four to eight enlisted men were as- 


$y means of stencils 


Commanding officers 


NATURAL HISTORY 


signed TO each of 
the larger training 
addi- 


twenty 


camps. In 
tion, from 
to sixty privates 
were assigned for 
temporary duty as 
scorers, clerks. typ- 
ists, and orderlies, 
to assist in the 
of the ex- 


and to 


conduct 
aminations 
make readily available the 
results to the various com- 
manding officers. 

With this organization 
and by means of the group 
method, it was possible to 
examine, in times of pres- 
sure, as many as three thou- 
single 


sand recruits in a 


day in a given cantonment. 
Variety of Tests Employed 

ALpHA.— This is a group 
test intended for 
literates can read, 
write, and understand Ene- 
lish with a fair degree of 

The general prac- 
Was to 


and is 
who 


received the 


ease. 
tice segregate re- 
eruits as they entered the examining 
station on the basis of the grade in 
school last attended—fifth grade, as a 
rule, for the white and eighth grade for 
the colored troops. Those who fell be- 
low these grades were ordered to take 
the illiterate (BrEtTA) 
With proper facilities as many as five 
hundred recruits could be examined in 
The pro- 
cedure was entirely objective in that 


examination. 


approximately one hour. 


the examiner and the scorers were 
wholly unacquainted with the men ex- 
amined. The 


means of stencils and in the absence of 


scoring was done by 


the men examined, which procedure 
eliminated personal bias and prejudice. 

Differences in intelligence, or degrees 
of mental competency, as revealed by 
were indicated by 


the scores made, 


THE ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS 


seven letter ratings, each letter being 
the equivalent of certain numerical 
points. The letter grades, the numeri- 
eal equivalents, and significance of each 
are as follows: 


A Very Superior Intelligence: 135 to 212 


points. fen who graded “A,” when pos- 


sessed of other necessary qualifica- 
tions, were regarded as “high officer 
type.” From three to five per cent of 
the drafts were “A” grade men. 


B_ Superior Intelligence: 105 to 134 points. 
Men who graded “B” frequently 
possessed other 
which qualified them for the commis- 
sioned officer type. In actual prac- 
tice an occasional “B” grade officer 
outranked in efficiency an “A” grade 
officer, but only when other necessary 
qualities were pronounced in the for- 
mer and relatively lacking in the lat- 
ter. The “B” grade indicates high 
type of noncommissioned material. 


sterling qualities 


C+ High Average Intelligence: 75 to 104 


oints. - Anes: 
Pp This grade indicates good noncom- 


missioned officer material, rarely ma- 
terial for the commissioned rank. 


C Average Intelligence: 45 to 74 points. 
Good private type with fair non- 
commissioned material. 


C— Low Average Intelligence: 25 to 44 


ints. : : : 
Po Ordinary private material. 
D Inferior Intelligence: 15 to 24 points. 
Men of this grade are slow, illiter- 
ate, and as a rule make only fair sol- 
diers. 


D— Very Inferior Intelligence: 0 to 14 


Pemts: This grade of intelligence repre- 
sents the mentally unfit, the incompe- 
tent who are recommended for either 
development battalions, special ser- 
vice organizations, or for discharge. 


Beta.— Like ALPHA this is a group 
test but is intended for illiterates and 
foreigners. . Knowledge of English is 
not essential in taking this test since 
the instructions are given by the exam- 
iner by means of demonstrations. This 


673 


set of tests parallels ALpHa in the 
method of scoring, the variety of grades 
of intelligence classification, and in the 
objective character of the results. A 
workable correlation exists between 
AtpHa and Bera so that an “A” grade 
in the former is roughly equivalent to 
an “A” grade in the latter. 

Inptvipuat Tests.— Individual tests 
are given to those who fail or make a 
very low score in Bera after having 
failed in AnpHa. Two forms of indi- 
vidual examinations are used for those 
who understand English, namely, the 
Yerkes-Bridges Point Scale and the 
Stanford revision of the Binet Scale. 
By means of the Performance Scale 
illiterates in English are examined. 
The time required to give an individ- 
ual examination varies from ten min- 
utes to an hour. 

It is obvious from the above that the 
variety of tests covers every case and 
that, therefore, a complete mental clas- 
sification of all recruits is made pos- 
sible. 

Major R. M. Yerkes, lately chief of 
the Division of Psychology, gives the 
following summary of the results of 
psychological examining in the various 
cantonments where this service was or- 
ganized : 

“The work of mental examining was 
organized finally in thirty-five army 
training camps. A _ grand total of 
1,726,000 men had been given psycho- 
logical examination prior to January 
1, 1919. Of this number, about 41,000 
were commissioned officers. More than 
83,000 of the enlisted men included in 
the total had been given an individual 
examination in addition to, the group 
examination for literates, for illiter- 
ates, or both. 

“Between April 27 and November 
30, 1918, 7749 (0.5 per cent) were re- 
ported for discharge by psychological 
examiners because of mental inferior- 
ity. The number of recommendations 
for assignment to labor battalions be- 
cause of low grade intelligence was 


O74 


9871 (0.6+ per cent). A total of 9432 
men (0.6+ per cent) was recommended 
for assignment to development bat- 
talions in order that they might be 
carefully observed and given prelimi- 
nary training to discover, if possible, 
ways of using them in the Army. 


TESTS 


“Close-up”? demonstration of BETA test.—The 
demonstrator is showing how to put in missing 


parts 


Individual examination.—The manikin test, which the recruit 
is trying to put together, is one of the Performance tests given 
to those who have made a low score in the preceding group tests 


NATURAL HISTORY 


“During this same period of six 
months, there were reported 4744 men 
with mental age ratings below seven 
years; 7762 between seven and eight 
years; 14,566 between eight and nine 
years; 18,581 between nine and ten 
years. ‘This gives a total of 45,653 (3 
per cent) men under ten years’ mental 
age. It is extremely improbable that 
many of these individuals were worth 
what it cost the Government to main- 
tain, equip, and train them for military 
service.” 


Sample Alpha Tests (for Literates)* 


The recruits marched into the ex- 
amining room, were seated, and each 
supphed with a pencil and examination 
booklet by orderlies who supervised 
the group during the examination and 


upon its completion collected the 
papers and pencils. As soon as the 


group was seated and supplied with 
the necessary examining material, the 
following general directions were given 
by the examiner: 

“Attention! The purpose of this 
examination is to see how 
well you can remember, 
think, and carry out what 
you are told to do. The 
aim is to find out what you 
are best fitted to do in the 
Army. 

“Now, in the Army a 
man often has to listen to 
commands and then carry 
them out exactly. I am 
going to give yow some 
commands to see how well 
you can carry them out. 
Listen closely. Ask no 
questions. Do not watch 
any other man to see what 
he does. 

1The ALPHA examination com- 
prises eight tests given to recruits 
in groups numbering 500 as a desir- 
able maximum. In practice the ae- 
tual number probably did not ex- 
ceed 200 as an average. Each such 


group could ordinarily be examined 
in somewhat less than one hour. 


THH ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS 


“Took at your papers. When I call 
‘Attention, stop instantly whatever 
you are doing and hold your pencil up 
—so. (Examiner illustrates by raising 
his pencil.) Don’t put your pencil 
down to the paper until I say ‘Go.’ 
Listen carefully to what I say. Do 
just what you are told to do. Remem- 
ber, wait for the word ‘Go.’ ” 

Of the eight tests included in the 
ALPHA examination a limited amount 
of each of tests 1, 3, 4, 6, and 7 is given 
here. 

PARTS OF TEST 1 

Twelve items are included under this test 
of which 1, 4, 7, 11, and 12 are here repro- 
duced 
given the directions used by all psychologi- 


(see below). Under each item are 


cal examiners in giving the test to recruits. 


TEST 3 
This is a test of common sense. Below 
are sixteen questions. Three 


given to each question. 


answers are 
You are to look at 
the answers carefully; then make a cross in 


675 


the square before the best answer to each 
question, as in the sample: 

Why do we use stoves? Because 
[] they look well 
(<] they keep us warm 
(| they are black 


SAMPLE 


Here the second answer is the best one and 
Begin with No. 1 
and keep on until time is called. 


is marked with a cross. 


1 It is wiser to put some money aside and 
not spend it all, so that you may 
(_] prepare for old age or sickness 
collect all the different kinds of money 
gamble when you wish 


2 Shoes are made of leather, because 
[| it is tanned 

|] it is tough, pliable and warm 
[] it can be blackened 


wo 


Why do soldiers wear wrist watches rather 
than pocket watches? Because 

[|] they keep better time 

(| they are harder to break 

_| they are handier 


me OOOO 


“Attention ! 


not more than 5 seconds) 


A. 


“Attention! Look at 4. 


‘Attention’ always means ‘Pencils up.’ 
but not before, make a figure 2 in the second circle and also a cross in the third circle—Go!” 


When I say ‘Go’ 
(Allow 


Look at the circles at 1. 


When I say ‘Go’ make a figure 2 in the space which is in the circle but 


not in the triangle or square, and also make a figure 3 in the space which is in the triangle and circle, 


but not in the square.—Go!” 


(Allow not more than 10 seconds) 


7. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP 


“Attention! Look at 7. 
under the second letter after I.—Go!” 


When I say ‘Go’ cross out the letter just after F and also draw a line 
(Allow not more than 10 seconds) 


1. fr AGDA® LIA® |] 


“Attention! Look at 11. 


square, and also through every odd number that is in a square with a letter—Go! 


than 25 seconds) 


Peek 2 3 4 ~=5 


“Attention! Look at 12. 


10 seconds) 


If 4 is more than 


When I say ‘Go’ draw a line through every odd number that is not in a 


wp 


(Allow not more 


6-7 (oee 


. then (when I say ‘Go’) cross out the number 3 
unless 3 is more than 5, in which case draw a line under the number 4.—Gol” 


(Allow not more than 


676 


9 If a man who can’t swim should fall into 
a river, he should 
|_| yell for help and try to scramble out 
| | dive to the bottom and crawl out 
|| lie on his back and float 


After one and a half minutes the ex- 
aminer called “Stop” and directed at- 
tention to test 4. 


TEST 4 


If the two words of a pair mean the same 
or nearly the same, draw a line under same. 
If they mean the opposite or nearly the op- 
posite, draw a line under opposite. If you 
cannot be sure, guess. The two samples are 
already marked as they should be 


= {good—bad sireter same— opposite 
SAMPLES ~ ———— 


| little —small ago same—opposite 
no—yes 


day—night 


ROIs oocasosacuscd cos same—opposite 
begin —commence .......... same — opposite 
biter —Swee te eres ett creto same— opposite 
eredit—debity <2 jer c osc same—opposite 
assiduous—diligent ........ same—opposite 
transient—permanent ...... same—opposite 
palliate—mitigate ........- same— opposite 


execrate—revile 


Forty pairs of words compose this 
test and one and a half minutes are 


devoted to it. 
TEST 6 


OA Oncol Ome 416: 
, OWS? siiamiG) 1O\ An ele ae 
SAMPLES OF Woes 4 4 ae 5 
1 Sie eta Oe ad ae 


Look at each row of numbers below, and 
on the two dotted lines write the two num- 
bers that should come next. 


3 4 5 6 7 8 
8 0 6 5 4 3 
LO 15)- 20325) 30)- 35 
81 27 9 3 1 


1 4 9 16 25 36 
its) hz alisy asp a sais) 
3 6 816)" 28" 236 


Twenty completion number series 
comprise the test and three minutes are 
devoted to it. 


NATURAL StoRM 


TES TD 7 


sky—blue :: grass— 
| table green warm big 


| 
CHR) fish—swims :: man— 
ieee: \epaper time walks cinl 
day—night: : white— 
_red black clear pure 


In each of the lines below, the first two 


words are related to each other in some 
What you are to do in each line is to 
see what the relation is between the first two 
words, and underline the word in heavy type 
that is related in the same way to the third 


word. 


way. 


Begin with No. 1 and mark as many 
sets as you can before time is called. 


shoe—foot :: hat— 
kitten head knife penny 


pup—dog :: lamb— 
red door sheep book 


spring—summer :: autumn— 
winter warm harvest rise 


devil—angel :: bad— 
mean disobedient defamed good 


finger—hand : :.toe— 

body foot skin nail 

Caucasian— English :: Mongohan 
Chinese Indian negro yellow 


Indiana— United States :: part— 
hair China Ohio whole 


esteem— despise :: friends— 
Quakers enemies lovers men 
abide—stay :: depart— 

come hence leave late 
abundant—searce :: cheap— 
buy costly bargain nasty 


Forty relational or proportional sen- 
tences make up this test. The time 
limit is three minutes. 


The general character and procedure 
of the literate (ALPHA) examination 
are indicated by the above tests from 
which certain parts of each have been 
deleted. The total results of the Army 
tests give a reliable index or measure 
of native ability as contrasted with the 
conventional measurements of acquired 
learning. Of paramount importance are 
the discovery and selection of men of 
very superior mental alertness, of abil- 
itv to think accurately and quickly, 
and to analyze situations, comprehend 
clearly, and act decisively. 


"wy 


4 : q 
A HAIR 
SN i I 
MH 


WY WAU LAE EC 


PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 


eded. 


demonstration which pree 


supplied in a manner analogous to the 


each figure and are to be 


A time limit of 3 minutes is set on the 


‘ertain part or parts are lacking in 


In this BETA test 


test 


comprise the test, 


different incomplete figures 


Twenty 


Sample Beta Tests (for Illiterates 

and Foreigners) 

In the so-called Bera tests a knowl- 
edge of the English language is not 
necessary. It is, therefore, possible to 
discover foreigners and others of high 
erade native ability as well as other 
grades of mental ability. 

As in the case of ALPHA, the BETA 
examination comprises eight distinct 
tests. Each test is demonstrated on a 
blackboard, partly in pantomime, by 
the examiner with the assistance of an 
orderly. Parts of two of the eight tests 
are given here. 


Value of the Psychological Service 

If it costs $2500, as has been esti- 
mated, to equip, train a man for eight 
months, and send him overseas; if he 
is now found mentally incompetent 
and therefore returned, mustered out, 
insurance and pension obligation closed 
at an additional expense of $2500, then 
we find a total of $5000 needless ex- 
penditure. 


construction 


Geometrical 


figure to the right in each of the ten problems. 


the examiner calls ‘“‘Stop!”’ 


in Beta test.—Through use of cardboards, 
blackboard, pantomime, and demonstration, the subjects are directed to fit 
in the separate pieces by means of pencil lines in the heavy-faced square 
At the end of 2% minutes 
and the next test is undertaken 


NATURAL HISTORY 


It becomes a plain matter of arith- 
metic to compute the wastage in select- 
ing, for example, 10,000 of such men- 
tal incompetents. Compare this enor- 
mous wastage with the cost of giving 
mental tests to one hundred times this 
many men at twenty-five cents per 


man. As a matter of fact, during six 
months of psychological examining 


there were 12,506 men reported with 
intellectual maturity ranging from less 
than seven years to under eight. It 
requires no particular levy on the 
imagination to determine the degree of 
responsibility attached to this grade of 
intelligence. 

Add to this number 33,147 men with 
a mental rating of between eight and 
ten years and the economic importance 
of mental classification of recruits be- 
comes apparent. When we consider the 
clogging effects of very low grade men- 
tals in the development of army or- 
ganization and the positive dangers 
connected with the assignment of these 
children with adult bodies to comba- 
tant units, the 
value of mental 
classification be- 
comes increasingly 
manifest. Profes- 
sional and emer- 
gency army officers 
were not slow in 
recognizing the 
importance of this 
type of service. 

The words of 
Major Robert Co- 
nard, M.R.C., Sur- 
geon, 367th In- 
fantry, A.E.F., are 
significant in this 
connection : 


“The sorting 
process, both 
physically and 


mentally, is, as it 
seems to me, one 
of the most im- 
portant things to 


THE ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS 


be done. I eliminated about a thou- 
sand and am now reaping the benefit 
in the way of a phenomenally low in- 
effective rate, which I hope to main- 
tain. The mental selection is a great 
thing, and cannot be given too much 
weight. So much time and energy 
have been wasted in training men who 
are mentally unfit, that I am sure the 
value of early elimination of that ele- 
ment must be recognized.” 


Purposes of Intelligence Tests 


Among the main purposes of the 
psychological service may be listed: 

(1) Segregation of the mentally de- 
ficient from those capable of doing 
combatant service ; 

(2) Further segregation of those 
wholly incompetent for military service 
from those capable of service in labor 
battalions ; 

(3) Assistance in the selection of 
candidates for (a) Infantry School of 
Officers, (b) Quartermaster Schools, 
(c) Machine-gun Schools, (d) Artil- 
lery Schools, (¢) Signal Schools, and 
(f), Noncommissioned Officers’ Schools ; 

(4) Assistance in determining fit- 
ness for promotion or assignment to 
positions of responsibility ; 

(5) Assistance for personnel adju- 
tants in the assignments of recruits to 
organizations in such a way as to se- 
eure an equitable distribution of intel- 
ligence and thus avoid loading one 
company of a regiment, for example, 
with a preponderance of relatively in- 
ferior men while overweighting another 
with relatively superior men ; 

(6) Assistance in classifying men 
sent to battalion schools into classes of 
approximate ability, thus enabling each 
group to proceed at a rate commensu- 
rate with the ability of the group. 


General Significance of the Psycholog- 
ical Service 

The fundamental idea back of the 
psychological service as a whole con- 
sists essentially in the clear recog- 


679 


nition of the elemental fact that 
supremacy must ultimately, if not im- 
mediately, rest with that side of a con- 
tentious world which levies insistent 
tribute upon its intelligent manhood. 
It is a generally acknowledged prin- 
ciple that success hangs heaviest on in- 
telligent leadership and that places of 
responsibility cannot be safely en- 
trusted to any save those endowed with 
nothing short of very superior or su- 
perior ability, the gifted members of 
society. 

In recognition of this cardinal prin- 
ciple, in view of the extraordinary 
value of native resourcefulness, and, in 
view of the imperative necessity of util- 
izing the best brains of the nation in 
positions of leadership, the psycholo- 
gists, under the able direction of Ma- 
jor R. M. Yerkes, conceived the idea of 
applying the science of psychology to 
the difficult task of classifying the men 
of the American Army into seven 
grades of intelligence. The top grade 
representing the cream of American 
manhood was thereby immediately 
made available to the regular army 
officer, who, let it be said to the lasting 
credit of a somewhat maligned profes- 
sional class, was not slow to employ in- 
telligence tests, upon being convinced 
of their validity and utility, in the se- 
lection of commissioned and noncom- 
missioned officers. It is true that 
“cream will rise to the surface”; it is 
equally true that the process is slow 
and wasteful. The psychological “sep- 
arator” not only abbreviated the proc- 
ess but graded the quality. 

The outstanding significance of the 
psychological service, its most endur- 
ing contribution to national well-being 
consists in demonstrating the impera- 
tive necessity of placing intelligence 
examination on a parity with physical 
examination as now conducted by the 
medical profession. In this respect the 
work of the psychologists in the Amer- 
ican Army finds no parallel or prece- 
dent. 


The Intelligence of Negro Recruits 


By M. R. 


TRABUE 


Director, Bureau of Educational Service, Columbia University 


NE of the most interesting re- 
sults found by the psycholo- 
gists who examined recruits 

entering the United States Army, dur- 
ing the war just closed, was the sur- 
prisingly low intellectual level of those 
members of the colored race who were 
examined. Previous studies had been 
confined very largely to comparisons of 
the Negroes in public schools with 
white children in the same schools. 
These had invariably resulted in lower 
averages for the colored race than for 
the white, but in almost every case the 
differences had been relatively small 
and the ranges of abilities for the two 
races had been practically identical. 

As an example of the studies which 
had been made, the following summary 
may be given of the findings of a study 
of the school records of one hundred 
and fifty Negroes entering the high 
schools of New York City.* 

1. Only 36 per cent of the Negroes are 
as young at the time they enter high school 


40 { Mark of 
El one Negro 
puvil 
| Mark of 
rrp 4 one White 


30 tend | 


pupil 


20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 


Comparison of the distribution of scholarship 
averages (the figures from 20 to 100, below) of 
white and colored pupils in New York City high 
schools.—The scholarship marks for an individual 
are the median of all marks obtained by the pupil, 
except those obtained in courses repeated because 
of failure. The figures at the left indicate the 
number of pupils in the respective columns who 
gained the average indicated be!ow the columns 


680 


as the median white child entering the same 
high school, the average difference between 
the ages of the two races being seven 
months. 

2. The Negroes who enter high school in 
New York City remain somewhat longer on 
the average than the white pupils. 

3. The scholarship marks assigned by 
teachers to the colored pupils in the New 
York City high schools average somewhat 
lower than the marks assigned by these same 
teachers to the white children. The accom- 
panying figure shows the range of the final 
marks for sixty-six white pupils and for six- 
ty-two colored pupils. It will be seen in this 
distribution that not more than .7 of the dis- 
tribution of marks for colored pupils is 
below the average of the white pupils. 

4. English is the one study in which there 
is the greatest difference between colored 
and white pupils. Only one fourth of the 
colored pupils attain marks in English which 
are as good or better than the average mark 
obtained by white pupils in the same study. 


Studies by Dr. George O. Ferguson? 
had also indicated that Negroes were 
distinctly less capable in educational 
measurements than the white children 
in the same school systems in the 
South. Dr. Ferguson also found that 
when he classified his colored pupils 
into groups according to the blackness 
of their skins, the relationship between 
color and achievement was quite dis- 
tinct, those with hghter skins making 
higher scores. 

The writer was very much surprised 
in July, 1918, at the differences in the 
intelligence scores obtained between 
certain groups of Negroes drafted for 
the Army and sent to Camp Grant, Il- 
linois, and the white men who were 
drafted to the same camp. The dia- 
gram opposite represents the percent- 
ages of the various “intelligence grades” 

*Mayo, M. J. Mental Capacity of the American 
Negro, Archives of Psychology, Vol. XXVIII, 1913. 

1Psychology of the Negro, Archives of Psychol- 
ogy, Vol. XXXVI. Dr. Ferguson has reported 
findings with the Army tests, similar to those re- 
ported in this article, in The Intelligence of Ne- 


groes at Camp Lee, Virginia, School and Society, 
Vol. IX, No. 233, June 14. 


THE INTELLIGENCE OF NEGRO RECRUITS 


emmmmmmes 2518 Louisiana Negroes me eee 92) White Recruits 


ees 2212 Mississippi Negroes me mme= 788 Candidates in 4th R. O. T. C. 


meee was eeooe 124 Depot Brigade Officers 


E D (= CG C+ B A 


The figures at the left represent the percentages of the various groups of Army recruits examined 
which passed with a given rating, while the letters ““A’’ to “E”’ at the bottom represent the ratings, or 
the degrees of excellence in the tests. -The table shows that 28 per cent of the white recruits examined 
at this time received a rating of “C,”’ whereas only 2% per cent of the Louisiana Negroes made this 
grade; that more than 60 per cent of the Louisiana Negroes fell into the ‘‘E”’ or lowest class, and more 


than 60 per cent of the depot brigade officers received a rating of ‘‘A”’ or highest class 


assigned to 2518 Negroes from Louisi- 
ana, to 2212 Negroes from Mississippi, 
to 28,052 white men from Illinois, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, to 788 
candidates for commissions in the 
Fourth Officers Training 
Camp, and to 124 officers of the 161st 
Depot Brigade, all examined during 
the months of June and July, 1918. 
Grade A was intended to indicate very 
superior intellectual 
B, superior ability; grade C 

average ability; grade C, average; 


Reserve 


capacity; grade 
high 
7 | 
C z. 
low average; D, inferior; and E, very 
inferior. 

rr = 2 . 

hese comparisons were rather sur- 
prising when one considered the results 


which had previously been found,— 


especially startling is the unusually 
large difference shown here between the 
distributions for Negroes and the dis- 
tributions for white men. The grade 
of “superior” or “‘very superior” was 
obtained by only .2 of 1 per cent of the 
Negroes from Louisiana, and .5 of 1 
per cent of the Negroes from Missis- 
sippi, while 10.7 per cent of the white 
At the 
other extreme, it will be seen that only 


men have this high standing. 
7.4 per cent of the white men have a 
grade of “inferior” or “very inferior,” 
while 52.9 per cent of the Mississippi 
Negroes cent of the 
Louisiana Negroes have this low grade. 


and 63.3 per 


The results of the intelligence exam- 
inations in the Army are more reliable 


682 


in many respects than the data used in 
previous studies. In the first place, 
previous studies had dealt entirely with 
school pupils; that of Mayo, particu- 
larly, had dealt only with Negroes and 
white pupils who had persisted in 
school work up to the high school 
grades. A very much smaller and 
more highly selected proportion of the 
colored race than of the white race per- 
sists in its efforts to secure an educa- 
tion; hence, previous comparison had 
been between the “cream” of the col- 
ored race and more or less ordinary 
white persons. The Army results are 
for relatively unselected samples of 
both races. 

The comparison in the Army may be 
somewhat favorable to the colored race 
because of the greater possibility of in- 
telligent white men obtaining commis- 
sions or entering some essential indus- 
try, which would exempt them from 
being drafted. Practically, however, 
this removal of many of the more clever 
white men from the drafted group is 
not important and is probably com- 
pensated for by the fact that less care 
was taken by draft boards in eliminating 
unfit Negroes than was the case with 
white recruits. 

Mayo, in his study in New York 
City, had used teachers’ marks as the 
basis for comparisons, while in the 
Army actual performances on the same 
sets of tasks and problems were used 
as the basis. In other words, as a basis 
for comparisons between the two races, 
the objective, definite nature of the 
Army tests is very superior to the esti- 
mates given by teachers in assigning 
scholarship grades. 

During the latter part of July, 1918, 
a large draft of Negroes from St. 
Louis, Chicago, and the surrounding 
territory was sent to Camp Grant. In 
the meantime, additional Negroes from 
the South had been examined. Com- 
parisons were made early in August 
between the scores of these northern 
Negroes and their southern brethren, 


NATURAL HISTORY 


on the one hand, and the white men 
among whom they were now living, on 
the other. 

To be perfectly fair to both races and 
to eliminate so far as possible the prob- 
ability that white men were given an 
undue advantage by the better educa- 
tional opportunities of the North, the 
scores for literate and illiterate men 
were kept separately. ‘Test Alpha re- 
quired that the person taking it be able 
to understand oral and printed direc- 
tions and statements in the English 
language and to carry out these direc- 
tions thoughtfully. Test Beta did not 
require ability to understand either 
printed or spoken English. The direc- 
tions were given by demonstration and 
pantomime, and the tasks to be done 
were such that ability to read or recog- 
nize the words and letters of the Eng- 
lish language was not required. The 
comparisons in Table I are, therefore, 
for white men and Negroes who had 
been educated in the English language 
and were accustomed to reading and 
writing frequently. ‘The comparisons 
in Table II are for men of both races 
who had not learned to read or write 
sufficiently well to make practical use 
of their accomplishments. The same 
facts are shown graphically in the 
figures on page 684. 

Later examinations of similar groups 
revealed exactly the same type of thing, 
and correspondence with the psycho- 
logical examiners at other camps indi- 
cated that our findings at Camp Grant 
were typical of the results obtained in 
other parts of the country. 

There are one or two very important 
features which probably need to be rec- 
ognized as cautions in interpreting the 
scores represented above. It is prob- 
able that even though the white men in 
Table II were just as illiterate as the 
colored men in that table, the white 
men had had, nevertheless, somewhat 
more experience in making check marks 
with a pencil than had the colored men. 
It may also be that a few of the pic- 


‘ 


THE INTELLIGENCE OF NEGRO RECRUITS 


TABLE I 


FREQUENCY OF SCORES MADE BY LITERATE 
RECRUITS, CAMP GRANT, ILLINOIS 


Raw Alpha White Northern Southern 
Scores Recruits Negroes Negroes 
210-212 penere 
200-209 2 
190-199 12 = 
180-189 39 1 ae 
170-179 106 3 il 
160-169 194 6 eee 
150-159 325 5 
140-149 437 8 2 
130-139 583 13 if 
120-129 740 23 4 
110-119 1013 38 5 
100-109 1311 42 5 
90-99 1578 63 12 
80-89 1915 79 19 
70-79 2155 126 22 
60-69 2506 164 22 
50-59 2864 194 41 
40-49 2850 231 79 
30-39 2928 251 119 
20-29 2451 260 179 
15-19 999 161 129 
10-14 810 139 217 
5-9 555 106 284 
14 213 55 184 
0 19 2 11 
No. of Alpha 
Wests... << » 26605 1970 1336 
Percentage of 
Total No. 
Examined. 76.1% 55.9% 28.3% 
Median Score 57.9 40.5 14.4 


tures presented for checking were not 
so familiar to the colored men as they 
were to the white men in the North. 
For example, a house without a chim- 
ney would possibly not be recognized as 
quickly by a Southerner as by a person 
in the North. It is also quite possible 
that northern white men, even though 
illiterate, are accustomed to seeing 
papers with pictures and diagrams 
much more frequently than the colored 
men of the South. Nevertheless, it is 
quite evident from the above tabula- 
tions, and still more so from the per- 
formances of the two races with blocks, 
guns, beds, tent rolls, squad forma- 
tions, and the like, that the white race 
is tremendously more capable in mat- 


683 


TABLE II 


FREQUENCY OF SCORES MADE BY ILLITERATE 
RECRUITS, CAMP GRANT, ILLINOIS 


Weighted Beta White Northern Southern 
Scores Recruits Negroes Negroes 
210-219 siaiel's 
200-209 13 
190-199 27 1 
180-189 if: Oe 3 
170-179 153 1 1 
160-169 269 2 2 
150-159 384 8 2 
140-149 541 15 9 
130-139 630 34 13 
120-129 691 46 19 
110-119 775 vite 30 
100-109 694 87 52 
90-99 697 88 77 
80-89 618 141 90 
70-79 566 133 147 
60-69 578 180 197 
50-59 514 188 273 
4049 380 a7 402 
30-39 356 157 525 
20-29 240 ass 569 
10-19 126 15 553 
1-9 57 32 335 
0 5 ees 82 
No. of Beta 
Mestst sce 8387 1556 3382 
Percentage of 
Total No. 
Examined. 23.9% 44.1% 71.7% 
Median Score 100.8 61.9 32.9 


ters requiring ability to learn and to 
think than is the black race. 

It is also quite clear that those 
Negroes who live in the North are a 
highly selected group. It seems prob- 
able that the Negro may not have the 
ambition to leave his southern environ- 
ment unless he has somewhat more 
intelligence and ability than his fel- 
lows, and that, after arriving in the 
North, he is not able to compete with 
the white laborer and to make a living 
for himself and his family, unless he 
has a degree of intelligence which is 
fairly comparable with that of the 
whites among whom he is living. 

Just how this fresh and more exact 
information, which was the result of 


ees Souther) Negro Recruits 


eases Northern Negro Recruits 


Sle eaene Nort 1 White Reeruits 


PEL ae 
BURPER es 
Pphe eb 


20 Peete 
15 . : Rl ee 


60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 


Literate Negroes and Whites compared: scores in test Alpha (first trial) —These curves show the 
(indicated by the numbers at the left) of certain groups of recruits which received in intelli- 


percentages 
This test was designed for men who could read 


gence test Alpha the scores indicated on the bottom line. 


and write English. (See page 683) 


20 


40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 


Illiterate Negroes and Whites compared: scores in test Beta (first trial) —-Curves similar to the 


above but for test Beta designed for illiterates, show that about 9 per cent of white recruits made a grade 


of 110, while only 5 per cent of northern and 1 per cent of southern Negroes received this rating. (See 


page 683) 


684 


THE INTELLIGENCE 


mental testing in the Army, is going to 
affect the social problem of adjusting 
the two races, is not clear. The infor- 
mation presented above will be included 
with that obtained in many other camps 
when the Division of Psychology of the 
Office of the Surgeon General of the 
Army publishes its official report. The 
facts will be tremendously interesting 
and worth while as an indication of 
what the situation really is, but they 
will not, of course, in themselves indi- 
cate just what should be done about it. 
Each student of sociology will inter- 
pret them in his own way. The writer, 
being a member of the educational pro- 
fession, has the following suggestions 
to make regarding the education of the 
Negro. 

It would seem utter folly to try to 
transplant the system of schools which 
now exists for white people, and which 
has been developed for many genera- 
tions with the learned professions as its 
ultimate goal, to the Negro race. The 
average northern Negro has ability to 
learn new things which is about equiva- 
lent to that possessed by the average 
eleven-year-old white school boy, while 
the average southern Negro is about as 
capable in his intellectual capacities as 
the average nine-year-old white school 
boy. Of course, there are a few Ne- 
groes of “superior” and “very superior” 
intelligence, but with our modern fa- 
cilities for testing the intelligence of 
children and adults, this small percent- 
age of the colored race might easily be 
selected out of the mass of their fellows 
and given opportunity to study the 
learned professions, if they so desire, 
without condemning the millions of 
ordinary Negroes to a system of educa- 
tion in which they are absolutely cer- 
tain to fail of success. 

It is just as respectable and neces- 
sary in this world of ours to till the 
land, to care for animals, clothing, 
Jawns, shrubbery, and personal com- 
fort, to serve the publie as waiters, por- 
ters, scavengers, and the like, as it is 


OF NEGRO RECRUITS 685 


to preach the gospel, explain the law, 
or teach mathematics. Inventive minds 
are cramped and become ineffective if 
they have to be turned constantly to- 
ward things other than the fields in 
which they are interested, just as dull 
minds are made discontented and dan- 
gerous if required or encouraged to un- 
dertake work in which they are certain 
to fail. We must all serve one another 
according to our particular capacities. 
The proper social ideal and educational 
program would provide for those Ne- 
and whites who will never be 
able to learn to read and write, effective 
training in some field in which they 
can be successful and happy. At pres- 
ent, about the only thing we offer is an 
academic education, leading nowhere 
in particular and impossible of mas- 
tery by more than a very small per- 
centage of the colored race. 

Such training as is suggested above 
should be a fundamental part of the 
public school system in localities where 
the intelligence of the citizens, white 
or black, is such as to demand that 
type of education. These courses 
should not be considered “inferior” or 
less “respectable” than the present pub- 
he school curriculum. It is no dis- 
grace for a child who is blind to have 
to attend a course which is prepared 
especially for those with his limited 
abilities, and it should not be any less 
respectable for a “dull” child, white or 
black, to attend that section of the 
public school system which is best fit- 
ted to train him in fields where he can 
take training and in which he will be 
content and successful. Contentment 
adds to efficiency and success leads to 
contentment. Our present school pro- 
gram is not fitted for the large mass 
of the Negro race, and for a consider- 
able portion of our white race. Funda- 
mental changes need to be made for 
the sake of those whose ability runs 


groes 


along the lines of personal service and 
bodily toil rather than to the juggling 
of words and ideas. 


Central African Pygmy South African Bushman Andamanese Negrito 


SKULLS OF THE THREE TYPES OF NEGROID PYGMIES 


These skulls may be taken as fairly typical of the three groups which they represent. They are all small and rather infan- 
tile in general appearance. In the top view the skulls present a rhomboidal contour, with prominent parietal emi- 
nences and a narrow frontal region. The brain cases overhang the face and cheek bones so that these are not 
visible in this view. The proportion of the breadth to length of brain case is greater than it is in most Negro 
skulls. In the front view the low, broad, nasal openings are conspicuous. In the Andamanese skull the 
nasal opening is somewhat higher and narrower than in the other two. The African Pygmy and 
Andamanese skulls have very high orbits and the width and height are nearly equal. In the 
Bushman skull the orbits are slightly lower. The faces are very small in comparison with 
the size of the brain case. In profile the skulls show more individuality. The face 
of the African Pygmy is projecting or prognathous. In this it agrees with the 
skulls of Negroes in general. In the Andamanese skull the projection of 
the face is not so marked, while the Bushman face is nearly vertical. 

All three of the skulls have vertical foreheads but the Bushman 
shows an extreme development of this characteristic. The 
occipital regions are projecting and the mastoid 
processes are small in all three skulls 


686 


The Pygmy Races of Man 


By 


LOUIS R. 


SULLIVAN 


Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology, American Museum 


ROBABLY no other groups of man- 

kind have inspired so many theories 

and so much speculation as have the 
Pygmy races of man. From the very earli- 
est times up to the present, travelers, geog- 
raphers, philosophers, anthropologists, and 
others including myself have written of 
them at the slightest provocation. In spite 
of this fact a survey of the literature im- 
presses one with the sparsity of concrete 
facts upon which all the theories and 
speculations are based.1 

Before detailing their geographical dis- 
tribution, let us come to an understand- 
ing as to just what we mean by Pygmy. 
A hard and fast rule has been set by some 
anthropologists which admits to the classi- 
fication as Pygmies, any group of mankind 
whose average stature does not exceed 150 
centimeters or 4 feet, 11 inches, in the male 
sex. As we shall see later, such a definition 
has certain advantages, inasmuch as 150 
centimeters is the starting point for a 
normal frequency curve of the stature of 
the bulk of mankind. But a too strict 
adherence to the rule will exclude some true 
Pygmy groups. At the same time it will 
include only a very few groups. 

Many racial groups who have for years 
been considered and described as Pygmies 
and who are undoubtedly related to other 
tribes considered as Pygmies cannot qualify 
at 150 centimeters. One reason for this is 
that enthusiastic travelers, disregarding ac- 
curate measurements, have almost invari- 
ably underestimated the average stature of 
various groups by from two to four inches, 
as later measurements have proved. 

An observer, be he ever so careful, is usu- 

1 Eliminating the mere verbal descriptions of 
travelers and the more accurate descriptions of 
very small groups of individuals, the bulk of the 
data on the living Pygmies has been contributed 
by Man, Montano, Martin, Skeat, Annandale, 
Sarasin brothers, Barrows, Reed, Wollaston, 
Williamson, Neuhauss, Schlaginhaufen, Van den 
Broek, Poutrin, Czekanowski, Seiner, Werner, and 
Johnston. The most important studies on the 
skulls and skeletons have been made by Flower, 
Turner, Duckworth, Martin, Sarasin brothers, 
Shrubsall, Koeze, Van den Broek, Poutrin, and 
Schlaginhaufen. I shall not attempt to add to the 


existing theories, but shall merely note the main 
points of interest presented by the Pygmies. 


ally impressed by the extremes in a group 
and will accordingly underestimate the aver- 
age stature of a tribe containing many short 
individuals and overestimate that of a tribe 
containing many tall individuals. Still 
others have no use for averages and will 
designate certain tribes as being composed 
of both Pygmies and tall individuals. Such 
tribes undoubtedly exist but are rare and 
one type or the other predominates by a 
large majority. 

Normally there should be a few individ- 
uals of average stature in the shortest group 
of Pygmies. Likewise there should he 
individuals of very short stature in a group 
having a high average stature. To make 
the matter clear, let us examine the distribu- 
tion of stature in a few groups having dif- 
ferent averages. 

Our comparison will be less confusing if 
our groups contain the same number of indi- 
viduals. Since this is impossible, we can 
obtain nearly the same result by reducing 
the series to a percentage basis and assum- 
ing that each group contains 100 individuals. 
For the sake of variety, let us choose 100 
Andamanese Negritos, 100 Kung Bushmen, 
100 Italians from Sicily, and 100 Scotch- 
men. In the figure on page 688 I have placed 
in column I the range of stature in mankind 
in 2-centimeter intervals. The shortest stat- 
ure, 136 centimeters, I have placed at the 
bottom of the column, and the tallest, 186 
centimeters, at the top. Individuals with a 
stature from 136 to 159.9 centimeters, we 
shall call short, from 160 to 169.9 centime- 
ters, medium, and from 170 to 186 centi- 
meters, tall. Opposite this scale we shall 
distribute the men according to their stature. 

Each short vertical line represents one 
man and is placed opposite the figure in 
the scale which represents his stature. In 
column II I have placed the Andamanese, 
in column III the Bushmen, in column IV 
the Italians, and in column V the Scotch- 
A cross indicates the approximate 
average of each group. It will be noted. 
that the rows near the average contain the 
larger number of individuals. 

As we proceed in either direction from 


men, 


687 


SW 


686 


688 NATURAL HISTORY 


the average we find fewer and fewer individ- 
uals. The Andamanese have an average stat- 
ure of 149.3 centimeters. Ninety-six of the 
100 men are short and only 4 are of medium 
stature. The Bushmen are slightly taller on 
the average (156.4 centimeters). Three indi- 
viduals are tall, 29 of medium stature, and 
6S short. Most of us have been impressed 
by the short stature of the South Italians 
and will be surprised to note that there are 
relatively few very short individuals. The 
average stature is 165.3 centimeters. Twenty- 
two are tall, 61 medium, and 17 short. The 
Scotch present the other extreme. The 
average stature is 172.1 centimeters, 64 are 
tall, 34 medium, and only 2 are short. 

From the above it will be seen that dwarf- 
ism is a relative matter and that the transi- 
tions within the group and between two 
given groups are so gradual that it is very 


difficult to draw a hard and fast dividing 
line. The Pygmies merge gradually into 
mankind proper in the matter of stature. 
For this reason we shall be inclined to in- 
clude as Pygmies some groups whose average 
stature exceeds 150 centimeters. We shall 
also mention certain other groups who, 
though perhaps not true Pygmies, are border- 
line cases. 

In the main the word Pygmy is restricted 
to several Negroid racial types of small 
stature. Best known of these are the Cen- 
tral African Negrillos and the Oceanic 
Negritos. The exact distribution of the 
Central African Negrillos cannot yet be 
stated with finality. Roughly, they are 
mostly confined to a belt five degrees north 
and south of the equator extending nearly 
across the African continent. The greater 
number of the tribes inhabit the dense for- 


a eae ee ee ee ee ie ee eee 


Height Andamanese Kung 
By Negritos Bushmen 

Centimeters (Man) (Seiner) 

186 

184 

182 

180 

178 

176 

174 

levee: 

1710 o| || 

168 

| 

I 

| 

I 

I 

| 

I 

| 


66 | 
64 || 
62 ttt | 
60 4 
58) | 


x 
IIIT 


Average 


/talians 


. Scotch 
el ES 
| 
I | 
II 
| re | = 
HILT > 
i TL e 
Hil aerate te 
HILT HrHEL UPL x 
3 | 22! | | 64 
HTT CEE 
HT PEPEEEEE EEE EEE S 
DATTA CTar in ees TGF AT Th =) 
SADA Totes Bt = 
29) | | 61 34 
Md [| 
XH LELL 
I 
Citta 
| SS 
9 
SS 
Y 
17 72 
100 | 100 
=| Weel 


Distribution of stature in four groups having 
line represents one man and is placed opposite the 


a different average stature—Each short vertical 
number on the scale (column I) representing his 


stature. In column II are 100 Andamanese Negritos whose average stature is 149.3 centimeters. 
Ninety-six of these are short, 4 are medium, and none is tall. Of the 100 Bushmen in column III, 


68 are short, 29 are medium, and 3 are tall. In ¢ 
age stature of 165.3 centimeters, 17 are short, 6 


olumn IV, 100 Italians from Sicily have an aver- 
1 are medium, and 22 are tall. The Scotch in 


column V present the other extreme. The average stature is 172.1 centimeters and 64 are to be 


regarded as tall, while 34 are medium, and only 2 


are short 


3 


THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN 


ests. The distribution of the Oceanic Ne- 
gritos is more definitely known. The “Min- 
copies,” so called, inhabit the Andaman 
Islands. They are of particular interest 
because of their long isolation on these is- 
lands. Another group of Negritos known as 
the Semang are found in the interior of the 
Malay Peninsula. Still a third group known 
as the Aeta are found sporadically in the 
Philippine Archipelago. More specifically 
they are found in the Apayao swamp region, 
in the Ilocos Mountains, in the Zambales 
Mountains, in the East Luzon Mountains, in 
the South Luzon Mountains, in the island 
of Palawan, and in Mindanao. Very re- 
cently Pygmy Negroid tribes have been dis- 
covered in the interior of British and Dutch 
New Guinea. Finally, the South African 
Bushmen constitute a third group. They 
oceur sporadically in South Africa, par- 
ticularly in the region of the Kalahari 
Desert. 

But the Negro race is not unique in the 
production of Pygmy types. The Mongo- 
loid race includes many groups of very short 
stature and the Australoid race contains true 
Pygmies. The Veddah of the island of Cey- 
lon, south of India, the Sakai and Senoi of 
the Malay Peninsula, and the Toala of Cele- 
bes Island are all very short. They belong to 
the Australoid or pre-Dravidian race. The 
Indonesians of Mongoloid affinities, while 
perhaps not true Pygmies, are of very short 
stature. As representatives of this type we 
may mention the Bontok, Nabaloi, Kanka- 
nay, and Ifugao of the Philippines, the 
Murut, Kalabit, Kayan, Maloh, etc., of the 
interior of the island of Borneo, the Teng- 
gerese of Java, the Batak! and Kubu of 
Sumatra, and possibly some of the mixed 
tribes of the Malay Peninsula. The Lapps 
of Norway, Sweden, and Russia form still 
another group of Mongoloid affinities, but 
quite different from the Indonesians. The 
distribution of these groups is indicated ap- 
proximately on the outline map of page 690. 
This list includes all of the dwarfed types 
of living man. 

It is necésSary to mention, however, that 
prehistoric dwarfs or Pygmies are reported 
from Peru, South America, and the Neolithic 
strata of Switzerland. In both instances 
the reports are based on a very few speci- 

‘The name Batak is used indiscriminately for 
Philippine Negritos and Sumatran Indonesians, al- 


though there is no linguistic or physical relation- 
ship between the two groups. 


689 


mens. Best known are three skeletons from 
Schweizerbild, Switzerland. All three are 
females and it is estimated that they be- 
longed to individuals 140.8, 145.5, and 151.2 
centimeters in height. The male stature 
corresponding to these would be approxi- 
mately 151.0, 156.1, and 162.2 centimeters, 
From the same place we have 
a male skeleton belonging to an individ- 
ual approximately 165.6 centimeters tall. 
Schwerz gives as the average stature of 11 
female skeletons the Neolithic of 
Switzerland, 149.7 centimeters, and of 7 
males, 161.6 centimeters. 


respectively. 


from 


It would seem 
from this that the Neolithic Swiss are not to 
be classed with the Negroid or Australoid 
Pygmies in the matter of stature and we 
shall not consider them further. 

There are two points of particular in- 
terest in the distribution of the Pygmies. 
The first is their discontinuous distribution, 
oceurring as they do only sporadically over 
widely separated areas. The second is the 
fact that wherever they are found today 
they are occupying the least desirable por- 
tions of the country. In the Philippines 
they are confined principally to the moun- 
tains and swamps; in Central Africa they 
are found in the forests; in South Africa 
they inhabit the desert regions; and els2- 
where in the Malay Peninsula and New 
Guinea they are inland and mountain-dwell- 
ing people. Everywhere they are outnum- 
bered and surrounded by other groups who 
occupy the more desirable portions of the 
locality. This fact has given rise to two 
theories. The first is to the effect that life 
in an unfavorable environment has been the 
cause of their short stature. When all 
things are taken into consideration it would 
seem that the short stature is the horse and 
the unfavorable environment the cart and 
that the Pygmies live in undesirable places 
because of their short stature. The other 
theory is that this discontinuous distribu- 
tion of the Pygmies and the fact that they 
are always surrounded by one or more racial 
types are indicative of their early arrival 
in the regions where they now occur. In 
fact there are many who advocate them as 
the most primitive of all the living races 
of men. To the anatomical side of this 
theory we shall return shortly, but it may 
be pointed out here that this apparent strati- 
fication which oceurs might be of quite re- 


cent origin. The fact that they are outnum- 


DISTRIBUTION OF THE PYGMY AND SHORT RACES OF MAN 


NEGROID PYGMY TYPES 


Central African Negrillos 
Central African Negrillos 
South African Bushmen 
Andamanese Negritos 
Semang Negritos 

“Aeta’’ Philippine Negritos 


Melanesian Pygmies 


SJ lf} &] &) 


bered by other races wherever they are 
found, would lead to a stratification even if 
the Pygmies were very recent arrivals in a 
given locality. 

Let us now consider briefly the physical 
characteristics of the Pygmies and see how 
much they have in common and in what 
respects they differ from one another, The 
most striking characteristics shared by all 


690 


AUSTRALOID PYGMY TYPES 


Q) Veddah 
(2) Sakai, Senoi 
(3) Toala 


SHORT MONGOLOID TYPES 
UN Indonesians of the Philippines 


IN Indonesians of Borneo 
AY Indonesians of Sumatra 
A Lapps of Norway 


the Pygmy groups are short stature, a 
rather broad nose, dark skin, and hair that 
is not straight. 

In Table I is listed the average stature 
of the Pygmies and some near-Pygmy 
tribes. For convenience these are grouped 
geographically and racially. The shortest 
group of any considerable size so far re- 
corded is the Mawambi Negrillos described 


THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN 


by Czekanowski. They are less than 4 feet 
8 inches tall on the average. The Anda- 
manese, Philippine Negritos, and a few 
New Guinea tribes are 150 centimeters or 
well below. The Semang are somewhat 
taller. Very few African groups have an 
average stature of less than 150 centi- 
meters. The South African Bushmen also 
average more than 150 centimeters in 
height. The Australoid Pygmies have an 
average stature very similar to that of the 
Bushmen. 


TABLE I 


AVERAGE STATURE OF THE SHORT RACES OF MEN 


Stature 


Group, Locality, ete. (Centi- (Inches) 


litho 


691 


In Table II (page 692) the nose form of 
these races is compared. All of the groups 
recorded, with the possible exception of the 
Lapps, have a low, broad nose. We are 
accustomed to regard this as a Negroid 
characteristic but such a conception leads 
to confusion. A low broad nose is a primi- 
tive character universal in the Negro race, 
but by no means monopolized by that group. 
The Australoid type and the Indonesian 
type both have a low broad nose. The 
South African Bushmen have probably been 

the least successful of the liv- 
ing races of man in developing 
The nose bridge, very 
low in other Negroid groups, is 


a nose. 


meters) 
Negrito Pygmies 


Zambales, Philippine Islands.146.3 57% Reed 
Bataan, ed at .145.4 57 Barrows 
Batak, a -150.0 59 “f 
North Andamanese .....-..- 148.6 58% Census of India 
South Andamanese .......- 148.2 58% by ss 
Semang, Malay Peninsula. ..152.0 60 Annandale 
Mafulu, British New Guinea.155.1 61 Williamson 
Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea. .144.8 57 Wollaston 
Toricelli, New Guinea....... 150.9 59% Schlaginhaufen 
Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea.149.2 58 % Wollaston 
Pesechem, New Guinea .152.8 60 Van den Broek 
Morup, New Guinea ....... T50v5. 594% SS a 
Kamaweka, New Guinea....148.7 58% Seligmann 
Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa 
N’Gali (Ba-Binga) ......-.- 148.0 58 Poutrin 
M’Bio (Ba-Binga) ........ 155.1 61 ‘* 
Lobaye (Ba-Binga) ....... 148.6 58% ee 
Baus (ULE) . 2... =. i. = 152.2 60 - 
Ssyenl spicy (GCE Galein a eto Orenesoue 149.7 59 Johnston 
Banwa, (mixed!) .....-----1 159.8 63 Czekanowski 
CHT) A Gregeranenonclo icone 157.3 62 
IMiniilyt 9 on Oa a aCe ee 140.8 55% - 
South African Bushmen 
Heikum and Kung ........ 155.3 61 Werner 
TUE tieacl eg Se cel eseec cree 156.4 61% Seiner 
DRAO 40 costae so Coen Cee 153.3 6014 ie 
LUGTginn 2 Soe S Gee mcicmeceoice 152.5 60 si 
Australoid Pygmies 
Senoi, Malay Peninsula 152.0 60 Martin 
Weddah. @eylon .....<..-.-- 153.3 60% Sarasin brothers 
Toala, Celebes Island ...... 156.1 61% of tf: 
Indonesian Type 
Nabaloi, Philippine Islands. .149.1 58% Bean 
Kankanay, “ « 150.6 59% Barrows 
Manobo, s oe 151.8 5942 Montano 
Ifugao, i “. - 155.2 62 Barrows 
Bontok, - us ae Lob.0 .6L Kroeber 
Mandaya, « .,153.9 60% Cole 
Bilaan, - “ i eto as (GL ae 
Tagbanua, 4s be - »L65.0 61 Barrows 
Ulu Ayars, Borneo.......-- 155.1 61 Hose and McDougall 
Kalabit, So bales een 156.1 61% ‘. ut 
Kayan, Ae Sas CAR RCL COR: 155.0 61 a a 
Maloh, Seve sae svete crate 158.5 62% aE a 
Torajda, Celebes Island..... 159.8 63 Sarasin brothers 
Tomekongka, “ PS eit 156.9 61% He ae 
Tenggerese, Java ......... 160.0 63 Kohlbrugge 
Orang Kubu, Sumatra 158.7 62% Hagen 
Arctie Mongoloid Type 
THAIS PINON) ie sietete < wiieia on 152.3 60 Mantegazza 
apps; IeURGI® -¢. 5% ce wens 155.8 61% Anutschin 


almost flat in the Bushmen. In 
the African Negrillos and 
Bushmen the width of the nose 
is greater than the height (in- 
dicated by the nasal index 
being in excess of 100). Ex- 
cepting the Philippine Negritos, 
the Oceanic Negritos have a 
somewhat narrower nose but still 
much broader than the nose of 
Europeans and Mongols. With 
the exception of the Senoi, ac- 
curate data on the nose of the 
Australoid Pygmies are want- 
ing. But from the photographs 
of these groups it is very evi- 
dent that they have broad low 
noses. The Indonesians have a 
nose which rivals that of the 
Negro in the ratio of breadth 
to height. To my mind this 
does not indicate Negro affini- 
ties but merely the retention of 
a primitive character independ- 
ently in these groups. 

The head form of Pygmies is 
also of interest. As a group 
the Negroes have long narrow 
heads, but the Pygmy Negritos 
and Negrillos tend to have a 
somewhat wider head. This char- 
acteristic is expressed by the 
cephalic index which records the 
width of the head in terms of 
percentage of the length. In 
Table III (page 693) we note 
that the Philippine Negritos 


and Andamanese have very 
wide heads. The Semang Ne- 
gritos and the New Guinea 


NATURAL HISTORY 


692 
TABLE II 
NOSE FORM OF THE SHORT RACES OF 


THE 


NASAL INDEX 


MAN EXPRESSED 


BY 


(The nasal index expresses the width of the nose in terms of per- 


centage of the height of the nose. 


A large index denotes a 


broad nose while a small index denotes a narrow nose) 


Group and Locality pie Author 
Negrito Pygmies 
Bataan, Philippine Islands..... 94.7 Montano 
Zambales, od x 106.0 Reed 
Batak, 97.0 Barrows 
North Andamanese 92.5 Census of India 
South Andamanese............ 88.2 sf os 
Semang, Malay Peninsula...... 97.0 Annandale 
Mafulu, British New Guinea.... 83.8 Williamson 
Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea.... 81.4 Wollaston 
Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea... 83.9 Van den Broek 
Pesechem, New Guinea........ 83.2 ee as a 
Morup, Me ae De tages = 88.1 te es Le 
Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa 
Ni Galt a (Bas Bing ay): aie ceest ete 105.0 Poutrin 
MEB TOM (GR ane a) eters ces in ote ste eae 105.0 gs 
Lobaye (Ba-Binga). 106.0 ee 
‘BawEwa(pune) esis sictehe aeons 111.0 se 
Biambutes eich e..c cites 105.8 Johnston 
Batwa CmMENed))i mcltacesiccuss clones 86.9 Czekanowski 
IB ea aloes Moyo ich aicl our Gator ake o aah a) ose 86.2 sf 
Mawambi isis. 91.2 ‘s 
South African Bushmen 
Hertkum Jand: Kumi. 2222. oss 102.5 Werner 
Australoid Pygmies 
Senoi, Malay Peninsula....... 86.0 Martin 
Weddaht a CeyJontns.ccaee conics Broad Sarasin brothers 
Toala, Celebes: Island ..:...... Broad ss ff 
Indonesian Type 
Nabaloi, Philippine Islands.... 95.0 Bean 
Kankanay, a 88.7 Barrows 
Tfugao, ue 101.9 os 
Bontok, ole : 99.8 Kroeber 
Bilaan, Sy oS 90.0 Montano 
Tagbanua, oe st 93.4 Barrows 
Kalabitaws Ondeon se cmrenmies Geran 91.5 Hoseand McDougall 
Maloh, ae ie ey er ei heer 97.4 as SE 
Menge reresew Java: seiacirees se ce 100.4 Kohlbrugge 
Orang Kubu, Sumatra ........ 89.0 Hagen 
Arctic Mongoloid Type 
TASH teense cea cee nae ee re Medium Deniker 


coarse black hair. The Aus- 
traloid Pygmies are character- 
ized by an abundance of body 
hair. Negroid 
Pygmies also differ from the 
Negroes in general in having 
the body covered with short 
downy hair. This character- 
istic is reported for some Afri- 
can Negrillos and the Pygmies 
of New Guinea. 

The Negroid alo 
differ from the other Negroes 
in having a lighter skin color. 
The Bushmen have a light yel- 


Some of the 


Pygmies 


lowish brown skin. The Ne- 
grillos and New Guinea Pyg- 
mies have a skin color much 
lighter than the neighboring 
Negroes and in some instances 
almost yellow. The Andama- 


nese and Philippine Negritos 
are described as’ having more 
often a rather dark brown skin 
color. The Indonesians show 
varying shades of yellow-brown 
pigmentation. Again, the Bush- 
men and certain Negrillo and 
also differ 
proper in 


Negrito Pygmies 
from the Negroes 
having a convex upper lip. 

I have figured (page 686) 
three skulls from the collection 
of the American Museum of 
Natural History, representing 
the three main types of Negroid 
Pygmies. From left to right 
they are a Congo Pygmy, a 
South African Bushman, and an 


Pygmies, for the most part, have somewhat 
narrower heads. The Australoid Pygmies 
and the Indonesians also have rather narrow 
heads. The Lapps have extremely broad 
heads, 

While none of the Pygmies have straight 


hair, their hair form is by no means sim- 


ilar. The Negritos and Negrillos have 
typical Negroid hair, closely curled and 
frizzly. The Bushmen have an extreme type 


of Negro hair. The hair is much finer and 
more closely coiled. When stretched slightly 
it has the appearance of a very fine and 
closely coiled spring. The Australoid Pyg- 
mies have either wavy or curly hair. The 
Indonesians have. straight or very slightly 
The Lapps have straight 


waved hair. 


Andamanese Negrito. These skulls are fairly 
typical of the groups they represent. In the 
top view they show a similarity in contour, 
all presenting an outline more or less rhom- 
boid in form. This form is in part due to 
the narrow frontal region and the promi- 
nence of the parietal eminences. These may 
be regarded as infantile characteristics. 

In the front view there are more marked 
differences. The nasal opening is narrower 
in the Andamanese skull. The African 
Pygmy and Bushman skulls have low broad 
nasal openings and the eye openings are 
widely separated. The Pygmy and Andama- 
nese skulls have very high orbits. 

In profile the skulls show a much more 
In the African 


striking individuality. 


\ 


THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN 


Pygmy the face projects beyond 
the brain case more than in the 
others. The Bushman face is 
nearly vertical. The Anda- 
manese skull is intermediate be- 
tween the two. All have a more 


HEAD FORM OF THE 


693 


TABLE III 


SHORT 
THE CEPHALIC 


RACES OF MAN EXPRESSED BY 
INDEX 


(The cephalic index expresses the width of the head in terms of 
percentage of the length of the head. 
a wide head and a small index a narrow head) 


A large index denotes 


a arn ae NC ar ihalie c 
or less vertical forehead but Group and Locality Tadex Author 
this characteristic is most pro- Nesrito Pygmies — 
‘ : Bataan, Philippine Islands.....-- 84.7 Montano 
nounced in the Bushman. In Zambales, “ biur entee es 32.2 Reed 
all three skulls the mastoid pro- Batak, a eee 81.0 Barrows 
. . : North Andamanese .......-----: 82.5 Census of India 
cesses, found just behind the South Andamanese........----- 83.0 “ af 
ear openings, are small. Semang, Malay Peninsula.....-. V7.9 Annandale 
The cranial capacity which Mafulu, British New Guinea..... 80.0 Williamson 
sa - Z Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea......79.4 Wollaston 
may be taken as an index of Toricelli, New Guinea.......--- TU Schlaginhaufen 
gross size of the brain, is small Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea. ..83.4 Wollaston 
. Pesechem, New Guinea......--- 80.5 Van den Broek 
- ats r . 
ae all the Py gmy ty DES: The Morup, New Guinea.......---- Se ks oe + = 
Veddah have the smallest cra- Kamaweka, New Guinea......-- yiztal Seligmann 
nial capacity so far recorded, Negrillo Pygmies, Equatorial Africa 
S ee . ay N’Gali (Ba-Binga)......----- +: 78.1 Poutrin 
1250 cubic centimeters. The M'Bio Re ae I ye 79.7 “ 
Bushmen are next in size with Lobaye OY See Srocre cee cerg 81.7 % 
= 5 — Ba Tua (pure) ..----.---- .78.1 a 
9 ra] r 
1260 cubic teres he Rampboutew CtCos..-0. aa es ote 79.4 Johnston 
average cranial capacity of the Batwa (Mixed) 22% foes ee 75.1  Ozekanowski 
Andamanese is 1269 cubic cen- Baamba .-.------- - 79.8 . 
WESTIN Dis Hee eatrrete Aig ve se 79.6 “ 


timeters, of the Philippine Ne- 


South African Bushmen 


gritos 1409 eubic centimeters, Seer ane EQUA an ote eles Revocce seep ke 76.3 Werner 
A Australoi ygmies 
= Y oT - 25 
and of the Semang Negritos Senoi, Malay Peninsula......--- 77.2 Martin 
1338 cubic centimeters. The Waddahen Ceylon cence cs cts ctr 75.1 Deniker 
average cranial capacity of Toala, Gelebes Island..>.-..--.-80:4 Sarasin brothers 
3 Indonesian Type 
Europeans is somewhat above Nabaloi, Philippine Islands...... 78.5 Bean 
1500 eubie centimeters. of Kankanay, “ Se ites Bee 81.6 Barrows 
; 5 Tfugao, oS Le ea ae 76.9 ES 
course the small size of these Bontok ti Ta Chae iZ4 Kacher 
Pygmies must be taken into Bilaan, 80.4 Cole 
. . * . . Tarbanude 9 9 1) se 81.0 Barrows 
ns1c ¢ 3 7 - ’ 
ss : ‘ ate 3 een with Ulu Ayars, Borneo....--------- 74.7 Hose and McDougall 
eir small cranial capacity. Kalabit, | ae Bo Soe 78.5 i * 
The Negritos and Negrillos Maloh, Sige ena 028 “a - 
haw i if a J Tomekongka, Celebes Island.... .81.8 a ; 
ave ae been very successful in Tenggerese, Java ..----------- 79.7 Kohlbrugge 
developing a chin. On page Orang Kubu, Sumatra.....- 78.5 Hagen 
aoe Arctic i pe 
694 are shown the lower jaws of aes fongoloid, Type 2 = 
C Of: 19) 058 cata eae Oo ne aca 37.6 Deniker 
a Congo Pygmy, an Andama- 
nese Negrito, a South African Bushman,anda that if the Bushmen are related to the 


modern European. The first two have poorly 
developed chins. The Bushman, however, has 
typically a rather prominent and peculiarly 
pointed chin. In this respect he is almost as 
highly specialized as the modern European. 
No other Negroid group has the chin devel- 
oped to such an extent as the Bushman. 
We have seen now that, although the Ne- 
groid Pygmies have a few characteristics in 
common, they have, to a very large extent, 
developed local peculiarities dis- 
tinguish them from one another. The 
Bushmen, perhaps, have carried this special- 
ization the farthest and differ more from 
the Negrillos and Negritos than do these 
two from each other. In fact, it seems clear 


which 


Negritos and Negrillos, this relationship is 
a very distant one. The Australoid group, 
including the Veddah, Senoi, and Toala, 
are quite different from the Negroid Pyg- 


mies in several important characters. The 
Indonesian group of short stature are 


Mongoloid in their affinities. Many other 
of Mongoloid affinities have very 
Among these should be men- 


groups 
short stature. 
tioned certain Siberian tribes, some Ameri- 
Mexico and South America, 

So then we have Pygmies 


can Indians in 

and the Eskimo. 
or a tendency to very short stature in three 
distinet racial types. The Caucasian or 
European racial type alone has no marked 
examples of extremely short stature, except 


694 
as individuals. But the Negritos, Negrillos, 
Bushmen, and Australoid groups alone are 
true Pygmies. 

When considered culturally, most of these 
Pygmy tribes are undoubtedly very primi- 


tive. They are all in the hunting stage. 


Lower jaws of the Negro Pygmy types com- 
pared with a European jaw.—From above down- 
ward are the jaws of a Central African Pygmy, 
an Andamanese Negrito, a South African Bush- 
man, and a European. Of all Negro types the 
Bushman alone has succeeded in developing a 
chin. In this respect the Bushman is almost as 
highly specialized as the European 


NATURAL HISTORY 


This fact has been largely instrumental in 
their being regarded as primitive anatom- 
ically and consequently as ancestral to man- 
Such a theory is due to a 
confusion of culture and anatomy. There 
is not necessarily any direct correlation be- 
tween a primitive culture and a primitive 
anatomical structure. The two things are 
distinct and different. While we may have 
a primitive culture associated with a group 
having a primitive anatomical structure, the 
two are not related in the sense of cause 
and effect but are merely an association. 
Very few primitive anatomical characters 


kind as a whole. 


found in modern man could influence eul- 
ture to any great extent. 

At the very outset it seems questionable 
whether short stature, the most character- 
istic trait of the Pygmies, is a primitive 
character. In the figure opposite is plotted 
the stature of mankind as a whole. Hach 
small rectangle represents the average stat- 
ure of one tribe or group of men. The aver- 
age stature of 514 different groups is used. 
This should give us a fair idea of the dis- 
tribution of stature in mankind. From 
about 150 centimeters to 180 centimeters we 
have a normal frequency curve with the 
greatest frequency at 164 to 165  centi- 
meters. On the other hand, the Negroes, 
represented by the shaded rectangles, have 
an irregular distribution of stature with 
points of greatest frequency at 168 to 169 
centimeters, 154 to 155 centimeters, and 148 
to 149 centimeters. In other words, the 
bulk of mankind, and even of the Negroes 
proper, has a stature decidedly ‘above that 
of the Pygmies. It is rather difficult to be- 
lieve that only these few groups have re- 
tained the primitive form of stature while 
all the others have specialized in this re- 
spect. It is very seldom that such a thing 
occurs within a group. 

Another proof that excessively short stat- 
ure is not a primitive trait is found in the 
fact that the earliest types of man on whom 
we have any data for this trait were de- 
cidedly taller than the Pygmies. I refer of 
course to the Neanderthal race who lived in 
Europe during the Pleistocene. Their aver- 
age stature was about 165 centimeters (5 
feet 4 inches). Going back still further to 
Pithecanthropus a type showing 
certain characters of both the apes and 
man, we find a femur or thigh bone 45.5 
This length of femur cor- 


erectus, 


centimeters long. 


~ responds to a stature of about 5 feet, 7 
In the upper Paleolithic, 
the Cré-Magnon race had attained a stat- 


inches, in man. 


ure well abo 


The Pygmies do, however, present many 
They accentuate some of 
the infantile characteristics of the Negro 
group. In more than one respect they sug- 
gest a group whose development in certain 
particulars has been retarded. 


primitive traits. 


1" 


THE PYGMY RACES OF MAN 


ve 6 feet. 


slightly less so. 


695 


Taken all together they are no more prim- 
itive than other Negro groups and perhaps 
Anatomically it is by no 


means clear that the Negro race is the most 


primitive. 


The brain 


||| |79 


Certain Australoid and Mongo- 
loid groups seem, on the whole, to approach 
more nearly to the generalized type of man- 
kind. The extremely dark skin, the absence 
of body hair, the closely curled hair, thick 
lips, and the form of the caleaneum in Ne- 


It 


case infantile in  groes are undoubtedly specializations. 
form. The face is Certainly it seems extremely doubtful 
peut small in proportion to that the Pygmy types represent an ancestral 
‘ | . . . . 
er “3 |: the brain case (ex- stage in the evolution of mankind. 
fiat il cept in the case of seems more reasonable to assume that they 
' 
180 some Negrillos). represent aberrant groups and that short 
ay s Pp group 
ear +178 4i\3 stature has developed more than once as a 
| ; Ez i racial character, than to assume that 
Zila short stature is a primitive trait and that 
L! 75 aA \ ||| {II all mankind except the Pygmies are 
1 AAA, 7; aberrant in this respect. 
deen | TININTUNINNNNIININUNNIINEE 
[172 LUAU 
se NINN 
170 Heat Med it | 
crew TINIVONNNVIVUNNNVNVNRRENNNGNEVUOVNNVVATITT 
aie Li UIT TTT 
ee AHI HUATIAA NAH . HUNUAAUNNNGEEEUTNGEEAOUIL 
enn LH || 
| eI ill UINAAUUNGUNUAAGAA AGU GHI 
rem 
YY 37 
see IMT 
Pell 
GY 
ar Lose RT ||. 
ge AAA Distribution of stature in man.—Each rectangle repre- 
_— tsa sents one tribe or group of men and is placed opposite the 
hao unit on the scale which represents the average stature or 
as WS body height of that group. This diagram includes 514 
147 / tribes or groups of which 106 (shaded) are Negroid. The 
146 He Pygmy tribes are together at the bottom of the scale. It 
4F9O) has. will be noted that the bulk of mankind, and even of the 
44 Ye Negroes proper, has a stature well above 150 centimeters 
0 
139 i 
Ul 


LS43YO4 ODSNOO 3HL NI dWVO AWDAd V SNIMOHS ‘WN3SNW NVOINSWV JHL 


FR. ities, ink 


pe 


Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization * 


A STUDY OF THE PYGMIES OF CENTRAL AFRICA 


By HERBERT LANG 


Assistant Curator of Mammalogy in the American Museum 


ForREWwoRD—A splendid habitat group representing a Pygmy camp in the Rain Forest of the northeast- 
ern section of the Belgian Congo has recently been installed in the American Museum of Natural His- 
tory. The scene depicts a lucky hunter returning with his faithful companion, a hunting dog, to the fam- 
ily circle consisting of a wife, two children, and an aged mother. There is thus given to the public, 
always eager for information about primitive types of man, an opportunity to become better acquainted 
with the Belgian Congo dwarfs, who still manage to eke out their meager existence in the primeval for- 
ests of Africa. The building of the group was made possible by the fact that the American Museum Congo 
Expedition, although chiefly zodlogical, had a wide range of activities and gathered during the six years 
of its stay (1909-1915), material and information necessary for the reproduction of Pygmy life. The 
group was designed and executed by Mr. Frederick Blaschke under the supervision of Director F. A. 
Lucas and the direction of the Author. 

Especially interesting is the fact that the lifelike qualities of the new group are partly the result of 
the intelligence of the Pygmies themselves. They were the first to contribute to our valuable collection 
of more than 100 life masks representative of 16 different tribes of Central African races. Mr. James P. 
Chapin, my only white companion and an excellent linguist, explained to the first Pygmy we saw that we 
should like to reproduce his face by covering it with a layer of “soft, white mud’ (plaster of Paris). Al- 
though apparently frightened, the little fellow suggested that before having his eyes and mouth covered 
with “mud,’’ he would like to see it put on his hand or foot. The completed cast aroused his admira- 
tion, but he hastened to add that the cold plaster had become so uncomfortably hot when setting that in 
his mind fear arose that he was to be broiled alive. From then on, however, we had less difficulty in tak- 
ing casts, and although the tall Negroes invariably became nervous and often trembled during the process, 
Pygmies submitted with comparative confidence. 

Emandinia, chief of the Nala Pygmies, in reply to compliments on his equanimity while having his 
cast taken, said that fear to him was needless. Was not the white man alone, and Emandinia supported 
by one hundred well-tried archers, six of whom had never missed their mark? These are the bowmen 
shown in the photograph on page 705; they took aim at me but never re'’eased their arrows. 

A counterpart of this was my experience with the Logos, when Maruka, an extremely agreeable but 
shrewd chief, made no objection to having his face cast, although his twelve councilors would not allow 
it unless they could assist, fully armed with spears, bows, and arrows, as is their custom in war. Much 
to their satisfaction, I invited them to be present—on condition, however, that five additional casts should 
accompany their chief’s to America; and as the Museum enlarges its series of exhibitions, reproductions 


of these men may take their places in scenes representing native Negro life. 


ROM time immemorial the imagina- 
tion of poets has enriched the litera- 
ture of many nations with legends of 

bearded, benevolent dwarfs, impish moun- 
tain sprites, and winged fairies, endowed 
with supernatural power and with passion 
for love and revenge. Today it is thought 
that perhaps some of these charming tales 
had their origin more in truth than in fiction. 
Homer’s account of Pygmy nations, said 
by Aristotle to dwell beyond the lakes 
above Egypt, from which flows the Nile, 
was apparently not based upon mere fancy. 
More than two thousand years later, in 
1870, Dr. Schweinfurth,! during his mem- 
orable exploration in what is now the 
northeastern section of the Belgian Congo, 
discovered the “Akkas,’ perhaps remnants 
of that very race renowned in verse, and 
now known as the Central African Pygmies. 

For centuries Africa’s black sons have 
struggled with the horrors of famine, can- 


1Georg Schweinfurth. The Heart of Africa, 
Vol. II, p. 122. New York, 1874. 


HERBERT LANG. 


nibalism, war, and slavery, while the white 
man has slowly evolved civilization. The 
Mediterranean region and eastern and south- 
erm portions have been well enough known 
but the vast area south of the Sahara has 
only lately received serious attention when 
European nations have taken a more active 
interest in their southern neighbors. Thus 
within the last few decades, the Dark Con- 
tinent has been forced to surrender one by 
one its well-guarded mysteries. 


Colonizing efforts, however, in Central 
Africa have continually had one great 
check, more formidable than a Chinese 
wall: the white man can seldom bear for 


any length of time the hot, moisture-laden 
atmosphere or escape the many diseases lurk- 
ing in the equatorial forests. In West 
Africa all along the routes of the Cauca- 
sian’s advance are the silent witnesses of in- 
domitable life and eager adventure come to 
tragic termination. To prevent loss of life 
and to temper the zeal of an administrative 
staff which forms the pillars of colonization, 


*The illustrations are from pnotographic studies of Pygmies made by the Author during the American 


Museum Congo Expedition. 


697 


; oy Pen es 
698 NATURAL 
the wise decisions of a responsible govern- 
ment have now limited the residential period 
to two White man’s impetus must be 


the 
will supply the activity to bring final order 


years. 


motive to progress, whereas the Negro 


from chaos. Northern, southern, and east- 
ern Africa have in part been made a white 
man’s country, but the great, steaming equa- 
torial forests will long remain the st:rong- 
hold of the Negro race, just as they have 
been the refuge of the Pygmy. 
The Origin, Distribution and Classification 
of Pygmies 

Dwarfs are far more widely distributed 
than any of their respective discoverers sup- 
posed, independent or mixed with a taller 


element throughout a large 


part of the world. New 
Guinea, the Philippines, 
southern Asia and the ad- 
joining islands, all these 


have their typical Pygmy 
population, the Asiatie and 
Oceanic branches — called 
“Negritos,” as differentiated 
the the 
“Negrillos.” Distinct traces 
ot them have been found in 
Mae- 


Iver! reports them to have 


from Africans, 


many regions and 
numerous in 


6000 


been fairly 


Keypt between and 
4000 B.c. In 
times a race of tiny men 
dwelt taller 
men in Switzer- 


prehistoric 
together with 
northern 
else- 


land, in France, and 


Where in Europe. Sergi2 
of 
people from the peninsulas 
of 
existing 
In the south of 


Italy and in Sardinia nearly 


records numbers small 


and adjacent islands 


southern Europe, 
even now. 
15 per cent of the men are 
rejected from military ser- 
they fail to 
feet 114 inches. 


vice because 


measure 5 


‘Arthur Thomas and D. Ran- 
dall-MacIver. The Ancient Races 
of the Thebaid, ps Si. Oxford: 
1995. 

“Giuseppe Sergi. Varieta 
Umane Microcefaliche e Pigme 
d’Europa. Bullettino della Reale might well 
Medica di Roma, ancient stories 
2 apaelse “little men’”’ 


who 
seum 


helped 


Lecademia 


Vol. 19, 


fase. 


Photograph of 


the 

Expedition. 
serve to 
of fairies 


HISTORY 


If height alone constitutes the determining 
factor, dwarfs are nowhere scarce, for south- 
ern Europe—and now even New York—has 


diminutive persons, 


a large population of 
especially among women, since 4 feet 11 
inches (150 em.) is the maximum height ac- 
cepted by scientists for “Pygmy-dom.” 

The records of modern African Pygmies 
prove so heterogeneous that anthropologists 
have not yet been able to offer a final opin- 
ion as to their classification, although sep- 
arating them into various groups. For the 
sake of expediency three large divisions may 


be recognized: the South African Bush- 
men, the Batwa of the Central African 
Lake Region, and the more widely distrib- 
uted Pygmies of the West African Rain 
Forest. (A branch of the 
latter is the chief concern 

of this article.) 
The Bushmen of South 


Africa are usually set apart 
from the other Pygmy stock 


on account of their wide 
differentiation. How tar 


this is owing to life in a 
different 


they are now restricted to 


environment—for 


the arid regions about the 


Kalahari Desert—or to an 
intermixture with the Kafirs 
and Herero, their neighbors, 
is a question extremely dif- 
ficult to answer on account 
of lack of prehistoric evi- 
If they 


affiliations with 


dence. had any 
the 


Pygmies it may be assumed 


other 


that a separation took place 
in very early times. 
As regards the Batwa of 
the Tanganyika 
regions, most of them, ac- 
to 


clearly show the effects of 


Kivu and 


cording Czekanowski,? 
interbreeding with Negro-s 
around them. An appar- 
ently purer stock is to be 
found in the less populated, 
voleanic regions where they 


have lived in practical iso- 


lation. 
two Pygmies > Jan Czekanowski. Anthro- 
se ae pologische-ethnographische  Ex- 
De eee Ost-Afrika. 


peditionsarbeiten in 
Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Vol. 
41, pp. 594-595, 1909. 


illustrate 
and 


\ 


NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION 


In the third center, the West African 
forest, the Pygmies are known by several 
names, depending on the tribe with which 
they live, most noted being Schweinfurth’s 
“Akkas” (the Mangbetu name), or “Tiki- 
Tiki” (the Azande term), or “Mambuti” 
(the name given by natives of the Ituri 
region and now current with Europeans). 

The question arises whether the Pygmies 
are merely degenerate types of Negroes and 
therefore of relatively recent origin, or the 
earliest type from which all taller African 
races have evolved, or one entirely distinct 
and as old as any living race. The first 
hypothesis finds little actual support 
although Sir Harry Johnston states! that 
“British anthropologists seem to be arriv- 
ing at the conclusion that the Congo Pygmies 
do not constitute a homogeneous type of 
Negro clearly marked off from the main 
stock in the same way as the South African 
Bushman. They are rather arrested, infan- 
tile, or degenerate groups of the Nilotice or 
Bantu Negroes produced by the depressing 
conditions of the dense forest.” Sir Harry 
believes “them in the main to be dwindled 
descendants of the earliest pioneers of the 
true Negro stock (as compared with the 
divergent Bushmen ).” 

Unfortunately nothing positive is known 
about the epoch when man first invaded 
Africa, and paleontological evidence from 
that country is most unsatisfactory. Even 
the origin of numerous implements and 
carvings of stone found in Algeria, across 
the Sudan, Abyssinia, the Congo Basin, and 
in South Africa, as well as that of the 
pictographs from Mauretania and South 
Africa, is much disputed. Granting that 
the Pygmies were really the first to roam 
over much of the eastern portion of the 
African continent, the theory that tall 
Negroes evolved from them is rather con- 
tradicted by the distribution of both the 
true Negro and Pygmy stocks. It seems 
more plausible to assume that Pygmies 
sprang up at an early period in Asia, ac- 
cepted by many authorities as the cradle of 
primitive man. In the successive migra- 
tions of the human races remnants of 
Pygmies could survive to the present day 
in certain regions where a natural protec- 
tion favored the preservation of their racial 
characteristics. 


1 Liberia, I1, 1906, pp. 887-888. 


699 


The third supposition, then, that these 
African Pygmies are the approximately 
pure descendants of an extremely ancient 
race, is perhaps sustained by their morpho- 
logical characters, and by modern considera- 
tions of the controlling factors of dispersal. 
Mammalian distribution may be called upon 
to furnish an excellent analogy support- 
ing the fact that they have come to Africa 
The okapi and water- 

relatives are 
in the southern 


by way of Asia. 
chevrotain, whose 
known to have flourished 
portion of Eurasia in Miocene and Pliocene 
times, are today among the most typical 
West African forest mammals, and un- 
doubtedly came to the continent from the 
northeast. Antelopes, which have under- 
gone such a remarkable adaptive radiation in 
the Ethiopian part of Africa, ranging from 
the size of a rabbit to that of a bull, have, 
as generally admitted, also derived their 
original stock from Eurasia. It has been 
argued that with the advent in the northeast 
of the continent of the pastoral Negroes of 
Hamitie origin, the tiny pioneers were forced 
to a speedy retreat. The powerful and evi- 
dently well-organized probably 
showed such pride in the purity of their 
stock that they refused to enslave the 
vanquished for fear of sullying their own 
race. The Pygmies, thus forced to withdraw 
farther and farther, finally reached Central 
Africa. The northeastern or 

of the West African forest 
from which the 
and west in the 


closest 


we 99 
giants 


and South 
Ituri 
area 
Pygmies roamed south 
wooded portion, a few reaching the Atlantic.1 


section 


became the center 


Personal Experiences with Central African 
Pygmies 


So far the most important information 
about Central African Pygmies has come 
from explorers and scientists who gained 
their knowledge either during rather short 
visits to Africa, or from a few especially 
fine individuals exported for exhibition pur- 
poses. The American Museum Congo Expe- 
dition had penetrated 1400 miles inland to 
Avakubi, before we finally came across our 
first Pygmy, who was being unjustly held on 


1The earliest mention of West African dwarfs 
dates from Andrew Battell’s record in 1625, fol- 
lowed in 1670 by that of Dapper, who speaks of 
the Bakke-Bakke in the kingdom of the great 
Makoko, situated, according to de Brazza, in the 
region where in 1865 Du Chaillu discovered his 
famous Obongos near the Ogowe River. 


y00 NATURAL HISTORY 


a charge of murder to shield an important 


nember of another tribe; the victim with an 


arrow through his heart, had been found 
lead on the forest trail. The prisoner 
gladly answered questions in return for 


plenty of food, and the matted hair clipped 
from his head was shortly added to our col- 
lections. 


A few weeks later, a caravan of Ban- 


daka came to Avakubi with rubber and 


bundles of rattan. Among them were two 
groups of about fifteen Pygmies each, who, 
after we had carried on a long and difficult 


palaver with them, allowed three of their 


Joseph, the tall Bantu, belongs to the sturdy 


race of Bakusu at Stanleyville. Son of a chief, 
he was a devoted and trustworthy helper, and 
acted as headman for the American Museum Ex- 
pedition, playing the part of a peacemaker rather 
than that of a leader. The short man, Papai, 
is offspring of a Bantu 
father, but called a 
custom he had 
been returned to his mother’s tribe when a child. 


Pygmy mother and a 


always resented being 


Pygmy, although according to 


During the long years of the expedition this man 
made many friends among the natives we met. 
Once the confidence of Pygmies is gained. their 


friendly off-hand ways are a pleasant introduc- 


happy-go-lucky life of these hunting 


tion to the 


nomads 


with the 
turned 


women to remain 
Without 


to the task of building a shelter; 


men and two 


expedition. delay these 
and in 
scarcely an 


hour they had completed op- 


posite our tents the usual beehive-shaped 
hut, arranging in shingle fashion the big 
Phrynium leaves on bent sticks held together 
with vines. Their rapidity and curious man- 
ner of working attracted a merry crowd of 
and members of the 
that 
leader of the Pygmies complained bitterly 
of the annoyance, that 
morning he and his little band had 
This incident is typical of the 
difficulty we had at first 


porters expedition. 


No wonder later in the evening the 


to me and next 
dis- 
appeared! 
in keeping the 
Pygmies with us long enough to study and 
understand them. 

Later we saw several other groups at Ava- 
kubi and Medje, and three years later, after 
our return to the forest from the Sudan and 
Uele plains, we often had hundreds of the 
small folk about us. The several years of 
constant contact and friendship which we 
had had with the natives spoke well for our 
reputation, of Ngayu, 
Medje, Niapu, and Nala eagerly helped us 
obtain some of the rarest mammals. Most 
surprising was the way in which they secured 
(Manis gi- 


and the Pygmies 


the rare, great scaly anteater 
gantea), and the aard-vark (Orycteropus), 
the latter a plains animal not known before 
With swagger- 
ing defiance a youngster of only eight or 


to oceur in the Rain Forest. 


ten years would enter one of the animal’s 
narrow burrows, from 8 to 20 feet in length. 
channel, with 
his dagger-lke knife drawn, he would grop2 


Down into the subterranean 
for a victim, while we outside expectantly 
True to the tradi- 
tion of the fighting quality of his race, he 
would not let the battle in the dark go 
against him—and the creeper he held as a 


signal for assistance and the long, flexible 


listened and watched. 


rattan tied to his belt always proved unnec- 
essary precautions. A lively time would 
ensue after the animal had been fastened to 
the rattan, and the crowd without would 
boisterously begin jerking it from the ill- 
smelling cavern. The little Pygmy hero, 
pushing and pulling from behind, would 
finally emerge amid the cheers of his com- 
rades. But as usual the witch doctor took 
as much of the credit as the plucky boy: 
had he not foreseen the glad event and speci- 
fied the most propitious time? 


NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION 


Physical Distinctions between Pygmies 
and the Tall Negroes 


Descriptions, apparently authoritative, 


too often make us believe that there are 
striking differences between Central African 
Pygmies and the tall agricultural Negroes. 
But when we come to see crowds containing 
both Pygmies and tall Negroes, most of the 
so-called “clear-cut” Pygmy features prove 
to be individual or regional characteristics. 
From time to time I heard officials of many 
years’ experience in Central Africa make the 
sweeping statement that they could pick out 
a Pygmy from among hundreds of other 
natives. Sure of proving the contrary, I 
changed the hairdresses, bark-cloths, amu- 
lets, and other decorative features of a num- 
ber of Pygmies and Bantus. Thus in less 
than ten minutes it became impossible, or at 
least very puzzling, for these “experts” to 
make good their boast; the few physical 
peculiarities there were had escaped their 
notice. 

The northeastern portion of the Congo 
Basin now rivals America as a racial melt- 
ing pot. The incoming northern elements 
and the 
have all 
called 
phalie, in which the Pygmy is not a stranger. 
It is likely that in the future the Pygmy 
will gradually lose his identity and disap- 


3antu, Nubian, and Hamitie races 


contributed to what might be 


a forest type, generally brachyce- 


pear in this melting pot, not even retaining 
what is supposed to have been his most 
obvious character—diminutive stature. 
Looking at Pygmies in numbers, we are 
impressed by the fact that size alone can- 
not be the criterion for distinction. Of 
thirty-three adult males measured, none of 
them exceeding 4 feet, 11 inches, the aver- 
age was 4 feet, 8 inches, which, with seven 
tall Pygmies included, at once rose to 4 
feet, chief of 


the Pygmies of Nala, measured 5 feet, 5 


10 inches. Emandinia, the 
inches, a fair size even for a European. As 
is the case the world over the women on 
the whole are shorter than the men, but 
with the Pygmies the difference is even 
greater than usual. In not a few instances 
the striking disparity may be accounted for 
by the customs prevalent in their inter- 
marriage with the tall Negroes. Women in 
these regions constitute the only important 
treasure, and chiefs of the Bantu tribes 
have never had any compunctions in adding 


TOI 


In the great African forests game animals are 
few and far between. 


The experienced Pygmy 
reads their presence in almost imperceptible 
traces—a cut leaf or a pebble displaced may be 
the signal for stealthy pursuit. Climbing trees in 
his own fashion, he varies his bill of fare with 
honey of wild bees, a few acrid fruits of rubber 
vines, and fat young nestlings. Also he traps 
monkeys, genets, squirrels, and birds in snares 
skillfully arranged in trees 

pretty Pygmy girls to their harems. In most 
of these cases the sons return to the mother’s 
tribe, whereas the daughters, considered a 
valuable asset, remain with the agricultural 
Negroes. These marital relations naturally 
help to increase the influence and prestige 
of the Pygmies. On the other hand, it would 
be “taboo” for a Pygmy to marry a woman 
of any of his tall friends. 

It would be too daring to describe as 
typical these remnants of a race which has 
not escaped continued mingling with large 
Each 


wave of migrants has naturally left its im- 


neighboring communities. successive 


print upon the Pygmies, checking certain 


somatological characters and molding 
others. As a result of the intermixture 


which is continually going on, a regional 
resemblance to the agricultural Negroes is 
clearly visible in the physiognomy. Human 


faces the world over may show the most 
varied expressions and where people of dif- 
ferent racial characters are welded together 
slowly, it will always be difficult to present 
At pres- 


setting aside a 


general, all-inclusive descriptions. 


ent no racial characters 


M 4 “ N 
~ 3 e ‘a ne 
é gm 4 


Permanent assembly camp near the village of Nabodia, an Azande chief at Nala. Along the northern limits 
of the Rain Forest the Pygmies have already adopted the architectural style of neighboring natives and have com- 
pletely abandoned the beehive-shaped huts. On this particular occasion every Pygmy had been called in from the 
hunting camps in the forest, and the photograph shows the most important men and their helpers with whom I 
made arrangements for assistance in the expedition’s work 


To celebrate great success in hunting, Pygmies often visit the settlements of the tall Negroes who entertain 
them according to prevailing customs. In this Makere village they hs selected a shady nook in a banana 
grove from which they sally forth for an occasional dance, even a mother with her tiny baby (right center) tak- 
ing part. As a rule Pygmies dance singly, the men and women frequently forming separate groups, but there is 
little social convention among them ; 


mat) 


\ 


NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION 


majority of Pygmies from the tall Negroes 
ean be stated, and it is doubtful if physical 
traits have at any previous period been 
more uniformly pronounced. Not all 
Pygmies are so much smaller in size as to 
be readily distinguished from other Af- 
ricans, and in the main they are not shorter 
legged nor have they longer arms than the 
forest Negroes. Not all of them are repre- 
sentative of the strongly prognathous type, 
and a projecting monkey-like snout, with 
chin nearly obliterated, is an individual fea- 
ture with some Bantus in most of these 
regions. The Pygmies are not the only 
African race showing the flattened, broad- 
winged nose, which, lacking a bridge, sets off 
still more sharply a well-rounded or receding 
forehead. Their alertness, due to peculiari- 
ties of hunting in the forest, has impressed 
upon their physiognomy distinctive features, 
which, together with a generally long, con- 
vex upper lip, are sufficiently characteristic 
—although more often it is scanty attire 
and lack of body care which distinguish 
them from the tall Negroes. With good 
reason others have mentioned the “unsteady 
eyes with the brutal glare,” causing an un- 
couth, indeseribably strange expression. 

Perhaps too much stress has been put by 
various writers upon the color of the skin, 
which varies from black to dirty yellowish 
brown or reddish yellow, these and inter- 
mediate shades being as common among 
neighboring tall Negroes as among Pygmies. 
Forest tribes, however, like the Bandaka, 
Mobali, Mongelima, Makere, and Medje, as 
well as those from the plains region, the 
Mangbetu, Azande, and Abarambo, con- 
trast with the uniformly dark Nilotics. 
Pygmies’ lips are dark and the pigmenta- 
tion often extends to the gums, but the 
undersurfaces of both hands and feet are 
as light as in other Negro races. Even al- 
binos occur, although they seem more nu- 
merous among the tall Negroes; at Poko, 
in the Bomokandi district, more than a 
dozen of them lived within a short distance 
of the Post. 

Pygmies are hairier on the body than East 
African types, but the West African Ne- 
groes whom we saw, especially part Nu- 
bians, like the Mangbetu, Azande, and many 
forest tribes, have even longer beards and 
mustaches, and more hair on chest and 
limbs; they also show the oft-mentioned 
“Janugo” or body down. Undoubtedly hair- 


703 


iness is more usual with Pygmies, but 
among all males in these regions it seems 
to be rather an individual character, as 
with white men. The scalp hair varies just 
as in neighboring tribes, forming a thick 
felt-like cap of kinky black hair or, more 
rarely, dense patches and small, bare, mean- 
dering trails. A few Pygmies have hair of 
a distinctly reddish brown color, a feature 
not uncommon among the Negroes of the 
northeastern Congo basin. 


Habits and Superstitions of the Pygmies; 
Relations with the Tall Negroes 


The dusty, unkempt tufts of hair, not 
more than two inches long, are usually mat- 
ted, and palm oil is more likely to be used 
for gustatory delights than to give gloss 
to the hair. Many Pygmies, however, favor 
the elaborate common in 
countries of Mangbetu culture. Illness and 
death are the sword of Damocles held sus- 
pended by intense superstition. A shaved 
head, especially in women, is a sign of 
despair the cut locks are 


hairdresses so 


mourning. In 
wantonly thrown in the forest trails, and al- 
though one may walk upon them with im- 
punity, to pick them up would bring worse 
grief than that of the bereaved. At all 
other times, however, a single hair in the 
possession of an enemy gives him power to 
turn upon the original owner all the evil 
that witchcraft holds. No wonder that 
every particle from the body, a single hair 
or the parings of a finger nail, is carefully 
concealed or burned in the forest! 

speaking of bygone days 
reckon time by reference to memorable in- 
cidents in their lives, such as floods, wars, 
and good fortune, and extent of time, of 
course, is not calculated in years. The 
aged, far more numerous among this kindly 
little people than among other Negroes, are 
highly respected, and many must be 70 or 
80 years old, since in several camps we 


Pygmies in 


found four generations happily performing 
their Throughout the 
region a beard with even a few grizzled 
strands entitles one to authority, and near 
Avakubi the fame of a tottering Pygmy 
was surely vested in the seven-inch growth 
framing his wrinkled face. 

It is marvelous how successfully the 
Pygmy has fitted himself to the complexity 
of conditions among the more powerful 
with strife he has 


respective duties. 


Negro races, whom in 


704 NATURAL HISTORY 


somewhat the relations of the scalp-hunting — stood 


Indian to the home-seeking white man. 


In Darkest Africa weaklings have always 


been mercilessly pounced upon and either 


killed or enslaved. But it must be under- 


More than any other Negro, the Pygmy, with his freedom un- 
challenged, proves himself keen, fearless, and full of verve. But mark 
when he is confronted by a strange adventure. Posing with their 
trophy, the hero and his friend have listened to the camera shutter’s 
ominous click. They consider this their lucky day for they rise 
unharmed from the ordeal of being photographed, more convinced than 
ever that the white man’s weapons miss their aim 


Pygmies are the children of the forest, awed by its mysteries, 


which their own superstitions foster and increase. Numerous dances, 
carried on as a rule at twilight, serve manifold purposes, most often 
to do honor to good spirits or to propitiate those believed to be op- 
posed to them; but whatever the occasion, gayety usually dominates 


that among the tall 


basic features in 


Negro races 


where cannibalism had become one of the 


the maintenance of so- 


ciety—however strange that may sound— 
men of extraordinary courage and cunning, 


like the 
alone or in troops could 


Pygmies, who 


be relied on as_ snipers, 
became in the forest re- 
gions one of the leading 
factors of power among 
the Bantu chiefs. 

On the other hand, in 
the open warfare of the 
plains area, by the very 
nature of things the Pyg- 
mies were of little impor- 
tance. 
Schweinfurth, Junker, and 
to the great 
numbers of dwarfs in for- 


From reports by 
Casati as 


mer years, it is clear that 
relatively recent invasious 
of the fertile outskirts of 
the forest by the Nubian- 
ized element, the Azande 
and Mangbetu, must have 
caused the rapid decima- 
tion of the tiny people. 
Old Akenge, the great 
chief of the southernmost 
Azande near Poko, proudly 
related to me how for 
years, before the advent 
of the Belgians, instead of 
hunting game for the 
usual store of meat, they 
had cleared the country of 
Pygmies. Secrecy and si- 
lence prevailed, and under 
cover of night they would 
hang around the camps of 
the unsuspecting dwarfs 
strong nets ordinarily des- 
tined to capture the larger 
antelope, and suddenly 
pouncing upon the little 
fellows, they would drive 
them into the ambuscade 
and spear them, entangled 
and helpless, ike game! 
The intricate relations 
of Pygmies with the tall 
Negroes are much the 
same everywhere. A super- 
ficial observer might call 


The whir of a Pygmy’s arrow is the crowning step in the pursuit of a victim, be it man or beast. In the 
forest consummate skill does not depend upon shooting at great distances, but on the ability to steal up under 
the wind, unheard, unseen, and never miss the fleeting chance Even among Pygmies there are only a few who 
have the patience, daring, and energy for such accomplishment 


No frenzied display marks the customary dances, where measured steps aré accompanied by weird, reiterated 
songs 4nd monotonous refrains. The din of the drum, beaten nervously, and of the rattles, shaken with much 
skill, sounds above the wild outbursts of the leaders who spur their audience to continued efforts Men, women 
and children show keen delight as they rhythmically move in the dance, but obstreperous youngsters. satisfied 
only witl in extra wild frolic often break awa from the formal circle 


705 


706 NATURAL 
them vassals, but as a matter of fact, they 
enjoy the independence of the irresponsible. 
Nobody holds them in high esteem, nor yet 
treats them with absolute contempt. Their 
natural vindictiveness and ability both to 
retaliate and instantly shift to safer places, 
make Acknow- 
ledged dexterity and intelligence in outwit- 
ting the foe are the secrets of their con- 
tinued existence, for the Negro is inclined to 


them redoubtable enemies. 


respect this obscure power as much as he 
does brute strength. Had they any griey- 
ances they were mostly settled by a single 
arrow, successfully forth the 
revengeful hand. 


sent from 
They never cared to feast on their human 
victims, who among cannibalistic Bantus 
became the rightful spoils of war. Con- 
sidering that Pygmies usually adopted the 
customs of their neighbors, it speaks in 
their favor that they were the only race in 
the forest not habitually involved in the 
terrible practice of cannibalism. True 
children of the forest, success in the chase 
satisfied their craving for meat. <A_ sin- 
cere fellowship among themselves did away 
with the of tribal 
warfare, yet they were ever ready to ward 
off attack. They have been the losing minor- 
ity—never masters, and yet never slaves. 
Continued hunting has taught the Pygmy 
to be as quick as lightning. Swift of foot, 
brave and fearless, he succeeds where others 
face defeat. He rather eludes than braves 
his foe, and though he chafes under dis- 
appointment as much as the tall Negro, he 
shows greater patience and determination. 
Time being an unimportant element, he 
waits for a fair chance to slay his enemy, 
man beast. 


miseries and _ horrors 


or His eagerness to protect 
himself is akin to the terror of a hunted 
animal; and when cornered he, too, fights to 
the finish. 

In spite of his wonderful specialization 
in hunting, which with the Pygmies varies 
as much individually and is equally subject 
to hero worship as unusual excellence with 
other peoples, the Pygmy lacks initiative to 
a very marked degree. Taken out of his 
sphere, where though poor and shiftless as a 
Bohemian he knows he is a dominating 
factor, he rapidly becomes weak and waver- 
ing, not even able to escape degeneracy. 

Tribal marks are a means of identification 
among Congo natives comparable with uni- 
forms of soldiers in civilized countries, and 


LS OVA 


that these and other decorations have deep 
Significance for Pygmies is proved by 
their general adoption as recorded by all 
observers. Filed teeth, a circular block of 
ivory in the upper lip, elaborate tattoos, a 
perforated concha, and a bone crosswise 
through the nose are in favor according to 
tribal Beads, bracelets, an- 
klets and leglets of iron or brass, amulets, 
and ornate hairdresses mark the fashion; 
moreover all decorative attempts the 
Pygmy is a poor imitator of the tall Negro. 


connections. 
in 


Language of the Pygmies; Food, and Home 


Time and again explorers have had the 
excitement of thinking that they had dis- 
covered a real Pygmy idiom, which, they 
hoped, might help solve the problem of 
racial affiliations. But now it is an estab- 
lished fact that Pygmies today have no 
language of their own. They always speak 
the tongue of the neighboring agricultural 
tribes. Very often they may use, out of 
sheer sort of jargon which 
sounds hke a different language. But when 
interrogated, they speak more distinetly, 
and it is discovered that two or three well- 
known dialects have been mingled indis- 
criminately. May not the curious clicking 
sounds, believed by some to denote Bush- 
man affinities, have had their origin in 
the necessity for communicating during 
hunting, when oral language would betray 
their presence to wary game? 

In these tropics of uniform climate, prob- 
lems of housing and clothing seldom force 
themselves on the attention, and the Pygmy’s 
foremost occupation centers in food, for on 
a well-fed body all passions and pleasures 
depend. They hunt to live, at dull times 
confident of future plenty, and during 
abundance, reénacting the story of the car- 
cass over which the vultures fight and the 
hyenas yow! and laugh. Although not epi- 
cures, they like a variety of food. Hunting 
falls to the lot of the men, fishing and the 
gathering of various tidbits to that of 
women and children. Mushrooms, yams, 
snails, and caterpillars are stewed in palm 
oil, and termites, wild honey, bee grubs, 
kola nuts, and fruits of rubber vine are 
welcome relishes. 

Once in a while Pygmies may have shot 
an arrow into a neighbor’s fine bunch of 
bananas to claim it as their own, or de- 
posited a proportionate amount of meat in 


laziness, a 


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710 NATURAL 
exchange for what they took from the plan- 
tations, but today most Pygmies bring their 
goods to the villages of the tall Negroes 
and with little serious altercation barter for 
mere trifles until darkness puts them to 
rout. The meat, medicine plants, fibers, 
and other products of the forest gathered 
by the Pygmies are gladly exchanged for 


plantains, manioc, and maize. Plantain 
cider or palm wine gives them too the ex- 
hilaration enjoyed in their dances. Honest 


among themselves, they nevertheless appreci- 
ate the outwitting 
others, in complete disregard of principles 


cleverness involved in 
of fair play. 

Primarily hunters, they continually shift 
camps to obtain the best hunting 
grounds. The site, old or new, is always 
cleared in the high-lying, open forest, near 
one of the numerous clear brooks; huts are 
either built beforehand, or old ones are 
satisfy their meager 
Every new 


their 


quickly restored to 
needs for housing comforts. 
trail means new joy. Indeed, the nomad’s 
life is easy, Pygmy women are not fettered 
hard work at home, and _ household 
Knives and pieces of bark 
and as the 


by 
articles are few. 
‘cloth receive first attention, 
mother starts on her way she hoists a tiny 
child astride her waist, where he sits grin- 
ning with delight although the narrow sup- 
porting strap mercilessly indents his flesh. 
Another woman loads on her back bunches of 
plantains, manioc, and maize, surmounted by 
a pot, and fastens to her arm a sleeping mat, 
a calabash, and perhaps an old basket. Mor- 
tar and pestle, ax, horn, rattle and a drum 
for merrymaking fall to the share of the 
boys and girls. In single file they set out, a 
youth leading, and one or two able-bodied 
men bringing up the rear. With a dagger 
tucked in the belt, a quiver of wooden or 
iron-tipped, poisoned arrows suspended from 
the shoulder, they thread their way, with 
bow and two or three arrows in the hand 
always ready for instant action. Under 
care of the old, an ember is carried from 
camp to camp to perpetuate their fire, said 
to be obtained when strokes of lightning set 
aflame the gigantic trees—although Pygmies 
living in the plains are well acquainted with 
the art of making fire. 

The silence of the march along the trail 
is broken by the yelps of the dog, which, 
raised to be eaten, has become nevertheless 
a highly prized helper in the daily raids on 


HISTORY 
game. Indeed a good hunting dog in some 
regions is gladly accepted in payment for a 
wife. The place of the dog in hunting is 
peculiar. At the time he is started on a 
fresh scent a large wooden clapper is put 
around his neck. The noise of this clapper 
as the dog routs the game gives the master 
in ambush assurance that his arrow has a 
chance to hit the mark. If the dog returns 
to camp with clanking bell, all know from 
afar the jubilant news. Or should the dog 
be led astray in the heat of the chase the 
noise of the clapper makes his recovery 
easy. 

In the forest, trapping and still-hunting 
are methods equally in favor. The slaying 
of a leopard near our camp on the Nepoko 
River—a leopard which had brought grief 
upon the by the chief’s 
daughter and two other women—justified 
the Pygmy’s reputation. Suddenly the beat- 
ing of gongs roused the whole neighborhood 
and a. throng of exuberant natives outdid 
themselves to welcome the hero. He hap- 


village killing 


. pened to be a master of mimicry and by 


gesture and a few, clear, short phrases 
vividly pictured the course of the hunt. 
Deep in the recesses of the forest, on the 
trail leading to a brook, the leopard had 
devoured a small antelope, and then had 
gained its lair. Our hunter found it asleep 
on a low-hanging branch in dense foliage. 
He roused it by the splash of a stone flung 
into the water. With the whir of an ar- 
row—and a gigantic leap of the spotted 
beast—the leopard’s last struggle began. 
There were a few moaning roars, and then 
the silence of death betokened Ngalima’s 
success; danger lurks no more on that path. 
With the conclusion of the pantomime, the 
rejoicing and dancing of the crowd con- 
tinued until late into the night. 

Although the privilege of chiefs to sit 
upon a leopard’s hide makes such a trophy 
theirs by right, our gifts of beads, copper 
wire, and indigo cloth were considered a 
fair exchange. The meat, also the lumps 
of fat, a powerful, rejuvenating medicine 
greater in value than all else, of course 
became the hunter’s prize. But what price- 
less treasure can be hidden in the leopard’s 
heart which the Pygmy hunter has so eagerly 
claimed? We were soon to see, for, frantic- 
ally yelling and dancing about, he waved 
in his hand the iron point of his own fatal 
arrow, which had been snapped off from the 


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NATURAL 
shaft in the leopard’s struggle. Twice be- 
fore it had pierced the hearts of enemics, 
and with the joyful grin of a devil he 
claimed that no foe of his could escape that 
magic dart. 

Pygmies in the Ituri region do not often 
try to kill elephants with their arrows,— 
although a single poisoned arrow might fell 
an elephant. Instead, they eagerly find the 
site where through their cunning even this 
mighty beast will meet his fate. A huge 
section of tree trunk bearing a spear at 
one end is hoisted to a branch forty feet 
above the ground. Hidden in the entan- 
gling maze the lightly balanced truncheon 
betrays no danger. But a slight touch on 
the tiny unobtrusive vine connected with the 
release and stretched across the trail, will 
send the immense, armed weight crashing 
down upon the unsuspecting victim. 

Or they locate the habitual resting places 
of solitary elephants and report their find 
to the tall forest Negroes, who then creep 
up on the tuskers and with a rush drive a 
broad, sharp-edged spear into the base of 
the trunk and quick as a flash fall back into 
the protecting jungle. The death of the 
elephant ensues from loss of blood within a 
few hours. But should the wound be slight, 
Pygmies, loath to abandon the prize, fol- 
low the victim for days, shooting poisoned 
arrows in an attempt to blind the great 
beast, and finally spear him at a propitious 
moment. 

In testing their marksmanship a squash 
seven inches in diameter which I used, 
aroused their derision, and at a distance of 
forty yards not one of a dozen volunteers 
failed to send his wooden arrow through the 
target. At sixty yards, however, they asked 
for iron-pointed arrows to withstand the 
strong wind.1 

All Pygmies, however much they may 


1 Throughout the practice, a young Pygmy had 
amused the crowd by mimicking the _ sharp- 
shooters. When asked to show his skill as a 
marksman he preferred to imitate the sufferings 
of an elephant wounded by arrows. With stiff- 
ened legs, and back in horizontal position, he 
made his arms serve as forelimbs—sometimes as 
ears—and with the help of his bow represented 
che trunk. At moments he was pathetically slow 
and at other times the eye could hardly follow 
his movements. Then taking the part of a dui- 
ker, he drew himself together, arched his back, 
tripped along for a few paces, and stopped sud- 
denly, a splendid take-off of their peculiar, ner- 
vous movements. At twenty yards from the 
squash target he suddenly stood up and hit the 
mark, a feat announced with a savage yell and a 
loud thwack upon his forearm. 

In the afternoon the little fellow admirably im- 


HISTORY 


wander in ‘hunting, have a more or less 
permanent home near the settlements of 
agricultural Negroes with whom they are 
connected. Fifty or a hundred may live to- 
gether under a leader, benefiting by such 
unity, although occasional friction is un- 
avoidable between groups serving under dif- 
ferent Bantu chiefs. Each man claims one 
or two wives—three is the exception—and 
the great fondness for children is shown by 
the burdening of childless women with the 
drudgery, whereas mothers are treated with 
comparative consideration, 

Old, grizzly-haired men, who held honors 
as chiefs in their youth, relinquish these 
honors apparently with no feeling of bitter- 
ness. They spend much time cheerfully 
helping to educate the children. The sub- 
jects of the tales told to the young are the 
spirits hidden in mysterious forests and the 
unknown dangers lurking in the jungle; and 
they encourage their young admirers to 
make traps, shoot arrows, and to wrestle. 

Chieftainship among the Pygmies is 
generally considered hereditary, as among 
their neighbors, but without doubt the right 
to the dignity of chief would be of no avail 
could the claimants not back it with a muscu- 
lar frame and cunning enough to stamp them 
as men most capable of keeping the wolf 
from the door; only thus can they preside 
over the destinies of these small and scat- 
tered communities. 

No time-honored clearing in the center of 
the village has been set aside for their de- 
liberations. Nor are there the dignity and 
order so common with the Bantu, whose 
auguries, however, the Pygmies use during 
palavers. Indeed, the Pygmy councils, from 
which the women are excluded, are only the 
stormy outbreaks of a vociferous, gesticu- 
lating crowd. When. the commotion has 
finally subsided, a few may still dispute the 


itated an official, taking especial advantage of the 
latter’s habit of accentuating his instruct ons with 
peculiar, abrupt gestures. When I asked him to 
mimic me he grinned happily. During the fore- 
noon I had taken a number of photographs and 
my tripod camera was still standing in the shade. 
Without injury to the instrument he mimicked my 
every movement with just enough exaggeration to 
make everyone laugh. Finally he indicated that 
the ‘“‘evil eye had seen well’’—and now came the 
climax to the performance. The Pygmy he had 
pretended to photograph, instead of unconcernedly 
walking away, dropped to the ground, illustrating 
the native superstition that the ‘big evil eye” of 
the camera causes death. A block of salt laid 
on the ‘‘dead’”’ man’s stomach instantly resuscitated 
him and the two entertainers walked off joyously, 
but only after the clown had received a like re- 
ward. 


NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION 713 


chief’s dictum, which nevertheless is exe- 
cuted with expedition. Especially is the 
signal to clear out from camp obeyed with 
incredible celerity and 
Not a sign indicates their whereabouts, and 
more surprising still is the return, when 
they suddenly swarm in from every side. 


uncanny — silence. 


Pygmies have generally been considered 
shy, and except in a few regions they have 
been unwilling to come in numbers into gov- 
ernment stations. In many skirmishes and 
in actual warfare they often turned the tide 
of battle for the Bantus by their unfailing 
aim as snipers. In the palavers ensuing, 
the tall Negroes were only too glad to un- 
load on the dwarfs the responsibility for 
loss of life and wrongdoing. 

Years of trials 
finally resulted in better relations between 


and tribulations have 


the Pygmies and the administrative officials. 
Far from being indolent and evasive, they 
have proved intelligent and willing to give 
up their nomadie life. 
that the government 
extended them freedom and equality with 
other 


As soon as they felt 
convineed 3elgian 


natives, their villages and _ planta- 
tions looked in no wise different from those 
of the tall Negroes. They adopted the ob- 
long type of hut, had their own blacksmiths, 
and the women had long ago learned to make 
and wickerwork, and _ to 


pottery perform 


other “household duties”—which include the 
clearing of roads leading to their settle- 
ments. From the small, irresponsible human 
devil that used to roam about aimlessly in 
the moisture-laden forests of Central Africa 
to this benevolent little gnome and respon- 


sive citizen of our day is a mighty stride. 


Pygmies continually shift their camps in search of the best hunting grounds. The nomad’s life 


is easy. 


There are few household goods to be moved. 


Some of the women carry the supplies of food 


with the cooking pot, and the sleeping mat; the boys and girls are intrusted with ax, horn, rattle, 
and drum; while the mother hoists the smallest child astride her waist where he is happy although the 
supporting strap may mercilessly indent his flesh. 

Throughout heathen Africa motherhood is regarded as a special blessing. Among people so de- 
voted to hunting as the Pygmies, sturdy manhood becomes all important; yet even so, girls are wel- 
comed with greater joy than boys. Women, indeed, are the sole external expression of prosperity and 
wealth in these regions, and the relatively small number of wives the Pygmies own stamps them as 
paupers in the eyes of their agricultural neighbors 


Photograph by H. C. Crampton 

Mt. Roraima, the highest point of British Guiana, is a sandstone plateau eight miles long rising 

on perpendicular cliffs, down which tumble numerous cascades from the miniature lakes on its 

weathered top. British Guiana may be roughly divided into two low belts near the coast, and a 

mountainous interior for the most part heavily forested—except for certain grassy savannahs such 

as Shown in the photograph. At the very foot of Roraima rain falls almost every day, accompanied 

by heavy winds. Here giant trees of the jungle give place to low gnarled forms with ferns and 
mosses in dripping festoons on every branch 


Residential section of Georgetown with the governor's “‘palace’’ in the left background. Nearly 
every house is surrounded by trees and gardens giving the city a forested appearance from a distance. 
The flatness of the horizon of the coastal plain is noticeable in the skyline. In the foreground can be 
seen one of the open trenches of the city’s sewerage system along the side of the street 


Ho 


A Real El Dorado 


BRITISH GUIANA POSSESSES NATURAL RESOURCES OF VITAL 
IMPORTANCE WHICH NOW LIE DORMANT 


By WILLIAM 


Illustrations from photographs by 


HE people of the United States are 

steadily awakening to the possibilities 

that are offered them for an increased 
commerce with South America. Reports 
come in, now and then, from various places; 
some of them say that Rio de Janeiro is to 
be the coming trade center of the continent, 
while others assert that Buenos Aires will 
rise more quickly in response to the com- 
merece of the United 
States. 


a straight line from 


If we draw 


any part of the 
Atlantic coast of 
North America, say 


from New York, to 
South America, 
find that it brings 
us to one of the 
three Guianas, either 


we 


French, Dutch, or 
British. These are 
our nearest South 


American neighbors. 

British Guiana is 
the most westward, 
and the largest of 
the three Guianas. 
It extends along the 
seacoast for 270 
into the interior, and is approximately 90,000 


guide in the interior * 


miles, reaches 500 miles 


square miles in area. The topography of 
the country divides it into three natural 


regions: 1, the low coastal lands of marine 
alluvium rising gradually from the sea and 
extending from ten to forty miles inland; 
2, sandy and elayey country of sedentary 
soil, with forests, swamps, and sand dunes, 
rivers and 


and traversed by a network of 


their numerous tributaries in which occur 
the 


region, the eastern part of which is forested, 


many rapids and falls; 3, mountainous 


and the southwest, an extensive area of flat 


1 The forest raises his benah or shed 


Indian 


The forest Indian is seldom used as a laborer 


because of his small stature, but makes an excel- 
lent river-man and carrier and an indispensable 


anywhere in 
wife’s cassava field, and then spends his days in pursuit of tropical game. 


J. LAVARRE 


the Author 


grass lands elevated three thousand feet 
above sea level. 

Fach of these natural regions has its own 
special resources. The coastal belt, swept 
by the northeast trade winds, is excellent for 
agricultural and pastoral pursuits. The sec- 
ond and third belts are covered by an exu- 
berant primeval forest, and are rich in min- 
eral resources. On the vast savannahs ex- 
cellent pasturage and 
sugar lands may be 
found. 


the 


sritish Gui- 


Looking at 
map of 
the 
thing about it is the 


ana, striking 
network of rivers by 
which it is traversed. 
These at present fur- 
nish the only means 
of access to the in- 
terior. The western 
part of the country 
is occupied by a cen- 
flat- 
mountains 


tral mass of 
topped 
forming a series of 
terraces and _ pla- 
Mt. Roraima, 
the highest of these, about 8500 feet, has a 


flat, 


teaus. 


nearly grass-covered twelve 


top of 
square miles. The northwest portion is rich 
in gold deposits, and recently diamonds have 
been located in paying quantities along the 
upper Mazaruni River 

Nearly the whole of the civilized popula- 
tion of the colony is located along the coast 
and on the lower banks of the larger rivers. 
Here, also, are located the present-day in- 
The 
cane, and the making of rum and molasses, 
the 
coastal 


dustries. raising of rice and sugar 


are the chief occupations of 


people. 


Coconuts thrive well on the lands, 


the bush, makes a small clearing for his 


It is estimated that 15,000 


aborigines are scattered through the Guiana forest, a remnant of the Indians whom the Spanish vainly 


attempted to enslave. The famous 


cannibals of the coast, 


the Caribs who gave their name to the sea, 


are virtually extinct after years of warfare against the white man. 


~“] 
St 


716 


The late Colonel Roosevelt in 1915 visited the 
Tropical Research Station of the New York Zoo- 
logical Society at Kalacoon and was greatly im- 
pressed by the possibilities of Guiana, particu- 
larly its forest resources. The cultivation of 
rubber is gaining in importance each year. The 
establishment of experiment plantations proves 
that Para rubber will grow vigorously in almost 
any situation outside the flat coastal lands 


The Botanical Garden in Georgetown contains 
an experiment station where scientists may come 
from any part of the world for study of the 


tropical flora in its natural habitat. The Garden 
serves also as the main park of Georgetown 
where the populace promenades on Sundays and 
holidays. The photograph shows two picturesque 
travelers’ palms in the Garden 


especially where the soil is sandy, and a con- 
siderable expansion of this cultivation is 
taking place. There are large areas of low- 
lying lands on which coffee grows splendidly, 
but the cultivation of this plant has been 
gradually abandoned through lack of suf- 


ficient labor. The establishment of experi- 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


mental stations has demonstrated that 
Para vigorously in almost 


every situation in which it has been tried 


rubber grows 
outside the flat coastal region. It is esti- 
mated that there are 9,000,000 acres of ac- 
cessible land, the larger part of which is 
eminently suitable for the cultivation of 
Para rubber. lLime-growing is still in the 
experimental stage; this fruit is at present 
growing excellently on the coast of the Es- 
sequibo River. There are also large areas 
of coastal lands that are well adapted to 
pastoral pursuits, but lack of proper drain- 
age causes them to be inundated during the 
rainy seasons, January, February, and May, 
June, July. 

Georgetown, the capital and only large 
city, is situated on the coast at the mouth of 
the Demerara River in the form of a rect- 
angle two miles long and one mile deep, 
and is geometrically laid out in wide streets, 
running at right angles to each other. 

When entering the harbor on my last trip 
to the colony, I was welcomed by the bray- 
ing of an ass. The memory of that greet- 
ing voice still lingers with me, and, together 
with a recollection of open sewers flowing 
through the streets, it is one of the quaintly 
uncommonplace experiences that a visitor to 
the colony may have ere he departs. 

Being at sea level, the city is protected by 
a wide sea wall, constructed by Dutch en- 
gineers during the last few years. Here, in 
the late afternoon, is the city’s only rendez- 
vous, and it becomes a promenade where 
the natives gather and listen to a rather ego- 
tistic bandmaster conduct his Negro-Hindu 
band through seldom recognizable variations 
of well-known compositions. 

The city boasts of only a few luxuries,— 
an up-to-date ice plant, necessitated, most 
probably, by the inhabitants’ ever present 
desire for strong and cooling drinks, a 
single track electric street railway, which 
has to wage a continual battle with a multi- 
tude of small and heavily laden donkey carts 
for the right of way, and a large and beau- 
tiful Botanical Garden and Experiment 
Station, where the tropical flora grows in 
lavish variety and abundance and is closely 
studied by scientists from many lands; it is 
here that men have learned many of the new 
things related to tropical vegetation. In 
1917 a commodious moving-picture theater 
was built where one might go three nights a 
week and look upon heart-rending, blood- 


A REAL EL 


eurdling, or dully humorous scenes that had 
long since ceased to be appreciated in the 
United States. 

The sewerage system of the city, as I have 
hinted, is one of great simplicity. In canals 
that flow through the streets, the waste of 
the city is carried to the sea, where at low 
tide it is emptied. When the tide begins to 
rise, the canal gates are closed, often caus; 
ing the canals to overflow into the streets. 
These canals, varying from small trenches to 
deep streams, are crossed by arched bridges 
over each of which there are signboards pro- 
hibiting fishing,—but either the natives can- 
not read or they are too hungry to obey an un- 
enforced law, for coolies, with feet dangling 
a few inches above the dirty water, may 
often be seen, sitting on the edge awaiting a 
bite at their lines. 

The 60,000 inhabitants of the city make a 
very cosmopolitan population indeed. Ne- 
groes from the West Indies compose most 
of it, with a scattering of native Africans 
slavery 
times. India to 
work on the rice and sugar plantations, are 


and their descendants, relics of 


Coolies, indentured from 
conspicuous everywhere, dressed most often 
in their native attire, making the tourist 
feel quite as though he were not in South 
America but in India. Under this system of 
indenture these coolies sign themselves into 
a sort of conventionalized slavery for a pe- 
riod of five years, for which they are paid, 
sometimes, seven shillings a week. When this 
term of labor has expired, they must reside 
five years longer in the colony in order to 
be transported back to India at one half 
fare. By the time they have remained this 
period, though, all their money has _ been 
spent, and they usually either become pau- 
pers or de odd work here and there until 
they die, many of them from homesickness 
and disease. Portuguese and Chinese keep 
the small shops; Chinese keep general stores, 
but the 
other liquors. 
gin shop he is considered well off by his 


Portuguese specialize in gin and 
When a Portuguese owns a 
admirers! Europeans carry on the devel- 
opment of the colony. 

Along the coast on either side of George- 
town are scattered many small settlements 
among which New Amsterdam, Berbice, and 
3artica are the more important. Irom New 


Amsterdam and Berbice stretch numerous 


rice and sugar plantations. Bartica, a vil- 


lage with but one street and twenty inhabi- 


~? 
hams, 
-~2 


DORADO 


———— 
oF 


we 


— 


AL 


The chief industry of Guiana is the raising of 
sugar cane on the large plantations of the allu 
vial coast plain. Transportation is largely by 
water. Numberless rivers and streams traverse 
the whole colony while the coastal flats are inter 
sected by a network of canals and ditches for 
draining off the excessive rainfall. The lower 
photograph shows the cane being deposited on a 


moving belt leading into the grinding room 


tants, is located at the junction of the Es- 


sequibo and Mazaruni rivers and is the 


“Jumping off place” where men, going into 


the interior for gold and diamonds, depart 


fare of Georgetown, the capital, port, and only large city of British 


system, and 


Market Street is the main thoroug 
Guiana. This town of about 60,000 inhabi 
supports a good electric street railway and telephone service. The harbor (to be seen on the extreme right 
background) is the most important shipping point of northern South America, exporting large quanti 

I rum, rice, and some gold and diamonds. This picture was taken Sunday morning, which accounts 


tants is relatively modern, except for its open sewerag 


deserted appearance of the street 


he sole industries of the forest region. T whole interior is at 


s Diamonds are washed vels of river beds by means of the ‘‘long tom” of the placer 
ot the gold and diamond i Guiana are still in the prospector stage and carried on to a 
tent by nomadic bands of Negroes (a description of the methods used in diamond mining in British Guiana 


AMERICAN MUSE JOURNAI now NaTuRAL History) for October, 1918, pp. 499-502 


The interior can be reached at present only by the rivers. 


prevent large boats from making the ascent. 


Photograph by A. H. Verrill 


They have many rapids in them which 


Thus it is impossible to convey the necessary material 


for mining into the interior, but some day these rapids will be utilized as an enormous source of power 


for the development of the colony, and especially 


from civilization. Near here is the penal 
settlement from which a person may easily 
escape if he prefer to face the jungle rather 
than the rock pit. Kalacoon, the biological 
station, is also within a few miles of the 
town. Here Colonel Roosevelt spent several 
sleepless nights while shooting vampire bats 
with a twenty-two caliber rifle. 

Situated as it is on the northernmost 
angle of South America, this country offers 
an immense economic opportunity to the 
United States. 


the best harbors on the continent save for 


Its capital city has one of 


the one fact that it has become clogged 


its mining industries 


somewhat by a bar of mud brought down by 
The 


authorities have made no attempt to dredge 


the Demerara and Essequibo rivers. 
it or keep it free; they have, instead, been 
content with letting ship captains try to 
evade it, or wait until high tide to permit 
their ships to pass safely over the obstrue- 
tion. Every once in a while a ship becomes 
entangled in the slimy ooze, and its exit or 
entrance from or to the country is thereby 
delayed. This harbor presents the difficulty 
of the Mississippi delta, only in a lesser de- 
gree; that has been overcome by up-to-date 


methods,—even more easily could the harbor 


A wayside Hindu market, 


though somewhat larger than the parsnip and with much thicker skin 


featuring cassavas 


parsnip-like roots 


and lemons.—Cassavas are 


Boiled whole or ground into 


a meal which is baked, to remove the poisonous hydrocyanic acid contained in the juice, they provide 


the vegetable mainstay of the natives of Guiana 


of the colony, supplemented by sweet potatoes and 


Salt fish, rice, and bananas are the other staples 


a good supply of fresh meat 


719 


ro 
(x<U 


of Georgetown be kept navigable for the 
larger vessels. 

It is true that matters have been going 
from year to year with little advance. There 
seems to be a care-free languor about the 
country. Anything for the betterment of the 
colony is all right so long as it does not re- 

Nothing like 
Some have at- 


quire much money or effort. 
enterprise is to be found. 

tributed this condition to the effects of the 
climate, but I do not believe that climatic 
conditions are wholly to blame, for England 
takes care of her African colonies with ad- 


mirable success, and climatic conditions 
there are worse by far than in British 
Guiana. 

British Guiana, from the time of Sir 
Walter Raleigh, has drawn many adven- 


A Hindu by-product of the vicious system of 
indenture—too old to work and too poor to pay 


his passage back to India. East Indians have 
been brought over since the abolition of Negro 
slavery, under agreements to labor on the rice 
and sugar plantations for five years at a stated 
wage, after which time they must remain in the 
colony for another period of five years if they 
are to be returned to India at one half fare. 
At the end of that time they usually have be- 


come paupers 


NATURAL HISTORY 


turers and promoters to her shores. Amer- 
icans too, have gone there. They have 


taken with them American capital and Amer- 
ican genius for opening up new lands, and 
have attempted whole-heartedly to place the 
colony at the head of its South American 
neighbors. But most of them were soon dis- 
couraged from further endeavors by the lack 
of friendly codperation from the British 
Guiana officials. The governor in 1917 even 
went so far as to declare that he wanted no 
American capital in the colony. It is inter- 
esting to realize that at that time the Ameri- 
can flag was flying over the Houses of Par- 
lament in London as an appreciation of the 
aid that American dollars had given in the 
war. 

American capital is certain to be en- 
couraged in British Guiana, just as British 
capital enjoys the right of investing in 
American enterprises in the United States 
and in Alaska. 
to exist, the opening up of the interior will 
follow quickly. 
wealth in itself this country will provide 
highways over which intercourse of consider- 


When such conditions come 


Besides containing much 


able commercial value may be established 
with northern Brazil, and by which Europe 
and the United States will gain access to 
large quantities and valuable 
minerals, to say nothing of the possibilities 
of agriculture and cattle raising. 

The first step toward this accession would 
be the building of a 250-mile railroad from 
Georgetown to the Brazilian frontier. This 
would mean, for one thing, that the Brazil- 
necessity are now 


of timber 


ian cattle, which by 
shipped through the Takutu and Branco 
rivers to Manaos, and thence down the Ama- 
zon, could be brought to Georgetown less 
expensively and more quickly, where they 
could be killed and their hides tanned on the 
spot, or they could be shipped on the hoof 
to the United States and Europe. 

On account of the nature of the country 
such a railroad would not be very difficult 
to build. An American company once of- 
fered to build it provided the government 
would give the company a franchise of every 
alternate mile along opposite sides of its 
course. The governor in reply said that the 
land would then be too valuable, appar- 
ently overlooking the fact that at present it 
is useless and always will be useless until 
such a railroad Good railroads 
should also be built along the coasts, con- 


is built. 


A REAL EL DORADO tal 


necting the agricultural district with the 
central city and seaport. 

Once the railroad to the Brazilian frontier 
is built, the development of the mining in- 
dustry will come in quick succession. Be- 
cause of the lack of facilities for transpor- 
tation, the necessary machinery for working a 
mine is most difficult to convey into the in- 
terior, and so no real mining has been done. 
Gold has been profitably worked by both 
placer and hydraulic mining, but the only 
attempt at getting beneath the surface, ac- 
complished in the Le Desire Diamond Mine, 
owned by Mr. Dudley P. Lewis and myself, 
was worked on a very primitive basis be- 
cause it was located nearly 250 miles in the 
interior and could be reached only by pad- 
dling up a river the course of which was filled 
with treacherous 
and whirlpools. 

Bauxite has been dis- 
covered in large quanti- 
ties; tin also has been lo- 
cated as plentiful in the 
interior, but for lack of 
transportation facilities 
nothing has been done 
with either of these ores. 
Gold and diamonds are the 
only minerals that have 
been prospected for exten- 
sively, usually by nomadic 
bands of Negroes termed 
“pork-knockers” because 
they go out supplied with 
only a little salt pork for 
food, and knock about the 
bush, hoping to stumble 
upon wealth. Even in the 
crude, meager way in 
which this sort of pros- 
pecting has been done, it 
has been a very profitable 
occupation and has yielded 
the government many thou- 
sands of dollars in royal- 
ties. The gold and dia- 
monds may be mined with 
the roughest of tools, and 
when once acquired offer 
no great problem of trans- 
portation. An ounce bot- 
tle of diamonds would be 
a small fortune to a dusky 
pork-knocker. The gold 
that occurs so_ plenti- 


rapids 


These four 


at Georgetown. 
Magazine) 


“religious” 


(Photograph used through the courtesy of 


fully in quartz is usually passed by be- 
cause of the impossibility of getting into 
the bush the crushing machinery necessary 
to extract it. The richness of the alluvial 
gold fields in this country is supposed to be 
due to the solubility of gold in the soil 
water. Mr. Harrison, geologist and general 
scientist of the colony, told me that to his 
mind, that vast interior of forest, mountains, 
and savannahs represents one of the richest 
storehouses on the South American continent. 

Its great forest, containing such valuable 
woods as greenheart, wallaba, crabwood, and 
mora, would in itself be a valuable asset. 
Greenheart makes very durable submerged 
works such as wharves, piles and docks; 
wallaba can be very easily split and is 
chiefly used for shingles; crabwood, some- 


members of the Mohammedan contingent 


were photographed while attending a Hindu ceremony. In Guiana 
the Hindus visit the Mohammedan ceremonies and vice versa, and both 
elements mutually participate in each other’s feasts. The East Indian 
immigrants keep not only their religions but also their languages and 
costumes, in this way lending a very oriental touch to the population 


Travel 


=~3 
Oo 
Cw 


times called “British Guiana mahogany,” can 
be worked into very beautiful and exception- 
ally durable furniture; mora, a hardwood, 
is chiefly used for flooring and firewood. 
These woods are of exceeding consequence. 

On the Potaro River (a 


Hssequibo), about eighty miles inland, there 


branch of the 


is the magnificent waterfall, the Kaieteur, 
with a sheer drop of about 740 feet and a 
breadth of 350 feet. 
year the water flowing over its brink at- 
tains a depth of twenty feet. This is the 
highest waterfall of any consequence that 


At some seasons of the 


has as yet been discovered, and is more than 
four times as high as our Niagara. At pres- 
ent it is inaccessible to most people, but a 
railroad could quite easily be built to it; 
this would mean the possibility of develop- 
ing a tremendous water-power station, sur- 
passing the one that is at present located on 
the brink of Niagara, and power generated 
at this place could be utilized all over the 
colony, even running the railroads and the 
mines. A resort could also be established 
here, where people worn out by living on the 
coastal lowlands, might come and _ recuper- 


NATURAL HISTORY 


ate in the scenic highlands where the air is 
cool and the water pure and clear. 

Many of these things seem visionary per- 
haps, until we realize that the building of a 
transcontinental railroad in the United States 
was considered impossible before it was ac- 
complished, and to talk about reindeer be- 
ing bred in Alaska was a subject for mirth 
ten or fifteen years ago. Today there are 
five transcontinental railroads in the United 
States, and reindeer are being bred so prof- 
itably in Alaska that reindeer meat can be 
sold throughout the northwestern states at a 
considerably cheaper rate than beef. All 
things are visionary until they are accom- 
plished, it seems. 

The late Colonel Roosevelt said in a lecture 
before the Royal Agricultural Society, on his 
last visit to British Guiana: “You have here 
a wonderful country! I can see it now, with 
homes stretching out over the savannahs and 
among the hinterlands. Set your minds to 
thinking and your hands to working and de- 
velop it!” Surely such a man as he did not 
speak idly but because he was far-seeing 
enough to realize the possibilities of Guiana. 


Photograph by H. E. Crampton 


Kaieteur Falls, set among the forested hills of the interior, make one of the chief scenic features 


of the province and the highest waterfall of any consequence as yet discovered. 


The Potaro River 


makes at this point a perpendicular drop of 740 feet, or about four times the height of Niagara, and 


continues by a series of cataracts with a farther fall of 81 feet. 


During the rainy season the stream 


is nearly 400 feet wide and carries a torrent twenty feet deep over the brink of the falls 


Birds and a Wilderness 


OBSERVATIONS OF THE EFFECT OF FOUR YEARS OF WAR ON A FERTILE 
COUNTRY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BIRD POPULATION 


By MAJOR 


ANY observers have had the oppor- 
tunity to note the effect on wild 
life of the reclamation of a wilder- 

ness, as in the clearing and cultivation of 
a forested country; but it is seldom one 
has the chance to see the change effected 
by the reverse condition—the turning of a 
fertile country into a literally howling wil- 
derness. 

Eastward from Arras stretches the once 
fertile plain of Artois, quite unlike the 
much enclosed plain of Flanders—climate, 
soil, and methods of agriculture are all dif- 
ferent. The soil, also unlike the clay of 
Flanders, is light, and underlaid in 
places with chalk. Fences and hedges there 
are none, trees scarce and, except for a few 
large parks, usually confined to the borders 
of the main roads (I am speaking now of 
conditions before the war), and the houses 
of the farmers, instead of being scattered 
over the countryside, are congested into 
small villages, usually in a hollow, some- 
what after the old Danish style one sees in 
the south of England. 

It is not a pastoral country. Cows are 
always kept in barns, therefore no fences 
are needed. Grain and beets were the prin- 
cipal crops, and the bird life was such as 
one might expect in a cultivated prairie 
country. Let me now try to describe what 
this country looked like after being fought 
over for nearly four years. 

One would expect to find a rank growth 
of weeds, volunteer crops of grain, and a 
large increase of bird life due to the cessa- 
tion of all sport—the kind of sport that 
used to kill larks and finches galore. In- 
stead, there was a rolling plain covered with 
grass, weed patches were very scarce, and 
volunteer crops had ceased to exist. The 
grass was usually short but sometimes quite 
rank in the hollows, and in many places a 
species of dewberry ran along the ground, 
fruiting plentifully. 

The trees were all gone save for a few 
splintered stubs along the highroads; the 
ruined villages, being in hollows, did not 
usually show from a little distance: here 
and there low piles of shattered bricks and 


most 


ALLAN 


Bl OORS, 2520: 


rubble indicated a village, but they were 
never a prominent feature of the landscape. 
The whole effect put one irresistibly in 
mind of our western prairies. 

Just after our first jump in August, 1918, 
the plain near Monchy-le-Preux looked 
as if a rolling stretch of virgin prairie had 
suddenly been thrown open to settlers, and 
their wagons and encampments had flooded 
the country, the horse lines of our artillery 
looked like great herds of stock, and over- 
head the sky was as blue and clear as in 
Alberta or Dakota. 

The lines of observation balloons struck 
the one incongruous note, for the circling 
planes looked lke great hawks—and the 
birds added to the resemblance. Large cov- 
eys of partridges, sometimes fifty or more, 
whirred up like prairie chickens, and skylarks 
fluttered up out of the grass like longspurs. 
On the remains of the trenches and wire en- 
tanglements were a few loose congregations 
of migrating birds, whinchats which acted 
like bluebirds, a few black redstarts with a 
similar resemblance, pipits much like our 
own pipit, and an oceasional shrike that 
might have been our own- butcher bird. 
Raptores were very scarce, there being only 
a few hovering kestrels, and in the dusk a 
bobbing Athene owl, reminding one of the 
sparrow hawks and burrowing owls seen on 
a similar prairie in America. 

The great flocks of seed-eating birds like 
finches and buntings which should have been 
in evidence were absent, with the exception 
of only a few scattered yellow buntings. 
Rooks and magpies, so common wherever 
the land is cultivated, were also absent, and 
starlings nearly so. Except partridges, all 
birds had decreased in number. 

Of mammals, hares were common and, in 
their resemblance to jack rabbits, added to 
the prairie-like aspect of the country. 
Voles swarmed—a vole plague in fact, and 
domestie cats which should have been very 
much in evidence were gone with the inhab- 


itants, although in Flanders there were 
plenty. Gas and gas shells apparently could 


not have affected the cats, for hares and 
mice showed no ill effects from the gas. 


723 


024 


Birds also do not seem to suffer from gas 
in any form. A friend who was with the 
French during a very heavy cloud-gas at- 
tack put over by the enemy, observed that the 
only birds killed were the kingfishers along 
the stream, although the gas was strong 
enough to kill cattle miles behind the lines. 

Also I failed to see a single bird victim 
of the chlorine gas attack of April, 1915. 
Up to the summer of 1918 I had invariably 
noted that birds seemed to be almost indif- 
ferent to shell fire, but now it was too much 
for even them. 

Partridges (gray, I never saw the red- 
leg) were always in evidence during our 
attacks, their little brown figures skimming 
low over the ground, silhouetted against the 
gray wall of our rolling barrage, often 
among the legs of our advancing infantry, 
and many were killed. In every case I 
found actual wounds, none seemed to be 
killed by coneussion, although this killed 
horses. With skylarks we found the same 
condition, all dead birds picked up showed 
the marks of shrapnel or fragments. 

Hares, during these periods, were also ab- 
solutely panic-struck. One jumped right 
into the arms of our general’s cook, and one 
can guess where it went after that. All 
dead ones picked up, like the birds, had 
wounds sufficient to cause death. But the 
underground mammals had the hardest time 
of all; one would have expected them to 
remain below, but the concussion must have 
been worse there, for they came to the sur- 
face during heavy cannon fire. When lying 
flat for obvious reasons, I often saw voles 
within a few inches of my eyes, and could 
take them with my hand—too paralyzed to 
move. Many were lying about dead without 
any visible wound, having died either of 
fright or concussion. 

These intervals of intense gunfire were 
only short periods, for there were none of 
the bombardments lasting for days which 
were a feature of the war before this stage. 
In the long, quiet intervals one would ex- 
pect to see more birds, but they were not 
much in evidence. 

As we neared Cambrai the country was 
more wooded, with fine large reedy meres 
near the canals. This region had been 
cleared of all its inhabitants by the Ger- 
mans on their first occupation, for a depth 
of ten miles or more. Here for four years 
there had been no cultivation, or next to 


NATURAL HISTORY 


none,—wide stretches of grassland between 
the belts of fine trees, open spaces, wood, 
and water, everything a bird would need, 
yet birds were as scarce as in the fighting 
zone, 

But once we got through this and into 
the inhabited and cultivated country, like 
magic the birds were everywhere—sparrows, 
buntings, and finches—in ropes on the tele- 
graph wires, or whirring up in great flocks 
from the stubble, chaffinches chinking from 
the wayside trees, starlings in clouds, and 
swallows circling around the church steeples 
or gliding low over the meadows, just as in 
the cultivated country behind our own lines 
on the French side. Even the ugly coal- 
mining districts had a good quota of birds, 
but the densest bird population was always 
where the land was most intensely cultivated. 

Later near Brussels we came into a cu- 
rious country largely under glass, where 
grapes were the main product; here birds 
became comparatively scarce again, even the 
adjacent beech woods had few small birds, 
but I was delighted to see bird boxes, little 
sections of hollow branches, nailed to the 
trees in many places—not near the houses 
but in out-of-the-way places. 

Wild ~~ pigeons (Columba  palumba) 
swarmed in these woods; all firearms had 
been confiscated and so the “Chasse du 
Ramier” had died out, with the result that 
the pigeons had multiplied without check. 
Flocks miles in length, resembling the old- 
time flocks of passenger pigeons, flew over 
the beech woods to their roosts. But dis- 
ease, the inevitable result of overcrowding, 
had made its appearance, and beneath every 
roost were the remains of hundreds of pi- 
geons, eaten by foxes and hawks, while 
scores of dying birds moped in the trees or 
fluttered to the ground. This disease I found 
to be well known in England—a form of 
diphtheria. 

But this is a digression and has led me 
away from the point which I wish to make— 
that absence of enemies will not by itself 
bring about a large increase of bird life, 
especially small bird life. Cultivation is the 
principal factor, coupled with adequate 
cover; when this cultivation ceases bird life 
goes. 

T would ascribe the large increase of par- 
tridges not so much to their comparative 
immunity from pursuit by man, but to the 
fact that magpies were practically absent, 


BIRDS AND A WILDERNESS 725 


and food and cover plentiful. In other 
parts of northern France, unlike England, 
the magpie is always present in numbers, 
his huge nest is always a conspicuous fea- 
ture in the tree tops along the roads, and 
partridges have small chance to rear their 
broods, and if they do, the broods are 
small. 

In the thoroughly devastated region where 
partridges were so plentiful, magpies had 
practically disappeared owing to the fact 
that there were no trees, nor even bushes, 
for them to build in. 

To recapitulate: Leaving the well-culti- 
vated country on the French side of the war 
zone with its wealth of bird life, one came 
first to a partly devastated belt about six 
miles wide where birds became scarce, only 
a few species like sparrows and starlings 
persisting in good numbers, feeding around 


our horse lines; also swallows, fairly nu- 


merous, as there were plenty of buildings 
for them to build in. I will call this six- 
mile belt A. Next, came a belt ten or 
twelve miles wide, completely devastated, B. 
Sparrows, starlings, and swallows had aban- 
doned this region; birds scarcer than in A. 
Next, was a belt on the enemy’s side like A 
of our side, with similar physical and faunal 
conditions. Farther eastward stretched a 
ten-mile belt, not devastated nor destroyed 
in any way but depopulated, except for 
soldiers’ billets, and uncultivated, with birds 
as in A, or probably a little scarcer than in 
the belt A on our side, owing to the fact 
that there was less waste of horse-feed, also 
probably because the magpie came into 
his own again in this belt. Lastly came the 
well-cultivated country that had not been 
depopulated, with birds in full strength as 
under similar conditions on the western side 


of the war zone. 


An impression of Bourlon Wood on the Artois plain during our advance of September 27, 1918. 
I ’ 

Gray partridges and hares scurried away from the rolling barrage, running panic-stricken between the 

The partridges, thanks to the evacuation of the devastated countryside 


legs of our advancing infantry. 


by their enemy the magpie, grew very numerous, t 


jut most other birds left when cultivation was inter- 


rupted. Many of the birds, hares, and field mice were killed during the shelling, but always from ac- 


tual wounds and not from the concussion or from gas. 


In a letter to the Editor Mr. Brooks comments regarding the drawing: “This is something out of 


my line—my first picture of a battle and birds. 
true enough all the same. 


Don’t use it if you have any doubts. 


It makes me laugh every time I look at it, but it is 


I might have drawn a little shrew I 


saw one particularly hectic day marching down the middle of a pavé road—midday and bright sunlight 


—his world was disintegrating” 


The New York State Wild Life Memorial to 
Theodore Roosevelt 


By CHARLES 


C. ADAMS 


Director of The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station at the New York State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse 


HE interest of the late Theodore 
in wild life was not the 
diversion of a busy man; it was one 
of his vital needs, for which he found, 
with all his extensive resources, no substi- 
tute. His strong, spontaneous interest in 
animals was of the kind that comes only 
from a man with the heart of a naturalist 
and that cannot be suppressed or pretended. 
The naturalist is generally an observer of 
live animals and of what they do. It was 
this which appealed to Roosevelt, and it is 
thus eminently fitting that the new memorial 
station, established by the legislature of 
New York in May, 1919, should be called 
“The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experi- 
ment Station.” That it should be located at 
the New York State College of Forestry 
at Syracuse, is appropriate because of what 
he, with Gifford Pinchot, did for forestry, 
and, furthermore, because in the future the 
forests are destined to be one of the main 
strongholds for the preservation of wild life 
for a democratic people. 

The public is now coming to see as never 
before the intimate for- 
estry and wild life. Forestry is no longer 
considered as solely economic in aim. It 
does not merely the growing of 
timber; it embraces the complete use of 
woodlands for public welfare, including, in 
addition to its economic returns from Jum- 
ber, grazing animals, furs, fish, and game, 
other uses—edueational, recreational, and 
scientific—-which at times may far exceed in 
social value that of the purely economic. 


Roosevelt 


relation between 


mean 


Roosevelt's Approval of the Plan 

It is significant that the present memo- 
rial is the direct outgrowth of plans pre- 
sented to Mr. Roosevelt in December, 1916, 
for the study of the natural history of 
forest wild life. He greeted the sugges- 
tions with characteristic enthusiasm and 
urged that they should be taken up “in a 
big way.” In this he clearly indicated one 
of the essentials of any worthy wild life 
memorial. The suggested memorial, in this 
way, comes very near to having his direct 
approval, and it has met with hearty com- 


726 


mendation from Lieutenant Colonel Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, who writes: “... as you 
know it was one of the subjects that were 
always uppermost in my father’s mind. I 
give my consent without reservation for the 
use of his name for this memorial.” 


The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest 
Haperiment Station 

The duties of the Roosevelt Station are 
clearly expressed by the New York law as 
follows: “To establish and conduct an ex- 
perimental station to be known as ‘The 
Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment 
Station’ in which there shall be maintained 
records of the results of the experiments and 
investigations made and research work ac- 
complished; also a library of works, . . . to- 
gether with means for practical illustration 
and demonstration, which library shall, at 
all reasonable hours, be open to the public.” 
Furthermore, the obligations of the station 
are to make “investigations, experiments, 
and research in relation to the habits, life 
histories, methods of propagation, and man- 
agement of fish, birds, game and food and 
fur-bearing animals and forest wild life.” 

Such a memorial station as is contem- 
plated by the law is unique, as no other 
similar station or institution exists in the 
United States, although of course, several 
agencies are devoted to different phases of 
the problem. It opens up a vast oppor- 
tunity for the “field naturalist” of the type 
admired by Roosevelt, and it will serve as 
a constant beacon of encouragement to 
and to ecologists whose 
ardor may have become dampened by too 
much of the atmosphere of the laboratory or 
the museum, and to others who need to renew 
their youthful enthusiasm by realizing that 
detailed field study on animals is not a tem- 
porary, rapidly passing phase of natural 
history, but a permanent, ever persisting 
one which will continue to maintain a de- 
mand for well-trained field naturalists. 

A wild life library of the nature sug- 
gested by the law will be equally unusual, 
as no such special research library along 
these lines has been assembled in America. 


young students, 


Aes 


AG, 


’ 


ys) 
A, 


COUNTRY 


F OUR 


UABLE ASSETS OF 


VAL 


128 


A vast number of books on fish, birds, mam- 
mals, game, and other aspects of the nat- 
ural history of wild life (including many 
government reports) lie unused, or little 
used, in innumerable private libraries. 
These might well be concentrated for the 
purpose of this station. The scientific 
publications of the station are intended to 
cover every phase of the forest wild life 
problem, and important manuscripts are 
already on hand. 


Investigations at the Roosevelt Wild 
Life Station 

The variety of investigations which may 
be undertaken appropriately at such a sta- 
tion, is numerous indeed, including the en- 
tire gamut of activities of forest wild life. 
Practical consideration, however, will prob- 
ably limit the work of the station to a 
few, relatively, of the more important and 
urgent lines. As examples of these the fol- 
lowing may be given: 

Ecology and Life Histories.—The ecology 
of wild life, or the relation of these crea- 
tures to their complete environment, must 
always remain a fundamental problem in 
dealing with wild animals. There is urgent 
need of a great increase in our knowledge 
of the ecology and life histories of practi- 
cally all wild life. This is true not only 
of the larger game and fur-bearing animals, 
but also of great numbers of birds and fish, 
even of the common kinds which have long 
been known. Reflect for a moment upon the 
great number of men who have devoted a 
vast amount of time to trout fishing, and 
it seems almost incredible at first thought 
that there never has been made an exhaus- 
tive, scientific study of a trout stream in 
America! It is hoped that the trout prob- 
lem will be made one of the specialties of 
this station, as it is certainly one of the wild 
life problems of first importance. The whole 
subject of the post-hatchery care of fish is 
another instance of an extensive field in need 
of systematic study, and furthermore, prog- 
ress in stocking streams, lakes and ponds 
must await studies of this character, 

The fur-bearing animals of the forest 
have in the past received but little special 
study, and their relation to game vermin is 
another subject demanding detailed atten- 
tion. The Virginia deer and the beaver are 
the best known of the larger forest animals, 
and yet even today we have no thorough 


NATURAL HISTORY 


study of the influence of a “buck law” ex- 
periment, conducted as a scientific problem, 
and as contrasted with the usual exciting 
and emotional display which attends the dis- 
cussion of this subject among sportsmen. 
In New York State the beaver question is 
one which will soon demand careful con- 
sideration if a sane policy toward these 
animals is to be maintained. Reliable in- 
formation, and not general impressions and 
vague imaginings, is what is needed if wild 
life is to get a square deal from man. 

Physiology and Disease.—There are many 
problems in connection with the food hab- 
its, food, and nutrition of wild life await- 
ing investigation. Domestic animals have 
received much attention in this respect, but, 
as wild life belongs to the public, it has 
been to a corresponding degree neglected. 
The control of alge and other aquatic 
plants in relation to fish and the pollution 
of streams is another example of these wild 
life problems which only a trained physi- 
ologist or ecologist can solve. Closely re- 
lated to the physiological problems are those 
dealing with the diseases of wild life. These 
are legion. The diseases of fish have, in par- 
ticular, been sadly neglected, in spite of the 
fact that serious outbreaks frequently oc- 
cur. As a rule the diseases of most kinds 
of wild life attract but little attention. They 
are, however, probably important factors in 
determining the abundance of many of the 
large game animals. In the case of fur-bear- 
ing animals there is a large field for experi- 
ments intended to study the effect of food 
and other influences upon the quality of fur. 

Heredity.—The study of heredity in for- 
est wild life opens up a wide subject for ex- 
perimental research. Disease-resisting strains 
may prove to be an important means of 
perpetuating wild life, not only in the case 
of large game animals, fur-bearing animals, 
and birds, but in fish and other forms as 
well. Under proper breeding management 
wild furs may be greatly improved in both 
quality and quantity. 

Wild Life Policies.—Upon a foundation 
of fact and inference such as can be built up 
only by investigations conducted as indicated 
under the preceding headings, we may hope 
to build up principles of management or 
policies for wild life which will fit them into 
the texture of modern social and economic 
life. When this is done in a scientific man- 
ner, forest wild life will be intelligently and 


WILD LIFE MEMORIAL TO THEODORE ROOSEVELT 


and 
To build up 


sympathetically appreciated used by 
man to the best advantage. 
these management policies is in fact the 
largest wild life problem, and the smaller spe- 
cial problems are means toward accomplish- 
ing the greater aim. The relation of wild 
animals to one another and to all the items 
of their that 


those which appear superficially to be wholly 


environment is so intricate 
unrelated are so entangled that the relation 
of each can be properly adjusted only by a 
comprehensive plan which provides for every 
one in its proper sphere. This plan for ad- 
justment is the most difficult problem of all, 
which in comparison subordinates all others. 
It is the capstone or climax of the whole 
system of use of forest wild life. 

Relation of the New to the Old.—The pre- 
ceding outline is a program for the activi- 
ties of the new Roosevelt Station. This is 
in reality a new name for work already 
under way by the college for the last seven 
years. For the last five years this work has 
been conducted on a smaller scale than is 
contemplated for the new station, but, even 
with the limited means available in the past, 
considerable progress has been made. Thus 


Lake has 
much progress in the study of the food of 


the fish survey of Oneida made 


the fish, the capacity of the waters to pro- 


~. 
129 


duce fish food, in the study of the worm 
parasites of fish (in codperation with the 
United States Bureau of Fisheries), and in 
the life history and economic relations of 
the fish of this lake. 
been printed on this work. 


Extensive reports have 
In the Adiron- 
dacks, also, investigations have been made 
of the relation of the summer birds to these 
forests, preliminary studies have been made 
of fish, and studies have been started at the 
timber line on Mount Marey (made in ¢o- 


operation with several other scientific in- 


stitutions). Nor has the southern part of 
the state been neglected, because in the Hud- 
son Highlands, in the Palisades Interstate 
Park 
made 
of the Palisades Interstate Park) of the 
birds and fish, in relation to park campers 


region, extensive studies have been 


(in cooperation with the Commissioners 


and visitors. The problem of leech control, 
and the control of mosquitoes by fish (in co- 
operation with the United States Bureau of 
Fisheries), are additional examples of the 
character of the park problems which are 
under consideration, and show how these are 
related to public welfare. It is to the solu- 
tion of these and similar problems which 
that the Wild Life 


Forest Experiment Station is committed by 


will arise Roosevelt 


legislative act. 


Few types of memorial would have received 


College of Forestry by the New York legislature 
not only service in wild life conservation, but also 


the practical management from an economic standpoint of the fish 
The laboratories for the present are in 
devoted to wild 


New York. 
and in many ways unique library 
there for public use 


more hearty 


this building at the College in Syracuse. 
life will be collected at the College and maintained 


Roosevelt himselt than 
The Wild Life Forest Experiment Station which has been established recently at The New York State 


appreciation by 


The work undertaken by the College and state plans 
comprehensive study of habits and life histories, and 


birds, and other game animals of 
A special 


Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum 


OME naturalists of distinction, perhaps 


the most fortunate, seem always to 
ride on the crest of the wave of chang- 
ing time Today they 


may be the pivot about which turns awak- 


and circumstance. 
ening popular interest in their chosen sub- 
ject, tomorrow leaders in the faunal study 
of some distant clime the treasures of 
which are becoming available to science, or 
the exponents of 
some new point of 
view by which 
data, long accumu- 
lated, are 
arranged in a 
clearer light. The 
of others 
follow a 
unswerving 


being 


careers 
direct, 
path, 
building fromsmall 
along 
definite line 
they are 
presently the ree- 


beginnings 
some 
where 


ognized authority, 


and in passing 
leave a_ structure 


stands for 
lesser men to build 


which 


upon until the gen- 
eral level of knowl- 
edge rises above 
its heights and its 
interest becomes 
historical. 

Samuel Garman, 
curator of fishes at 
Mu- 


Harvard 


the Agassiz 
seum of 
University, can- 
not be placed in 

these 
It would be difficult to think of 


him as either carried forward by the trend 


either of 


categories, 


of the times or bending it along the lines 
of his especial interests. It will never be 
possible accurately to estimate the sum of 
The 
writer remembers, when a student in col- 
carrying to Garman many 
subtle problems in differentiating frogs and 
snakes, and how, although at that time he 
was doing little work in herpetology, he al- 


his contributions to his chosen science. 


Samuel 


lege, 


ways with a few words and recourse to a 
specimen or two within easy reach, not only 
settled the difficulties, but imparted an ap- 


(30 


Samuel Garman, curator of fishes at the Agassiz 
Museum, Harvard College 


preciation of species characters in the 


groups which will always be of value. How 
many others must have received similar aid, 
for he had then been an active herpetologist 
and ichthyologist for about thirty years! 
While other men gather and discuss the 
newest discovery, consult distant collections, or 
plan expeditions, day in and day out one 
may find Garman in his room in the base- 
ment of the Agas- 
siz Museum, work- 
ing with his speci- 
mens and _ books, 
independently, for 
the pure love of it, 
with infinite care. 
A chance allusion 
by Shufeldt, writ- 
ing in the April- 
May number of 
Natural History, 
suggests that Sam- 
uel Garman’s one- 
time acquaint- 
ances, 
drifted 
lines, may not al- 


themselves 
into new 
realize that 
he is still there. 
His is the especial 
talent for being 
always there, where 


ways 


the writer wishes 
more frequent op- 
portunities these 
days to take his 
problems, for the 
help sure to be re- 
ceived, the equally 
certain courtesy of 
welcome, and the 
inspiration. 

A glance at the list of Garman’s published 
works on fishes shows scarcely any accelera- 
tion or abatement of effort since the first 
was issued in 1875. His conclusions have 
not always been accepted by other workers 
in systematic ichthyology, but they are in- 
variably interesting and valuable. His most 
widely known work on fishes is perhaps the 
description and discussion of a very primi- 
tive shark, Chlamydoselachus, a number of 
years ago. It is fortunate that this most 
interesting fish fell into the hands of so 
careful and thorough a descriptive natural- 
ist.—J. T. NICHOLS. 


Scientific Zodlogical Publications of 
the American Museum 


SUMMARY OF WORK ON FOSSIL MAMMALS 


By FRANK 


BLO Z 


Editor of the Bulletin of the American Musewm and Associate Curator in Invertebrate Zoé'ogy 


HE following notices of five of the 
scientific publications of the Ameri- 
can Museum are a continuation of 
similar notices published in the March, 1919, 
number of NaturAL History. Summaries of 
papers on recent mammals will appear later. 


Life Studies Among Fossils 


The paper! by Messrs. W. K. Gregory 
and C. L. Camp is one of a series of studies 
which are intended to clothe the fossil bones 
of ancient animals with the muscles that 
once moyed them. An earlier contribution 
by Dr. Gregory and Mr. Erwin 8. Christman 
comprised a restoration of the musculature 
of lower Tertiary tithanotheres, which will 
be published in President Osborn’s mono- 
graph on that extraordinary group of mam- 
mals. A second, relating to the jaw muscles 
of vertebrates, was prepared in the depart- 
ment of vertebrate paleontology of the Mu- 
seum by Dr. L. A. Adams, and was published 
during 1918 by the New York Academy of 
Sciences. Two or more additional papers 
are now in progress. The specific objects 
of the studies, as stated by the senior author 
of the present number, are “to review the 
homologies of similar muscles in the differ- 
ent vertebrate classes; to make restorations 
of the musculature of the jaw, limbs, and 
axial skeleton of certain extinct amphibians, 
reptiles, and mammals; and to discover, one 
by one, some of the stages by which the 
more specialized mechanisms of the higher 
vertebrates were evolved.” 

Dr. Gregory and Mr. Camp certainly have 
given invaluable service to anatomists by 
placing on record their comparative review 
of the musculature of the limbs in certain 
mammals, birds, and reptiles, including such 
zoologically important types as monotremes, 
the ostrich, crocodilians, the tuatara lizard 
(Sphenodon), a birdlike dinosaur, and the 
terrestrial, carnivorous, mammal-like, Tri- 

1Gnegory, W. K., and Camp, ©. L. 1918. 
Studies in Comparative Myology and Osteology. 
No. III. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII, 


Art. 15, pp. 447-563, Pls. XXXIX to L. [Re- 
view by Robert C. Murphy. ] 


assic reptile, Cynognathus, a complete re- 
construction of which is presented in Part V 
of the paper. The tabulations, which relate 
to the origins, insertions, and nerve supply 
of the principal muscles of locomotion, are 
based not only upon the authors’ pains- 
taking laboratory dissections, and a study 
of the bones of the extinct forms, but also 
upon the scattered literature in this field, 
the entire sum of present knowledge of the 
subject, both original and compiled, being 
here conveniently brought together within 
about fifty pages of text and illustrations. 
Upon these data are based the more general 
discussions in the paper and the excellent 
two-color plates which show the probable 
arrangement and homologies of the muscular 
system of Cynognathus. 

As may well be inferred, the paper is of 
necessity minutely descriptive, and yet il- 
luminating comparison rather than deserip- 
tion for its own sake is ever the aim of both 
authors. By working from the known to 
the unknown, by ranging the flesh-clad limbs 
of modern animals side by side with bones 
which lost their blood and sinew, and even 
the real bony tissue itself, millions of years 
ago, Dr. Gregory and Mr. Camp _ have 
translated into interesting, even entertain- 
ing, language the mechanics of “walking” 
in its primitive stages, when, although com- 
plicated enough, it was far less intricate and 
specialized than among modern, relatively 
The differ- 
ences of posture and moyement between up- 
right man and a sprawling reptile or a duck- 


post-limbed mammals and birds. 


billed platypus are obvious, but the diverse 
arrangement and proportions of muscular 
and skeletal elements, which are substantially 
the same elements in all three, and the evo- 
lutionary relations of the higher type of 
architecture to the others, are enlightening 
subjects which the authors of the present 
paper deseribe in detail. 

In the earliest four-legged animals, as in 
the fishes, movements of the paired limbs 
were closely correlated with undulatory move- 
ments of the entire trunk and tail, while in 


731 


= 
oo 


the highest stages of vertebrate evolution 
the limb movements and musculature be- 
come widely differentiated from those of the 
axial skeleton. With this progressive adap- 
tation in mind, the authors trace the changes 
in the bones and muscles of the shoulder 
and hip girdles, explaining the significance 
of the expansion of this or that bony part, 
the development of this or that system of 
muscles, which, in the long course of evolu- 
tion, raised the primitive reptile’s belly off 
the ground, enabled the creature to support 
the entire weight of its hinder parts, for 
instance, on one hind leg, while it thrust the 
other forward, and led ultimately to that 
marvelous, almost inconceivable perfection of 
balance which permits the highest primate, 
the lord of creation, to stand and walk and 
run on two pinlike limbs without even re- 
alizing that he is doing anything remarkable. 

Space for discussing an eminently success- 
ful attempt to describe and_ historically 
interpret the structures upon which move- 
ment in the higher animals depends is not 
available, and this notice must close with 
Dr. Gregory’s account of locomotion among 
primitive vertebrates: 

“In reptiles and primitive mammals the 
fore and hind limbs coodperate with each 
other in the following way: The fore and 
hind limbs of the same side move in oppo- 
site directions; on the other hand the right 
fore limb moves in the same direction with 
the left hind limb The 
backwardly extended fore foot is raised and 
moved forward immediately before the for- 


and vice versa. 


wardly extended hind foot touches the 
ground. This criss-cross movement of the 
limbs is correlated with alternate lateral 


bendings and twistings of the thorax, and 
with corresponding turning and twisting of 
the girdles, in such a way that the forward 
and backward reach of the divergent limbs on 
one side is increased while the convergent 
of the opposite are brought still 
nearer together. Another advantage of this 
arrangement is that the pull and push of the 
limb muscles is supplemented by the powerful 


limbs 


spiral and spring-like action of the axial mus- 
culature, while a third advantage is that by 
stretching the limbs of the same side in op- 
posite directions the forward thrusts and 
pulls are brought nearer to the mid-line, and 
thus the speed is increased. Hence, it should 
and does follow that the faster a reptile 
moves the narrower is its trackway.” 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Studies on the Evolution of Animals 
of Our West 


Dr. W. D. Matthew, curator of vertebrate 
paleontology in the American Museum, pub- 
lished! a continuation of researches on 
fossils from the Snake Creek beds in West- 
ern Nebraska, discovered by the Museum 
Expedition of 1908 and further explored in 
1916. Fossils are very abundant at this 
locality, but mostly fragmentary, the teeth 
of three-toed horses being more numerous 
than anything else; jaws and skulls occur 
occasionally. There is a great variety of 
animals, more than sixty species. They be- 
long to the late Miocene or early Pliocene 
epoch of the Age of Mammals and represent 
a stage in the evolution of the animals of 
the western plains which is still very im- 
perfectly known. Various new species and 
genera of mammals are described, and more 
complete specimens of others. The most 


‘interesting new types described are a large 


bear-dog, a rodent about the size of a 
beaver, a peculiar soft-nosed hornless rhi- 
noceros, and a peculiar horned animal sup- 
posed to be a ruminant but with a single 
median horn on the top of the cranium as 
in the fabled unicorn. An expedition in the 
summer of 1918, after this article was pub- 
lished, has obtained further interesting 
collections. 

American Museum expeditions in 1909-16 
secured large collections of fossil mammals 
from the Lower Eocene formations of 
Wyoming and New Mexico, more than all 
that had previously been obtained, and with 
the very exact records and careful study of 
the geology of the strata, it has been pos- 
sible to clear up the correlation and _ sue- 
cession of faunas in a very precise fashion. 
Many new types have been discovered, and 
better specimens of others previously known 
from fragments. ‘The affinities of various 
genera are discussed, and their bearing on 
the origin and evolution of the later Ter- 
tiary animals. A paper? by Dr. W. D. 
Matthew and Walter Granger takes up the 


'Matthew. W. D. 1918. Contributions to the 
Snake Creek Fauna, With Notes upon the Pleis- 
tocene of Western Nebraska, American Museum 
Expedition of 1916. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
XXXVI, “Art. 7, pp. 283—229, Pils: LGV—xe 
[Summary furnished by Dr. Matthew. ] 

“Matthew, W. D., and Granger, Walter. 1918. 
A Revision of the Lower Eocene Wasatch and 
Wind River Faunas. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
XXXVITI, Art. 16, pp. 565-657. [Summary fur- 
nished by Dr. Matthew. ] 


SCIENTIFIC ZOOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS 


primitive insectivora, rodents, and edentates, 
all of them showing early stages in the 
evolution of these orders, now widely differ- 
entiated but so difficult to distinguish in the 
Eocene that their true affinities have been 
a matter of much controversy. 


Revision of Ancestral American Horses 


The Memoir! by Professor Henry Fair- 
field Osborn, president of the American 
Museum and honorary curator of vertebrate 
paleontology, is a very fully illustrated re- 
vision of all the described species of ances- 
tral horses from the later Tertiary formations 
of this continent. The original type de- 
seriptions and illustrations are reprinted 
with carefully revised drawings and rede- 
seriptions of each, and of many more perfect 
specimens referred to one or another of the 
described forms. The geological correlation 
is carefully and exactly revised, so that the 
succession in time is shown as accurately 
as is possible in the light of all the later 
researches. Conclusions as to the exact 
evolutionary succession and phylogeny are 
mostly postponed until the author’s final 
monograph on the evolution of the horse, 
but some probable relationships are indi- 
eated here and there, and much that will 
serve as the fundamental evidence for such 
conclusions. 

This volume will be of great aid to all 
who are interested in the evolutionary his- 
tory of the horse, as it brings together a 
vast mass of data and evidence hitherto 
scattered through a great number of mis- 
cellaneous publications, and corrects many 
errors or inaccuracies of the older deserip- 
tions and illustrations; and more than all 
because it describes for the first time a large 
part of the fine collections of Tertiary 
Equide secured by various American Mu- 
seum expeditions. 


Exploration of the Cave Deposits of 
Porto Rico 


A Memoir? by Mr. H. E. Anthony, asso- 
ciate curator in mammalogy in the Amer- 


1Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 1918. Equide of 
the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene of North 
America, Iconographic Type Revision. Memoirs 


Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., II, N. S., Part 1, pp. 
1—330, Pls. I to LIV and 173 text figures. [Re- 
view furnished by Dr. Matthew.] 

* Anthony, H. E. 1918. The Indigenous Land 
Mammals of Porto Rico, Living and Extinct. Me- 
moirs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., II, N. S., Part 3, 
pp. 331-435, Pls. LV—LXXIV and 55 text figures. 
[Review furnished by Dr. Matthew. ] 


733 


ican Museum, is of unusual interest because 
of its bearing upon the geological history of 
the West Indies. Whether these islands are 
the remnants of a former Antillean conti- 
nent, or have always been islands since they 
first rose from the sea, whether they were 
formerly connected with North or with South 
America, or, as some have thought, with 
Europe or Africa, are problems which have 
been much discussed by geologists and zo6l- 
ogists. Almost nothing had been known of 
the extinct animals of the West Indies, 
which might afford valuable evidence on 
such problems. A few years ago important 
discoveries of fossil animals were made in 
Cuba by Dr. Carlos de la Torre, professor 
of biology, zodlogy, and zodgraphy in the 
University of Havana, and in Porto Rico by 
Dr. Franz Boas. Mr. Barnum Brown, co- 
operating with Dr. de la Torre and other 
friends of the Museum, has followed up the 
earlier Cuban discoveries with great success. 
Mr. Anthony undertook a systematic ex- 
ploration of the cave deposits of Porto Rico 
and other West Indian islands with equally 
satisfactory results. Valuable evidence has 
also been obtained by explorations for the 
National Museum and the Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology. 

In this Memoir Mr. Anthony describes 
and illustrates the fossil mammals obtained 
They 
consist of a remarkable new insectivore, a 
small ground sloth, a number of rodents 
large and small, and a few bats. Except 
for the bats, the fossils are all new and 
rather distantly related to any continental 
mammals, the nearest affinities being with 
South America; but they are quite closely 
related to the fossil mammals found in 
Cuba and Hayti. 
that the larger islands have been united at 
no very remote date, geologically speaking, 
and that they have not been united to either 
continent since the Miocene or Pliocene, if 
at all. 
former union with Europe or Africa. Mr. 


through his expeditions in Porto Rico. 


This would seem to show 


The evidence is wholly against any 


Anthony is disposed to believe in a union 
with South or Central America in the Mio- 
cene, as against the alternative theory that 
these mammals are descended from a few 
stray waifs drifted across by seas and cur- 
rents on “natural rafts’ from the South 
American rivers. 


White pelicans and other bird inhabitants of the Klamath Lake Reservation on the Oregon-Cali- 
fornia boundary, as shown in the bird habitat group at the American Museum 


Region too Alkaline for Crops 


Soil expert of the United States Department of Agriculture pronounces lands about the 
Matheur Lake and Klamath Lake Bird Reservations in Oregon and 


Northern California too alkaline for growing crops 


By E. W. NELSON 


Chief, Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture 


URING the last few years conditions 
have arisen in Oregon and northern 
California which have become in- 

creasingly threatening to the existence of 

the Malheur Lake and Klamath Lake Bird 
reservations. These are perhaps the most 
notable migratory-bird reservations in the 

United States. Malheur Lake is situated in 

eastern Oregon, a part of the arid Great 

Basin; the Klamath Lake Reservation is lo- 

cated partly in Oregon and partly in the 

Both 

contain a great area of swampy land with a 


adjacent part of northern California. 


shallow-water lake in the middle, thus form- 
ing ideal homes for enormous numbers of 
migratory wild fowl, including myriads of 
ducks, geese, and pelicans, during the nest- 
ing season as well as during the spring and 
fall migrations. 

In a region where marshy or swampy 
areas are as scarce as they are in the north- 
such areas become of the 


western states 


4 
ot 


highest importance in connection with the 
In their 
prime these two reservations were perhaps 


conservation of our wild bird life. 


the finest and most populous of any federal 
bird preserves in the United States. With 
the growth of settlement in the West land 
promoters have found opportunity to ply 
their calling in the districts about both of 
these reservations and have made continued 
efforts to secure the abolition of the reser- 
vations in order that the lands might be 
utilized for other purposes. 

The marshy lands about the borders of 
the lakes which the center of both 
of these reservations produce an abundant 


form 


growth of tules, rushes, and other grassy 
growth which has a certain value as forage 
Owing to the alkaline char- 
acter of the lands within both of these res- 
United States Biological 
Survey has for a long time been convinced 
that they would be of no value for eulti- 


for live stock. 


ervations, the 


BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF STATES 


= 


vated crops and that their present pro- 
duction of forage furnished their sole 
agricultural value. 

During the summer of 1919, in order to 
get definite information as to the facts con- 
cerning the value of these lands for agricul- 
tural purposes, one of the most experienced 
and competent of the soil experts of the De- 
partment of Agriculture made a_recon- 
naissance of the lands in both Malheur Lake 
and Klamath Lake reservations. In the re- 
port of his reconnaissance the soil expert 
states definitely that he considers the per- 
centage of alkali in these lands so high that 
they are valueless for the purpose of grow- 
ing crops, and that if the water were drained 
from the lakes the marshes and lake bottoms 
would become alkali flats. 

Malheur Lake is maintained by water 
which is drained into it by the Blitzen and 
Silvies rivers. The broad belt of marshy 
lands surrounding Malheur Lake, covering 
thousands of acres, produces forage enough 
to support numerous settlers with their live 
stock. It is now proposed to divert the 
water of these streams high up in their 
courses for purposes of irrigating other 
lands. If this plan is carried out it means 
inevitably that Malheur Lake will become 
dry and the stock ranches which are now 
scattered around the lake will be rendered 
perpetually worthless. Thus a large num- 
ber of the earliest settlers in that region will 
be deprived of their homes and property, to 
a value possibly approaching $1,000,000. 

So much for the destruction of the prop- 
erty involved in case the present plans are 


7395 


carried out, but further than this will be the 
great loss to the state in depriving it of one 
of the most notable wild-fowl resorts in this 
country, where enormous numbers of ducks 
and geese and other birds have reared their 
young from remote times. The loss of this 
reservation will be irreparable since there is 
nothing to replace it in that region. Similar 
consequences will result from the drainage 
of the Klamath Lake Reservation with the 
idea of making it into farms. 

There is now a bill in Congress for the 
taking over of the Klamath lands for the 
purpose of their being opened to settlement, 
especially for the benefit of soldiers of the 
late war. In view of the recent survey of 
these lands by the soil expert and the deter- 
mination that they are too alkaline for crop 
cultivation it appears as though any soldiers 
who are led to locate there with the idea 
of building up homes will have no reason to 
thank those who led them into such locations, 

In view of the practical worthlessness of 
the lands in the Malheur Lake and Klamath 
Lake reservations for cultivation and the ex- 
ceeding value of these areas for wild fowl, 
it is to be hoped that they may be continued 
as bird reservations and the people living 
about them under present conditions may 
thus be enabled to retain their homes. If 
this is done these reservations will serve as 
important supply points for providing mi- 
gratory wild fowl for other parts of the coun- 
try. Such locations are becoming so few that 
the loss of each one now becomes irreparable. 
This is especially true of such large and not- 
able areas as Malheur and Klamath lakes. 


Biological Surveys of States 


By the United States Department of Agriculture during 1919 


ORK in biological investigations 

of birds and mammals by the Bu- 

reau of Biological Survey, United 
States Department of Agriculture, and co- 
operating institutions, while somewhat inter- 
rupted by the war, is rapidly getting back 
to normal. 

In Wisconsin the State Geological and 
Natural History Survey is codperating with 
the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture in the work, which is in charge of Dr. 
Hartley H. T. Jackson for the Department 


of Agriculture, and Professor George Wag- 
ner, of the University of Wisconsin, for the 
state of Wisconsin. Work was begun May 
15 and continued until September 20. The 
principal field of codperation was the north- 
western part of the state, special attention 
being devoted to the Apostle Islands in 
Lake Superior. Mr. Harry H. Sheldon for 
the Biological Survey, and Mr. Arthur J. 
Poole for the Wisconsin Survey, assisted. 
In Montana, Mr. Mareus A. Hanna, as- 
sisted by Mr. Harry Malleis, worked the 


Baye 
ob 


valley of the Missouri and the bordering 
plains and mountains from the mouth of 
Milk River westward, under the general di- 
rection of Mr. Edward A. Preble. The 
Little Rockies, Moccasin Mountains, Big 
and Little Belt Mountains and Castle Moun- 
tains were visited during the latter part of 
the summer. Mr. Victor N. Householder 
was a member of the party during the early 
part of the season. 

The biological survey of Florida was con- 
tinued by Mr. Arthur H. Howell. Field 
studies were carried on during March and 
April over a large part of Lee County and 
in the region around Lake Okeechobee. The 
collections in the Florida State Museum were 
examined and the specimens carefully iden- 
tified. A collection of bird records from 
Florida, both published and unpublished, 
shows approximately 390 species and sub- 
species recorded from the state. 

Coédperating at different times with the 
Biological Survey in field work in the state 
of Washington were the following: Prof. 
William T. Shaw, State College of Washing- 
ton, Pullman; Prof. H. 8. Brode, Whitman 
College, Walla Walla; Prof. J. W. Hungate, 
State Normal School, Cheney; Prof. J. B. 


Latest Conservation News from Pacific Coast 


N northeastern California Burney Falls, 
tributary to the Pitt River, with the sur- 
rounding 160 acres of forest, have been 

donated to the state by the owners. 

Tumalo Cafion, near Bend, Oregon, with 
alternate rock-walled gorge and forest- and 
flower-decked bottom land, has been set 
aside for the people. This is through the 
generosity of the Shelvin-Hixon Lumber 
Company, which gives the canon, and with 
it a strip of timber along the highway, as a 
memorial to the late Thomas Shelvin. The 
company did not own some of the most 
beautiful parts and bought them at a cost 
of $20,000 to include them in the gift. This 
bit of protected highway will be in striking 
contrast with the road leading into Bend, 
which for many miles is a desolation of 
burned and cut-over yellow pine. 

From Washington comes news of the or- 
ganization of a league called the “National 
Parks Association of Washington,” with 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Flett, National Park Service, Longmire; Mr. 
William L, Finley and Mrs. Finley, Port- 
land, Oregon; and Stanton Warburton, Jr., 
of Tacoma. The Biological Survey was rep- 
resented for a part of the time by Mr. 
Stanley G. Jewett, Pendleton, Oregon; and 
throughout the season by Mr. George G. 
Cantwell, Puyallup, Washington, and Dr. 
Walter P. Taylor, of the Biological Survey, 
the last named in charge of the work. In- 
vestigations were made in the Blue Moun- 
tains area of extreme southeastern Washing- 
ton, in which occurs an unusual mixture of 
Rocky Mountain and Cascade Mountain 
types; and in Mount Rainier National Park, 
in connection with which the circuit of 
Mount Rainier was made for the first time, 
so far as known, by any vertebrate zodlog- 
ical expedition. 

In North Dakota Mr. Bailey 
worked through September and October to 
get data on the hibernation of mammals 
and on the stores of food laid up for winter 
by nonhibernating species. He has returned 
with many valuable notes to be added to his 
report on the mammals of the state, and 
with an interesting collection of live rodents 
for study of habits in captivity. 


Vernon 


1 


Major Everett G. Griggs, of Seattle, chair- 
man. In a small folder the league an- 
nounces its purpose—which is worthy the 
attention of the citizens of every state in 
the Union: 

“To preserve the natural features of our state 
as a part of our inheritance, and to retain in 
their present beauty our mountains, lakes, trails, 
and points of scenic interest; to advocate new 
national parks and the creation of state, county, 
and municipal parks and highways to connect the 
same; to preserve our lakes, rivers, and streams 
from pollution, and conserve our natural supply 
of food and game fishes; to protect our wild ani- 
mal life from extermination; to encourage love of 
nature; and to preserve in the virginal state some 
part of our great forests.” 

Washington and Oregon have no great 
forests of redwoods, but they have mighty 
forests of other conifers only less majestic. 
For the sake of the water supply these for- 
ests should no longer be cut on the slopes 
and peaks of the Cascade Mountains and 
along streams and around the borders of 


lakes; and for the sake of the beauty of the 


1 Through the courtesy of Mr. Madison Grant, who served as organizer for the Save the Redwoods 
League, we are enabled to publish these results of activity and influence of the Save the Redwoods 
League, the National Park Service, the United States Forest Service, and local western conservationists. 


highway and the comfort of the traveler 
who follows it, the forests should be pro 
tected along both sides of the road. Pres- 
ervation of scenic beauty in Oregon and 
Washington without doubt will be handi- 
capped. The region is sparsely settled and 
the pioneer idea of destruction still predom- 
inates. One immediate point of contest les 
in this work on the highways. If, however, 
a right of way from 300 to 1000 yards wide 
be purchased, there will result some of the 
most beautiful drives in the world. 

In addition to the need of attention to the 
highway problem and to the northern red 
wood problem, there are other conservation 
matters along the Pacifie Coast that should 
have the light of publicity thrown on them. 
Among these is the needed rescue from real 
estate development of the Seventeen-Mile 
Drive and its unique cypress forests, near 
Monterey, California. 

A vast satisfaction must be felt by the 
man who has accomplished a national good, 
or helped in accomplishing it. To do some- 
thing for others is the great joy-giving re 
quirement of the human mind, and to be 
able to give largely, where it will bring good 
to many thousands, hundreds of thousands, 
or even millions of fellow Americans—that 
must bring a broadening of vision great to 
the extent of dwarfing most of the really 
insignificant things of life. 

An example of such giving was set in 
1908. Mr. William Kent bought the red- 
woods on Mount Tamalpais overlooking 
Golden Gate and the waters of the Pacific, 
the last of the redwood race in all that bay 
region of California. Then he sent a deed 
of gift to the National Government. Al|so 
he requested that the monument be named 
the “Muir Woods,’ for his friend John 
Muir, even after Roosevelt wrote from the 
White House that he would greatly like to 
name it the “Kent Monument.” 

Mr. Kent characterized these redwoods, 
standing strong and self-reliant, shelter for 
the hosts of ferns and flowers of the ground, 
as signifying the chivalry of the forest and 
suggesting the ideal of individual and social 
life in America: “Stand straight and strong, 
who can; protect and shelter the weak.” 
The characterization has even broader ap 
plication in 1920 than this national meaning 
he gave it in 1908. And for one thing, 
surely, it sets the way, for those of us who 
can give, to make the United States, both 
East and West, the kind of country in scenic 


beauty and recreational opportunity which 


will best serve all the people. 


Courtesy of ‘Bird Lore” 


William Brewster—_In Memoriam 


By FRANK M. CHAPMAN 


ILLIAM BREWSTER 


his home in 


died at 
Cambridge, Mass- 
achusetts, on July 11, 1919, six 


days after the completion of his sixty-eighth 


year. For nearly half a century he has been 
in the front rank of American ornitholo- 
gists. He was the moving spirit in the or- 


Nuttall 


Club of Cambridge, which, formed in 1873, 


ganization of the Ornithological 
was the first society of its kind in this coun- 


try, and much of the success of this club 


during the succeeding forty-six years was 
due to his unfailing support. 

From the Nuttall Ornithological 
there developed the American Ornithologists 
Union, a body which has exercised a pro- 
the study of birds 


Club 


’ 


found influence 
in this country, and in the 
this society Brewster also played a_ part 
of first importance. He served as _presi- 
dent of the Union from 1896 to 1898, and, 
1883 


upon 
formation of 


from its organization in until his 


FOREST CONSERVATION IN NEW YORK STATE 


death, he active member of its 
Couneil. 


Mr. Brewster was also one of the Found- 


was an 


ers of the original Audubon Society which 
grew from the American Ornithologists’ 
Union; he was for years a director of the 
National Association of Audubon Societies, 
and president of the Massachusetts Audubon 
Society. 

From 1880 to 1887, Brewster was assist- 
ant in charge of birds and mammals in the 
Boston Society of Natural History; from 
1885 to 1900 he held a similar position in 
the Cambridge Museum of 
Zodlogy, and from the last-named date to 
the end of his life he was, in effect, honorary 
or advisory curator of birds of that institu- 
tion. His active curatorial duties, however, 
were connected with the development of his 
private museum. This, a fire-proof, brick 
structure, perfect in all its appointments, 
was erected on the grounds of his Cambridge 
home. It contained his library and collee- 
tion of North American birds. The latter, 
by the terms of Mr. Brewster’s will, has 
been given to the Museum of Comparative 
Zodlogy to which he also left the sum of 
$60,000. 

William unique 
position in Well 
grounded in the fundamentals of the science, 


Comparative 


Brewster occupied a 


American ornithology. 


the peer of any of his colleagues in techni- 


739 


cal research, conservative in statement, as 
accurate in the presentation of facts as it is 
humanly possible to be, he still never let his 
interest in the science of ornithology ab- 
sorb or diminish his love for the sentiment 
of ornithology. It was the bird in the bush 
rather than the bird in the hand which com- 
manded his attention, and his more impor- 
tant contributions to ornithology consist of 
the results of his study of birds in nature. 


These were made with a born naturalist’s 
enthusiasm and sympathetic insight, and 
with a trained observer’s discrimination, 


while their results were presented in a liter- 
ary form which has rarely been approached 
in the annals of ornithology. 

The achievements of a scientist are not to 
be measured alone by his published works, 
but also by the influence he exerts upon his 
time. Viewed from this standpoint, William 
Brewster enviable 


occupied an position 


among ornithologists. Possessed of an ex- 
ceptionally attractive personality, sincere, 
unselfish, considerate of others, of sound 
judgment, he won the esteem, respect, and 
confidence of everyone who knew him. It 
was therefore not alone his knowledge of 
birds, but also the nobility of his character 
which made William Brewster a potent fac- 
tor in the development of the science of 
ornithology in this country. 


Forest Conservation in New York State 


Extracts from statement by the State 


THLE of the 
Preserve at the 
1,886,550.81 acres. 
of additions to the Preserve during 1919, 


New York 
close of 


Forest 
1919) is 
The acquisition 


area 


has been carried out with funds provided by 
a bond issue authorized by the voters in 
1916. 
ried on under a carefully developed plan, 


The work of acquisition is now e¢ar- 


which permits it to proceed systematically 
and with complete assurance that the state 
will receive full value for every dollar ex- 
pended. 

In order that a purchase price may be 
agreed upon with the owner, all large tracts 
offered are thoroughly cruised by foresters 
of the Commission, who determine the quan- 


tity of timber on the property. The work 


of New York Conservation Commission 


that the foresters do is entirely in the na- 
ture of a topographical and quantity survey. 
They are then followed by appraisers, who 
of the 
place where it stands. It frequently hap- 
pens that the owner of the property also 


ascertain the value timber in the 


makes a valuation survey, and in case of dis- 
pute, the Commission in some instances has 
the land eruised a second time by different 
parties, as a check upon the work of the first. 

During the past year the land examined by 
foresters and appraisers, some of which had 
been offered in 1918, included 67,295 acres in 
the Adirondacks and 17,029 acres in the Cats- 
kills, a total of 84,324 acres; and of these 
amounts the Commission has negotiated the 
purchase of 42,371.98 acres in the Adiron- 


740 


dacks and 16,415.30 acres in the Catskills, 
a total of 58,787.28 acres. The average 
price agreed upon for the Adirondack land 
was $14.90 per acre, while the average price 
of that in the Catskills was $6.26 per 
acre. The purchases made during the year 
amounted to $734,059.51. In addition there 
have been appropriated 92,810.89 acres in 
the Adirondacks and 1740 acres in the Cats- 
kills. All of these acquisitions have been 
approved by the Commissioners of the Land 
Office, although some of them must still be 
approved by the Attorney General and other 
steps taken before the purchases will be 
completed and the titles vested in the state. 

The first effort of the Commission is to 

acquire land that les on the high mountain 
slopes, where the danger of denudation fol- 
lowing lumbering and forest fires is the 
greatest. These are the sections that should 
be forever maintained as protection areas, 
and upon which no lumbering should ever 
When the region was for- 
“merly. lumbered, the forests on these upper 
slopes were left untouched because the low 
price of timber and pulp wood at that time 
made it unprofitable to operate in those 
more inaccessible locations. Now, however, 
the price of lumber and pulp wood is much 
higher and the timber on a portion of these 
high, steep slopes could be removed for 
These facts ac- 
count for the relatively high price of cer- 
tain of the lands acquired. 

The Shore Owners Association of Lake 
Placid in 1918 raised a fund of $30,000 as a 
gift to the state to pay part of the purchase 
price of land lying on the slopes of McKen- 
zie and Saddleback mountains, in order that 


be permitted. 


manufacturing purposes. 


NATURAL 


AEST ORY 


these slopes might be immediately acquired 
for the purpose of stopping denudation. 
Since that time, public-spirited citizens in- 
terested in the welfare of the Adirondacks 
have organized the Victory Mountain Park 
Association, for the purpose of collecting 
funds to assist in the acquisition of por- 
tions of Mt. Marcy and the forest surround- 
ing it, as a memorial to the soldiers and 
sailors who lost their lives during the war. 
This fund is being raised by popular sub- 
scription in amounts ranging from one dol- 
lar up, and it will eventually be turned over 
as a gift to the state. Meanwhile, however, 
to check the lumbering that had already 
started on the mountain, the Commissioners 
of the Land Office, acting upon the recom- 
mendation of the Conservation Commission, 
have authorized the appropriation of all of 
the tract that is now threatened with denu- 
dation. 

Lands already acquired during the year, 
or the acquisition of which has been author- 
ized by the Commissioners of the Land 
Office, include all or parts of the upper 
slopes of Mounts McKenzie, Saddleback, 
Whiteface, McIntyre, Marcy, Skylight, Red- 
field, Allen, McComb, Seward, Seymour, 
Esther, Sawtooth, Colden, Cliff, and Wall- 
face. While some of these lands have cost 
a comparatively large amount owing to the 
fact that they contain large virgin growths 
of softwood, nevertheless they are the for- 
ests of greatest value to the people of the 
state of New York as protection forests for 
the sources of some of the largest rivers, 
and as vacation grounds, including within 
their boundaries the most beautiful and im- 
pressive scenery of the Empire State. 


English Sparrows live below Sea Level 


HE apparent ubiquity of the common 

dnglish sparrow frequently causes us 

to forget that this bird is not indige- 
nous to this continent and that its advent in 
some parts is relatively recent. Dr. Joseph 
Grinnell, director of the Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology of the University of Cali- 
fornia, has discovered a new “outpost” of 
sparrows in the heart of Death Valley, Cali- 
fornia, at Greenland Ranch, 178 feet below 
sea level. Sparrows, which were introduced 
into New York City sometime between 1860 
and 1864, arrived in California in 1871 or 


1872, but they required nearly forty-two 
years more to extend to San Diego in the 
southern part of the state. This Death Val- 
ley location, however, involving the greatest 
extreme of temperature with low relative 
humidity in the country (134 degrees Fahren- 
heit on July 10, 1913), presents a novel prob- 
lem of adaptation. It will be interesting to 
watch the subsequent development of this bird 
colony under these extreme climatic condi- 
tions which formulate a natural experiment 
that may throw some light on the question of 
the development of subspecific characters. 


Honor to Adam Hermann 


7 : ; 
Address on the occasion of his retire ment after nearly thirty years of service as 


he ad pre parator oT fossil verte i) rates at the A merican Muse um 


O Adam 


fellow workers present their congrat- 


Hermann, his friends and 


record ot 
thirty 


ulations upon his high 


achievement. For nearly years a 
leader in the preparation and mounting of 
fossil skeletons, his skill, ingenuity, and in- 
ventiveness have revolutionized the tech- 
nique of his chosen profession and aided 
greatly in the progress of science, 

In his early days at Yale University he 
was trained under the vigilant eye of Pro- 
fessor Marsh to an exact and scrupulous re- 
gard for finish and accuracy of de 
tail, and the 


perfect preservation 


and safety of specimens and rec- 
Coming to the American Mu 


1892, he 


ords. 


seum in found an oppor- 


tunity for broader and more pro- 
gressive work, retaining the high 


standards of his early training, but 
adapting them to new methods of 
which 


preparation and exhibition 


combined strict scientific accuracy 
with the largest possible utility in 
popular education. 

When Mr. 


Museum the department of 


Hermann came to the 
verte 
brate paleontology was in its in- 
fancy. A beginning had been made 
in the field expeditions and some 
valuable collections stood ready to 
little or 
had been done toward preparation 


his hand. But nothing 


and exhibition. During the twenty- 

seven years that have passed since that time, 
he has seen the exhibits, beginning with a 
little 


corridor 


group of specimens that stood in the 


5 


next the elevator, grow steadily 
year by year. 
hall of 


these limits, 


They expanded first into the 


fossil mammals, then overflowing 


filled the great dinosaur hall, 
and finally, a third and still larger hall has 
been required to contain the great and ever 
increasing series of fossil skeletons, and a 
fourth hall is urgently needed. 


with the 


Step by step 


expansion of the exhibits their 


fame and reputation have grown steadily 


both at home and abroad, so that the people 
of the city are justly proud of their great 
Natural History Museum and of its wonder- 
tul skeletons of extinct animals. 


His methods of preparation and mount- 


ing have 


been very generally adopted for 


similar work in other museums, often by 


preparators trained in this Museum under 


Mr. Hermann’s direction. Gidley and Horn 


ogeshall in 


in Washington, Peterson and Co 
Miller in 


Lawrence, George Sternberg in Ottawa, all 


Pittsburgh, Chicago, Martin in 


received their training here, while many 


scientists and museum men in this country 
and in Europe have come to the American 
Museum to learn the best methods of prepar- 


ing and exhibiting fossil vertebrates. 


Mr. Adam Hermann, head preparator in vertebrate pale- 


ontology at the American Museum, who has just retired 


The first skeleton which Hermann mounted 
for this Museum was the Canopus tridac- 
tylus, a fine example of the panel or low re- 
lief mount, which has been so largely used 
Next came the Metamy- 
relief 
mounts, the first attempt, I think, to mount 
this Then 
came the great Brontops skeleton, which has 
been the 


hall for 


in our later work. 


nodon, the first of our open or full 


a Tertiary mammal in style. 


pride of our Tertiary mammal 


twenty-four years, and wiil, we 


hope, remain standing in broad and sturdy 


massiveness, defiant of all rivals, for many 


a year to come. The acquisition of the 


Cope man.mal collection in 1893 provided a 


new series of valuable and elassie speci- 


mens, and as the expeditions brought in 


new material year by year and the labora- 


741 


tory staff enlarged, the exhibits grew more 
and more rapidly. The famous Phenacodus 
skeleton afforded an opportunity for what 
then remarkable tour de 


was thought a 


force: to make an open mount in which 
every bone of the skeleton could be conven- 
iently removed if desired for separate study. 
Today this method has been very widely ap- 
plied, and it is customary to arrange any 
rare or unique skeleton so that the parts can 
be readily dismantled for study. 

In 1897 the department entered a new 
field, extending its work to the dinosaurs 
and other fossil reptiles. This brought up 
new problems for solution. The gigantic 
size and fragile character of the skeletons 
of the dinosaurs made them far more diffi- 
cult to restore and mount than anything 
that had previously been attempted. The 
first work done on the dinosaurs was of the 
nature of preliminary experiments; first, in 
mounting the limbs, then, in devising mounts 
that would hold securely the individual ver- 
tebre; finally, in restoring and mounting 
the entire skeleton of a Brontosaurus. These 
various experiments, along with studies in 
pose and musculature, took time, so that it 
was not until 1905 that we were able to ex- 
hibit the completed Brontosaurus skeleton. 
Meantime our friends in Pittsburgh had 
studied and profited by our experiments and 
were able to complete their Diplodocus 
mount a little before the Brontosaurus was 
ready for exhibition. It is but fair, how- 
ever, to say that the chief credit for devis- 
ing methods to mount the skeletons of the 
giant Sauropoda belongs to Adam Hermann. 

Another very different problem was_ pre- 
sented by the great marine reptiles and 
The skele- 
ton of Tylosaurus dyspelor was one of the 
first and is still the finest mounted skeleton 
of a Mosasaur on exhibition. The method 
of mounting this specimen included ingen- 


fishes of the Kansas Cretaceous. 


ious devices for reducing the weight of the 
great block, 26 x6 feet, and for strengthen- 
ing it and securing its permanency. 

The later history of the laboratory has 
been one of continued progress and _pros- 
perity. Always ready to experiment with 
new devices, new tools, new cements or pre- 
servatives, many improvements have been 
others tried and abandoned. 
Gum arabic replaced glue, and to a large ex- 
tent shellac! has replaced gum arabic. New 


introduced, 


‘First used in this laboratory in 1901, I think. 


NATOURATE MSO hve 


cements of various kinds have been tried out. 
Electric power has been applied to various 
operations. The numerous and conspicuous 
mountings of the early skeletons have been 
reduced to a few inconspicuous simple lines. 

The laboratory methods and _ technique 
have always been fully and freely expiained 
and displayed to all who were interested. 
No petty rivalries or secrecy for the sup- 
posed selfish advantage of this institution 
has been allowed to interfere with the prog- 
ress of the science. <A spirit of friendly co- 
operation has become more and more preva- 
lent and has aided no less than ingenuity or 
inventiveness in placing our American Mu- 
seum laboratory technique in its present 
position of acknowledged leadership. In 
furtherance of this spirit of mutual helpful- 
ness Mr. Hermann prepared and published 
in 1909 a fully illustrated description of his 
methods and technique which has served as 
a textbook in laboratories of vertebrate 
paleontology and has been of great help to 
preparators both in this country and abroad. 
While credit for the initiation of this liberal 
policy is due to Professor Osborn, yet to Mr. 
Hermann, as to other department leaders, 
belongs the credit of carrying it out loyally 
and effectively. 

In a recent census of the fossil skeletons it 
appeared that no fewer than one hundred 
were at that time mounted on exhibition, 
ranging from the giant Brontosaurus to the 
tiny Pterodactylus. Most of these skeletons 
have been prepared and mounted in our 
laboratory, the greater number either by 
Mr. Hermann himself or under his direction, 
This is a record which it is safe to say is 
not equaled nor is likely to be by any other 
preparator of fossil vertebrates. 

And, last but not least, we who have 
worked with Adam Hermann for so many 
years cannot fail to express our appreciation 
of his loyalty to the American Museum and 
to the department of vertebrate paleontol- 
ogy, his watchful care over the expenditure 
of both time and money in the prosecution 
of our work, the aid and instruction freely 
given to his subordinates, his frank appre- 
ciation of good work, and criticism of all 
that failed to reach the Museum’s standards. 
To this spirit of loyalty and friendly co- 
operation, not less than to diligence and 
skill, we ascribe the growth of the depart- 
ment from its small beginnings in 1892 to 
its present position.—W. D. MarrHEw. 


Mona Island Declared a Forest Reserve 


N connection with Dr. Lobeck’s mention 

of Mona Island in his article on the 

physiography of Porto Rico (page 523), 
American naturalists will be grateful to 
know that Mr. E. M. Bruner, forester of 
Porto Rico, has taken the steps to have 
Mona declared a forest reserve, and that 
his efforts have been rewarded with success. 
On December 22, 1919, Mona Island and 
Monito (an islet three and one half miles 
northwest of Mona) were declared an In- 
sular Forest by proclamation of the gov- 
ernor. 
highly interesting natural conditions, espe- 


This insures the preservation of the 


cially by preventing the indiscriminate cut- 
ting of the scanty timber for charcoal. 
Mona Island is situated in Mona Passage, 
Porto Rico and 
It consists of a nearly flat table- 


halfway between Santo 
Domingo. 
land of limestone averaging about two hun- 
dred feet in height, with a sheer sea cliff on 
the north and east, where it is subject to the 
most continuous wave action, and a terrace 


of flat sandy soil at the base of the scarcely 


less precipitous cliff on the south. Partly 
successful attempts to grow corn and cotton 
are being made on this terrace, and coconuts 
and bananas grow along the base of the cliff 
where the soil is moister and where there is 
an occasional spring. 

The very unusual native vegetation of the 
table-land is practically untouched, how- 
ever, and in its adaptation to extremes of 
aridity and sterility presents habitat con- 
ditions which can scarcely be duplicated in 
either Porto Rico or Santo Domingo. 

Most interesting of the animals on Mona is 
the large rock iguana (Cyclura stejnegeri), 
which, it is to be hoped, will continue to exist 
there now that its habitat will be preserved. 
The inaccessibility of the island affords it the 
necessary protection from man, its only other 
enemies being the dogs which are used to hunt 
The rock 


iguanas are extinct in Porto Rico, although 


the wild goats, pigs, and cattle. 


their bones are found in caves, and the related 
species in Santo Domingo appears to be on the 
verge of extinction also.— kK. P. ScHMIDT. 


Destruction of Yellowstone Park Elk 


HE Yellowstone Park herd of elk 
has been driven from the park ranges 
this winter by the unusually severe 
snow storms and as a consequence from 
6000 to 7000 head have been slaughtered by 
A News 
Bulletin from the National Parks Associa- 


hunters in the state of Montana. 


tion tells of this wild-life disaster which for 
pure blood lust recalls the last days of the 
buffalo. 

This Yellowstone 
30,000 elk is a genuine remnant of the wild 


ark herd of about 


life of former days and not a product of 
stocking the Park, but in its present re- 
stricted range it usually requires some assis- 
tance through at least a part of the winter. 

The animals have become almost fearless 
of men because of their long residence in 
the sanctuary of a national park, and con- 
sequently the herd 
proached. 


could easily be ap- 
Hunters killed them in many 
instances by firing volleys into the bands 
and shipped out carcasses by the carload. 
The state of Wyoming has established game 


preserves along the park boundary to pro- 
tect the elk, but Montana has not only re- 
fused to act likewise but has even this year 
extended the open season from October 15 
to December 24. Those animals which 
escaped the hunters now face starvation on 
the snow-covered grazing grounds. 

The southern herd has been saved with 
funds provided through the activity of Dr. 
E. W. Nelson, chief of the Biological Sur- 
vey, but, even with the diversion of next 
spring’s road improvement money for ad- 
ditional hay, sufficient forage cannot be pro- 
cured. Congress has been asked for an 
appropriation but in the present erises of 
national and international affairs action is 
likely to be slow. Meantime the National 
Parks Association is receiving contributions 
Tas 


also preparing to bring pressure to bear on 


for a fund for the rescue of the elk. 


the legislature of Montana, in order in the 
future to protect the southern herd along 
the park boundary, and to permit it to re- 
cuperate. 


745 


THE ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL FLAG 


schoo) 


Mla 


Roosevelt 


affixed to the 


was 


The 
children in front of the 


ge by 


£ 


forty-sixth star 


ghout New 


at Williamsburg, 


courthouse 


ners thr 


at the 
>» last of the stars was placed by litt 


boy se 


traveled by 


children in the 


hands of 


received its quota of stars 


r itS way. 


Roosevelt 


Colonel 


Hill where 


re 


: school 


always 


e > 

ap © 
oa is 
Ae ie 
Oo 97 F 
CES) Fe 
mn & 
mrs 
a = 
aa) > 
er Q 6 
ee Dag as 
Cory em 

mn 
no sn 
gu uw 


al 


J 
1 


at Oyster 
sixty-first 


Memorial 


eginning 


Abbott, of the Roosevelt 


Samuel 


Mr. 


who had supervised the 


mound of fl 


rs by 


b 


from the 


journey 


Committee, 


Oourtesy of Underwood & Underwood 


Notes 


NaturaL History greatly regrets that ow- 
ing to the printers’ strike in New York City 
no numbers of the magazine were issued 
during October, November, and December. 
The present number, dated December, covers 
these issues and closes the publication of the 
1919 volume. Also, it is regretted that, be- 
cause of the extraordinary present cost of 
material and labor, a change of policy is 
necessary in the issuance of Natura. His- 
Tory. Announcement has already been made 
to readers of the magazine that during 1920 
it will be issued as a bimonthly, in six num- 
bers (instead of eight as heretofore), ap- 
pearing about the first of February, April, 
June, August, October, and December. It 
is hoped that by this plan the same stand- 
ard of quality can be maintained notwith- 
standing the increased cost of production. 


A LEAGUE of the Red Cross societies of 
Great Britain, the United States, France, 
Italy, and Japan has been founded with 
headquarters in Geneva. This new Red 
Cross organization plans to function as an 
agency for relieving national and interna- 
tional disasters. It has also projected the 
formation of an international bureau for 
coordinating sanitation and knowledge of 
Sanitation and the prevention of -disease 
throughout the world. In this capacity it 
has already been called upon for help by 
the Supreme Economie Council in Paris. 
Lieutenant General Sir David Henderson, 
K. C. B., is director general of the league, 
and Henry P. Davison, a trustee and treas- 
urer of the American Museum of Natural 
History and formerly chairman of the War 
Council of the American Red Cross, is chair- 
man of the board of governors. Dr. Richard 
P. Strong, professor of tropical medicine at 
Harvard University, has charge of the 
medical and public health activities of the 
league. 


Sir WILLIAM Oster, regius professor of 
medicine at Oxford University, died on De- 
cember 29 in his seventy-first year. But 
a few months previously on the occasion of 
his seventieth birthday, two volumes of 
medical essays, contributed by distinguished 
British and American colleagues and former 


colleagues, were presented to Sir William, 
The presentation was made at the Royal So- 
ciety of Medicine (London). Sir William 
was a Canadian by birth and held his first 
professorship at McGill University, but, as 
he remarked, the list of contributors to the 
volumes in his honor recalls a “vagrant ca- 
reer. . . . Toronto, Montreal, London, Ber- 
lin, and Vienna as a student; Montreal, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Oxford as a 
teacher.” He was honorary professor of 
medicine at Johns Hopkins University at 
the time of his death. 


Dr. ABRAHAM JACOBI, physician and 
teacher, died on July 10, 1919. He came to 
this country from Germany in 1853, after 
having suffered imprisonment from the Prus- 
sian government as a result of his partici- 
pation in the Revolution of 1848. In New 
York he started a modest practice and in 
1857 began lecturing in the College of Physi- 
cians and Surgeons on the diseases of chil- 
dren. Later ke taught in Bellevue Hospital 
College and the University of New York and 
became clinical professor of pediatries in 
Columbia University in 1870, retiring as pro- 
fessor emeritus in 1899 after nearly half a 
century of instructional work. His contribu- 
tion to the literature of children’s diseases 
was large and includes a number of very im- 
portant treatises. 


ONE of the most conspicuous phases of re- 
cent work of the Rockefeller Foundation, 
which was established in 1913 “to promote 
the well-being of mankind throughout the 
world,” has been an educational and medi- 
cal campaign against tuberculosis in France. 
By spectacular methods of advertising, the 
propaganda was carried far and wide 
over the country and many dispensaries 
and laboratories were established. In the 
United States the Foundation has demon- 
strated in two states that it is possible and 
profitable to get rid of malaria, either by 
destroying the malarial mosquitoes or, where 
this is impossible, by curing the human “ear- 
riers” of the disease. In the case of yellow 
fever, an attack has been made against the 
strongholds of the disease in Guatemala, and 
an expedition was sent to Ecuador for the 
collection of important information. The 


745 


The King and Queen of Belgium, during 


honored New York City by planting a tree in Central Park—a European beech. 


acta 


Courtesy of Underwood d& Underwood 


recent visit of their Majesties to this country, 
In the photograph 


taken at the time, the King in the uniform of a Lieutenant General can be seen standing just back of 


her Majesty. 
before the tree planting 


campaign previously begun against the hook- 
worm has been continued, and the infection 
surveys were completed in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 
in Jamaica, and in Guam, while new work 
was started in Queensland, Australia, and in 
The China Medical 


Board of the Rockefeller Foundation is con- 


Minas Geraes, Brazil. 


structing thirteen buildings for the Peking 
Union Medical College. Thirty-two instrue- 
tors have been appointed on the medical 
faculty, and laboratory facilities are now 
1914 the fund of 


$22,444,815 has been distributed among rec- 


ready. Since large 
ognized agencies for special war service in 
camp and community welfare, medical- re- 
search and relief, and humanitarian aid for 
Armenia, Syria, Belgium, France, Poland, 
Serbia, and Turkey. Plans for public health 


and medical education have been laid on 


broad international lines, and a new School 


of Hygiene and Public Health has been 
opened in connection with Johns Hopkins 
University. The Rockefeller Foundation 


fortunately has received a large share of the 
Christmas Day gift by John D. Rockefeller 
of $100,000,000 for public health and edueca- 
tion throughout the world. 


146 


The King and Queen were greeted in the park by 30,000 New York school children 


A GOLD medal has been presented to Dr. 
M. E. Conner, chairman of the Rockefeller 
Foundation Commission to Guayaquil, at a 
special meeting of the Guayaquil municipal- 
ity, Mm recognition of his services and success 
in stamping out yellow fever in that region. 


Rockefeller Foundation has estab- 


division of medical education to 


THE 
lished a 
which Dr. Richard M. Pearce, professor of 
research medicine in the University of Penn- 
sylvania and member of the medical advisory 
board to the War Council of the American 
Red Cross, has been appointed director. 


THREE trees were planted by distinguished 
visitors to New York City last fall in the 
“Honor. Grove” of Central Park where the 
English elm, set out in 1860 by the Prince 
of Wales, later King Edward VII, still 
stands. On the afternoon of September 9, 
General Pershing, while attending a gather- 
ing in the park of 35,000 school children, 
put the first 
pin oak as a memorial to the men who lost 
World War. A month 


later, on October 3, after addressing a simi- 


earth around the roots of a 
their lives in the 


lar gathering of school children, the King 


and Queen of Belgium planted a Huropeat faithtul weekly chronicle Sir Norman, i1 
beech, and on November 21 the Prince ot his “Valedictory Memories,” records the en 
Wales set out an elm near the tree which couragement in starting the weekly he re 
his grandtather planted more than half a ceived fron rious men of the past genera 
century before. tion, including Mr. Alexander Maemillan, Su 
Joseph Hooker, Huxley, and Tyndall. This 
THEIR Majesties the King and Queen of was ten years after the appearance of Dai 
Belgium, the Crown Prince, and their party win’s O if Species and at about the 
visited the American Museum of Natural time when science began to take its first hold 
History on the afternoon of Saturday, in public education in Great Britain. 


October $f, and were received by Protesso1 


William K. Gregory and other members of \ magazine, the Scientific America 
the scientific staff present. The royal Vontl will succeed the Scientific Ame 

party visited several of the halls and can Supp ent, which was established in 
viewed important exhibits, expressing a co) IS76. This monthly will be devoted to eu 
dial interest in the Museum’s work. rent events in pure science and technology. 


It will officially represent the National Re 


On November 6 Ne e celebrated its fit search Council by a special department and 
tieth anniversary with a Jubilee Number. keep the public informed of the Council's 
The issue is occupied, for the most part, with activities. A particularly important feature 
retrospects by noted British scientists of fifty of the new magazine, as it was of its pre 
years’ progress in various fields of learning, lecessor, is the publication of translations 
and an appreciation by Dr. H. Deslandres, of complete texts of significant articles ap 
vice president of the Academy or selences pearing in Toreign si ientific mavazines. 
of Paris, of the founder and editor, Sir Nor 
man Lockyer, who still continues his astro THE University of Paris has presented to 
nomical investigations at fourscore and three the universities of the Allied countries a 
years. Fifty years have seen vast changes in medal commemorating the achievements i 
science and scientific education in England, the World War of the men of the respectiv 


and of these changes Nature has been th institutions. 


-~ 


—~. 
S10 
43 


NEIGHT 225 


A medal, presented to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales by the American Numismatic Society on the 
occasion of the Prince’s recent visit to the United States 


The medal was presented to the Prince in a case made of the wood of an elm which his grand- 
father, King Edward VII, at that time Prince of Wales, planted in Central Park, New York City, in 
1860. A limb from this tree is on exhibition in Memorial Hall at the American Museum, through the 
courtesy of the New York Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the Commissioner of Parks. 
The tree has grown to a height of 62 feet and at the time of its planting Central Park was only partly 
developed, and the whole region west of the park was ‘‘in the country.’’ There were only a few houses 
and Manhattan Square, now occupied by the American Museum of Natural History, was still in its nat- 
ural wild state, containing a small lake which contributed its waters to the lake in Central Park 


748 


NOTES 749 


Dr. GEORGE ELLERY HALE, director of the 
Mount Wilson Observatory, foreign secre- 
tary of the National “Academy of Sciences, 
and, during the war, chairman of the National 
Research Council, now holds the honor of 
being foreign associate of the Paris Academy 
of Sciences. Dr. Hale was elected honorary 
chairman in perpetuity of the National Re- 
search Council after his resignation as chair- 
man, in recognition of his services during 
the war. 


Dr. CHARLES D. WaALcort, geologist, and 
secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has 
been elected foreign associate of the Paris 
Academy of Sciences to fill the vacancy 
left by the death of Dr. Elie Metchnikoff. 
Foreign associates are limited to twelve. 
This distinction has been previously held by 
five Americans, Benjamin Franklin, Count 
Rumford, Louis Agassiz, Simon Newcomb, 
and Alexander Agassiz. 


A SUITABLE tablet has been erected on the 
grave at Philadelphia of Constantine Samuel 
Rafinesque, botanist and zoologist. The 
grave had previously been unmarked. Ra- 
finesque, born in Turkey, of French and 
German parentage, made his first trip to the 
United States in 1802 to collect botanical 
specimens in Pennsylvania and Delaware. 
He settled permanently in this country in 
1815. Shortly after his emigration he oecu- 
pied the chair of botany in Transylvania 
University, Lexington, Kentucky. Rafinesque 
wrote extensively in English, French, and 
Italian on his special researches. 


A DEPARTURE in government recognition of 
science was evidenced in the appointment of 
Professor C. E. Mendenhall, of the chair of 
physics in the University of Wisconsin, as 
scientific attaché to the United States Em- 
bassy in London. The appointment, how- 
ever, was a war measure only and has since 
lapsed. 


THE proposal has come from various high 
scientific quarters to convert Heligoland into 
a bird sanctuary. The island is only a little 
rock of about one fourth of a square mile in 
extent, lying in the North Sea forty miles 
northwest of the mouth of the Elbe River. 
Although no birds regularly nest there ex- 
cept the English sparrow, it is a resting 


place for myriads of feathered travelers dur- 
ing the two annual migrations. As the island 
has been retained by Germany, however, with 
only the stipulation that the fortress be re- 
duced, it will remain with that government 
to make this island, one of the greatest bird 
migration observatories of the world, a pro- 
tected reservation. 


Ar Pilawin, southeastern Russia, the great 
game preserve of Count Potocki, one of the 
very few preserves in Russia, has been com- 
pletely destroyed by the Bolsheviki, accord- 
ing to a letter from M. Pierre Amédée- 
Pichot of the French National Society of 
Acclimatation, printed in the Zoological 
Society Bulletin, New York. ‘Hundreds of 
deer, wapiti, European bison, and animals of 
all sorts were kept in 7000 acres of enclosed 
forest, which was part of a great tract of 
30,000 acres. The place was invaded by 2000 
Bolshevik Red Guards, who shot every ani- 
mal, and left the carcasses to rot on the 
ground. The palace, its furniture, and col- 
lections were destroyed, and the servants 
and keepers of the game were tortured to 
death.” 


Destruction of the herd of elephants in 
the Addo Bush Forest Reserve (South Af- 
rica) was authorized by the provincial council 
of the Cape of Good Hope in the summer of 
1919. This herd of from 100 to 200 animals 
was the last remnant of a variety (Elephas 
africanus capensis) which once ranged over 
the whole of southern Africa. The variety 
is characterized by a strongly arched fore- 
head and enormous ears recorded as 4 ft. 
5 in.x4 ft. for a female 8 feet high (in 
the British Museum). The preserve at Addo 
Bush near Port Elizabeth has been opened 
up to agriculture by irrigation projects and 
the elephants naturally assumed that the im- 
provements were for their benefit and acted 
accordingly. To confine the elephants would 
have required a thirteen-mile fence, costing 
at least £20,000, and in addition it would 
have been necessary to provide’a water sup- 
ply for them. All this makes it appear that 
African elephants are likely to fare worse 
than our American bison before the onrush 
of civilized man because they are so difficult 
to hold and care for in captivity. 


THE Yucca House National Monument in 
the foothills of Sleeping Ute Mountains just 


NATURAL 


750 
west of Mesa Verde National Park, Colo- 
rado, has been established by a proclamation 
of President Wilson. This 
tains the ruins of what was once an exten- 
sive Indian village. Mr. Henry Van Kleeck, 
of Denver, donated to the Federal Govern- 


ment the ten acres on which the ruins stand. 


monument con- 


Dr. CLARK WISSLER, curator of anthro- 
pology in the American Museum, has been 
elected chairman of the Section of Anthro- 
pology and Psychology of the National Re- 


search Couneil. 


Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, the distinguished 
British zoologist, has just completed fifty 
years’ editorship of the Quarterly Journal of 


M icroscopical Science. 


THE National Academy of Sciences, Wash- 
ington, has awarded a gold medal to Dr. A. 
Fowler, professor of astrophysics in the 
Royal College of Science and secretary of 
the Royal Astronomical Society, London, in 
recognition of his researches in astronomy. 


Mr. WitLttAM HENry Fox, director of the 
Brooklyn Museum, of the Brooklyn Institute 
of Arts and Sciences, New York City, has 
been named a Chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor by the French Government. 


International Control of Minerals is the 
subject of a pamphlet by C. K. Leith, pro- 
fessor of geology in the University of Wis- 
consin, issued by the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey. 
state the problem 
rather than to argue for or against it, and 


His purpose is, apparently, to 
in its various phases 
to put emphasis on the imperative need for 
study of the world mineral situation. The 
joint organization and systematic distribu- 
tion of the mineral output of the world, 
brought about under pressure of war, has 
illustrated the possibility of international 
control. There are several fundamental facts 
in reference to the world’s mineral supply 
which make it a matter of 
concern: (1) About one third of the mineral 
output moves between nations; (2) In most 


international 


instances it moves along a few restricted 
routes to a few centers, for instance, manga- 
nese is exported from three sources to four 
or five consuming centers; (3) No country 
is entirely self-supporting, for example, the 
United States lacks almost entirely nickel, 
platinum, and tin, and imports a large part 


ET SLORY 


of its aluminum, chrome, magnesium, and 
potash. Free trade in the metals instead of 
giving unrestricted opportunity has rather 
concentrated the materials in a few hands, 
a fact which at times hinders both national 
and industrial developments in other coun- 
tries or localities. The question has accord- 
ingly arisen as to “the extent to which na- 
tional interests can and will be subordinated 
to international interest” and the centralized 
control of the war maintained. There seems 
to be official sanction in Great Britain and 
France for such a control, the aim of which 
will be to insure an equitable distribution 
of the may be a 


world shortage, an adjustment of ship space, 


minerals of which there 
and an equality in the use of basic raw ma- 
terials. An important aspect of the control 
would also be the part it might possibly play 
in the maintenance of peace. 


THE International Research Council was 
opened at Brussels, July 18, 1919, in the 
presence of King Albert, by M. Harmignie, 
minister of science and arts, who welcomed 
the members to Belgium. Statutes for the 
Council were agreed upon and its objects out- 
lined, according to Science, as follows: 

“(a) To coordinate international efforts 
in the different branches of science and its 
applications. 

(b) To initiate the formation of inter- 
national associations or unions deemed to be 
useful to the progress of science. 

(c) To direct international scientific ac- 
tion in subjects which do not fall within the 
province of any existing association. 

(d) To enter, through the proper chan- 
nels, into relations with the governments of 
the countries adhering to the council to ree- 
ommend the study of questions falling within 
the competence of the council.” 


Brussels will be the legal domicile of the 
Council where it will hold triennial meetings, 
but the special associations affiliated there- 
with will probably maintain the custom of 
meeting successively in different countries. 
Between the triennial meetings the work of 
the Council is intrusted to an executive com- 
mittee of five, consisting for the present of 
Professor E. Picard (France), Dr. A. 
Schuster (England), Dr. G. E. Hale (United 
States), M. Volterra (Italy), and M. Le- 
cointe (Belgium). The general secretariat 
will be established at Burlington House, Lon- 
don, where the Royal Society has set aside 
a room for its use. All of the nations which 
remained neutral during the war were unani- 
mously invited to affiliate with the Council. 


NOTES 


Dr. W. W. CAMPBELL, director of the Lick 
Observatory, headed the American delega- 
tion to the meeting of the International Re- 
search Council at Brussels. This delegation 
included representatives from the National 
Academy of Sciences, the American Astro- 
physical Society, the American Mathematical 
Society, the American Physical Society, the 
Naval Observatory, and the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. As a result of 
the Brussels meeting two subsidiary societies 
came into existence, the International As- 
tronomical and the International Geophysical 
unions. The American Section of the Geo- 
physical Union was organized under the Di- 
vision of Physical Sciences of the National 
Research Council and, as approved by this 
Division, will include geodesy, seismology 
and voleanology, meteorology and aérology, 
earth and ocean tides and mareology, and 
terrestrial magnetism. Mr. William Bowie, 
chief of the division of geodesy of the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, was ap- 
pointed acting chairman of the American 
Section. 


ProGRESS in Negro education is reviewed 
in a recent Bulletin of the United States 
Department of the Interior by Dr. Thomas 
Jesse Jones, of the Bureau of Education of 
that department. 
Negro labor from the South the legislatures 
of southern states have taken a more active 
hand in this question, and Texas has even 
appointed a state supervisor of rural Negro 
schools. The great illiteracy of the southern 
Negroes was called to public attention by the 
examinations of Negro recruits in the late 
draft. Short terms (frequently only a few 
weeks), poor schoolhouses, and low salaries 


Because of the exodus of 


for teachers, however, will demand corree- 
tion in many localities before the deplorable 
state of affairs can be ameliorated to any 
notable extent. 


MEDICINE as a determining factor in war 
was discussed by Dr. Alexander Lambert in 
his presidential address before the 1919 meet- 
ing of the American Medical Association. 
The death rate in the Civil War of killed in 
action or died of wounds was 33 per thousand 
and of death by disease 65 per thousand. 
The American Expeditionary Force lost 
from wounds in action 31 per thousand and 
from disease only 11 per thousand. Malaria, 
which was the great scourge of the Civil 


War, has become almost negligible, while 
typhoid, which caused so many deaths in the 
Spanish American War and 22 per cent of 
the deaths in the Civil War, 
with only 0.4 per 


yas chargeable 
cent of deaths in the 
World War. Pneumonia was the most dreaded 
disease of the recent war and to it are as- 
cribed 85 per cent of all deaths from disease. 
The pneumonia, however, was part of a 
world-wide and beyond control. 
Dr. Lambert points out that, if the Medical 
Department is to increase its usefulness, it 


epidemic 


requires representatives on the General Staff, 
for authority must be united with respon- 
sibility. 
thority 
meningitis which caused 4 per cent of deaths 
The 
increased morbidity and fatality were owing 


An example of what lack of au- 


entails is found in the case of 


as opposed to 2 per cent in other wars. 


in this case, Dr. Lambert says, to over- 
crowding and bad ventilation of barracks, 
factors outside the control of the Medical 


Department. 


THE fact that 34.19 per cent of the late 
draft in the United rejected 
from military service on the basis of phys- 


States was 


ical inferiority raises serious questions in 
Dr. J. Howard 
Beard, of the University of Illinois, ana- 
lyzes in the Scientific Monthly the principal 


the field of public hygiene. 


causes of rejection with a view to their pre- 
ventability. All in all, the draft demon- 
strated that, if the country is to conserve its 
human lives as well as its other natural re- 
sources, it must turn its collective attention 
to adequate medical care and instruction in 
the schools. And, further, parents must be 
educated to save themselves expense by pay- 
ing the family doctor a small sum to pre- 
vent, rather than a large sum to cure, illness 
in their children. 

THe decoration of Commander of the 
Order of the Crown of Belgium was pre- 
sented to President Henry Fairfield Osborn 
on November 20 by Colonel Osterrieth, chief 


of the Belgian Military Mission to the 
United States, representing the King of 
Belgium. Two volumes of the scientific re- 


searches made as a result of the Congo Ex- 
pedition of the American Museum have been 
sent to King Albert, inscribed with the fol- 
lowing legend: 

“In grateful appreciation of the generous 


codperation of the Belgian Government in 


792 


promoting this scientific research, the con- 
tributions in these two volumes representing 
the reports of the Belgian Congo Expedi- 
tion so far as published, have been assembled 
for presentation to his Majesty, the King 
of Belgium, by the President and Trustees 
of the American Museum of Natural History 
on the occasion of his visit to America.” 


THE collection of big game trophies made 
by the late Captain F. C. Selous, D.S.O., who 
was killed in action during the British cam- 
paign in East Africa, has been presented by 
Mrs. Selous to the British Museum (Natural 
History). Captain Selous hunted during a 
period of forty years in Africa, Canada, 
Newfoundland, the southern Carpathians, 
and Asia Minor, and it is said that the col- 
lection is one of the largest ever brought 
together. 


AN expedition to Africa under Mr. Ed- 
mund Heller sailed from New York on July 
15 for Capetown whence it will proceed to 
Victoria Falls, from there entering the Bel- 
gian Congo and traveling eastward to Lake 
Tanganyika. Mr. H. C. Raven has been 
delegated by the Smithsonian Institution its 
representative on the expedition. 


AN expedition to discover the sources of 
the Wahi Shebeli River which flows from 
Abyssinia through Italian Somaliland, left 
Naples during October. It was under the 
leadership of Prince Luigi, Duke of the 
Abruzzi, who was commander in chief of the 
Italian navy during the war, and has held 
both farthest north and highest altitude 
records, the one made in an attempt to reach 
the North Pole from Franz Josef Land, the 
other by an ascent of Mt. Austin, India, to a 
height of 24,000 feet. On a previous expedi- 
tion to equatorial Africa he scaled Mt. Ru- 
wenzori, altitude 16,801 feet. 


THE British Imperial Antarctic Expedi- 
tion under Mr. John L. Cope plans to leave 
New Zealand in July on the ship “Terra 
Nova.” In announcing his expedition Mr. 
Cope says that it will aim to ascertain the 
position and extent of mineral deposits in 
Antarctica, to locate any waters abounding 
in whales, to investigate the meteorological 
and magnetic condition in the Ross Sea area 
and at Cape Ann, and to circumnavigate the 
Antaretie Continent. 


NATURAL BDSHO RY 


THE death is announced of Herbert Ward, 
British sculptor, traveler, and author. Mr. 
Ward early went to Africa and was one of 
the survivors of Stanley’s Emin Pasha Relief 
Expedition in 1888. He later turned to 
sculpture and exhibited in Paris many nota- 
ble bronzes of African natives, some of which 
are now in the Luxembourg. As sculptor he 
received the decoration of Chevalier of the 
Legion of Honor. In 1916 Mr. Ward lec- 
tured in the United States for the benefit of 
the work of the American War Relief. 
Among his books are Five Years with the 
Congo Cannibals (1890), My Life with 
Stanley's Rear Guard (1891), and A Voice 
from the Congo (1910). 


THE creation of a Mexican government 
bureau of archeology and ethnology has been 
announced by the Secretaria de Agricultura 
y Fomento. The bureau will carry on scien- 
tific investigations of the Mexican aboriginal 
cultures on the basis of a regional survey 
of the country. 


THE erection of signposts, indicating dis- 
tance and direction of watering places, 
through the deserts of southern California 
and Arizona under the direction of the United 
States Geological Survey has progressed 
rapidly. The water supply of the region is 
of strategic importance because it includes 
about 350 miles of the Mexican frontier. 
All the watering places of the region have 
been examined and 635 signs erected. All 
maps and data have been turned over to 
the United States Army for incorporation in 
the progressive military map of the United 
States. The work will ultimately be extended 
to all the western arid lands. 


A COMPREHENSIVE outdoor course in biol- 
ogy was successfully conducted last summer 
by the department of zodlogy of Oberlin Col- 
lege under Professor Lynds Jones. Students 
of ecology were taken on an automobile trip 
to the Pacifie Coast of Washington, includ- 
ing in their route the Yellowstone Park and 
part of the Columbia River. In the summer 
of 1920 the department expects to conduct a 
similar trip through Colorado to the Yosem- 
ite Park, California. 


A musEuM of natural history has been 
founded in Yellowstone National Park by 
the Department of the Interior. Such 


NOTES 


institutions will render important service in 
the utilization of our national parks as great 
outdoor universities. 


THe United States Forest Service reports 
from California that the aviators who made 
daily flights over the national forests during 
the summer and autumn of 1919, discovered 
many incipient fires and thus prevented 
great loss. So valuable has this work proved 
that an air service may ultimately become 
a permanent part of the forest protection. 


The Mineral Deposits of South America is 
the title of a new work by Benjamin L. 
Miller, professor of geology in Lehigh Uni- 
versity, and Joseph T. Singewald, Jr., asso- 
ciate professor of economic geology in Johns 
Hopkins University. This book is the result 
of an extended trip by the two authors 
through South America, together with an ex- 
haustive study of the literature of South 
American mineralogy of which they have 
collected the first extensive bibliography. 
After an introductory chapter on the eco- 
nomic geology of the southern continent 
there follow résumés of the mineral products 
and topographical and geological deserip- 
tions of the various countries together with 
detailed descriptions of localities important 
mineralogically. The book will serve as a 
valuable source of information for the mer- 
chant, investor, or prospector as well as for 
the student of South American geology. 


WE learn from Nature that a conference 
of delegates from the Mediterranean nations 
met in November at Madrid to consult on 
and organize a plan for an international 
hydrographic and fishery investigation, par- 
ticularly with reference to the life histories 
of food fishes. 
immediate call of the organization, provided 
by the Prince of Monaco, and by Italy, 
France, and Spain, respectively. 
of this will be 
ultimately in French, Spanish, Italian, and 
English. 


Four vessels will be at the 


The re- 


sults research published 


PROGRESS in the tanning and preparation 
of fishskins for commercial leather is re- 
ported by the Fisheries Service Bulletin. 
The United States Government Bureau re- 
ports that samples of the leather made from 
shark and porpoise hides is much superior to 
that previously submitted and is soft, pli- 


753 


able, and strong. The Bureau has developed 
a special net for catching sharks which ap- 
pears well adapted to this difficult and some- 
times dangerous sport. 


THe United States Bureau of Fisheries 
has established an experiment laboratory in 
southern California to study the problem 
of preserving and canning fishery products. 
The methods developed will be placed at the 
disposal of the commercial packers. 


A GIANT panda (Ailuropus melanoleucus) 
from eastern Tibet, one of the rarest of ani- 
mals, has recently been placed on exhibition 
at the American Museum. The panda was 
discovered in 1869. In general appearance 
it resembles a bear and is about the size of 
our black bear, but it is really a distant rel- 
ative of the raccoon. The striking black and 
white coat, short muzzle, and curious black 
patches about the eyes give it a very ex- 
traordinary appearance. Almost nothing is 
known of the animal’s habits, but it is said 
that it feeds on roots and the young shoots 
of bamboo. It is believed that the specimen 
shown at the American Museum is the first 
brought to this country; the skin was pur- 
chased from Mr. Joseph Milner, a mission- 
ary, who had obtained it from some natives 
of Ta-Chien-lu, Tibet. Mr. Blaschke, sculp- 
tor in the American Museum preparation 
department, mounted the specimen. 


_AN interesting collection of birds, taken 
in northwestern Peru, has just been received 
at the American Museum from Mr. Harry 
Watkins, field representative of the depart- 
ment of ornithology. Several new forms, 
including a new genus of ovenbirds (Hylo- 
cryptus), are described in the December Pro- 
ceedings of the Biological Society of Wash- 
ington by Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator 
of the department of ornithology at the 
American Museum. One of the most inter- 
esting discoveries is a breeding race of the 
killdeer, a common North American bird, 
which occasionally reaches extreme northern 
South America in winter. 


A VALUABLE specimen of the great auk 
(Plautus impennis) has recently been added 
to the collections which are now in the Ameri- 
can Museum, belonging to Dr. L. C. Sanford, 
of New Haven, Connecticut. The great auk 
or garefowl is an extinct bird formerly in- 
North Atlantic 


habiting the regions and 


Tot 


breeding on small islands off the coast of 
Iceland, on the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and 
in the vicinity of Newfoundland. It 
appeared early in the nineteenth century 
through persecution by fishermen and sailors, 
who killed it for food, bait, and feathers. 
The last few survivors were taken by col- 
lectors about 1840. 
eight specimens are preserved in the mu- 
seums and private collections of the world, 
and accordingly skins have sold for very 
large sums. 


dis- 


Only about seventy- 


Bones of the Virginia deer have been 
found in Indian shell heaps in Nova Scotia 
by the Canadian Geological Survey, and the 
identification has been confirmed by Dr. 
Gerrit S. Miller, of the United States Na- 
tional Museum. That the Virginia deer 
ranged so far north, except after its intro- 
duction into the province in 1888, had not 
previously been known. 


OnE of the largest and most beautiful 
botanical gardens of the world is to be 
founded in Illinois, just outside the city of 
Chicago, by the Cook County board of forest 
preserve commissioners. This garden will be 
made by converting 2000 acres of the Palos 


Forest Preserve and so will inherit a natural 


tree and plant endowment in the green 
prairies and the wooded ravines along the 
Des Plaines River. Exotic flowers, shrubs, 
and trees will gradually be added. 


THE first living specimen of the okapi to 
be brought out of the Congo country has 
been safely delivered to the Zodlogical Gar- 
den of Antwerp by the Commandant of the 
district of Bas-Uelé (Belgian Congo). The 
specimen was captured a day or so after 
its birth. At first it was fed on canned 
milk and then on the milk of a zebu cow, 
but since its arrival in Europe the young 
animal eats clover and other green plants. 
The Congo Expedition of the American 
Museum (1909-15) attempted to bring out 
an okapi, but the specimen captured died 
for lack of proper food. 


THE first part of Volume I of the final re- 
port of the Scientific Survey of Porto Rico 
and the Virgin Islands was published Sep- 
tember 26 by the New York Academy of 
Sciences. It contains a history of the Survey 
by Dr. N. L. Britton; a geological introduc- 
tion, including a discussion of the major 
geological features, by Professor C. P. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Berkey, to which is appended a new base 
map of Porto Rico by Dr. Chester A. Reeds; 
and an interesting description of the geology 
of the San Juan District, an area of about five 
hundred square miles on the northern side 
of Porto Rico, by Dr. Douglas R. Semmes. 
The 110 pages of text are supplemented 
by twenty-six illustrations, four plates, and 
three maps. 

The Survey was instituted in 1913 by the 
New York Academy of Sciences in codpera- 
tion with the insular government of Porto 
Rico, the American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, the New York Botanical Garden, and 
with the scientific departments of Columbia 
University and other institutions, for the 
purpose of prosecuting a thorough and sys- 
tematic investigation of the natural history 
of the island of Porto Rico, and subsequently 
of the Virgin Islands. A large amount of 
data has been assembled and a great number 
of specimens collected. Important prelimi- 
nary papers have been published in the Bul- 
letin and Memoirs of the American Museum 
of Natural History as well as in other scien- 
tifie journals. 

The complete report will contain volumes 
devoted to anthropology, botany, geology, 
paleontology and zodlogy. These will give 
a most exhaustive and valuable account of 
the natural history resources of the islands. 


THE American Ornithologists’ Union held 
its thirty-seventh stated meeting at the 
American Museum, November 11-14. In 
connection with the meeting of the or- 
nithologists and in celebration of the cen- 
tennial of the expedition to the Rocky 
Mountains under the command of Major 
Stephen H. Long, the Museum arranged a 
special exhibit of specimens, manuscripts, 
drawings, and published volumes relating to 
Thomas Say and 
Titian Ramsay Peale accompanied that ex- 
pedition which was the first American ex- 
ploring expedition to which naturalists were 
officially assigned. 


Major Long’s journey. 


THE Children’s Museum of Boston has re- 
ceived accessions to its endowment fund 
amounting to $25,000. A branch will be 
opened in codperation with the Barnard Me- 
morial in the crowded south end of the city. 


THE bronze memorial to Lewis and Clark 
by Charles Keck, sculptor, a photograph of 
which was shown in the April-May number 


NOTES 755 


of NarurAL History, was dedicated by the 
city of Charlottesville, Virginia, on Novem- 
ber 21, 1919. 


AN expedition to the island of Jamaica 
for living and extinct mammals, was under- 
taken in November by Mr. H. E. Anthony, 
assisted by Mr. Charles Falkenbach, both of 
the American Museum. No fossil verte- 
brates, except for a single skull of a marine 
mammal, were known from this island, but a 
consideration of the conditions in this and 
other West Indian islands made it appear 
highly probable that some land vertebrates 
formerly existed there, and the geology in- 
dicated that caves probably existed similar 
to those in Porto Rico and Cuba from which 
Mr. Anthony had secured such large and in- 
teresting collections of fossil mammals, and 
that they might also yield fossils. Prelimi- 
nary reports from Mr. Anthony leave no 
doubt that this forecast has been verified, 
but the extent and character of the collec- 
tions remain to be seen. The character of 
this fauna will be studied with particular 
interest, as it should throw further light on 
the sources of the fauna and the manner ‘of 
its arrival on the islands. The geology of 
the West Indies indicates that the most 
probable place for a mainland connection, if 
the fauna arrived in that manner, is by way 
of Hayti, Jamaica, and Honduras. Ob- 
viously, if the animals did arrive in this 
way, the fauna of Jamaica ought to be more 
like that of the mainland than those of any 
of the other islands—more continental in 
type. On the other hand, if the animals, or 
rather their ancestors, arrived on the islands 
through the agency of storms, floating vege- 
tation, or other accidents of oversea trans- 
portation, without the aid of any continuous 
land bridge, then Jamaica, as a rather small 
and isolated island, should have a more 
scanty and insular fauna than the larger 
and more central islands of Cuba and His- 
paniola, perhaps even more so than Porto 
Rico. 


Mr. ALBERT THOMSON, of the department 
of vertebrate paleontology in the American 
Museum, assisted by Mr. George Olsen, car- 
ried on operations during the summer of 
1919 in the great fossil quarry at Agate, 
Nebraska. From the richer part of the 
quarry a section was selected especially suit- 
able to be preserved and exhibited at the 


Museum in the block. This block, showing 
sixteen skulls and corresponding numbers of 
skeleton bones within a space of 54%4x8 feet, 
was skillfully lifted, boxed, and brought to 
the American Museum without damage. Its 
weight when boxed was about six thousand 
pounds. Several other valuable fossil speci- 
mens were obtained from the quarry and 


vicinity. 


A SIGN of the renewed period of inter- 
change between the American Museum and 
its scientific colleagues abroad is the gift of 
a series of skeletal casts of the Neanderthal 
man of Krapina, Croatia, which comes from 
the laboratory of Professor Gorjanovié- 
Kramberger, director of the Geological and 
Paleontological Department in the Croa- 
tian Natural History Museum at Zagrab 
(Agram). These casts have been arranged 
with the other material dealing with the his- 
tory of Neanderthal man in the center of 
the hall of the Age of Man at the American 
Museum. 


Mr. Louis L. Mowsray, who was con- 
nected with the New York Aquarium for a 
number of years, has lately gone to Miami, 
Florida, to take charge of a new aqua- 
rium which is to be erected there. On 
leaving New York he turned over to the 
American Museum of Natural History two 
important collections of marine fishes, made 
by himself, one from Bermuda and the other 
from Turk’s Island in the Bahamas. These 
collections contain several which 
have never been deseribed, and others which 
are little known. Turk’s Island is famous 
for the variety of its fish life but the species 
which occur there have never before been 
listed or adequately collected. The fishes 
from Bermuda are comparatively well known 
and are of particular interest as perhaps 
giving some key to the obscure laws which 
govern the dispersal of marine fishes. A cer- 
tain similarity between the fish life in Ber- 
muda and that at South Trinidad Island, 
which lies well off the Brazilian coast, 
south of the Equator, should be traced to 
similar oceanic isolation of each locality. 
The occurrence in Bermuda and Porto Rico 
of species not known elsewhere in the West 
Indies is interesting, and we find that ‘cer- 
tain fishes of the Mediterranean and eastern 
Atlantie occur there. It seems incredible 
that these should not also reach other West 
Indian islands. Distance is proved to be no 


species 


"5G NATO RAT VATSRORY 


barrier to their dispersal. Possibly, how- 
ever, there is some effective barrier in the 
trend of the ocean currents or it may be 
that, although they reach Bermuda, they are 
barred from waters farther south where they 
would meet a keener competition with allied 


forms. 


A suRVEY through the Rocky Mountains 
for study of the nature of the folding of the 
earth’s crust involved in the elevation of 
these mountains is reported on by Professor 
Rollin T. Chamberlin, of the University of 
Chicago, in the Journal of Geology. The 
line of the survey extended in a slight curve 
from near Lyons, Colorado, to the Grand 
Hogback at Glenwood Springs, so as to meet 
the various ranges at approximately right 
angles. This section of the Rockies (from 
the Great Plains to the Uinta Basin) was 
originally 140 miles in width and has been 
compressed into 132 miles, a shortening of 
only 8 miles. The section studied by the 
Survey was divided into thirteen parts and 
the thickness of the crust involved in the 
deformation was calculated for each section, 
The roots of the Gore Range reach to a depth 
of 87 miles and of the plateau near Glenwood 
Springs to 107 miles, very great depths when 
compared with the crustal deformation of 
the Pennsylvania Appalachian folds where 
the maximum depth is only 32 miles. Further 
comparison of the Colorado Rockies with the 
Appalachians out the very great 
amount of volcanic action there has been in 
the case of the former and the negligible 
amount in the latter. It is probably true 
that mountain formation in which there has 
been involved a. thick shell of the earth’s 
surface which has necessarily pushed down- 
ward into the earth great depths has always 
been accompanied by much outpouring of 
lava; and that the reverse has been true in 
the case of the deformation, however intense, 
of a thin shell which has pushed its roots but 
a few miles downward instead of several 
scores of miles. A theoretical division might 
be made of the earth’s mountain ranges into 
thin-shell, shallow-rooted mountains which 
have had little volcanic eruption—the Alps, 
the Jura, Seandinavian chain, Scottish High- 
lands, Brazil range, and thick-shell, 
deep-rooted mountains with very great lava 
output—Colorado Rockies, Cascade Range, 
western Andes, and the Abyssinian Moun- 


brings 


etc. ; 


tains. 


A TOPOGRAPHIC mapping of the repub- 
lics of Santo Domingo and Haiti has been 
undertaken under the supervision of the 
United States Geological Survey through 
appropriations made by the respective gov- 
It is also reported by the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences that Cuba and 
Porto Rico are expected to join in the work. 
A Division of West Indian Surveys has been 
created for this emergency and Lieutenant 
Colonel Glenn S. Smith placed in charge. 
Survey parties have already begun work in 
the Dominican Republic. 


ernments. 


AN exchange of professors between the 
University of Chile and the University of 
California has been officially ratified by the 
government of Chile through its Minister 
of Public Instruction, Pablo Ramirez. This 
is the first definite step in a plan by which 
the University of California will become 
a center for exchanges of professors with the 
leading Hispanie countries of the world and 
for study of the historic and contemporary 
problems of these countries. Dr. Charles E. 
Chapman, associate professor of Hispanic- 
American history in the University of Cali- 
fornia, will be the first exchange professor. 


THOSE mammals of Australia which are 
now or in the past have been in the New 
York Zoological Park are the subject of a 
well illustrated paper! by W. H. D. Le Souef, 
director of the Zoological Gardens, Mel- 
bourne. The Australian mammalian fauna, 
with its dingo, kangaroos, wallabies, koala, 
bandicoot, wombat, Tasmanian wolf, Tas- 
manian devil, and platypus, is the most pecu- 
liar found on any continent, and is always 
of interest to the general visitor at any 
zoological garden. The New York Zoological 
Park has a representative collection of Aus- 
tralian mammals for which the paper by 
Mr. Le Souef will serve as an excellent 


guide. 


A SCIENTIFIC application of micro-cinema- 
tography, similar in some ways to that dis- 
cussed by Mr. Charles Herm in a previous 
number of Narurat History, is presented 
by Professor Herbert F. Moore, in Iron Age. 
Professor Moore has designed a micro-ci- 
nematograph which is attached to a metal 
testing machine. With this he is able to 
take views of the change in microscopical 


1Zoologica, Scientific Contributions of the New 
York Zoological Society, January, 1919. 


NOTES 


structure of the metals undergoing tests and 
then use these photographs for study and 
lectures. 


THE publication of a work on the oste- 
ology of reptiles, left in manuscript by the 
late Samuel Wendell Williston, professor of 
paleontology in the University of Chicago, 
has been intrusted to Dr. William K. Gregory 
of the American Museum. 


Dr. W. K. GreGorRY has in press two im- 
portant monographs in the Memoirs of the 
American Museum of Natural History, one 
describing the Eocene lemuroid Primates, 
the group of animals from which the later 
monkeys, apes, and man evolved, the other, 
a comparative study of the lachrymal bone 
in the Mammalia. 


Dr. Louis Doo, of the Royal Museum in 
Brussels, who is one of the senior paleon- 
tologists of Europe, is engaged, it is re- 
ported, in the preparation of a monograph 
on the fossil reptiles of the Congo. He has 
already published a number of special papers 
in this field. 


THE second award of the Elliot Medal for 
the leading publication in zodlogy or paleon- 
tology was made by the National Academy 
of Sciences, Washington, to Mr. William 
Beebe, curator of birds at the New York 
Zoological Park, in recognition of his Mono- 
graph of the Pheasants. Professor Henry 
Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum 
presented Mr. Beebe to the Academy. In 
speaking of the Monograph Professor Os- 
born said in part: 

“This is a profound study of the living 
pheasants in their natural environment in 
various parts of eastern Asia. There are 
nineteen groups of these birds: eighteen 
were successfully hunted with camera, with 
field-glasses, and when necessary for identi- 
fication, with the shotgun. The journey oc- 
cupied seventeen months, extended over 
twenty countries, and resulted in a rare 
abundance of material, both literary—con- 
cerning the life histories of birds—and pic- 
torial, photographs and sketches. The jour- 
ney extended over 52,000 miles; it ended in 
the great museums of London, of Tring, of 
Paris, and of Berlin, for the purpose of 
studying the type collections. Thus the 
order of the work was from nature to the 
museum and to man, rather than from man 
and the museum to nature. 


ToT 


“The Monograph covers the blood par- 
tridges, the tragopans, the impeyans, the gold 
and silver pheasants, the peacocks, the jun- 
gle fowl, and the history of the ancestry of 
our domestic fowls. It has important bear- 
ings on the Darwinian theories of protective 
coloration and of sexual selection, and on 
the De Vries theory of mutation. The full- 
and female characters, the 
changes of plumage from chick to adult, 
the songs, courtships, battles, nests, and 
eggs of nearly one hundred species are in- 
cluded and systematically described. The 
illustrations are by leading American and 
British artists. The haunts of the pheasants 
are shown in the author’s photographs rang- 
ing from the slopes of the Himalayan snow- 
peaks, 16,000 feet above the sea, to the 
tropical seashores of Java.” 


grown male 


To the four great murals by Charles R. 
Knight in the hall of the Age of Man at the 
American Museum has now been added a 
fifth, representing the Pleistocene life of 
northeastern North America, with its char- 
giant beaver, deer, moose, and 
tapir, the remains of which are found along 
with those of the mastodon in the peat bogs 
and later cave deposits of the North Atlan- 
tic States. A sixth mural painting by Mr. 
Knight, above the western archway of the 
hall, represents the Cro-Magnon race of 
man, the artist of the prehistoric cave 
paintings and sculptures of France and 
Spain and the forerunner in western Europe 
of the higher modern types of man among 


acteristi¢ 


whom civilization arose. 


Dr. PLiny E. Gopparp, curator of eth- 
nology in the American Museum, has been 
elected a fellow of the American Academy 
of Arts and Sciences. 


THE seventy-second meeting of the Amer- 
ican Association for the Advancement of 
Science met in St. Louis December 29 to 
January 3 under the presidency of Dr. Si- 
mon Flexner. The retiring president, Pro- 
fessor John M. Coulter, delivered his address 
on the “Evolution of Botanical Research” 
and President Flexner gave a lecture, com- 
plimentary to the members of the associa- 
tion and affiliated societies and the citizens 
of St. Louis, on “Present 
Medical Research.” 


mended, among other things, that in con- 


Problems in 
The Association recom- 


758 


nection with the Carnegie Endowment for 
International Peace, the British, French, 
and Italian equivalents of the American As- 
sociation be invited to send delegates to the 
meeting to be held next year in Chicago. 
The Association also indorsed and com- 
mended the general purposes of the Save 
the Redwoods League. Dr. L. O. Howard, 
chief of the United States Bureau of Ento- 
mology, was elected president for the ensu- 
ing year. 


ON Roosevelt Day, October 27, a number 
of lecture reminiscences were delivered at 
the American Museum in conjunction with 
the National Association of Audubon So- 
cieties. Addresses on various aspects of 
Roosevelt’s interests in natural history were 
delivered by President Henry Fairfield Os- 
born, of the American Museum, Mr. T. Gil- 
bert Pearson, secretary of the National 
Association of Audubon Societies, Dr. Frank 
M. Chapman, curator of ornithology in the 
American Museum, Mr. George K. Cherrie, 
representative of the American Museum on 
the Roosevelt Expedition to South America, 
Mr. Carl E. Akeley, and Mr. Ernest Thomp- 
son Seton. 


THE New York Times’ “Review of Books” 
reports the activity of John Burroughs in 
the memorial exercises in honor of Theodore 
Roosevelt. He journeyed from his home to 
Garden City, Long Island, to plant a “Roose- 


SINCE the last issue of NaTurRAL History 
the following persons have been elected 
members of the American Musum: 

Patrons, Mrs. Davin J. KELLEY and Mr. 
W. B. DICKERMAN. 

Life Members, MESDAMES H. ROSWELL 
BATES, CARLOS DE HEREDIA, BELLA C. LAN- 
DAUER, JAY C. Morss, J. D. ROCKEFELLER, 
JR., GARDINER SHERMAN, THAW, MISSES 
CHARLOTTE L. ANDREWS, THEODORA WIL- 
BOUR, GEN. THoMAS L. WatTSON, CoOL. S. 
HERBERT WOLFE, Magor Hunter S. Mars- 
TON, Likut. FREDERICK TRUBEE DAVISON, 
Dr.. FELIPE GarcIA CANIZARES, THE Hon. 
JULIEN STEVENS ULMAN, Messrs. A. M. 
ANDERSON, JOHN ASPINWALL, FREDERIC 
BARNARD, E. D. CHurcH, Epear B. Davis, 
Harry VALLETTE Day, D. GrorGe Dery, 
CLARENCE DILLON, [RENEE DU PONT, EUGENE 
G. Foster, AUSTEN G.. Fox, WALTER D. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


velt tree” in the gardens of the Country Life 
Press, selecting a sugar maple and _ set- 
ting it near the evergreen tree which John 
Muir planted several years ago. Mr. Bur- 
roughs is spending the winter in southern 
California. 


THROUGH the courtesy of Miss Josephine 
M. Stricker, who acted as Theodore Roose- 
velt’s secretary during the years 1916 to 
1919, Natural History has become ac- 
quainted with Roosevelt’s early refusal and 
final acquiescence to Sigurd Neandross’ re- 
quest—seconded by Mr. Anthony Fiala—for 
sittings for a portrait bust (reproduced as 
frontispiece, page 510). Unfortunately the 
bust was never completed because of Roose- 
velt’s sickness; in fact, the sculpture is so 
true to hfe in certain views as it stands, 
that it very perceptibly portrays the low 
state of health and somewhat troubled con- 
dition of mind of the great American in the 
last year of his life and the fourth of the 
heart-rending years of the war. 


Mr. LAURENCE V. COLEMAN has returned 
to the American Museum as chief of the de- 
partment of preparation. Since Mr. Cole- 
man’s connection with the department of 
public health of the American Museum in 
1915-16 he has been studying zodlogy at 
Yale, Harvard, and Woods Hole and has 
given nine months’ service in the United 
States Army as chemist. 


GELSHENEN, AUGUSTUS HEMENWAyY, WALTER 
HINCHMAN, ALFRED O. Hoyt, Exias M.. 
JOHNSON, FreLix E. KAHN, THEO. N. Vath 
MarsSTERS, WM. MAxweE.LuL, DUNLEVY MIL- 
BANK, FRANcIS L. MircHett, E. VirGin 
NEAL, FRANK G. OrmMsBy, C. P. PERIN, CARL 
H. PFoRZHEIMER, F. L. RopEwALp, H. E. 
SARGENT, WALTER SELIGMAN, Stuart C. 
SQuIER, STEVENSON TAYLoR, INGLIS M. UP- 
PERCU, THEO. N. VAIL, C. BLAINE WARNER, 


Buarr S. WILLIAMS, EMIL WINTER, and 
SAMUEL ZEMURRAY. 
Sustaining Members, Mrs. J. F. OD. 


Lanier, Miss Anira Buiss, Messrs. JOHN 
V. Bacor, Jr., Francis D. Bartow, Epwarp 
H. Cuark, J. S. Douenas, LavurENcE H. 
Henpricks, M. L. MorGeNTHAv, CLARENCE 
M. Roor, E. C. SmirH, and Casimir I. 
STRALEM. 

Annual Members, MeESDAMES T. R. AL- 


NOTES 759 


MOND, F. HuntTINGTON Bascock, JACQuES 
Bain, WiLLiAM T. BLopGerr, GrorGE G. 
Bourne, M. T. CaMPBELL, O. B. Coates, 
STURGIS COFFIN, CLARK Davis, GEORGE B. pg 
Lone, Farman R. Dick, RuGer Donono, 
CuHas. Dovugiass, GrorGeE W. FLEMING, AN- 
son R. Fiower, A. V. Fraser, Ropert A. 
GARDINER, Marion B. B. LANGzErTEL, Frep- 
ERIC E. Lewis, Frances B. Mason, Junius 
S. Morean, JAMES Moses, J. O. H. Pirney, 
J. ErNEsT RicHArDS, H. SCHWEITZER, FRED- 
ERIC SHONNARD, A. RirreR SHuUMWay, 
Henry Siticocks, H. G. Srmon, Rosweiu 
SKEEL, Jr., GerpDA STEIN, WiLuiAm E. S. 
STRONG, CorRNELIUS Tiers, RicHarD TJADER, 
R. A. WALKER, Misses ELLEN Louise ADEE, 
KATHERINE M. Barnes, ANNIE W. Bonn, 
Emity Bucu, ELEANoRE Cross, ANNA S. 
GOTBERG, AVAH W. HuGHEs, Mary BERNICE 
JENKINS, Hope Lewis, ALice R. Perers, 
IsaBEL M. PrTerS, Carotins M, Puarr, 
CuaRA A. REED, ALICE Low Sanp, BELLE 
THOMSON, ALICE WILSON WiLcox, Major 
H. P. ERSKINE, Major JoHN W. LovELAND, 
Capt. A. P. Simmonps, Likur. HERBERT 
Scour, U.S.N.R.F.. THe Rev. Ovyrus 
TOWNSEND Brapy, THE Hon. GrorGE A. 
CARDEN, Doctors Lawrason Brown, PaBio 
F. CatmMa, Henry H. Covent, ANNIE S. 
DaNtEL, Henry E. Hate, Marius E. Jouns- 
TON, CHARLES C, Lirs, Geo. M. MacKekr, 
MARSHALL WittiAM McDurrir, Joun P. 
Munn, JoHN H. Nowan, J. H. O’ConnELL, 
G. W. RicHarpson, Wm. BENHAM Snow, 
WALTER R. STEINER, MaLcoum H. TALLMAN, 
FANEUIL SuypAmM WEIssE, Messrs. Wo. 
CRITTENDEN ADAMS, PauL W. ALEXANDER, 
J. Roy ALLEN, Puinie ALLEN, Morris Am- 
DUR, ALEXANDER L. ANDERSON, CHARLES 
LEE ANDREWS, GEorGE R. Baker, CHRIS 
BaMBacu, Louis H. Barker, Istpor Baum- 
GART, WM. N. Beacu, W. GepNey Bearry, 
JAMES H. BeNepict, Epwin H. BLASHFIELD, 
Moses D. Buirzer, Grorce T. Bowpor, 
LAWRENCE J. BreNnGue, HENRY MorGan 
BrooKFIELD, C. FreD BUECHNER, JOSEPH E. 
BuLKLEY, Harry I. Carsar, ArtHur L. 
Carns, JoHN Jay CHAPMAN, ©. T. CHENE- 
VERT, Louis R. CHENEY, Myron H. Crarx, 
WILLIAM CLARK, LATHROP ConeatE, C. H. 
Conner, J. C. Corrrett, E. H. Cranpatt, 
RicHArRD CRONIN, ANTON Cypra, Gro. C. 
DEMPsEy, CHarLes H. Ditson, FREDERICK 
G. Dopp, H. Yate Dowan, F. L. Du Bosque, 
P. D. Dwicut, Jonn H. EDEN, JR., FRANK- 
LIN M. Etms, CHarLes Farser, SAMUEL H. 
FisHeEr, P. H. B. FRELINGHUYSEN, MELVILLE 


B, Futter, JACOB Meyer GippInc, GEORGE 
McMurtrige GopLEy, Gustav GoopMANN, 
Frep W. Gorpon, W. C. GotsHALL, JAMES 
S. Gross, Georce C. HaigH, ALEXANDER J. 
HAMMERSLOUGH, WILLIAM B, Harbin, THos. 
R. Hartiey, Carrott Hayes, J. F. Herne, 
ANprREW H, HersHey, Ropert CarMeEr Hix, 
JULIAN HincktEy, Haroip K. Hocuscuitp, 
Hat Hopes, CHartes L. Horrman, W. 
Roger Hunt, CourtNey Hype, Sranuey M. 
Isaacs, FrepERIcK D. Ives, JoHN PERCIVAL 
JEFFERSON, Percy H. JENNINGS, FRANcts C. 
JONES, OTTo Kaun, JosepH F, KeEuurr, 
JOHN KirRKPATRICK, CHARLES KLINGEN- 
STEIN, J. C. KRAEMER, JR., JULIUS G. Ku- 
GELMAN, WM. B. LarKIN, GEorGeE Bacon 
LESTER, RicHarp LOUNSBERY, CHRISTOPHER 
M. LowTHeEr, GEorGE LowtHeEr, IsraEL Lup- 
LOW, SAMUEL LustTBapER, JR., W. J. TURNER 
LyncH, ArtHUR C. Mack, KENNETH K. 
MACKENZIE, BERNHARD Marcuse, FRANCIS 
R. Masters, HENry Forpes McCrerry, Ros- 
ERT McKEtvy, THos. P. McKenna, ANDREW 
D. MeEtLoy, J. Epwarp Meyer, EMANUEL 
MILLER, FREDERIC P. Moore, Gro. T. Mor- 
TIMER, S. L. MuNSON, JoHN G. NEESER, IsI- 
DORE NEUGASS, WALTER M. NongEs, Wm. P. 
NortHruP, Gitt N. Oakes, JuLIusS OPPEN- 
HEIMER, RAYMOND OrTEIG, Epwarp S. 
PAINE, WAINWRIGHT ParIsH, Husert TEM- 
PLETON Parson, LiNcoLN R. Preasopy, F. 
CurTIS PERKINS, Jr., L. H. PERLMAN, JOHN 
J. PHELAN, Livincston Pratt, B. F. 
QUACKINBUSH, EvAN RANDOLPH, RoBErT R. 
REED, Henry R. REISCHMANN, THos. A. 
REYNOLDS, WILLIAM L. RicH, Jr., CHARLES 
A. RicHarps, Kingman Norr Rosins, Ep- 
WIN M. Rocers, Gustavus A. Rogers, Cuar- 
ENCE G. RoTHscHILD, WILLIAM A. SANBORN, 
CarL SCHAETZER, JACK W. SCHIFFER, WIL- 
LIAM D, ScHouie, J. ScHULLINGER, ALFRED 
F’, SELIGSBERG, J. NELSON SHREVE, WILLIAM 
R. SIDENBERG, THEO. A. Srmon, C. Haronp 
SmiruH, ALFRED T. STANLEY, FRED M. STEIN, 
GLENN STEWartT, Puiwip B, Stewart, FREpD- 
ERICK A. STOKES, ALFRED W. STONE, ArR- 
THUR HAYS SuLzBERGER, ROBERT EGERTON 
Swartwout, DaNnreL G. TENNEY, AMBROSE 
G. Topp, J. M. Town.ey, J. HeENry Towns- 
END, JOHN C. TRAVIS, GARDINER TROWBRIDGE, 
KINSLEY TWINING, ALBERT ULMANN, LEO 
WEILL, BULKELEY WELLS, JOHN C. WET- 
MORE, FRANK WHITNEY, WILLIAM WIESE, 
JAMES D. Witurams, LAmbLaw WILLIAMS, 
H. A. Witson, Lee J. Worre, Oris F. 
Woop, HeNry R. WorTHINGTON, and HENRY 
ZUCKERMAN. 


760 


Associate Members, MESDAMES J. GILBERT 
3URTON, T.A.JANVIER, A.G. LANGFORD, JOHN 
W. PHELPS, A. P. Taytor, Misses ELiza 
FRANCES ANDREWS, BETSEY BEAN, Mary A. 
BootH, ROSAMOND P. COFFIN, CAROLINE J. 
Hircucock, Mary 8. Houmes, ELizaBEeTH 
Mapeira, AGNES McDOoNELL, LovuIsE KLEIN 
Minter, Cuara A. Prasze, RutH L. PHIL- 
LIPS, CAROLINE GRAY SOULE, CLEONA C. 
SPROUL, ELISABETH W. STONE, E. GRACE 
WHITE, THE HON. CHARLES H. ALLEN, THE 
Hon. EDWIN F. Lyrorp, THE Hon. CHASE 
S. OsBorN, Professors O. M. Batu, Gro. E. 
BEYER, FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI, J. H. Bretz, 
GEORGE ALEXANDER Buist, WEBSTER CHES- 
TER, T. D. A. COCKERELL, CHARLES WRIGHT 
Dopcr, ELoN Howarp Eaton, Simon H. 
GAGE, GroRGE E, Hate, GILBERT D. Harris, 
THomas M. His, Jas.-S. Hinz, N. L. 
Hurr, J. GLADDEN Hutton, A. G. LEONARD, 
EARLE G. LINSLEY, Homer P. LittTLe, HaNns- 
FoRD M. MacCurpy, SHIRLEY P. MILLER, 
FRANK 8S. Mints, C. A. Moorrs, Henry F. 
NACHTRIEB, WILLIAM PETERSON, CHARLES 
ScHUCHERT, Mary A. WiLLcox, Ira A. WIL- 
LIAMS, Doctors F. Bascom, R. BENNETT 
BEAN, FREDERICK BENTLEY, Louis B. 
BisHop, J. CHESTER BRADLEY, J. BRAUN- 
NAGEL, EDWarD C. Briees, H. S. Brops, 
CHas. C. Brownine, LutTHER BuRBANK, 
HERMAN BurGIN, C. E. CauM, W. C. CoKEr, 
JOSEPH D. Conpit, R. D. CRawForp, WHIT- 
MAN Cross, CHARLES A. DEWEY, CHas. R. 
DRAKE, CHARLES REDWAY DryYkER, GEORGE 
C. EmMBopy, Justus WaTsoN Fouisom, Don- 
ALD J. FRICK, MELVIN RANDOLPH GILMORE, 
U. S. Grant, LELAND Grices, PHILIP B. 
HavuLey, J. CuLvER HaArTZELL, WILLIAM 
FREDERICK Howat, GEORGE Davip HUBBARD, 
IvarR JANSON, HE. E. Just, J. H. KELLOGe, 
ABRAM T. KERR, BENJAMIN F. KINGSBURY, 
ADOLPH KoeEnic, W. J. G. LAND, FRANK R. 
LILLIE, JAMES W. LOWBER, CLARA S. LupD- 
Low, Marcus W. Lyon, Jr., T. H. McHar- 
TON, EpMuND B. MontTGOMERY, ROBERT 
OrtTON Moopy, Susan P. NIcHOLs, J. PEASE 
Norton, HENRY LESLIE OSBORN, FREDERICK 
J. Pack, G. H. ParKrr, EpirH M. PatcuH, 
J. T. PaTrEerRsoN, A. S. PEARSE, RAYMOND J. 
Poot, H. D. Reep, ALBERT M. REESE, Ep- 
WARD REYNOLDS, DELANCEY ROCHESTER, 
RayMonpd C. Rusu, M. CHARLOTTE SCHAE- 
FER, ADELINE F. SCHIVELY, Mary ALICE 
SCHIVELY, SoLoN SHEpDD, HERVEY Woop- 
BURN SHIMER, HENRY SKINNER, CHARLES D. 
Situ, F. D. SNyprer, CLINTON R. STAUFFER, 
BERNARD C. STEINER, P. E. Stuart, JoE H. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


Topp, CHAS. Epwarp Tucker, Henry E. 
Urrer, Epa R. WALKER, Stuart WELLER, 
R. WERNIGK, CHARLES BRANCH WILSON, J. 
Howarp WILsoN, Messrs. Brniy ANDREWS, 
Orta L. Ayrs, FreLIx BassBace, Gero. B. 
Bapeer, J. L. Bett, ArTtTHUR BARNEVELD 
BIBBINS, FRANK S. Bieter, E. L. Buack- 
SHEAR, EpGAR C. BRADLEY, Epwin T. Brew- 
STER, WILEY Brirron, FRED E. Brooks, 
ERNEST B. Brown, Water H. BucHERr, 
Stewart H. BurNHAM, VERDI BurTCH, 
KERMIT CHRISTENSEN, W. A. CLARK, JR., 
RaMON GaANDIA CORDOVA, CHARLES H. 
CRAMER, NORMAN CrRIDDLE, Marcus HELE 
Datu, Henry E. Davies, SAMUEL HOFFMAN 
DERICKSON, E. T. DUMBLE, WILLARD A. 
Euior, H. G. FarrHorn, Epwarp A. FEATH- 
ERSTONE, WM. L. W. Fietp, ArtHur H. 
FLEMING, FREEMAN A. Ford, Mark FRAN- 
cis, L. S. Frierson, T. E. Gippon, W. W. 
GRANT, HENRY WALDO GREENOUGH, JOHN 
W. Hancock, T. L. HankKINSON, EH. CC 
HARDER, GEORGE HARRINGTON, NorvVIN TRENT 
HARRIS, KENNETH L. HArRTSHORN, HERBERT 
M. W. Haven, Morcan HeEsBarD, Geo. A. 
Hero, J. P. HERRING, RICHARD CHARLES 
HiLus, Howarp A. Howe, RicHarp LEDYARD 
HUBBARD, CARL HYNE, WALTER F’, JAHNCKE, 
WILLIAM KELLY, HENRY KERR, WARREN 
KNaAus, Epwarp Q. KNIGHT, GEORGE LANG- 
FORD, RicHarD K. LEBLOND, FRANK LeEy- 
ERETT, J. T. LuoypD, Cart F. Loms, EDGAR 
OpELL Lovett, Gro. E. MarsH, M. C. 
MarsH, Epwin J. MARSHALL, JOHN W. 
MARSHALL, Gro. C. Matson, S. W. Mc- 
CALLIE, HirAM DryER McCasKey, Wo. C. 
MILLS, WARNER J. Morse, W. D. MurpPHy, 
ArTHUR H. Norton, GEORGE E. OSTERHOUT, 
Wm. ParFritt, D. C. PARMAN, GEORGE H. 
PERKINS, JOHN W. PHILLIPS, LAURENCE E. 
Porr, LEwis RapDcLIFFE, J. B. RAILSBACK, 
L. C. ReaD, JAMES A. G. REHN, G. BRINTON 
Roperts, JOSEPH M. RoGers, JOHN G. 
ROTHERMEL, JOHN HALL SAGE, HUBERT 
ScHMiIpT, CHARLES SCHUNEMAN, FREDERICK 
E. SEARS, C. W. SHANNON, CHARLES CUTLER 
SHarp, C. A. SHARPE, HENRY S. SHARPE, 
DELAVAN SMITH, CHARLES H. STERNBERG, 
GEORGE R. STETSON, FRANK STONE, LUCIUS 
S. Storrs, Louis N. Srort, P. A. TETRAULT, 
ABRAM OWEN THOMAS, Howarp V. THOMAS, 
J. K. Urmston, L. R. WALDRON, ALBERT 
P. WeEIss, WM. D. WHEELWRIGHT, B. F. 
WHIPPLE, HaroLtp O. WHITNALL, E. B. WIL- 
LIAMSON, Herrick E. WILSON, CHas. D. 
Woops, JOHN 8. WriGHT, and CARL ZAPFFE. 


_ Natural history 
N3 

v.19 

Biological 

& Medical 

Serials 


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